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Dock (disambiguation)
A dock is infrastructure used for berthing watercraft. Dock or DOCK may also refer to: ==Transportation== Dry dock, a construction and repair facility for ships Floating dock (disambiguation), several different types of structures Loading dock, an area for trucks to deliver or receive cargo Pier, a type of maritime structure Space dock, a structure used for the docking and berthing of spacecraft ==Computing== Dock (macOS), the taskbar in the macOS operating system Docking station, used for connecting laptops or other mobile devices DOCK, molecular analysis software == Plants and animals == Dock, or dockweed, a name for plants in the genus Rumex, especially broad-leaved dock Dock, more rarely used in the names of certain similar broad-leaved plants, like velvet dock Tailhead, or dock, the beginning of an animal's tail == Biochemistry == DOCK, software for use in molecular docking DOCK (protein), a family of proteins involved in cell signalling ==Places== The Dock, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada The Dock, Washington, D.C., United States The Dock Gymnasium, Louisiana State University Shreveport, United States Docks (nightclub) in Hamburg, Germany The Docks Waterfront Entertainment Complex in Toronto, Ontario, Canada The former name of Devonport, Devon, now a part of the city of Plymouth Execution Dock in London ==Other uses== The area of a courtroom where an accused party sits during proceedings To pierce dough during its handling to prevent the formation of large air pockets, such as with a roller docker Dock or Hayden Scott-Baron (born 1980), English manga illustrator Dock (given name), include a list of people with the name
[ "The Dock, Newfoundland and Labrador", "Devonport, Devon", "Docking station", "Loading dock", "Docking (disambiguation)", "Docker (disambiguation)", "Dockx", "Dox (disambiguation)", "docking and berthing of spacecraft", "Dock (given name)", "Docks (nightclub)", "Pier", "velvet dock", "DOC (disambiguation)", "Docs (disambiguation)", "molecular docking", "Tailhead", "Dry dock", "DOCK", "Louisiana State University Shreveport", "The Dock Gymnasium", "broad-leaved dock", "Floating dock (disambiguation)", "Hohe Dock", "Rumex", "DOCK (protein)", "courtroom", "The Docks Waterfront Entertainment Complex", "Hayden Scott-Baron", "Execution Dock", "Docklands (disambiguation)", "roller docker", "Dock (macOS)", "dock", "The Dock, Washington, D.C." ]
8,121
Dallas Cowboys
The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team based in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Frisco, Texas, and has played its home games at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, since its opening in 2009. The stadium took its current name prior to the 2013 season, following the team's decision to sell the stadium's naming rights to telecommunications company AT&T. The Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in . The team's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell-outs. The Cowboys' streak of 190 consecutive sold-out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in 2002. The franchise has made it to the Super Bowl eight times, tying it with the Pittsburgh Steelers, Denver Broncos, and San Francisco 49ers for second-most Super Bowl appearances in history behind the New England Patriots' record 11 appearances. Their eight NFC championships are tied for most in the conference's history. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (from 1966 to 1985) during which they missed the playoffs only twice (1974 and 1984). In 2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it the most valuable sports team in the world, according to Forbes. The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team. and making Forbes' list as the most valued NFL team for the 12th straight year. ==History== ===Origins=== Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since the Dallas Texans folded in 1952 after only one season. Two businessmen had tried and failed to get Dallas a team in the NFL: Lamar Hunt responded by forming the American Football League with a group of owners, which would spur the NFL to expand beyond twelve teams. Oilman Clint Murchison Jr. persisted with his intent to bring a team to Dallas, but George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, had a monopoly in the South (after the addition of Dallas, the South would see three further teams - NFL teams in Atlanta and New Orleans, and an AFL team in Miami - added in the next six years). Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins (now Commanders) from Marshall in 1958 with the intent of moving them to Dallas. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms, which infuriated Murchison, and he called off the deal. Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league. Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin, who had written the music to the Redskins fight song "Hail to the Redskins", and Marshall's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959: Murchison subsequently purchased "Hail to the Redskins" for $2,500. Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he now owned the song, and barred Marshall from playing it during games. After Marshall launched an expletive-laced tirade, Murchison sold the rights to "Hail to the Redskins" back to Marshall in exchange for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and a rivalry was born. San Francisco 49ers scout Gil Brandt as head of player personnel, and New York Giants defensive coordinator Tom Landry as head coach, thus forming a triumvirate that would lead the Cowboys' football operations for three decades. ===Tom Landry years (1960–1988)=== Like most expansion teams, the Cowboys struggled at first. They failed to win a game in their inaugural season. However, Landry slowly brought the team to respectability. In 1965, they finally got to .500. They broke all the way through a year later, winning consecutive Eastern Conference titles in 1966 and 1967. However, they lost the NFL Championship Game each time to the Green Bay Packers with the second loss coming in the 1967 Ice Bowl. They would win consecutive division titles in 1968 and 1969 when the NFL adopted a divisional format, but were defeated in the playoffs both years by the Cleveland Browns. From 1970 through 1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that time span. In addition, they appeared in five Super Bowls, winning two (1971 and 1977). Led by quarterback Craig Morton, the Cowboys had a 10–4 season in 1970. They defeated Detroit 5–0 in the lowest-scoring playoff game in NFL history and then defeated San Francisco 17–10 in the first-ever NFC Championship Game to qualify for their first Super Bowl appearance in franchise history, a mistake-filled Super Bowl V, where they lost 16–13 to the Baltimore Colts courtesy of a field goal by Colts' kicker Jim O'Brien with five seconds remaining in the contest. Despite the loss, linebacker Chuck Howley was named the Super Bowl MVP, the first and only time in Super Bowl history that the game's MVP did not come from the winning team. ==== Super Bowl VI champions (1971) ==== The Cowboys moved from the Cotton Bowl to Texas Stadium in week six of the 1971 season. Landry named Staubach as the permanent starting quarterback to start the second half of the season, and Dallas was off and running. The Cowboys won their last seven regular season games (finishing 11–3) before dispatching the Minnesota Vikings and San Francisco 49ers in the playoffs to return to the Super Bowl. In Super Bowl VI, behind an MVP performance from Staubach and a then Super Bowl record 252 yards rushing, the Cowboys crushed the upstart Miami Dolphins, 24–3, to finally bury the "Next Year's Champions" stigma. After missing the playoffs in 1974, the team drafted well the following year, adding defensive lineman Randy White (a future Hall of Fame member) and linebacker Thomas "Hollywood" Henderson. The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys back to the playoffs in 1975 as a wild card, losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 21–17, in Super Bowl X. ==== Super Bowl XII champions (1977) ==== Dallas began the 1977 season 8–0, finishing 12–2. In the postseason, the Cowboys routed the Chicago Bears 37–7 and Minnesota Vikings 23–6 before defeating the Denver Broncos 27–10 in Super Bowl XII in New Orleans. As a testament to Doomsday's dominance in the hard-hitting game, defensive linemen Randy White and Harvey Martin were named co-Super Bowl MVPs, the first and only time multiple players have received the award. Dallas returned to the Super Bowl, following the 1978 season, losing to Pittsburgh 35–31. Bob Ryan, an NFL Films editor, dubbed the Cowboys "America's Team" following the Super Bowl loss, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad. Danny White became the Cowboys' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired. Despite going 12–4 in 1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the 1980–81 NFL playoffs they avenged their elimination from the prior year's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by the Atlanta Falcons 30–27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rival Philadelphia Eagles, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20–7. 1981 brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the 1981–82 NFL playoffs as the number 2 seed. Their first postseason saw them blow out Tampa Bay in a 38–0 shutout. The Cowboys then advanced to the NFC Championship Game against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27–21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28–27. 49ers quarterback Joe Montana led his team on an 89-yard game-winning touchdown drive, connecting with Dwight Clark in a play known as The Catch. The 1982 season was shortened after a player strike. With a 6–3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the 1982–83 NFL playoffs they eliminated the Buccaneers 30–17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37–26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. However, the third time was not the charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31–17 to their division rival and eventual Super Bowl XVII champions, the Washington Redskins. Although it was not apparent at the time, the loss in the 1982 NFC title game marked the end of an era. For the 1983 season the Cowboys went 12–4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were upset at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24–17. However, 1983 was a missed opportunity as prior to their playoff defeat, the Cowboys had a chance to clinch the NFC East and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs against Washington in the penultimate week of the regular season, but were defeated soundly 31–10 at home, and conceded control of the division to the Redskins in which they would not relinquish a week later. Prior to the 1984 season, Murchison sold the Cowboys to another Texas oil magnate, H.R. "Bum" Bright and his ten partners. Dallas posted a 9–7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons and only the second time in 18 years. After going 10–6 in 1985 and winning a division title, the Cowboys were shut out 20–0 by the Rams in the Divisional round in Los Angeles. Hard times came for the organization as they went 7–9 in 1986, 7–8 in 1987, and 3–13 in 1988. During this time period, Bright became disenchanted with the team. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was "horrified" at Landry's play calling. During the savings and loan crisis, Bright's savings and loan was taken over by the FSLIC. With most of the rest of his money tied up in the Cowboys, Bright was forced to sell the team to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989, for $150 million. === Jerry Jones era (1989–present) === ==== Jimmy Johnson years (1989–1993) ==== Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson, who was also Jones' teammate at the University of Arkansas as a fellow defensive lineman. The hiring of Johnson also reunited Johnson with second-year wide receiver Michael Irvin, who had played collegiately at Miami. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman. Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1–15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, "The Trade" later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team. Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL's elite. Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr., and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, defensive lineman Jim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley. Things started to look up for the franchise in 1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated the San Diego Chargers 17–14. They went 2–7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7–9 record. Coming into 1991 the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinator Dave Shula with Norv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6–5 start, then defeated the previously unbeaten Redskins despite injury to Troy Aikman. Backup Steve Beuerlein took over and the Cowboys finished 11–5. In the Wild Card round they defeated the Bears 17–13 for the Cowboys' first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38–6 playoff rout by the Lions. ==== Super Bowl XXVII champions (1992) ==== In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular-season wins with a 13–3 mark. They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23–10. Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first-round bye before facing division rival the Philadelphia Eagles. The Cowboys won that game 34–10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years. They were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the top seed. On January 17, 1993, the Cowboys went to Candlestick Park and defeated the 49ers 30–20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978. Dallas defeated the Buffalo Bills 52–17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers. Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football. ==== Super Bowl XXVIII champions (1993) ==== Despite starting the 1993 season 0–2, Dallas finished the regular season 12–4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC. Dallas sent a then-NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski, and Williams. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27–17 in the divisional round. In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38–21. The Cowboys again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30–13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0–2). ==== Barry Switzer years (1994–1997) ==== Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation. Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson. The Cowboys finished 12–4 in 1994. They once again clinched a first-round bye and defeated Green Bay 35–9 in the Divisional Round. They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38–28. ==== Super Bowl XXX champions (1995) ==== Prior to the start of 1995 season Jerry Jones lured All-Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco. Dallas started the season 4–0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35–0 at Giants Stadium to open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season. They ended the season 12–4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed. In the Divisional round, they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30–11 to advance to their fourth consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38–27. In Super Bowl XXX the Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27–17 at Sun Devil Stadium for their fifth Super Bowl championship, tied with the San Francisco 49ers for the most by any NFC team. Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl. The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of 1996 following a drug-related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2–3. They finished the regular season with a 10–6 record, won the NFC East title, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC. They defeated Minnesota 40–15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional Round of the playoffs 26–17 by the Carolina Panthers. The Cowboys went 6–10 in 1997, losing the last six consecutive games of the season, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions. As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place. ==== Gailey and Campo years (1998–2002) ==== Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10–6 record in 1998 and an NFC East championship, the Cowboys' sixth in seven years, but the Cowboys were upset at home in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs by the Arizona Cardinals 20–7. In 1999 Dallas went 8–8 in a season that featured Irvin suffering a career-ending cervical spine injury in a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles at Veterans Stadium. The season ended in a 27-10 Wild Card playoff loss to the Minnesota Vikings. Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to a Super Bowl. Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach for the 2000 season. Prior to the season starting cornerback Deion Sanders was released after 5 seasons with the team. He later signed with the division rival Washington Redskins. In Week 1, they were blown out 41–14 by the Philadelphia Eagles. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL quarterback Randall Cunningham filled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at quarterback. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5–11 record. The only highlights of 2000 were Emmitt Smith having his 10th consecutive 1,000-yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins. 2001 was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received. Jerry Jones signed Tony Banks as a quarterback. Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for the Super Bowl XXXV champion Baltimore Ravens before being benched. Jones also drafted quarterback Quincy Carter in the second round of that year's draft, and Banks was released during the preseason. Ryan Leaf, Anthony Wright, and Clint Stoerner all competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5–11, last place in the NFC East, but they swept the Washington Redskins for the 4th consecutive season. Prior to the 2002 season Dallas drafted safety Roy Williams with the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to the expansion Houston Texans 19–10 in Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all-time NFL rushing record previously held by Walter Payton. Their Thanksgiving Day win over the Washington Redskins was their 10th consecutive win against the Redskins. However, that was their final 2002 win as the team lost their next four games to finish with another last-place 5–11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20–14 loss against the Redskins. That game was Smith's last game as a Cowboys player; he was released during the offseason. Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season. ==== Bill Parcells years (2003–2006) ==== Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season getting off to a hot 7–2 start, but went 3–4 for the rest of the season. They were able to grab the second NFC wild-card spot with a 10–6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference champion Carolina Panthers, 29–10. In 2004 Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success and ended 6–10. Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at quarterback by Vinny Testaverde. Dallas got off to a great 7–3 start for the 2005 season but ended up only in 3rd place with a 9–7 record. Prior to the beginning of that season, they signed veteran Drew Bledsoe as starting quarterback. 2006 was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season, they signed free agent wide receiver Terrell Owens who was talented yet controversial. The Cowboys started the season 3–2. During a week 7 matchup against the New York Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backup Tony Romo. Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 36–22. However, Romo was named the starter for the team and went 5–1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9–7 2nd-place finish. They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play the Seattle Seahawks where the Seahawks won 21–20. After the season Parcells retired and was replaced by Wade Phillips. ==== Wade Phillips years (2007–2010) ==== Dallas started the 2007 season with a bang, winning their first five games. They won 12 of their first 13 games, with their only loss during that span being to the New England Patriots, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular-season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first-round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. They lost in the divisional round 21–17 to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants. In the tumultuous 2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3–0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4–1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to the Arizona Cardinals. With Brad Johnson and Brooks Bollinger playing as backups, Dallas went 1–2 during a three-game stretch. Romo's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3–0. However, injuries mounted during the season, with the team losing several starters for the year, such as Kyle Kosier, Felix Jones, safety Roy Williams, punter Mat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries. Entering December, the 8–4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1–3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing to the Philadelphia Eagles in the final regular-season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead. On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm. The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team's 33-year-old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed. The 2009 season started positively with a road win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2–2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiver Miles Austin got his first start of the season and had a record-setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 touchdowns) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over the Kansas City Chiefs. Following their bye week, they went on a three-game winning streak including wins over the Atlanta Falcons and NFC East division rival Philadelphia Eagles. Despite entering December with a record of 8–3, they lost their slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to the New York Giants and San Diego Chargers. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24–17 victory against the eventual Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints at the Louisiana Superdome, ending the Saints' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, they posted back-to-back shutouts when they beat their division rivals, the Washington Redskins (17–0) and Philadelphia Eagles (24–0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs. Six days later, in the wild-card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses. However, their playoff run ended after being routed 34–3 in the Divisional Round against the Minnesota Vikings. After beginning the 2010 season at 1–7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinator Jason Garrett as the interim head coach. ==== Jason Garrett years (2010–2019) ==== With Garrett as interim head coach, the Cowboys finished the 2010 season 6–10 after beginning at 1–7. With this improvement, the Cowboys signed Garrett as the head coach for the 2011 season. To start the 2011 season the Cowboys played the New York Jets on a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In week 2 the Cowboys traveled to San Francisco to play the San Francisco 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10–7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced by Jon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17–7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes to Miles Austin as the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On their opening possession after a 49ers punt, Romo found wide receiver Jesse Holley on a 78-yard pass, which set up the game-winning field goal by rookie kicker Dan Bailey. The Cowboys ended the season 8–8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to the New York Giants in a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game on NBC which allowed the Giants to win the division. The Giants would go on to win Super Bowl XLVI. The Cowboys started off the 2012 season on a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants 24–17 on the opening night of the season. They would hover around the .500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventual Super Bowl XLVII champion Baltimore Ravens 31–29 at M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore. Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way were the Washington Redskins, who had beaten them on Thanksgiving at AT&T Stadium and who were one win away from their first division title since 1999. Led by Robert Griffin III the Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28–18. Dallas once again finished the season 8–8. In the 2013 season the Cowboys started off by defeating the New York Giants for the second straight year; this time 36–31. It was the first time since 2008 that the Cowboys were able to defeat the Giants at home. The win was punctuated by Brandon Carr intercepting an Eli Manning pass for a touchdown late in the 4th quarter. For the third straight year, Dallas once again found itself stuck in the .500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to the eventual AFC champion Denver Broncos 51–48. They battled it out with the Philadelphia Eagles for control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back-to-back games to the Chicago Bears and Green Bay Packers. They were very successful in division games having a 5–0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating the Washington Redskins 24–23 on Week 16 thanks to the late-game heroics of Tony Romo. However, Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup quarterback Kyle Orton to lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game-ending interception to the Eagles which allowed the Eagles to win 24–22. Dallas ended the year at 8–8 for the third year in a row. The two differences from this 8–8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd-place finishes, along with their season-ending defeat taking place at home instead of on the road. To start off the 2014 season Dallas began by losing to the San Francisco 49ers 28–17. After that, they went on a 6-game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating the Super Bowl XLVIII champion Seattle Seahawks at CenturyLink Field 30–23. In Week 8, the Washington Redskins ended the Cowboys' winning streak by winning in overtime 20–17, and Romo injured his back again. He missed next week, a home loss to the Arizona Cardinals 28–17 with backup quarterback Brandon Weeden. Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31–17 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, which was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the NFL International Series. Dallas played their traditional Thanksgiving home game against their division rival Philadelphia Eagles. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8–3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33–10. They would rebound the next week when they defeated the Chicago Bears 41–28. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21–0. Then the Eagles put up 24 points but Dallas came back to win 38–27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10–4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against the Indianapolis Colts, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts 42-7 and the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They became the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas ended the regular season with a 12–4 record and an 8–0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44–17. On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seed Detroit Lions in the wild-card round of the NFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14–0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter, Romo threw a 76-yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams. Matt Prater of the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17–7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterback Matthew Stafford on the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20–7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20–14. A 51-yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down-and-1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17-yard pass intended for Lions tight end Brandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebacker Anthony Hitchens in the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41-yard line and had a successful 59-yard drive which was capped off by an 8-yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24–20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2:30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2-minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive end DeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down-and-3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24–20. This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game. The following week, the Cowboys traveled to Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin to play the Green Bay Packers in the Divisional Round. Despite having a 14–7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26–21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the "Calvin Johnson rule". During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running back DeMarco Murray to become a free agent. Murray signed with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles. On July 15 wide receiver Dez Bryant signed a 5-year, $70 million contract. The Cowboys started the 2015 season at home against the New York Giants, in which Dallas won 27–26. Dez Bryant left the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against the Philadelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, and Brandon Weeden replaced him. Dallas won 20–10 to begin the season 2–0, but then went on a seven-game losing streak. They finished the season 4–12 and last in their division. In 2016, after a preseason injury to Tony Romo, rookie quarterback Dak Prescott was slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6–8 weeks. In week 1 against the New York Giants, Dallas lost 20–19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven-game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott had earned the right to take over as the Cowboys starting quarterback. In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time in the season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated the Baltimore Ravens to win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott breaking Tony Dorsett's single-season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held by Russell Wilson and Dan Marino by throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13–3, tying their best 16-game regular-season record. While Dallas defeated the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field in week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of the NFL playoffs on a last-second field goal, ending the Cowboys' season. Dak Prescott was named NFL Rookie of the Year in the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Jason Garrett was named Coach of the Year. Both Prescott and Elliott made the 2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl. 2017 was the first season since 2002 without quarterback Tony Romo, who retired on April 4 after 14 seasons with the Cowboys. The season also featured second-year running back Ezekiel Elliott being suspended for 6 games after violating the league's conduct policy. The suspension was to begin at the start of the year but was pushed back to November. The Cowboys finished the year at 9-7 without making the playoffs. Following the season, Dez Bryant was released after eight seasons in Dallas and tight end Jason Witten, who holds several franchise receiving records, retired after 15 seasons, ending an era. The Dallas Cowboys' 2017 season was the subject of the third season of Amazon's sports documentary series All or Nothing. The series is produced by NFL Films. In the 2018 season, the Cowboys finished with a 10–6 record and won the NFC East. In the Wild Card Round, the Cowboys defeated the Seattle Seahawks 24–22 before losing 30–22 to the Los Angeles Rams in the Divisional Round. ==== Mike McCarthy years (2020–2024) ==== Following the end of the 2019 season, where the Cowboys missed the playoffs for the 7th time in the last 10 seasons, it was announced that the team had parted ways with longtime head coach Jason Garrett. Both Marvin Lewis (former Bengals coach) and Mike McCarthy (former Packers coach who led Green Bay to a Super Bowl win) were interviewed for the head coaching position. McCarthy and the Cowboys picked up the first win against the Atlanta Falcons in Week 2. On October 11, the Cowboys' 2020 season was all but lost when quarterback Dak Prescott suffered a grievous ankle injury that ended his season. Despite the loss of Prescott, McCarthy's first year Cowboys still remained in the running for a playoff appearance throughout most of the regular season. They would go on to finish the season with a 6–10 record, which ranked the team third in the NFC East Division. Throughout the 2020 season, the Cowboys' defense struggled massively. Following the season, defensive coordinator Mike Nolan and defensive line coach Jim Tomsula were dismissed. The Cowboys' 2021 season resulted in the first winning season since 2018, and with the San Francisco 49ers' Week 16 loss to the Tennessee Titans, the Cowboys clinched their first playoff berth also since 2018. Following a Denver Broncos' loss to the Las Vegas Raiders, the Cowboys clinched the NFC East, based on strength-of-victory tiebreakers; this was their first division title since 2018. They swept the NFC East for the first time since 1998. Rookie Micah Parsons was awarded as Defensive Rookie of the Year, and contributed to a league-leading defense. The Cowboys' strong offense finished the year with 530 points, the most in the league, and a team record. They finished the season with a 12–5 record, their best since 2016. But despite high expectations, the Cowboys lost in the wild card round of the playoffs to the San Francisco 49ers 23–17. The 2022 season saw a repeat of the 12–5 record. Despite losing to the Jacksonville Jaguars in Week 15, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth after a loss by the Washington Commanders later that day. This marked the first time since 2006–2007 the Cowboys qualified for the postseason in consecutive seasons. Quarterback Dak Prescott was awarded as Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year, for his contributions to the community and charity. In the wild-card round of the playoffs, the Cowboys defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to win their first road playoff game since their Super Bowl-winning 1992 season, and ended their winless streak against Tom Brady in what proved to be Brady's last game in his career. However, they were defeated by the San Francisco 49ers for the second consecutive season, this time in the divisional round, their seventh consecutive divisional round defeat. On February 16, 2022, a settlement of $2.4 million was paid after four cheerleaders accused Rich Dalrymple, the now-retired senior vice president of public relations and communications, of voyeurism in their locker room as they undressed during a 2015 event at AT&T Stadium. After the NFL allowed teams to seek blockchain sponsorships, the Cowboys became the first team to do so, signing a multi-year contract with the platform Blockchain.com on April 13, 2022. In 2023, the Cowboys again achieved a 12–5 record, for the third year in a row. The team won the NFC East division for the first time since the 2021 season and the second time in three seasons. They ended up in a three-way tie with the San Francisco 49ers and the Detroit Lions for first place in the NFC at 12–5. However, they lost the conference record tiebreaker to the 49ers but won the head to head tiebreaker over the Lions, giving them the second seed in the playoffs. Although the Cowboys lost to the Buffalo Bills in Week 15, they clinched their third straight playoff berth before taking the field when the Green Bay Packers and Atlanta Falcons lost to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Carolina Panthers, respectively. This marked the Cowboys' first run of three consecutive postseason appearances since appearing in six straight from 1991 to 1996. However, the Cowboys collapsed in the playoffs, and, despite having one of the best-ranked offenses and defenses of the league, were crushed 48–32 by their rival, seventh-seeded Green Bay Packers in the Wild Card round, at one point trailing 48–16 during the fourth quarter. With the loss, the Cowboys became the first team to lose to a #7 seed since the playoff bracket expanded for the 2020–21 NFL playoffs. This also marked the first time a team failed to reach a Conference Championship Game despite winning at least 12 games in three consecutive seasons. On January 13, 2025, it was announced that McCarthy would not be returning as head coach of the Dallas Cowboys due to a contract dispute. ==== Brian Schottenheimer years (2025–present) ==== On January 24, 2025, it was announced that Brian Schottenheimer had been promoted from offensive coordinator to head coach. ==Thanksgiving Day games== In their seventh season in 1966, the Cowboys agreed to host a second NFL Thanksgiving game; the tradition of a team hosting on Thanksgiving had been popularized by the Detroit Lions (who had hosted a game on the day mostly un-interrupted since moving to Detroit in 1934). General manager Tex Schramm wanted to find a way to boost publicity on a national level for his team, which had struggled for most of the 1960s. In fact, the NFL guaranteed a cut of the gate revenue in the belief that the game would not be a hit because of said struggle. With a kickoff just after 5 p.m. CST, over eighty thousand fans (and millions viewing on CBS) saw the Cowboys beat the Cleveland Browns 26–14 at the Cotton Bowl. In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team. Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976 in an effort by the NFL to give St. Louis national exposure. Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the "Cardiac Cards" due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, the games did not prove as successful. Owing to factors that ranged from ugly contests to opposition from the Kirkwood–Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978. It was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day for good; as such, the Cowboys play in the late afternoon. ==Logos and uniforms== ===Logo=== The Dallas Cowboys' blue star logo, which represents Texas as "The Lone Star State", is one of the most well-known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border were added in 1964. The logo has remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones' defunct AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that used a similar logo based on that of the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility. ===Uniforms=== The Dallas Cowboys' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver-green color (PMS 8280 C) that helps bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the "Stars and Stripes" jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white/gray/white stripe is on each sleeve as well as the collared V-neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A "Cowboys" chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic-silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates. In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the "lone star" helmet decal added a blue outline to the white-bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform have seen little change to the present day. The only notable changes from 1970 to the present were: 1970 to 1973: The "TV" numbers were moved from the shoulders to the sleeves above the stripes (the TV numbers returned to the shoulders on the white jerseys in 1974, but remained on the sleeves of the blue jerseys through 1978). 1982 to 1988: The pants featured a white uniform number in an elliptical blue circle worn near the hip. the removal of the indented serifs on the front and back jersey numbers in the early 1980s (seen currently on the throwback jersey) 1980: The blue jersey was rendered in a slightly darker shade than the 1964–79 version; from 1981 to 1994 the dark jerseys sported numbers that were gray with white borders and a blue pinstripe. The stripes on the sleeves and socks also used the same gray with white border scheme (sans navy pinstripe). 1982 to present: Player names on jersey backs, which were originally in block-letter style, were slightly smaller and in a footed "serif" style. 1996 to present: The blue jersey features white/gray/white stripes on each sleeve and the collared V-neck, the Cowboys star logo placed upon the sleeve stripes, white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes, and the "Cowboys" wordmark in the center of the neckline. The "Cowboys" wordmark was also placed at that same spot on the white jersey from 1996 to 1998. During the 1976 season, the blue-white-blue stripe on the crown of the helmets was temporarily changed to red-white-blue to commemorate the United States' bicentennial anniversary. This stripe configuration returned in 2021 and is now worn for one regular season game annually when the team pays tribute to Medal of Honor recipients. In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back-to-back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white "Double-Star" jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994–95 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960–63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league-wide "throwback" policy. During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy "Double-Star" jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy "Double-Star" jersey was not seen again until the NFL's Classic Throwback Weekend on Thanksgiving Day 2001–2003. In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960–1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team's alternate or "third jersey" and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team didn't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007, against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008, against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009, as part of one of the NFL's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960–1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasions. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles. In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players would no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the Cowboys' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. However, this rule became moot in 2022 when the NFL once again allowed teams to use an alternate helmet again, and the Cowboys reintroduced the 1960s white helmet. During the "one-shell era", in 2013, 2014, 2016, and 2017, the team wore their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving; the only exceptions were in 2015 and 2020 when the Cowboys wore the "Color Rush" uniforms (see below), and in 2018, 2019 and 2021 when they wore their regular white uniforms. In 2017, the team initially announced that they will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis, only to rescind soon after. In 2015, the Cowboys released their Color Rush uniform, featuring a variation of the 1990s "Double Star" alternates with white pants and socks. The uniform was first used in a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers and in subsequent Thursday Night Football games since 2016. In 2022, the "Color Rush" uniforms would be worn with a white helmet; this design would emulate their current silver helmets but without any silver elements. The Cowboys also unveiled a navy uniform-white pants combination which was first used on December 10, 2017, against the Giants. In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents' colors at home games. Throughout the years, the Cowboys' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be "jinxed" because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys. However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue-shirted Cowboys were upset by the Cleveland Browns in what turned out to be Don Meredith's final game with the Cowboys. Another example was a 1976 regular season road game against the St. Louis Cardinals, in which the Cardinals elected to wear white as the home team and promptly defeated the then-undefeated Cowboys 21–17 for their first loss in six games. Since the white home uniform tradition began in 1964, the only season Dallas never wore blue uniforms in a regular season game was in the 1972 season, even though they wore them thrice in the preseason. The only other times Dallas wore blue in one regular season game came in 1968, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1998, 2010, and 2020. Conversely, the 2019 season saw Dallas wear their blue uniforms eight times, the most of any season. Since the 1970 NFL-AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, such as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game, as well as their November 4, 2007, meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s. Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse. Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white-jersey-at-home tradition. ==== Thanksgiving Day uniforms ==== With the Dallas Cowboys traditionally hosting Thanksgiving Day games, the team donned new uniforms when they unveiled their white "Double-Star" jersey for the first time on November 24, 1994. This game later became synonymous with future Cowboys Head Coach (2010–2019); then 3rd string Quarterback Jason Garrett as he led a come-from-behind victory against the Green Bay Packers. In the 2004 season, the team went further into Cowboys history by choosing to don blue jerseys worn in their first 4 years of existence, which included white helmets and pants. However, keeping consistent with modern marketing, navy blue was used for this version as opposed to the original 1960-1963 royal color jersey. This regulation also prevented the Cowboys from pairing the white helmets with the throwback uniforms, as the team will often use the traditional silver-blue as their primary helmets throughout the season. In the 2015 season, the Cowboys chose to wear a variation of the 1994 "Double-Star" jersey as their Color Rush on Thanksgiving Day against the Carolina Panthers on November 26, 2015. Since then, the Color Rush was only used again on Thanksgiving against the Washington Football Team on November 26, 2020. In all other seasons, the team opted to wear their standard white or blue uniforms. In 2022, the NFL restored the use of alternate helmets and the Cowboys reinstated the white helmet and navy 'throwback" uniforms on November 24, 2022, against the New York Giants. ==Stadiums== ===Cotton Bowl=== The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as "The House That Doak Built" due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annual Cotton Bowl Classic college football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played at AT&T Stadium in Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallas city limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the 1966 NFL Championship at the Cotton Bowl. ===Texas Stadium=== For the majority of the franchise's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located in Irving. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with a seating capacity of 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole-in-the-roof dome. The roof's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to the Baltimore Ravens, 33–24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving. In 2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys by Cowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009, in Arlington. Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010. ===AT&T Stadium=== AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones, along with the city of Arlington, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion. The stadium is located in Tarrant County, the first time the Cowboys has called a stadium home outside of Dallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009, and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is among the largest domed stadiums in the world. A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center-hung high-definition television screen, at one point the largest in the world. The , scoreboard surpassed the screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City as the world's largest. In 2011, Charlotte Motor Speedway unveiled its plans for a new HDTV screen larger than the one in AT&T Stadium; At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker, A. J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in-play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines – hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet. The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record-setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional "blue star" at the 50-yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33–31. The Cowboys got their first regular-season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21–7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN's Monday Night Football and marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys on Monday Night Football. On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced that AT&T would be taking over the rights to the name of the stadium. ==Training camp sites== Dallas Cowboys training camp locations: 1960: Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon 1961: St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota 1962: Northern Michigan College, Marquette, Michigan 1963–1989: California Lutheran College, Thousand Oaks, California 1990–1997: St. Edward's University, Austin, Texas 1998–2002: Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, Texas 2001, 2004–2006, 2008, 2012–2015: River Ridge Sports Complex, Oxnard, California 2002–2003, 2007, 2009: The Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas 2010–2011: The Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas and River Ridge Sports Complex, Oxnard, California 2016–present: The Ford Center at The Star, Frisco, Texas ==Nationwide fanbase== ===Fan support=== Ever since the team joined the NFL in 1960, the franchise have garnered strong fan support in both the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex and the state of Texas. With its strong fanbase across the country, including the notable presence of fans at road games, the Cowboys are often referred to as "America's Team". ===Criticism=== Despite the historical success of the franchise and a large Cowboys' fanbase, many fans of other NFL teams have come to dislike the Cowboys. Over the years, the Cowboys' fanbase had been labeled as the most annoying in all of sports. ESPN host and commentator Stephen A. Smith has validated this claim. ==Rivalries== The NFC East, composed of the Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, the Washington Commanders and New York Giants, is one of the least-changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of the NFL-AFL merger (its only major changes being the relocation of the Cardinals franchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to the NFC West in the league's 2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport. ===Divisional=== ====Philadelphia Eagles==== The competition between the Cowboys and the Philadelphia Eagles has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long-moribund Eagles returned to contention. In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20–7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989 Bounty Bowls in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. A 1999 game in Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless on the field at Veterans Stadium. In 2008, the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44–6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild-card playoff game by a combined score of 78–30, including a 24–0 shutout in week 17. That three-game sweep was Dallas' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992–1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia. During the 2013 season, Dallas won the first meeting 17–3 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. The two teams met again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterback Tony Romo out with a season-ending back injury, which put backup Kyle Orton as the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24–22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33–10 win on Thanksgiving Day in Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38–27 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clinched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first-place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the all-time series 73–56. ====New York Giants==== The first game ever played between the New York Giants and Cowboys was a 31–31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961, and New York's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory in Super Bowl XLII and winning the first regular-season game played at Cowboys Stadium in 2009. Dallas currently leads the all-time series 75–47–2. The Cowboys currently have a 14–7 advantage over Washington at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter's 1989 win over Washington for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, Washington has struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings. The 2010s also included an important game in week 17 of 2012 which saw Washington defeat Dallas 28–18 to win the NFC East. ===Conference=== ====San Francisco 49ers==== The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers has been going on since the 1970s. The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers' Joe Montana complete a game-winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992–1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match-ups, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are tied for third all-time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers and New England Patriots, with five each. The 49ers-Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The 49ers lead the all-time series with a record of 20–19–1. ====Green Bay Packers==== The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and the Green Bay Packers is one of the best known intra-conference rivalries in the NFL. The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season. The rivalry has also resulted in notable playoff games. The all-time regular seasons series record is 20–17 in favor of the Packers, and the postseason series is also in favor of the Packers at 5–4. ====Los Angeles Rams==== The Cowboys also had a fierce rivalry with the Los Angeles Rams, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s. The two teams played eight postseason games during this period, including two NFC championship games. Between 1975 and 1980, the Cowboys faced the Rams in the playoffs five times in a six-year period. In both 1975 and 1978, the Cowboys won the NFC championship on the road in blowout fashion, only to be followed by close defeats at home in next year's divisional round. The 1980 Wild Card Round saw Dallas follow up last year's playoff defeat with another blowout victory. As of 2022, the Cowboys and Rams tied the all-time regular season series 18–18, but the Rams lead the all-time playoff series 5–4, having recently defeated the Cowboys in the 2018 Divisional Round. ====Minnesota Vikings==== Between the Dallas Cowboys and Minnesota Vikings, the Cowboys lead the all-time series 18–15. The teams have met seven times in the post-season, the Cowboys third most played playoff opponent. The rivalry is home to many key memories, including the famous 1975 Hail Mary pass against the Vikings, the Herschel Walker trade, the Randy Moss Thanksgiving game, and Brett Favre torching the Cowboys in what would be his last playoff win of his career in 2009. As of the 2023 season, the Cowboys lead the all-time series 19–15. ===Inter Conference=== ====Houston Oilers/Houston Texans==== The Cowboys have an intrastate interconference rivalry with the Houston Texans for which they compete in either a preseason or regular season game for bragging rights in Texas, a tradition started between the teams prior to the Oilers relocating to Nashville, Tennessee to become the Tennessee Titans. The Texans defeated the Cowboys in the team's inaugural season in 2002. The Cowboys lead the all-time series 4–2. ====Pittsburgh Steelers==== The two teams met in the first regular-season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35–28 loss to the Steelers), the first-ever regular-season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers-Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last-second throw by Roger Staubach, then as a fourth-quarter rally by Dallas fell short on an onside kick. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in January 1996. It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a "flashy" team with Roger Staubach's aerial attack and the "flex" Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a "blue-collar" team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today. In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all-time series 17–16 including the playoffs. ==Season-by-season records== ==Players of note== ===Current roster=== ===Pro Football Hall of Famers=== ===Super Bowl MVPs=== The Cowboys have had seven players win Super Bowl MVP. ===Ring of Honor=== Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a "Ring of Honor", which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display at AT&T Stadium in Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president. The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a "one-man committee" in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm's Ring of Honor "power" and immediately inducted Jordan. Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the "Ring of Honor". For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year's Cowboys-Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys-Eagles game that fall. Troy Aikman, all-time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as "The Triplets", were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the archrival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005. Defensive end Charles Haley, offensive lineman Larry Allen, and wide receiver Drew Pearson were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys' game vs. the Seattle Seahawks on November 6, 2011. Safety Darren Woodson was inducted on November 1, 2015. Executive Gil Brandt was inducted on November 29, 2018. The most recent inductees were DeMarcus Ware, who was inducted on October 29, 2023, and Jimmy Johnson, who was inducted on December 30, 2023. ===Retired numbers=== The Dallas Cowboys do not officially retire jersey numbers; however, some are kept "unofficially inactive". As of 2022, six numbers have been kept out of circulation: Troy Aikman's No. 8, Roger Staubach's No. 12, Bob Hayes' and Emmitt Smith's No. 22, Bob Lilly's No. 74, and Jason Witten's No. 82. The Cowboys are one of three NFL teams that do not officially retire numbers, with the other two being the Atlanta Falcons and Las Vegas Raiders. ===Career leaders=== Passing yards: 34,183 Tony Romo (2004–2016) Pass completions: 2,898 Troy Aikman (1989–2000) Rushing touchdowns: 153 Emmitt Smith (1990–2002) Receiving yards: 12,977 Jason Witten (2003–2017, 2019) Field goals made: 186 Dan Bailey (2011–2017) Total punt yardage: 24,542 Mike Saxon (1985–1992) Punting average: 45.3 Mat McBriar (2003–2011) Punt Return yards: 1,803 Kelvin Martin (1987–1992, 1996) Forced fumbles: 32 DeMarcus Ware (2005–2013) Passing touchdowns: 37 Dak Prescott (2021) Rushing touchdowns: 25 Emmitt Smith (1995) Receiving yards: 1,603 Michael Irvin (1995) Field goals made: 34 Richie Cunningham (1997) Total punt yardage: 3,665 Toby Gowin (2003) Punting average: 49.0 Mat McBriar (2008) Punt return yards: 548 James Jones, Jr. (1980) Sacks: 20.0 DeMarcus Ware (2008) ===All-time first-round draft picks=== The Cowboys have had the number one overall pick in the NFL Draft on three occasions. ==Head coaches and staff== ===Head coaches=== ===Current staff=== ==Radio and television== , the Cowboys' flagship radio station is KRLD-FM. Brad Sham is the team's longtime play-by-play voice. Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one-year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters. The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the "Blue Star Network", which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL-FM, KRLD, and KLUV-FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts. During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham. Landry's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for him and his co-host making their NFL "predictions" at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the Ice Bowl of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of WCCW in the 1980s. Upon Mercer's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play-by-play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill-in for Lundquist. Longtime WFAA-TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play-by-play announcer from 1985 to 1996. Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys' play-by-play announcer from 1995 to 1997, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One. Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five-year partnership with Compass Media Networks on February 2, 2011. The result was the America's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise's regional one. Beginning with the 2011 season, Kevin Burkhardt and Danny White handled the broadcasts, with Jerry Recco as the studio host. ==Fight song== The Dallas Cowboys fight song, "Cowboys Stampede March" by Tom Merriman Big Band was the official fight song of the Dallas Cowboys. The Cowboys now play We Dem Boyz by Wiz Khalifa for starting defensive line, because of the saying "How Bout Dem Cowboys". For every touchdown scored by the Cowboys at a home game the song "Cowboys and Cut Cigars" by The Burning of Rome is played after a train horn.
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"Lee Roy Jordan", "Super Bowl X", "Midwestern State University", "2009 Kansas City Chiefs season", "Russell Maryland", "Jerry Recco", "Brad Johnson (American football)", "Thomas Everett", "All or Nothing (franchise)", "Pacific University", "2018–19 NFL playoffs", "1969 NFL playoffs", "Charlotte Motor Speedway", "seating capacity", "Savings and Loan crisis", "Thanksgiving (United States)", "Oxnard, California", "National Football Conference", "1999–2000 NFL playoffs", "Trevon Diggs", "NFC West", "Clint Murchison, Jr.", "2002 Houston Texans season", "2015 Dallas Cowboys season", "Super Bowl XXX", "University of Oklahoma", "domed stadium", "NFL-AFL merger", "Super Bowl XVII", "Fort Worth Star-Telegram", "1993–94 NFL playoffs", "Cleveland Browns", "1975–76 NFL playoffs", "2023 San Francisco 49ers season", "Running back", "1971 Miami Dolphins season", "Thomas \"Hollywood\" Henderson", "Wichita Falls, Texas", "1976 Dallas Cowboys season", "1999 Dallas Cowboys season", "Sports Illustrated", "Tennessee Titans", "Dan Bailey (American football)", "2009–10 NFL playoffs", "Mike McCarthy", "KRLD (AM)", "San Francisco 49ers", "1973–74 NFL playoffs", "Tight end", "Super Bowl XLVI", "2009 San Diego Chargers season", "Super Bowl XIII", "1977-78 NFL playoffs", "2003 Carolina Panthers season", "Cowboys–Redskins rivalry", "List of Dallas Cowboys players", "NFL Films", "Mark Stepnoski", "Associated Press", "Philadelphia Eagles", "Super Bowl XLVIII", "2013 Philadelphia Eagles season", "1978 Dallas Cowboys season", "2002 NFL season", "2012 Washington Redskins season", "2019 Dallas Cowboys season", "1980–81 NFL playoffs", "2011 Seattle Seahawks season", "San Antonio", "1973 Dallas Cowboys season", "1960 Dallas Cowboys season", "1979–80 NFL playoffs", "The Washington Post", "1971 Minnesota Vikings season", "Richie Cunningham (American football)", "1988 Dallas Cowboys season", "2023 Carolina Panthers season", "Dak Prescott", "1997 Dallas Cowboys season", "Field goal (football)", "2023 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Jr.", "2000 Baltimore Ravens season", "1994–95 NFL playoffs", "American football", "ESPN.com", "Franchise player", "2014 Detroit Lions season", "Mike Saxon", "2009 New Orleans Saints season", "Jeff Fisher", "Jason Witten", "Frank Glieber", "State Fair of Texas", "Jesse Holley", "2022 Washington Commanders season", "Bill Parcells", "2022 San Francisco 49ers season", "ESPN", "Texas", "1985–86 NFL playoffs", "2016 New York Giants season", "Stephen Jones (American football)", "Guard (American football)", "George Preston Marshall", "Tom Brady", "1996 Dallas Cowboys season", "Drew Pearson (American football)", "Washington Redskins", "Drew Bledsoe", "Ford Center at The Star", "Super Bowl V", "Compass Media Networks", "2020 Dallas Cowboys season", "1966 NFL season", "Quincy Carter", "Green Bay, Wisconsin", "1999 Washington Redskins season", "Super Bowl XXVII", "Dave Campo", "Mark Tuinei", "city limits", "1968 Cleveland Browns season", "Las Vegas Raiders", "Mike Nolan", "2013 New York Giants 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8,122
Denver Broncos
The Denver Broncos are a professional American football team based in Denver. The Broncos compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team is headquartered in Englewood, Colorado. They have won eight AFC Championships (, , , , , , , ), and three Super Bowl championships ( (XXXII), (XXXIII), (50), and share the NFL record for most Super Bowl losses (5 – tied with the New England Patriots). The Broncos have nine primary members enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame: John Elway, Floyd Little, Shannon Sharpe, Gary Zimmerman, Terrell Davis, Champ Bailey, Steve Atwater, and Randy Gradishar, along with late club owner Pat Bowlen. According to Forbes, the Broncos are valued at $4.65 billion in July 2022 making them the twelfth most-valuable team in the NFL. ==History== ===Bob Howsam/Gerald Phipps era (1960–1980)=== The Denver Broncos were founded on August 14, 1959, when minor league baseball owner Bob Howsam was awarded an American Football League (AFL) charter franchise. Denver came close to losing its franchise in 1965, until a local ownership group took control, and rebuilt the team. The team's first superstar, "Franchise" Floyd Little, was instrumental in keeping the team in Denver, due to his signing in 1967 as well as his Pro Bowl efforts on and off the field. The Broncos were the only original AFL team that never played in the title game, as well as the only original AFL team never to have a winning season while a member of the AFL during the upstart league's 10-year history. In 1972, the Broncos hired former Stanford University coach John Ralston as their head coach. In 1973, he was the UPI's AFC Coach of the Year, after Denver achieved its first winning season at 7–5–2. In five seasons with the Broncos, Ralston guided the team to three winning seasons. Though Ralston finished the 1976 season with a 9–5 record, the team, as was the case in Ralston's previous winning seasons, still missed the playoffs. Following the season, several prominent players publicly voiced their discontent with Ralston, which soon led to his resignation. Red Miller, a long-time assistant coach, was hired and along with the Orange Crush Defense (a nickname originated in 1977, also the brand of the popular orange-flavored soft drink) and aging quarterback Craig Morton, took the Broncos to what was then a record-setting 12–2 regular-season record and their first playoff appearance in 1977, and ultimately made their first Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XII, in which they were defeated by the Dallas Cowboys (Morton's former team), 27–10. ===Edgar Kaiser/Pat Bowlen era (1981–2018)=== In 1981, Broncos' owner Gerald Phipps, who had purchased the team in May 1961 from the original owner Bob Howsam, sold the team to Canadian financier Edgar Kaiser Jr., grandson of shipbuilding industrialist Henry J. Kaiser. In 1984, the team was purchased by another Canadian, Pat Bowlen, who placed team ownership into a family trust sometime before 2004 and remained in day-to-day control until his battle with Alzheimer's disease forced him to cede the team to Joe Ellis in 2014. ====Dan Reeves years (1981–1992)==== Dan Reeves became the youngest head coach (37) in the NFL when he joined the Broncos in 1981 as vice president and head coach. Quarterback John Elway, who played college football at Stanford, arrived in 1983 via a trade. Originally drafted by the Baltimore Colts as the first pick of the draft, Elway proclaimed that he would shun football in favor of baseball (he was drafted by the New York Yankees to play center field and was also a pitching prospect), unless he was traded to a selected list of other teams, which included the Broncos. Prior to Elway, the Broncos had over 24 different starting quarterbacks in its 23 seasons to that point. Reeves and Elway guided the Broncos to six post-season appearances, five AFC West divisional titles, three AFC championships and three Super Bowl appearances (Super Bowl XXI, XXII and XXIV) during their 12-year span together. The Broncos lost Super Bowl XXI to the New York Giants, 39–20; Super Bowl XXII to the Washington Redskins, 42–10; and Super Bowl XXIV to the San Francisco 49ers, 55–10; the latter score remains the most lopsided scoring differential in Super Bowl history. The last year of the Reeves-Elway era were marked by feuding, due to Reeves taking on play-calling duties after ousting Elway's favorite offensive coordinator Mike Shanahan after the 1991 season, as well as Reeves drafting quarterback Tommy Maddox out of UCLA instead of going with a wide receiver to help Elway. Reeves was fired after the 1992 season and replaced by his protégé and friend Wade Phillips, who had been serving as the Broncos' defensive coordinator. Phillips was fired after a mediocre 1994 season, in which management felt he lost control of the team. ====Mike Shanahan years (1995–2008)==== In 1995, Mike Shanahan, who had formerly served under Reeves as the Broncos' offensive coordinator, returned as head coach. The team went 8–8 in 1995. Shanahan drafted rookie running back Terrell Davis. In 1996, the Broncos were the top seed in the AFC with a 13–3 record, dominating most of the teams that year. The fifth-seeded Jacksonville Jaguars, however, upset the Broncos 30–27 in the divisional round of the playoffs, ending the Broncos' 1996 run. =====Super Bowl XXXII champions (1997)===== During the 1997 season, Elway and Davis helped guide the Broncos to their first Super Bowl victory, a 31–24 win over the defending champion Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII. Though Elway completed only 13 of 22 passes, throwing one interception and no touchdowns (he did, however, have a rushing touchdown), Davis rushed for 157 yards and a Super Bowl-record three touchdowns to earn the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award—this while overcoming a severe migraine headache that caused him blurred vision. =====Super Bowl XXXIII champions (1998)===== The Broncos repeated as Super Bowl champions the following season, defeating the Atlanta Falcons (led by Elway's longtime head coach Dan Reeves) in Super Bowl XXXIII, 34–19. Elway was named Super Bowl MVP, completing 18 of 29 passes for 336 yards, with an 80-yard touchdown to wide receiver Rod Smith and one interception. John Elway retired following the 1998 season, and Brian Griese started at quarterback for the next four seasons. After a 6–10 record in 1999, mostly due to a season-ending injury to Terrell Davis, the Broncos recovered in 2000, earning a Wild Card playoff berth, but losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens. After missing the playoffs the following two seasons, former Arizona Cardinals' quarterback Jake Plummer replaced Griese in 2003, and led the Broncos to two straight 10–6 seasons, earning Wild Card playoff berths both years. However, the Broncos went on the road to face the Indianapolis Colts in back-to-back seasons and were blown out by more than 20 points in each game, allowing a combined 90 points. Plummer led the Broncos to a 13–3 record in 2005 and their first AFC West division title since 1998. After a first-round bye, the Broncos defeated the defending Super Bowl champion New England Patriots, 27–13, denying New England from becoming the first NFL team ever to win three consecutive Super Bowl championships. They were the first team to beat the Patriots in the playoffs during the Tom Brady era. The Broncos' playoff run came to an end the next week, after losing at home to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship game, 34–17. The Broncos' defense began the first five games of the 2006 season allowing only one touchdown — an NFL record that still stands. ESPN commentator and Super Bowl-winning quarterback Joe Theismann gave the 2006 defense the name "Bad Blue" on Monday Night Football as they played the Ravens. However, the team struggled down the season stretch. Plummer led the team to a 7–2 record, but struggled individually with inconsistent performance and more interceptions than touchdown passes. As a result, he would be replaced by rookie quarterback Jay Cutler. Cutler went 2–3 as a starter, and the Broncos finished with a 9–7 record, losing the tiebreaker to the Kansas City Chiefs for the final playoff spot. Cutler's first full season as a starter in 2007 became the Broncos' first losing season since 1999, with a 7–9 record. The 2008 season ended in a 52–21 loss at the San Diego Chargers, giving the Broncos an 8–8 record and their third straight season out of the playoffs. Mike Shanahan, the longest-tenured and most successful head coach in Broncos' franchise history, was fired after 14 seasons. ====Josh McDaniels years (2009–2010)==== On January 11, 2009, two weeks after Shanahan was fired, the Broncos hired former New England Patriots' offensive coordinator Josh McDaniels as the team's new head coach. Three months later, the team acquired quarterback Kyle Orton as part of a trade that sent Jay Cutler to the Chicago Bears. Under McDaniels and Orton, the Broncos jumped out to a surprising 6–0 start in 2009. However, the team lost eight of their next ten games, finishing 8–8 for a second consecutive season and missing the playoffs. The next season (2010), the Broncos set a new franchise record for losses in a single season, with a 4–12 record. McDaniels was fired before the end of the 2010 season following a combination of the team's poor record and the fallout from a highly publicized videotaping scandal. Running backs coach Eric Studesville was named interim coach for the final four games of the 2010 season. He chose to start rookie first-round draft choice Tim Tebow at quarterback for the final three games. ====John Fox years (2011–2014)==== Following the 2010 season, Joe Ellis was promoted from chief operating officer to team president, while John Elway returned to the organization as the team's executive vice president of football operations. In addition, the Broncos hired John Fox as the team's 14th head coach. Fox previously served as the Carolina Panthers' head coach from 2002 to 2010. Following a 1–4 start to the 2011 season, Tim Tebow replaced Kyle Orton as the Broncos' starting quarterback, and "Tebow Time" was born. Tebow led the Broncos with toughness, determination and miraculous come-from-behind victories which gave the Broncos hope and were the catalyst for better things to come. Tebow led the Broncos to an 8–8 record and garnered the team's first playoff berth and division title since 2005. The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Wild Card round on a memorable 80-yard touchdown pass from Tebow to wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on the first play of overtime, setting a record for the fastest overtime in NFL history. However, the Broncos lost to the New England Patriots in the Divisional round. In March 2012, the Broncos reached an agreement on a five-year, $96 million contract with former longtime Indianapolis Colts' quarterback Peyton Manning, who had recently missed the entire season following multiple neck surgeries. This resulted in the Broncos subsequently trading incumbent quarterback Tim Tebow to the New York Jets. The Broncos finished with a 13–3 record and the AFC's No. 1 seed in the 2012 playoffs, but were defeated by the Baltimore Ravens in the Divisional round. Like in 2012, the 2013 Broncos finished with a 13–3 record and the AFC's No. 1 seed. The Broncos broke all offensive records and QB Peyton Manning shattered many quarterback records that season as well. In the 2013 playoffs, they defeated the San Diego Chargers in the Divisional round and the New England Patriots in the AFC Championship. However, the Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLVIII by a score of 43–8, the Broncos' first Super Bowl berth since winning back-to-back Super Bowls in 1997 and 1998. Prior to the start of the 2014 season, the Broncos announced that Pat Bowlen, the team's owner since 1984, relinquished control of the team due to his battle with Alzheimer's disease, resulting in team president Joe Ellis and general manager John Elway assuming control of the team. However, the Broncos were defeated by the Indianapolis Colts in the Divisional round of the 2014 playoffs, marking the third time in four seasons that the Broncos lost in the Divisional round of the playoffs. Quarterback Peyton Manning had been playing with strained quadriceps for the final month of the 2014 season. ====Gary Kubiak years (2015–2016)==== On January 12, 2015, one day after the divisional playoff loss to the Colts, the Broncos and head coach John Fox mutually agreed to part ways. Fox left the Broncos with a .719 winning percentage in his four seasons as the Broncos' head coach—the highest in franchise history. One week later, the Broncos hired Gary Kubiak as the team's 15th head coach. Kubiak served as a backup quarterback to executive vice president/general manager John Elway from 1983 to 1991, as well as the Broncos' offensive coordinator from 1995 to 2005. Shortly after Kubiak became head coach, the Broncos underwent numerous changes to their coaching staff and players, including the hiring of defensive coordinator, defensive mastermind Wade Phillips, under whom the Broncos' defense went from middle of the road to being ranked No. 1 in the NFL. By the 2015 season, it would go on to be considered one of the greatest NFL defenses of all time — along with the 1985 Bears, 2000 Ravens and 2002 Buccaneers. The Broncos finished with a 12–4 record and the AFC's No. 1 seed, despite Peyton Manning having his worst statistical season since his rookie year with the Indianapolis Colts in . Backup quarterback Brock Osweiler started the last six games of the regular season due to Manning suffering from a foot injury. Manning led the Broncos throughout the playoffs. The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 23–16 in the Divisional Round and the New England Patriots 20–18 in the AFC Championship. They were victorious against the Carolina Panthers 24–10 in Super Bowl 50 for their third Super Bowl title. On March 7, 2016, quarterback Peyton Manning retired after 18 NFL seasons during a press conference at the team's Dove Valley headquarters. Following Manning's retirement, the Broncos scrambled to find the team's next starting quarterback after backup quarterback Brock Osweiler departed on a four-year contract to the Houston Texans. The Broncos acquired Mark Sanchez from the Philadelphia Eagles and selected Paxton Lynch during the 2016 draft. Sanchez, Lynch and second-year quarterback Trevor Siemian competed for the starting quarterback spot during the off-season and preseason. Prior to the regular season, Sanchez was released and Siemian was named the starter. The Broncos finished the season 9–7 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2010. On January 2, 2017, coach Gary Kubiak announced his retirement, citing health as the main reason for retiring. ==== Vance Joseph years (2017–2018)==== The Broncos hired Miami Dolphins defensive coordinator Vance Joseph as head coach on January 11, 2017. The Broncos finished 5–11 in 2017 as a result of an unimpressive offense led by a quarterback committee of Trevor Siemian, Brock Osweiler, and Paxton Lynch. In an effort to address poor production from the offense, the Broncos signed quarterback Case Keenum on March 14, 2018, and traded away Trevor Siemian to the Minnesota Vikings on March 19, 2018. On May 1, 2018, the Broncos signed local undrafted free agent running back Phillip Lindsay, who became a fan favorite due to his underdog mentality, explosive play style and local roots. Lindsay became the first undrafted player in NFL history with 100+ scrimmage yards in each of their first two games and on December 18, 2018, Lindsay was voted to the 2019 Pro Bowl, making him the first undrafted offensive rookie in NFL history to be voted to a Pro Bowl. After getting off to a strong start, their 2018 season was up and down, eventually finishing with a 6–10 record and placing third in the AFC West. Coupled with the 5–11 season in 2017, the Broncos had back-to-back losing seasons for the first time since 1971–1972. Shortly after the conclusion of the regular season, head coach Vance Joseph was fired after recording a poor 11–21 record in two seasons. ====Vic Fangio years (2019–2021)==== On January 10, 2019, the Broncos hired Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Vic Fangio to become the 17th head coach in franchise history. Fangio was chosen over Mike Munchak, the Broncos' offensive line coach. Fangio received a four-year contract with a team option for an additional season. On February 13, 2019, Joe Flacco was traded to the Broncos from the Baltimore Ravens. On October 6, 2019, the Broncos defeated the Los Angeles Chargers for their 500th win, bringing their win–loss record to 500–432. On December 1, 2019, the Broncos started Mizzou rookie quarterback Drew Lock for the first time. He led the Broncos to a 4–1 record to end the 2019 season. The Broncos finished 2nd place in the AFC West Division at 7–9, missing the playoffs for a fourth consecutive year. In five games, Lock finished with 1,020 passing yards, seven touchdowns, and three interceptions. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 NFL season did not have a preseason or full training camps, which likely contributed to an abnormally large amount of injuries that plagued the Broncos and other NFL teams. Star linebacker Von Miller suffered a season-ending ankle tendon injury before the regular season started, and starting wide receiver Courtland Sutton suffered a season-ending torn ACL during a week two game. On November 29, 2020, after all three of the Broncos' quarterbacks were placed in COVID-19 protocol, the Broncos were forced to turn to undrafted wide receiver and former college quarterback Kendall Hinton as the emergency quarterback. Hinton completed only one pass for 13 yards in 9 attempts—the fewest pass completions in a single game in franchise history—and was intercepted twice. The Broncos' only scoring play was a 58-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus in a 31–3 loss to the New Orleans Saints. In July 2021, the Pro Football Hall of Fame announced that Hinton's quarterback wristband would be added to the Hall of Fame as part of a display. The Broncos finished the 2020 season with a record of 5–11, last in the AFC West, and missed the playoffs for the fifth consecutive year. Following another season of uninspiring quarterback performances, the Broncos were the subject of multiple quarterback trade rumors during the 2021 offseason. Aaron Rodgers and Deshaun Watson were two names rumored to be of interest for the Broncos, but ultimately the Broncos traded for quarterback Teddy Bridgewater on April 28, 2021. Bridgewater won the subsequent quarterback competition between himself and Drew Lock during the preseason, and he was named the Broncos' starting quarterback on August 25, 2021. The Broncos also made notable improvements in the defensive secondary, signing former All-Pro cornerback Kyle Fuller and cornerback Ronald Darby, as well as drafting Alabama cornerback Patrick Surtain II with the ninth overall pick in the 2021 NFL draft. Running back Phillip Lindsay was replaced by UNC rookie running back Javonte Williams, who was drafted in the second round of the 2021 NFL draft by the Broncos. On October 31, 2021, Peyton Manning (who won two AFC Championships, Super Bowl 50, and an NFL MVP during his four seasons as a Bronco) was inducted to the Broncos' Ring of Fame during a game against Washington. On November 1, 2021, the Broncos traded franchise legend Von Miller to the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for a 2nd and 3rd round pick in the 2022 NFL draft. At the time of the trade, Miller was the longest-tenured Bronco on the team, and the only remaining non-special teams player from Denver's Super Bowl 50 roster. After another mediocre performance in the 2021 season with the Broncos going 7–10, head coach Vic Fangio was dismissed on January 8, 2022, after losing to the Kansas City Chiefs. === Walton–Penner era (2022–present)=== ====Nathaniel Hackett season (2022)==== The Broncos announced the hiring of Green Bay Packers offensive coordinator Nathaniel Hackett as head coach on January 27, 2022. The Broncos then announced on February 1, 2022, that they were now up for sale and that they would be parting ways with the Bowlen family, the former owners of the franchise. Hackett's first hire as head coach was Justin Outten as offensive coordinator. He was hired on February 2, 2022. On March 16, 2022, the Broncos traded Drew Lock, Noah Fant, Shelby Harris, Denver's 2022 first-round pick (No. 9), its 2022 second-round pick (No. 40), its 2023 first- and second-round picks, and its 2022 fifth-round pick for Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks' 2022 fourth-round pick. On June 7, 2022, the Broncos announced that a consortium led by former Walmart chairman Rob Walton had entered in an agreement to acquire the Denver Broncos for $4.65 billion. The NFL approved the bid on August 10, 2022. On that day, the members of Walton's partnership, known as the Walton-Penner Family Ownership Group, were introduced to the press. The group includes Rob Walton, his daughter Carrie Walton Penner, son-in-law and current Walmart chairman Greg Penner, Starbucks chairwoman Mellody Hobson, former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, and Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton. Walton delegated most of his authority to Penner, who became CEO and operating head of the franchise as well as the public face of the Walton-Penner Group. Penner is recognized as the team's controlling owner by the NFL, and represents the Broncos at league meetings. On December 26, with the Broncos sitting at 4–11 following a 51–14 Christmas Day loss to the Los Angeles Rams, Hackett was fired and replaced by interim head coach Jerry Rosburg. Hackett became the fifth head coach to not finish his first season after Lou Holtz in 1976, Pete McCulley in 1978, Bobby Petrino in 2007, and Urban Meyer in 2021. ==== Sean Payton years (2023–present)==== On January 31, 2023, Sean Payton reported that he had accepted the head coaching job for the Denver Broncos, and he was officially hired as head coach for the 2023 season three days later. The Broncos started the season off 1–5, including a 20–70 loss to the Miami Dolphins in week 3. However, after a 21–31 loss to the New York Jets, the team rallied off five straight wins, including victories over the Buffalo Bills, Green Bay Packers, and Kansas City Chiefs; their first win against the Chiefs since 2015, to get to 6–5. After a loss to the Houston Texans and a victory over the Los Angeles Chargers, the Broncos won just one of their final four games, including a 23–26 loss to the New England Patriots at home on Christmas Eve. After the loss, reports surfaced about contract disputes between Russell Wilson and Broncos management over an injury clause, causing Wilson to be benched by the team the final two games of the season. The Broncos finished the 2023 season 8–9, good enough for their best record since the 2016 season. However, the team finished under .500 for the seventh consecutive season, and missed the playoffs for the eighth consecutive season. Following the season, the Broncos released Russell Wilson, taking on $85M in dead-cap money, the largest in NFL history. On March 7, the Broncos released veteran safety Justin Simmons. Simmons was the longest tenured player on the Broncos following Brandon McManus' departure the previous offseason. On April 22, The Broncos unveiled a new set of uniforms known as the "Mile High Collection," which was the teams first uniform change since the 1997 season. A throwback uniform also pays homage to the 1977 Orange Crush uniforms that feature the iconic royal blue "D" helmets. In the 2024 NFL Draft, the Broncos selected Bo Nix with the team's first-round pick to succeed Russell Wilson as the teams quarterback. Nix was named the starter prior to the 2024 NFL season, beating out Zach Wilson and Jarrett Stidham, and becoming the first Broncos quarterback since John Elway in 1983 to start week 1 of his rookie season. The Broncos started the season 0–2, before winning five of their next six games to get to 5–3. After back-to-back losses against the Baltimore Ravens and Kansas City Chiefs, the team won four straight games to improve to 9–5, marking an improvement over their 8-win campaign the previous season. Despite back-to-back losses to the Los Angeles Chargers and Cincinnati Bengals, the Broncos would defeat the Kansas City Chiefs in week 18 to finish the season with a record of 10–7, their first 10-win season since 2015, and the teams first winning season since 2016. With the victory, the Broncos clinched a playoff spot for the first time since winning Super Bowl 50. In the Wild Card Round of the NFL playoffs, the Broncos lost to the Buffalo Bills 7–31. ==Rivalries== ===Divisional=== The Denver Broncos have three AFC West rivals-the Kansas City Chiefs, Las Vegas Raiders, and Los Angeles Chargers. All teams, along with the Broncos, were charter members of the American Football League (AFL), with each team placed in the AFL Western Division, forerunner of today's AFC West. The four teams have played each other twice a year for over 60 years, making the entire division one huge rivalry. The Broncos were barely competitive during the AFL years (1960–69), going a combined 10–49–1 against the Chiefs, Raiders, and Chargers. ====Kansas City Chiefs==== The Broncos have had several memorable matchups with the Chiefs, particularly during the years in which John Elway was the Broncos' starting quarterback (1983–98). The Broncos defeated the Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium in the divisional round of the 1997 NFL playoffs, en route to their first Super Bowl victory. As of the season, the Chiefs hold a 73–57 series lead over the Broncos, including the aforementioned 1997 divisional playoff game. ====Las Vegas Raiders==== Historically, the most heated divisional matchup for Denver is with the Raiders. The rivalry was ignited in its present form in , when the Broncos advanced to their first Super Bowl by defeating the defending champion Raiders in the 1977 AFC Championship. The rivalry intensified in the mid-1990s, when Mike Shanahan was hired as the Broncos' head coach in 1995. Shanahan coached the Raiders in before being fired four games into the season. As of the season, the Raiders hold a 73–56–2 series lead over the Broncos, including 1–1 in the playoffs. ====Los Angeles Chargers==== Unlike their record against the Chiefs and Raiders, as of the 2024 season, the Broncos have a winning record against the Chargers, with a 73–57–1 series lead, including 1–0 in the playoffs. The Broncos pulled off one of the largest comebacks in Monday Night Football history, when Peyton Manning led the Broncos from a 24–0 halftime deficit to a 35–24 win at San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium during the season. The two teams met in the playoffs for the first time on January 12, 2014, at Denver's Sports Authority Field at Mile High, with the Broncos winning 24–17. ===Conference=== Aside from the aforementioned AFC West teams, the Broncos have had intra-conference rivalries over the years with the Cleveland Browns, New England Patriots, and Pittsburgh Steelers. ====Cleveland Browns==== The Broncos had a brief rivalry with the Browns that arose from three AFC championship matches in 1986, 1987 and 1989. In the 1986 AFC Championship, quarterback John Elway led The Drive to secure a tie in the waning moments at Cleveland Municipal Stadium; the Broncos went on to win in 23–20 in overtime. One year later, the two teams met again in the 1987 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium. Denver took a 21–3 lead, but Browns' quarterback Bernie Kosar threw four touchdown passes to tie the game at 31–31 halfway through the 4th quarter. After a long drive, John Elway threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to running back Sammy Winder to give Denver a 38–31 lead. Cleveland advanced to Denver's 8-yard line with 1:12 left, but Broncos' safety Jeremiah Castille stripped Browns' running back Earnest Byner of the football at the 2-yard line—a play that has been called The Fumble by Browns' fans. The Broncos recovered it, gave Cleveland an intentional safety, and went on to win 38–33. The two teams met yet again in the 1989 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium, which the Broncos easily won by a score of 37–21. The Broncos did not win the Super Bowl after any of the championship games where they defeated the Browns, losing by an aggregate of 136–40. As of the season, the Broncos lead the all-time series 26–7. ====New England Patriots==== The Broncos and Patriots met twice annually during the American Football League (AFL) years from 1960 to 1969, and played in the first-ever AFL game on September 9, 1960. Since , the two teams have met frequently during the regular season, including nine consecutive seasons from 1995 to 2003. The teams' first playoff match on January 4, 1987, was John Elway's first career playoff win, while the teams' second playoff match on January 14, 2006, game was the Broncos' first playoff win since Elway's retirement after the 1998 season. The game was also notable for Champ Bailey's 100-yard interception that resulted in a touchdown-saving tackle by Benjamin Watson at the 1-yard line. On October 11, 2009, the two teams met with former Patriots' offensive coordinator, Josh McDaniels as the Broncos' head coach. Both teams wore their AFL 50th anniversary jerseys. The game featured a 98-yard drive in the fourth quarter, with a game-tying touchdown pass from Kyle Orton to Brandon Marshall, followed by an overtime drive led by Orton that resulted in a 41-yard game-winning field goal by Matt Prater. The two teams met in the Divisional round of the 2011 playoffs, with the Patriots blowing out Tim Tebow and the Broncos by a score of 45–10. until Manning's retirement after the season. Though Brady dominated Manning in regular season play, winning nine of twelve meetings, Manning won three of five playoff meetings, including the Broncos' 26–16 win in the 2013 AFC Championship and the Broncos' 20–18 win in the 2015 AFC Championship. As of the 2024 season, the Broncos lead the all-time series 31–24. ====Pittsburgh Steelers==== As of the end of the 2024 season, the Broncos and Steelers have met in postseason play eight times, tied with five other pairings for the second–most frequent playoff matchups in NFL playoff history. The Broncos currently own a 5–3 playoff record vs. the Steelers. Perhaps the most memorable postseason matchup occurred in the 1997 AFC Championship, in which the Broncos defeated the Steelers 24–21 at Three Rivers Stadium, en route to their first Super Bowl victory. Eight years later, the Steelers returned the favor at INVESCO Field at Mile High, defeating the Broncos 34–17 in the 2005 AFC Championship, and subsequently won Super Bowl XL. In the Wild Card round of the 2011 playoffs, in a game dubbed The 3:16 game, the Broncos stunned the Steelers 29–23 on the first play of overtime, when quarterback Tim Tebow connected with wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on an 80-yard game-winning touchdown pass. The teams met again in the Divisional round of the 2015 playoffs at Denver, where the Broncos defeated the Steelers 23–16 on their way to a victory in Super Bowl 50. The Broncos lead the all-time series 20–14–1. ===Historical=== ====Seattle Seahawks==== The Broncos had an old rivalry with the Seattle Seahawks, who were members of the AFC West from 1977 to 2001, prior to the Seahawks' move to the NFC West as part of the NFL's re-alignment. During the 25 years in which the Seahawks resided in the AFC West, the Broncos went 32–18 against the Seahawks, including a loss at Seattle in the 1983 NFL playoffs. Since 2002, the Broncos have won three of five interconference meetings, and the two teams met in Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014, with the Seahawks winning by a score of 43–8. As of the season, the Broncos lead the all-time series 35–23. ==Facilities== For most of their history, the Denver Broncos played in Mile High Stadium. The AFL Broncos played at the University of Denver's Hilltop Stadium from time to time, including the first victory of an AFL team over an NFL team: The Broncos beat the Detroit Lions on August 5, 1967, in a preseason game. The team has sold out every home game (including post-season games) since the AFL–NFL merger in , with the exception of two replacement games during the strike (but both were sold out before the strike). During home games, the attendance is announced to the crowd, along with the number of no-shows (the fans subsequently boo the no shows). The fans are also known to chant "IN-COM-PLETE!" every time the visiting team throws an incomplete pass. The stadium's legendary homefield advantage is regarded as one of the best in the NFL, especially during the playoffs. The Broncos had the best home record in pro football over a 32-year span from 1974 to 2006 (191–65–1). Mile High Stadium was one of the NFL's loudest stadiums, with steel flooring instead of concrete, which may have given the Broncos an advantage over opponents, plus the advantage of altitude conditioning for the Broncos. In , the team moved into then-named Invesco Field at Mile High, built next to the former site of the since-demolished Mile High Stadium. Sportswriter Woody Paige, along with many of Denver's fans, however, often refused to call the stadium by its full name, preferring to use "Mile High Stadium" because of its storied history and sentimental import. Additionally, The Denver Post had an official policy of referring to the stadium as simply "Mile High Stadium" in protest, but dropped this policy in 2004. Prior to the 2011 season, Englewood-based sporting goods retailer Sports Authority claimed the naming rights of Invesco Field, which became known as Sports Authority Field at Mile High. However, in the summer of 2016, Sports Authority went bankrupt, the stadium was renamed Broncos Stadium at Mile High, and the Broncos sought out a naming rights sponsor until September 2019 when they agreed to rename the stadium Empower Field at Mile High. The altitude has also been attributed as part of the team's home success. The stadium displays multiple references to the stadium's location of above sea level, including a prominent mural just outside the visiting team's locker room. The team training facility, Broncos Park Powered by CommonSpirit (formerly known as the Paul D. Bowlen Memorial Broncos Centre), is a state-of-the-art facility located in Dove Valley. With of property, the facility hosts three full-size fields, a complete weight and training facility, and a cafeteria. In their more than half-century of existence, the Broncos have never been shut out at home, a streak of over 400 games as of the season. In late 2012, the Broncos announced that the stadium would receive $30 million upgrades including a new video board in the south end zone three times larger than the previous display. The renovations were finished before kickoff of the 2013 season. ==Logos and uniforms== ===1968–1996=== When the Broncos debuted in , their original uniforms were said to have drawn as much attention as their play on the field. They featured white and mustard yellow jerseys, contrasting brown helmets, brown pants, and vertically striped socks. Two years later, the team unveiled a new logo featuring a bucking horse and changed their team colors to orange, royal blue and white. The uniform consisted of white pants, orange helmets, and either orange or white jerseys. In , the Broncos debuted a design that became known as "Orange Crush". Their logo was redesigned so that the horse was coming out of a "D". Additionally, the helmets were changed to royal blue, and the sleeves had thin stripes with other minor modifications added. From 1969 to 1971, and again from 1978 to 1979, the team wore orange pants with their white jerseys. In 1975, the face masks were changed to white from grey. The Broncos wore their white jerseys at home throughout the season, as well as for home games against the San Diego Chargers and Dallas Cowboys, the latter in hopes to bring out the "blue jersey jinx" which has followed the Cowboys for decades. (The Broncos won 41–20.) The Broncos wore their white jerseys for home games against the Philadelphia Eagles, Los Angeles Raiders and Cincinnati Bengals, but did not wear white at home again for two decades — see next section. In , in honor of the 75th anniversary season of the NFL, the Broncos wore their throwback uniforms for two games—a Week 3 home game against the Raiders and a road game at the Buffalo Bills the following week. Navy blue replaced royal blue on the team's color scheme. The current logo is a profile of a horse's head, with an orange mane and navy blue outlines. During a February 4, 1997, press conference introducing the new logo, the team president and the art director for Nike, who were the creators of the new design, described it as "a powerful horse with a fiery eye and mane." The Broncos began wearing navy blue jerseys, replacing their longtime orange jerseys that had been the team's predominant home jersey color since 1962. This new uniform design features a new word mark, numbering font and a streak that runs up and down the sides of both the jerseys and the pants. On the navy blue jerseys, the streak is orange, with an orange collar and white numerals trimmed in orange, while on the road white jerseys, the streak is navy blue, with a thin orange accent strip on both sides, a navy collar and navy numerals trimmed in orange; the helmet facemasks became navy blue. When they debuted, these uniforms were vilified by the press and fans, until the Broncos won their first-ever Super Bowl in the new design that same season. The navy blue jerseys served as the team's primary home jersey until the end of the season — see next section. In , the Broncos introduced an alternate orange jersey that is a mirror image of the aforementioned navy blue jerseys, but with orange and navy trading places. Like the road white jerseys, the white pants with the navy blue streaks running down the sides are worn with this uniform. This jersey was used only once in the 2002 and seasons, and were used twice per season from 2008 to 2011. Mike Shanahan, the team's head coach from 1995 to 2008, was not a big fan of the alternate orange jerseys. The Broncos previously wore orange jerseys as a throwback uniform in a Thanksgiving Day game at the Dallas Cowboys in . The team also introduced navy blue pants in , with orange side streaks to match with the navy blue jerseys. Though they were part of the uniform change in 1997 (in fact, they were worn for a couple of 1997 preseason games) and most players wanted to wear them, the only player who vetoed wearing them was John Elway, thereby delaying their eventual introduction. From 2003 to 2011, these pants were primarily used for select prime-time and late-season home games (excluding the season), and since , are used exclusively with the now-alternate navy blue jerseys — see next section. On November 16, 2003, the Broncos wore their white jerseys at home for the first time since , in a game vs. the San Diego Chargers. This was compensation for a uniform mix-up, after the teams' first meeting at San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium in Week 2 earlier that season, when the Chargers were the team that was supposed to declare their uniform color. The Chargers were planning to wear their white jerseys, but the visiting Broncos came to the stadium in white, and were fined $25,000 by the NFL as a result. When the two teams met at INVESCO Field at Mile High later that season (Week 11), the NFL allowed the visiting Chargers to choose their uniform color in advance, and they chose navy blue, forcing the Broncos to wear their white jerseys at home. ===2012–2023=== Beginning in , the orange jerseys that served as the alternate colored jerseys from 2002 to 2011 became the primary home jersey, while the navy blue jerseys that served as the primary home jersey from 1997 to 2011 switched to alternate designation. The change was made due to overwhelming popularity with the fans, who pressured the Broncos to return to orange as the team's primary home jersey color. The team will either wear the navy blue or the white pants – with the orange side stripes – to match with the alternate navy blue jerseys. The team initially did not wear the white pants with the orange side stripes, until a November 1, 2015, game vs. the Green Bay Packers, in which the Broncos wore said design to match the uniform ensemble that was used during the team's Super Bowl XXXII win over the Packers. On October 30, 2022, the Broncos debuted a new combination of white jerseys and alternate navy blue pants in an NFL London Game at the Jacksonville Jaguars, with mismatched side stripes of navy blue (white jersey) and orange (navy blue pants). As the designated home team in Super Bowl 50, the Broncos – who have a 0–4 Super Bowl record when using their standard orange jerseys – chose to wear their white jerseys as the designated "home" team. In , the Broncos' unveiled a new Color Rush uniform, which the team wore for a Thursday Night game at the San Diego Chargers on October 13, 2016. The uniform kit contained the following features: orange pants, which the team wore for the first time since 1979, orange socks and shoes, along with block-style numerals trimmed in navy blue that mirrored the team's 1968–1996 uniform style. Due to the NFL's one-helmet rule implemented in 2013, the helmets remained the same, with the team temporarily replacing the modern primary logo with the throwback "D-horse" logo. The same uniform was used for a Thursday night game against the Indianapolis Colts during the season and again during a 2018 game against the Pittsburgh Steelers. In a Week 2 game vs. the Washington Commanders in 2023, the Broncos wore their white jerseys at home for the first time since 2003, to honor the 25th anniversary of the Super Bowl XXXIII team. In 2023, the Color Rush uniforms were paired with a white alternate helmet, again using the modernized "D-horse" logo, and were discontinued at the end of that season, with the arrival of a new uniform kit in 2024—see next section. ===2024–present=== On April 22, 2024, the Broncos unveiled a simpler uniform design, eliminating the mismatched jersey and pant stripes that characterized their 1997 redesign and reverting to a more vintage block number style and letters inspired by the signage of Colorado's national parks. The set consists of a primary home orange and road white uniform, and an alternate navy blue uniform; all uniforms could be worn with either orange, white or navy blue pants. ==Statistics and records== ===Season-by-season records=== Since their first season in 1960, the Broncos have an all-time record of 518–472–10 as of the season. ==Players of note== ===Current roster=== ===Retired numbers=== † Note: No. 18 was re-issued for Peyton Manning after Tripucka gave his approval; it was used by Manning from the 2012 season until his retirement after the 2015 season. Manning's name was added to the retired number's banner as an honorable mention. ===Pro Football Hall of Famers=== ===Ring of Fame=== The Broncos have a Ring of Fame on the Level 5 facade of Empower Field at Mile High, which honors the following: ===50th Anniversary Team=== The Denver Broncos announced the club's 50th anniversary team on September 15, 2009. The anniversary team was voted on by users at DenverBroncos.com from June 6 to September 4, 2009. ===Super Bowl MVPs=== The Broncos have had three players win Super Bowl MVP in franchise history. ===Colorado Sports Hall of Fame=== ==Staff and head coaches== ===Head coaches=== The Broncos have had 20 head coaches serve in the capacity in franchise history. ===Current staff=== ==In the media and popular culture== Tim McKernan, a.k.a. Barrel Man, began wearing a barrel in 1977 after making a $10 (equivalent to $ in ) bet with his brother, Scott, that by wearing one he could get on television. McKernan won the bet, and the barrel he had painted to look like an Orange Crush soda can became his signature costume, and resulted in him becoming one of the Broncos' most recognized fans and a popular mascot. McKernan died on December 5, 2009. The animated television show South Park, set in Park County, often mentions the Denver Broncos; show creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone both grew up in Colorado as devout Broncos fans. In The Simpsons season 5 episode Cape Feare, when the family are to be given new identities, Homer imagines himself as John Elway, scoring a (consolation) touchdown against San Francisco. Conversely, in the 1996 episode "You Only Move Twice", Hank Scorpio gives Homer Simpson the Denver Broncos as a thank-you gift for helping him. However, Homer complains that he wanted to own the Dallas Cowboys, as the Broncos team that just arrived are playing very sloppy football on his front lawn (a reference to the team losing four Super Bowl appearances, three by significant margins including Super Bowl XII against Dallas). Incidentally, the Broncos were 13–3 in the 1996 season, and won the Super Bowl the next two seasons. Only two seasons later in the Super Bowl-centric episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday", Homer chooses Denver as his Super Bowl XXXIII pick over Moe's choice of the Atlanta Falcons. In the episode, "The Bonfire of the Manatees", Homer picks the Broncos to win the Super Bowl over the Seattle Seahawks. The two teams later did play against each other in Super Bowl XLVIII which aired on Fox, the U.S. home of The Simpsons; but the result was a Seahawks victory instead. In the 1979 Mork & Mindy episode "Hold That Mork", Mork's character, played by Robin Williams, became the first male cheerleader in Broncos' history. As a member of the "Pony Express", he trotted out on the field at Mile High Stadium during an actual Broncos' game vs. the New England Patriots on November 11, 1979. The episode aired exactly two weeks later. Many former Broncos are now in broadcasting, including Shannon Sharpe, Mark Schlereth, Alfred Williams, Tom Jackson, Ed McCaffrey, Brian Griese, David Diaz-Infante, Terrell Davis and Brandon Stokley. Some former Broncos work in radio, KKFN and KDFD in Denver, Colorado. Former tight end and wide receiver Nate Jackson has written and published two nonfiction books, Slow Getting Up and Fantasy Man. His writing about the NFL has appeared in Slate, Deadspin, The Daily Beast, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and BuzzFeed, among others. Jackson also co-hosts the Caveman Poet Society. ==Radio and television== The Broncos' flagship radio station is currently KOA, 850AM, a 50,000-watt station owned by iHeartMedia. Dave Logan is the play-by-play announcer, with former Broncos' wide receiver Ed McCaffrey serving as the color commentator beginning in 2012, replacing Brian Griese. Ed McCaffrey was replaced by Rick Lewis. Until 2010, preseason games not selected for airing on national television were shown on KCNC, channel 4, which is a CBS owned-and-operated station, as well as other CBS affiliates around the Rocky Mountain region. On May 26, 2011, the Broncos announced that KUSA channel 9, an NBC affiliate also known as 9NEWS in the Rocky Mountain region, will be the team's new television partner for preseason games. In 2011, the Broncos began a partnership with KJMN, 92.1 FM, a leading Spanish language radio station owned by Entravision Communications (EVC). The partnership also includes broadcasting rights for a half-hour weekly TV show on KCEC, the local Univision affiliate operated by EVC.
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XXXIII", "Super Bowl XLVIII", "Philadelphia Eagles", "You Only Move Twice", "2024 Buffalo Bills season", "Vance Joseph", "Nate Jackson", "2024 NFL season", "2023 Houston Texans season", "2015–16 NFL playoffs", "DU Stadium", "Jason Elam", "Nathaniel Hackett", "George Paton (American football executive)", "The Simpsons", "Walmart", "Tom Rouen", "List of NFL playoff games", "University of Denver", "Trey Parker", "2021 Jacksonville Jaguars season", "2022 NFL draft", "Chief Executive Officer", "New York Yankees", "Denver", "The New York Times", "Linebacker", "Seattle Seahawks", "2007 Denver Broncos season", "2007 Atlanta Falcons season", "1995 Denver Broncos season", "2005 Pittsburgh Steelers season", "List of Super Bowl champions", "Woody Paige", "Courtland Sutton", "Carolina Panthers", "Indianapolis Colts", "KJMN", "Halfback (American football)", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Matt Prater", "Arizona Cardinals", "Cape Feare", "Los Angeles Rams", "2015 New England Patriots season", "Tom Brady–Peyton Manning rivalry", "Javonte Williams", "2023 New England Patriots season", "Joe Flacco", "Kick returner", "Center (gridiron football)", "Russell Wilson", "Dove Valley, Colorado", "Case Keenum", "Lionel Taylor", "2017 Indianapolis Colts season", "Jeremiah Castille", "2003 Denver Broncos season", "Super Bowl XXI", "Alfred Williams", "2013 AFC Championship Game", "CommonSpirit Health", "Mile High Miracle", "New England Patriots", "Mile High Stadium", "2006 Denver Broncos season", "List of Denver Broncos head coaches", "quarterbacks", "2016 Denver Broncos season", "General manager (American football)", "Peyton Manning", "Brandon Stokley", "Craig Morton", "concrete", "Riley Odoms", "2000 Baltimore Ravens season", "AFC Championship Game", "American football", "The Bonfire of the Manatees", "No Fly Zone (Denver Broncos)", "Bob Howsam", "Los Angeles Chargers", "2024 Baltimore Ravens season", "1984 Denver Broncos season", "1989–90 NFL playoffs", "Mark Schlereth", "2004 Denver Broncos season", 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"Defensive tackle", "NFL International Series", "Charley Johnson", "2013 San Diego Chargers season", "Pittsburgh Steelers", "Jake Plummer", "2024–25 NFL playoffs", "Deshaun Watson", "Wide receiver", "Monday Night Football", "Los Angeles Raiders", "Washington Commanders", "Defensive end", "National Football League Christmas games", "1989 Denver Broncos season", "Benjamin Watson", "Greg Penner", "Rod Smith (wide receiver)", "San Diego Chargers", "2021 Denver Broncos season", "KUSA-TV", "The Fumble", "United Press International", "2016 San Diego Chargers season", "2023 Kansas City Chiefs season", "Shelby Harris", "Zach Wilson", "S. Robson Walton", "1987–88 NFL playoffs", "2023 Buffalo Bills season", "Trevor Siemian", "1986 New York Giants season", "Nike, Inc.", "2012 Denver Broncos season", "naming rights", "2019 Los Angeles Chargers season", "Goose Gonsoulin", "Jay Cutler", "Baltimore Colts", "Von Miller", "1997–98 NFL playoffs", "1996 Denver Broncos season", "Forbes", "Condoleezza Rice", "Paul Smith (defensive end)", "Lou Holtz", "Simon Fletcher (American football)", "Pro-Football-Reference.com", "Jarrett Stidham", "Denver Broncos Ring of Fame", "BuzzFeed", "Atlanta Falcons", "placekicker", "Trevor Pryce", "Miles (mascot)", "Tim Tebow", "2015 Denver Broncos season", "Missouri Tigers football", "Kyle Fuller", "Miami Dolphins", "Phillip Lindsay", "2024 Cincinnati Bengals season", "Placekicker", "The Wall Street Journal", "Patrick Surtain II", "Brian Griese", "2009 Denver Broncos season", "2016 NFL draft", "Pro Football Reference", "KDVR", "Mellody Hobson", "Rocky Mountain", "Tom Nalen", "Terrell Davis", "Super Bowl", "1987 Denver Broncos season", "Kendall Hinton", "Major League Baseball", "1986–87 NFL playoffs", "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday", "Alabama Crimson Tide football", "Pete McCulley", "KCNC-TV", "1999 Denver Broncos season", "North Carolina Tar Heels football", "cornerback", "Rick Upchurch", "AFL–NFL merger", "Gene Mingo", "Urban Meyer", "1960 Boston Patriots season", "Steve Foley (defensive back)", "Bobby Petrino", "1981 Denver Broncos season", "Rubin Carter (American football)", "Brandon Marshall", "Henry J. Kaiser", "David Diaz-Infante", "1996 Jacksonville Jaguars season", "2016 NFL season", "1997 Denver Broncos season", "Eric Studesville", "2002 NFL draft", "Return specialist", "Sammy Winder", "2013 Denver Broncos season", "Stanford Cardinal football", "iHeartMedia", "John Elway", "Minor League Baseball", "1994 Denver Broncos season", "The Drive (American football)", "2012 New York Jets season", "Englewood, Colorado", "NFL on Thanksgiving Day", "Carrie Walton Penner", "Bernie Kosar", "Super Bowl XL", "Super Bowl 50", "Bo Nix", "2014–15 NFL playoffs", "Buffalo Bills", "Shannon Sharpe", "Pro Bowl", "throwback uniforms", "2008 Denver Broncos season", "Jacksonville Jaguars", "Super Bowl XII", "1977 Denver Broncos season", "Tommy Maddox", "Denver Broncos Cheerleaders", "1962 Denver Broncos season", "running back", "Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award", "Thursday Night Football", "2013 Seattle Seahawks season", "1987 Washington Redskins season", "Karl Mecklenburg", "Ronald Darby", "Dan Reeves", "Triumph Books", "2016 Houston Texans season", "linebacker", "1977–78 NFL playoffs", "Super Bowl XXXV", "The Denver Post", "American Football Conference", "2018 Denver Broncos season", "1960 Denver Broncos season", "2023 Denver Broncos season", "Cincinnati Bengals", "1998 Denver Broncos season", "Slate (magazine)", "2008 San Diego Chargers season", "Drew Lock", "Jerry Rosburg", "American Football League", "1998 Atlanta Falcons season", "2023 New York Jets season", "1992 Denver Broncos season", "undrafted free agent", "Matt Lepsis", "Super Bowl XXIV", "1967 Detroit Lions season", "Green Bay Packers", "1983 Denver Broncos season", "Spanish language", "2010 Denver Broncos season", "Mike Munchak", "1997 Green Bay Packers season", "Mork & Mindy", "1972 Denver Broncos season", "Dave Logan (American football)", "1967 AFL season", "Mark Sanchez", "2011 Denver Broncos season", "Joe Ellis", "KKFN", "Brock Osweiler", "Kansas City Chiefs", "Center fielder", "2023 Los Angeles Chargers season", "Rocky Mountains", "1973 Denver Broncos season", "Bye (sports)", "Randy Gradishar", "Robin Williams", "2011 New England Patriots season", "2013 New England Patriots season", "2015 Pittsburgh Steelers season", "Justin Simmons (American football)", "Ed McCaffrey", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Guard (gridiron football)", "John Fox (American football)", "2000 Denver Broncos season", "quarterback", "Cornerback", "Park County, Colorado", "2014 Indianapolis Colts season", "owned-and-operated station", "Entravision", "Empower Field at Mile High", "Aaron Rodgers", "Noah Fant" ]
8,123
D
D, or d, is the fourth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is dee (pronounced ), plural dees. ==History== The Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door. There are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented ; in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was archaic but still retained. The equivalent Greek letter is delta, Δ. ==Use in writing systems== ===English=== In English, generally represents the voiced alveolar plosive . The letter is the tenth most frequently used in the English language. ===Other languages=== In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, generally represents the voiced alveolar or voiced dental plosive . In the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound in northern dialects or in southern dialects. In Fijian, it represents a prenasalized stop . In some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, represents an unaspirated , while represents an aspirated . Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo and the pinyin transliteration of Mandarin. ===Other systems=== In the International Phonetic Alphabet, represents the voiced alveolar plosive . ==Other uses== In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, D is a number that corresponds to the number 13 in decimal (base 10) counting. The Roman numeral D represents the number 500. Unit prefix d, meaning one tenth. D is the grade below C but above E/F in the school grading system. D is the international vehicle registration code for Germany (also .de as its top-level domain). In Cantonese: Because the lack of Unicode CJK support in early computer systems, many Hong Kongers and Singaporeans used the capitalized D to represent (). In the Gregory-Aland system for cataloging Biblical manuscripts, D can refer to documents in the Western text-type tradition, either Codex Bezae or Codex Claromontanus. d. is the standard abbreviation for the Penny (British pre-decimal coin) (from ) ==Related characters== ===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet=== Ɖ ɖ : African D Ð ð : Latin letter Eth D with diacritics: Đ đ Ꟈ ꟈ Ɗ ɗ Ḋ ḋ Ḍ ḍ Ḑ ḑ Ḓ ḓ Ď ď Ḏ ḏ Phonetic symbols related to D: Symbols related to D used in the IPA: Symbols related to D used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet: Superscript IPA letters: 𐞋 𐞌 𐞍 Other phonetic symbols related to D: ȡ ᵭ ᶁ ᶑ Ꝺ ꝺ: Insular D is used in various phonetic contexts ===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets=== 𐤃: Semitic letter Dalet, from which the following symbols originally derive: Δ δ: Greek letter Delta, from which the following symbols originally derive: : Coptic letter Delta Д д: Cyrillic letter De 𐌃: Old Italic D, the ancestor of modern Latin D : Runic letter dagaz, which is possibly a descendant of Old Italic D : Runic letter thurisaz, another possible descendant of Old Italic D : Gothic letter daaz, which derives from Greek Delta ===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations=== ₫: Đồng sign ⅆ: Unicode symbol for d used as derivative symbol ∂: the partial derivative symbol, \partial ==Other representations== ===Computing === The Latin letters and have Unicode encodings and . These are the same code points as those used in ASCII and ISO 8859. There are also precomposed character encodings for and with diacritics, for most of those listed above; the remainder are produced using combining diacritics. Variant forms of the letter have unique code points for specialist use: the alphanumeric symbols set in mathematics and science, plosive sounds in linguistics and halfwidth and fullwidth forms for legacy CJK font compatibility. ===Other=== In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'd' is indicated by signing with the right hand held with the index and thumb extended and slightly curved, and the tip of the thumb and finger held against the extended index of the left hand.
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8,124
Delta (letter)
Delta ( ; uppercase Δ, lowercase δ; , délta, ) is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of four. It was derived from the Phoenician letter dalet 𐤃. Letters that come from delta include the Latin D and the Cyrillic Д. A river delta (originally, the delta of the Nile River) is named so because its shape approximates the triangular uppercase letter delta. Contrary to a popular legend, this use of the word delta was not coined by Herodotus. ==Pronunciation== In Ancient Greek, delta represented a voiced dental plosive . In Modern Greek, it represents a voiced dental fricative , like the "th" in "that" or "this" (while in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as ντ). Delta is romanized as d or dh. ==Uppercase== The uppercase letter Δ is used to denote: Change of any changeable quantity, in mathematics and the sciences (in particular, the difference operator); for example, in \frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}=\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x} , the average change of y per unit x (i.e. the change of y over the change of x). Delta is the initial letter of the Greek word , diaphorá, "difference". (The small Latin letter d is used in much the same way for the notation of derivatives and differentials, which also describe change by infinitesimal amounts.) The Laplace operator: \Delta f=\sum_{i=1}^n{\frac{\partial^2f}{\partial x_i^2}}. The discriminant of a polynomial equation, especially the quadratic equation: \Delta=b^2-4ac. The area of a triangle: \Delta=\tfrac{1}{2}ab\sin{C}. The symmetric difference of two sets. A macroscopic change in the value of a variable in mathematics or science. Uncertainty in a physical variable as seen in the uncertainty principle. An interval of possible values for a given quantity. Any of the delta particles in particle physics. The determinant of the matrix of coefficients of a set of linear equations (see Cramer's rule). That an associated locant number represents the location of a covalent bond in an organic compound, the position of which is variant between isomeric forms. A simplex, simplicial complex, or convex hull. In chemistry, the addition of heat in a reaction. In legal shorthand, it represents a defendant. In the financial markets, one of the Greeks, describes the rate of change of an option price for a given change in the underlying benchmark. A major seventh chord in jazz music notation. In genetics, it can stand for a gene deletion (e.g. the CCR5-Δ32, a 32 nucleotide/bp deletion within CCR5). The American Dental Association cites it (together with omicron for "odont") as the symbol of dentistry. The anonymous signature of James David Forbes. Determinacy (having a definite truth-value) in philosophical logic. In mathematics, the symbol ≜ (delta over equals) is occasionally used to define a new variable or function. ==Lowercase== The lowercase letter δ (or 𝛿) can be used to denote: A change in the value of a variable in calculus. A functional derivative in functional calculus. The (ε, δ)-definition of limits, in mathematics and more specifically in calculus. The Kronecker delta in mathematics. The central difference for a function. The degree of a vertex in graph theory. The Dirac delta function in mathematics. The transition function in automata. Deflection in engineering mechanics. The force of interest in actuarial science. The chemical shift of nuclear magnetic resonance in chemistry. The relative electronegativity of different atoms in a molecule, δ− being more electronegative than δ+. Text requiring deletion in proofreading; the usage is said to date back to classical times. In some of the manuscripts written by Dr. John Dee, the character of delta is used to represent Dee. A subunit of the F1 sector of the F-ATPase. The declination of an object in the equatorial coordinate system of astronomy. The dividend yield in the Black–Scholes option pricing formula. Ratios of environmental isotopes, such as 18O/16O and D/1H from water are displayed using delta notation – δ18O and δD, respectively. The rate of depreciation of the aggregate capital stock of an economy in an exogenous growth model in macroeconomics. In a system that exhibits electrical reactance, the angle between voltage and current. Partial charge in chemistry. The maximum birefringence of a crystal in optical mineralogy. An Old Irish voiced dental or alveolar fricative of uncertain articulation, the ancestor of the sound represented by Modern Irish dh. Silver ratio ==Unicode== ( in TeX) ( in TeX)
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8,125
Digamma
Digamma or wau (uppercase: Ϝ, lowercase: ϝ, numeral: ϛ) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It originally stood for the sound but it has remained in use principally as a Greek numeral for 6. Whereas it was originally called waw or wau, its most common appellation in classical Greek is digamma; as a numeral, it was called episēmon during the Byzantine era and is now known as stigma after the Byzantine ligature combining σ-τ as ϛ. Digamma or wau was part of the original archaic Greek alphabet as initially adopted from Phoenician. Like its model, Phoenician waw, it represented the voiced labial-velar approximant and stood in the 6th position in the alphabet between epsilon and zeta. It is the consonantal doublet of the vowel letter upsilon (), which was also derived from waw but was placed near the end of the Greek alphabet. Digamma or wau is in turn the ancestor of the Latin letter F. As an alphabetic letter, it is attested in archaic and dialectal ancient Greek inscriptions until the classical period. The shape of the letter went through a development from through , , , to or , which at that point was conflated with the σ-τ ligature . In modern print, a distinction is made between the letter in its original alphabetic role as a consonant sign, which is rendered as "Ϝ" or its modern lowercase variant "ϝ", and the numeric symbol, which is represented by "ϛ". In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the digraph . ==Greek w== ===Mycenaean Greek=== The sound existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in Linear B and archaic Greek inscriptions using digamma. It is also confirmed by the Hittite name of Troy, Wilusa, corresponding to the Greek name *Wilion, classical (Ilium). ===Classical Greek=== The sound was lost at various times in various dialects, mostly before the classical period. In Ionic, had probably disappeared before Homer's epics were written down (7th century BC), but its former presence can be detected in many cases because its omission left the meter defective. For example, the word ("(tribal) king, lord, (military) leader"), found in the Iliad, would have originally been (and is attested in this form in Mycenaean Greek) and the word ("wine"), are sometimes used in the meter where a word starting with a consonant would be expected. Further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that was earlier (compare Cretan Doric and Latin , which is the origin of English wine). There have been editions of the Homeric epics where the wau was re-added, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these have largely fallen out of favour. Aeolian was the dialect that kept the sound longest. In discussions by ancient Greek grammarians of the Hellenistic era, the letter is therefore often described as a characteristic Aeolian feature. Loanwords that entered Greek before the loss of lost that sound when Greek did. For instance, Oscan ('land of the male calves', compare 'yearling, male calf') gave rise to the Greek word . The Adriatic tribe of the Veneti was called in . In loanwords that entered the Greek language after the drop of , the phoneme was once again registered, compare for example the spelling of for vates. ===Pamphylian digamma=== In some local (epichoric) alphabets, a variant glyph of the letter digamma existed that resembled modern Cyrillic И. In one local alphabet, that of Pamphylia, this variant form existed side by side with standard digamma as two distinct letters. It has been surmised that in this dialect the sound may have changed to labiodental in some environments. The F-shaped letter may have stood for the new sound, while the special И-shaped form signified those positions where the old sound was preserved. ==Numeral== Digamma/wau remained in use in the system of Greek numerals attributed to Miletus, where it stood for the number 6, reflecting its original place in the sequence of the alphabet. It was one of three letters that were kept in this way in addition to the 24 letters of the classical alphabet, the other two being koppa (ϙ) for 90, and sampi (ϡ) for 900. During their history in handwriting in late antiquity and the Byzantine era, all three of these symbols underwent several changes in shape, with digamma ultimately taking the form of "ϛ". It has remained in use as a numeral in Greek to the present day, in contexts comparable to those where Latin numerals would be used in English, for instance in regnal numbers of monarchs or in enumerating chapters in a book, although in practice the letter sequence ΣΤ΄ is much more common. ==Glyph development== ===Epigraphy=== Digamma was derived from Phoenician waw, which was shaped roughly like a Y (). Of the two Greek reflexes of waw, digamma retained the alphabetic position, but had its shape modified to , while the upsilon retained the original shape but was placed in a new alphabetic position. Early Crete had an archaic form of digamma somewhat closer to the original Phoenician, , or a variant with the stem bent sidewards (). The shape , during the archaic period, underwent a development parallel to that of epsilon (which changed from to "E", with the arms becoming orthogonal and the lower end of the stem being shed off). For digamma, this led to the two main variants of classical "F" and square . The latter of these two shapes became dominant when used as a numeral, with "F" only very rarely employed in this function. However, in Athens, both of these were avoided in favour of a number of alternative numeral shapes (, , , , , ). === Early handwriting === In cursive handwriting, the square-C form developed further into a rounded form resembling a "C" (found in papyrus manuscripts as , on coins sometimes as ). It then developed a downward tail at the end (, ) and finally adopted a shape like a Latin "s" () These cursive forms are also found in stone inscriptions in late antiquity. The στ-ligature had become common in minuscule handwriting from the 9th century onwards. Both closed () and open () forms were subsequently used without distinction both for the ligature and for the numeral. The ligature took on the name of "stigma" or "sti", and the name stigma is today applied to it both in its textual and in the numeral function. The association between its two functions as a numeral and as a sign for "st" became so strong that in modern typographic practice in Greece, whenever the ϛʹ sign itself is not available, the letter sequences στʹ or ΣΤʹ are used instead for the number 6. === Typography === In western typesetting during the modern era, the numeral symbol was routinely represented by the same character as the stigma ligature (ϛ). In normal text, this ligature together with numerous others continued to be used widely until the early nineteenth century, following the style of earlier minuscule handwriting, but ligatures then gradually dropped out of use. The stigma ligature was among those that survived longest, but it too became obsolete in print after the mid-19th century. Today it is used only to represent the numeric digamma, and never to represent the sequence στ in text. Along with the other special numeric symbols koppa and sampi, numeric digamma/stigma normally has no distinction between uppercase and lowercase forms, (while other alphabetic letters can be used as numerals in both cases). Distinct uppercase versions were occasionally used in the 19th century. Several different shapes of uppercase stigma can be found, with the lower end either styled as a small curved S-like hook (), or as a straight stem, the latter either with a serif () or without one (). An alternative uppercase stylization in some twentieth-century fonts is , visually a ligature of Roman-style uppercase C and T. The characters used for numeric digamma/stigma are distinguished in modern print from the character used to represent the ancient alphabetic digamma, the letter for the [w] sound. This is rendered in print by a Latin "F", or sometimes a variant of it specially designed to fit in typographically with Greek (Ϝ). It has a modern lowercase form (ϝ) that typically differs from Latin "f" by having two parallel horizontal strokes like the uppercase character, with the vertical stem often being somewhat slanted to the right or curved, and usually descending below the baseline. This character is used in Greek epigraphy to transcribe the text of ancient inscriptions that contain "Ϝ", and in linguistics and historical grammar when describing reconstructed proto-forms of Greek words that contained the sound . ==Glyph confusion== Throughout much of its history, the shape of digamma/stigma has often been very similar to that of other symbols, with which it can easily be confused. In ancient papyri, the cursive C-shaped form of numeric digamma is often indistinguishable from the C-shaped ("lunate") form that was then the common form of sigma. The similarity is still found today, since both the modern stigma (ϛ) and modern final sigma (ς) look identical or almost identical in most fonts; both are historically continuations of their ancient C-shaped forms with the addition of the same downward flourish. If the two characters are distinguished in print, the top loop of stigma tends to be somewhat larger and to extend farther to the right than that of final sigma. The two characters are, however, always distinguishable from the context in modern usage, both in numeric notation and in text: the final form of sigma never occurs in numerals (the number 200 being always written with the medial sigma, σ), and in normal Greek text the sequence "στ" can never occur word-finally. The medieval s-like shape of digamma () has the same shape as a contemporary abbreviation for ("and"). Yet another case of glyph confusion exists in the printed uppercase forms, this time between stigma and the other numeral, koppa (90). In ancient and medieval handwriting, koppa developed from through , , to . The uppercase forms and can represent either koppa or stigma. Frequent confusion between these two values in contemporary printing was already noted by some commentators in the eighteenth century. The ambiguity continues in modern fonts, many of which continue to have glyph similar to for either koppa or stigma. ==Names== The symbol has been called by a variety of different names, referring either to its alphabetic or its numeral function or both. ===Wau=== Wau (variously rendered as vau, waw or similarly in English) is the original name of the alphabetic letter for in ancient Greek. In later Greek, where both the letter and the sound it represented had become inaccessible, the name is rendered as or . In the 19th century, vau in English was a common name for the symbol ϛ in its numerical function, used by authors who distinguished it both from the alphabetic "digamma" and from ϛ as a στ ligature. ===Digamma=== The name digamma was used in ancient Greek and is the most common name for the letter in its alphabetic function today. It literally means "double gamma" and is descriptive of the original letter's shape, which looked like a Γ (gamma) placed on top of another. ===Episemon=== The name episēmon was used for the numeral symbol during the Byzantine era and is still sometimes used today, either as a name specifically for digamma/stigma, or as a generic term for the whole group of extra-alphabetic numeral signs (digamma, koppa and sampi). The Greek word "", from (epi-, "on") and (sēma, "sign"), literally means "a distinguishing mark", "a badge", but is also the neuter form of the related adjective "" ("distinguished", "remarkable"). This word was connected to the number "six" through early Christian mystical numerology. According to an account of the teachings of the heretic Marcus given by the church father Irenaeus, the number six was regarded as a symbol of Christ, and was hence called "" ("the outstanding number"); likewise, the name (Jesus), having six letters, was "" ("the outstanding name"), and so on. The sixth-century treatise About the Mystery of the Letters, which also links the six to Christ, calls the number sign to Episēmon throughout. The same name is still found in a fifteenth-century arithmetical manual by the Greek mathematician Nikolaos Rabdas. It is also found in a number of western European accounts of the Greek alphabet written in Latin during the early Middle Ages. One of them is the work De loquela per gestum digitorum, a didactic text about arithmetics attributed to the Venerable Bede, where the three Greek numerals for 6, 90 and 900 are called "episimon", "cophe" and "enneacosis" respectively. From Beda, the term was adopted by the seventeenth century humanist Joseph Justus Scaliger. However, misinterpreting Beda's reference, Scaliger applied the term episēmon not as a name proper for digamma/6 alone, but as a cover term for all three numeral letters. From Scaliger, the term found its way into modern academic usage in this new meaning, of referring to complementary numeral symbols standing outside the alphabetic sequence proper, in Greek and other similar scripts. ===Gabex or Gamex=== In one remark in the context of a biblical commentary, the 4th century scholar Ammonius of Alexandria is reported to have mentioned that the numeral symbol for 6 was called gabex by his contemporaries. The same reference in Ammonius has alternatively been read as gam(m)ex by some modern authors. Ammonius as well as later theologians discuss the symbol in the context of explaining the apparent contradiction and variant readings between the gospels in assigning the death of Jesus either to the "third hour" or "sixth hour", arguing that the one numeral symbol could easily have been substituted for the other through a scribal error. ===Stigma=== The name "stigma" () was originally a common Greek noun meaning "a mark, dot, puncture" or generally "a sign", from the verb στίζω ("to puncture"). It had an earlier writing-related special meaning, being the name for a dot as a punctuation mark, used for instance to mark shortness of a syllable in the notation of rhythm. It was then co-opted as a name specifically for the στ ligature, evidently because of the acrophonic value of its initial st- as well as the analogy with the name of sigma. Other names coined according to the same analogical principle are sti or stau. ==Unicode==
[ "Doric Greek", "zeta", "Troy", "Latin", "upsilon", "vates", "gamma", "acrophony", "sigma", "numerology", "Marcus (Marcosian)", "About the Mystery of the Letters", "anax", "sigma (letter)", "Linear B", "Latin alphabet", "Greek ligature", "Archaic Greek alphabets", "Homer", "ligature (typography)", "Adriatic Veneti", "Hittite language", "Miletus", "Aeolic Greek", "modern Greek", "tau", "6 (number)", "Ancient Greek language", "Nikolaos Rabdas", "Mycenean Greek", "Ammonius of Alexandria (Christian philosopher)", "Greek numeral", "Phoenician alphabet", "iota", "Irenaeus", "meter (poetry)", "sampi", "voiced labial-velar approximant", "epsilon", "Gortyn code", "minuscule Greek", "F (letter)", "acrophonic", "Number of the beast", "stigma (letter)", "koppa (letter)", "regnal number", "Greek alphabet", "Cambridge University Press", "Renaissance humanism", "Wilusa", "inscription", "tribal king", "baseline (typography)", "Pamphylia", "epigraphy", "И", "Ionic Greek", "English language", "Venerable Bede", "Greek numerals", "Joseph Justus Scaliger", "Waw (letter)", "Iliad", "Oscan", "History of Crete" ]
8,126
Dose
Dose or Dosage may refer to: ==Music== Dose (Gov't Mule album), 1998 Dose (Latin Playboys album) Dosage (album), by the band Collective Soul "Dose" (song), a 2018 song by Ciara "Dose", song by Filter from the album Short Bus ==Science== Dose (biochemistry), a measured quantity of a medicine, nutrient, or pathogen which is delivered as a unit. Dosage (pharmacology), prescribed regimen of medication administration, including amount, frequency, and duration Dosage form, a mixture of active and inactive components used to administer a medication Dosing, feeding chemicals or medicines when used in small quantities Effective dose (pharmacology), a dose or concentration of a drug that produces a biological response Absorbed dose, a measure of energy deposited in matter from ionizing radiation Equivalent dose, a measure of cancer/heritable health risk in tissue from ionizing radiation Effective dose (radiation), a measure of cancer/heritable health risk to the whole body from ionizing radiation Median lethal dose, a measure of the lethal dose of a chemical agent, toxin, radiation, or pathogen DOSE, an acronym for dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, and endorphins, the four main chemicals associated with happiness in humans ==Other== Dosa or dose, a thin pancake or crepe originating from South India Dose (magazine), a free daily Canadian magazine Döse, town in Lower Saxony, Germany Gerd Dose (1942–2010), professor of English literature at the University of Hamburg
[ "Dose (Latin Playboys album)", "dopamine", "Gerd Dose", "serotonin", "Effective dose (radiation)", "Effective dose (pharmacology)", "Dosage (pharmacology)", "Equivalent dose", "Effective dose (disambiguation)", "Dose (song)", "oxytocin", "Absorbed dose", "Dosa (food)", "Overdose (disambiguation)", "Dose (magazine)", "Double Dose (disambiguation)", "Dose (biochemistry)", "Dosage (album)", "endorphins", "Short Bus (album)", "Dose (Gov't Mule album)", "Median lethal dose", "Döse", "Dosage form", "Dosing" ]
8,127
Dilbert
Dilbert is an American comic strip written and illustrated by Scott Adams, first published on April 16, 1989. It is known for its satirical office humor about a white-collar, micromanaged office with engineer Dilbert as the title character. It has led to dozens of books, an animated television series, a video game, and hundreds of themed merchandise items. Dilbert Future and The Joy of Work are among the best-selling books in the series. In 1997, Adams received the National Cartoonists Society Reuben Award and the Newspaper Comic Strip Award for his work. Dilbert appears online and as of 2013 was published daily in 2,000 newspapers in 65 countries and 25 languages. In 2023, Dilbert was dropped by numerous independent newspapers as well as its distributor, Andrews McMeel Syndication (which owns GoComics, from where the comic was also removed), after Adams published a video where he called Black Americans that disagreed with "It's okay to be white" a "hate group" and said white Americans should "get the hell away from" them. The video was widely described by sources such as The Economist and Reuters as containing "racist comments" and being a "racist rant". The following month, Adams relaunched the strip as a webcomic on Locals under the name Daily Dilbert Reborn. == Publication history == Dilbert began syndication by United Feature Syndicate (a division of United Media) in April 1989. On June 3, 2010, United Media sold its licensing arm, along with the rights to Dilbert, to Iconix Brand Group. This led to Dilbert leaving United Media. In late December 2010, it was announced that Dilbert would move to Universal Uclick (a division of Andrews McMeel Universal, known as Andrews McMeel Syndication) beginning in June 2011, where it remained until 2023. In September 2022, Lee Enterprises ceased running the strip in what Scott Adams reported as 77 newspapers as the publisher declined to include the strip in a new comics page that was instituted throughout the company. He said that he had received complaints about Dilbert mocking the environmental, social, and corporate governance movement, but that he was not sure if that was the reason for the cancellation. The San Francisco Chronicle, owned by Hearst Media dropped Dilbert in October 2022 saying the move came after strips joked that reparations for slavery could be claimed by underperforming office workers. In February 2023, hundreds of newspapers owned by media conglomerates including Andrews McMeel Syndication dropped the comic in response to a YouTube video published by Adams on February 22, 2023, during which he advised white people to "get the hell away from black people" following publication of a Rasmussen Reports poll which Adams said showed that African-American people collectively form a "hate group". The poll found that 53% of African-Americans agree with the statement "It's okay to be White", while 26% disagreed, and 21% responded they were "not sure". Gannett, including its USA Today network (including the Detroit Free Press, The Indianapolis Star, The Cincinnati Enquirer, and The Arizona Republic) also dropped the strip following Adams's comments. Such major newspapers as The Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, The Seattle Times, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, and The Plain Dealer all ceased to syndicate Dilbert and published editorials denouncing Adams. The Los Angeles Times also stated it had removed four Dilbert cartoons from its pages in the preceding nine months when they did not meet the newspaper's standards. == Themes == The comic strip originally revolved around the character Dilbert and his "pet" dog Dogbert in their home. Many early plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature, bizarre inventions, and megalomaniacal ambitions. Later, the setting of most of the strips was changed to Dilbert's workplace and the strip began to satirize technology, workplace, and company issues. The strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience. Adams said that switching the setting from Dilbert's home to his office was "when the strip really started to take off". The workplace location is Silicon Valley. Dilbert portrays corporate culture as a Kafkaesque world of bureaucracy for its own sake, where office politics preclude productivity, employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and busy work is praised. Much of the humor involves characters making ridiculous decisions in reaction to mismanagement. ==Characters== === Dilbert === The strip's central character, Dilbert is depicted as a technically minded engineer. Until October 2014, he was usually depicted wearing a white dress shirt, black trousers and a red-and-black striped tie that inexplicably curved upward. After October 13, 2014, his standard apparel changed to a red polo shirt with a name badge on a lanyard around his neck. He is a skilled engineer but has poor social and romantic lives. === Pointy-Haired Boss (PHB) === Dilbert's boss, known only as the Pointy-Haired Boss, is the unnamed, oblivious manager of the engineering division of Dilbert's company. Adams states that he never named him so that people can imagine him to be their boss. In earlier strips he was depicted as a stereotypical late-middle-aged balding middle manager with jowls; it was not until later that he developed his signature pointy hair and the jowls disappeared. He is hopelessly incompetent at management, and he often tries to compensate for his lack of skills with countless group therapy sessions and business strategies that rarely bear fruit. He does not understand technical issues but always tries to disguise this ineptitude, usually by using buzzwords he also does not understand. The Boss treats his employees alternately with enthusiasm or neglect; he often uses them to his own ends regardless of the consequences to them. Adams himself wrote that "he's not sadistic, just uncaring". His level of intelligence varies from near-vegetative to perceptive and clever, depending on the strip's comic needs. His utter lack of consistent business ethics, however, is perfectly consistent. His brother is a demon named "Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light", and according to Adams, the pointy hair is intended to remind one of devil horns. === Wally === One of the longest-serving engineers, Wally was originally a worker trying to get fired to obtain a large severance package. He hates work and avoids it whenever he can. He often carries a cup of coffee, calmly sipping from it even in the midst of chaos or office-shaking revelations. Wally is extremely cynical. He is even more socially inept than Dilbert (though far less self-aware of the fact). Like the Pointy-Haired Boss, Wally is utterly lacking in ethics and will take advantage of any situation to maximize his personal gain while doing the least possible amount of honest work. Until the change to "business dorky" wear of a polo shirt, Wally was invariably portrayed wearing a short sleeved dress shirt and tie. Adams has stated that Wally was based on a Pacific Bell coworker of his who was interested in a generous employee buy-out program—for the company's worst employees. This had the effect of causing this man—whom Adams describes as "one of the more brilliant people I've met"—to work hard at being incompetent, rude, and generally poor at his job to qualify for the buy-out program. Adams has said that this inspired the basic laziness and amorality of Wally's character. Despite these personality traits, Wally is accepted as part of Dilbert, Ted, Alice, and Asok's clique. Although his relationship with Alice is often antagonistic and Dilbert occasionally denies being his friend, their actions show at least a certain acceptance of him. For Asok, Wally serves as something of a guru of counterintuitive "wisdom". Wally exasperates Dilbert at times but is also sometimes the only other co-worker who understands Dilbert's frustrations with company idiocy and bureaucracy. While Dilbert rages at the dysfunction of the policies of the company, Wally has learned to use the dysfunction to cloak, even justify, his laziness. === Alice === One of the more competent and highest paid engineers. She is often frustrated at work because she does not get proper recognition, which she believes is because she is female. She has a quick, often violent temper, sometimes putting her "Fist of Death" to use, even with the Pointy-haired Boss. Alice is based on a woman that Adams worked with named Anita, who is described as sharing Alice's "pink suit, fluffy hair, technical proficiency, coffee obsession, and take-no-crap attitude." === Dogbert === Dilbert's anthropomorphic pet dog is the smartest dog on Earth. Dogbert is a megalomaniac intellectual dog, planning to one day conquer the world. He once succeeded, but became bored with the ensuing peace, and quit. Often seen in high-ranking consultant or technical support jobs, he constantly abuses his power and fools the management of Dilbert's company, though considering the intelligence of the company's management in general and Dilbert's boss in particular, this is not very hard to do. He also enjoys pulling scams on unsuspecting and usually dull customers to steal their money. Despite Dogbert's cynical exterior, he has been known to pull his master out of some tight jams. Dogbert's nature as a pet was more emphasized during the earlier years of the strip; as the strip progressed, references to his acting like a dog became less common, although he still wags his tail when he perpetrates his scams. When an older Dilbert arrives while time-traveling from the future, he refers to Dogbert as "majesty", indicating that Dogbert will one day indeed rule the world again, and make worshipping him retroactive so he could boss around time travelers. === Catbert === Catbert is the "evil director of human resources" in the Dilbert comic strip. He was supposed to be a one-time character but resonated with readers so well that Adams brought him back as the HR director. Catbert's origins with the company are that he was hired by Dogbert. Dogbert hired him because he wanted an H.R. Director that appeared cute while secretly downsizing employees. === Asok === A young intern, Asok works very hard but does not always get proper recognition. He is intensely intelligent but naive about corporate life; the shattering of his optimistic illusions becomes frequent comic fodder. He is Indian and graduated from the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT). The other workers, especially the Boss, often unwittingly trample on his cultural beliefs. On the occasions when Asok mentions this, he is normally ignored. His test scores (a perfect 1600 on the old SAT) and his IQ of 240 show that he is the smartest member of the engineering team. Nonetheless, he is often called upon by the Boss to do odd jobs, and in meetings his ideas are usually left hanging. He is also seen regularly at the lunch table with Wally and Dilbert, experiencing jarring realizations of the nature of corporate life. There are a few jokes about his psychic powers, which he learned at the IIT. Yet despite his intelligence, ethics, and mystical powers, Asok sometimes takes advice from Wally in the arts of laziness, and from Dilbert in surviving the office. As of February 7, 2014, Asok is officially gay, which never affects any storylines but merely commemorates a decision by the Indian Supreme Court to uphold a British-era anti-gay law, a decision which was overturned on September 6, 2018. === The CEO === The CEO of the company is bald and has an extremely tall, somewhat pointed cranium. He is only slightly less clueless than the Pointy-Haired Boss. === Ted === An engineer who is often seen hanging out with Wally. He is referenced by name more often in older comics, but he is still seen occasionally. He has been accepted into Dilbert's clique. He has been fired and killed numerous times (for example, being pushed down a flight of stairs and becoming possessed), in which case a new Ted is apparently hired. In addition to this, he is often promoted and given benefits over the other employees. Ted has a wife and children who are referenced multiple times and seen on at least one occasion. Adams refers to him as Ted the Generic Guy, because whenever he needs to fire or kill someone he uses Ted, but slowly over time Ted has become his own character. === Tina === Also known as Tina the Tech Writer. She has a less forceful personality than Alice and often seems to get taken advantage of by the other employees. Her job of writing technical directions for her company's software cannot be an easy one as none of their products work as designed. === Carol === Carol is the long-suffering secretary (she prefers the title Executive Assistant) to the Pointy-haired Boss. Her hair style is a much smaller triangle than that of Alice. She hates her job, but once told Dilbert that spending time with her family of a husband and two children is like fighting porcupines in a salt mine, although when the job gets to be too much she is glad to get back to them. === Dave === Introduced in 2022, Dave is the strip's first black character, although he identifies as white, messing up the company's ESG and diversity scores, possibly deliberately, as it is not clear whether he is serious or not. Dave has proved controversial, with at least one newspaper chain deciding not to run the strips featuring him. === Elbonia === Elbonia is a fictional non-specific under-developed country used when Adams wants "to involve a foreign country without hurting overseas sales". He says "People think I have some specific country in mind when I write about Elbonia, but I don't. It represents the view that Americans have of any country that doesn't have cable television—we think they all wear fur hats and wallow around waist-deep in mud". The entire country wears the same clothing and hats, and all men and women have full beards. They are occasionally bitter towards their wealthier western neighbors, but are quite happy to trade with them. The whole country is covered in mud, and has limited technology. Elbonia is located somewhere in the former Eastern Bloc: a strip dated April 2, 1990, refers to the "Tiny East European country of Elbonia." It is an extremely poor, fourth-world country that "has abandoned Communism". The national bird of Elbonia is the Frisbee. === Phil === The Pointy-Haired Boss's brother Phil. His full title is Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light & Supreme Ruler of Heck. His job, one step down from Satan, is to punish those who commit minor sins. His 'Pitch-Spoon' is feared by those who do. He is known to 'Darn to Heck' people who do things like using cell phones in the bathroom, steal office supplies, or those who simply do something annoying. In one strip, it was mentioned that being in Heck is not as bad as being in a cubicle. === Ratbert === Ratbert is an escaped lab rat who lives in Dilbert's house. Ratbert was not originally intended to be a regular, instead being part of a series of strips featuring a lab scientist's cruel experiments. The character is often seen in strips set in Dilbert's home and is frequently a foil / co-conspirator in Dogbert's machinations. ==Legacy== The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector led to the Dilbert character being used in many business magazines and publications, including several appearances on the cover of Fortune Magazine. Many newspapers ran the comic in their business section rather than in the regular comics section—similar to the way that Doonesbury is often featured in the editorial section, due to its pointed commentary. ===Criticism and parody=== Media analyst Norman Solomon and cartoonist Tom Tomorrow said Adams's caricatures of corporate culture seem to project empathy for white-collar workers, but the satire ultimately plays into the hands of upper corporate management itself. Solomon describes the characters of Dilbert as dysfunctional, none of whom occupies a position higher than middle management, and whose inefficiencies detract from general corporate values such as productivity and growth. Dilbert and his coworkers often find themselves baffled or victimized by the whims of managerial behavior, but they never seem to question it openly. Solomon cites the Xerox corporation's use of Dilbert strips and characters in internally distributed pamphlets: Adams responded in the February 2, 1998, strip and in his book The Joy of Work with a sarcastic reiteration. In 1997, Tom Vanderbilt wrote in a similar vein in The Baffler magazine: In 1998, Bill Griffith, creator of Zippy the Pinhead, chided Dilbert for crude drawings and simplistic humor. He wrote, Adams responded by creating two comic strips called Pippy the Ziphead, in which Dogbert creates a comic by "cramming as much artwork in [it] as possible so no one will notice there's only one joke", and it's "on the reader". Dilbert says that the strip is "nothing but a clown with a small head who says random things", and Dogbert responds that he is "maintaining [his] artistic integrity by creating a comic that no one will enjoy." In September of the same year, Griffith mocked Adams's Pippy the Ziphead with a strip of the same name drawn in a simplistic, stiff, Dilbert-like style set in an office setting and featuring the characters Zippy and Griffy retorting, "I sense a joke was delivered." "Yes. It was. My one joke. Ha." In the late 1990s, amateur cartoonist Karl Hörnell began submitting a comic strip to Savage Dragon creator Erik Larsen that parodied both Dilbert and the Image Comics series The Savage Dragon. This became a regular feature in the Savage Dragon comic book, titled The Savage Dragonbert and Hitler's Brainbert—"Hitler's Brainbert" being a loose parody of both Dogbert and the Savage Dragon villain identified as Adolf Hitler's disembodied, superpowered brain. The strip began as a specific parody of the comic book itself, set loosely within the office structure of Dilbert, with Hörnell doing an emulation of Adams's cartooning style. Its coining is explained in Dilbert Newsletter #6. The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms cow-orker and PHB. ===Management=== In 1997, Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to Logitech executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company's vice-chairman. He acted in much the way that he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing mission statements to broccoli soup. He convinced the executives to change their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group from "provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas" to "scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission-inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings". Adams has worked with companies to develop "dream" products for Dilbert and company. In 2001, he collaborated with design company IDEO to come up with the "perfect cubicle", since many of the Dilbert strips make fun of the standard cubicle desk and the environment that it creates. This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert's Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH). An energy-efficient building was the result, designed to prevent many of the little problems that seem to creep into a normal building. For instance, to save time spent buying and decorating a Christmas tree every year, the house has a large (yet unapparent) closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored from year to year. ===Webcomics=== In 1995, Dilbert was the first syndicated comic strip to be published for free on the Internet. Putting his email address in each Dilbert strip, Adams created a "direct channel to [his] customers", allowing him to modify the strip based on their feedback. In April 2008, United Media instituted an interactive feature on Dilbert.com, allowing fans to write speech bubbles. Adams has spoken positively about the change, saying, "This makes cartooning a competitive sport." ==Awards== Adams was named best international comic strip artist of 1995 in the Adamson Awards given by the Swedish Academy of Comic Art. Dilbert won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1997, and was also named the best syndicated strip of 1997 in the Harvey Awards. In 1998, Dilbert won the Max & Moritz Prize as best international comic strip. ==Media== ===Comic strip compilations=== ====Chronological==== ====Special==== ===Business books=== The Dilbert Principle Dogbert's Top Secret Management Handbook The Dilbert Future The Joy of Work Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel Slapped Together: The Dilbert Business Anthology (The Dilbert Principle, The Dilbert Future, and The Joy of Work, published together in one book) ===Other books=== Telling It Like It Isn't — 1996; You Don't Need Experience If You've Got Attitude — 1996; Access Denied: Dilbert's Quest for Love in the Nineties — 1996; Conversations With Dogbert — 1996; Work is a Contact Sport — 1997; The Boss: Nameless, Blameless and Shameless — 1997; The Dilbert Bunch — 1997; No You'd Better Watch Out — 1997 Please Don't Feed The Egos — 1997; Random Acts of Catness — 1998; You Can't Schedule Stupidity — 1998; Dilbert Meeting Book Exceeding Tech Limits — 1998; Trapped In A Dilbert World – Book Of Days — 1998; Work—The Wally Way — 1999; Alice in Blunderland — 1999; All Dressed Down And Nowhere To Go — 2002; Dilbert's Guide to the Rest of Your Life: Dispatches from Cubicleland — 2007; Dilbert Sudoku Comic Digest: 200 Puzzles Plus 50 Classic Dilbert Cartoons — 2008; Dilbert 2.0: 20 Years of Dilbert — 2008; 576 pages, ≈6500 strips, and Adams's notes from 1989 to 2008. ===Merchandise=== Corporate Shuffle by Richard Garfield — 1997; A Dilbert-branded card game similar to Wizards of the Coast's The Great Dalmuti and the drinking game President. The Dilberito, a vegan microwave burrito offered in four flavors: Barbecue with barbecue sauce, Garlic & Herb with sauce, Indian with mango chutney, and Mexican with salsa. Totally Nuts — 1998; A limited edition Ben & Jerry's ice cream flavor whose description was listed as: "Butter almond ice cream with roasted hazelnuts, praline pecans & white fudge coated almonds". A line of Dilbert mints that possessed the names Accomplish-mints, Appease-mints, Appoint-mints, Empower-mints, Harass-mints, Improve-mints, Invest-mints, Manage-mints, Pay-mints, Perform-mints, and Postpone-mints. Dilbert: the Board Game — 2006; by Hyperion Games; A Dilbert-branded board game that was named one of Games magazine's Top 100 Games Day-by-Day calendars featuring the comic strip are available every year. Dilbert: Escape From Cubeville — 2010; A Dilbert-branded board game released in the Dilbert store section of dilbert.com. ===Unaired pilot=== In 1997, a live action pilot for Dilbert was produced for UPN but never aired. The pilot featured an actor who played Dilbert whom Adams describes as "fit for a starring role in a romantic film" as well as an animatronic Dogbert. This pilot is considered to be lost media, although the Library of Congress owns a copy. ===Animated series=== Dilbert was adapted into a UPN animated television series starring Daniel Stern as Dilbert, Chris Elliott as Dogbert, and Kathy Griffin as Alice. The series ran for two seasons from January 25, 1999, to July 25, 2000. The first season centered around the creation of a new product called the "Gruntmaster 6000". It was critically acclaimed and won an Emmy Award, leading to its renewal for a second season. The second season did away with the serial format and was composed entirely of standalone episodes, many of which shifted focus away from the workplace and involved absurdist plots such as Wally being mistaken for a religious leader ("The Shroud of Wally") and Dilbert being accused of mass murder ("The Trial"). The second season's two-episode finale included Dilbert getting pregnant with the child of a cow, a hillbilly, robot DNA, "several dozen engineers", an elderly billionaire, and an alien, eventually ending up in a custody battle with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the Judge. When UPN declined to renew the series for its third season, Adams stated, "I lost my TV show for being white when UPN decided it would focus on an African-American audience." Adams wrote on Twitter in 2020. "That was the third job I lost for being white. The other two in corporate America." The four-disc DVD called "Dilbert: The Complete Series" was released and contains thirty episodes. The first disc contains episodes 1–7, the second disc contains episodes 8–13, the third disc contains episodes 14–21, and the fourth disc contains episodes 22–30. ===Animated web shorts=== On April 7, 2008, dilbert.com presented its first Dilbert animation. The new Dilbert animations are animated versions of original comic strips produced by RingTales and animated by Powerhouse Animation Studios. The animation videos run for around 30 seconds each and are added every weekday. The comic shorts have a different voice cast than the television series, with Washington-based radio personality Dan Roberts providing the voice of the title character. On December 10, 2009, the RingTales produced animations were made available as a calendar application for mobile devices. ===Cancelled film adaptation=== As early as 2006, Adams and United Media had been struggling to get a film adaptation of the comic strip off the ground. Adams envisioned the idea as a live-action film, with Dogbert and Catbert as animated characters. Film director Chris Columbus was in talks to direct the film in 2007, with Tariq Jalil on board as producer. In May 2010, it was announced that a live-action Dilbert film was in development. Ken Kwapis was announced as director, fresh off the heels of He's Just Not That Into You and directing several episodes for NBC's The Office. Jahil remained as producer, with Phoenix Entertainment and Intrigue Entertainment joining the producing team. But in December 2017, in an interview by The Mercury News, Adams said that it would be impossible to make the film after his public support of Donald Trump. ===Video games=== Dilbert's Desktop Games — 1997; a video game designed for the PC. Young Dilbert in Hi-Tech Hijinks — 1997; A Dilbert-branded computer game aimed at teaching young children about technology. Dilberito — 2000; a Flash game. =="Drunken lemurs" case== In October 2007, the Catfish Bend Casino in Burlington, Iowa notified its staff that the casino would soon be closing for business. David Steward, an employee of seven years, then posted on an office bulletin board the Dilbert strip of October 26, 2007, that compared management decisions to those of "drunken lemurs". The casino called this "very offensive"; they identified him from a surveillance tape, fired him, and tried to prevent him from receiving unemployment benefits. However, an administrative law judge ruled in December 2007 that he would receive benefits, as his action was deemed as justified protest and not intentional misbehavior. Adams stated that it might be the first confirmed case of an employee being fired for posting a Dilbert cartoon. On February 20, 2008, the first of a series of Dilbert strips showed Wally being caught posting a comic strip that "compares managers to drunken lemurs". Adams later stated that fans of his work should "stick to posting Garfield strips, as no one gets fired for that." ==Guest artists== On February 29, 2016, Adams posted on his blog that he would be taking a six-week vacation. During that time, strips would be written by him but drawn by guest artists who work for Universal Uclick. Jake Tapper drew the strip on the week of May 23. The other guest artists were John Glynn, Eric Scott, Josh Shipley, Joel Friday, Donna Oatney and Brenna Thummler. Jake Tapper also drew the cartoon strip the week of September 23–28, 2019.
[ "Scott Adams", "The Wrap", "Communism", "National Cartoonists Society", "office humor", "It's okay to be white", "Chris Elliott", "Doonesbury", "Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel", "Iconix Brand Group", "Pointy-haired Boss", "nerd", "Washington (state)", "Gannett", "Dilbert 2.0: 20 Years of Dilbert", "Stone Cold Steve Austin", "title role", "The Plain Dealer", "White-collar worker", "Norman Solomon", "The Mercury News", "Wall Street", "Burlington, Iowa", "lemur", "American English", "San Francisco Chronicle", "Rasmussen Reports", "white people", "Dilberito", "hillbilly", "Los Angeles Times", "Chris Columbus (director)", "The Baffler", "Harvey Award", "Wally (Dilbert)", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "East European", "Donald Trump", "Jake Tapper", "Narcissism", "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution", "Plop: The Hairless Elbonian", "San Antonio Express-News", "United Media", "satire", "Extraterrestrial life", "Richard Garfield", "Dilbert (character)", "Locals", "Dogbert", "IQ", "Cathy", "Supreme Court of India", "webcomic", "management", "Garfield", "President (card game)", "wikt:duh", "The Arizona Republic", "Dilbert (TV series)", "Ben & Jerry's", "busy work", "CNN", "Kafkaesque", "micromanagement", "Environmental, social, and corporate governance", "IDEO", "United Feature Syndicate", "black people", "Washington Examiner", "Joe Zabel", "Indian people", "robot", "Bill Griffith", "password policy", "Indian Institutes of Technology", "Ken Kwapis", "SAT", "human resources", "Forbes", "The Seattle Times", "Games World of Puzzles", "office politics", "Reparations for slavery in the United States", "Erik Larsen", "unemployment benefits", "merchandising", "Powerhouse Animation Studios", "Xerox", "observational comedy", "middle management", "Emmy Award", "Andrews McMeel Publishing", "Zippy the Pinhead", "Universal Uclick", "surreal comedy", "media conglomerates", "Cubicle", "The Office (American TV series)", "Adolf Hitler", "Kathy Griffin", "comic strip", "The Dilbert Future", "Adamson Awards", "YouTube", "African-American", "Dilbert principle", "Library of Congress", "The Joy of Work", "Mother Jones (magazine)", "Max & Moritz Prize", "Dilbert's Desktop Games", "UPN", "Fortune (magazine)", "Atlanta Journal-Constitution", "The Economist", "The Indianapolis Star", "Lee Enterprises", "Associated Press", "Savage Dragon", "Flash game", "Hearst Media", "pejorative", "Andrews McMeel Universal", "bureaucracy", "Alice (Dilbert)", "Andrews McMeel Syndication", "Detroit Free Press", "Image Comics", "lost media", "Tom Tomorrow", "Tom Vanderbilt", "/Film", "Frisbee", "He's Just Not That Into You (film)", "Winston-Salem Journal", "The Washington Post", "Peter principle", "environmental, social, and corporate governance", "Silicon Valley", "Satire", "black Americans", "Strategic planning", "Daniel Stern (actor)", "Logitech", "Reuters", "Business Insider", "GoComics", "USA Today", "Reason (magazine)", "Least Developed Countries", "burrito", "NBC", "List of early webcomics", "Eastern Bloc", "Collider (website)", "The Cincinnati Enquirer" ]
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Dialect
A dialect is a variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. This may include dominant and standardized varieties as well as vernacular, unwritten, or non-standardized varieties, such as those used in developing countries or isolated areas. The non-standard dialects of a language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form. ==Standard and nonstandard dialects== A standard dialect, also known as a "standardized language", is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include any or all of the following: government recognition or designation; formal presentation in schooling as the "correct" form of a language; informal monitoring of everyday usage; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a normative spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature (be it prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.) that uses it. An example of a standardized language is the French language which is supported by the institution. A nonstandard dialect also has a complete grammar and vocabulary, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support. The distinction between the "standard" dialect and the "nonstandard" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence. In a similar way, the definitions of the terms "language" and "dialect" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives, and the term "dialect" is sometimes restricted to mean "non-standard variety", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions. ==Dialect as linguistic variety of a language== The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity. A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect. A dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect. A geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect'). According to this definition, any variety of a given language can be classified as "a dialect", including any standardized varieties. In this case, the distinction between the "standard language" (i.e. the "standard" dialect of a particular language) and the "nonstandard" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence. Conversely, some dialectologists have reserved the term "dialect" for forms that they believed (sometimes wrongly) to be purer forms of the older languages, as in how early dialectologists of English did not consider the Brummie of Birmingham or the Scouse of Liverpool to be real dialects, as they had arisen fairly recently in time and partly as a result of influences from Irish migrants. === Difference between dialects and languages === There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction between dialect and language is therefore subjective and depends upon the user's preferred frame of reference. For example, there has been discussion about whether or not the Limón Creole English should be considered "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendants of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends upon which university they represent. Another example is Scanian, which even, for a time, had its own ISO code. === Linguistic distance === An important criterion for categorizing varieties of language is linguistic distance. For a variety to be considered a dialect, the linguistic distance between the two varieties must be low. Linguistic distance between spoken or written forms of language increases as the differences between the forms are characterized. For example, two languages with completely different syntactical structures would have a high linguistic distance, while a language with very few differences from another may be considered a dialect or a sibling of that language. Linguistic distance may be used to determine language families and language siblings. For example, languages with little linguistic distance, like Dutch and German, are considered siblings. Dutch and German are siblings in the West-Germanic language group. Some language siblings are closer to each other in terms of linguistic distance than to other linguistic siblings. French and Spanish, siblings in the Romance Branch of the Indo-European group, are closer to each other than they are to any of the languages of the West-Germanic group. However, this definition has often been criticized, especially in the case of a dialect continuum (or dialect chain), which contains a sequence of varieties, where each mutually intelligible with the next, but may not be mutually intelligible with distant varieties. though mutuality may not be as relevant as initially thought. The requirement for mutuality is abandoned by the Language Survey Reference Guide of SIL International, publishers of the Ethnologue and the registration authority for the ISO 639-3 standard for language codes. They define a dialect cluster as a central variety together with all those varieties whose speakers understand the central variety at a specified threshold level or higher. If the threshold level is high, usually between 70% and 85%, the cluster is designated as a language. === Sociolinguistic definitions === Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is the sociolinguistic notion of linguistic authority. According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Westphalian and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. Thus these varieties are said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, Standard German, which is said to be autonomous. In contrast, speakers in the Netherlands of Low Saxon varieties similar to Westphalian would instead consult a dictionary of Standard Dutch, and hence is categorized as a dialect of Dutch instead. Similarly, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the High German group of languages and has some degree of mutual intelligibility with German, a Yiddish speaker would consult a Yiddish dictionary rather than a German dictionary in such a case, and is classified as its own language. Within this framework, W. A. Stewart defined a language as an autonomous variety in addition to all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it, noting that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960. A heteronomous variety may be considered a dialect of a language defined in this way. === Dialect and language clusters === In other situations, a closely related group of varieties possess considerable (though incomplete) mutual intelligibility, but none dominates the others. To describe this situation, the editors of the Handbook of African Languages introduced the term dialect cluster as a classificatory unit at the same level as a language. A similar situation, but with a greater degree of mutual unintelligibility, has been termed a language cluster. In the Language Survey Reference Guide issued by SIL International, who produce Ethnologue, a dialect cluster is defined as a central variety together with a collection of varieties whose speakers can understand the central variety at a specified threshold level (usually between 70% and 85%) or higher. It is not required that peripheral varieties be understood by speakers of the central variety or of other peripheral varieties. A minimal set of central varieties providing coverage of a dialect continuum may be selected algorithmically from intelligibility data. === Political factors === In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts, the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages: if they have no standard or codified form, if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside reported speech), if the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, if they lack prestige with respect to some other, often standardised, variety. The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects and classical Latin. An opposite example is Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages in China, despite their mutual unintelligibility. National boundaries sometimes make the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" may be seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" may be seen as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy. The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot (: "A language is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited. === Terminology === By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages. The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive, although they are often perceived to be. Thus there is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German". There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not. ==Colloquial meaning of dialect== The colloquial meaning of dialect can be understood by example, e.g. in Italy (see dialetto), France (see patois) and the Philippines, carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language. In other words, these "dialects" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from the politically dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties, but instead they evolved in a separate and parallel way and may thus better fit various parties' criteria for a separate language. Despite this, these "dialects" may often be historically cognate and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may even, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter. In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the national language would not itself be considered a "dialect", as it is the dominant language in a particular state, be it in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political (e.g. official) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. The term "dialect" used this way implies a political connotation, being mostly used to refer to low-prestige languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language), languages lacking institutional support, or those perceived as "unsuitable for writing". The designation "dialect" is also used popularly to refer to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, ==Dialect and accent== John Lyons writes that "Many linguists [...] subsume differences of accent under differences of dialect." In general, accent refers to variations in pronunciation, while dialect also encompasses specific variations in grammar and vocabulary. ==Examples== === Arabic === There are three geographical zones in which Arabic is spoken (Jastrow 2002). Zone I is categorized as the area in which Arabic was spoken before the rise of Islam. It is the Arabian Peninsula, excluding the areas where southern Arabian was spoken. Zone II is categorized as the areas to which Arabic speaking peoples moved as a result of the conquests of Islam. Included in Zone II are the Levant, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq, and some parts of Iran. The Egyptian, Sudanese, and Levantine dialects (including the Syrian dialect) are well documented, and widely spoken and studied. Zone III comprises the areas in which Arabic is spoken outside of the continuous Arabic Language area. Spoken dialects of the Arabic language share the same writing system and share Modern Standard Arabic as their common prestige dialect used in writing. === German === When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German. The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Some of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended. The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than in the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment. The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is only spoken in education, partially in media, and with foreigners not possessing knowledge of Swiss German. Most Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language. The Low German and Low Franconian varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language. The Frisian languages spoken in Germany and the Netherlands are excluded from the German dialects. ===Italy=== Italy is an often quoted example of a country where the second definition of the word "dialect" (dialetto During the Risorgimento, Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak Italian. Proponents of Italian nationalism, like the Lombard Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity. With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the other ones came to be institutionally regarded as "dialects" subordinate to Italian, and negatively associated with a lack of education. In the early 20th century, the conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with having facilitated the diffusion of Italian among the less educated conscripted soldiers, as these men, who had been speaking various regional languages up until then, found themselves forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the popular spread of Italian out of the intellectual circles, because of the mass-media and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to Italian. with some degree of influence from the local or regional native languages and accents. ===Lebanon=== In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect thereof. During the civil war, Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic. ===Malay=== Malay has a long history as a lingua franca (Indonesian and Malay: basantara) in the Malay Archipelago which currently includes Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Singapore, East Timor, and the southern part of Thailand. This geographical variation, which then spread widely even to South Africa, finally led to the formation of a Malay language cluster which spread and had differences due to geographical conditions. The Malay language is pluricentric and a macrolanguage, i.e., several varieties of it are standardized as the national language ( or ) of several nation states with various official names: in Malaysia, it is designated as either ("Malaysian") or also ("Malay language"); in Singapore and Brunei, it is called ("Malay language"); in Indonesia, an autonomous normative variety called ("Indonesian language") is designated the ("unifying language" or lingua franca) whereas the term "Malay" () is domestically restricted to vernacular varieties of Malay indigenous to areas of Central to Southern Sumatra and West Kalimantan. ===North Africa=== In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the Darijas translated as literally meaning Dialect in Arabic (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an. Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries. Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names. ===Ukraine=== The Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian (or Little Russian, per official name) was merely a dialect of Russian (or Polonized dialect) and not a language on its own (same concept as for Belarusian language). That concepted was enrooted soon after the partitions of Poland. According to these claims, the differences were few and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, in reality the dialects in Ukraine were developing independently from the dialects in the modern Russia for several centuries, and as a result they differed substantially. Following the Spring of Nations in Europe and efforts of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, across the so-called "Southwestern Krai" of Russian Empire started to spread cultural societies of Hromada and their Sunday schools. Themselves "hromadas" acted in same manner as Orthodox fraternities of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth back in 15th century. Around that time in Ukraine becoming popular political movements Narodnichestvo (Narodniks) and Khlopomanstvo. ===Moldova=== There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan Parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism", rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity". On 22 March 2023, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu, promulgated a law passed by Parliament that named the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. ===Greater China=== Unlike languages that use alphabets to indicate their pronunciation, Chinese characters have developed from logograms that do not always give hints to their pronunciation. Although the written characters have remained relatively consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronunciation and grammar in different regions have developed to an extent that the varieties of the spoken language are often mutually unintelligible. As a series of migration to the south throughout the history, the regional languages of the south, including Gan, Xiang, Wu, Min, Yue and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or Middle Chinese. From the Ming dynasty onward, Beijing has been the capital of China and the dialect spoken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other varieties. With the founding of the Republic of China, Standard Mandarin was designated as the official language, based on the spoken language of Beijing. Since then, other spoken varieties are regarded as fangyan (regional speech). Cantonese is still the most commonly-used language in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Macau and among some overseas Chinese communities, whereas Hokkien has been accepted in Taiwan as an important local language alongside Mandarin. Then starting in the 1950s, the written language also diverged when the People's Republic of China introduced simplified characters, which are now used throughout the country. Traditional characters are still the norm in Taiwan and some other overseas communities. === Hindi and Urdu === Hindi is one of the official languages of India, alongside English, and an official language in nine states (including Gujarat, where Gujarati is the most spoken language). Urdu is the national and official language of Pakistan, as well as being an additional official language in 5 states of India (3 of the 8 Hindi speaking states plus Andhra Pradesh and Telangana). While it is the second language for most Pakistanis (outside of muhajirs who immigrated during partition and their descendants) in favor of languages like Punjabi and Sindhi, it is the first language of most Indian Muslims in North India and the Deccan Plateau. The two languages in their colloquially spoken form are mutually intelligible, but in written form, Hindi uses the Devanagari script while Urdu uses the Perso-Arabic script. For formal vocabulary, the two languages diverge, with Hindi drawing more from Sanskrit and Urdu more from Persian or Arabic. In addition, several other dialects or languages are classified under Hindi that did not descend from it. Standard Hindi and Urdu are based on Khari Boli, the dialect spoken around Delhi. Other dialects with high mutual intelligibility spoken in surrounding areas include Haryanvi and languages from Western Uttar Pradesh, like Braj Bhasha. But many languages less similar to Standard Hindi do not have official status under the 8th Schedule to the Constitution of India and are instead classified as dialects of Hindi. This includes Bhojpuri, spoken in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, which does not have official status in either state or in the 8th Schedule, despite being spoken by over 50 million people. But over time, more languages have been recognized as distinct from Hindi. Maithili was made a scheduled language of India in 2003, and Chhattisgarhi was made official in Chhattisgarh.
[ "Norwegian language", "North India", "French language", "Hong Kong", "Slovenian dialects", "Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius", "Spanish dialects", "Bulgarian language", "Slovene language", "Singapore", "Chakavian", "Variety (linguistics)", "Ming dynasty", "official language", "Calabrian languages", "John J. Gumperz", "linguistic distance", "Sassarese language", "partitions of Poland", "Slavic microlanguages", "social class", "Government of India", "Tsar", "Standard German", "12th century", "Cypriot Greek", "Abruzzo", "Abstand and ausbau languages", "ISO 639 macrolanguage", "cognate", "Punjabi language", "Languages with legal status in India", "Yiddish language", "Friulian language", "Eye dialect", "Spring of Nations", "lect", "Shtokavian", "Malayan languages", "Romansh language", "Khlopomanstvo", "variety (linguistics)", "Nation language", "Westphalian language", "Kajkavian", "Renaissance", "vernacular", "State (polity)", "Charles A. Ferguson", "Italian nationalism", "Malay language", "Republic of China (1912–49)", "Giovanni Boccaccio", "Brunei Darussalam", "A language is a dialect with an army and navy", "Persian language", "Japanese dialects", "Lebanese civil war", "Partition of India", "Codification (linguistics)", "Isogloss", "Gallo-Italic of Sicily", "Pennsylvania Dutch", "Varieties of Arabic", "Macau", "it:Dialetto", "Iraq", "West Kalimantan", "Mòcheno language", "Creole language", "Romanian dialects", "Molisan", "Standard Mandarin", "Russian language", "Iran", "Mykola Kostomarov", "accent (sociolinguistics)", "Register (sociolinguistics)", "abstand and ausbau languages", "Hellenic language", "Classical Latin", "Yue Chinese", "Sicilian language", "Delhi", "Romanian Academy", "Bengali dialects", "German dialectology", "Calabrian Greek", "Lombardy", "Occitan language", "simplified characters", "sociolinguistic", "William Alexander Stewart", "literate", "Telangana", "Bhojpuri language", "Ulster Irish", "President of Moldova", "Ethnologue", "UIUC", "Croatian language", "Ladin language", "Ethnolect", "ausbau language", "educated", "Old Chinese", "Russian Empire", "Académie Française", "Mircea Snegur", "Ligurian (Romance language)", "Northern Italy", "Arabic Language", "Swiss German", "Munster Irish", "Gallurese dialect", "Cypriot Turkish", "nonstandard dialect", "8th Schedule to the Constitution of India", "Koiné language", "Macedonian language", "Catalan dialects", "Southern Romance", "Haryanvi", "Alessandro Manzoni", "Serbo-Croatian", "Devanagari", "Chhattisgarhi", "Torlakian", "Marche", "Southern Bavarian", "Malayalam languages", "World War I", "Gallo-Romance languages", "Narodniks", "Latin script", "Piedmontese language", "Wu Chinese", "Ancient Greek", "Dutch language", "Revolutions of 1820", "Prestige (sociolinguistics)", "Venetian language", "prestige dialect", "Lombard language", "Low German", "Hakka Chinese", "Taiwanese Hokkien", "writing system", "president of Moldova", "pluricentric", "Neapolitan language", "People's Republic of China", "Connacht Irish", "Endangered language", "Franco-Provençal language", "Modern Standard Arabic", "Belarusian language", "logograms", "dialect levelling", "Indonesia", "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Arbëresh language", "Parliament of Moldova", "Qur'an", "Switzerland", "Sardinia", "Sprachbund", "Vernacular", "German language", "Slavomolisano dialect", "Gallo-Italic of Basilicata", "Brummie dialect", "Genetic relationship (linguistics)", "Russian dialects", "Arabic language", "Italianization", "Vulgar Latin", "East Franconian German", "North Africa", "Dachsprache", "Malaysian Malay", "Petrarch", "English dialects", "Torlakian dialect", "Rome", "Andhra Pradesh", "Middle Ages", "Maia Sandu", "social status", "Campania", "Muhajir (Pakistan)", "Scouse", "Gail Valley dialect", "France", "Eastern Lombard dialects", "Gallo-Italic languages", "Frisian languages", "Salentino dialect", "German (language)", "Regional Italian", "Arberesh language", "Romanesco dialect", "Orthodox brotherhood", "autonomy and heteronomy (sociolinguistics)", "Xiang Chinese", "Greek language", "Portuguese dialects", "Central Italian", "John Lyons (linguist)", "standard dialect", "Middle Chinese", "Taiwan", "Gujarat", "Naples", "East Timor", "Traditional characters", "Urdu", "Guangzhou", "Dutch dialects", "Indian Muslims", "public education", "Language family", "Oxford University Press", "Deccan Plateau", "Scanian dialect", "Ukrainian language", "Egypt", "Social stratification", "Darija", "South Tyrolean dialect", "Corsican language", "Accent perception", "Languages of Italy", "Southern Italy", "Varieties of Chinese", "upper class", "Finnish dialects", "Dante Alighieri", "Campidanese Sardinian", "Dutch Low Saxon", "Braj Bhasha", "standard language", "Indonesian language", "Chronolect", "Varieties of French", "Maithili language", "Yiddish dialects", "Chhattisgarh", "Sumatra", "The Hindu", "Griko language", "ethnic group", "Thailand", "Bergamasque dialect", "vocabulary", "Cimbrian language", "Colloquialism", "pejorative", "Bihar", "Middle French", "Usage (language)", "Istrian dialect", "Albanian language", "Max Weinreich", "Chinese characters", "Germanic peoples", "Walser German", "Malaysia", "Hindi", "Mandarin Chinese", "Moldovan language", "Idiolect", "Min Chinese", "Irpinian dialect", "Algherese dialect", "Gan Chinese", "Nguni languages", "conscription", "Modern Ukrainian language", "Risorgimento", "Italo-Dalmatian languages", "language code", "Calabrian language", "fr:patois", "Pakistan", "Regional language", "Rhaeto-Romance languages", "Emilian-Romagnol language", "Danish dialects", "Danish language", "Norwegian dialects", "Tuscany", "lingua franca", "SIL International", "Chinese language", "unification of Italy", "Islam", "Standard Dutch", "Tuscan dialect", "written Chinese", "Philippines", "Lebanon", "Academy of Sciences of Moldova", "German dialects", "dialect continuum", "Dialectometry", "grammar", "Malay Archipelago", "sociolect", "southern Italy", "Dialect levelling", "Late Middle Ages", "Sindhi language", "ethnicity", "ISO 639-3", "Yiddish", "Logudorese dialect", "Florentine dialect", "mutual intelligibility", "Vivaro-Alpine dialect", "Cantonese", "Sardinian language", "dialectology", "arbitrary", "Literary language", "Uttar Pradesh", "Perso-Arabic", "liturgical language", "national identity", "Taiwanese Mandarin", "Sri Lankan Tamil dialects", "High German", "Georgian dialects", "Sanskrit", "Bari dialect", "India", "Gujarati language", "North Macedonia", "national language", "Liechtenstein", "Low Franconian languages", "Moldovan–Romanian dictionary", "Cilentan dialect", "Catalan language", "Vernacular language", "Korean dialects", "Standard variety", "Levant", "Swedish dialects", "registration authority", "Italy", "Cossack Hetmanate", "English language", "Serbo-Croatian language", "regional Italian", "Germanic language", "Arabic", "Ibero-Romance languages", "regional language", "South Africa", "ethnolect", "Hromada (secret society)", "Serbian language", "Salerno", "Limón Creole English", "Khari Boli", "elite", "Heinz Kloss", "Dialectology", "Constitution of Moldova (1994)", "Dialects of Polish" ]
8,129
Digitalis
Digitalis ( or ) is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennial plants, shrubs, and biennials, commonly called foxgloves. Digitalis is native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwestern Africa. The flowers are tubular in shape, produced on a tall spike, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white, and yellow. The name derives from the Latin word for "finger". The genus was traditionally placed in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae, but phylogenetic research led taxonomists to move it to the Veronicaceae in 2001. More recent phylogenetic work has placed it in the much enlarged family Plantaginaceae. The best-known species is the common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea. This biennial is often grown as an ornamental plant due to its vivid flowers, which range in colour from various purple tints through pink and purely white. The flowers can also possess various marks and spottings. Other garden-worthy species include D. ferruginea, D. grandiflora, D. lutea, and D. parviflora. The term digitalis is also used for drug preparations that contain cardiac glycosides, particularly one called digoxin, extracted from various plants of this genus. Foxglove has medicinal uses but is also very toxic to humans and other mammals, such that consumption can cause serious illness or death. ==Etymology== The generic epithet Digitalis is from the Latin digitus (finger). Leonhart Fuchs first invented the name for this plant in his 1542 book De historia stirpium commentarii insignes (Notable comments on the history of plants), based upon the German vernacular name Fingerhut, which translates literally as 'finger hat', but actually means 'thimble'. The name is recorded in Old English as 'foxes glofe/glofa' or 'fox's glove'. Over time, folk myths obscured the literal origins of the name, insinuating that foxes wore the flowers on their paws to silence their movements as they stealthily hunted their prey. The woody hillsides where the foxes made their dens were often covered with the toxic flowers. Some of the more menacing names, such as "witch's glove", reference the toxicity of the plant. As of 2017, Plants of the World Online recognises the following 27 species (and a number of hybrids): but it was considered a hybrid of D. grandiflora and D. laevigata by the German botanist in 1960. ===Systematics=== The first full monograph regarding this genus was written by Lindley in 1821. He included two sections, a section Isoplexis including two species, and the main section Digitalis with three subsections, including 2Y species, a number of which are now seen as synonyms or hybrids. In the section Digitalis, along with the type species D. purpurea, four other species (as recognised as the time) were placed: D. thapsi, D. dubia, D. heywoodii and D. mariana. The monotypic section Frutescentes contained only D. obscura. The section Grandiflorae, which was also called section Macranthae by Vernon Hilton Heywood. It included, along with the type species D. grandiflora, also D. atlantica, D. ciliata and D. davisiana. Globiflorae included five species: D. laevigata, D. nervosa, D. ferruginea, D. cariensis and D. lanata. Tubiflorae included four species: D. subalpina, D. lutea, D. viridiflora and D. parviflora. In their 2000 book about Digitalis, Luckner and Wichtl continued to uphold Werner's classification of the 19 species, but molecular studies into the phylogeny of the genus published in 2004 found that although four of Werner's sections were supported by the genetics, the section Tubiflorae was polyphyletic, and that the species D. lutea and D. viridiflora should be placed in the section Grandiflorae. This study, as well as a number of other studies published around that time, reunited the genus Isoplexis with Digitalis, increasing the number of species to 23. The shape of the foxglove's flowers makes it especially attractive to long-tongued bees, such as the common carder bee. The bright flowers attract the bee, which lands on the lower lip of the bloom before climbing up the tube. This means that the bee is likely to drop any pollen it may have collected from other foxgloves, thereby facilitating propagation. ==Uses== ===Historical uses=== Nicholas Culpeper included Foxglove in his 1652 herbal medicine guide, The English Physician. He cited its use for healing wounds (both fresh and old), as a purgative, for "the King's Evil" (mycobacterial cervical lymphadenitis), for "the falling sickness" (epilepsy), and for "a scabby head". There is no empirical evidence for these claims, and it is not used for these conditions in modern medicine, only for slowing excessive heart rate in certain circumstances and/or strengthening heart muscle contraction in heart failure. ===Medicinal uses=== Digitalis is an example of a drug derived from a plant that was formerly used by herbalists; herbalists have largely abandoned its use because of its narrow therapeutic index and the difficulty of determining the amount of active drug in herbal preparations. Once the usefulness of digitalis in regulating the human pulse was understood, it was employed for a variety of purposes, including the treatment of epilepsy and other seizure disorders, which are now considered to be inappropriate treatments. A group of medicines extracted from foxglove plants are called digitalin. The use of D. purpurea extract containing cardiac glycosides for the treatment of heart conditions was first described in the English-speaking medical literature by William Withering, in 1785, which is considered the beginning of modern therapeutics. In contemporary medicine, digitalis (usually digoxin) is obtained from D. lanata. It is used to increase cardiac contractility (it is a positive inotrope) and as an antiarrhythmic agent to control the heart rate, particularly in the irregular (and often fast) atrial fibrillation. Digitalis is hence often prescribed for patients in atrial fibrillation, especially if they have been diagnosed with congestive heart failure. Digoxin was approved for heart failure in 1998 under current regulations by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of prospective, randomized study and clinical trials. It was also approved for the control of ventricular response rate for patients with atrial fibrillation. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines recommend digoxin for symptomatic chronic heart failure for patients with reduced systolic function, preservation of systolic function, and/or rate control for atrial fibrillation with a rapid ventricular response. Heart Failure Society of America guidelines for heart failure provide similar recommendations. Despite its relatively recent approval by the Food and Drug Administration and the guideline recommendations, the therapeutic use of digoxin is declining in patients with heart failure—likely the result of several factors. The main factor is the more recent introduction of several drugs shown in randomised controlled studies to improve outcomes in heart failure. Safety concerns regarding a proposed link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality seen in observational studies may have contributed to the decline in therapeutic use of digoxin, however a systematic review of 75 studies including four million patient years of patient follow-up showed that in properly designed randomised controlled studies, mortality was no higher in patients given digoxin than in those given placebo. Romani people use foxglove to treat eczema. ====Variations==== A group of pharmacologically active compounds are extracted mostly from the leaves of the second year's growth, and in pure form are referred to by common chemical names, such as digitoxin or digoxin, or by brand names such as Crystodigin and Lanoxin, respectively. The two drugs differ in that digoxin has an additional hydroxyl group at the C-3 position on the B-ring (adjacent to the pentane). This results in digoxin having a half-life of about one day (and increasing with impaired kidney function), whereas digitoxin's is about 7 days and not affected by kidney function. Both molecules include a lactone and a triple-repeating sugar called a glycoside. ====Mechanism of action==== Digitalis works by inhibiting sodium-potassium ATPase. This results in an increased intracellular concentration of sodium ions and thus a decreased concentration gradient across the cell membrane. This increase in intracellular sodium causes the Na/Ca exchanger to reverse potential, i.e., transition from pumping sodium into the cell in exchange for pumping calcium out of the cell, to pumping sodium out of the cell in exchange for pumping calcium into the cell. This leads to an increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration, which improves cardiac contractility. Under normal physiological conditions, the cytoplasmic calcium used in cardiac contractions originates from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an intracellular organelle that stores calcium. Human newborns, some animals, and patients with chronic heart failure lack well developed and fully functioning sarcoplasmic reticula and must rely on the Na/Ca exchanger to provide all or a majority of the cytoplasmic calcium required for cardiac contraction. For this to occur, cytoplasmic sodium must exceed its typical concentration to favour a reversal in potential, which naturally occurs in human newborns and some animals primarily through an elevated heart rate; in patients with chronic heart failure it occurs through the administration of digitalis. As a result of increased contractility, stroke volume is increased. Ultimately, digitalis increases cardiac output (cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate). This is the mechanism that makes this drug a popular treatment for congestive heart failure, which is characterized by low cardiac output. Digitalis also has a vagal effect on the parasympathetic nervous system, and can be used to slow the ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation (unless there's an accessory pathway, when it can paradoxically increase the heart rate). The dependence on the vagal effect means digitalis is not effective when a patient has a high sympathetic nervous system drive, which is the case with acutely ill persons, and also during exercise. ===Molecular probes=== Digoxigenin (DIG) is a steroid found in the flowers and leaves of Digitalis species, and is extracted from D. lanata. Digoxigenin can be used as a molecular probe to detect mRNA in situ and label DNA, RNA, and oligonucleotides. It can easily be attached to nucleotides such as uridine by chemical modifications. DIG molecules are often linked to nucleotides; DIG-labelled uridine can then be incorporated into RNA via in vitro transcription. Once hybridisation occurs, RNA with the incorporated DIG-U can be detected with anti-DIG antibodies conjugated to alkaline phosphatase. To reveal the hybridised transcripts, a chromogen can be used which reacts with the alkaline phosphatase to produce a coloured precipitate. ==Toxicity== Depending on the species, the digitalis plant may contain several deadly physiological and chemically related cardiac and steroidal glycosides. Thus, the digitalis plants have earned several, more sinister, names: dead man's bells and witch's gloves. The toxins can be absorbed via the skin or ingestion. Digitalis intoxication, known as digitalism, results from an overdose of digitalis and can cause gastrointestinal, cardiac and neurological effects. The former include appetite loss, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea; the cardiac symptoms include both tachycardia, and bradycardia (either of which, if severe enough, can result in syncope—see below); and the neurological effects include fatigue, delirium, and rarely xanthopsia (jaundiced or yellow vision). Other oculotoxic effects of digitalis include generalized blurry vision, as well as the appearance of blurred outlines ('halos'). Other things mentioned are dilated pupils, drooling, weakness, collapse, seizures, and even death. Digitalis poisoning can cause indirect inhibition of the atrioventricular node via a direct effect on the vagal nucleus. This results in bradycardia (decreased heart rate) or if severe enough, heart block. The direct effect of cardiac glycosides on heart muscle cells is to increase contraction of the cells, both in force and frequency, tending to produce tachycardia (increased heart rate), depending on the dose, the condition of one's heart, and the prevailing chemistry of the blood (specifically any of: low potassium, high calcium and low magnesium). Electrical cardioversion (to "shock" the heart) is generally not indicated in ventricular fibrillation in digitalis toxicity, as it can make the rhythm disturbance more complicated or sustained. Furthermore, the classic drug of choice for ventricular fibrillation in emergency setting, amiodarone, can worsen the dysrhythmia caused by digitalis, therefore, the second-choice drug lidocaine is more commonly used. Mild toxicity is treated by stopping the medication and general supportive measures; severe toxicity is treated with anti-digoxin antibody fragments. The entire plant is toxic (including the roots and seeds). Mortality is rare, but case reports do exist. Most plant exposures occur in children younger than six years and are usually unintentional and without associated significant toxicity. More serious toxicity occurs with intentional ingestion by adolescents and adults. In some instances, people have confused foxglove with the relatively harmless comfrey (Symphytum) plant, which is sometimes brewed into a tea, with fatal consequences. Other fatal accidents involve children drinking the water in a vase containing digitalis plants. Drying does not reduce the toxicity of the plant. The plant is toxic to animals, including all classes of livestock and poultry, as well as felines and canines. ==In popular culture== According to 1981 speculation, Vincent van Gogh's "Yellow Period" may have been influenced by digitalis, because it had been proposed as a therapy to control epilepsy around this time, and there are two paintings by the artist where the plant is present. Other studies immediately questioned this: there are a large number of other possible explanations for van Gogh's choice of palette, there is no evidence that van Gogh was ever given the drug or that his physician prescribed it, he was tested and had no xanthopsia, and in his many letters of the time he makes it clear that he simply liked using the colour yellow, but it has remained a popular theory.
[ "generic epithet", "Flora Europaea", "antiarrhythmic agent", "Digitalis transiens", "Digitalis canariensis", "Digitalis obscura", "Scrophulariaceae", "Digitalis thapsi", "atrial fibrillation", "Macaronesia", "Carl Linnaeus", "Digitalis ferruginea", "Digitalis nervosa", "Synonym (taxonomy)", "atrioventricular node", "shrub", "chromogen", "digitalin", "Heart Failure Society of America", "cardiac glycoside", "therapeutic index", "Vincent van Gogh", "L.", "Ehrh.", "Digitalis × coutinhoi", "foxglove pug", "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew", "monotypic", "phylogenetic", "Section (taxonomy)", "digoxin", "lidocaine", "herbalist", "lactone", "tachycardia", "Digitalis isabelliana", "Digitalis purpurea", "Digoxin immune fab", "inotrope", "Steud.", "Digitalis grandiflora", "transcription (genetics)", "Digitalis laevigata", "Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome", "sodium-potassium ATPase", "Digoxigenin", "Tourn.", "in vitro", "Braun-Blanq.", "sympathetic nervous system", "Vernon Hilton Heywood", "epilepsy", "Turkey", "Boiss.", "René Maire", "oligonucleotides", "monograph", "Benth.", "Édouard Spach", "xanthopsia", "Hochst.", "Peter Hadland Davis", "phylogeny", "Digitalis mariana", "Leonhart Fuchs", "vernacular name", "Lepidoptera", "Symphytum", "John Lindley", "type species", "Digitalis lutea", "Digitalis cedretorum", "Digitalis atlantica", "P.H.Davis", "uridine", "William Withering", "Biennial plant", "Jaub.", "Natural History Museum, London", "heart block", "Digitalis minor", "Digitalis davisiana", "antibodies", "glycoside", "stroke volume", "bradycardia", "Digitalis sceptrum", "Digitalis × fulva", "Digitalis lanata", "Digitalis parviflora", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Plantaginaceae", "Waldst.", "Old English", "Mill.", "Syncope (medicine)", "Digitalis ciliata", "Digitalis cariensis", "Nicholas Culpeper", "Emb.", "hydroxyl", "Digitalis chalcantha", "Romani people", "Nucleic acid hybridization", "Larva", "Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve", "Bombus pascuorum", "Jacq.", "Trautv.", "Svent.", "Circumscription (taxonomy)", "alkaline phosphatase", "L.f.", "polyphyletic", "sarcoplasmic reticulum", "congestive heart failure", "mRNA", "Samp.", "parasympathetic nervous system", "digitoxin", "Veronicaceae", "Digitalis viridiflora", "lesser yellow underwing", "Henry Fox Talbot", "Digitalis lamarckii", "molecular probe", "Plants of the World Online", "Lindl.", "amiodarone", "Isoplexis", "mycobacterial cervical lymphadenitis" ]
8,131
Dendrite
A dendrite (from Greek δένδρον déndron, "tree") or dendron is a branched cytoplasmic process that extends from a nerve cell that propagates the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons (usually via their axons) via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic tree. Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron.]] Dendrites are one of two types of cytoplasmic processes that extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being an axon. Axons can be distinguished from dendrites by several features including shape, length, and function. Dendrites often taper off in shape and are shorter, while axons tend to maintain a constant radius and can be very long. Typically, axons transmit electrochemical signals and dendrites receive the electrochemical signals, although some types of neurons in certain species lack specialized axons and transmit signals via their dendrites. The dendrite of a large pyramidal cell receives signals from about 30,000 presynaptic neurons. Excitatory synapses terminate on dendritic spines, tiny protrusions from the dendrite with a high density of neurotransmitter receptors. Most inhibitory synapses directly contact the dendritic shaft. Synaptic activity causes local changes in the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of the dendrite. This change in membrane potential will passively spread along the dendrite, but becomes weaker with distance without an action potential. To generate an action potential, many excitatory synapses have to be active at the same time, leading to strong depolarization of the dendrite and the cell body (soma). The action potential, which typically starts at the axon hillock, propagates down the length of the axon to the axon terminals where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, but also backwards into the dendrite (retrograde propagation), providing an important signal for spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP). An autapse is a synapse in which the axon of one neuron transmits signals to its own dendrite. The general structure of the dendrite is used to classify neurons into multipolar, bipolar and unipolar types. Multipolar neurons are composed of one axon and many dendritic trees. Pyramidal cells are multipolar cortical neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies and large dendrites that extend towards the surface of the cortex (apical dendrite). Bipolar neurons have two main dendrites at opposing ends of the cell body. Many inhibitory neurons have this morphology. Unipolar neurons, typical for insects, have a stalk that extends from the cell body that separates into two branches with one containing the dendrites and the other with the terminal buttons. In vertebrates, sensory neurons detecting touch or temperature are unipolar. Dendritic branching can be extensive and in some cases is sufficient to receive as many as 100,000 inputs to a single neuron. German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by Kenneth S. Cole and Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axonal initial segment. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons. He also proposed that neurons were discrete cells that communicated with each other via specialized junctions, or spaces, between cells, now known as a synapse. Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process known as Golgi's method, which had been developed by his rival, Camillo Golgi. ==Dendrite development== During the development of dendrites, several factors can influence differentiation. These include modulation of sensory input, environmental pollutants, body temperature, and drug use. For example, rats raised in dark environments were found to have a reduced number of spines in pyramidal cells located in the primary visual cortex and a marked change in distribution of dendrite branching in layer 4 stellate cells. Experiments done in vitro and in vivo have shown that the presence of afferents and input activity per se can modulate the patterns in which dendrites differentiate. This synapse formation is required for the development of neuronal structure in the functioning brain. A balance between metabolic costs of dendritic elaboration and the need to cover the receptive field presumably determine the size and shape of dendrites. A complex array of extracellular and intracellular cues modulates dendrite development including transcription factors, receptor-ligand interactions, various signaling pathways, local translational machinery, cytoskeletal elements, Golgi outposts and endosomes. These contribute to the organization of the dendrites on individual cell bodies and the placement of these dendrites in the neuronal circuitry. For example, it was shown that β-actin zipcode binding protein 1 (ZBP1) contributes to proper dendritic branching. Other important transcription factors involved in the morphology of dendrites include CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6/drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 etc. Secreted proteins and cell surface receptors include neurotrophins and tyrosine kinase receptors, BMP7, Wnt/dishevelled, EPHB 1–3, Semaphorin/plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin. Rac, CDC42 and RhoA serve as cytoskeletal regulators, and the motor protein includes KIF5, dynein, LIS1. Dendritic arborization has been found to be induced in cerebellum Purkinje cells by substance P. Important secretory and endocytic pathways controlling the dendritic development include DAR3 /SAR1, DAR2/Sec23, DAR6/Rab1 etc. All these molecules interplay with each other in controlling dendritic morphogenesis including the acquisition of type specific dendritic arborization, the regulation of dendrite size and the organization of dendrites emanating from different neurons. Dendrites were once thought to merely convey electrical stimulation passively. This passive transmission means that voltage changes measured at the cell body are the result of activation of distal synapses propagating the electric signal towards the cell body without the aid of voltage-gated ion channels. Passive cable theory describes how voltage changes at a particular location on a dendrite transmit this electrical signal through a system of converging dendrite segments of different diameters, lengths, and electrical properties. Based on passive cable theory one can track how changes in a neuron's dendritic morphology impact the membrane voltage at the cell body, and thus how variation in dendrite architectures affects the overall output characteristics of the neuron. Dendrite radius has notable effects on resistance to electrical current, which in turn affects conduction time and speed. Dendrite branching optimizes of energy efficiency while maintaining functional connectivity by minimizing power and emphasizing effective signal transmission, supporting their roles in signal integration over longer times. This behavior seen in dendrites differs from that in axons, which give more priority to conduction time (and speed). Such tradeoffs influence overall neuronal structures, leading to a scaling relationship between conduction time and body size. Action potentials initiated at the axon hillock propagate back into the dendritic arbor. These back-propagating action potentials depolarize the dendritic membrane and provide a crucial signal for synapse modulation and long-term potentiation. Back-propagation is not completely passive, but modulated by the presence of dendritic voltage-gated potassium channels. Furthermore, in certain types of neurons, a train of back-propagating action potentials can induce a calcium action potential (a dendritic spike) at dendritic initiation zones. == Neurotransmitter Release == Dendrites release a multitude of neuroactive substances that are not confined to specific neurotransmitter class, signaling molecule, or brain area. Dendrites are seen releasing neurotransmitters such as dopamine, GABA and glutamate in a retrograde fashion. In the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial peptide system, oxytocin and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone or ADH), are notable neuropeptides that are released from the dendrites of magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MCNs), allowing them to quickly enter the bloodstream. Paraventricular nuclei also release oxytocin and ADH from dendrites, allowing for the regulation of the anterior pituitary gland, as well as modulation of the parasympathetic and sympathetic changes in organs such as the heart and kidneys; this is done by Parvocellular neurosecretory and Parvocellular preautonomic neurons, respectively. In the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems, dopamine is released from dendrites in midbrain dopamine neurons, influencing reward and emotion processing, as well as learning and memory. Loss of dopamine from in the nigrostriatal pathway affects neuronal activity from the basal ganglia, therefore playing a role in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's. Dendritic release of oxytocin, ADH and dopamine have been found to have both autocrine and paracrine effects on the neuron itself (and nearby glia), as well as on afferent nerve terminals. ==Plasticity == Dendrites themselves appear to be capable of plastic changes during the adult life of animals, including invertebrates. Neuronal dendrites have various compartments known as functional units that are able to compute incoming stimuli. These functional units are involved in processing input and are composed of the subdomains of dendrites such as spines, branches, or groupings of branches. Therefore, plasticity that leads to changes in the dendrite structure will affect communication and processing in the cell. During development, dendrite morphology is shaped by intrinsic programs within the cell's genome and extrinsic factors such as signals from other cells. But in adult life, extrinsic signals become more influential and cause more significant changes in dendrite structure compared to intrinsic signals during development. In females, the dendritic structure can change as a result of physiological conditions induced by hormones during periods such as pregnancy, lactation, and following the estrous cycle. This is particularly visible in pyramidal cells of the CA1 region of the hippocampus, where the density of dendrites can vary up to 30%. Certain machine learning architectures based on dendritic trees have been shown to simplify the learning algorithm without affecting performance. == Other Functions and Properties == Most excitatory neurons receive synaptic inputs across their dendritic branches, which results in electrical and biochemical compartmentalization, allowing for a phenomenon known as dendritic spikes, where local regenerative potentials contribute to plasticity. In pyramidal neurons dendritic trees have two main functions that allow them to demonstrate an electrical and biochemical compartmentalization that may integrate synaptic inputs prior to transmission to the soma, as well as make up computation units in the brain. The first main function allows for differential synaptic processing due to distribution of synaptic inputs across the dendritic branches. The processing of these synaptic inputs often involve feedforward or feedback mechanisms that vary based on the type of neuron or brain region. The opposite but combined functions of feedforward and feedback processes at different times is proposed to associate different information streams that determine neural selectivity to different stimuli. The second function of dendritic trees in this regard is their ability to shape signal propagation that allows for sub-cellular compartmentalization. Large depolarizations can lead to local regenerative potentials, which may allow neurons to transition from stages of isolated dendritic events (segregation) to combined dendritic events (integration). Dendritic compartmentalization has implications in information processing, where it serves as a foundation of trans-neuron signaling, processing stimuli, computation, neuronal expressivity, and mitigating neuronal noise. Likewise, this phenomenon also underlies the storage of information by optimizing learning capacity and storage capacity. In other types of neurons, such as those of the medial superior olive, have differing dendritic properties that allow for coincidence detection. In contrast, in retinal ganglion cells, dendritic integration is used for computing directional selectivity, allowing neurons to respond to direction of movement. Therefore dendritic trees serve various purposes in integrating and processing various different types of stimuli and underly various neurological processes. == Overview of Clinical Implications of Dendrite Dysfunction == Dendrite dysfunction and alterations in dendrite morphology may contribute to many neuropathies and diseases. Changes in dendrite morphology may include alterations in branching patterns, fragmentation, loss of branching, and alterations in spine morphology and number. Such abnormalities contribute to a wide range of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), schizophrenia, down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and more. For example, subjects with ASD were observed to have reduced dendrite branching in the CA1 and CA4 regions of the hippocampus, in addition to increased spine density. In Rett Syndrome, researchers have observed less dendrite branching in the basal dendrites of the motor cortex and subiculum. In schizophrenic patients, reduced dendritic arbor (the tree-like network of dendrites) and spine density were observed. In addition to psychological and neurodevelopmental disorders, dendrite dysfunction has also been seen to have implications in onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's patients have been observed to have significant changes in dendritic arbor, as well as smaller dendrite lengths in the apical and basal trees of the CA1a and CA1b areas of the hippocampus. As such, there is much continuous research exploring the effects of dysfunction in dendritic branching and morphology, and scientists continue to expand their study in this field to better understand the basis of various neurological disorders.
[ "pyramidal cell", "soma (biology)", "dopamine", "Voltage-gated potassium channel", "Rett syndrome", "Magnocellular neurosecretory cell", "Alzheimer's disease", "vasopressin", "Andrew Huxley", "down syndrome", "dendrodendritic synapse", "Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters", "Basal dendrite", "Kenneth S. Cole", "Alan Hodgkin", "synapse", "fragile X syndrome", "Neurodegenerative disease", "neurotransmitter", "Neural backpropagation", "Nigrostriatal pathway", "neuron", "Dendritic spike", "Cable theory", "schizophrenia", "apical dendrite", "nerve cell", "voltage", "axon hillock", "voltage-gated ion channel", "substance P", "Neurotransmitter receptor", "subiculum", "Afferent nerve fiber", "Axon terminal", "Nobel Prize", "hippocampus", "Parkinson's disease", "Mesolimbic pathway", "inhibitory synapses", "Excitatory synapse", "Unipolar neuron", "axon", "Purkinje cell", "Wilhelm His, Sr.", "axonal initial segment", "Globus pallidus", "Retina horizontal cell", "Dendritic spine", "oxytocin", "autapse", "Neuron", "Paracrine signaling", "Neurodevelopmental disorder", "squid giant axon", "Amacrine cell", "Hodgkin–Huxley model", "Pyramidal cell", "voltage-gated ion channels", "Autocrine signaling", "Depolarization", "Soma (biology)", "action potential", "synaptic plasticity", "Camillo Golgi", "Retrograde signaling", "cytoplasmic process", "Multipolar neuron", "neurotransmission", "Ancient Greek language", "Morphology (biology)", "spike-timing-dependent plasticity", "Spinal cord", "Cerebellar granule cell", "Coincidence detection in neurobiology", "neuronal noise", "Pyramidal cells", "Retinal ganglion cell", "dendritic spike", "Bipolar neuron", "long-term potentiation", "Superior olivary complex", "basal ganglia", "motor cortex" ]
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Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama (, ; ) is the head of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. The term is part of the full title "Holiness Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama" (圣 识一切 瓦齐尔达喇 达赖 喇嘛) given by Altan Khan, the first Shunyi King of Ming China. He offered it in appreciation to the Gelug school's then-leader, Sonam Gyatso, who received it in 1578 at Yanghua Monastery. At that time, Sonam Gyatso had just given teachings to the Khan, and so the title of Dalai Lama was also given to the entire tulku lineage. Sonam Gyatso became the 3rd Dalai Lama, while the first two tulkus in the lineage, the 1st Dalai Lama and the 2nd Dalai Lama, were posthumously awarded the title. All tulkus in the lineage of the Dalai Lamas are considered manifestations of Avalokiteshvara, Since the time of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, the Dalai Lama has been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet. The Dalai Lama was an important figure of the Gelug tradition, which was dominant in Central Tibet, but his religious authority went beyond sectarian boundaries, representing Buddhist values and traditions not tied to a specific school. The Dalai Lama's traditional function as an ecumenical figure has been taken up by the fourteenth Dalai Lama, who has worked to overcome sectarian and other divisions in the exile community and become a symbol of Tibetan nationhood for Tibetans in Tibet and in exile. He is Tenzin Gyatso, who escaped from Lhasa in 1959 during the Tibetan diaspora and lives in exile in Dharamshala, India. From 1642 and the 5th Dalai Lama until 1951 and the 14th Dalai Lama, the lineage was enjoined with the secular role of governing Tibet. During this period, the Dalai Lamas or their Kalons (or regents) led the Tibetan government in Lhasa, known as the Ganden Phodrang. The Ganden Phodrang government officially functioned as a protectorate under Qing China rule and governed all of the Tibetan Plateau while respecting varying degrees of autonomy. After the Qing dynasty collapsed in 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) claimed succession over all former Qing territories, but struggled to establish authority in Tibet. The 13th Dalai Lama declared that Tibet's relationship with China had ended with the Qing dynasty's fall and proclaimed independence, though this was not formally recognized under international law. In 1951, the 14th Dalai Lama ratified the Seventeen Point Agreement with China. In 1959, he revoked the agreement. He initially supported the Tibetan independence movement, but in 1974, he rejected calls for Tibetan independence. Since 2005 he has publicly agreed that Tibet is part of China and not supported separatism. There is a concept in Tibetan history known as "mchod yon" (མཆོད་ཡོན), often translated as "priest and patron relationship". It describes the historical alliance between Tibetan Buddhist leaders and secular rulers, such as the Mongols, Manchus, and Chinese authorities. In this relationship, the secular patron (yon bdag) provides political protection and support to the religious figure, who in turn offers spiritual guidance and legitimacy. Proponents of this theory argue that it allowed Tibet to maintain a degree of autonomy in religious and cultural matters while ensuring political stability and protection. Critics, including Sam van Schaik, contend that the theory oversimplifies the situation and often obscures the political dominance more powerful states exert over Tibet. Historians such as Melvyn Goldstein have called Tibet a vassal state or tributary, subject to external control. During the Yuan dynasty, Tibetan lamas held significant religious influence, but the Mongol Khans had ultimate political authority. Similarly, under the Qing Dynasty, which established control over Tibet in 1720, the region enjoyed a degree of autonomy, but all diplomatic agreements recognized Qing China's sovereign right to negotiate and conclude treaties and trade agreements involving Tibet. Since the 18th century, Chinese authorities have asserted the right to oversee the selection of Tibetan spiritual leaders, including the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. This practice was formalized in 1793 through the "29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet". According to Tibetan Buddhist doctrine, the Dalai Lama chooses his reincarnation. In recent times, the 14th Dalai Lama has opposed Chinese government involvement, emphasizing that his reincarnation should not be subject to external political influence. ==Names== The title "Dalai Lama" is part of the full title "圣 识一切 瓦齐尔达喇 达赖 喇嘛" (Holiness Knowing Everying Vajradhara Dalai Lama) given by Altan Khan. "Dalai Lama" is a combination of the Mongolic word () and the Tibetan word () (). The word corresponds to the Tibetan word gyatso or rgya-mtsho, The Dalai Lama is also known in Tibetan as the Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che () or simply as the Rgyal-ba''. As requested by the third Shunyi King of Ming China, Chelike, Sonam Gyatso was given title Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (朵儿只唱) by the Wanli Emperor. In 1616, the Ming Government granted the title "Universally Holding Vajra Buddha (普持金刚佛)". In 1654 AD, the Qing government granted the title "Freedom Buddha of the Great Goodness of the Western Paradise Leading the World of Buddhism Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama (西天大善自在佛所领天下释教普通瓦赤喇怛喇达赖喇嘛)". In 1908, the Qing Government granted the title "Sincere Obedient and Praised the Freedom Buddha of the Great Goodness of the Western Paradise (诚顺赞化西天大善自在佛)". == Revocation of the Dalai Lama title== In 1705, the Kangxi Emperor revoked Tsangyang Gyatso's Dalai Lama title. Tsangyang Gyatso died while being sent to Beijing. In 1904, the Qing Government temporarily revoked Thubten Gyatso's Dalai Lama title. == History == === Origins in myth and legend === Since the 11th century, it has been widely believed in Central Asian Buddhist countries that Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, has a special relationship with the people of Tibet and intervenes in their fate by incarnating as benevolent rulers and teachers such as the Dalai Lamas. The Book of Kadam, the main text of the Kadampa school from which the 1st Dalai Lama hailed, is said to have laid the foundation for the Tibetans' later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara. It traces the legend of the bodhisattva's incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songtsen Gampo and later as Dromtönpa (1004–1064). This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas. Thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than the 1st Dalai Lama, Gendun Drub; as many as sixty persons are enumerated as earlier incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and predecessors in the same lineage leading up to Gendun Drub. These earlier incarnations include a mythology of 36 Indian personalities, ten early Tibetan kings and emperors all said to be previous incarnations of Dromtönpa, and fourteen further Nepalese and Tibetan yogis and sages. In fact, according to the "Birth to Exile" article on the 14th Dalai Lama's website, he is "the seventy-fourth in a lineage that can be traced back to a Brahmin boy who lived in the time of Buddha Shakyamuni." === Avalokiteśvara's "Dalai Lama master plan" === According to the 14th Dalai Lama, long ago Avalokiteśvara had promised the Buddha to guide and defend the Tibetan people. In the late Middle Ages, his master plan to fulfill this promise was the stage-by-stage establishment of the Dalai Lama institution in Tibet. First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in the province of Ü before he died in 1419. The 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung, and developed a large popular power base in Ü. He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a fourth great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo, at Shigatse. The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, Having reactivated the 1st's large popular followings in Tsang and Ü, the 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel. He established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the "oracle lake", Lhamo Lhatso. The 3rd built on his predecessors' fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera. After being given the Mongolian name 'Dalai', he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet. The 4th was then born in Mongolia as the great-grandson of Altan Khan, cementing strong ties between Central Asia, the Dalai Lamas, the Gelugpa and Tibet. The 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors. By 1642, with the strategy provided by his chagdzo (manager) Sonam Rapten and the military assistance of Khoshut chieftain Gushri Khan, the 'Great 5th' founded the Dalai Lamas' religious and political reign over Tibet that survived for over 300 years. === Establishment of the Dalai Lama lineage === Gendun Drup (1391–1474), a disciple of Je Tsongkapa, would eventually be known as the 'First Dalai Lama', but he would not receive this title until 104 years after he died. There was resistance to naming him as such, since he was ordained a monk in the Kadampa tradition Despite this, 55 years after Tsongkhapa, the Tashilhunpo monks heard accounts that an incarnation of Gendun Drup had appeared nearby and repeatedly announced himself from the age of two. The monastic authorities saw compelling evidence that convinced them the child in question was indeed the incarnation of their founder and felt obliged to break with their own tradition, and in 1487, the boy was renamed Gendun Gyatso and installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's tulku, albeit informally. Gendun Gyatso died in 1542, but the lineage of Dalai Lama tulkus became firmly established with the third incarnation, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), who was formally recognised and enthroned at Drepung in 1546. Gendun Gyatso was given the title "Dalai Lama" by the Tümed Altan Khan in 1578, and his two predecessors were then accorded the title posthumously, making Gendun now the third in the lineage. Pema Dorje was sent to Narthang, a major Kadampa monastery near Shigatse, which ran the largest printing press in Tibet. Its celebrated library attracted many scholars, so Pema Dorje received an education beyond the norm at the time as well as exposure to diverse spiritual schools and ideas. He studied Buddhist philosophy extensively. In 1405, ordained by Narthang's abbot, he took the name of Gendun Drup. In 1415, Gendun Drup met Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelugpa school, and became his student. After the death of Tsongkhapa's successor, the Panchen Lama Khedrup Je, Gendun Drup became the leader of the Gelugpa. Taking advantage of good relations with the nobility and a lack of determined opposition from rival orders, he founded Tashilhunpo Monastery at Shigatse, on the very edge of Karma Kagyu-dominated territory, This monastery became the fourth great Gelugpa monastery in Tibet, after Ganden, Drepung, and Sera, all founded in Tsongkhapa's time, By establishing it at Shigatse in the middle of Tsang, Gendun Drup expanded the Gelugpa sphere of influence, and his own, from the Lhasa region of Ü to this province, which was the stronghold of the Karma Kagyu school and their patrons, the rising Tsangpa dynasty. Tashilhunpo eventually become 'Southern Tibet's greatest monastic university' with a complement of 3,000 monks. Through hard work he became a leading lama, known as 'Perfecter of the Monkhood', 'with a host of disciples'. he was accorded the honorary title Tamchey Khyenpa meaning "The Omniscient One", an appellation that was later assigned to all Dalai Lama incarnations. At the age of 50, he entered meditation retreat at Narthang. As he grew older, Karma Kagyu adherents, finding their sect was losing too many recruits to the monkhood to burgeoning Gelugpa monasteries, tried to contain Gelug expansion by launching military expeditions against them. This led to decades of military and political power struggles between Tsangpa dynasty forces and others across central Tibet. In an attempt to ameliorate these clashes, Gendun Drup issued a poem of advice to his followers advising restraint from responding to violence with more violence and urged compassion and patience instead. The poem, entitled Shar Gang Rima, "The Song of the Eastern Snow Mountains", became one of his most enduring popular literary works. Gendun Drup's spiritual accomplishments brought him substantial donations from devotees which he used to build and furnish new monasteries, as well as to print and distribute Buddhist texts and to maintain monks and meditators. In 1474, at the age of 84, he went on a final teaching tour by foot to visit Narthang Monastery. Returning to Tashilhunpo he died 'in a blaze of glory, recognised as having attained Buddhahood'. declared himself at the age of three to be Gendun Drup and asked to be 'taken home' to Tashilhunpo. He spoke in mystical verses, quoted classical texts spontaneously, and claimed to be Dromtönpa, an earlier incarnation of the Dalai Lamas. When he saw monks from Tashilhunpo, he greeted the disciples of the late Gendun Drup by name. Convinced by the evidence, the Gelugpa elders broke with the traditions of their school and recognised him as Gendun Drup's tulku at the age of eight. At twelve he was installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's incarnation, ordained, enthroned, and renamed Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo (1475–1542). Two years later, he met some opposition from the Tashilhunpo establishment when tensions arose over conflicts between advocates of the two types of succession: the traditional abbatial election through merit and incarnation. He therefore moved to central Tibet, where he was invited to Drepung and where his reputation as a brilliant young teacher quickly grew. This move had the effect of shifting central Gelug authority back to Lhasa. He was afforded all the loyalty and devotion that Gendun Drup had earned and the Gelug school remained as united as ever. Gendun Gyatso's popularity in Ü-Tsang grew as he went on pilgrimage, teaching and studying from masters such as the adept Khedrup Norzang Gyatso in the Olklha mountains. He also stayed in Kongpo and Dagpo and became known all over Tibet. In 1509, he moved to southern Tibet to build Chokorgyel Monastery near the 'Oracle Lake', Lhamo Latso, That year he saw visions in the lake and 'empowered' it to impart clues to help identify incarnate lamas. All Dalai Lamas from the 3rd on were found with the help of such visions granted to regents. He was invited back to Tashilhunpo and given the residence built for Gendun Drup, to be occupied later by the Panchen Lamas. and stayed there teaching in Tsang for nine months. Gendun Gyatso continued to travel widely and teach while based at Tibet's largest monastery, Drepung and became known as 'Drepung Lama', his fame and influence spreading all over Central Asia as the best students from hundreds of lesser monasteries in Asia were sent to Drepung for education. In 1498, the Ringpung army captured Lhasa and banned the Gelugpa annual New Year Monlam Prayer Festival. Gendun Gyatso was promoted to abbot of Drepung in 1517 Gendun Gyatso then went to the Gongma (King) Drakpa Jungne to obtain permission for the festival to be held again. As abbot, he made Drepung the largest monastery in the whole of Tibet. He attracted many students and disciples 'from Kashmir to China' as well as major patrons and disciples such as Gongma Nangso Donyopa of Droda who built a monastery at Zhekar Dzong in his honour and invited him to name it and be its spiritual guide. He died in meditation at Drepung in 1542 at the age of 67 and his reliquary stupa was constructed at Khyomorlung. It was said that, by the time he died, through his disciples and their students, his personal influence covered the whole of Buddhist Central Asia where 'there was nobody of any consequence who did not know of him.' as predicted by his predecessor. Unlike his predecessors, he came from a noble family, connected with the Sakya and the Phagmo Drupa (Karma Kagyu affiliated) dynasties, he had the spiritual maturity to be made Abbot of Drepung, taking responsibility for the material and spiritual well-being of Tibet's largest monastery at the age of nine. At 10 he led the Monlam Prayer Festival, giving daily discourses to the assembly of all Gelugpa monks. His influence grew so quickly that soon the monks at Sera Monastery also made him their Abbot His popularity and renown became such that in 1564 when the Nedong King died, it was Sonam Gyatso at the age of 21 who was requested to lead his funeral rites, rather than his own Kagyu lamas. In 1569, at age 26, he went to Tashilhunpo to study the layout and administration of the monastery built by his predecessor Gendun Drup. Invited to become the Abbot he declined, already being Abbot of Drepung and Sera, but left his deputy there in his stead. From there he visited Narthang, the first monastery of Gendun Drup and gave numerous discourses and offerings to the monks in gratitude. and swore allegiance to Ming, Although he remained de facto quite independent, China was also happy to help Altan Khan by providing necessary translations of holy scripture, and also lamas. At the second invitation, in 1577–78 Sonam Gyatso travelled 1,500 miles to Mongolia to see him. They met in an atmosphere of intense reverence and devotion and their meeting resulted in the re-establishment of strong Tibet-Mongolia relations after a gap of 200 years. Altan Khan and his followers quickly adopted Buddhism as their state religion, replacing the prohibited traditional Shamanism. In October 1587, as requested by the family of Altan Khan, Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso was promoted to Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (Chinese:朵儿只唱) by the emperor of China, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted. The name "Dalai Lama", by which the lineage later became known throughout the non-Tibetan world, was thus established and it was applied to the first two incarnations retrospectively. Returning eventually to Tibet by a roundabout route and invited to stay and teach all along the way, in 1580 Sonam Gyatso was in Hohhot [or Ningxia], not far from Beijing, when the Chinese Emperor summoned him to his court. By then he had established a religious empire of such proportions that it was unsurprising the Emperor wanted to summon him and grant him a diploma. In 1582, he heard Altan Khan had died and invited by his son Dhüring Khan he decided to return to Mongolia. Passing through Amdo, he founded a second great monastery, Kumbum, at the birthplace of Tsongkhapa near Kokonor. Arriving in Mongolia in 1585, he stayed 2 years with Dhüring Khan, teaching Buddhism to his people As he was dying, his Mongolian converts urged him not to leave them, as they needed his continuing religious leadership. He promised them he would be incarnated next in Mongolia, as a Mongolian. who was a descendant of Kublai Khan and leader of the Tümed Mongols who had already been converted to Buddhism by the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588). At the age of 10 with a large Mongol escort he travelled to Lhasa where he was enthroned. He studied at Drepung and became its abbot but being a non-Tibetan he met with opposition from some Tibetans, especially the Karma Kagyu who felt their position was threatened by these emerging events; there were several attempts to remove him from power. Seal of authority was granted in 1616 by Wanli Emperor of Ming. Yonten Gyatso died at the age of 27 under suspicious circumstances and his chief attendant Sonam Rapten went on to discover the 5th Dalai Lama, became his chagdzo or manager and after 1642 he went on to be his regent, the Desi. === 5th Dalai Lama === The death of the Fourth Dalai Lama in 1617 led to open conflict breaking out between various parties. However, in 1618 Sonam Rabten, the former attendant of the 4th Dalai Lama who had become the Ganden Phodrang treasurer, secretly identified the child, who had been born to the noble Zahor family at Tagtse castle, south of Lhasa. Then, the Panchen Lama, in Shigatse, negotiated the lifting of the ban, enabling the boy to be recognised as Lobsang Gyatso, the 5th Dalai Lama. to seek more active Mongol patronage and military assistance for the Gelugpa while the Fifth was still a boy. As a young man, being 22 years his junior, the Dalai Lama addressed him reverentially as "Zhalngo", meaning "the Presence". During the 1630s Tibet was deeply entangled in rivalry, evolving power struggles and conflicts, not only between the Tibetan religious sects but also between the rising Manchus and the various rival Mongol and Oirat factions, who were also vying for supremacy amongst themselves and on behalf of the religious sects they patronised. His vassal Choghtu Khong Tayiji, continued to advance against the Gelugpas, even having his own son Arslan killed after Arslan changed sides, submitted to the Dalai Lama and become a Gelugpa monk. By the mid-1630s, thanks again to the efforts of Sonam Rabten, The intercepted letter was sent to Güshi Khan who used it as a pretext to invade central Tibet in 1639 to attack them both, the Bönpo and the Tsangpa. By 1641 he had defeated Donyo Dorje and his allies in Kham and then he marched on Shigatse where after laying siege to their strongholds he defeated Karma Tenkyong, broke the power of the Tsang Karma Kagyu in 1642 and ended the Tsangpa dynasty. Güshi Khan's attack on the Tsangpa was made on the orders of Sonam Rapten while being publicly and robustly opposed by the Dalai Lama, who, as a matter of conscience, out of compassion and his vision of tolerance for other religious schools, refused to give permission for more warfare in his name after the defeat of the Beri king. Sonam Rabten deviously went behind his master's back to encourage Güshi Khan, to facilitate his plans and to ensure the attacks took place; However, after a few months, Norbu betrayed him and led a rebellion against the Ganden Phodrang Government. With his accomplices he seized Samdruptse fort at Shigatse and tried to raise a rebel army from Tsang and Bhutan, but the Dalai Lama skilfully foiled his plans without any fighting taking place and Norbu had to flee. Four other Desis were appointed after Depa Norbu: Trinle Gyatso, Lozang Tutop, Lozang Jinpa and Sangye Gyatso. ==== Re-unification of Tibet ==== Having thus defeated all the Gelugpa's rivals and resolved all regional and sectarian conflicts Güshi Khan became the undisputed patron of a unified Tibet and acted as a "Protector of the Gelug", establishing the Khoshut Khanate which covered almost the entire Tibetan plateau, an area corresponding roughly to 'Greater Tibet' including Kham and Amdo, as claimed by exiled groups (see maps). At an enthronement ceremony in Shigatse he conferred full sovereignty over Tibet on the Fifth Dalai Lama, unified for the first time since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire exactly eight centuries earlier. Güshi Khan then retired to Kokonor with his armies Güshi Khan died in 1655 and was succeeded by his descendants Dayan, Tenzin Dalai Khan and Tenzin Wangchuk Khan. However, Güshi Khan's other eight sons had settled in Amdo but fought amongst themselves over territory so the Fifth Dalai Lama sent governors to rule them in 1656 and 1659, thereby bringing Amdo and thus the whole of Greater Tibet under his personal rule and Gelugpa control. The Mongols in Amdo became absorbed and Tibetanised. ==== Visit to Beijing ==== In 1636 the Manchus proclaimed their dynasty as the Qing dynasty and by 1644 they had completed their conquest of China under the prince regent Dorgon. The following year their forces approached Amdo on northern Tibet, causing the Oirat and Khoshut Mongols there to submit in 1647 and send tribute. In 1648, after quelling a rebellion of Tibetans of Gansu-Xining, the Qing invited the Fifth Dalai Lama to visit their court at Beijing since they wished to engender Tibetan influence in their dealings with the Mongols. The Qing were aware the Dalai Lama had extraordinary influence with the Mongols and saw relations with the Dalai Lama as a means to facilitate submission of the Khalka Mongols, traditional patrons of the Karma Kagyu sect. Similarly, since the Tibetan Gelugpa were keen to revive a priest-patron relationship with the dominant power in China and Inner Asia, the Qing invitation was accepted. After five years of complex diplomatic negotiations about whether the emperor or his representatives should meet the Dalai Lama inside or outside the Great Wall, when the meeting would be astrologically favourable, how it would be conducted and so on, it eventually took place in Beijing in 1653. The 5th Dalai Lama wanted to use the golden seal of authority right away. However, despite such patronising attempts by Chinese officials and historians to symbolically show for the record that they held political influence over Tibet, the Tibetans themselves did not accept any such symbols imposed on them by the Chinese with this kind of motive. For example, concerning the above-mentioned 'golden seal', the Fifth Dalai Lama comments in Dukula, his autobiography, on leaving China after this courtesy visit to the emperor in 1653, that "the emperor made his men bring a golden seal for me that had three vertical lines in three parallel scripts: Chinese, Mongol and Tibetan". He also criticised the words carved on this gift as being faultily translated into Tibetan, writing that "The Tibetan version of the inscription of the seal was translated by a Mongol translator but was not a good translation". ==== Relations with the Qing dynasty ==== The 17th-century struggles for domination between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the various Mongol groups spilled over to involve Tibet because of the Fifth Dalai Lama's strong influence over the Mongols as a result of their general adoption of Tibetan Buddhism and their consequent deep loyalty to the Dalai Lama as their guru. Until 1674, the Fifth Dalai Lama had mediated in Dzungar Mongol affairs whenever they required him to do so, and the Kangxi Emperor, who had succeeded the Shunzhi Emperor in 1661, would accept and confirm his decisions automatically. For the Kangxi Emperor, the alliance between the Dzungar Mongols and the Tibetans was unsettling because he feared it had the potential to unite all the other Mongol tribes together against the Qing Empire, including those tribes who had already submitted. Therefore, in 1674, the Kangxi Emperor, annoyed by the Fifth's less than full cooperation in quelling a rebellion against the Qing in Yunnan, ceased deferring to him as regards Mongol affairs and started dealing with them directly. His reign and that of Desi Sangye Gyatso are noteworthy for the upsurge in literary activity and of cultural and economic life that occurred. The same goes for the great increase in the number of foreign visitors thronging Lhasa during the period as well as for the number of inventions and institutions that are attributed to the 'Great Fifth', as the Tibetans refer to him. The most dynamic and prolific of the early Dalai Lamas, he composed more literary works than all the other Dalai Lamas combined. Writing on a wide variety of subjects he is specially noted for his works on history, classical Indian poetry in Sanskrit and his biographies of notable personalities of his epoch, as well as his own two autobiographies, one spiritual in nature and the other political (see Further Reading). He also taught and travelled extensively, reshaped the politics of Central Asia, unified Tibet, conceived and constructed the Potala Palace and is remembered for establishing systems of national medical care and education. In 1703 Güshi Khan's ruling grandson Tenzin Wangchuk Khan was murdered by his brother Lhazang Khan who usurped the Khoshut Khanate's Tibetan throne, but unlike his four predecessors he started interfering directly in Tibetan affairs in Lhasa; he opposed the Fifth Dalai Lama's regent, Desi Sangye Gyatso for his deceptions and in the same year, with the support of the Kangxi Emperor, he forced him out of office. When Lhazang was requested by the Tibetans to leave Lhasa politics to them and to retire to Kokonor like his predecessors, he quit the city. Desi Sangye Gyatso decided to kill Lhazang, he secretly sent someone to poison the food of Lhazang, but was discovered. Lhazang was furious and immediately mobilized a large army to defeat the Tibetan army and killed Desi Sangye Gyatso. In 1705, he wrote a letter to the Qing government, reporting Desi Sangye Gyatso's rebellion and that the sixth Dalai Lama, appointed by Desi Sangye Gyatso, was addicted to wine and sex and ignored religious affairs. He reported the Dalai Lama was not a real Dalai Lama and requested emperor to demote and revoke him. He used the Sixth's escapades as an excuse to seize full control of Tibet. Most Tibetans, though, still supported their Dalai Lama despite his behaviour and deeply resented Lhazang Khan's interference. But Emperor Kangxi then issued an edict: "Because Lhazang Khan reported to depose the sixth Dalai Lama appointed by Desi Sangye Gyatso, the sixth Dalai Lama is ordered to be sent to capital Beijing." Having discredited and deposed the Sixth Dalai Lama, whom he considered an impostor, and having removed the regent, Lhazang Khan pressed the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to endorse a new Dalai Lama in Tsangyang Gyatso's place as the true incarnation of the Fifth. They eventually nominated one Pekar Dzinpa, a monk but also rumored to be Lhazang's son, and Lhazang had him installed as the 'real' Sixth Dalai Lama, endorsed by the Panchen Lama and named Yeshe Gyatso in 1707. This choice was in no way accepted by the Tibetan people, however, nor by Lhazang's princely Mongol rivals in Kokonor who resented his usurpation of the Khoshut Tibetan throne as well as his meddling in Tibetan affairs. === 7th Dalai Lama === In 1708, in accordance with an indication given by the 6th Dalai Lama when quitting Lhasa, a child called Kelzang Gyatso had been born at Lithang in eastern Tibet who was soon claimed by local Tibetans to be his incarnation. After going into hiding out of fear of Lhazang Khan, he was installed in Lithang monastery. Along with some of the Kokonor Mongol princes, rivals of Lhazang, in defiance of the situation in Lhasa the Tibetans of Kham duly recognised him as the Seventh Dalai Lama in 1712, retaining his birth-name of Kelzang Gyatso. For security reasons he was moved to Derge monastery and eventually, in 1716, now also backed and sponsored by the Kangxi Emperor of China. The Tibetans asked Dzungars to bring a true Dalai Lama to Lhasa, but the Manchu Chinese did not want to release Kelsan Gyatso to the Mongol Dzungars. The Regent Taktse Shabdrung and Tibetan officials then wrote a letter to the Manchu Chinese Emperor that they recognized Kelsang Gyatso as the Dalai Lama. The Emperor then granted Kelsang Gyatso a golden seal of authority. The Sixth Dalai Lama was taken to Amdo at the age of 8 to be installed in Kumbum Monastery with great pomp and ceremony. According to Mullin, however, the emperor's support came from genuine spiritual recognition and respect rather than being politically motivated. ==== Dzungar invasion ==== In any case, the Kangxi Emperor took full advantage of having Kelzang Gyatso under Qing control at Kumbum after other Mongols from the Dzungar tribes led by Tsewang Rabtan who was related to his supposed ally Lhazang Khan, deceived and betrayed the latter by invading Tibet and capturing Lhasa in 1717. These Dzungars, who were Buddhist, had supported the Fifth Dalai Lama and his regent. They were secretly petitioned by the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to invade with their help in order to rid them of their foreign ruler Lhazang Khan and to replace the unpopular Sixth Dalai Lama pretender with the young Kelzang Gyatso. This plot suited the devious Dzungar leaders' ambitions and they were only too happy to oblige. Early in 1717, after conspiring to undermine Lhazang Khan through treachery they entered Tibet from the northwest with a large army, sending a smaller force to Kumbum to collect Kelzang Gyatso and escort him to Lhasa. By the end of the year, with Tibetan connivance they had captured Lhasa, killed Lhazang and all his family and deposed Yeshe Gyatso. Their force sent to fetch Kelzang Gyatso, however, was intercepted and destroyed by Qing armies alerted by Lhazang. In Lhasa, the unruly Dzungar not only failed to produce the boy but also went on the rampage, looting and destroying the holy places, abusing the populace, killing hundreds of Nyingma monks, causing chaos and bloodshed and turning their Tibetan allies against them. The Tibetans were soon appealing to the Kangxi Emperor to rid them of the Dzungars. ==== Enthronement in Lhasa ==== This humiliation only determined the Kangxi Emperor to expel the Dzungars from Tibet once and for all and he set about assembling and dispatching a much larger force to march on Lhasa, bringing the emperor's trump card the young Kelzang Gyatso with it. On the imperial army's stately passage from Kumbum to Lhasa with the boy being welcomed adoringly at every stage, Khoshut Mongols and Tibetans were happy (and well paid) to join and swell its ranks. By the autumn of 1720, the marauding Dzungar Mongols had been vanquished from Tibet. Qing imperial forces had entered Lhasa triumphantly with the 12-year-old, acting as patrons of the Dalai Lama, liberators of Tibet, allies of the Tibetan anti-Dzungar forces led by Kangchenas and Polhanas, and allies of the Khoshut Mongol princes. The delighted Tibetans enthroned him as the Seventh Dalai Lama at the Potala Palace. A new Tibetan government was established consisting of a Kashag or cabinet of Tibetan ministers headed by Kangchenas. Kelzang Gyatso, too young to participate in politics, studied Buddhism. He played a symbolic role in government, and, being profoundly revered by the Mongols, he exercised much influence with the Qing who now had now taken over Tibet's patronage and protection from them. ==== Exile to Kham ==== Having vanquished the Dzungars, the Qing army withdrew leaving the Seventh Dalai Lama as a political figurehead and only a Khalkha Mongol as the Qing amban or representative and a garrison in Lhasa. After the Kangxi Emperor died in 1722 and was succeeded by his son, the Yongzheng Emperor, these were also withdrawn, leaving the Tibetans to rule autonomously and showing the Qing were interested in an alliance, not conquest. Continuing Qing interference in Central Tibetan politics and religion incited an anti-Qing faction to quarrel with the Qing-sympathising Tibetan nobles in power in Lhasa, led by Kanchenas who was supported by Polhanas. This led eventually to the murder of Kanchenas in 1727 and a civil war that was resolved in 1728 with the canny Polhanas, who had sent for Qing assistance, the victor. When the Qing forces did arrive they punished the losers and exiled the Seventh Dalai Lama to Kham, under the pretence of sending him to Beijing, because his father had assisted the defeated, anti-Qing faction. He studied and taught Buddhism there for the next seven years. ==== Return to Lhasa ==== In 1735 he was allowed back to Lhasa to study and teach, but still under strict control, being mistrusted by the Qing, while Polhanas ruled Central Tibet under nominal Qing supervision. Meanwhile, the Qing had promoted the Fifth Panchen Lama to be a rival leader and reinstated the ambans and the Lhasa garrison. Polhanas died in 1747. He was succeeded by his son Gyurme Namgyal, the last dynastic ruler of Tibet, who was far less cooperative with the Qing. He built a Tibetan army and started conspiring with the Dzungars to rid Tibet of Qing influence. In 1750, when the ambans realised this, they invited him and personally assassinated him. Despite the Dalai Lama's attempts to calm the angered populace, a vengeful Tibetan mob assassinated the ambans, along with most of their escort. ==== Restoration as Tibet's political leader ==== The Qing sent yet another force 'to restore order' but when it arrived the situation had already been stabilised under the leadership of the 7th Dalai Lama who was now seen to have demonstrated loyalty to the Qing. Just as Güshi Khan had done with the Fifth Dalai Lama, they therefore helped reconstitute the government with the Dalai Lama presiding over a Kashag of four Tibetans, reinvesting him with temporal power in addition to his already established spiritual leadership. This arrangement, with a Kashag under the Dalai Lama or his regent, outlasted the Qing dynasty which collapsed in 1912. The ambans and their garrison were reinstated to observe and to some extent supervise affairs. Their influence generally waned with the power of their empire, which gradually declined after 1792 along with its influence over Tibet, a decline aided by a succession of corrupt or incompetent ambans. Moreover, there was soon no reason for the Qing to fear the Dzungar; by the time the Seventh Dalai Lama died in 1757 at the age of 49, the entire Dzungar people had been practically exterminated through years of genocidal campaigns by Qing armies, and deadly smallpox epidemics, with the survivors being forcibly transported into China. Their emptied lands were then awarded to other peoples. According to Mullin, despite living through such violent times Kelzang Gyatso was perhaps 'the most spiritually learned and accomplished of any Dalai Lama', his written works comprising several hundred titles including 'some of Tibet's finest spiritual literary achievements'. Despite his apparent lack of zeal in politics, Kelzang Gyatso is credited with establishing in 1751 the reformed government of Tibet headed by the Dalai Lama, which continued over 200 years until the 1950s, and then in exile. Construction of the Norbulingka, the 'Summer Palace' of the Dalai Lamas in Lhasa was started during Kelzang Gyatso's reign. === 8th Dalai Lama === The Eighth Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso, was born in Tsang in 1758 and died aged 46 having taken little part in Tibetan politics, mostly leaving temporal matters to his regents and the ambans. The Emperor of China exempted him from the lot-drawing ceremony of the Golden Urn. Qianlong Emperor officially accepted Gyiangbai as the 8th Dalai Lama when the 6th Panchen Erdeni came to congratulate the emperor on his 70th birthday in 1780. The emperor granted the 8th Dalai Lama a jade seal of authority and jade sheets of confirmation of authority. The confirmation of authority says: {{blockquote|You, the Dalai Lama, are the legal incarnation of Zhongkapa. You are granted the jade certificate of confirmation of authority and jade seal of authority, which you enshrine in the Potala monastery to guard the gate of Buddhism forever. All documents sent for the country's important ceremonies must be stamped with this seal, and all the other reports can be stamped with the original seal. Since you enjoy such honor, you have to make efforts to promote self-cultivation, study and propagate Buddhism, and help me promote Buddhism and goodness of the previous generation of the Dalai Lama for the people, and for the long life of our country. Nevertheless, Jamphel Gyatso was said to possess all the signs of being the true incarnation of the Seventh. This was claimed to have been confirmed by many portents clear to the Tibetans and so, in 1762, at age five, he was enthroned as the Eighth Dalai Lama at the Potala Palace. At age 23 he was persuaded to assume the throne as ruler of Tibet with a regent to assist him and after three years of this, when the regent went to Beijing as ambassador in 1784, he ruled alone for four more years. But feeling unsuited to worldly affairs and unhappy in this role, he then retired from public office to concentrate on religious activities until his death in 1804. He is also credited with the construction of the Norbulingka "Summer Palace" started by his predecessor and with ordaining 10,000 monks in his efforts to foster monasticism. === 9th to 12th Dalai Lamas === Hugh Richardson's summary of the period covering the four short-lived, 19th-century Dalai Lamas: Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the 14th Dalai Lama, described these unfortunate events as follows, although there are few, if any, indications that any of the four were said to be 'Chinese-appointed imposters': According to Mullin, on the other hand, it is improbable that the Manchus would have murdered any of these four for being 'unmanageable' since it would have been in their best interests to have strong Dalai Lamas ruling in Lhasa, he argues, agreeing with Richardson that it was rather "the ambition and greed for power of Tibetans" that might have caused the Lamas' early deaths. Further, if Tibetan nobles murdered any of them, it would more likely have been in order to protect or enhance their family interests rather than out of suspicion that the Dalai Lamas were seen as Chinese-appointed imposters as suggested by Norbu. They could also have died from illnesses, possibly contracted from diseases to which they had no immunity, carried to Lhasa by the multitudes of pilgrims visiting from nearby countries for blessings. Finally, from the Buddhist point of view, Mullin says, "Simply stated, these four Dalai Lamas died young because the world did not have enough good karma to deserve their presence". Tibetan historian K. Dhondup, however, in his history The Water-Bird and Other Years, based on the Tibetan minister Surkhang Sawang Chenmo's historical manuscripts, disagrees with Mullin's opinion that having strong Dalai Lamas in power in Tibet would have been in China's best interests. He notes that many historians are compelled to suspect Manchu foul play in these serial early deaths because the Ambans had such latitude to interfere; the Manchu, he says, "to perpetuate their domination over Tibetan affairs, did not desire a Dalai Lama who will ascend the throne and become a strong and capable ruler over his own country and people". The life and deeds of the 13th Dalai Lama [in successfully upholding de facto Tibetan independence from China from 1912 to 1950] serve as the living proof of this argument, he points out. This account also corresponds with TJ Norbu's observations above. Finally, while acknowledging the possibility, the 14th Dalai Lama himself doubts they were poisoned. He ascribes the probable cause of these early deaths to negligence, foolishness and lack of proper medical knowledge and attention. "Even today" he is quoted as saying, "when people get sick, some [Tibetans] will say: 'Just do your prayers, you don't need medical treatment.'" ==== 9th Dalai Lama ==== Born in Kham in 1805–6 amidst the usual miraculous signs the Ninth Dalai Lama, Lungtok Gyatso was appointed by the 7th Panchen Lama's search team at the age of two and enthroned in the Potala in 1808 at an impressive ceremony attended by representatives from China, Mongolia, Nepal and Bhutan. Exemption from using Golden Urn was approved by the Emperor. Tibetan historian Nyima Gyaincain and Wang Jiawei point out that the 9th Dalai Lama was allowed to use the seal of authority given to the late 8th Dalai Lama by the Emperor of China His second Regent Demo Tulku was the biographer of the 8th and 9th Dalai Lamas and though the 9th died at the age of 9, his biography is as lengthy as those of many of the early Dalai Lamas. In 1793 under Manchu pressure, Tibet had closed its borders to foreigners. In 1811, a British Sinologist, Thomas Manning became the first Englishman to visit Lhasa. Considered to be 'the first Chinese scholar in Europe' he stayed five months and gave enthusiastic accounts in his journal of his regular meetings with the Ninth Dalai Lama whom he found fascinating: "beautiful, elegant, refined, intelligent, and entirely self-possessed, even at the age of six". Three years later in March 1815 the young Lungtok Gyatso caught a severe cold and, leaving the Potala Palace to preside over the Monlam Prayer Festival, he contracted pneumonia from which he soon died. ==== 10th Dalai Lama ==== Like the Seventh Dalai Lama, the Tenth, Tsultrim Gyatso, was born in Lithang, Kham, where the Third Dalai Lama had built a monastery. It was 1816 and Regent Demo Tulku and the Seventh Panchen Lama followed indications from Nechung, the 'state oracle' which led them to appoint him at the age of two. He passed all the tests and was brought to Lhasa but official recognition was delayed until 1822 when he was enthroned and ordained by the Seventh Panchen Lama. There are conflicting reports about whether the Chinese 'Golden Urn' was utilised by drawing lots to choose him, but lot-drawing result was reported and approved by emperor. The 10th Dalai Lama mentioned in his biography that he was allowed to use the golden seal of authority based on the convention set up by the late Dalai Lama. At the investiture, decree of the Emperor of China was issued and read out. After 15 years of intensive studies and failing health he died, in 1837, at the age of 20 or 21. He identified with ordinary people rather than the court officials and often sat on his verandah in the sunshine with the office clerks. Intending to empower the common people he planned to institute political and economic reforms to share the nation's wealth more equitably. Over this period his health had deteriorated, the implication being that he may have suffered from slow poisoning by Tibetan aristocrats whose interests these reforms were threatening. He was also dissatisfied with his Regent and the Kashag and scolded them for not alleviating the condition of the common people, who had suffered much in small ongoing regional civil wars waged in Kokonor between Mongols, local Tibetans and the government over territory, and in Kham to extract unpaid taxes from rebellious Tibetan communities. ==== 11th Dalai Lama ==== Born in Gathar, Kham in 1838 and soon discovered by the official search committee with the help of the Nechung Oracle, the Eleventh Dalai Lama was brought to Lhasa in 1841 and recognised, enthroned and named Khedrup Gyatso by the Panchen Lama on April 16, 1842, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted on the same date. Sitting-in-the-bed ceremony was held in July 1844. After that he was immersed in religious studies under the Panchen Lama, amongst other great masters. Meanwhile, there were court intrigues and ongoing power struggles taking place between the various Lhasa factions, the Regent, the Kashag, the powerful nobles and the abbots and monks of the three great monasteries. The Tsemonling Regent became mistrusted and was forcibly deposed, there were machinations, plots, beatings and kidnappings of ministers and so forth, resulting at last in the Panchen Lama being appointed as interim Regent to keep the peace. Eventually the Third Reting Rinpoche was made Regent, and in 1855, Khedrup Gyatso, appearing to be an extremely promising prospect, was requested to take the reins of power at the age of 17. He was enthroned as ruler of Tibet in 1855, on orders of the Xianfeng Emperor. He died after just 11 months, no reason for his sudden and premature death being given in these accounts, Shakabpa and Mullin's histories both being based on untranslated Tibetan chronicles. The respected Reting Rinpoche was recalled once again to act as Regent and requested to lead the search for the next incarnation, the twelfth. He underwent 13 years of intensive tutelage and training before becoming Tibet's ruler at age 17. His minority seems to have been a time of even deeper Lhasan political intrigue and power struggles than his predecessor's. In 1862 Wangchuk Shetra, a minister the regent had banished for conspiring against him, led a coup. Shetra contrived to return, deposed the regent, who fled to China, and seized power, appointing himself "Desi", or Prime Minister. quelling a major rebellion in northern Kham in 1863 and reestablishing Tibetan control over significant Qing-held territory there. Shetra died in 1864 and the Kashag reassumed power. The retired 76th Ganden Tripa, Khyenrab Wangchuk, was appointed regent but his role was limited to supervising and mentoring Trinley Gyatso. On the other hand, without citing sources, Shakabpa notes that Trinley Gyatso was influenced and manipulated by two close acquaintances who were subsequently accused of having a hand in his fatal illness and imprisoned, tortured, and exiled as a result. === 13th Dalai Lama === In 1877, request to exempt Lobu Zangtab Kaijia Mucuo () from using lot-drawing process Golden Urn to become the 13th Dalai Lama was approved by the Central Government. The 13th Dalai Lama assumed ruling power from the monasteries, which previously had great influence on the Regent, in 1895. Due to his two periods of exile in 1904–1909 to escape the British invasion of 1904, and from 1910–1912 to escape a Chinese invasion, he became well aware of the complexities of international politics and was the first Dalai Lama to become aware of the importance of foreign relations. After his return from exile in India and Sikkim during January 1913, he assumed control of foreign relations and dealt directly with the Maharaja, with the British Political officer in Sikkim and with the king of Nepal – rather than letting the Kashag or parliament do it. The Great Thirteenth Thubten Gyatso then published the Tibetan Declaration of Independence for the entirety of Tibet in 1913. Tibet's independence was never recognized by the Chinese (who claimed all land ever administered by the Manchus) but was recognized by the Kingdom of Nepal, who would use Tibet as one of its first references regarding its independent status when submitting an application to join the UN in 1949. According to a Tibetan website, Nepal listed Tibet as a country just as independent and sovereign, with no mention of Chinese 'suzerainty'. Its relations with Tibet were apparently second in significance only to its relations with Britain, and even more significant than its relations with the USA or even India. Nepal established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China in 1955 and recognized Tibet as a part of China. Furthermore, Tibet and Mongolia both signed the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet. Neither countries' independence statuses were ever recognized by the KMT government in China, who would continue to completely claim both as Chinese territory. He expelled the ambans and all Chinese civilians in the country and instituted many measures to modernize Tibet. These included provisions to curb excessive demands on peasants for provisions by the monasteries and tax evasion by the nobles, setting up an independent police force, the abolition of the death penalty, extension of secular education, and the provision of electricity throughout the city of Lhasa in the 1920s. He died in 1933. === 14th Dalai Lama === The 14th Dalai Lama was born on 6 July 1935 on a straw mat in a cowshed to a farmer's family in a remote part of Tibet. According to most Western journalistic sources he was born into a humble family of farmers as one of 16 children, and one of the three reincarnated rinpoches in the same family. On 5 February 1940, the Central Government approved the request to exempt Lhamo Thondup () from the lot-drawing process to become the 14th Dalai Lama. The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the Battle of Chamdo with the People's Republic of China. On 18 April 1959, he issued a statement that in 1951, the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government were pressured into accepting the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet by which it became formally incorporated into the People's Republic of China. The United States informed the Dalai Lama in 1951 that in order to receive its assistance and support he must leave Tibet and publicly disavow "agreements concluded under duress" between Tibetan and Chinese representatives. Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India, where he led a government in exile. With the aim of launching guerrilla operations against the Chinese, the Central Intelligence Agency funded the Dalai Lama's administration with US$1.7 million a year in the 1960s. In 2001, the 14th Dalai Lama ceded his partial power over the government to an elected parliament of Tibetan exiles. His original goal was full independence for Tibet, but by the late 1980s he sought high-level autonomy instead. He continued to seek greater autonomy from China, but Dolma Gyari, deputy speaker of the parliament-in-exile, said: "If the middle path fails in the short term, we will be forced to opt for complete independence or self-determination as per the UN charter". The 14th Dalai Lama became one of the two most popular world leaders by 2013 (tied with Barack Obama), according to a poll by Harris Interactive of New York, which sampled public opinion in the U.S. and six major European countries. In 2014 and 2016, he said that Tibet wants to be part of China but China should let Tibet preserve its culture and script. In 2018, he said that "Europe belongs to the Europeans" and that Europe has a moral obligation to aid refugees whose lives are in peril. He added that Europe should receive, help, and educate refugees but that they should ultimately return to develop their home countries. He made similar comments in an interview the next year. He also said that a female Dalai Lama "should be more attractive" because if she looked a certain way people would "prefer not see … that face". In 2019, the Dalai Lama spoke out about his successor, saying that after his death he is likely to be reincarnated in India. He also warned that any Chinese interference in succession should be considered invalid. The Dalai Lama's succession also involves Mongolia, given its strong Tibetan Buddhist ties. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the latest one chosen from Mongolia, is the third most important figure in the Tibetan Buddhist hierarchy, and plays a significant role in the recognition of the next Dalai Lama. In 2020, the Dalai Lama said he did not support Tibetan independence and hoped to visit China as a Nobel Prize winner. He said "I prefer the concept of a 'republic' in the People's Republic of China. In the concept of a republic, ethnic minorities are like Tibetans, Mongols, Manchus, and Xinjiang Uyghurs. We can live in harmony". In 2021, he praised India as a role model for religious harmony in the world. In 2023, a video showed the Dalai Lama in the city of Dharamshala, India, asking a boy for a kiss on the lips, and then to suck his tongue. He later apologized and expressed regret through a statement that claimed he "often teases people he meets in an innocent and playful way, even in public and before cameras" and "regrets the incident". == Residences == The first Dalai Lama was based at Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, which he founded. The Second to the Fifth Dalai Lamas were mainly based at Drepung Monastery outside Lhasa. In 1645, after the unification of Tibet, the Fifth moved to the ruins of a royal fortress or residence on top of Marpori ('Red Mountain') in Lhasa and decided to build a palace on the same site. This ruined palace, called Tritse Marpo, was originally built around A.D. 636 by the founder of the Tibetan Empire, Songtsen Gampo for his Nepalese wife. Amongst the ruins there was just a small temple left where Tsongkhapa had given a teaching when he arrived in Lhasa in the 1380s. The Fifth Dalai Lama began construction of the Potala Palace on this site in 1645, File:Potala.jpg|Potala Palace File:Norbulinka. August, 1993.JPG|Norbulingka == Searching for the reincarnation == By the Himalayan tradition, phowa is the discipline that is believed to transfer the mindstream to the intended body. Upon the death of the Dalai Lama and consultation with the Nechung Oracle, a search for the Lama's yangsi, or reincarnation, is conducted. The government of the People's Republic of China has stated its intention to be the ultimate authority on the selection of the next Dalai Lama. High Lamas may also claim to have a vision by a dream or if the Dalai Lama was cremated, they will often monitor the direction of the smoke as an 'indication' of the direction of the expected rebirth. In his autobiography, Freedom in Exile, the 14th Dalai Lama wrote that after he dies it is possible that his people will no longer want a Dalai Lama, in which case there would be no search for the Lama's reincarnation. "So, I might take rebirth as an insect, or an animal—whatever would be of most value to the largest number of sentient beings" (p. 237). The Dalai Lama is thought to be a type of "living [Buddhist] god". === List of Dalai Lamas === There have been 14 recognised incarnations of the Dalai Lama: There was also a non-recognised Dalai Lama, Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso, declared 28 June 1707, when he was 25 years old, by Lha-bzang Khan as the "true" 6th Dalai Lama. He was never accepted as such by the majority of the population. == Future of the position == The government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of "high" reincarnations in Tibet, based on a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama by a lottery that used a Golden Urn with names wrapped in clumps of barley. This method was used a few times for both positions during the 19th century, but eventually fell into disuse. In 1995, the Dalai Lama chose to proceed with the selection of the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama without the use of the Golden Urn, while the Chinese government insisted that it must be used. This has led to two rival Panchen Lamas: Gyaincain Norbu as chosen by the Chinese government's process, and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as chosen by the Dalai Lama. However, Nyima was abducted by the Chinese government shortly after being chosen as the Panchen Lama and has not been seen in public since 1995. In September 2007, the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin Gyatso. Since by tradition, the Panchen Lama must approve the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, that is another possible method of control. Consequently, the Dalai Lama has alluded to the possibility of a referendum to determine the 15th Dalai Lama. The 14th Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the institution of the Dalai Lama "should continue or not". He has given reference to a possible vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize his rebirth. In response to the possibility that the PRC might attempt to choose his successor, the Dalai Lama said he would not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of China or any other country which is not free. According to Robert D. Kaplan, this could mean that "the next Dalai Lama might come from the Tibetan cultural belt that stretches across Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, and Bhutan, presumably making him even more pro-Indian and hence anti-Chinese". The 14th Dalai Lama supported the possibility that his next incarnation could be a woman. As an "engaged Buddhist" the Dalai Lama has an appeal straddling cultures and political systems making him one of the most recognized and respected moral voices today. "Despite the complex historical, religious and political factors surrounding the selection of incarnate masters in the exiled Tibetan tradition, the Dalai Lama is open to change", author Michaela Haas writes. Despite the tradition of selecting young children, the 14th Dalai Lama can also name an adult as his next incarnation. Doing so would have the advantage that the successor would not need to spend decades studying Buddhism and could immediately be taken seriously as a leader by the Tibetan diaspora.
[ "Harris Insights & Analytics", "Khoshut", "Maharaja", "Je Tsongkhapa", "CIA Tibetan program", "Qing conquest of the Ming", "NDTV", "Tibetan diaspora", "List of rulers of Tibet", "Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo", "Sam van Schaik", "Lhasa", "Engaged spirituality", "Barack Obama", "priest-patron", "Tawang", "Kumbum Monastery", "Chinese language", "Monlam Prayer Festival", "Glenn H. Mullin", "Gyaincain Norbu", "Cultural Revolution", "Songtsen Gampo", "Eighth Dalai Lama", "Seventh Panchen Lama", "Karmapa", "Standard Tibetan", "Nechung Oracle", "Gelug", "Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet", "Tibetan pinyin", "tulku", "Avalokiteśvara", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Ming dynasty", "Ü-Tsang", "8th Dalai Lama", "BBC News", "First Dalai Lama", "Shamanism", "Central Tibet", "Manchus", "Mongolic languages", "de:Bodong Chogle Namgyel", "Tsongkhapa", "regent", "Sikkim", "The Independent", "7th Dalai Lama", "Nechung", "Golden Urn", "Patron and priest relationship", "Lhamo Latso", "Namgyal Monastery", "Wanli Emperor", "Priest-patron", "amban", "Dzungars", "2nd Dalai Lama", "Tibet", "Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet", "McLeod Ganj", "Sera Monastery", "Columbia University Press", "9th Dalai Lama", "Yunnan", "Kublai Khan", "Tsangpa", "Gyurme Namgyal", "Sonam Rapten", "List of Dalai Lamas", "Trend News Agency", "Greater Tibet", "Dharamshala", "14th Dalai Lama", "Wylie transliteration", "Qing", "Qianlong Emperor", "Wikinews", "Ningxia", "Hohhot", "Ganden Phodrang", "Lhasa River", "Lhamo Lhatso", "7th Panchen Lama", "Xianfeng Emperor", "Melvyn Goldstein", "Macmillan Publishers", "Chokorgyel Monastery", "Gendun Gyatso", "Monlam", "CNN", "13th Dalai Lama", "Gedhun Choekyi Nyima", "stupa", "Mongol", "Alexandra David-Neel", "Kadampa", "Kangxi Emperor", "Gendun Drub", "Central Tibetan Administration", "Karma Kagyu", "Jokhang", "Sakya (tribe)", "reincarnated soul boy", "Dzungar people", "Kumbum", "Gushri Khan", "Tashi Lhunpo Monastery", "Asia Times", "phowa", "n:Dalai Lama's representative talks about China, Tibet, Shugden and the next Dalai Lama", "Shigatse", "Yonten Gyatso", "Routledge", "Ganden", "kowtow", "Dartsedo", "Yeshe Gyatso", "People's Republic of China", "regents", "10th Dalai Lama", "Phagmo Drupa", "Khangchenné", "priest and patron", "de:Dagpo (Region)", "Desi Sangye Gyatso", "Kubilai Khan", "Jawaharlal Nehru", "Kham", "Nyingma", "Seventh Dalai Lama", "Bhutan", "Khoshut Khanate", "Drakpa Jungne", "Smithsonian (magazine)", "Tibetan Plateau", "Yongzheng Emperor", "11th Dalai Lama", "Pholhane", "Tibetan government in exile", "Sangye Gyatso", "Jamphel Gyatso", "Jonangpa", "Derge", "Kelzang Gyatso", "Trinley Gyatso", "central Tibet", "Altan Khan", "Ngawang Tashi Drakpa", "Tibetan independence movement", "Narthang Monastery", "11th Panchen Lama", "Michaela Haas", "Ming Veritable Records", "Himachal Pradesh", "bodhisattva", "Dzungaria", "Nêdong (village)", "prince regent", "Tsangyang Gyatso", "Khalkha Mongols", "4th Dalai Lama", "Mongolia", "Heinrich Harrer", "Litang County", "Chahars", "15th Dalai Lama", "Chingizid", "Norbulingka", "Panchen Lamas", "Lhamo La-tso", "Fifth Panchen Lama", "Kashag", "Khalkha Mongol", "Archbishop", "Qing dynasty", "Hugh Edward Richardson", "Khedrup Gyatso", "Tenzin Dalai Khan", "Seventeen Point Agreement", "Oirats", "Polhané Sönam Topgyé", "12th Dalai Lama", "1959 Tibetan uprising", "State Religious Affairs Bureau Order No. 5", "Lobsang Gyatso", "Succession of the 14th Dalai Lama", "Dorgon", "Samten Karmay", "Sohu", "Lhazang Khan", "Index of Buddhism-related articles", "Khalka Mongols", "Sitting-in-the-bed", "Tibetan Empire", "Thubten Jigme Norbu", "Ligdan Khan", "Dromtönpa", "Vajradhara", "Dayan Khan (Khoshut)", "Bönpo", "Xining", "Thomas Manning (sinologist)", "Tibetan Buddhism", "Seven Years in Tibet", "Güshi Khan", "Amdo", "Depa Norbu", "Chinghai Lake", "Karma Tenkyong", "F. Spencer Chapman", "Lahaul", "Time (magazine)", "The Australian", "Drogön Chögyal Phagpa", "Lake Qinghai", "Shakabpa", "The Discourse of Lama", "sacred lake", "Choghtu Khong Tayiji", "Nepal", "reincarnation", "The Times of India", "Battle of the Salween River", "Tsewang Rabtan", "6th Dalai Lama", "Amban", "Gelugpa", "Ganden Tripa", "Freedom in Exile", "Imam", "Qinghai", "Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama", "Reuters", "5th Dalai Lama", "Ü (region)", "Tashi Wangdi", "Tashilhunpo Monastery", "Kongpo", "Panchen Lama", "The New York Times", "Tibetan people", "Tümed", "Avalokiteshvara", "Potala Palace", "Drepung", "Manchu people", "Trump (card games)", "Autonomous", "Lha-bzang Khan", "Robert D. Kaplan", "3rd Dalai Lama", "Battle of Chamdo", "1st Dalai Lama", "29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet", "Buddha", "History of Tibet" ]
8,134
Damages
At common law, damages are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury. To warrant the award, the claimant must show that a breach of duty has caused foreseeable loss. To be recognized at law, the loss must involve damage to property, or mental or physical injury; pure economic loss is rarely recognized for the award of damages. Compensatory damages are further categorized into special damages, which are economic losses such as loss of earnings, property damage and medical expenses, and general damages, which are non-economic damages such as pain and suffering and emotional distress. Rather than being compensatory, at common law damages may instead be nominal, contemptuous or exemplary. ==History== Among the Saxons, a monetary value called a weregild was assigned to every human being and every piece of property in the Salic Code. If property was stolen or someone was injured or killed, the guilty person had to pay the weregild as restitution to the victim's family or to the owner of the property. == Proof of damages == ===Proximate cause=== Recovery of damages by a plaintiff in lawsuit is subject to the legal principle that damages must be proximately caused by the wrongful conduct of the defendant. This is known as the principle of proximate cause. This principle governs the recovery of all compensatory damages, whether the underlying claim is based on contract, tort, or both. Damages are likely to be limited to those reasonably foreseeable by the defendant. If a defendant could not reasonably have foreseen that someone might be hurt by their actions, there may be no liability. This rule does not usually apply to intentional torts (for example, tort of deceit), and also has stunted applicability to the quantum in negligence where the maxim 'Intended consequences are never too remote' applies: 'never' is inaccurate here but resorts to unforeseeable direct and natural consequences of an act. ===Expert testimony=== It may be useful for the lawyers, the plaintiff and/or the defendant to employ forensic accountants or someone trained in the relevant field of economics to give evidence on the value of the loss. In this case, they may be called upon to give opinion evidence as an expert witness. == Compensatory damages == Compensatory damages are paid to compensate the claimant for loss, injury, or harm suffered by the claimant as a result of another's breach of duty that caused the loss. For example, compensatory damages may be awarded as the result of a negligence claim under tort law. Expectation damages are used in contract law to put an injured party in the position it would have occupied but for the breach. Compensatory damages can be classified as special damages and general damages. ===Quantum (measure) of damages=== Liability for payment of an award of damages is established when the claimant proves, on the balance of probabilities, that a defendant's wrongful act caused a tangible, harm, loss or injury to the plaintiff. Once that threshold is met, the plaintiff is entitled to some amount of recovery for that loss or injury. No recovery is not an option. The court must then assess the amount of compensation attributable to the harmful acts of the defendant. The amount of damages a plaintiff would recover is usually measured on a "loss of bargain" basis, also known as expectation loss, or "economic loss". This concept reflects the difference between "the value of what has been received and its value as represented". Damages are usually assessed at the date of the wrongful act, but in England and Wales, Pelling J has observed that this is not the case if justice requires the assessment of damages to be calculated at some other date. In Murfin v Ford Campbell, an agreement had been entered into whereby company shares were exchanged for loan notes, which could only be redeemed if certain profit thresholds had been achieved in the relevant accounting years. As the thresholds were not met, the loan notes were not redeemable, but at the date of the advisors' breach of contract this could not be known, only the loan notes' face value could be known. The conclusion was that in this case valuation could not be done until after the profit performance became known. In his judgement Pelling also referred to the case of Smith New Court Securities Ltd v Scrimgeour Vickers (Asset Management) Ltd, a case where continuing misrepresentation affected the appropriate date for damages to be assessed. ===Special damages=== Special damages compensate the claimant for the quantifiable monetary losses he has suffered. For example, extra costs, repair or replacement of damaged property, lost earnings (both historically and in the future), loss of irreplaceable items, additional domestic costs, and so on. They are seen in both personal and commercial actions. Special damages can include direct losses (such as amounts the claimant had to spend to try to mitigate damages) and consequential or economic losses resulting from lost profits in a business. Damages in tort are awarded generally to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the tort not taken place. Damages for breach of contract are generally awarded to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the contract not been breached. This can often result in a different measure of damages. In cases where it is possible to frame a claim in either contract or tort, it is necessary to be aware of what gives the best outcome. If the transaction was a "good bargain", contract generally gives a better result for the claimant. As an example, Neal agrees to sell Mary an antique Rolex watch for £100. In fact the watch is a fake and worth only £50. If it had been a genuine antique Rolex, it would have been worth £500. Neal is in breach of contract and could be sued. In contract, Mary is entitled to an item worth £500, but she has only one worth £50. Her damages are £450. Neal also induced Mary to enter into the contract through a misrepresentation (a tort). If Mary sues in tort, she is entitled to damages that put her back to the same financial position place she would have been in had the misrepresentation not been made. She would clearly not have entered into the contract knowing the watch was fake and is entitled to her £100 back. Thus her damages in tort are £100. (She would have to return the watch, or else her damages would be £50.) If the transaction were a "bad bargain", tort gives a better result for the claimant. If in the above example, Mary had overpaid, paying £750 for the watch, her damages in the contract would still be £450 (giving her the item she contracted to buy), however, in tort damages are £750. ====Incidental and consequential losses==== Special damages are sometimes divided into incidental damages, and consequential damages. Incidental losses include the costs needed to remedy problems and put things right. The largest element is likely to be the reinstatement of property damage. Take for example a factory which was burnt down by the negligence of a contractor. The claimant would be entitled to the direct costs required to rebuild the factory and replace the damaged machinery. The claimant may also be entitled to any consequential losses. These may include the lost profits that the claimant could have been expected to make in the period whilst the factory was closed and rebuilt. ====Breach of contract duty - (ex contract)==== On a breach of contract by a defendant, a court generally awards the sum that would restore the injured party to the economic position they expected from performance of the promise or promises (known as an "expectation measure" or "benefit-of-the-bargain" measure of damages). This rule, however, has attracted increasing scrutiny from Australian courts and legal commentators. A judge arrives compensatory number by considering both the type of contract, and the loss incurred. When it is either not possible or not desirable to award the victim in that way, a court may award money damages designed to restore the injured party to the economic position they occupied at the time the contract was entered (known as the "reliance measure") or designed to prevent the breaching party from being unjustly enriched ("restitution") (see below). Parties may contract for liquidated damages to be paid upon a breach of the contract by one of the parties. Under common law, a liquidated damages clause will not be enforced if the purpose of the term is solely to punish a breach (in this case it is termed penal damages). The clause will be enforceable if it involves a genuine attempt to quantify a loss in advance and is a good faith estimate of economic loss. Courts have ruled as excessive and invalidated damages which the parties contracted as liquidated, but which the court nonetheless found to be penal. To determine whether a clause is a liquidated damages clause or a penalty clause, it is necessary to consider: {{Ordered list |list_style_type=lower-roman |Whether the clause is 'extravagant, out of all proportion, exorbitant or unconscionable' |Whether there is a single sum stipulated for a number of different breaches, or individual sums for each breach |Whether a genuine pre-estimate of damage is ascertainable This is not easily quantifiable, and depends on the individual circumstances of the claimant. Judges in the United Kingdom base the award on damages awarded in similar previous cases. In 2012 the Court of Appeal of England and Wales noted that General damages in England and Wales were increased by 10% for all cases where judgements were given after 1 April 2013, following changes to the options available to personal injury claimants wanting to cover the cost of their litigation. General damages are generally awarded only in claims brought by individuals, when they have suffered personal harm. Examples would be personal injury (following the tort of negligence by the defendant), or the tort of defamation. ====General damages in personal injury cases==== The quantification of personal injury is not an exact science. In English law solicitors treat personal injury claims as "general damages" for pain and suffering and loss of amenity (PSLA). Solicitors quantify personal injury claims by reference to previous awards made by the courts which are "similar" to the case in hand. The Judicial College's Guidelines for the Assessment of General Damages in Personal Injury Cases are adjusted following periodic review of the awards which have been made by the courts since the previous review. The guidance which solicitors will take into account to help quantify general damages are: The age of the client: The age of the client is important especially when dealing with fatal accident claims or permanent injuries. The younger the injured victim with a permanent injury the longer that person has to live with the PSLA. As a consequence, the greater the compensation payment. In fatal accident claims, generally the younger deceased, the greater the dependency claim by the partner and children. The nature and extent of the injuries sustained: Solicitors will consider "like for like" injuries with the case in hand and similar cases decided by the courts previously. These cases are known as precedents. Generally speaking decisions from the higher courts will bind the lower courts. Therefore, judgments from the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal have greater authority than the lower courts such as the High Court and the County Court. A compensation award can only be right or wrong with reference to that specific judgment. Solicitors must be careful when looking at older cases when quantifying a claim to ensure that the award is brought up to date and to take into account the court of appeal case in Heil v Rankin Generally speaking the greater the injury the greater the damages awarded. Personal attributes and fortitude of the client: This heading is inextricably linked with the other points above. Where two clients are of the same age, experience and suffer the same injury, it does not necessarily mean that they will be affected the same. We are all different. Some people will recover more quickly than others. The courts will assess each claim on its own particular facts and therefore if one claimant recovers more quickly than another, the damages will be reflected accordingly. It is important to note here that "psychological injuries" may also follow from an accident which may increase the quantum of damages. When a personal injury claim is settled either in court or out of court, the most common way the compensation payment is made is by a lump sum award in full and final settlement of the claim. Once accepted there can be no further award for compensation at a later time unless the claim is settled by provisional damages often found in industrial injury claims such as asbestos related injuries. == Statutory damages == Statutory damages are an amount stipulated within the statute rather than calculated based on the degree of harm to the plaintiff. Lawmakers will provide for statutory damages for acts in which it is difficult to determine the value of the harm to the victim. Mere violation of the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award, even if no actual injury occurred. These are different from nominal damages, in which no written sum is specified. == Nominal damages == Nominal damages are very small damages awarded to show that the loss or harm suffered was technical rather than actual. Perhaps the most famous nominal damages award in modern times has been the $1 verdict against the National Football League (NFL) in the 1986 antitrust suit prosecuted by the United States Football League. Although the verdict was automatically trebled pursuant to antitrust law in the United States, the resulting $3 judgment was regarded as a victory for the NFL. Historically, one of the best known nominal damage awards was the farthing that the jury awarded to James Whistler in his libel suit against John Ruskin. In the English jurisdiction, nominal damages are generally fixed at £5. Many times a party that has been wronged but is not able to prove significant damages will sue for nominal damages. This is particularly common in cases involving alleged violations of constitutional rights, such as freedom of speech. Until 2021, in the United States, there was a circuit split as to whether nominal damages may be used if a constitutional violation had occurred but has since been rendered moot. The Supreme Court decided 8–1 in the 2021 case Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski that nominal damages are appropriate means to redress violated rights otherwise now rendered moot. === Contemptuous damages === Contemptuous damages are a form of damage award available in some jurisdictions. They are similar to nominal damages awards, as they are given when the plaintiff's suit is trivial, used only to settle a point of honor or law. Awards are usually of the smallest amount, usually 1 cent or similar. The key distinction is that in jurisdictions that follow the loser-pays for attorney fees, the claimant in a contemptuous damages case may be required to pay their own attorney fees. Traditionally, the court awarded the smallest coin in the Realm, which in England was one farthing, 1/960 of a pound before decimalisation in the 1970s. Court costs are not awarded. == Punitive damages (non-compensatory) == Generally, punitive damages, which are also termed exemplary damages in the United Kingdom, are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant and similar persons from pursuing a course of action such as that which damaged the plaintiff. Punitive damages are awarded only in special cases where conduct was egregiously insidious and are over and above the amount of compensatory damages, such as in the event of malice or intent. Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their application. In the United States punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the due process of law clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. In England and Wales, exemplary damages are limited to the circumstances set out by Lord Devlin in the leading case of Rookes v. Barnard. They are: Oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional actions by the servants of government. Where the defendant's conduct was 'calculated' to make a profit for himself. Where a statute expressly authorises the same. Rookes v Barnard has been much criticized and has not been followed in Canada or Australia or by the Privy Council. Punitive damages awarded in a US case would be difficult to get recognition for in a European court, where punitive damages are most likely to be considered to violate . === Aggravated damages === Some jurisdictions recognize a form of damages, called, aggravated damages, that are similar to punitive or exemplary damages. Aggravated damages are not often awarded; they apply where the injury has been aggravated by the wrongdoer's behaviour, for example, their cruelty. == Restitutionary or disgorgement damages == In certain areas of the law another head of damages has long been available, whereby the defendant is made to give up the profits made through the civil wrong in restitution. Doyle and Wright define restitutionary damages as being a monetary remedy that is measured according to the defendant's gain rather than the plaintiff's loss. The plaintiff thereby gains damages which are not measured by reference to any loss sustained. In some areas of the law this heading of damages is uncontroversial; most particularly intellectual property rights and breach of fiduciary relationship. In England and Wales the House of Lords case of Attorney-General v. Blake opened up the possibility of restitutionary damages for breach of contract. In this case the profits made by a defecting spy, George Blake, for the publication of his book, were awarded to the British Government for breach of contract. The case has been followed in English courts, but the situations in which restitutionary damages will be available remain unclear. The basis for restitutionary damages is much debated, but is usually seen as based on denying a wrongdoer any profit from his wrongdoing. The really difficult question, and one which is currently unanswered, relates to what wrongs should allow this remedy. ==Legal costs== In addition to damages, the successful party is often entitled to be awarded their reasonable legal costs that they spent during the case. This is the rule in most countries other than the United States. In the United States, a party generally is not entitled to its attorneys' fees or for hardships undergone during trial unless the parties agreed in a contract that attorney's fees should be covered or a specific statute or law permits recovery of legal fees, such as discrimination.
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8,137
Disaster
A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone. Human-made disasters like oil spills, terrorist attacks and power outages are caused by people. Nowadays, it is hard to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen. Disasters usually hit people in developing countries harder than people in wealthy countries. Over 95% of deaths from disasters happen in low-income countries, and those countries lose a lot more money compared to richer countries. For example, the damage from natural disasters is 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries. It results from hazards in places where people live in exposed or vulnerable conditions. Some human failures make communities vulnerable to climate hazards. These are poor planning or development, or a lack of preparation. Disasters are events that have an effect on people. A hazard that overwhelms or injures a community is considered a disaster. The international disaster database EM-DAT defines a disaster as “a situation or event that overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request for external assistance at the national or international level; it is an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering.” The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. "an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented." Like other definitions this looks beyond the social aspects of the disaster impacts. It also focuses on losses. This raises the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster. It does not set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury. A study in 1969 defined major disasters as conforming to the following criteria, based on the amount of deaths or damage: At least 100 people dead, at least 100 people injured, or at least $1 million damage. This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster. These could be the effects of diseases such as cholera or dysentery arising from the disaster. This definition is still commonly used. However it is limited to the number of deaths, injuries, and damage in money terms. === Related to natural hazards === Disasters with links to natural hazards are commonly called natural disasters. However experts have questioned this term for a long time. === Unrelated to natural hazards === Human-made disasters are serious harmful events caused by human actions and social processes. Technological hazards also fall into this category. That is because they result in human-instigated disasters. Human-made hazards are sometimes called anthropogenic hazards. Catastrophic climate change, nuclear war, and bioterrorism also fall into this category. Climate change and environmental degradation are sometimes called socio-natural hazards. These are hazards involving a combination of both natural and human factors. Famines may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire or pestilence. In modern times there is plenty of food globally. Long-lasting local shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed. === Others === Complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific hazard may also spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami. This results in coastal flooding, damaging a nuclear power plant on the coast. The Fukushima nuclear disaster is a case in point. Experts examine these cascading events to see how risks and impacts can amplify and spread. This is particularly important given the increase in climate risks. Some researchers distinguish between recurring events like seasonal flooding and unpredictable one-off events. Recurring events often carry an estimate of how often they occur. Experts call this the return period. == Impacts == The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. Over the 40-year period from 1980 to 2020 losses were estimated at $5.2 trillion. === Human impacts === In 2023, natural hazard-related disasters resulted in 86,473 fatalities and affected 93.1 million people. These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards. === Effects of climate change === Hazards such as droughts, floods, and cyclones are naturally occurring phenomena. However, climate change has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. They thus contribute to disaster risks. Countries contributing most to climate change are often at the lowest risk of feeling the consequences. As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation.]] ===Disaster response=== ==Etymology== The word disaster is derived from Middle French ' which comes from Old Italian '. This in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix - (-) "bad" and (), "star". So the word disaster ("bad star" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets.
[ "sit-in", "List of accidents and disasters by death toll", "atmospheric circulation", "astrology", "Lightning strike", "thunderstorm", "nuclear war", "nuclear power", "Freezing rain", "industrialized countries", "extreme weather", "crowd crush", "United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction", "Tropical cyclones and climate change", "squall", "power outage", "Italian language", "hazard", "Civil unrest", "Flood", "United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs", "climate risk", "terrorist attacks", "nuclear radiation", "climate change adaptation", "September 11 attacks", "climate change", "ReliefWeb", "European Commission", "Lists of disasters", "wildfires", "terrorist attack", "World Trade Center (1973–2001)", "Ancient Greek", "developing country", "nuclear explosion", "Crime", "Undro", "Civil disorder", "Climate change", "cyclone", "transport accidents", "Nuclear and radiation accidents", "acid rain", "return period", "Academy of Turku", "smog", "natural hazard", "Landslide", "industrial accident", "Avalanche", "Aid agency", "Heat wave", "Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System", "Earthquake", "Effects of climate change", "Disaster risk reduction", "Gustaf Wilhelm Finnberg", "Volcanic eruption", "Blizzard", "Fire", "Developing country", "climate hazards", "Natural disaster", "Bioterrorism", "Famine", "EM-DAT", "Low-pressure area", "Emergency management", "terrorism", "natural disaster", "emergency management", "Wildfire", "Fukushima nuclear disaster", "Beaufort scale", "Middle French", "Power failure", "Storm", "bioterrorism", "tsunami", "flood", "Tsunami", "coastal flooding", "oil spills", "Limnic eruption", "Tropical cyclone", "Hazardous material", "avalanche", "The New York Times", "drought", "Climate change vulnerability", "earthquake", "fire", "Great Fire of Turku", "Natural hazard" ]
8,138
Dino Zoff
Dino Zoff (; born 28 February 1942) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. Regarded as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, he is the oldest ever winner of the World Cup, which he lifted as captain of the Italy national team in the 1982 tournament, at the age of 40 years, 4 months and 13 days. He also won the award for best goalkeeper of the tournament and was elected to the team of the tournament for his performances, keeping two clean-sheets, an honour he also received after winning the 1968 European Championship on home soil. Zoff is the only Italian player to have won both the World Cup and the European Championship. He also achieved great club success with Juventus, winning six Serie A titles, two Coppa Italia titles, and a UEFA Cup, also reaching two European Champions' Cup finals in the 1972–73 and 1982–83 seasons, as well as finishing second in the 1973 Intercontinental Cup final. Zoff was a goalkeeper of outstanding ability, and he has a place in the history of the sport among the very best in this role, being named the third greatest goalkeeper of the 20th century by the IFFHS behind Lev Yashin and Gordon Banks. He holds the record for the longest playing time without allowing goals in international tournaments (1,142 minutes) set between 1972 and 1974. Haiti's Emmanuel Sanon ended the streak at the 1974 FIFA World Cup, in the Haiti–Italy group match. With 112 caps, he is the eighth most capped player for the Italy national team. In 2004, Pelé named Zoff as one of the 100 greatest living footballers. In the same year, Zoff placed fifth in the UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll, and was elected as Italy's golden player of the past 50 years. He also placed second in the 1973 Ballon d'Or, as he narrowly missed out on a treble with Juventus. In 1999, Zoff placed 47th in World Soccer magazine's 100 Greatest Players of the Twentieth Century. After retiring as a footballer, Zoff went on to pursue a managerial career, coaching the Italy national team, with which he reached the Euro 2000 final, losing to France, and several Italian club teams, including his former club Juventus, with which he won an UEFA Cup and a Coppa Italia double during the 1989–90 season, trophies he had also won as a player. In September 2014, Zoff published his Italian autobiography Dura solo un attimo, la gloria (Glory only Lasts a Moment). ==Early life== Dino Zoff was born in Mariano del Friuli, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy into a farming family. Upon his father's suggestion, Zoff initially also pursued studies to be a mechanic in case his football career proved to be unsuccessful. As a young aspiring footballer, Zoff was also interested in other sports, and his two main role models were the cyclist Fausto Coppi, and the race walker Abdon Pamich. ==Club career== ===Udinese, Mantova and Napoli=== Zoff's career got off to an inauspicious start, when at the age of fourteen he had trials with Inter Milan and Juventus, but was rejected due to a lack of height. he made his Serie A debut with Udinese on 24 September 1961, in a 5–2 defeat to Fiorentina, although Zoff was not criticised for any of the goals he conceded. Zoff made only four appearances in his first season for Udinese, as they were relegated to Serie B. He played the next season as the club's starting goalkeeper, helping the club to Serie A promotion, before moving to Mantova in 1963, where he spent four seasons, making 131 appearances. His performances for Mantova in the top flight caught the attention of larger clubs, while Italy's national coach at the time, Edmondo Fabbri, even considered bringing him as a back-up for the 1966 FIFA World Cup, although he ultimately chose to bring Enrico Albertosi, Roberto Anzolin, and Pierluigi Pizzaballa instead. In 1967, Zoff was transferred to Napoli, in exchange for fellow goalkeeper Claudio Bandoni, and a transfer fee of 130 million Lire; he spent five seasons in Naples, making 143 Serie A appearances with the club. During this time, he began to achieve increasing recognition in Italy, also making his International debut with the Italy national side in 1968, and earning a place in Italy's squads at Euro 68 and the 1970 World Cup. and the semi-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup during the 1979–80 season. Overall, Zoff made 479 appearances for Juventus in all competitions, making 330 Serie A appearances with the club (all of which came consecutively, a club record), 74 in the Coppa Italia, 71 in European competitions, and 4 in other club competitions. He is currently Juventus's 6th record appearance holder in all competitions, their 7th all-time appearance holder in Serie A, their 3rd all-time appearance holder in the Coppa Italia, their 7th all-time appearance holder in UEFA club competitions, and their 9th all-time appearance holder in international club competitions. Zoff won his final Serie A championship with Juventus during the 1981–82 Serie A season, also winning the 1982 FIFA World Cup with Italy that year, as his team's captain. During the following 1982–83 season, the final season of his career, Dino Zoff won the Coppa Italia with defending Serie A champions Juventus, and he reached his second European Cup final with the club in 1983; Juventus were defeated 1–0 by Hamburg in Athens on 25 May, after Zoff was beaten by Felix Magath's long-distance strike; this was the final club match of his career. His final league appearance came in a 4–2 home win over Genoa on 15 May 1983.|name="combi-record"|group="nb"}} Buffon broke the record during the 2015–16 season. He also held the Serie A record for most consecutive clean sheets alongside Rossi (9), until Gianluigi Buffon overtook them both with his 10th consecutive clean sheet in 2016. With 570 Serie A appearances, Zoff is also the sixth highest appearance holder in Serie A of all time, and he is the fourth oldest player in Serie A to have ever played a match. ==International career== Prior to representing the senior Italian side, Zoff had won a gold medal with the Italy under-23 side at the 1963 Mediterranean Games. On 20 April 1968, Zoff made his senior debut for Italy, playing in a 2–0 win against Bulgaria in the quarter finals of the 1968 European Championships, in Naples. Zoff ended up being promoted to starting goalkeeper over his perceived career rival Enrico Albertosi during the tournament, and Italy proceeded to win the European Championship on home soil, with Zoff taking home a winners' medal after only his fourth international appearance, keeping two clean sheets, and winning the award for the best goalkeeper of the tournament. Zoff was left out of the Italian starting eleven in the 1970 World Cup, however, and was Albertosi's deputy throughout the tournament, as Italy went on to reach the final of the World Cup, and were defeated 4–1 by Brazil. He returned to the starting line-up, however, ahead of Albertosi, in Italy's disappointing 1974 World Cup campaign, during which they would be eliminated in the first round. On 11 July, at the age of 40 years and 133 days, he became the oldest player ever to feature in a World Cup final; following Italy's 3–1 victory over West Germany at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid, he followed in the footsteps of compatriot Gianpiero Combi (1934) as only the second goalkeeper to captain a World Cup-winning side (later Iker Casillas and Hugo Lloris repeated this feat for Spain and France in the 2010 and 2018 World Cups respectively). Due to his performances, he was voted as the Best Goalkeeper of the Tournament. Regarding Zoff's importance during Italy's victorious World Cup campaign, his manager Enzo Bearzot said of him: In the previous years, the same aircraft had been used by Pertini and Pope John Paul II for private and institutional flights. In April 2017, it was put down back in the Museum of Volandia, near Varese. Zoff also holds the record for the longest stretch (1,142 minutes) without allowing any goals in international football, set between 1972 and 1974. That clean sheet stretch was ended by Haitian player Manno Sanon's beautiful goal during Italy's 3–1 win over Haiti in the first round of the 1974 World Cup. Zoff made his final appearance for Italy on 29 May 1983, in a 2–0 away loss to Sweden, in a Euro 1984 qualifying match. At the time of his retirement, Zoff's 112 caps were the most ever by a member of the Italy national team. He currently sits in sixth place in this category, as well as second among goalkeepers, with Gianluigi Buffon having surpassed the latter record.|name="playing-style"|group="nb"}} Considered one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, in 1999 he was elected in a poll by the IFFHS as the third best goalkeeper of the 20th Century – after Lev Yashin (1st) and Gordon Banks (2nd) – as well as Italy's best keeper of the century, and the second best European keeper of the century – behind only Yashin. Although Italy were not top favourites because of a young squad, he coached a young Italy squad to a second-place finish in Euro 2000, suffering a 2–1 extra-time defeat at the hands of reigning World Cup Champions France in the final, due to a golden goal by David Trezeguet. En route to the final, a ten-man Italy had eliminated co-hosts the Netherlands in the semi-finals in a penalty shoot-out, after a 0–0 draw, following extra-time, with a tightly contested defensive display against a more offensive-minded Dutch side. In the final of the tournament, Italy had been 1–0 up for most of the second half, and were less than sixty seconds away from winning the tournament, before France forward Sylvain Wiltord scored in the fourth and final minute of stoppage time to equalise, and send the match into extra time. Despite reaching the final, Zoff resigned a few days later, following strong criticism from AC Milan president and politician Silvio Berlusconi. Zoff was voted the World Soccer Manager of the Year in 2000. ==Style of management== As a manager, Zoff was known for his use of tactics based upon the zona mista system (or "Gioco all'Italiana"), which was a cross between the catenaccio man-marking and zonal marking systems. Although he was initially known for fielding a 4–4–2 formation, at Euro 2000, he used a 5–2–1–2 system with Italy. His teams often used a sweeper, who, in addition to his defensive duties and organisational responsibilities, was also required to start plays from the back. He preferred not to base his team's play on set plays and formations, as he believed that cultivating a good relationship with his players and fostering a winning team mentality were the keys to getting the best out of them, and that this would also allow their natural creativity to come through in matches. ==Personal life and health== Zoff is married to Annamaria Passerini; they have a son, Marco, born in 1967. Zoff is Roman Catholic. On 28 November 2015, it was reported Zoff was hospitalised for three weeks with a viral neurological infection, which made it difficult for him to walk. On 23 December 2015, it was reported Zoff had been recovering well, however stating, "For the first time in my life, I was actually afraid... When I say scared, I wasn't afraid for myself, but for those around me. My wife, my son, my grandchildren. My tribe, basically. I would've really hurt them by leaving." He also revealed, "One night I saw two figures at the end of my bed. They had the faces of Gaetano Scirea [one of his former, deceased teammates] and Enzo Bearzot [one of his former, deceased coaches]. They were both smiling. I wasn't asleep, it wasn't a dream. I told them: 'Not yet, not now.' And I am still here." ==Career statistics== ===Club=== ===Managerial=== Updated 8 March 2023 ==Honours== ===Player=== Juventus Serie A: 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82 Coppa Italia: 1978–79, 1982–83 UEFA Cup: 1976–77 Intercontinental Cup: Runner-up: 1973 European Cup: Runner-up: 1972–73, 1982–83 Italy FIFA World Cup: 1982 UEFA European Championship: 1968 ===Manager=== Juventus 1980 Ballon d'Or: 1973 (2nd place) FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1982 FIFA Order of Merit: 1984 FIFA World Cup Best Goalkeeper: 1982 World XI: 1968, 1975 Sport Ideal European XI: 1973, 1975 IFFHS Italian Goalkeeper of the 20th Century: 1999 UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll: #5 FIFA 100 Golden Foot "Football Legends" Award: 2004 Inducted into the Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2012 Inducted into the Walk of Fame of Italian sport: 2015 IFFHS Legends Manager Seminatore d'oro: 1990 World Soccer Manager of the Year: 2000 ===Orders=== 3rd Class / Commander: Commendatore Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 1982 2nd Class / Grand Officer: Grande Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 2000 ===Records=== FIFA World Cup: Oldest player to play in and win a final, at 40 years, 4 months and 13 days in 1982 UEFA Champions League/European Cup: Oldest player to play in a final, at 41 years and 86 days in 1983 Most consecutive appearances in Serie A with Juventus: 330 (1972–1983) Most consecutive appearances in Serie A: 332 (1972–1983) Longest period time without conceding a goal in international matches: 1142 minutes (1972–1974). Most consecutive minutes without conceding a goal at the European Championships including qualifying: 784 (1975–1980) Fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships: 1 (1968) (alongside Gianluigi Buffon, Iker Casillas, and Thomas Myhre) Fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships by a tournament-winning starting goalkeeper: 1 (1968) (alongside Iker Casillas) One of four goalkeepers to win the FIFA World Cup as captain: 1982 (alongside Gianpiero Combi, Iker Casillas, and Hugo Lloris)
[ "1982–83 European Cup", "Cap (sport)", "Il Giornale", "Pope John Paul II", "Italy national football team records", "1982 FIFA World Cup Final", "UEFA Cup", "UEFA Euro 2000 final", "scopa", "France national football team", "Paolo Maldini", "FIFA 100", "1964–65 Serie A", "Mantova FC", "1970–71 Serie A", "1975–76 Serie A", "1974–75 Serie A", "World Soccer (magazine)", "1934 FIFA World Cup", "1997–98 Coppa Italia", "1973–74 Serie A", "1974 FIFA World Cup", "El País", "1976–77 Serie A", "1978–79 Coppa Italia", "Francesco Totti", "AC Mantova", "World Soccer Manager of the Year", "relegation", "UEFA club competitions", "1978–79 Serie A", "Askanews.it", "Il Corriere della Sera", "1981–82 Serie A", "Treble (association football)", "Roman Catholic", "List of FIFA World Cup records", "Emmanuel Sanon", "Juventus FC in international football", "Enzo Bearzot", "1969–70 Serie A", "UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying", "Arie Haan", "AC Fiorentina", "Ballon d'Or", "Coppa Italia", "UEFA Euro 2000", "David Trezeguet", "Golden Foot", "Netherlands national football team", "Intercontinental Cup (1960–2004)", "Italian Football Hall of Fame", "SSC Napoli", "AC Milan", "1978 FIFA World Cup", "Walk of Fame of Italian sport", "Juventus FC", "Clean sheets", "1962–63 Serie B", "European Cup and UEFA Champions League records and statistics", "Avvenire", "RSSSF", "1989–90 Coppa Italia", "1973 Ballon d'Or", "Vincenzo Montella", "World Cup Golden Glove", "1997–98 UEFA Cup", "catenaccio", "UEFA Euro 1980", "zona mista", "1977–78 Serie A", "Mariano del Friuli", "DC-9", "History of the FIFA World Cup", "1971–72 Serie A", "1999–2000 Coppa Italia", "Gianluca Zambrotta", "Bologna FC 1909", "Massimo Ambrosini", "RAI", "1999–2000 Serie A", "Marco Delvecchio", "1929–30 Serie A", "UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying", "UEFA", "Gianluigi Buffon", "Italy national under-21 football team", "Gaetano Scirea", "Sweden men's national football team", "Roberto Anzolin", "Italian Football Federation", "President of Italy", "1982 FIFA World Cup", "2018 FIFA World Cup", "1972–73 Serie A", "1977 UEFA Cup final", "2005–06 Serie A", "Cesare Maldini", "1973 Intercontinental Cup", "1963 Mediterranean Games", "European Cup Winners' Cup 1979–80", "Felix Magath", "Haiti national football team", "Franco Causio", "Udinese Calcio", "ACF Fiorentina", "1970 FIFA World Cup", "José Ángel Iribar", "IFFHS", "2000 Supercoppa Italiana", "Germany national football team", "Forza Italia", "2004–05 Serie A", "1979–80 Serie A", "1965–66 Serie B", "La Gazzetta dello Sport", "Enrico Albertosi", "Manager (association football)", "1966 FIFA World Cup", "Sports Illustrated", "1973 European Cup Final", "Inter Milan", "World Soccer magazine", "Friuli-Venezia Giulia", "List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps", "Gordon Banks", "Edmondo Fabbri", "1968–69 Serie A", "Inter-Cities Fairs Cup", "Sylvain Wiltord", "ESPN", "1989–90 UEFA Cup", "Pelé", "Italy", "1982–83 Coppa Italia", "Marco Ballotta", "FIFA Order of Merit", "UEFA Euro 1984 qualifying", "IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper", "Kurt Hamrin", "Sweeper (association football)", "Hugo Lloris", "UEFA Euro 1968", "UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll", "Order of Merit of the Italian Republic", "Goalkeeper (association football)", "Lev Yashin", "Gianpiero Combi", "UEFA Euro 2012", "International Federation of Football History & Statistics", "Captain (association football)", "Silvio Berlusconi", "Man-to-man marking", "1980–81 Serie A", "1961–62 Serie A", "1967–68 Serie A", "Kingdom of Italy", "Volandia", "zonal marking", "Stefano Fiore", "UEFA Jubilee Awards", "2010 FIFA World Cup", "FIFA World Cup awards", "Football records in Italy", "Sebastiano Rossi", "Iker Casillas", "Fabio Capello", "team sport", "Arrigo Sacchi", "Sven-Göran Eriksson", "2000–01 Serie A", "Il Giorno (newspaper)", "1966–67 Serie A", "OMRI", "1998 FIFA World Cup", "Formation (association football)", "Hamburger SV", "Athletic Bilbao", "FIFA World Cup", "1989–90 Serie A", "Sandro Pertini", "playing card", "Pierluigi Pizzaballa", "1977–78 European Cup", "Spain men's national football team", "Bulgaria national football team", "1970 FIFA World Cup Final", "Abdon Pamich", "1976–77 UEFA Cup", "1972–73 European Cup", "UEFA European Championship", "1983 European Cup final", "Christian Abbiati", "1983 European Cup Final", "2001–02 Serie A", "SS Lazio", "Santiago Bernabéu Stadium", "European cup finals", "Italy national football team", "Sergio Buso", "UEFA Europa League", "Association football", "Il Messaggero", "Genoa CFC", "Serie A", "Thomas Myhre", "UEFA Champions League", "UEFA Euro 2000 Final", "Brazil national football team", "Juventus FC statistics and records", "Fausto Coppi", "1925–26 Prima Divisione", "1982–83 Serie A", "la Repubblica", "Football at the 1988 Summer Olympics", "1963–64 Serie A", "Serie B", "AFC Ajax" ]
8,141
Dipsacales
The Dipsacales are an order of flowering plants, included within the asterid group of dicotyledons. In the APG III system of 2009, the order includes only two families, Adoxaceae and a broadly defined Caprifoliaceae. Some well-known members of the Dipsacales order are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, and valerian. Under the Cronquist system, the order included Adoxaceae, Caprifoliaceae sensu stricto, Dipsacaceae, and Valerianaceae. Under the 2003 APG II system, the circumscription of the order was much the same but the system allowed either a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae including the families Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeaceae, Morinaceae, and Valerianaceae, or these families being kept separate. The APG III system only uses the broadly circumscribed Caprifoliceae. The Dipsacales appear to be most closely related to the Paracryphiales.
[ "Jan Svatopluk Presl", "sensu stricto", "Dipsacaceae", "Scabiosa ochroleuca", "APG III system", "asterid", "APG II system", "Friedrich von Berchtold", "Linnaeaceae", "Morinaceae", "Diervillaceae", "order (biology)", "Adoxaceae", "Caprifoliaceae", "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu", "dicotyledon", "Cronquist system", "Sambucus", "Paracryphiales", "viburnum", "Valerian (herb)", "Valerianaceae", "flowering plant", "honeysuckle" ]
8,142
Democrat
Democrat, Democrats, or Democratic may refer to: ==Politics== A proponent of democracy, or democratic government; a form of government involving rule by the people. A member of a Democratic Party: Democratic Party (Cyprus) (DCY) Democratic Party (Hong Kong) (DPHK) Democratic Party (Italy) (PD) Democratic Party (Japan) (DP) Democratic Party (United States) (D) Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) Democratic Party’s (South Korea, 2015) Democratic Party (Indonesia) (PD) Democratic Party (disambiguation), for a full list A member of a Democrat Party (disambiguation) A member of a Democracy Party (disambiguation) Australian Democrats, a political party Democrats (Brazil), a political party Democrats (Chile), a political party Democrats (Croatia), a political party Democrats (Gothenburg political party), in the city of Gothenburg, Sweden Democrats (Greece), a political party Democrats (Greenland), a political party Democrats (Slovakia), a political party Democrats (Slovenia), a political party Sweden Democrats, a political party The Democrats (Maldives), a political party The Democrats (Israel), a political party Supporters of political parties and democracy movements in Hong Kong and Macau: Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong) Localist camp (Hong Kong) Pro-democracy camp (Macau) Democrat Party (epithet) ==Places== Democrat, California Democrat, Kentucky Democrat Gulch, a valley in Oregon Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Democratic Republic of the Congo German Democratic Republic People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Democratic People's Republic of Korea Lao People's Democratic Republic Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal Somali Democratic Republic People's Democratic Republic of Yemen ==Other uses== Democrats (film), a 2014 documentary about politics in Zimbabwe
[ "Democracy (disambiguation)", "Demokrat Parti (disambiguation)", "Democratic Party (Indonesia)", "Democrat, California", "Democrat, Kentucky", "The Democrats (Israel)", "Democrat Party (disambiguation)", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Democratic Party (South Korea, 2015)", "Democratic Progressive Party", "Democrats (Slovenia)", "Democrats (Brazil)", "Democrat Gulch", "Democratic Party (Italy)", "Republicanism", "Democratic Party (Hong Kong)", "Democrats (Gothenburg political party)", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Democrats (Croatia)", "Democratic Party (disambiguation)", "Democrat Party (epithet)", "Monarchism", "Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)", "German Democratic Republic", "Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal", "Democrats (Greece)", "Democratic Party (Japan)", "The Democrats (Maldives)", "Democratic People's Republic of Korea", "Democratic Party (Cyprus)", "Localist camp", "Pro-democracy camp (Macau)", "New Democrats (disambiguation)", "Sweden Democrats", "Democrats (film)", "Somali Democratic Republic", "Democracy Party (disambiguation)", "Democrats (Chile)", "People's Democratic Republic of Yemen", "Australian Democrats", "Democrats (Greenland)", "democracy", "Lao People's Democratic Republic", "Democratic Republic of Afghanistan", "Democrats (Slovakia)", "People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia" ]
8,143
December
December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. December's name derives from the Latin word decem (meaning ten) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the calendar of Romulus , which began in March. The winter days following December were not included as part of any month. Later, the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar, but December retained its name. In Ancient Rome, as one of the four Agonalia, this day in honour of Sol Indiges was held on December 11, as was Septimontium. Dies natalis (birthday) was held at the temple of Tellus on December 13, Consualia was held on December 15, Saturnalia was held December 17–23, Opiconsivia was held on December 19, Divalia was held on December 21, Larentalia was held on December 23, and the dies natalis of Sol Invictus was held on December 25. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. The Anglo-Saxons referred to December–January as Ġēolamonaþ (modern English: "Yule month"). The French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse. == Astronomy == December contains the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the day with the fewest daylight hours, and the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, the day with the most daylight hours (excluding polar regions in both cases, which consistently have none or 24 hours, respectively, near the solstice). December in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to June in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa. In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the astronomical winter is traditionally 21 December or the date of the solstice. Meteor showers occurring in December are the Andromedids (September 25 – December 6, peaking around November 9), the Canis-Minorids (December 4 – December 15, peaking around December 10–11), the Coma Berenicids (December 12 to December 23, peaking around December 16), the Delta Cancrids (December 14 to February 14, the main shower from January 1 to January 24, peaking on January 17), the Geminids (December 13–14), the Monocerotids (December 7 to December 20, peaking on December 9. This shower can also start in November), the Phoenicids (November 29 to December 9, with a peak occurring around 5/6 December), the Quadrantids (typically a January shower but can also start in December), the Sigma Hydrids (December 4–15), and the Ursids (December 17-to December 25/26, peaking around December 22). == Astrology == The zodiac signs for the month of December are Sagittarius (until December 21) and Capricorn (December 22 onward). == Symbols == December's birth flower is the narcissus. Its birthstones are turquoise, zircon and tanzanite. == Observances == This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance. === Non-Gregorian === (All Baháʼí, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.) List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar List of observances set by the Chinese calendar List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar List of observances set by the Islamic calendar List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar === Month-long === In Catholic tradition, December typically marks the beginning of the Season of Advent. It is also devoted to the Immaculate Conception. National Egg Nog Month (United States) National Impaired Driving Prevention Month (United States) National Fruit Cake Month (United States) National Pear Month (United States) === Movable === See also Movable Western Christian observances See also Movable Eastern Christian observances Tuesday immediately following fourth Thursday of November Giving Tuesday (United States) (can fall in December) First Friday Farmer's Day (Ghana) Gospel Day (Marshall Islands) First Sunday Good Neighborliness Day (Turkmenistan) Sindhi Cultural Day (Sindhi diaspora) Second Monday Green Monday National Tree Planting Day (Malawi) December 15, unless the date falls on a Sunday, then December 16 Koninkrijksdag (Kingdom of the Netherlands) Winter Solstice Blue Christmas (holiday) Brumalia (Ancient Rome) Dongzhi Festival (Asia) Global Orgasm Korochun (Slavic) Midsummer in the Southern Hemisphere. (Contemporary Paganism) Sanghamitta Day (Theravada Buddhism) Shalako (Zuni) Yaldā (Iran) Yule in the Northern Hemisphere (Contemporary Paganism) Ziemassvētki (Latvia) December 22, unless that date is a Sunday, in which case the 23rd Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts) December 26, unless that day is a Sunday, in which case the 27th Boxing Day (Commonwealth of Nations) Day of Good Will (South Africa and Namibia) Family Day (Vanuatu) Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands) Start of Boxing Week === Fixed === November 25 – December 10: 16 Days of Activism against Gender-based Violence December 1 Battle of the Sinop Day (Russia) Damrong Rajanubhab Day (Thailand) Day of Restoration of Independence (Portugal) Eat A Red Apple Day (United States) Feast for Death of Aleister Crowley (Thelema) First President Day (Kazakhstan) Freedom and Democracy Day (Chad) Great Union Day (Romania) Military Abolition Day (Costa Rica) National Day (Myanmar) Republic Day (Central African Republic) Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal) Rosa Parks Day (Ohio and Oregon, United States) Self-governance Day (Iceland) Teachers' Day (Panama) World AIDS Day Day Without Art December 2 Armed Forces Day (Cuba) International Day for the Abolition of Slavery National Day (Laos) National Day (United Arab Emirates) National Fritters Day (United States) December 3 Doctors' Day (Cuba) United Nations' International Day of Persons with Disabilities December 4 National Cookie Day (United States) Navy Day (India) Saint Barbara's Day-related observances: Barbórka (Poland) Eid il-Burbara (Russia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey) Thai Environment Day (Thailand) Tupou I Day (Tonga) December 5 Children's Day (Suriname) Day of the Ninja (unofficial) Day of Military Honour – Battle of Moscow (Russia) Discovery Day (Haiti and Dominican Republic) International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social Development Klozum (Schiermonnikoog, Netherlands) Saint Nicholas Eve (Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, Romania, Germany, Poland and the UK) Krampusnacht (Austria) King's Birthday (Thailand) Repeal Day (United States) World Soil Day December 6 Anniversary of the Founding of Quito (Ecuador) Armed Forces Day (Ukraine) Constitution Day (Spain) Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan Independence Day of Finland National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women (Canada) Saint Nicholas Day (Western Christianity) December 7 Armed Forces Flag Day (India) Eve of the Immaculate Conception (Western Christianity) and related observances: Day of the Little Candles, begins after sunset (Colombia) Quema del Diablo, begins after sunset. (Guatemala) International Civil Aviation Day National Heroes Day (East Timor) National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (United States) Spitak Remembrance Day (Armenia) December 8 Battle Day (Falkland Islands) Bodhi Day (Japan) CARICOM–Cuba Day (Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba) Constitution Day (Romania) Constitution Day (Uzbekistan) Day of Finnish Music (Finland) Feast of the Immaculate Conception (public holiday in several countries, a holy day of obligation in others), and its related observances: Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion), lesser commemoration Christmas on Campus (University of Dayton) Mother's Day (Panama) Festa da Conceição da Praia, celebrating Yemanjá, Queen of the Ocean (Salvador, Bahia) Festival of Lights (Lyon) Pansexual/Panromantic Pride Day Saint Clement of Ohrid Day (North Macedonia) National Brownie Day (United States) National Youth Day (Albania) December 9 Anna's Day (Sweden and Finland) Feast of the Conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by St. Anne (Eastern Orthodox) Independence Day (Tanzania) International Anti-Corruption Day National Heroes Day (Antigua and Barbuda) National Pastry Day (United States) Navy Day (Sri Lanka) Remembrance for Egill Skallagrímsson (The Troth) Yuri's Day in the Autumn (Russian Orthodox Church) December 10 Alfred Nobel Day (Sweden) Constitution Day (Thailand) Human Rights Day (International) December 11 Human Rights and Peace Day (Kiribati) Indiana Day (Indiana, United States) National Have a Bagel Day (United States) National Noodle Ring Day (United States) National Tango Day (Argentina) Pampanga Day (Pampanga province, Philippines) Republic Day (Burkina Faso) December 12 Constitution Day (Russia) Croatian Air Force Day (Croatia) Day of Neutrality (Turkmenistan) Feast of the Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Mexico) Feast of Masá'il Baháʼí calendar (only if Baháʼí Naw-Rúz falls on March 21, which it does for 2015) Kanji Day (Japan) Jamhuri Day (Kenya) December 13 Acadian Remembrance Day (Acadians) National Day (Saint Lucia) Republic Day (Malta) Sailor's Day (Brazil) Saint Lucy's Day (mainly Scandinavia, some regions of Italy) December 14 Alabama Day (Alabama) Forty-seven Ronin Remembrance Day (Sengaku-ji, Tokyo) Martyred Intellectuals Day (Bangladesh) Monkey Day (International) December 15 Bill of Rights Day (United States) 2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina) Homecoming Day (Alderney) International Tea Day National Cupcake Day (United States) Remembrance Day of Journalists Killed in the Line of Duty (Russia) Zamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community) December 16 National Day (Kingdom of Bahrain) Victory day of Bangladesh Day of Reconciliation in South Africa December 17 Accession Day (Bahrain) International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers National Day (Bhutan) National Maple Syrup Day (United States) Pan American Aviation Day (United States) Wright Brothers Day (United States) December 18 International Migrants Day (United Nations) National Muffin Day (Brazil) December 19 Goa Liberation Day (Goa, India) National Heroes and Heroines Day (Anguilla) December 20 Abolition of Slavery Day, also known as Fête des Cafres (Réunion, French Guiana) Bo Aung Kyaw Day (Myanmar) International Human Solidarity Day (International) Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Macau) National Sangria Day (United States) December 21 Armed Forces Day (Philippines) First day of winter (some cultures) Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts, United States) National Hamburger Day (United States) São Tomé Day (São Tomé and Príncipe) The first day of Pancha Ganapati, celebrated until December 25 (Saiva Siddhanta Church) December 22 Armed Forces Day (Vietnam) Mother's Day (Indonesia) National Date Nut Bread Day (United States) National Mathematics Day (India) Teachers' Day (Cuba) Unity Day (Zimbabwe) December 23 The Emperor's Birthday, a national holiday in Japan Festivus HumanLight (Humanism) December 24 Christmas Eve Aðfangadagskvöld, the day when the 13th and the last Yule Lad arrives to towns. (Iceland) Feast of the Seven Fishes (Italy) Juleaften (Denmark)/Julaften (Norway)/Julafton (Sweden) Nittel Nacht (certain Orthodox Jewish denominations) Nochebuena (Spain and Spanish-speaking countries) The Declaration of Christmas Peace (Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City) Quviasukvik (Eskimo of Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, NunatuKavut, Alaska, Greenland and Chukotka), a new year celebration held until January 7th. Day of Military Honour – Siege of Ismail (Russia) Independence Day (Libya) Mōdraniht (Anglo-Saxon paganism) National Eggnog Day (United States) December 25 Children's Day (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo) Christmas (Christianity) Constitution Day (Taiwan) Good Governance Day (India) Newtonmas (Atheist community) Quaid-e-Azam's Day (Pakistan) Takanakuy (Chumbivilcas Province, Peru) National Pumpkin Pie Day (United States) December 26 Independence Day in Slovenia – Independence and Unity Day Kwanzaa (December 26 to January 1) (African-American community, United States) Saint Stephen's Day Wren Day (Ireland and the Isle of Man) December 27 Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia) Mauro Hamza Day (Houston, Texas) Mummer's Day (Padstow, Cornwall) Saint Stephen's Day (public holiday in Alsace, Austria, Catalonia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland) Father's Day (Bulgaria) The first day of Junkanoo street parade, the second day is on the New Year's Day (The Bahamas) National Fruitcake Day (United States) Zartosht No-Diso (Zoroastrianism) December 28 Proclamation Day in South Australia December 29 December 30 Day of the Declaration of Slovakia as an Independent Ecclesiastic Province (Slovakia) National Bicarbonate of Soda Day (United States) Rizal Day (Philippines) December 31 International Solidarity Day (Azerbaijan) National Champagne Day (United States) New Year's Eve Novy God Eve Bisperás ng Bagong Taón (Philippines) Ōmisoka (Japan) Start of Hogmanay (Scotland) December 31 – January 1, in some cases until January 2.
[ "Public holidays in Turkmenistan", "Dresden", "Hong Kong", "Declaration of Christmas Peace", "Nunavut", "Marshall Islands", "Day of Good Will", "Kwanzaa", "Junkanoo", "Sengaku-ji", "December 3", "Poland", "December 5", "Constitution Day (Thailand)", "December 9", "Ōmisoka", "New Year's Eve", "Julafton", "Phoenicids", "Proclamation Day (South Australia)", "Sol Invictus", "Canada", "December 25", "Ninja Burger", "Day Without Art", "Eastern Orthodox", "National Day (Bhutan)", "List of observances set by the Chinese calendar", "Ghana", "National Tango Day", "Czech Republic", "Ursids", "Father's Day", "Latvia", "Vanuatu", "winter solstice", "Battle Day", "Jean Sibelius", "National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women", "International Solidarity Day", "Movable Eastern Christian observances", "List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar", "São Tomé and Príncipe", "Armed Forces Day (Vietnam)", "tanzanite", "summer solstice", "Republic Day (Malta)", "Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Freedom and Democracy Day", "Public holidays in São Tomé and Príncipe", "Independence Day (Tanzania)", "Atheist", "African-American", "Koninkrijksdag", "National Day (Laos)", "Constitution Day (Taiwan)", "Isle of Man", "10 (number)", "Syria", "Wright Brothers Day", "List of food days", "Opiconsivia", "Polar night", "Iceland", "Macau", "List of observances set by the Islamic calendar", "Russia", "Theravada", "Costa Rica", "Caribbean Community", "International Anti-Corruption Day", "Alaska", "Catalonia", "Day of the Little Candles", "Armenia", "Palestinian National Authority", "International Migrants Day", "Iran", "Colombia", "Oregon", "Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day", "Forefathers' Day", "Northwest Territories", "Discovery Day", "December 15", "Saint Stephen's Day", "Zamenhof Day", "Gregorian calendar", "Guatemala", "Capricorn (astrology)", "December 10", "Andromedids", "Ancient Rome", "International Year of Soil", "Alfred Nobel Day", "Alsace", "National Day", "Zartosht No-Diso", "Saiva Siddhanta Church", "December 16", "Salvador, Bahia", "Days of Military Honour", "Great Union Day", "International Human Solidarity Day", "Good Governance Day", "Advent", "Roman calendar", "Sigma Hydrids", "December 2", "Israel", "Independence Day of Finland", "Padstow", "National Day (Saint Lucia)", "Sol Indiges", "Anglo-Saxons", "Baháʼí Naw-Rúz", "Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal)", "Sangamitta", "Public holidays in Anguilla", "National Heroes Day (Antigua and Barbuda)", "Novy God", "Forty-seven Ronin", "The Troth", "Mōdraniht", "Nivôse", "Slavic people", "Liberation Day", "January 1", "Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan", "Hungary", "December 17", "National Day (Myanmar)", "International observance", "December 1", "Klozum", "Indiana Day", "Schiermonnikoog", "Esperantist", "December 23", "Toronto Eaton Centre", "Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion)", "Anguilla", "Acadian Remembrance Day", "Chumbivilcas Province", "Ohio", "Divalia", "Christianity", "Turkmenistan", "Festivus", "Panama", "Public holidays in Ghana", "National Doctors' Day", "Human Rights and Peace Day", "Newtonmas", "Quviasukvik", "Festa da Conceição da Praia", "Takanakuy", "Turku", "December 26", "December 14", "National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day", "Remembrance Day of Journalists Killed in the Line of Duty", "Christmas", "Dongzhi Festival", "National Tree Planting Day (Malawi)", "United States Bill of Rights", "Feast for Death of Aleister Crowley", "Jamhuri Day", "Yuri's Day in the Autumn", "winter", "Children's Day", "Republic Day (Burkina Faso)", "National Day (United Arab Emirates)", "Midnight sun", "Haiti", "Geminids", "Humanism", "Portuguese Restoration War", "South Australia", "Remembrance days in Slovakia", "Armed Forces Day", "Pan American Aviation Day", "Eve of the Immaculate Conception", "Austria", "June", "Yule Lads", "Public holidays in Namibia", "Nunatsiavut", "Rizal Day", "Anglo-Saxon paganism", "Independence Day (Libya)", "Myanmar", "University of Dayton", "HumanLight", "Eskimo", "Damrong Rajanubhab Day", "Greenland", "Sindhi diaspora", "Aðfangadagskvöld", "December 22", "Saint Barbara's Day", "Julaften (Norway)", "December 28", "Military Abolition Day", "December 21", "Culture of East Timor", "First President Day", "December 8", "NunatuKavut", "Netherlands", "Spitak Remembrance Day", "Navy Day (India)", "Martyred Intellectuals Day", "Feast of the Seven Fishes", "Boxing Week", "16 Days of Activism against Gender-based Violence", "Independence and Unity Day", "East Timor", "Delta Cancrids", "Ziemassvētki", "Saint Lucy's Day", "Kazakhstan", "Jordan", "Family Day", "United States", "Global Orgasm", "Zoroastrianism", "Wren Day", "Saint Nicholas", "Constitution Day", "Saint Nicholas Day", "Constitution Day (Spain)", "Public holidays in North Macedonia", "United Kingdom", "Pampanga Day", "Russian Orthodox Church", "Bisperás ng Bagong Taón", "Yukon", "December 13", "Pancha Ganapati", "Frimaire", "Houston", "French Guiana", "Rosa Parks Day", "Mummer's Day", "World AIDS Day", "Unity Day (Zimbabwe)", "Krampusnacht", "New Year's Day", "CARICOM–Cuba Day", "Sagittarius (astrology)", "Réunion", "Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands)", "Eid il-Burbara", "Christmas on Campus", "holy day of obligation", "Movable Western Christian observances", "Homecoming Day (Alderney)", "December 30", "Shalako", "List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar", "Armed Forces Day (Cuba)", "Baháʼí calendar", "December 6", "Agonalia", "Thelema", "Consualia", "List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar", "Thailand", "Sindhi Cultural Day", "Larentalia", "Narcissus (plant)", "December 12", "turquoise", "Victory day of Bangladesh", "December 19", "December 11", "National Mathematics Day", "Suriname", "Goa", "Holiday", "Pampanga", "Teachers' Day", "Cuba", "Western Christianity", "Julian calendar", "Yaldā", "Sweden", "Giving Tuesday", "Juleaften (Denmark)", "Tokyo", "International Tea Day", "Alabama Day", "Cornwall", "Public holidays in Mexico", "Nunavik", "Terra (mythology)", "Macrobius", "Monocerotids", "Midsummer", "Northern Hemisphere", "December 7", "Philippines", "Republic Day (Central African Republic)", "Boxing Day", "Lebanon", "Toronto", "December 24", "Quaid-e-Azam's Day", "Glossary of ancient Roman religion", "Public holidays in the Marshall Islands", "Chukotka Autonomous Okrug", "King's Birthday (Thailand)", "Bo Aung Kyaw Day", "Quadrantids", "Winter Solstice", "Ġēolamonaþ", "Romania", "Southern Hemisphere", "Name days in Sweden", "Germany", "Nochebuena", "Belgium", "Christmas Eve", "Zuni people", "International Civil Aviation Day", "December 31", "Ukraine", "Portugal", "List of LGBTQ awareness days", "Thai Environment Day", "Historical anniversaries", "Acadians", "Feast of the Immaculate Conception", "2nd Amendment Day", "Tupou I Day", "Turkey", "Day of reconciliation (South Africa)", "India", "Slovakia", "Brumalia", "Armed Forces Flag Day", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Ásatrú holidays", "Blue Christmas (holiday)", "Public holidays in South Africa", "Monkey Day", "Nittel Nacht", "Chad", "North Macedonia", "List of observances in the United States by presidential proclamation", "Undecimber", "Yule", "Green Monday", "International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers", "Festival of Lights (Lyon)", "Tonga", "Immaculate Conception", "December 18", "Septimontium", "Constitution Day (Romania)", "First day of winter", "Saturnalia", "The Emperor's Birthday", "National Youth Day (Albania)", "Asia", "Constitution Day (Uzbekistan)", "Kanji of the year", "International Day for the Abolition of Slavery", "Coma Berenicids", "Mauro Hamza", "December 27", "French Republican Calendar", "Repeal of Prohibition in the United States", "December 20", "Scandinavia", "Quema del Diablo", "Dominican Republic", "Hogmanay", "December 29", "Cafres", "Korochun", "Canis-Minorids", "Independence Day", "Finland", "Human Rights Day", "zircon", "Day of Neutrality", "Contemporary Paganism", "Ecuador", "zodiac", "Barbórka", "Plymouth, Massachusetts", "Bodhi Day", "Self-governance Day", "Old Great Square (Turku)", "December 4", "United Nations' International Day of Persons with Disabilities", "Mother's Day", "Ireland", "Anniversary of the Founding of Quito", "Accession Day (Bahrain)", "International Volunteer Day" ]
8,144
December 7
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 43 BC – Marcus Tullius Cicero is assassinated in Formia on orders of Marcus Antonius. 574 – Byzantine Emperor Justin II, suffering recurring seizures of insanity, adopts his general Tiberius and proclaims him as Caesar. 927 – The Sajid emir of Adharbayjan, Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj is defeated and captured by the Qarmatians near Kufa. ===1601–1900=== 1703 – The Great Storm of 1703, the greatest windstorm ever recorded in the southern part of Great Britain, makes landfall. Winds gust up to 120 mph, and 9,000 people die. 1724 – Tumult of Thorn: Religious unrest is followed by the execution of nine Protestant citizens and the mayor of Thorn (Toruń) by Polish authorities. 1732 – The Royal Opera House opens at Covent Garden, London, England. 1776 – Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, arranges to enter the American military as a major general. 1787 – Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the United States Constitution. 1837 – The Battle of Montgomery's Tavern, the only battle of the Upper Canada Rebellion, takes place in Toronto, where the rebels are quickly defeated. 1842 – First concert of the New York Philharmonic, founded by Ureli Corelli Hill. ===1901–present=== 1904 – Comparative fuel trials begin between warships and : Spiteful was the first warship powered solely by fuel oil, and the trials led to the obsolescence of coal in ships of the Royal Navy. 1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Austria-Hungary. 1922 – The Parliament of Northern Ireland votes to remain a part of the United Kingdom and not unify with Southern Ireland. 1930 – W1XAV in Boston, Massachusetts telecasts video from the CBS radio orchestra program, The Fox Trappers. The telecast also includes the first television advertisement in the United States, for I.J. Fox Furriers, which also sponsored the radio show. 1932 – German-born Swiss physicist Albert Einstein is granted an American visa. 1936 – Australian cricketer Jack Fingleton becomes the first player to score centuries in four consecutive Test innings. 1941 – World War II: Attack on Pearl Harbor: The Imperial Japanese Navy carries out a surprise attack on the United States Pacific Fleet and its defending Army and Marine air forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. (For Japan's near-simultaneous attacks on Eastern Hemisphere targets, see December 8.) 1942 – World War II: British commandos conduct Operation Frankton, a raid on shipping in Bordeaux harbour. 1944 – An earthquake along the coast of Wakayama Prefecture in Japan causes a tsunami which kills 1,223 people. 1946 – A fire at the Winecoff Hotel in Atlanta, Georgia kills 119 people, the deadliest hotel fire in U.S. history. 1949 – Chinese Civil War: The Government of the Republic of China moves from Nanjing to Taipei, Taiwan. 1962 – Prince Rainier III of Monaco revises the principality's constitution, devolving some of his power to advisory and legislative councils. 1963 – Instant replay makes its debut during the Army-Navy football game in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. 1965 – Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I simultaneously revoke mutual excommunications that had been in place since 1054. 1971 – The Battle of Sylhet is fought between the Pakistani military and the Indian Army. 1971 – Pakistan President Yahya Khan announces the formation of a coalition government with Nurul Amin as Prime Minister and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as Deputy Prime Minister. 1972 – Apollo 17, the last Apollo Moon mission, is launched. The crew takes the photograph known as The Blue Marble as they leave the Earth. 1982 – In Texas, Charles Brooks Jr., becomes the first person to be executed by lethal injection in the United States. 1982 – The Senior Road Tower collapses in less than 17 seconds. Five workers on the tower are killed and three workers on a building nearby are injured. 1983 – An Iberia Airlines Boeing 727 collides with an Aviaco DC-9 in dense fog while the two airliners are taxiing down the runway at Madrid–Barajas Airport, killing 93 people. 1987 – Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771, a British Aerospace 146-200A, crashes near Paso Robles, California, killing all 43 on board, after a disgruntled passenger shoots his ex-boss traveling on the flight, then shoots both pilots and steers the plane into the ground. 1988 – The 6.8 Armenian earthquake shakes the northern part of the country with a maximum MSK intensity of X (Devastating), killing 25,000–50,000 and injuring 31,000–130,000. 1993 – Long Island Rail Road shooting: Passenger Colin Ferguson murders six people and injures 19 others on the LIRR in Nassau County, New York. 1995 – The Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter, a little more than six years after it was launched by Space Shuttle Atlantis during Mission STS-34. 1995 – Khabarovsk United Air Group Flight 3949 crashes into the Bo-Dzhausa Mountain, killing 98. 1995 – An Air Saint Martin (now Air Caraïbes) Beechcraft 1900 crashes near the Haitian commune of Belle Anse, killing 20. 2003 – The Conservative Party of Canada is officially registered, following the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. 2005 – Rigoberto Alpizar, a passenger on American Airlines Flight 924 who allegedly claimed to have a bomb, is shot and killed by a team of U.S. federal air marshals at Miami International Airport. 2015 – The JAXA probe Akatsuki successfully enters orbit around Venus five years after the first attempt. 2016 – Pakistan International Airlines Flight 661, a domestic passenger flight from Chitral to Islamabad, operated by an ATR-42-500 crashes near Havelian, killing all 47 on board. 2017 – Aztec High School shooting: Former student William Atchison opens fire on former high school, killing 2. 2024 – Battle of Damascus (2024): Syrian opposition forces enter the Rif Dimashq Governorate, reaching within 20 km of the capital Damascus. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 521 – Columba, Irish missionary, monk, and saint (d. 597) 903 – Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Persian astronomer and author (d. 986) 967 – Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr, Persian Sufi poet (d. 1049) 1302 – Azzone Visconti, Italian nobleman (d. 1339) 1532 – Louis I, German nobleman and politician (d. 1605) 1545 – Henry Stuart, English-Scottish husband of Mary, Queen of Scots (d. 1567) 1561 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese daimyō (d. 1625) 1595 – Injo of Joseon, Korean king (d. 1649) 1598 – Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculptor and painter (d. 1680) ===1601–1900=== 1643 – Giovanni Battista Falda, Italian architect and engraver (d. 1678) 1637 – Bernardo Pasquini, Italian organist and composer (d. 1710) 1756 – John Littlejohn, American sheriff and Methodist preacher (d. 1836) 1764 – Claude Victor-Perrin, French general and politician (d. 1841) 1784 – Allan Cunningham, Scottish author and poet (d. 1842) 1791 – Ferenc Novák, Hungarian-Slovene priest and poet (d. 1836) 1792 – Abraham Jacob van der Aa, Dutch author and academic (d. 1857) 1801 – Johann Nestroy, Austrian actor and playwright (d. 1862) 1810 – Josef Hyrtl, Hungarian-Austrian anatomist and biologist (d. 1894) 1810 – Theodor Schwann, German physiologist and biologist (d. 1882) 1823 – Leopold Kronecker, Polish-German mathematician and academic (d. 1891) 1838 – Thomas Bent, Australian businessman and politician, 22nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1909) 1860 – Joseph Cook, English-born Australian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947) 1861 – Henri Mathias Berthelot, French general during World War I (d. 1931) 1862 – Paul Adam, French author (d. 1920) 1863 – Felix Calonder, Swiss soldier and politician, 36th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1952) 1863 – Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1945) 1863 – Richard Warren Sears, American businessman, co-founded Sears (d. 1914) 1869 – Frank Laver, Australian cricketer (d. 1919) 1873 – Willa Cather, American novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1947) 1878 – Akiko Yosano, Japanese author, poet, pioneering feminist, pacifist, and social reformer (d. 1942) 1879 – Rudolf Friml, Czech-American pianist, composer, and academic (d. 1972) 1884 – John Carpenter, American sprinter (d. 1933) 1885 – Mason Phelps, American golfer (d. 1945) 1885 – Peter Sturholdt, American boxer and painter (d. 1919) 1887 – Ernst Toch, Austrian-American composer and songwriter (d. 1964) 1888 – Joyce Cary, Irish novelist (d. 1957) 1888 – Hamilton Fish III, American captain and politician (d. 1991) 1892 – Stuart Davis, American painter and academic (d. 1964) 1893 – Fay Bainter, American actress (d. 1968) 1893 – Hermann Balck, German general (d. 1982) 1894 – Freddie Adkins, English author and illustrator (d. 1986) 1900 – Kateryna Vasylivna Bilokur, Ukrainian folk artist (d. 1961) ===1901–present=== 1902 – Hilda Taba, Estonian architect, author, and educator (d. 1967) 1903 – Danilo Blanuša, Croatian mathematician, physicist, and academic (d. 1987) 1904 – Clarence Nash, American voice actor and singer (d. 1985) 1905 – Gerard Kuiper, Dutch-American astronomer and academic (d. 1973) 1906 – Erika Fuchs, German translator (d. 2005) 1907 – Fred Rose, Polish-Canadian politician and spy (d. 1983) 1909 – Nikola Vaptsarov, Bulgarian poet and author (d. 1942) 1910 – Duncan McNaughton, Canadian high jumper and geologist (d. 1998) 1910 – Louis Prima, American singer-songwriter, trumpet player, and actor (d. 1978) 1912 – Daniel Jones, Welsh captain and composer (d. 1993) 1913 – Kersti Merilaas, Estonian author and poet (d. 1986) 1915 – Leigh Brackett, American author and screenwriter (d. 1978) 1915 – Eli Wallach, American actor (d. 2014) 1920 – Tatamkhulu Afrika, South African poet and author (d. 2002) 1920 – Fiorenzo Magni, Italian cyclist (d. 2012) 1920 – Walter Nowotny, Austrian-German soldier and pilot (d. 1944) 1921 – Pramukh Swami Maharaj, Indian guru and scholar (d. 2016) 1923 – Intizar Hussain, Indian-Pakistani author and scholar (d. 2016) 1923 – Ted Knight, American actor and comedian (d. 1986) 1924 – Bent Fabric, Danish pianist and composer (d. 2020) 1924 – John Love, Zimbabwean race car driver (d. 2005) 1924 – Mary Ellen Rudin, American mathematician (d. 2013) 1924 – Mário Soares, Portuguese historian, lawyer, and politician, 17th President of Portugal (d. 2017) 1925 – Hermano da Silva Ramos, French-Brazilian race car driver 1925 – Max Zaslofsky, American basketball player and coach (d. 1985) 1926 – William John McNaughton, American bishop (d. 2020) 1927 – Jack S. Blanton, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1927 – Helen Watts, Welsh opera singer (d. 2009) 1928 – Noam Chomsky, American linguist and philosopher 1928 – Mickey Thompson, American race car driver (d. 1988) 1930 – Christopher Nicole, Guyanese-English author (d. 2017) 1930 – Hal Smith, American baseball player (d. 2020) 1931 – Allan B. Calhamer, American game designer, created Diplomacy (d. 2013) 1931 – Bobby Osborne, American bluegrass singer and musician (d. 2023) 1932 – Ellen Burstyn, American actress 1932 – Oktay Ekşi, Turkish journalist and politician 1932 – Rosemary Rogers, American journalist and author (d. 2019) 1932 – J. B. Sumarlin, Indonesian economist and politician, 17th Indonesian Minister of Finance (d. 2020) 1932 – Bobby Whitton, Australian rugby league player (d. 2008) 1933 – Krsto Papić, Croatian director and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1935 – Armando Manzanero, Mexican musician, singer and composer (d. 2020) 1937 – Stan Boardman, English comedian 1937 – Thad Cochran, American lawyer and politician (d. 2019) 1940 – Gerry Cheevers, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1941 – Melba Pattillo Beals, American journalist and activist 1942 – Harry Chapin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981) 1942 – Alex Johnson, American baseball player (d. 2015) 1942 – Reginald F. Lewis, American businessman (d. 1993) 1942 – Peter Tomarken, American game show host and producer (d. 2006) 1943 – Susan Isaacs, American author and screenwriter 1943 – Jóhann Ársælsson, Icelandic politician 1943 – Nick Katz, American mathematician and academic 1943 – Bernard C. Parks, American police officer and politician 1943 – John Bennett Ramsey, American businessman and pilot 1944 – Daniel Chorzempa, American organist and composer (d. 2023) 1944 – Miroslav Macek, Czech dentist and politician (d. 2024) 1947 – Johnny Bench, American baseball player and sportscaster 1947 – Anne Fine, English author 1947 – James Keach, American actor, producer, and director 1947 – Garry Unger, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1948 – Gary Morris, American country singer-songwriter and actor 1948 – Tony Thomas, American screenwriter and producer 1949 – James Rivière, Italian sculptor and jeweler 1949 – Tom Waits, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1950 – Ron Hynes, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015) 1952 – Susan Collins, American politician 1952 – Eckhard Märzke, German footballer and manager 1954 – Mary Fallin, American businesswoman and politician, 27th Governor of Oklahoma 1955 – John Watkins, Australian educator and politician, 14th Deputy Premier of New South Wales 1956 – Larry Bird, American basketball player and coach 1956 – Chuy Bravo, Mexican-American comedian and actor (d. 2019) 1956 – Anna Soubry, British politician 1957 – Geoff Lawson, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster 1957 – Tijjani Muhammad-Bande, Nigerian career-diplomat, President of the United Nations General Assembly (2019) 1957 – Tom Winsor, English lawyer and civil servant 1958 – Tim Butler, English bass player and songwriter 1958 – Rick Rude, American wrestler and sportscaster (d. 1999) 1959 – Saleem Yousuf, Pakistani cricketer 1960 – Craig Scanlon, English guitarist and songwriter 1962 – Alain Blondel, French decathlete 1962 – Jeffrey Donaldson, Northern Irish politician 1962 – Imad Mughniyah, Lebanese activist (d. 2008) 1963 – Theo Snelders, Dutch footballer and coach 1963 – Katsuya Terada, Japanese illustrator 1963 – Barbara Weathers, American R&B/soul singer 1964 – Hugo Blick, English filmmaker 1964 – Patrick Fabian, American actor 1964 – Peter Laviolette, American ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Deborah Bassett, Australian rower 1965 – Colin Hendry, Scottish footballer and manager 1965 – Jeffrey Wright, American actor 1966 – C. Thomas Howell, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Shinichi Ito, Japanese motorcycle racer 1966 – Kazue Itoh, Japanese actress 1966 – Andres Kasekamp, Canadian-Estonian historian and academic 1966 – Louise Post, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Mark Geyer, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1967 – Tino Martinez, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster 1967 – Nina Turner, American politician 1971 – Vladimir Akopian, Azerbaijani-Armenian chess player 1972 – Hermann Maier, Austrian skier 1972 – Tammy Lynn Sytch, American wrestler and manager 1973 – İbrahim Kutluay, Turkish basketball player 1973 – Hack Meyers, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2015) 1973 – Terrell Owens, American football player 1973 – Fabien Pelous, French rugby player and coach 1973 – Damien Rice, Irish singer-songwriter, musician and record producer 1974 – Nicole Appleton, Canadian singer and actress 1974 – Manuel Martínez Gutiérrez, Spanish shot putter and actor 1975 – Jamie Clapham, English footballer and coach 1975 – Mia Love, American politician (d. 2025) 1976 – Alan Faneca, American football player 1976 – Ivan Franceschini, Italian footballer 1976 – Georges Laraque, Canadian ice hockey player and politician 1976 – Derek Ramsay, Filipino-British actor, model and television personality 1976 – Sunny Sweeney, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Benoît Tréluyer, French race car driver 1976 – Joris Vandenbroucke, Belgian politician 1977 – Eric Chavez, American baseball player and sportscaster 1977 – Luke Donald, English golfer 1977 – Dominic Howard, English drummer and producer 1978 – Shiri Appleby, American actress, director, and producer 1978 – Suzannah Lipscomb, English historian, academic and television presenter 1979 – Sara Bareilles, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actress 1979 – Jennifer Carpenter, American actress 1979 – Lampros Choutos, Greek-Italian footballer 1979 – Ayako Fujitani, Japanese actress and screenwriter 1980 – Dan Bilzerian, American poker player and internet celebrity 1980 – John Terry, English footballer 1982 – Lou Amundson, American basketball player 1982 – Jack Huston, English actor 1983 – Mike Mucitelli, American mixed martial artist 1983 – Al Thornton, American basketball player 1984 – Aaron Gray, American basketball player 1984 – Robert Kubica, Polish race car driver 1984 – Milan Michálek, Czech ice hockey player 1984 – Luca Rigoni, Italian footballer 1985 – Jon Moxley, American wrestler 1986 – Billy Horschel, American golfer 1986 – Nita Strauss, American guitarist 1987 – Aaron Carter, American singer-songwriter, rapper, dancer, and actor (d. 2022) 1988 – Nathan Adrian, American swimmer 1988 – Emily Browning, Australian actress and singer 1988 – Angelina Gabueva, Russian tennis player 1988 – Andrew Goudelock, American basketball player 1989 – Kyle Hendricks, American baseball player 1989 – Nicholas Hoult, English actor 1989 – Philip Larsen, Danish ice hockey player 1989 – Alessandro Marchi, Italian footballer 1989 – Kevin Séraphin, French basketball player 1990 – Cameron Bairstow, Australian basketball player 1990 – David Goffin, Belgian tennis player 1990 – Aleksandr Menkov, Russian long jumper 1990 – Yasiel Puig, Cuban baseball player 1990 – Urszula Radwańska, Polish tennis player 1991 – Eugenio Pisani, Italian race car driver 1991 – Chris Wood, New Zealand footballer 1992 – Sean Couturier, American-Canadian ice hockey player 1993 – Rahama Sadau, Nigerian actress 1993 – Alex Singleton, American football player 1994 – Pete Alonso, American baseball player 1994 – Geno Chiarelli, American politician 1994 – Yuzuru Hanyu, Japanese figure skater 1994 – Hunter Henry, American football player 1997 – Abi Harrison, Scottish footballer 1997 – Tommy Nelson, American actor 1998 – Tony Yike Yang, Canadian pianist 1999 – Boo Buie, American basketball player 1999 – Pavol Regenda, Slovak ice hockey player 2000 – Dane Belton, American football player 2001 – Jalen McMillan, American football player 2002 – Torri Huske, American swimmer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 43 BC – Cicero, Roman philosopher, lawyer, and politician (b. 106 BC) 283 – Eutychian, pope of the Catholic Church 881 – Anspert, archbishop of Milan 983 – Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 955) 1254 – Innocent IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1195) 1279 – Bolesław V, High Duke of Poland (b. 1226) 1295 – Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, English officer (b. 1243) 1312 – Michael II of Antioch, Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch () 1383 – Wenceslaus I, duke of Luxembourg (b. 1337) 1498 – Alexander Hegius von Heek, German poet (b. 1433) 1562 – Adrian Willaert, Dutch-Italian composer and educator (b. 1490) ===1601–1900=== 1649 – Charles Garnier, French missionary and saint (b. 1606) 1672 – Richard Bellingham, English-American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b. 1592) 1680 – Peter Lely, Dutch-English painter (b. 1618) 1683 – Algernon Sidney, English philosopher and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1623) 1723 – Jan Santini Aichel, Czech architect, designed the Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk and Karlova Koruna Chateau (b. 1677) 1725 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French actor and playwright (b. 1661) 1772 – Martín Sarmiento, Spanish monk, scholar, and author (b. 1695) 1775 – Charles Saunders, English admiral and politician (b. 1715) 1793 – Joseph Bara, French soldier and drummer (b. 1779) 1803 – Küçük Hüseyin Pasha, Turkish admiral and politician (b. 1757) 1815 – Michel Ney, German-French general (b. 1769) 1817 – William Bligh, English admiral and politician, 4th Governor of New South Wales (b. 1745) 1837 – Robert Nicoll, Scottish poet (b. 1814) 1842 – Thomas Hamilton, Scottish philosopher and author (b. 1789) 1874 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German theologian, scholar, and academic (b. 1815) 1879 – Jón Sigurðsson, Icelandic scholar and politician, 1st Speaker of the Parliament of Iceland (b. 1811) 1891 – Arthur Blyth, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of South Australia (b. 1823) 1894 – Ferdinand de Lesseps, French businessman and diplomat, co-developed the Suez Canal (b. 1805) 1899 – Juan Luna, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1857) ===1901–present=== 1902 – Thomas Nast, German-American cartoonist (b. 1840) 1906 – Élie Ducommun, Swiss journalist and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1833) 1913 – Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano, Italian cardinal (b. 1828) 1917 – Ludwig Minkus, Austrian violinist and composer (b. 1826) 1918 – Frank Wilson, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1859) 1941 – Attack on Pearl Harbor: Mervyn S. Bennion, American captain (b. 1887) Frederick Curtice Davis, American sailor (b. 1915) Julius Ellsberry, American sailor (b. 1921) John C. England, American sailor (b. 1920) Edwin J. Hill, American sailor (b. 1894) Ralph Hollis, American sailor (b. 1906) Herbert C. Jones, American sailor (b. 1918) Isaac C. Kidd, American admiral (b. 1884) Robert Lawrence Leopold, American sailor (b. 1916) Herbert Hugo Menges, American sailor (b. 1917) Thomas James Reeves, American sailor (b. 1895) Aloysius Schmitt, American priest and sailor (b. 1909) Robert R. Scott, American sailor (b. 1915) Peter Tomich, American sailor (b. 1893) Robert Uhlmann, American sailor (b. 1919) Franklin Van Valkenburgh, American captain (b. 1888) Eldon P. Wyman, American sailor (b. 1917) 1947 – Tristan Bernard, French author and playwright (b. 1866) 1947 – Nicholas Murray Butler, American philosopher and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862) 1949 – Rex Beach, American author, playwright, and water polo player (b. 1877) 1956 – Huntley Gordon, Canadian-American actor (b. 1887) 1956 – Reşat Nuri Güntekin, Turkish author and playwright (b. 1889) 1960 – Ioannis Demestichas, Greek admiral and politician (b. 1882) 1962 – Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian opera singer (b. 1895) 1969 – Lefty O'Doul, American baseball player and manager (b. 1897) 1969 – Eric Portman, English actor (b. 1903) 1970 – Rube Goldberg, American cartoonist, sculptor, and author (b. 1883) 1975 – Thornton Wilder, American novelist and playwright (b. 1897) 1975 – Hardie Albright, American actor (b. 1903) 1976 – Paul Bragg, American nutritionist (b. 1895) 1977 – Paul Gibb, English cricketer and umpire (b. 1913) 1977 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (b. 1906) 1977 – Georges Grignard, French race car driver (b. 1905) 1978 – Alexander Wetmore, American ornithologist and paleontologist (b. 1886) 1979 – Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, English-American astronomer and astrophysicist (b. 1900) 1980 – Darby Crash, American punk rock vocalist and songwriter (b. 1958) 1984 – Jack Mercer, American voice actor (b. 1910) 1984 – LeeRoy Yarbrough, American race car driver (b. 1938) 1985 – J. R. Eyerman, American photographer and journalist (b. 1906) 1985 – Robert Graves, English poet, novelist, critic (b. 1895) 1985 – Potter Stewart, American soldier and jurist (b. 1915) 1989 – Haystacks Calhoun, American wrestler and actor (b. 1934) 1989 – Hans Hartung, French-German painter (b. 1904) 1990 – Joan Bennett, American actress (b. 1910) 1990 – Jean Paul Lemieux, Canadian painter and educator (b. 1904) 1992 – Richard J. Hughes, American politician, 45th Governor of New Jersey, and Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court (b. 1909) 1993 – Abidin Dino, Turkish-French painter and illustrator (b. 1913) 1993 – Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Ivoirian physician and politician, 1st President of Ivory Coast (b. 1905) 1995 – Kathleen Harrison, English actress (b. 1892) 1997 – Billy Bremner, Scottish footballer and manager (b. 1942) 1998 – John Addison, English-American composer and conductor (b. 1920) 1998 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925) 2003 – Carl F. H. Henry American journalist and theologian (b. 1913) 2003 – Azie Taylor Morton, American educator and politician, 36th Treasurer of the United States (b. 1933) 2004 – Frederick Fennell, American conductor and educator (b. 1914) 2004 – Jerry Scoggins, American singer and guitarist (b. 1913) 2004 – Jay Van Andel, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Amway (b. 1924) 2005 – Bud Carson, American football player and coach (b. 1931) 2006 – Jeane Kirkpatrick, American academic and diplomat, 16th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b. 1926) 2008 – Herbert Hutner, American banker and lawyer (b. 1908) 2010 – Elizabeth Edwards, American lawyer and author (b. 1949) 2010 – Kari Tapio, Finnish singer (b. 1945) 2011 – Harry Morgan, American actor (b. 1915) 2012 – Roelof Kruisinga, Dutch physician and politician, Dutch Minister of Defence (b. 1922) 2012 – Ralph Parr, American colonel and pilot (b. 1924) 2012 – Marty Reisman, American table tennis player and author (b. 1930) 2012 – Saul Steinberg, American businessman and financier (b. 1939) 2013 – Édouard Molinaro, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1928) 2013 – Chick Willis, American singer and guitarist (b. 1934) 2014 – Mark Lewis, American author and educator (b. 1954) 2015 – Gerhard Lenski, American sociologist and academic (b. 1924) 2015 – Hyron Spinrad, American astronomer and academic (b. 1934) 2015 – Peter Westbury, English race car driver (b. 1938) 2016 – Junaid Jamshed, Pakistani recording artist, television personality, fashion designer, occasional actor, singer-songwriter and preacher. (b. 1964) 2015 – Shirley Stelfox, English actress (b. 1941) 2016 – Greg Lake, English musician (b. 1947) 2017 – Steve Reevis, Native American actor (b. 1962) 2019 – Ron Saunders, English football player and manager (b. 1932) 2020 – Dick Allen, American baseball player and tenor (b. 1942) 2020 – Chuck Yeager, American aviator (b. 1923) 2023 – Benjamin Zephaniah, British writer and dub poet (b.1958) 2023 – Refaat Alareer, Palestinian professor and writer (b.1979) 2023 – Emiko Miyamoto, Japanese volleyball player (b. 1937) 2024 – Doudou Adoula, Congolese atalaku and composer (b. 1965) ==Holidays and observances== Armed Forces Flag Day (India) Christian feast day: Aemilianus (Greek Church) Ambrose Maria Giuseppa Rossello Sabinus of Spoleto December 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Eve of the Immaculate Conception-related observances: Day of the Little Candles, begins after sunset (Colombia) International Civil Aviation Day National Heroes Day (East Timor) National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (United States) Spitak Remembrance Day (Armenia)
[ "1940", "1921", "Abraham Jacob van der Aa", "Rick Rude", "Intizar Hussain", "Katsuya Terada", "1982", "Hunter Henry", "Willa Cather", "1598", "Krsto Papić", "Kikkawa Hiroie", "Peter Westbury", "Toruń", "The Plain Dealer", "Nina Turner", "Aemilianus (African martyr)", "1899", "Kateryna Vasylivna Bilokur", "Rex Beach", "Southern Ireland (1921–22)", "Akatsuki (spacecraft)", "Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno", "Zulfikar Ali Bhutto", "Johnny Bench", "1910", "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada", "Melba Pattillo Beals", "Ralph Hollis", "Philadelphia", "Chitral", "Küçük Hüseyin Pasha", "Harry Morgan", "Khabarovsk United Air Group Flight 3949", "Deputy Premier of New South Wales", "Garry Unger", "2015", "1924", "Albert Einstein", "Alessandro Marchi", "1792", "Haystacks Calhoun", "Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale", "Eldon P. Wyman", "Joseph Cook", "Calendar of saints", "1532", "Richard Bellingham", "Great Storm of 1703", "1879", "STS-34", "Ted Knight", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Ellen Burstyn", "capital punishment", "Premier of South Australia", "Saleem Yousuf", "Amway", "Peter Laviolette", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Gerry Cheevers", "2020", "NHK", "Pakistan Armed Forces", "Jamie Clapham", "Pete Alonso", "Senior Road Tower", "1928", "1915", "2008", "Akiko Yosano", "Kufa", "Islamabad", "Daniel Chorzempa", "Paul Gibb", "Suez Canal", "Chick Willis", "1946", "C. Thomas Howell", "1887", "Hermano da Silva Ramos", "1950", "Jeane Kirkpatrick", "December 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Anspert", "Richard Warren Sears", "Miami International Airport", "Nikola Vaptsarov", "Bobby Whitton", "Elizabeth Edwards", "Robert R. Scott", "Tom Winsor", "Alan Faneca", "Charles Saunders (Royal Navy officer)", "1979", "Pope Eutychian", "Kevin Séraphin", "Allan B. Calhamer", "Chris Wood (footballer, born 1991)", "1994", "Premier of Victoria", "William Bligh", "1906", "1972", "2016", "Army–Navy Game", "Ferenc Novák (writer)", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Emily Browning", "İbrahim Kutluay", "1943", "Hermann Maier", "Louise Post", "1954", "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin", "Robert Lawrence Leopold", "Florent Carton Dancourt", "Sara Bareilles", "Bolesław V the Chaste", "Associated Press", "1860", "List of heads of state of Ivory Coast", "Jack Huston", "John Watkins (Australian politician)", "James Rivière", "Damien Rice", "1383", "Helsingin Sanomat", "Martín Sarmiento", "1683", "1977", "Day of the Little Candles", "Armenia", "Ureli Corelli Hill", "1254", "Pavol Regenda", "Kirsten Flagstad", "United States Constitution", "1947", "Colombia", "Cameron Bairstow", "Jay Van Andel", "927", "Hamilton Fish III", "Prime Minister of Australia", "Manuel Martínez Gutiérrez", "Nita Strauss", "1922", "1791", "983", "Aviaco", "1838", "The New York Times", "1920", "Mason Phelps", "Thad Cochran", "Battle of Sylhet", "Kersti Merilaas", "1931", "1992", "Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Justin II", "Tony Yike Yang", "Hermann Balck", "Atlanta", "2013", "Princeton University Press", "Battle of Damascus (2024)", "Rudolf Friml", "1933", "Larry Bird", "Geoff Lawson (cricketer)", "Constitution of Monaco", "Charles Brooks Jr.", "Deborah Bassett", "Eugenio Pisani", "1672", "Torri Huske", "Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette", "Joan Bennett", "Thornton Wilder", "Steve Reevis", "Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley", "Leopold Kronecker", "Peter Tomarken", "1932", "Eastern Hemisphere", "1935", "1970", "Gary Morris", "Nicole Appleton", "Martin Rodbell", "Édouard Molinaro", "1723", "1985", "2010", "internet celebrity", "1995 Air St. Martin Beech 1900 crash", "Rigoberto Alpizar", "Alex Singleton (linebacker)", "Instant replay", "881", "1990", "Aloysius Schmitt", "Constantin von Tischendorf", "Peter Carl Goldmark", "Freddie Adkins", "Kazue Itoh", "1703", "Bernardo Pasquini", "283", "Derek Ramsay", "Susan Collins", "Aaron Carter", "Angelina Gabueva", "1926", "Governor of Oklahoma", "1966", "Sabinus of Spoleto", "Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr", "1595", "Milan Michálek", "Reginald F. Lewis", "Giovanni Battista Falda", "World War I", "2023", "Der Spiegel (website)", "excommunication", "Allan Cunningham (author)", "1999", "Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi", "1925", "Abi Harrison", "Juan Luna", "Billy Horschel", "Damascus", "Eli Wallach", "2019", "Jack Fingleton", "Protestantism", "1978", "1649", "1869", "Arthur Blyth", "Jalen McMillan", "Frederick Fennell", "Shiri Appleby", "Félix Houphouët-Boigny", "Fabien Pelous", "Premier of Western Australia", "William John McNaughton", "1965", "Gerhard Lenski", "Boston", "1987", "Frank Wilson (politician)", "Sears", "1892", "1732", "Nassau County, New York", "Noam Chomsky", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Parliament of Northern Ireland", "Fay Bainter", "Hal Smith (infielder)", "Stan Boardman", "Johann Nestroy", "Aztec High School shooting", "Bernard C. Parks", "British Aerospace 146", "Mike Mucitelli", "2002", "The Blue Marble", "Clarence Nash", "Conservative Party of Canada", "1545", "2001", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Hilda Taba", "Imad Mughniyah", "1993", "Luke Donald", "ESPN", "David Goffin", "Daniel Jones (composer)", "Christopher Nicole", "Texas", "1815", "Junaid Jamshed", "Susan Isaacs", "National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day", "Thomas Hamilton (writer)", "1787", "The Guardian", "Hyron Spinrad", "Imperial Japanese Navy", "John Terry", "2003", "Jan Santini Aichel", "1976", "Andres Kasekamp", "Pope Innocent IV", "Robert Nicoll", "Philip Larsen", "2012", "Danilo Blanuša", "Delaware", "Reşat Nuri Güntekin", "Mary Ellen Rudin", "Adrian Willaert", "Bobby Osborne", "Jon Moxley", "1944 Tōnankai earthquake", "Venus", "List of Ministers of Finance of Indonesia", "Space Shuttle Atlantis", "1989", "Tommy Nelson (actor)", "Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk", "2000", "1927", "1967", "Andrew Goudelock", "warship", "Josef Hyrtl", "Cicero", "Catholic–Orthodox Joint Declaration of 1965", "1971", "1312", "1904", "Peter Tomich", "1952", "1894", "Sajid dynasty", "J. R. Eyerman", "Dane Belton", "Eve of the Immaculate Conception", "1984", "Joris Vandenbroucke", "Kathleen Harrison", "1643", "Caesar (title)", "Michel Ney", "Stuart Davis (painter)", "United States Army Air Forces", "Pietro Mascagni", "Paul Adam (French novelist)", "Winecoff Hotel fire", "1907", "Havelian", "Michael II of Antioch", "Rif Dimashq Governorate", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "1937", "Pramukh Swami Maharaj", "1913", "Robert W. Uhlmann", "Covent Garden", "Galileo (spacecraft)", "Air Caraïbes", "1963", "Ferdinand de Lesseps", "President of Portugal", "Frederick Curtice Davis", "1975", "CBS", "Jennifer Carpenter", "1756", "United States Pacific Fleet", "1893", "Harry Chapin", "Maria Giuseppa Rossello", "1888", "1958", "Tom Waits", "Iberia (airline)", "Potter Stewart", "Treasurer of the United States", "Huntley Gordon", "1941", "Culture of East Timor", "Theo Snelders", "Herbert C. Jones", "Eric Portman", "December 8", "Nicholas Hoult", "Jupiter", "903", "Refaat Alareer", "1949", "Spitak Remembrance Day", "1823", "Alexander Wetmore", "1772", "1562", "Hans Hartung", "Mervyn S. Bennion", "Dub poetry", "1969", "1842", "Mark Antony", "Taiwan", "1962", "Felix Calonder", "1912", "Gian Lorenzo Bernini", "Anne Fine", "East Timor", "Fred Rose (politician)", "Sunny Sweeney", "Long Island Rail Road", "Franklin Van Valkenburgh", "New York Philharmonic", "Mia Love", "List of colonial governors of Massachusetts", "Alain Blondel", "1891", "United States", "1637", "principality", "1885", "1957", "Doudou Adoula", "Billy Bremner", "1988 Armenian earthquake", "Jean Paul Lemieux", "1993 Long Island Rail Road shooting", "Georges Grignard", "Darby Crash", "Joyce Cary", "Hardie Albright", "United Kingdom", "Boo Buie", "Yasiel Puig", "Sean Couturier", "Bent Fabric", "Suzannah Lipscomb", "Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj", "Rainier III, Prince of Monaco", "ATR 42", "1302", "Indian Army", "FBref", "Tatamkhulu Afrika", "Thomas Bent", "Roelof Kruisinga", "2004", "lethal injection", "Isaac C. Kidd", "Rube Goldberg", "Lou Amundson", "1862", "Ron Saunders", "Mark Geyer", "Mary Fallin", "Government of the Republic of China", "Jón Sigurðsson", "Herbert Hugo Menges", "Bordeaux", "1995", "Nick Katz", "Pro Football Reference", "Tony Thomas (producer)", "Lampros Choutos", "Azzone Visconti", "Paso Robles, California", "Gerard Kuiper", "Luca Rigoni", "Apollo program", "Robert Graves", "Eric Chavez", "Major League Baseball", "Qarmatians", "Madrid runway disaster", "Terrell Owens", "Belle-Anse", "1884", "Karlova Koruna Chateau", "Nathan Adrian", "Pope Paul VI", "1725", "List of Ministers of Defence of the Netherlands", "Abidin Dino", "1942", "1903", "Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano", "John Carpenter (athlete)", "Yahya Khan", "1909", "Beechcraft 1900", "Louis Prima", "Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)", "television advertisement", "Benjamin Zephaniah", "1873", "Taipei", "Thomas Nast", "Benoît Tréluyer", "Paul Bragg", "Ludwig Minkus", "Greek Orthodox Church", "Max Zaslofsky", "Kyle Hendricks", "2006", "Dick Allen", "Ernst Toch", "Travel visa", "1561", "Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports", "Rosemary Rogers", "1900", "Kari Tapio", "Emiko Miyamoto", "1801", "1905", "Jeffrey Wright", "Jack Mercer", "Formia", "1998", "Diplomacy (game)", "1917", "Pakistan", "Saul Steinberg (businessman)", "Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771", "1983", "Dan Bilzerian", "1878", "Tino Martinez", "Yuzuru Hanyu", "1776", "fuel oil", "Peter Sturholdt", "1986", "Hugo Blick", "Mário Soares", "John Littlejohn (preacher)", "Test cricket", "2024", "Aleksandr Menkov", "Althing", "century (cricket)", "UPI", "cricket", "Nurul Amin", "Toronto", "Paris 2024 Olympics", "Fiorenzo Magni", "Charles Garnier (missionary)", "Joseph Bara", "Upper Canada Rebellion", "Julius Ellsberry", "Jeffrey Donaldson", "Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan", "Chuck Yeager", "Governor of New South Wales", "1955", "1810", "967", "2005", "Craig Scanlon", "Anna Soubry", "Élie Ducommun", "1956", "Canadian Alliance", "Apollo 17", "Erika Fuchs", "Operation Frankton", "Federal Air Marshal Service", "United States Ambassador to the United Nations", "International Civil Aviation Day", "Alexander Hegius von Heek", "Herbert Hutner", "President of the United Nations General Assembly", "1295", "Vladimir Akopian", "1991", "Marty Reisman", "1930", "Robert Kubica", "Patrick Fabian", "2014", "1863", "1793", "Al Thornton", "1764", "Shinichi Ito", "Helen Watts", "1902", "physicist", "Columba", "John Bennett Ramsey", "Ralph Parr", "1817", "Richard J. Hughes", "Mark Lewis (storyteller)", "India", "Edwin J. Hill", "J. B. Sumarlin", "Colin Hendry", "Armed Forces Flag Day", "1724", "1936", "1973", "Adharbayjan", "John C. England", "Monaco", "Algernon Sidney", "Athenagoras I of Constantinople", "Henri Mathias Berthelot", "Eckhard Märzke", "Georges Laraque", "Miroslav Macek", "LeeRoy Yarbrough", "JAXA", "Peter Lely", "Walter Nowotny", "1680", "Ioannis Demestichas", "1944", "John Addison", "Thomas James Reeves", "1784", "Injo of Joseon", "1997", "Parks Canada", "Shirley Stelfox", "1054", "Tim Butler", "W1WX", "James Keach", "List of Presidents of the Swiss Confederation", "Hack Meyers", "Tammy Lynn Sytch", "Bud Carson", "Tumult of Thorn (Toruń)", "Aaron Gray", "1837", "Frank Laver", "Royal Navy", "Madrid–Barajas Airport", "Carl F. H. Henry", "Naval Station Pearl Harbor", "Boeing 727", "Duncan McNaughton", "1918", "John Love (racing driver)", "Royal Opera House", "McDonnell Douglas DC-9", "1861", "Tijjani Muhammad-Bande", "Austria-Hungary", "Barbara Weathers", "43 BC", "Rahama Sadau", "World War II", "Pakistan International Airlines Flight 661", "Aviation Safety Network", "Attack on Pearl Harbor", "1960", "1948", "List of Speakers of the Parliament of Iceland", "Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg", "Jerry Scoggins", "Tristan Bernard", "Chinese Civil War", "Dominic Howard", "574", "Lefty O'Doul", "Mickey Thompson", "Battle of Montgomery's Tavern", "2017", "Chuy Bravo", "Theodor Schwann", "Leigh Brackett", "1980", "Jóhann Ársælsson", "1988", "1974", "Geno Chiarelli", "Nanjing", "Alex Johnson", "1874", "Nicholas Murray Butler", "Ayako Fujitani", "Greg Lake", "1498", "1775", "Azie Taylor Morton", "Bo-Dzhausa Mountain", "Oktay Ekşi", "Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester", "Ambrose", "2011", "Jack S. Blanton", "Tiberius II Constantine", "Louis I, Count of Sayn-Wittgenstein", "1959", "Ivan Franceschini", "521", "Urszula Radwańska", "Ron Hynes", "Governor of New Jersey", "Armando Manzanero", "Business Wire", "1279", "1803" ]
8,145
December 15
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 533 – Vandalic War: Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Tricamarum. 687 – Pope Sergius I is elected as a compromise between antipopes Paschal and Theodore. 1025 – Constantine VIII becomes sole emperor of the Byzantine Empire, 63 years after being crowned co-emperor. 1161 – Jin–Song wars: Military officers conspire against the emperor Wanyan Liang of the Jin dynasty after a military defeat at the Battle of Caishi, and assassinate the emperor at his camp. 1167 – Sicilian Chancellor Stephen du Perche moves the royal court to Messina to prevent a rebellion. 1256 – Mongol forces under Hulagu enter and dismantle the Nizari Ismaili (Assassin) stronghold at Alamut Castle (in present-day Iran) as part of their offensive on Islamic southwest Asia. 1270 – The Nizari Ismaili garrison of Gerdkuh, Persia surrender after 17 years to the Mongols. 1467 – Stephen III of Moldavia defeats Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, with the latter being injured thrice, at the Battle of Baia. 1546 – The town of Ekenäs () is founded by King Gustav Vasa of Sweden. ===1601–1900=== 1651 – Castle Cornet in Guernsey, the last stronghold which had supported the King in the Third English Civil War, surrenders. 1778 – American Revolutionary War: British and French fleets clash in the Battle of St. Lucia. 1791 – The United States Bill of Rights becomes law when ratified by the Virginia General Assembly. 1836 – The U.S. Patent Office building in Washington, D.C., nearly burns to the ground, destroying all 9,957 patents issued by the federal government to that date, as well as 7,000 related patent models. 1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Fredericksburg ends in a Union defeat as General Ambrose Burnside withdraws the Army of the Potomac across the Rappahannock River. 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Nashville begins at Nashville, Tennessee, and ends the following day with the destruction of the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General John Bell Hood as a fighting force by the Union Army of the Cumberland under General George H. Thomas. 1869 – The short-lived Republic of Ezo is proclaimed in the Ezo area of Japan. It is the first attempt to establish a democracy in Japan. 1871 – Sixteen-year-old telegraphist Ella Stewart keys and sends the first telegraphed message from Arizona Territory at the Deseret Telegraph Company office in Pipe Spring. 1890 – Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull is killed on Standing Rock Indian Reservation, leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre. 1893 – Symphony No. 9 ("From the New World" the "New World Symphony") by Antonín Dvořák premieres in a public afternoon rehearsal at Carnegie Hall in New York City, followed by a concert premiere on the evening of December 16. 1899 – British Army forces are defeated at the Battle of Colenso in Natal, South Africa, the third and final battle fought during the Black Week of the Second Boer War. ===1901–present=== 1903 – Italian American food cart vendor Italo Marchiony receives a U.S. patent for inventing a machine that makes ice cream cones. 1905 – The Pushkin House is established in Saint Petersburg, Russia, to preserve the cultural heritage of Alexander Pushkin. 1906 – The London Underground's Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway opens. 1914 – World War I: The Serbian Army recaptures Belgrade from the invading Austro-Hungarian Army. 1914 – A gas explosion at Mitsubishi Hōjō coal mine, in Kyushu, Japan, kills 687. 1917 – World War I: An armistice between Russia and the Central Powers is signed. 1933 – Anarchist insurrection suppressed in Zaragoza, Spain. 1939 – Gone with the Wind (highest inflation adjusted grossing film) receives its premiere at Loew's Grand Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. 1941 – The Holocaust in Ukraine: German troops murder over 15,000 Jews at Drobytsky Yar, a ravine southeast of the city of Kharkiv. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse begins during the Guadalcanal Campaign. 1943 – World War II: The Battle of Arawe begins during the New Britain campaign. 1944 – World War II: a single-engine UC-64A Norseman aeroplane carrying United States Army Air Forces Major Glenn Miller is lost in a flight over the English Channel. 1945 – Occupation of Japan/Shinto Directive: General Douglas MacArthur orders that Shinto be abolished as the state religion of Japan. 1960 – Richard Pavlick is arrested for plotting to assassinate U.S. President-Elect John F. Kennedy. 1960 – King Mahendra of Nepal suspends the country's constitution, dissolves parliament, dismisses the cabinet, and imposes direct rule. 1961 – Eichmann trial: Adolf Eichmann is sentenced to death after being found guilty by an Israeli court of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people, and membership of an outlawed organization. 1965 – Project Gemini: Gemini 6A, crewed by Wally Schirra and Thomas Stafford, is launched from Cape Kennedy, Florida. Four orbits later, it achieves the first space rendezvous, with Gemini 7. 1970 – Soviet spacecraft Venera 7 successfully lands on Venus. It is the first successful soft landing on another planet. 1973 – John Paul Getty III, grandson of American billionaire J. Paul Getty, is found alive near Naples, Italy, after being kidnapped by an Italian gang on July 10. 1973 – The American Psychiatric Association votes 13–0 to remove homosexuality from its official list of psychiatric disorders, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter announces that the United States will recognize the People's Republic of China and sever diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). 1981 – A suicide car bombing targeting the Iraqi embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, levels the embassy and kills 61 people, including Iraq's ambassador to Lebanon. The attack is considered the first modern suicide bombing. 1989 – Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights relating the abolition of capital punishment is adopted. 1993 – The Troubles: The Downing Street Declaration is issued by British Prime Minister John Major and Irish Taoiseach Albert Reynolds. 1997 – Tajikistan Airlines Flight 3183 crashes in the desert near Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, killing 85. 2000 – The third reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is shut down. 2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean. 2005 – Introduction of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor into USAF active service. 2010 – A boat carrying 90 asylum seekers crashes into rocks off the coast of Christmas Island, Australia, killing 48 people. 2013 – The South Sudanese Civil War begins when opposition leaders Dr. Riek Machar, Pagan Amum and Rebecca Nyandeng vote to boycott the meeting of the National Liberation Council at Nyakuron. 2014 – Gunman Man Haron Monis takes 18 hostages inside a café in Martin Place for 16 hours in Sydney. Monis and two hostages are killed when police raid the café the following morning. 2017 – A 6.5earthquake strikes the Indonesian island of Java in the city of Tasikmalaya, resulting in four deaths. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== AD 37 – Nero, Roman emperor (d. 68) 130 – Lucius Verus, Roman emperor (d. 169) 1242 – Prince Munetaka, Japanese shōgun (d. 1274) 1447 – Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1508) 1567 – Christoph Demantius, German composer, poet, and theorist (d. 1643) ===1601–1900=== 1610 – David Teniers the Younger, Flemish painter (d. 1690) 1657 – Michel Richard Delalande, French organist and composer (d. 1726) 1686 – Jean-Joseph Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1746) 1710 – Francesco Zahra, Maltese painter (d. 1773) 1789 – Carlos Soublette, Venezuelan general and politician, 11th President of Venezuela (d. 1870) 1832 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (d. 1923) 1837 – E. W. Bullinger, English minister, scholar, and theologian (d. 1913) 1846 – Amunda Kolderup, Norwegian opera singer (d. 1882) 1852 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1908) 1859 – L. L. Zamenhof, Polish linguist and ophthalmologist, created Esperanto (d. 1917) 1860 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Faroese-Danish physician and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1904) 1860 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1953) 1861 – Charles Duryea, American engineer and businessman, co-founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company (d. 1938) 1861 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, Finnish lawyer, judge, and politician, 3rd President of Finland (d. 1944) 1863 – Arthur Dehon Little, American chemist and engineer (d. 1935) 1869 – Leon Marchlewski, Polish chemist and academic (d. 1946) 1875 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (d. 1899) 1878 – Hans Carossa, German author and poet (d. 1956) 1885 – Leonid Pitamic, Slovenian lawyer, philosopher, and academic (d. 1971) 1886 – Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz, Polish politician and resistance fighter (d. 1968) 1886 – Florence Jepperson Madsen, American contralto singer and professor of music (d. 1977) 1888 – Maxwell Anderson, American journalist and playwright (d. 1959) 1890 – Harry Babcock, American pole vaulter (d. 1965) 1891 – A.P. Carter, American country singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1960) 1892 – J. Paul Getty, American-English businessman and art collector, founded Getty Oil (d. 1976) 1894 – Vibert Douglas, Canadian astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 1988) 1894 – Josef Imbach, Swiss sprinter (d. 1964) 1896 – Betty Smith, American author and playwright (d. 1972) 1899 – Harold Abrahams, English sprinter, lawyer, and journalist (d. 1978) ===1901–present=== 1902 – Robert F. Bradford, American lawyer and politician, 57th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1983) 1903 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (d. 1938) 1907 – Gordon Douglas, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1907 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and the Cathedral of Brasília (d. 2012) 1908 – Swami Ranganathananda, Indian monk, scholar, and author (d. 2005) 1909 – Sattar Bahlulzade, Azerbaijani-Russian painter (d. 1974) 1909 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (d. 2009) 1910 – John Hammond, American record producer and critic (d. 1987) 1911 – Nicholas P. Dallis, American psychiatrist and illustrator (d. 1991) 1911 – Stan Kenton, American pianist and composer (d. 1979) 1913 – Roger Gaudry, Canadian chemist and businessman (d. 2001) 1913 – Muriel Rukeyser, American poet, academic, and activist (d. 1980) 1915 – Eila Campbell, English geographer and cartographer (d. 1994) 1916 – Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician, Governor of Pernambuco (d. 2005) 1916 – Buddy Cole, American pianist and conductor (d. 1964) 1916 – Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-English physicist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1917 – Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee, Indian-Pakistani linguist and lexicographer (d. 2005) 1918 – Jeff Chandler, American actor (d. 1961) 1918 – Chihiro Iwasaki, Japanese painter and illustrator (d. 1974) 1919 – Max Yasgur, American dairy farmer and host of the Woodstock Music & Art Fair (d. 1973) 1920 – Gamal al-Banna, Egyptian author and scholar (d. 2013) 1920 – Kurt Schaffenberger, German-American sergeant and illustrator (d. 2002) 1921 – Alan Freed, American radio host (d. 1965) 1923 – Pierre Cossette, American producer and manager (d. 2009) 1923 – Freeman Dyson, English-American physicist and mathematician (d. 2020) 1923 – Uziel Gal, German-Israeli engineer, designed the Uzi gun (d. 2002) 1923 – Valentin Varennikov, Russian general and politician (d. 2009) 1924 – Frank W. J. Olver, English-American mathematician and academic (d. 2013) 1924 – Ruhi Sarıalp, Turkish triple jumper and educator (d. 2001) 1925 – Kasey Rogers, American actress and author (d. 2006) 1926 – Bill Pitt, Australian race car driver (d. 2017) 1928 – Ernest Ashworth, American singer-songwriter (d. 2009) 1928 – Ida Haendel, Polish-English violinist and educator (d. 2020) 1928 – Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Austrian-New Zealand painter and architect (d. 2000) 1930 – Edna O'Brien, Irish novelist, playwright, poet and short story writer (d. 2024) 1931 – Klaus Rifbjerg, Danish author and poet (d. 2015) 1932 – Jesse Belvin, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1960) 1932 – John Meurig Thomas, Welsh chemist and academic (d. 2020) 1933 – Bapu, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1933 – Tim Conway, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1933 – Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (d. 2001) 1936 – Joe D'Amato, Italian director and producer (d. 1999) 1938 – Michael Bogdanov, Welsh director and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1938 – Billy Shaw, American football player (d. 2024) 1939 – Cindy Birdsong, American singer-songwriter 1939 – Dave Clark, English musician and songwriter 1946 – Art Howe, American baseball player and manager 1946 – Genny Lim, American writer 1946 – Comunardo Niccolai, Italian footballer (Torres, Cagliari, national team) (d. 2024) 1948 – Cassandra Harris, Australian actress (d. 1991) 1948 – Charlie Scott, American basketball player 1949 – Don Johnson, American actor 1949 – Brian Roper, English economist and academic 1950 – Melanie Chartoff, American actress and comedian 1950 – Sylvester James Gates, American theoretical physicist and professor 1951 – George Donikian, Australian journalist 1951 – Joe Jordan, Scottish footballer and manager 1951 – Tim Webster, Australian journalist and sportscaster 1952 – Rudi Protrudi, American singer-songwriter and producer 1952 – Allan Simonsen, Danish footballer and manager 1952 – Julie Taymor, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – John R. Allen, American general and diplomat 1953 – J. M. DeMatteis, American author 1953 – Robert Charles Wilson, American-Canadian author 1954 – Alex Cox, English film director, screenwriter, actor, non-fiction author and broadcaster 1954 – Oliver Heald, English lawyer and politician, Solicitor General for England and Wales 1954 – Mark Warner, American businessman and politician, 69th Governor of Virginia 1955 – Hector Sants, English banker 1955 – Paul Simonon, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1956 – John Lee Hancock, American screenwriter, film director, and producer 1956 – Tony Leon, South African lawyer and politician 1957 – Mario Marois, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1957 – Mike McAlary, American journalist and author (d. 1998) 1957 – Tim Reynolds, German-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Carlo J. Caparas, Filipino director and producer 1958 – Richard Kastle, American classical pianist 1959 – Greg Matthews, Australian cricketer 1959 – Alan Whetton, New Zealand rugby player 1959 – Gary Whetton, New Zealand rugby player 1960 – Walter Werzowa, Austrian composer and producer 1961 – Karin Resetarits, Austrian journalist and politician 1962 – Tim Gaines, American bass player 1962 – Simon Hodgkinson, English rugby player and coach 1963 – Ellie Cornell, American actress and producer 1963 – Norman J. Grossfeld, American screenwriter and producer 1963 – Helen Slater, American actress 1963 – David Wingate, American basketball player 1964 – Paul Kaye, English actor 1966 – Carl Hooper, Guyanese cricketer and coach 1966 – Molly Price, American actress 1967 – David Howells, English footballer and coach 1967 – Mo Vaughn, American baseball player 1968 – Garrett Wang, American actor 1969 – Ralph Ineson, English actor 1969 – Chantal Petitclerc, Canadian wheelchair racer and senator 1969 – Adam Setliff, American discus thrower and lawyer 1970 – Frankie Dettori, Italian jockey 1970 – Lawrence Funderburke, American basketball player 1970 – Michael Shanks, Canadian actor, screenwriter and director 1971 – Clint Lowery, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1972 – Rodney Harrison, American football player and sportscaster 1972 – Lee Jung-jae, South Korean actor 1972 – Stuart Townsend, Irish actor 1972 – Alexandra Tydings, American actress, director, writer and producer 1973 – Surya Bonaly, French figure skater 1973 – Ryoo Seung-wan, South Korean actor, director, and screenwriter 1974 – Garath Archer, English rugby player 1974 – P. J. Byrne, American actor 1975 – Samira Saraya, Palestinian actor, filmmaker, poet and rapper 1976 – Baichung Bhutia, Indian footballer and manager 1976 – Kim Eagles, Canadian sport shooter 1976 – Aaron Miles, American baseball player and coach 1976 – Todd Tichenor, American baseball player and umpire 1977 – Mehmet Aurélio, Brazilian-Turkish footballer and manager 1977 – Geoff Stults, American actor and producer 1978 – Ned Brower, American drummer 1978 – Mark Jansen, Dutch guitarist and songwriter 1978 – Jerome McDougle, American football player 1979 – Adam Brody, American actor 1979 – Eric Young, Canadian-American wrestler 1980 – Élodie Gossuin, French beauty pageant titleholder and model 1980 – Sergio Pizzorno, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Manuel Wilhelm, German rugby player 1981 – Michelle Dockery, English actress 1981 – Brendan Fletcher, Canadian actor and screenwriter 1981 – Andy González, Puerto Rican-American baseball player 1981 – Thomas Herrion, American football player (d. 2005) 1981 – Roman Pavlyuchenko, Russian footballer 1982 – Charlie Cox, English actor 1982 – Borja García, Spanish race car driver 1982 – George O. Gore II, American actor and comedian 1982 – Tatiana Perebiynis, Ukrainian tennis player 1983 – Delon Armitage, Trinidadian-English rugby player 1983 – René Duprée, Canadian professional wrestler 1983 – Camilla Luddington, English actress 1983 – Ronnie Radke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1983 – Sophia Young, Vincentian-American basketball player 1984 – Martyn Bernard, English high jumper 1984 – Martin Škrtel, Slovak footballer 1985 – Diogo Fernandes, Brazilian footballer 1986 – Kim Junsu, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer 1986 – Iveta Mazáčová, Czech sprinter 1986 – Keylor Navas, Costa Rican footballer 1986 – Snejana Onopka, Ukrainian model 1987 – Josh Norman, American football player 1988 – Erik Gustafsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1988 – Emily Head, English actress 1988 – Steven Nzonzi, French footballer 1989 – Nichole Bloom, American actress and model 1991 – Conor Daly, American race car driver 1991 – Yanni Gourde, Canadian ice hockey player 1991 – Alana Haim, American musician and actress 1992 – Daiamami Genki, Japanese sumo wrestler 1992 – Jesse Lingard, English footballer 1992 – Maximiliano Meza, Argentine footballer 1992 – Alex Telles, Brazilian footballer 1993 – Daniel Ochefu, American basketball player 1995 – Jahlil Okafor, American basketball player 1996 – Jenifer Brening, German singer 1996 – Oleksandr Zinchenko, Ukrainian footballer 1997 – Maude Apatow, American actress 1997 – Zach Banks, American race car driver 1997 – Magdalena Fręch, Polish tennis player 1997 – Stefania LaVie Owen, New Zealand-American actress 1998 – Chandler Canterbury, American actor 2000 – Kayvon Thibodeaux, American football player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 933 – Li Siyuan, Chinese emperor (b. 867) 1025 – Basil II, Byzantine emperor (b. 958) 1072 – Alp Arslan, Turkish sultan (b. 1029) 1161 – Wanyan Liang, Chinese emperor (b. 1122) 1230 – Ottokar I, duke of Bohemia (b. 1155) 1283 – Philip I, Latin emperor (b. 1243) 1343 – Hasan Kucek, Chopanid prince (b. c. 1319) 1467 – Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, archbishop and regent of Sweden (b. 1417) 1574 – Selim II, Ottoman sultan (b. 1524) 1598 – Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde, Dutch nobleman (b. 1540) ===1601–1900=== 1621 – Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes, French courtier, Constable of France (b. 1578) 1673 – Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, English noblewoman (b. 1623) 1675 – Johannes Vermeer, Dutch painter and educator (b. 1632) 1683 – Izaak Walton, English author (b. 1593) 1688 – Gaspar Fagel, Dutch lawyer and politician (b. 1634) 1698 – Louis Victor de Rochechouart de Mortemart, French nobleman (b. 1636) 1715 – George Hickes, English minister and scholar (b. 1642) 1753 – Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, English architect and politician, designed Chiswick House (b. 1694) 1792 – Joseph Martin Kraus, Swedish pianist, violinist, and composer (b. 1756) 1812 – Shneur Zalman, Russian rabbi, author and founder of Chabad (b. 1745) 1817 – Federigo Zuccari, astronomer, director of the Astronomical Observatory of Naples (b. 1783) 1819 – Daniel Rutherford, Scottish chemist and physician (b. 1749) 1855 – Jacques Charles François Sturm, French mathematician and academic (b. 1803) 1878 – Alfred Bird, English chemist and businessman, invented baking powder (b. 1811) 1890 – Sitting Bull, Hunkpapa Lakota tribal chief (b. 1831) ===1901–present=== 1943 – Fats Waller, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1904) 1944 – Glenn Miller, American bandleader and composer (b. 1904) 1947 – Arthur Machen, Welsh journalist and author (b. 1863) 1947 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (b. 1874) 1950 – Vallabhbhai Patel, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of India (b. 1875) 1958 – Wolfgang Pauli, Austrian-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900) 1962 – Charles Laughton, English-American actor, director, and producer (b. 1899) 1965 – M. Balasundaram, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1903) 1966 – Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Indian-Scottish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Kincardineshire (b. 1897) 1966 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (b. 1901) 1968 – Antonio Barrette, Canadian politician, 18th Premier of Quebec (b. 1899) 1968 – Jess Willard, American boxer and actor (b. 1881) 1969 – Karl Theodor Bleek, German lawyer and politician, 12th Mayor of Marburg (b. 1898) 1971 – Paul Lévy, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1886) 1974 – Anatole Litvak, Russian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1902) 1977 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1893) 1978 – Chill Wills, American actor (b. 1903) 1980 – Peter Gregg, American race car driver (b. 1940) 1984 – Jan Peerce, American tenor and actor (b. 1904) 1985 – Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Mauritian physician and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Mauritius (b. 1900) 1986 – Serge Lifar, Russian-French ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1905) 1989 – Edward Underdown, English actor and jockey (b. 1908) 1991 – Vasily Zaytsev, Russian captain (b. 1915) 1993 – William Dale Phillips, American chemist and engineer (b. 1925) 2000 – Haris Brkić, Bosnian-Serbian basketball player (b. 1974) 2003 – Vincent Apap, Maltese sculptor (b. 1909) 2003 – George Fisher, American cartoonist (b. 1923) 2003 – Keith Magnuson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1947) 2004 – Vassal Gadoengin, Nauruan educator and politician, Speaker of the Nauru Parliament (b. 1943) 2005 – Heinrich Gross, Austrian physician and psychiatrist (b. 1914) 2005 – Stan Leonard, Canadian golfer (b. 1915) 2005 – William Proxmire, American soldier, journalist, and politician (b. 1915) 2005 – Darrell Russell, American football player (b. 1976) 2006 – Clay Regazzoni, Swiss race car driver (b. 1939) 2006 – Mary Stolz, American journalist and author (b. 1920) 2007 – Julia Carson, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938) 2008 – León Febres Cordero, Ecuadorian engineer and politician, 46th President of Ecuador (b. 1931) 2009 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (b. 1909) 2017 – Calestous Juma, academic (b. 1953) 2018 – Eryue He, Chinese historical fiction writer (b.1945) 2018 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, President of Ethiopia (b. 1924) 2020 – Saufatu Sopoanga, Tuvaluan politician, 8th Prime Minister of Tuvalu (b. 1952) 2024 – Zakir Hussain, Indian tabla player, musical producer, film actor and composer (b. 1951) ==Holidays and observances== Bill of Rights Day (United States) 2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina) Christian feast day: Drina Martyrs Drostan (Aberdeen Breviary) John Horden and Robert McDonald (Episcopal Church (USA)) Maria Crocifissa di Rosa Mesmin Valerian of Abbenza Virginia Centurione Bracelli December 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Homecoming Day (Alderney) Kingdom Day (Netherlands), moves to December 16 if the 15th is on a Sunday Zamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community)
[ "1940", "Hans Carossa", "1921", "Taoiseach", "Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse", "Diogo Fernandes (footballer)", "Keith Magnuson", "Tim Reynolds", "L. L. Zamenhof", "Jin–Song wars", "Maxwell Anderson", "1886", "Army of the Potomac", "United States Air Force", "1982", "Jenifer Brening", "León Febres Cordero", "Prince Munetaka", "1598", "Rudi Protrudi", "Emirate of Sharjah", "1715", "Helen Slater", "Seewoosagur Ramgoolam", "The Plain Dealer", "Confederate States of America", "1899", "Stephen du Perche", "Comunardo Niccolai", "Leon Marchlewski", "Battle of St. Lucia", "1167", "1836 U.S. Patent Office fire", "Leonid Pitamic", "Hōjō Coal Mine Disaster", "1910", "Heinz Wolff", "Swami Ranganathananda", "Harold Abrahams", "Messina", "General of The Salvation Army", "Carmine Appice", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Christopher Hitchens", "2015", "Joe D'Amato", "William Proxmire", "1924", "1792", "Mesmin", "Donald Metcalf", "1819", "Taiwan–United States relations", "1072", "Kharkiv", "National Hockey League", "Guadalcanal Campaign", "Klaus Rifbjerg", "1964", "Premier of South Australia", "The Walt Disney Company", "Esperanto", "Saufatu Sopoanga", "New Britain campaign", "Ralph Ineson", "Ottokar I of Bohemia", "Eryue He", "John Lee Hancock", "2020", "Tony Leon", "Daniel Rutherford", "Army of Tennessee", "Fausto Zapata", "Friedensreich Hundertwasser", "Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz", "Julie Taymor", "Nick Buoniconti", "Genny Lim", "Maude Apatow", "United Nations Headquarters", "democracy", "1981", "Cathedral of Brasília", "1915", "1928", "Mongol campaign against the Nizaris", "1546", "British Army", "2008", "Pipe Spring National Monument", "1283", "1946", "Richard Kastle", "Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott", "Symphony No. 9 (Dvořák)", "1950", "Lord Lieutenant of Kincardineshire", "1783", "Sophia Young", "Julia Carson", "Kyushu", "feast day", "George Henry Thomas", "Zakir Hussain (musician)", "1979", "Battle of Baia", "Chill Wills", "Andy González (baseball)", "Paul Lévy (mathematician)", "Battle of Tricamarum", "Alexandra Tydings", "Kurt Schaffenberger", "Selim II", "Ida Haendel", "Edward Underdown", "Bob Feller", "List of Governors of Kaduna State", "Koninkrijksdag", "1906", "1972", "1916", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "2016", "Richard Paul Pavlick", "Adolf Eichmann", "Constantine VIII", "1025", "George O. Gore II", "J. M. DeMatteis", "1943", "Olga Zubarry", "Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde", "Walter Werzowa", "Martin Place, Sydney", "1954", "List of heads of state of Ecuador", "Alfred Bird", "Associated Press", "1860", "Kayvon Thibodeaux", "1852", "Black Week", "2017 Java earthquake", "Mike McAlary", "Carnegie Hall", "South Sudanese Civil War", "Harry Zvi Tabor", "antipope", "1621", "Tim Gaines", "Gemini 6A", "Louis Victor de Rochechouart de Mortemart", "Stuart Townsend", "Ekenäs, Finland", "Miguel Arraes", "1977", "1683", "Pagan Amum", "Eliza Atkins Gleason", "abolition of capital punishment", "List of premiers of Quebec", "Walt Disney", "Geoff Stults", "Baichung Bhutia", "1947", "Iran", "Alan Freed", "Clint Lowery", "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", "Republic of Ezo", "John F. Kennedy", "Beirut", "1791", "Lakota people", "Zamenhof Day", "1920", "John R. Allen", "Chantal Petitclerc", "Kingdom of Sicily (Medieval and Early Modern)", "Gordon Douglas (director)", "1931", "Clay Regazzoni", "1992", "Tim Webster", "Shinto Directive", "Don Johnson", "2013", "Atlanta", "Ivor Crewe", "London Underground", "Chancellor", "Billy Shaw", "Alex Cox", "Wally Schirra", "John Paul Getty III", "1953", "Ruhi Sarıalp", "1933", "Gustav I of Sweden", "Episcopal Church (USA)", "Sattar Bahlulzade", "space rendezvous", "Emily Head", "1753", "Ryoo Seung-wan", "Christmas Island", "Maximiliano Meza (footballer, born 1992)", "Zaragoza", "Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria", "Pehr Evind Svinhufvud", "1932", "1951", "Kasey Rogers", "Brian Roper (academic)", "Old Patent Office Building", "Greg Matthews", "1270", "Order of Assassins", "1970", "Blake Edwards", "Peter Gregg (racing driver)", "1710", "Snejana Onopka", "2009", "Getty Oil", "contralto", "1230", "1985", "Pope Sergius I", "2010", "M. Balasundaram", "Michel Richard Delalande", "Magdalena Fręch", "Max Yasgur", "Nero", "René Duprée", "Governor of Massachusetts", "1855", "Samira Saraya", "1961", "The Holocaust in Ukraine", "Abner Powell", "1926", "Natal (province)", "1966", "Makuuchi", "Karin Resetarits", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee", "Shneur Zalman", "Saint Petersburg", "World War I", "Steven Nzonzi", "Drobytsky Yar", "Oliver Heald", "1938", "Emilio Jacinto", "1343", "1925", "Mehmet Aurélio", "Crawford Vaughan", "Uzi", "Dave Clark (musician)", "Allan Simonsen", "Robert Charles Wilson", "David Wingate (basketball)", "1978", "1651", "1869", "Third English Civil War", "Robert F. Bradford", "Josh Norman", "Esperantist", "Josef Imbach (athlete)", "1965", "Alp Arslan", "Jimmy Carter", "1987", "President of Finland", "Venera 7", "1892", "1919", "1939", "Byzantine Empire", "patent model", "Yanni Gourde", "Kathleen Blanco", "Charlie Scott (basketball)", "China–United States relations", "2001", "Battle of Nashville", "Zach Banks", "Jeff Chandler (actor)", "Belgrade", "Buddy Cole (musician)", "Second Spanish Republic", "Jim Leyland", "Maria Crocifissa di Rosa", "Eichmann trial", "1993", "Tamanishiki San'emon", "Roger Gaudry", "telegraphist", "Arizona Territory", "Hunkpapa", "1574", "Mark Warner", "Project Gemini", "Wanyan Liang", "Lucius Verus", "1657", "Adam Brody", "Mental disorder", "Carl Hooper", "2003", "Matthias Corvinus", "1976", "1447", "Rodney Harrison", "Governor of Pernambuco", "ice cream cone", "2018", "United States Bill of Rights", "Vibert Douglas", "2012", "Glenn Miller", "Oral Roberts", "Ella Stewart Udall", "Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association", "UC-64A Norseman", "Venus", "Molly Price", "AD 130", "American Revolutionary War", "1989", "2000", "George Donikian", "1967", "Java", "Hector Sants", "Izaak Walton", "Girma Wolde-Giorgis", "John Hammond (producer)", "Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", "Joan Fontaine", "President of Venezuela", "Nicholas P. Dallis", "Chihiro Iwasaki", "Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway", "1971", "Hollywood Foreign Press Association", "1952", "Serbian Army", "1894", "Alana Haim", "1984", "Frank W. J. Olver", "Betty Smith", "Governor of Virginia", "Thomas Herrion", "1242", "Duryea Motor Wagon Company", "Stan Leonard", "United States Army Air Forces", "Japan", "1907", "Sylvester James Gates", "Federigo Zuccari", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "Li Siyuan", "1913", "2010 Christmas Island boat disaster", "1996", "Governor of Louisiana", "Wounded Knee Massacre", "Martin Škrtel", "1963", "Erik Gustafsson (ice hockey, born 1988)", "2014 Sydney hostage crisis", "1975", "The Times", "Florida", "Loew's Grand Theatre", "1686", "1893", "Eugene Victor Wolfenstein", "1888", "1958", "Refugee", "Alex Telles", "1941", "Hasan Kucek", "1778", "Downing Street Declaration", "Occupation of Japan", "1908", "Mo Vaughn", "Mitsubishi", "Martyn Bernard", "Netherlands", "Second Boer War", "Ronnie Radke", "A.P. Carter", "Nazi Germany", "1949", "David Howells", "John Major", "Johannes Vermeer", "1969", "Vincent Apap", "1962", "Naples", "Shinto", "Jerome McDougle", "List of Speakers of the Parliament of Nauru", "Ambrose Burnside", "Oleksandr Zinchenko (footballer)", "Castle Cornet", "2007", "1891", "George Hickes (divine)", "Prime Minister of Tuvalu", "1885", "Gelimer", "1957", "Norsk biografisk leksikon", "Dyron Nix", "Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor", "Manuel Wilhelm", "1871", "Battle of Caishi", "Kim Junsu", "Mahendra of Nepal", "Frankie Dettori", "Jess Willard", "List of shōguns", "The Troubles", "Anarchist insurrection of December 1933", "1836", "Chabad", "Army of the Cumberland", "Tasikmalaya", "Melanie Chartoff", "Chandler Canterbury", "Paul Simonon", "Anatole Litvak", "Alamut Castle", "Calestous Juma", "Gemini 7", "Bob Brookmeyer", "Rebecca Nyandeng", "Fats Waller", "Joseph Martin Kraus", "Aberdeen Breviary", "2004", "List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies", "South Carolina", "Stephen III of Moldavia", "1859", "Vasily Zaitsev (sniper)", "Wilfred Kitching", "Cindy Birdsong", "Union (American Civil War)", "Battle of Arawe", "Deputy Prime Minister of India", "Man Haron Monis", "1862", "1256", "Daniel Ochefu", "Tatiana Perebiynis", "Amunda Kolderup", "Homecoming Day (Alderney)", "George Fisher (cartoonist)", "1896", "1675", "Simon Hodgkinson", "Albert Reynolds", "Alexander Pushkin", "Roman Pavlyuchenko", "Ethiopia", "1995", "Stefania LaVie Owen", "Lucien den Arend", "687", "Norman J. Grossfeld", "List of Prime Ministers of Mauritius", "President-elect of the United States", "Maurice Wilkins", "Byzantine Emperor", "Bapu (director)", "933", "Rappahannock River", "baking powder", "Nichole Bloom", "Sitting Bull", "1942", "1903", "Aaron Miles", "1832", "1161", "Henri Becquerel", "1875", "Bill of Rights Day", "1909", "WNBA", "Freeman Dyson", "Riek Machar", "Todd Tichenor", "Kim Eagles", "1673", "Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa", "John Meurig Thomas", "Valentin Varennikov", "1864", "2006", "Mark Jansen", "American Civil War", "Pushkin House", "Vandalic War", "1905", "Delon Armitage", "1998", "Cassandra Harris", "1917", "The Royal Society of Edinburgh", "Stan Kenton", "1983", "1878", "1890", "Surya Bonaly", "Owoye Andrew Azazi", "Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna", "Deseret Telegraph Company", "1986", "Chiswick House", "AD 37", "homosexuality", "Tim Conway", "Alan Whetton", "Heather Booth", "2024", "Ezo", "Michelle Dockery", "Borja García (racing driver)", "Jacques Charles François Sturm", "Muriel Rukeyser", "UPI", "Paul Kaye", "Solicitor General for England and Wales", "Mary Stolz", "Kansallisbiografia", "United States Department of the Interior", "Chico Mendes", "Ned Brower", "William Dale Phillips", "Mongols", "Italian American", "1688", "Charles Laughton", "Vandals", "1812", "Florence Jepperson Madsen", "1467", "1955", "Gary Whetton", "Gone with the Wind (film)", "Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington", "2005", "1981 Iraqi embassy bombing", "Jan Peerce", "Eric Young (wrestler)", "Austro-Hungarian Army", "1567", "Garath Archer", "Jin dynasty (1115–1234)", "Charlie Cox", "Camilla Luddington", "1956", "Suicide attack", "Michael Shanks", "Governor of San Luis Potosí", "armistice between Russia and the Central Powers", "Cagliari Calcio", "Jean-Joseph Fiocco", "Tajikistan Airlines Flight 3183", "American Psychiatric Association", "Adam Setliff", "1991", "Haris Brkić", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "1930", "2014", "E. W. Bullinger", "1863", "Donald Woods", "1968", "2nd Amendment Day", "Jahlil Okafor", "Carlos Soublette", "Gustave Eiffel", "Nizari Ismaili state", "Battle of Fredericksburg", "Judicial system of Israel", "Eila Campbell", "Francesco Zahra", "Christoph Demantius", "1902", "Keylor Navas", "1817", "Ellie Cornell", "Garrett Wang", "1846", "Sergio Pizzorno", "Michael Bogdanov", "Robert McDonald (missionary)", "Serge Lifar", "Wolfgang Pauli", "1936", "1973", "Philip I, Latin Emperor", "Routledge", "Basil II", "Arthur Machen", "SEF Torres 1903", "Joe Jordan", "Edna O'Brien", "John Bell Hood", "David Teniers the Younger", "Élodie Gossuin", "Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes", "Gerdkuh", "Drina Martyrs", "Virginia Centurione Bracelli", "1944", "1997", "Arthur Dehon Little", "Charles Duryea", "Virginia General Assembly", "Lee Jung-jae", "Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant", "1837", "Oscar Niemeyer", "1918", "Carlo J. Caparas", "1861", "Vallabhbhai Patel", "1911", "Nashville, Tennessee", "Heinrich Gross", "Lawrence Funderburke", "Constable of France", "December 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "World War II", "Niels Ryberg Finsen", "Woodstock", "Cape Canaveral", "1960", "United Arab Emirates", "Art Howe", "1948", "Darrell Russell (American football)", "Valerian of Abbenza", "Uziel Gal", "Conor Daly", "Daiamami Genki", "Craig Sager", "National Park Service", "John Horden", "Vassal Gadoengin", "South Africa", "1945", "Karl Theodor Bleek", "Hulagu Khan", "Harry Babcock (pole vaulter)", "Jesse Lingard", "List of mayors of Marburg", "Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne", "2017", "Drostan", "Gaspar Fagel", "Jesse Belvin", "Standing Rock Indian Reservation", "P. J. Byrne", "1980", "Club Atlético River Plate", "1974", "1988", "Leaning Tower of Pisa", "Guernsey", "1789", "Italy national football team", "Thomas P. Stafford", "Belisarius", "Gamal al-Banna", "2011", "533", "Iveta Mazáčová", "Antonio Barrette", "1959", "1610", "Pierre Cossette", "1914", "Bill Pitt (racing driver)", "Brendan Fletcher", "Douglas MacArthur", "J. Paul Getty", "Harold Camping", "Battle of Colenso", "United States patent law", "Eiffel Tower", "Antonín Dvořák", "Mario Marois", "Ernest Ashworth" ]
8,148
Diogo Cão
Diogo Cão ( – 1486), also known as Diogo Cam, was a Portuguese mariner and one of the most notable explorers of the fifteenth century. He made two voyages along the west coast of Africa in the 1480s, exploring the Congo River and the coasts of present-day Angola and Namibia. ==Early life and family== Little is known about the early life of Diogo Cão. According to tradition, he was born in Vila Real, Portugal, around 1452. His grandfather, Gonçalo Cão, had fought for Portuguese independence at the Battle of Aljubarrota. By 1480, Cão was sailing off the coast of Africa in the service of João II. There is a record that he returned to Portugal with captured Spanish ships. ==Exploration== When the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1480) confirmed Portugal's monopoly on trade and exploration along Africa's west coast, João II moved quickly to secure and expand his hold on the region. In 1481, a fleet of ten ships was dispatched to the Gold Coast to construct a fortress known as São Jorge da Mina. The fort would serve as a commercial center for trade (including in slaves) and an important point of resupply for Portuguese voyages. João II also re-instituted a program of exploration southward along the African coast, an initiative that had been held in abeyance during the war with Spain. Diogo Cão was selected to lead João's first voyage of exploration in 1482. ===First voyage=== When João II restarted the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cão, probably around midsummer 1482, to explore the African coast south of the equator. Diogo Cão filled his ship with stone pillars (padrões) surmounted by the cross of the Order of Christ and engraved with the Portuguese royal arms, planning to erect them at significant landmarks along his voyage of discovery. On the way, the expedition stopped at Sao Jorge da Mina to resupply. In August 1482, Cão arrived at the Congo River mouth and marked it with a padrão erected on Shark Point, commemorating the Portuguese occupation. This padrão stood until 1642 when it was destroyed by the Dutch during their occupation of the Congo. Cão sailed up the great river for a short distance and commenced modest commerce with the natives of the Bakongo kingdom. He was told that their king lived farther upriver, so he sent four Christian native messengers to search for the ruler and then proceeded south along the coast of present-day Angola where he erected a second padrão, probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cabo de Santa Maria. When he returned to the Congo, Cão was annoyed to find that his messengers had not returned, so he abducted four local natives who were visiting his ship and returned with them to Portugal. He reached Lisbon by 8 April 1484, where John II ennobled him, promoting him from esquire to a cavalier of his household, and granted him an annuity of eighteen thousand reals and a coat of arms on which two padrões are depicted. The King also asked him to sail back to Kongo to repatriate the 4 men he left behind. ===Second voyage=== That Cão, on his second voyage of 1484–1486, was accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful. But it is known that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more padrões on land beyond his previous voyage. The first was at Cabo Negro, Angola, the second at Cape Cross. The Cape Cross pillar probably marked the end of his progress southward, some 1,400 kilometers. Cão sailed 170 kilometers up the Congo River to the Yellala Falls. On the cliffs above this site an inscription was engraved which records the passage of Cão and his men: "Here arrived the ships of the illustrious monarch, Dom João the Second of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pedro Anes, Pedro da Costa, Alvaro Pires, Pero Escolar". ===Death=== Information regarding Cão's death is scanty and contradictory. A legend on the globe created by Martin Behaim reads "hic moritur" (here he dies), seeming to indicate that the explorer lost his life on the coast of Africa in 1486 during his second voyage. However, sixteenth-century historian João de Barros never mentions Cão's death but wrote instead of his return to the Congo, and subsequent taking of a native envoy back to Portugal. A report by a board of astronomers and pilots presented at a 1525 conference in Badajo clearly stated that his death happened near Serra Parda. A coast map by Henricus Martellus Germanus published in 1489 indicated the location of a padrão erected by Diogo Cão in Ponta dos Farilhões nearby Serra Parda, with the legend "et hic moritur" ("and here he died"). ==Padrões== The four pillars set up by Cão on his two voyages have all been discovered still on their original site, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are still to be read and have been printed. The Cape Cross padrão was long in Berlin (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile) but was recently returned to Namibia; those from the Kongo estuary and the more southerly Cape Santa Maria and Cabo Negro are in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society. ==Tributes post-mortem== In 1951, botanists named a genus of plants from western central tropical Africa in his honour, Diogoa. In Vila Real, the plaza Diogo Cão was named after him. In the center of the plaza, stands a bronze statue of him supported on a square granite pedestal base. In 1999, André Roubertou from the French Hydrographic Office (SHOM) named an undersea hole located off the southern coast of Portugal (Gulf of Cádiz) the Diogo Cão Hole. In 2018, a hopper dredger called the Diogo Cao and immatriculated in Luxembourg was launched afloat. ==In literature== Diogo Cão is the subject of Padrão, one of the best-known poems in Fernando Pessoa's book Mensagem, the only one published during the author's lifetime. He also figures strongly in the 1996 novel Lord of the Kongo by Peter Forbath.
[ "Treaty of Alcáçovas", "Yellala Falls", "Kingdom of Kongo", "Diogoa", "Vila Real, Portugal", "João II", "padrão", "Portuguese People", "Kingdom of Portugal", "Portugal in the period of discoveries", "Namibia", "Martin Behaim", "John II of Portugal", "Battle of Aljubarrota", "trailing suction hopper dredger", "Congo River", "Berlin", "Cabo de Santa Maria (Angola)", "Henry the Navigator", "Mensagem", "Erdapfel", "Fernando Pessoa", "São Jorge da Mina", "Cape Cross", "Henricus Martellus Germanus", "João de Barros", "Vila Real", "Gulf of Cádiz" ]
8,162
Drinking game
Drinking games are games which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequent intoxication resulting from them. Evidence of the existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity. Drinking games have been banned at some institutions, particularly colleges and universities. ==History== ===Ancient Greece=== Kottabos is one of the earliest known drinking games from ancient Greece, dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Players would use dregs (remnants of what was left in their cup) to hit targets across the room with their wine. Often, there were special prizes and penalties for one's performance in the game. ===China=== Drinking games were enjoyed in ancient China, usually incorporating the use of dice or verbal exchange of riddles. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Chinese used a silver canister where written lots could be drawn that designated which player had to drink and specifically how much; for example, from 1, 5, 7, or 10 measures of drink that the youngest player, or the last player to join the game, or the most talkative player, or the host, or the player with the greatest alcohol tolerance, etc. had to drink. Drinking games became popular among elites in the late Qing period as part of the privileged class' urban leisure aesthetics. Novelists who invented literary-themed drinking games included Li Boyuan and Sun Yusheng.]] Drinking games in 19th century Germany included Bierskat, Elfern, Rammes and Quodlibet, as well as Schlauch and Laubober, probably the same game as Grasobern. But the "crown of all drinking games" was one with an ancient and distinctive name: Cerevis. One feature of the game was that everything went under a different name from normal. So the cards (Karten) were called 'spoons' (Löffel), the Sevens were 'Septembers' and the Aces were the 'Juveniles' (junge Leichtsinn). A player who used the normal names was penalised. Every time a card was played, it was supposed to be accompanied by humorous words, so if a Jack or Unter was played, the player might say something like "my merry Unterkasser" (Lustig mein Unterkasser) or "long live my Unterkasser" (Vivat mein Unterkasser). If his opponent beat it, he might say "hang the Unterkasser" (Hängt den Unterkasser). The loser had to chalk up a figure such as a swallow, a wheel or a pair of scissors depending on the number of minus points gained and was only allowed to erase them once he had drunk the associated amount of beer. Silver wager cups, also known as wedding cups, were used in Germany from the late 16th to mid 17th century. The smaller cup is on a pivot so both vessels can be face-up and filled with liquor. In wedding ceremonies, the man would drink from the larger vessel first, then turning the figure right side up, pass it to the woman, who would drink from the smaller cup; the challenge was for the two drinkers not to spill any liquor. They were also sometimes used during wine drinking boughts were a wager was placed if participant(s) could drink the contents of both sides without spilling a drop. In Germany they are known as Jungfrauenbecher, or maiden cups. Replicas of the cups were frequently manufactured during the 1880s to 1910s. ==Types== ===Endurance=== The simplest drinking games are endurance games in which players compete to out-drink one another. Players take turns taking shots, and the last person standing is the winner. Some games have rules involving the "cascade", "fountain", or "waterfall", which encourages each player to drink constantly from their cup so long as the player before him does not stop drinking. Such games can also favor speed over quantity, in which players race to drink a case of beer the fastest. Often drinking large amounts will be combined with a stylistic element or an abnormal method of drinking, as with the boot of beer, yard of ale, or a keg stand. Tolerance games are simply about seeing which player can last the longest. It can be as simple as two people matching each other drink for drink until one of the participants "passes out". Power hour and its variant, centurion, fall under this category. ===Speed=== Many pub or bar games involve competitive drinking for speed. Examples of such drinking games are Edward Fortyhands, boat races, beer bonging, shotgunning, flippy cup (a team-based speed game), and yard. Some say that the most important skill to improving speed is to relax and take fewer but larger gulps. There are a variety of individual tactics to accomplishing this, such as bending the knees in anticipation, or when drinking from a plastic cup, squeezing the sides of the cup to form a more perfect funnel. Athletic races involving alcohol including the beer mile, which consists of a mile run with a can of beer consumed before each of the four laps. A variant is known in German speaking countries as Bierkastenlauf (beer crate running) where a team of two carries a crate of beer along a route of several kilometers and must consume all of the bottles prior to crossing the finish line. ===Skill=== Some party and pub games focus on the performance of a particular act of skill, rather than on either the amount a participant drinks or the speed with which they do so. Examples include beer pong, quarters, chandeliers (also known as gauchoball, rage cage, stack cup), caps, polish horseshoes, pong, baseball, and beer darts. Pub golf involves orienteering and pub crawling together. A unique drinking game is made in the tavern Oepfelchammer in Zürich, Switzerland. It is called "Balkenprobe" and one has therefore to climb up a beam at the ceiling and move to another beam and then to drink a glass of wine with the head hanging down. ===Luck=== Party games like the Korean apateu are mostly luck, as it has the players stack their hands, after which the leader shouts out a number, and whoever has their hand at that position in the stack will drink. ===Thinking=== Thinking games rely on the players' powers of observation, recollection, logic and articulation. Numerous types of thinking games exist, including Think or Drink, 21, beer checkers, bizz buzz, buffalo, saved by the bell, bullshit, tourettes, matchboxes, never have I ever, roman numerals, fuzzy duck, pennying, wine games, and Zoom Schwartz Profigliano. Trivia games, such as Trivial Pursuit, are sometimes played as drinking games. ===Card and dice=== Drinking games involving cards include president, horserace, Kings, liar's poker, pyramid, ring of fire, toepen, ride the bus and black or red. Dice games include beer die, dudo, kinito, liar's dice, Mexico, mia, ship, captain, and crew, three man, and Triple Snakes. ===Arts=== Movie drinking games are played while watching a movie (sometimes a TV show or a sporting event) and have a set of rules for who drinks when and how much based on on-screen events and dialogue. The rules may be the same for all players, or alternatively players may each be assigned rules related to particular characters. The rules are designed so that rarer events require larger drinks. Rule sets for such games are usually arbitrary and local, although they are sometimes published by fan clubs. In reference to film, a popular game among young adults consists of printing out a mustache and taping it on the television screen. Every time the mustache fits appropriately to a person on the screen, one must drink the designated amount. Live drinking games such as Los Angeles–based "A Drinking Game" involve recreating films of the 80s in a "Rocky Horror" fashion, with gift bags, drinking cues, and costumed actors. A suggestion to "do six shots for SEAL Team 6" following every mention of Osama bin Laden at the 2012 Democratic National Convention necessitated a prominent disclaimer on the satire site that posted it, as the quantity of alcohol ingested would probably have been lethal. "Datsyuk Game" involves a Datsyuk highlight reel being played and contestants drink every time the word Datsyuk is mentioned. The ceremonial playing of the Russian national anthem before the game is another tradition. Music can also be used as a basis for drinking games. The song "Thunderstruck" by AC/DC is used in which a player begins drinking when the word thunder is sung and switches to the next player the next time it is sung. Sport related drinking games involve the participants each selecting a scenario of the game resulting in their drink being downed. Examples of this include participants each picking a footballer in a game while other versions require multiple players to be selected. Should a player score or be sent off, a drink must be taken. Another version requires a drink for every touch a player takes of the ball. ===Hybrid games=== Some drinking games can fall into multiple categories such as a Power hour which is a primarily an endurance-based game, but can also incorporate the arts if players are prompted to drink by a playlist that changes songs every 60 seconds. Similarly, Flip cup combines the skill of flipping cups with the speed of drinking quickly prior to flipping. ===Russian roulette=== There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette. The game involves six shot glasses filled by a non-player: five are filled with water, but the sixth with vodka. Among some groups, low quality vodka is preferred, as it makes the glass representing the filled chamber less desirable. The glasses are arranged in a circle, and players take turns choosing a glass to take a shot from at random. There is also a game called "Beer Hunter" (titled after the Russian roulette scenes in the film The Deer Hunter). In this game, six cans of beer are placed between the participants: one can is vigorously shaken, and the cans are scrambled. The participants take turns opening the cans of beer right under their noses; the person who opens the shaken can (and thus sprays beer up their nose) is deemed the loser. Both are non-lethal compared to the game with the firearm which is almost always lethal. ==Health concerns== Drinking games are popular social activities, particularly among young adults and college students, but they come with significant health risks. These games often encourage rapid alcohol consumption, often leading to heavy drinking, which can result in severe consequences such as alcohol poisoning: Beer pong. Some writers have mentioned beer pong as contributing to "out of control" college drinking. Power hour. Players may have difficulty completing the specified number of drinks as the rate of consumption can raise their blood alcohol content to high levels. Keg stand is another drinking game known for its extreme consumption style. Neknominate. The original rules of the game require the participants to film themselves drinking a pint of an alcoholic beverage. Five people are believed to have died as a result of playing the game, including a Cardiff man thought to have downed a pint of vodka, and a London hostel worker who reportedly mixed an entire bottle of white wine with a quarter bottle of whisky, a small bottle of vodka and a can of lager. In the latter case, the victim's nominator was interviewed by police, but it was ruled an accidental death without coercion.
[ "Grasobern", "buffalo (drinking game)", "blood alcohol content", "Beerfest", "Quarters (drinking game)", "mexico (game)", "game", "roman numerals (game)", "never have I ever", "kinito", "Triple Snakes", "Boat race (game)", "List of drinking games", "fresco", "riddle", "ancient Greece", "Baseball (drinking game)", "Osama bin Laden", "Jack (playing card)", "Iranian peoples", "Quodlibet (card game)", "2012 Democratic National Convention", "firearm", "beer pong", "horserace (drinking game)", "Flip cup", "Russian roulette", "mia (game)", "Keg stand", "centurion (drinking game)", "alcoholic beverage", "Hartford Courant", "Unter (playing card)", "black or red", "New York Times", "Beer pong", "beer bong", "SEAL Team 6", "orienteering", "Power hour", "Fuzzy Duck (drinking game)", "Rams (card game)", "Zoom Schwartz Profigliano", "21 (drinking game)", "university", "movie", "Trivia", "yard of ale", "alcohol (drug)", "liar's poker", "Minnesota Public Radio", "Pregaming", "card game", "pennying", "Trivial Pursuit", "University of Washington Press", "keg stand", "Beer pong (paddles)", "Kottabos (game)", "Schlauch (card game)", "List of public house topics", "matchbox (drinking game)", "shotgunning", "Batsford Books", "Antiques (magazine)", "referee", "Paestum", "China", "pub crawl", "Alcohol intoxication", "flippy cup", "kastenlauf", "Qing dynasty", "plastic cup", "Neknominate", "Pub golf", "silver", "Binge drinking", "beer mile", "college", "Yard glass", "Bierskat", "Pavel Datsyuk", "Tomb of the Diver", "Tang dynasty", "president (card game)", "cheat (game)", "toepen", "ship, captain, and crew", "ring of fire (game)", "polish horseshoes", "beer die", "liar's dice", "Li Boyuan", "dice", "beer checkers", "pyramid (drinking game)", "kings (drinking game)", "AC/DC", "bizz buzz", "Elfern", "three man", "boot of beer", "The Deer Hunter", "dudo" ]
8,166
Devon
{{Infobox English county | official_name = Devon | image_main = | image_caption = Clockwise from top: the Devon coast at Combe Martin; ponies on Dartmoor; and Smeaton's Tower, Plymouth Hoe | flag_image = Flag of Devon.svg | locator_map = Devon UK locator map 2010.svg| | map_caption = Devon within England | coordinates = | region = South West | established_date = Ancient | lord_lieutenant_office = Lord Lieutenant of Devon | lord_lieutenant_name = David Fursdon | Patron Saint = Saint Boniface | high_sheriff_office = High Sheriff of Devon | high_sheriff_name = Richard Youngman (2022–23) | area_total_km2 = 6707 | area_total_rank = 4th | ethnicity = {{unbulleted list | 94.9% White British | 0.4% Irish{{refn|group=note|Data is collected by local authority areas (Devon, Plymouth, Torbay respectively). Total population of Devon is 1,133,742 (746,399 + 256,384 + 130,959). Percentage of ethnically Irish persons is 0.4%. They all are located along the south coast, which is the most populous part of the county; Barnstaple (31,275) and Tiverton (22,291) are the largest towns in the north and centre respectively. For local government purposes Devon comprises a non-metropolitan county, with eight districts, and the unitary authority areas of Plymouth and Torbay. Devon County Council and Torbay Council collaborate through a combined county authority. Devon has a varied geography. It contains Dartmoor and part of Exmoor, two upland moors which are the source of most of the county's rivers, including the Taw, Dart, and Exe. The longest river in the county is the Tamar, which forms most of the border with Cornwall and rises in Devon's northwest hills. The southeast coast is part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, and characterised by tall cliffs which reveal the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous geology of the region. The county gives its name to the Devonian geologic period, which includes the slates and sandstones of the north coast. Dartmoor and Exmoor have been designated national parks, and the county also contains, in whole or in part, five national landscapes. In the Iron Age, Roman and the Sub-Roman periods, the county was the home of the Dumnonii Celtic Britons. The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the kingdom of Wessex in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the western boundary with Cornwall was set at the Tamar by king Æthelstan in 936. ==History== ===Toponymy=== The name Devon derives from the name of the Brythons who inhabited the southwestern peninsula of Britain at the time of the Roman conquest of Britain known as the Dumnonii, thought to mean 'deep valley dwellers' from Proto-Celtic 'deep'. In the Brittonic languages, Devon is known as , and , each meaning 'deep valleys'. (For an account of Celtic Dumnonia, see the separate article.) Among the most common Devon placenames is -combe which derives from Brittonic meaning 'valley' usually prefixed by the name of the possessor. William Camden, in his 1607 edition of Britannia, described Devon as being one part of an older, wider country that once included Cornwall: The term Devon is normally used for everyday purposes (e.g., "Devon County Council"), but Devonshire has continued to be used in the names of the "Devonshire and Dorset Regiment" (until 2007) and "The Devonshire Association". One erroneous theory is that the shire suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire, resident in Derbyshire. There are references to both and in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 CE (the former is a name for the "people of Devon" and the latter would mean 'Shire of the Devonians'), which translates to modern English as Devonshire. The term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from (Latin) to . ===Human occupation=== Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30 to 40,000 years ago. Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under military occupation for around 350 years. Later, the area began to experience Saxon incursions from the east around 600 AD, firstly as small bands of settlers along the coasts of Lyme Bay and southern estuaries and later as more organised bands pushing in from the east. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was largely absorbed into Wessex by the mid ninth century. A genetic study carried out by the University of Oxford and University College London discovered separate genetic groups in Cornwall and Devon. Not only were there differences on either side of the River Tamar—-with a division almost exactly following the modern county boundary, but also between Devon and the rest of Southern England. Devon's population also exhibited similarities with modern northern France, including Brittany. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited, rather than a mass movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD. Danish raids also occurred sporadically along many coastal parts of Devon between around 800AD and just before the time of the Norman conquest, including the silver mint at Hlidaforda Lydford in 997 and Taintona (a settlement on the Teign estuary) in 1001. Devon was the home of a number of anticlerical movements in the Later Middle Ages. For example, the Order of Brothelyngham—a fake monastic order of 1348 — regularly rode through Exeter, kidnapping both religious men and laymen, and extorting money from them as ransom. Devon has also featured in most of the civil conflicts in England since the Norman conquest, including the Wars of the Roses, Perkin Warbeck's rising in 1497, the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, and the English Civil War. The arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times. Devon's tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devon's Stannary Convocation, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748. ==Geography and geology== Devon straddles a peninsula and so, uniquely among English counties, has two separate coastlines: on the Bristol Channel and Celtic Sea in the north, and on the English Channel in the south. The South West Coast Path runs along the entire length of both, around 65% of which is named as Heritage Coast. Before the changes to English counties in 1974, Devon was the third largest county by area and the largest of the counties not divided into county-like divisions (only Yorkshire and Lincolnshire were larger and both were sub-divided into ridings or parts, respectively). Since 1974 the county is ranked fourth by area (due to the creation of Cumbria) amongst ceremonial counties and is the third largest non-metropolitan county. The island of Lundy and the reef of Eddystone are also in Devon. The county has more mileage of road than any other county in England. Inland, the Dartmoor National park lies wholly in Devon, and the Exmoor National Park lies in both Devon and Somerset. Apart from these areas of high moorland the county has attractive rolling rural scenery and villages with thatched cob cottages. All these features make Devon a popular holiday destination. In South Devon the landscape consists of rolling hills dotted with small towns, such as Dartmouth, Ivybridge, Kingsbridge, Salcombe, and Totnes. The towns of Torquay and Paignton are the principal seaside resorts on the south coast. East Devon has the first seaside resort to be developed in the county, Exmouth and the more upmarket Georgian town of Sidmouth, headquarters of the East Devon District Council. Exmouth marks the western end of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. Another notable feature is the coastal railway line between Newton Abbot and the Exe Estuary: the red sandstone cliffs and sea views are very dramatic and in the resorts railway line and beaches are very near. North Devon is very rural with few major towns except Barnstaple, Great Torrington, Bideford and Ilfracombe. Devon's Exmoor coast has the highest cliffs in southern Britain, culminating in the Great Hangman, a "hog's-back" hill with a cliff-face, located near Combe Martin Bay. Its sister cliff is the Little Hangman, which marks the western edge of coastal Exmoor. One of the features of the North Devon coast is that Bideford Bay and the Hartland Point peninsula are both west-facing, Atlantic facing coastlines; so that a combination of an off-shore (east) wind and an Atlantic swell produce excellent surfing conditions. The beaches of Bideford Bay (Woolacombe, Saunton, Westward Ho! and Croyde), along with parts of North Cornwall and South Wales, are the main centres of surfing in Britain. ===Geology=== A geological dividing line cuts across Devon roughly along the line of the Bristol to Exeter line and the M5 motorway east of Tiverton and Exeter. It is a part of the Tees–Exe line broadly dividing Britain into a southeastern lowland zone typified by gently dipping sedimentary rocks and a northwestern upland zone typified by igneous rocks and folded sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The principal geological components of Devon are i) the Devonian strata of north Devon and south west Devon (and extending into Cornwall); ii) the Culm Measures (north western Devon also extending into north Cornwall); and iii) the granite intrusion of Dartmoor in central Devon, part of the Cornubian batholith forming the 'spine' of the southwestern peninsula. There are blocks of Silurian and Ordovician rocks within Devonian strata on the south Devon coast but otherwise no pre-Devonian rocks on the Devon mainland. The metamorphic rocks of Eddystone are of presumed Precambrian age. The oldest rocks which can be dated are those of the Devonian period which are approximately 395–359 million years old. Sandstones and shales were deposited in North and South Devon beneath tropical seas. In shallower waters, limestone beds were laid down in the area now near Torquay and Plymouth. This geological period was named after Devon by Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick in the 1840s and is the only British county whose name is used worldwide as the basis for a geological time period. Devon's second major rock system is the Culm Measures, a geological formation of the Carboniferous period that occurs principally in Devon and Cornwall. The measures are so called either from the occasional presence of a soft, sooty coal, which is known in Devon as culm, or from the contortions commonly found in the beds. This formation stretches from Bideford to Bude in Cornwall, and contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape. It is also found on the western, north and eastern borders of Dartmoor. The sedimentary rocks in more eastern parts of the county include Permian and Triassic sandstones (giving rise to east Devon's well known fertile red soils); Bunter pebble beds around Budleigh Salterton and Woodbury Common and Jurassic rocks in the easternmost parts of Devon. Smaller outcrops of younger rocks also exist, such as Cretaceous chalk cliffs at Beer Head and gravels on Haldon, plus Eocene and Oligocene ball clay and lignite deposits in the Bovey Basin, formed around 50 million years ago under tropical forest conditions. ===Climate=== Devon generally has a cool oceanic climate, heavily influenced by the North Atlantic Drift. In winter, snow is relatively uncommon away from high land, although there are few exceptions. The county has mild summers with occasional warm spells and cool rainy periods. Winters are generally cool and the county often experiences some of the mildest winters in the world for its high latitude, with average daily maximum temperatures in January at . Rainfall varies significantly across the county, ranging from over on parts of Dartmoor, to around in the rain shadow along the coast in southeastern Devon and around Exeter. Sunshine amounts also vary widely: the moors are generally cloudy, but the SE coast from Salcombe to Exmouth is one of the sunniest parts of the UK (a generally cloudy region). With westerly or south-westerly winds and high pressure the area around Torbay and Teignmouth will often be warm, with long sunny spells due to shelter by high ground (Foehn wind). ===Ecology=== The variety of habitats means that there is a wide range of wildlife (see Dartmoor wildlife, for example). A popular challenge among birders is to find over 100 species in the county in a day. The county's wildlife is protected by several wildlife charities such as the Devon Wildlife Trust, which looks after 40 nature reserves. The Devon Bird Watching and Preservation Society (founded in 1928 and known since 2005 as "Devon Birds") is a county bird society dedicated to the study and conservation of wild birds. The RSPB has reserves in the county, and Natural England is responsible for over 200 Devon Sites of Special Scientific Interest and National Nature Reserves, such as Slapton Ley. The Devon Bat Group was founded in 1984 to help conserve bats. Wildlife found in this area extend to a plethora of different kinds of insects, butterflies and moths; an interesting butterfly to take look at is the chequered skipper. Devon is a national hotspot for several species that are uncommon in Britain, including the cirl bunting; greater horseshoe bat; Bechstein's bat and Jersey tiger moth. It is also the only place in mainland Britain where the sand crocus (Romulea columnae) can be found – at Dawlish Warren, and is home to all six British native land reptile species, partly as a result of some reintroductions. Another recent reintroduction is the Eurasian beaver, primarily on the river Otter. Other rare species recorded in Devon include seahorses and the sea daffodil. The botany of the county is very diverse and includes some rare species not found elsewhere in the British Isles other than Cornwall. Devon is divided into two Watsonian vice-counties: north and south, the boundary being an irregular line approximately across the higher part of Dartmoor and then along the canal eastwards. Botanical reports begin in the 17th century and there is a Flora Devoniensis by Jones and Kingston in 1829. A general account appeared in The Victoria History of the County of Devon (1906), and a Flora of Devon was published in 1939 by Keble Martin and Fraser. An Atlas of the Devon Flora by Ivimey-Cook appeared in 1984, and A New Flora of Devon, based on field work undertaken between 2005 and 2014, was published in 2016. Rising temperatures have led to Devon becoming the first place in modern Britain to cultivate olives commercially. In January 2024, plans were announced to plant over 100,000 trees in northern Devon to support Celtic rainforests, which are cherished yet at risk ecosystems in the UK. The project aims to create 50 hectares of new rainforest across three sites, planting trees near existing rainforest areas along the coast and inland. Among the tree species to be planted is the rare Devon whitebeam, known for its unique reproduction method and once-popular fruit. Led by the National Trust and with the assistance of volunteers and community groups, the initiative will focus on locations in Exmoor, Woolacombe, Hartland, and Arlington Court. ==Politics and administration== The administrative centre and capital of Devon is the city of Exeter. The largest city in Devon, Plymouth, and the conurbation of Torbay (which includes the largest town in Devon and capital of Torbay, Torquay, as well as Paignton and Brixham) have been unitary authorities since 1998, separate from the remainder of Devon which is administered by Devon County Council for the purposes of local government. Devon County Council is controlled by the Conservatives, and the political representation of its 60 councillors are: 38 Conservatives, 10 Liberal Democrats, six Labour, three Independents, two Green and one South Devon Alliance. At the 2024 general election, Devon returned six Liberal Democrats, four Conservatives and three Labour MPs to the House of Commons. ===Hundreds=== Historically Devon was divided into 32 hundreds: Axminster, Bampton, Black Torrington, Braunton, Cliston, Coleridge, Colyton, Crediton, East Budleigh, Ermington, Exminster, Fremington, Halberton, Hartland, Hayridge, Haytor, Hemyock, Lifton, North Tawton and Winkleigh, Ottery, Plympton, Roborough, Shebbear, Shirwell, South Molton, Stanborough, Tavistock, Teignbridge, Tiverton, West Budleigh, Witheridge, and Wonford. ===Combined County Authority=== Devon County Council and Torbay Council are constituent members of the Devon and Torbay Combined County Authority, which has devolved powers over transport, housing, skills, and support for business. The authority consists of 12 members: six constituent members with full voting rights, four non-constituent members who do not have voting powers unless extended to them by the constituent members, and two associate members who cannot vote. Devon County Council and Torbay Council each choose half of the constituent members. Two of the non-constituent members are selected collectively by the district councils of Devon to represent their interests, and one is reserved for the Devon and Cornwall Police and Crime Commissioner. The remaining non-constituent member and the two associate members are elected by the constituent members of the authority. ==Cities, towns and villages== The main settlements in Devon are the cities of Plymouth, a historic port now administratively independent, Exeter, the county town, and Torbay, the county's tourist centre. Devon's coast is lined with tourist resorts, many of which grew rapidly with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century. Examples include Dawlish, Exmouth and Sidmouth on the south coast, and Ilfracombe and Lynmouth on the north. The Torbay conurbation of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham on the south coast is now administratively independent of the county. Rural market towns in the county include Barnstaple, Bideford, Honiton, Newton Abbot, Okehampton, Tavistock, Totnes and Tiverton. The boundary with Cornwall has not always been on the River Tamar as at present: until the late 19th century a few parishes in the Torpoint area were in Devon and five parishes now in north-east Cornwall were in Devon until 1974 (however, for ecclesiastical purposes these were nevertheless in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall and in 1876 became part of the Diocese of Truro). ==Religion== ===Ancient and medieval history=== The region of Devon was the dominion of the pre-Roman Dumnonii Celtic tribe, known as the "Deep Valley Dwellers". The region to the west of Exeter was less Romanised than the rest of Roman Britain since it was considered a remote part of the province. After the formal Roman withdrawal from Britain in AD 410, one of the leading Dumnonii families attempted to create a dynasty and rule over Devon as the new Kings of Dumnonii. Celtic paganism and Roman practices were the first known religions in Devon, although in the mid-fourth century AD, Christianity was introduced to Devon. In the Sub-Roman period the church in the British Isles was characterised by some differences in practice from the Latin Christianity of the continent of Europe and is known as Celtic Christianity; however it was always in communion with the wider Roman Catholic Church. Many Cornish saints are commemorated also in Devon in legends, churches and place-names. Western Christianity came to Devon when it was over a long period incorporated into the kingdom of Wessex and the jurisdiction of the bishop of Wessex. Saint Petroc is said to have passed through Devon, where ancient dedications to him are even more numerous than in Cornwall: a probable seventeen (plus Timberscombe just over the border in Somerset), compared to Cornwall's five. The position of churches bearing his name, including one within the old Roman walls of Exeter, are nearly always near the coast, as in those days travelling was done mainly by sea. The Devonian villages of Petrockstowe and Newton St Petroc are also named after Saint Petroc and the flag of Devon is dedicated to him. The history of Christianity in the South West of England remains to some degree obscure. Parts of the historic county of Devon formed part of the diocese of Wessex, while nothing is known of the church organisation of the Celtic areas. About 703 Devon and Cornwall were included in the separate diocese of Sherborne and in 900 this was again divided into two, the Devon bishop having from 905 his seat at Tawton (now Bishop's Tawton) and from 912 at Crediton, birthplace of St Boniface. Lyfing became Bishop of Crediton in 1027 and shortly afterwards became Bishop of Cornwall. The two dioceses of Crediton and Cornwall, covering Devon and Cornwall, were united under Edward the Confessor by Lyfing's successor Bishop Leofric, hitherto Bishop of Crediton, who became first Bishop of Exeter under Edward the Confessor, which was established as his cathedral city in 1050. At first, the abbey church of St Mary and St Peter, founded by Athelstan in 932 and rebuilt in 1019, served as the cathedral. Devon came under the political influence of several different nobles during the Middle Ages, especially the Courtenays Earl of Devon. During the Wars of the Roses, important magnates included the Earl of Devon, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, and Humphrey Stafford, earl of Devon whose wider influence stretched from Cornwall to Wiltshire. After 1485, one of the county's influential figures included Henry VII's courtier Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke. ===Later history=== In 1549, the Prayer Book Rebellion caused the deaths of thousands of people from Devon and Cornwall. During the English Reformation, churches in Devon officially became affiliated with the Church of England. From the late sixteenth century onwards, zealous Protestantism – or 'puritanism' – became increasingly well-entrenched in some parts of Devon, while other districts of the county remained much more conservative. These divisions would become starkly apparent during the English Civil War of 1642–46, when the county split apart along religious and cultural lines. The Methodism of John Wesley proved to be very popular with the working classes in Devon in the 19th century. Methodist chapels became important social centres, with male voice choirs and other church-affiliated groups playing a central role in the social lives of working class Devonians. Methodism still plays a large part in the religious life of Devon today, although the county has shared in the post-World War II decline in British religious feeling. The Diocese of Exeter remains the Anglican diocese including the whole of Devon. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth was established in the mid 19th century. ==Symbols== ===Coat of arms=== There was no established coat of arms for the county until 1926: the arms of the City of Exeter were often used to represent Devon, for instance in the badge of the Devonshire Regiment. During the forming of a county council by the Local Government Act 1888 adoption of a common seal was required. The seal contained three shields depicting the arms of Exeter along with those of the first chairman and vice-chairman of the council (Lord Clinton and the Earl of Morley). On 11 October 1926, the county council received a grant of arms from the College of Arms. The main part of the shield displays a red crowned lion on a silver field, the arms of Richard Plantagenet, Earl of Cornwall. The chief or upper portion of the shield depicts an ancient ship on wavers, for Devon's seafaring traditions. The Latin motto adopted was Auxilio Divino (by Divine aid), that of Sir Francis Drake. The 1926 grant was of arms alone. On 6 March 1962 a further grant of crest and supporters was obtained. The crest is the head of a Dartmoor Pony rising from a "Naval Crown". This distinctive form of crown is formed from the sails and sterns of ships, and is associated with the Royal Navy. The supporters are a Devon bull and a sea lion. Devon County Council adopted a "ship silhouette" logo after the 1974 reorganisation, adapted from the ship emblem on the coat of arms, but following the loss in 1998 of Plymouth and Torbay re-adopted the coat of arms. In April 2006 the council unveiled a new logo which was to be used in most everyday applications, though the coat of arms will continue to be used for "various civic purposes". ===Flag=== Devon also has its own flag which has been dedicated to Saint Petroc, a local saint with dedications throughout Devon and neighbouring counties. The flag was adopted in 2003 after a competition run by BBC Radio Devon. The winning design was created by website contributor Ryan Sealey, and won 49% of the votes cast. The colours of the flag are those popularly identified with Devon, for example, the colours of the University of Exeter, the rugby union team, and the Green and White flag flown by the first Viscount Exmouth at the Bombardment of Algiers (now on view at the Teign Valley Museum), as well as one of the county's football teams, Plymouth Argyle. On 17 October 2006, the flag was hoisted for the first time outside County Hall in Exeter to mark Local Democracy Week, receiving official recognition from the county council. In 2019 Devon County Council with the support of both the Anglican and Catholic churches in Exeter and Plymouth, officially recognised Saint Boniface as the Patron Saint of Devon. ==Place names and customs== Devon's toponyms include many with the endings "coombe/combe" and "tor". Both 'coombe' (valley or hollow, cf. Welsh cwm, Cornish komm) and 'tor' (Old Welsh and Scots Gaelic tòrr from Latin turris; 'tower' used for granite formations) are rare Celtic loanwords in English and their frequency is greatest in Devon which shares a boundary with historically Brittonic speaking Cornwall. Ruined medieval settlements of Dartmoor longhouses indicate that dispersed rural settlement (OE tun, now often -ton) was very similar to that found in Cornish 'tre-' settlements, however these are generally described with the local placename , from the Old English for homestead, cf. cottage. Saxon endings in -worthy (from Anglo-Saxon ) indicate larger settlements. Several 'Bere's indicate Anglo-Saxon wood groves, as 'leighs' indicate clearings. Devon has a variety of festivals and traditional practices, including the traditional orchard-visiting Wassail in Whimple every 17 January, and the carrying of flaming tar barrels in Ottery St. Mary, where people who have lived in Ottery for long enough are called upon to celebrate Bonfire Night by running through the village (and the gathered crowds) with flaming barrels on their backs. Berry Pomeroy still celebrates Queene's Day for Elizabeth I. ==Economy and industry== Devon's total economic output in 2019 was over £26 billion, larger than either Manchester, or Edinburgh. A 2021 report states that "health, retail and tourism account for 43.1% of employment. Agriculture, education, manufacturing, construction and real estate employment are also over-represented in Devon compared with nationally". Like neighbouring Cornwall to the west, historically Devon has been disadvantaged economically compared to other parts of Southern England, owing to the decline of a number of core industries, notably fishing, mining, and farming, but it is now significantly more diverse. Agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century. The 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis harmed the farming community severely. Since then some parts of the agricultural industry have begun to diversify and recover, with a strong local food sector and many artisan producers. Nonetheless, in 2015 the dairy industry was still suffering from the low prices offered for wholesale milk by major dairies and especially large supermarket chains. The pandemic negatively affected the economy during 2020 and early 2021; an August 2021 report states that "the immediate economic impacts of COVID-19 for the County as a whole [was] as severe as any in living memory". in 2014 to 2016, the attractive lifestyle of the area was drawing in new industries which are not heavily dependent upon geographical location; Dartmoor, for instance, has recently seen a significant rise in the percentage of its inhabitants involved in the digital and financial services sectors. The Met Office, the UK's national and international weather service, moved to Exeter in 2003. Plymouth hosts the head office and first ever store of The Range, the only major national retail chain headquartered in Devon. Since the rise of seaside resorts with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century, Devon's economy has been heavily reliant on tourism. The county's economy followed the declining trend of British seaside resorts since the mid-20th century, but with some recent revival and regeneration of its resorts, particularly focused around camping; sports such as surfing, cycling, sailing and heritage. This revival has been aided by the designation of much of Devon's countryside and coastline as the Dartmoor and Exmoor national parks, and the Jurassic Coast and Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Sites. In 2019 the county's visitor spend was almost £2.5 billion. More successful visitor attractions are particularly concentrated on food and drink, including sea-view restaurants in North-West Devon (such as one example belonging to Damien Hurst), walking the South West Coast Path, cycling on the Devon Coast to Coast Cycle Route and other cycle routes such as the Tarka Trail and the Stover Trail; watersports; surfing; indoor and outdoor folk music festivals across the county and sailing in the hill-surrounded inlet (ria) at Salcombe. Incomes vary significantly and the average is bolstered by a high proportion of affluent retired people. Incomes in much of the South Hams and in villages surrounding Exeter and Plymouth are close to, or above the national average, but there are also areas of severe deprivation, with earnings in some places among the lowest in the UK. The table also shows the population change in the ten years to the 2011 census by subdivision. It also shows the proportion of residents in each district reliant upon lowest income and/or joblessness benefits, the national average proportion of which was 4.5% as at August 2012, the year for which latest datasets have been published. It can be seen that the most populous district of Devon is East Devon but only if excluding Torbay which has marginally more residents and Plymouth which has approximately double the number of residents of either of these. West Devon has the fewest residents, having 63,839 at the time of the census. ==Transport== ===Bus=== There is a network of bus services across Devon. Bus operators include: Stagecoach (much of Devon), AVMT Buses (East Devon/Jurassic Coast), County Bus (Teignbridge) and Plymouth Citybus. ===Rail=== The key train operator for Devon is Great Western Railway, which operates numerous regional, local and suburban services, as well as inter-city services north to London Paddington and south to Plymouth and Penzance. Other inter-city services are operated by CrossCountry north to Manchester Piccadilly, Edinburgh Waverley, Glasgow Central, Dundee, Aberdeen and south to Plymouth and Penzance; and by South Western Railway, operating hourly services between London Waterloo and Exeter St Davids, via the West of England Main Line. All Devon services are diesel-hauled, since there are no electrified lines in the county. Okehampton station in Devon was closed in 1972 to passenger traffic as a result of the Beeching cuts, but regained regular passenger services run by GWR to Exeter in November 2021, funded by the UK Government's Restoring your Railway programme. There are proposals to reopen the line from Tavistock to Bere Alston for a through service to Plymouth. The possibility of reopening the line between Tavistock and Okehampton, to provide an alternative route between Exeter and Plymouth, has also been suggested following damage to the railway's sea wall at Dawlish in 2014, which caused widespread disruption to trains between Exeter and Penzance. However, a study by Network Rail determined that maintaining the existing railway line would offer the best value for money and work to strengthen the line at Dawlish began in 2019. ====Devon Metro==== Devon County Council has proposed a 'Devon Metro' scheme to improve rail services in the county and offer a realistic alternative to car travel. This includes the opening of Cranbrook station in December 2015, plus four new stations to be constructed (including Edginswell) as a priority. Several elements of the scheme have, or are in the process of being delivered including the building of Marsh Barton station on the edge of Exeter which was opened in July 2023, and a regular half hourly local rail service now extended from the Avocet Line across Exeter to include the Riviera Line. ===Air=== Exeter Airport is the only passenger airport in Devon and in 2019 was used by over one million people. Until 2020, Flybe had its headquarters at the airport. Destinations include various locations within the UK (London City, Manchester, Belfast, Edinburgh, etc.), as well as locations in Cyprus, Italy, Netherlands, Lapland, Portugal, Spain, France, Malta, Switzerland and Turkey. ==Education== Devon has a mostly comprehensive education system. There are 37 state and 23 independent secondary schools. There are three tertiary (FE) colleges and an agricultural college (Bicton College, near Budleigh Salterton). Torbay has eight state (with three grammar schools) and three independent secondary schools, and Plymouth has 17 state (with three grammar schools – two female and one male) and one independent school, Plymouth College. East Devon and Teignbridge have the largest school populations, with West Devon the smallest (with only two schools). Only one school in Exeter, Mid Devon, Torridge and North Devon have a sixth form – the schools in other districts mostly have sixth forms, with all schools in West Devon and East Devon having a sixth form. Three universities are located in Devon, the University of Exeter (split between the Streatham Campus and St Luke's Campus, both in Exeter, and a campus in Cornwall); in Plymouth the University of Plymouth in Britain is present, along with the University of St Mark & St John to the city's north. The universities of Exeter and Plymouth have together formed the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry which has bases in Exeter and Plymouth. There is also Schumacher College. ==Cuisine== The county has given its name to a number of culinary specialities. The Devonshire cream tea, involving scones, jam and clotted cream, is thought to have originated in Devon (though claims have also been made for neighbouring counties); in other countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, it is known as a "Devonshire tea". It has also been claimed that the pasty originated in Devon rather than Cornwall, with the first record of the pasty coming from Plymouth in 1509. In October 2008, Devon was awarded Fairtrade County status by the Fairtrade Foundation. ==Sport== Devon has been home to a number of customs, such as its own form of Devon wrestling, similar in some ways to Cornish wrestling. As recently as the 19th century, a crowd of over 17,000 at Devonport, near Plymouth, attended a match between the champions of Devon and Cornwall. Another Devon sport was outhurling which was played in some regions until the 20th century (e.g. 1922, at Great Torrington). Other ancient customs which survive include Dartmoor step dancing, and "Crying The Neck". Devon has three professional football teams, based in each of its most populous towns and cities. As of 2023, Plymouth Argyle F.C. competes in the EFL Championship, Exeter City F.C. in the EFL League One, whilst Torquay United F.C. compete in the National League. Plymouth's highest Football League finish was fourth in the Second Division, which was achieved twice, in 1932 and 1953. Torquay and Exeter have never progressed beyond the third tier of the league; Torquay finished second on goal average in the Third Division (S) behind Sir Alf Ramsey's Ipswich Town in 1957. Exeter's highest position has been eighth in the Third Division (S). The county's biggest non-league clubs are Plymouth Parkway F.C. and Tiverton Town F.C. which compete in the Southern Football League Premier Division, and Bideford A.F.C., Exmouth Town F.C. and Tavistock A.F.C. which are in the Southern Football League Division One South and West. Rugby Union is popular in Devon with over forty clubs under the banner of the Devon Rugby Football Union, many with various teams at senior, youth and junior levels. One club – Exeter Chiefs – play in the Aviva Premiership, winning the title in 2017 for the first time in their history after beating Wasps RFC in the final 23–20. Plymouth Albion who are, , in the National League 1 (The third tier of English Professional Rugby Union). There are five rugby league teams in Devon: Plymouth Titans, Exeter Centurions, and Devon Sharks from Torquay, North Devon Raiders from Barnstaple, and East Devon Eagles from Exmouth. They all play in the Rugby League Conference. Plymouth City Patriots represent Devon in the British Basketball League. Formed in 2021, they replaced the former professional club, Plymouth Raiders, after the latter team were withdrawn from competition due to venue issues. Motorcycle speedway is also supported in the county, with both the Exeter Falcons and Plymouth Gladiators succeeding in the National Leagues in recent years. The University of Exeter Hockey Club enter teams in both the Men's and Women's England Hockey Leagues. Horse Racing is also popular in the county, with two National Hunt racecourses (Exeter and Newton Abbot), and numerous point to point courses. There are also many successful professional racehorse trainers based in Devon. The county is represented in cricket by Devon County Cricket Club, who play at a Minor counties level. ==Notable Devonians== Devon is known for its mariners, such as Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Sir Francis Chichester. Henry Every, described as the most notorious pirate of the late 17th century, was probably born in the village of Newton Ferrers. John Oxenham (1536–1580) was a lieutenant of Drake but considered a pirate by the Spanish. Thomas Morton (1576–1647) was an avid Elizabethan outdoorsman probably born in Devon who became an attorney for The Council For New England, and built the New England fur-trading-plantation called Ma-Re Mount or Merrymount around a West Country-style Maypole, much to the displeasure of Pilgrim and Puritan colonists. Morton wrote a 1637 book New English Canaan about his experiences, partly in verse, and may have thereby become America's first poet to write in English. Another famous mariner and Devonian was Robert Falcon Scott, the leader of the unfortunate Terra Nova Expedition to reach the geographical South Pole. The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the crime writers Agatha Christie and Bertram Fletcher Robinson, the Irish writer William Trevor, and the poet Ted Hughes lived in Devon. The painter and founder of the Royal Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds, was born in Devon. Chris Dawson, the billionaire owner of retailer The Range was born in Devon, where his business retains its head office in Plymouth. The actor Matthew Goode was raised in Devon, and Bradley James, also an actor, was born there. The singer Joss Stone was brought up in Devon and frontman Chris Martin from the British rock group Coldplay was born there. Matt Bellamy, Dominic Howard and Chris Wolstenholme from the English group Muse all grew up in Devon and formed the band there. Dave Hill of rock band Slade was born in Flete House which is in the South Hams district of Devon. Singer-songwriter Ben Howard grew up in Totnes, a small town in Devon. Another famous Devonian is the model and actress Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, who was born in Plymouth and raised in Tavistock. The singer and songwriter Rebecca Newman was born and raised in Exmouth. Roger Deakins, called "the pre-eminent cinematographer of our time", was born and lives in Devon. Trevor Francis, former Nottingham Forest and Birmingham City professional footballer, and the first English footballer to cost £1 million, was born and brought up in Plymouth. Swimmer Sharron Davies and diver Tom Daley were born in Plymouth. The Olympic runner Jo Pavey was born in Honiton. Peter Cook the satirist, writer and comedian was born in Torquay, Devon. Leicester Tigers and British and Irish Lions Rugby player Julian White was born and raised in Devon and now farms a herd of pedigree South Devon beef cattle. The dog breeder John "Jack" Russell was also from Devon. Jane McGrath, who married Australian cricketer Glenn McGrath was born in Paignton, her long battle with and subsequent death from breast cancer inspired the formation of the McGrath Foundation, which is one of Australia's leading charities. Devon has also been represented in the House of Commons by notable Members of Parliament (MPs) such as Nancy Astor, Gwyneth Dunwoody, Michael Foot and David Owen and the Prime Ministers Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston. File:Agatha Christie.png|Agatha Christie, best selling crime novelist File:Chris Martin + Guitar, 2011 (1, cropped).jpg|Chris Martin, lead singer of Coldplay File:Roger Deakins Feb-2011 02 (cropped).jpg|Roger Deakins, cinematographer
[ "Humphrey Gilbert", "Terra Nova Expedition", "Earl of Morley", "Plymouth railway station", "Tavistock Hundred", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth", "Green Party of England and Wales", "Exeter", "Roborough Hundred", "pasty", "Plymouth College", "Bishop of Crediton", "National park", "South West Coast Path", "Sharron Davies", "Ilfracombe", "Queene's Day", "Edinburgh Waverley railway station", "Guy Fawkes Night", "Dartmoor", "Plymouth Hoe", "Eocene", "List of English words of Welsh origin", "Witheridge Hundred", "agricultural college", "River Dart", "William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville", "Celtic polytheism", "Dawlish", "Order of Brothelyngham", "ria", "Historic counties of England", "Michael Foot", "Exmoor", "Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 20th Baron Clinton", "Joss Stone", "sixth form", "London City Airport", "Chris Wolstenholme", "John \"Jack\" Russell", "Exeter Airport", "List of monastic houses in Devon", "Proto-Celtic language", "Exeter Chiefs", "Lord John Russell", "Saunton", "Ottery Hundred", "Bishop's Tawton", "Francis Chichester", "Carterocephalus palaemon", "Brittonic languages", "Belfast", "Devon Rugby Football Union", "Torquay United F.C.", "Hayridge Hundred", "Healthcare in Devon", "South Hams", "Dartmoor ponies", "Women's England Hockey League", "Exminster Hundred", "Dumnonii", "Devonian", "Sub-Roman Britain", "market town", "Adam Sedgwick", "National parks of the United Kingdom", "West of England Main Line", "Southern Football League Premier Division", "Heritage Coast", "list of Cornish saints", "Julian White", "Devon Wildlife Trust", "National nature reserves in England", "Met Office", "RSPB", "Flybe (1979-2020)", "Plymouth City Patriots", "Devon and Cornwall Police", "South Western Railway (train operating company)", "Tarka Trail", "Kents Cavern", "Category:Rivers of Devon", "Jurassic Coast", "Devon County Cricket Club", "National League (division)", "River Tamar", "Roger Deakins", "Great Western Railway (train operating company)", "List of ceremonial counties of England", "Royal Academy", "Ivybridge", "Samuel Taylor Coleridge", "Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon", "Aberdeen railway station", "Hartland Point", "Muse (band)", "anticlericalism", "Salcombe", "Fairtrade Foundation", "William III of England", "Okehampton", "Labour Party (UK)", "Devon County Council", "North Tawton and Winkleigh Hundred", "Hangman cliffs", "Cyprus", "clotted cream", "comprehensive education", "Leicester Tigers", "Church of England", "Birmingham City F.C.", "Carboniferous", "Manchester Piccadilly railway station", "Combe Martin", "Norman conquest of England", "Bampton Hundred", "goal average", "Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain", "Martin, W. Keble", "Shirwell Hundred", "Ottery St. Mary", "United Kingdom Census 2011", "Slade", "Westward Ho!", "Trevor Francis", "The Range (retailer)", "Totnes", "Bude", "Methodism", "East Devon Eagles", "Kingsbridge", "CrossCountry", "Gwyneth Dunwoody", "Tavistock, Devon", "Anglo-Saxons", "Natural England", "Bere Alston railway station", "Agatha Christie", "Bunter (geology)", "Teignbridge", "National Trust", "List of hills of Devon", "Bristol to Exeter line", "Glorious Revolution", "Men's England Hockey League", "Cornubian batholith", "Plymouth Herald", "Dorset", "London Waterloo railway station", "Robert Falcon Scott", "Plympton Hundred", "stratum", "Roman conquest of Britain", "EFL Championship", "Drizzlecombe", "River Taw", "Earl of Devon", "Lydford", "Plymouth", "West Budleigh Hundred", "Bristol Channel", "Alf Ramsey", "Colyton Hundred", "Oligocene", "cottage", "Avocet Line", "Plymouth Raiders", "intrusion", "Bertram Fletcher Robinson", "coat of arms", "Rugby League Conference", "clastic rock", "Jurassic", "William Keble Martin", "Karpatiosorbus devoniensis", "Streatham Campus", "hunter-gatherer", "Devonshire Regiment", "British Isles", "Exmouth Town F.C.", "Dartmouth, England", "Dumnonia", "Slapton Ley", "Celtic rainforest", "Cornish hurling", "jam", "Glasgow Central railway station", "cream tea", "Elizabeth I", "National League 1", "thatch", "South Devon", "Torquay", "Edward the Confessor", "Richard, Earl of Cornwall", "Hartland, Devon", "National Hunt", "Devon Coast to Coast Cycle Route", "Tiverton, Devon", "Newton Abbot", "River Torridge", "Exmouth", "Religion in ancient Rome", "Tavistock A.F.C.", "Brittany", "World Heritage Site", "Great Torrington", "ceremonial county", "English Premiership (rugby union)", "South West England", "Cretaceous", "Matthew Goode", "Torridge District", "Conservative Party (UK)", "Torbay Council", "cinematographer", "Coleridge Hundred", "Honiton", "McGrath Foundation", "Budleigh Salterton", "Bechstein's bat", "cirl bunting", "saint", "Jo Pavey", "South Molton Hundred", "Eurasian beaver", "Somerset", "Sites of Special Scientific Interest", "North Devon", "English Channel", "Wasps RFC", "Cranbrook railway station (Devon)", "Plymouth R.L.F.C", "Motorcycle speedway", "North Devon Coast", "Smeaton's Tower", "Tees–Exe line", "Stanborough Hundred", "chalk", "List of Celtic tribes", "Brixham", "Lord Lieutenant of Devon", "Plymouth City Council", "Stannary Convocation of Devon", "Ermington Hundred", "Tavistock", "M5 motorway", "Triassic", "University of Plymouth", "Plymouth Parkway F.C.", "Prayer Book Rebellion", "Southern England", "Nottingham Forest F.C.", "Axminster Hundred", "Diocese of Exeter", "Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor", "Whimple", "Schumacher College", "English Heritage Archive", "sedimentary rock", "Paignton", "Chris Dawson (businessman)", "Bishop of Cornwall", "Mid Devon", "Exmouth, Devon", "Dundee railway station", "Later Middle Ages", "University of St Mark & St John", "Torbay", "Woodbury Common, Devon", "Lundy", "Lord Palmerston", "Beeching cuts", "Paddington railway station", "North Atlantic Current", "Berry Pomeroy", "Culm Measures", "Perkin Warbeck", "Marsh Barton railway station", "West Country English", "Department for Work and Pensions", "North Devon cattle", "Jobseeker's Allowance", "Black Torrington Hundred", "Sir Joshua Reynolds", "Newton St Petroc", "Glenn McGrath", "combined county authority", "Cornish wrestling", "Henry Every", "University College London", "Crediton", "Mesolithic", "Cob (building)", "John Wesley", "Hundred (county subdivision)", "Lapland (Finland)", "EFL League One", "Roderick Murchison", "Tiverton Town F.C.", "Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke", "English Civil War", "List of two-tier counties of England", "Croyde", "Plymouth Gladiators", "British Geological Survey", "Roman Britain", "monastic order", "Duke of Devonshire", "Peter Cook", "List of Parliamentary constituencies in Devon", "2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis", "Malta", "Lewiston, New York", "British Iron Age", "The Devonshire Association", "Victoria County History", "Celtic Christianity", "White British", "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography", "Dartmoor wildlife", "rugby union", "Tamar Valley AONB", "Ben Howard", "Anglo-Saxon", "Dartmoor Pony", "Riviera Line", "Bombardment of Algiers (1816)", "Leofric, Bishop of Exeter", "Tom Daley", "Cliston Hundred", "Diocese of Truro", "Rugby Union", "Local Government Act 1888", "Celtic Britons", "Rosie Huntington-Whiteley", "Devon and Cornwall Police and Crime Commissioner", "Hartland Hundred", "Exeter St Davids railway station", "Minor counties of English and Welsh cricket", "Haytor Hundred", "Association football", "Exeter Centurions", "Western Christianity", "Exeter Falcons", "BBC Radio Devon", "United Kingdom Census 2001", "Halberton Hundred", "David Owen", "East Devon", "Unitary authorities of England", "Devon (UK Parliament constituency)", "South West Peninsula", "Further education", "Coldplay", "University of Exeter Hockey Club", "Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry", "Derbyshire", "East Budleigh Hundred", "River Exe", "Catholic Church", "Cornwall", "Scone (bread)", "Edginswell railway station", "Bradley James", "Sidmouth", "Archdeacon of Cornwall", "Liberal Democrats (UK)", "Crediton Hundred", "List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Devon", "Æthelstan", "Tiverton Hundred", "Jersey tiger moth", "ball clay", "cricket", "Seaside resort", "Hemyock Hundred", "point to point (steeplechase)", "Lifton Hundred", "Plymouth Argyle F.C.", "St Luke's Campus", "Walter Raleigh", "rain shadow", "Barnstaple", "bird-watching", "Football League Third Division", "College of Arms", "National Landscape", "tin", "Richard Grenville (Elizabethan sailor)", "Dartmoor longhouse", "Bideford", "Damien Hurst", "Wassail", "Devon Bat Group", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "David Fursdon", "Exeter City F.C.", "Thomas Morton (colonist)", "Custos Rotulorum of Devon", "Teignbridge Hundred", "Devon Sinfonia", "Flete House", "Independent politician", "Shebbear Hundred", "estuary", "Timberscombe", "River Teign", "Wonford Hundred", "flag of Devon", "William Trevor", "Britons (Celtic people)", "Celtic Sea", "Romulea columnae", "Francis Drake", "Duchy of Cornwall", "Jane McGrath", "Devon wrestling", "greater horseshoe bat", "Ted Hughes", "igneous rock", "non-metropolitan county", "Bicton College", "William Camden", "Braunton Hundred", "University of Exeter", "Eddystone Rocks", "British Association", "South Devon Railway sea wall", "Latin Church", "Bideford A.F.C.", "county town", "metamorphic rock", "Newton Ferrers", "Permian", "Brythons", "University of Oxford", "Royal Navy", "British Basketball League", "Watsonian vice-counties", "Lyme Bay", "Devonshire and Dorset Regiment", "rugby league", "Chris Martin", "Exeter to Plymouth Line", "John Oxenham", "Petrockstowe", "Fremington Hundred", "Ipswich Town F.C.", "Matt Bellamy", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Latin", "Wars of the Roses", "English Reformation", "Penzance railway station", "Dominic Howard", "Saint Petroc", "Crying The Neck", "Wessex", "West Devon", "lignite", "Football League Second Division", "Lynmouth", "Bideford Bay", "Woolacombe", "Foehn wind", "British and Irish Lions", "Tavistock railway station", "Edwin Mellen Press", "sailor", "Southern Football League Division One South and West", "Viscount Exmouth", "Arlington Court", "High Sheriff of Devon", "Plymouth Albion R.F.C.", "tourism", "2024 United Kingdom general election", "Rebecca Newman", "Circular linhay", "Lyfing, Abbot of Tavistock" ]
8,167
Dartmoor
Dartmoor is an upland area in southern Devon, South West England. The moorland and surrounding land has been protected by National Park status since 1951. Dartmoor National Park covers . The granite that forms the uplands dates from the Carboniferous Period of geological history. The landscape consists of moorland capped with many exposed granite hilltops known as tors, providing habitats for wildlife. The highest point is High Willhays, above sea level. The entire area is rich in antiquities and archaeological artefacts. Dartmoor National Park is managed by the Dartmoor National Park Authority, whose 22 members are drawn from Devon County Council, local district councils and Government. The Dartmoor Commoners' Council exists to create and enforce regulations regarding commoners' rights. Parts of Dartmoor have been used as military firing ranges for over 200 years. The public is granted extensive land access rights on Dartmoor (including restricted access to the firing ranges) and it is a popular tourist destination. ==Physical geography== ===Geology=== Dartmoor includes the largest area of granite in Britain, with about at the surface, though most of it is under superficial peat deposits. The granite (or more specifically adamellite) was intruded at depth as a pluton into the surrounding sedimentary rocks during the Carboniferous period, probably about 309 million years ago. It is generally accepted that the present surface is not far below the original top of the pluton; evidence for this includes partly digested shale xenoliths, contamination of the granite and the existence of two patches of altered sedimentary rock on top of the granite. A considerable gravity anomaly is associated with the Dartmoor pluton as with other such plutons. Measurement of the anomaly has helped to determine the likely shape and extent of the rock mass at depth. ===Tors=== Dartmoor is known for its tors – hills topped with outcrops of bedrock, which in granite country such as this are usually rounded boulder-like formations. More than 160 of the hills of Dartmoor have the word tor in their name but quite a number do not. (called Hey Tor by William Crossing), , (). For a more complete list see List of Dartmoor tors and hills. ===Rivers=== The high ground of Dartmoor forms the catchment area for many of Devon's rivers. As well as shaping the landscape, these have traditionally provided a source of power for moor industries such as tin mining and quarrying. The moor takes its name from the River Dart, which starts as the East Dart and West Dart and then becomes a single river at Dartmeet. It leaves the moor at Buckfastleigh, flowing through Totnes below where it opens up into a long ria, reaching the sea at Dartmouth. Other rivers flowing from Dartmoor include the Teign, the Taw, the Tavy, the Avon, and the Lyd. Some of the rivers in Dartmoor have been dammed to create reservoirs for drinking water, including the River Avon and the South Teign River (Fernworthy Reservoir). ===Bogs=== Much more rain falls on Dartmoor than in the surrounding lowlands. As much of the national park is covered in thick layers of peat (decaying vegetation), the rain is usually absorbed quickly and distributed slowly, so the moor is rarely dry. In areas where water accumulates, dangerous bogs or mires can result. Some of these, topped with bright green moss, are known to locals as "feather beds" or "quakers", because they can shift (or 'quake') beneath a person's feet. Quakers result from sphagnum moss growing over the water that accumulates in the hollows in the granite. The vegetation of the bogs depends on the type and location. Blanket bog, which forms on the highest land where the rainfall exceeds a year, consists mainly of cotton-grass (Eriophorum species), sedges (Carex and Rhynchospora), Bog Asphodel and Common Tormentil, with Sphagnum thriving in the wettest patches. The valley bogs have lush growth of rushes, with sphagnum, cross-leaved heath, sundews and several other species. Some of the bogs on Dartmoor have achieved notoriety. Fox Tor Mires was supposedly the inspiration for Great Grimpen Mire in Conan Doyle's novel The Hound of the Baskervilles, although there is a waymarked footpath across it. Sabine Baring-Gould, in his Book of Dartmoor (1900) related the story of a man who was making his way through Aune Mire at the head of the River Avon when he came upon a top-hat brim down on the surface of the mire. He kicked it, whereupon a voice called out: "What be you a-doin' to my 'at?" The man replied, "Be there now a chap under'n?" "Ees, I reckon," was the reply, "and a hoss under me likewise." ===Astronomy=== Dartmoor is popular with local astronomers because it is remote from many sources of light pollution. However, in recent years, LED street lights have caused more light pollution to be spread onto Dartmoor. ==Climate== Along with the rest of South West England, Dartmoor has a temperate climate, which is generally wetter and milder than locations at similar height in the rest of England. At Princetown, near the centre of the moor at a height of , January and February are the coldest months with mean minimum temperatures around . July and August are the warmest months with mean daily maxima not reaching . Compared with Teignmouth, which is on the coast about to the east, the average maximum and minimum temperatures are and lower respectively, and frost is at least five times as frequent. On the highest ground, in the north of the moor, the growing season is less than 175 days – this contrasts with some 300 days along most of the south coast of the county. Between 1961 and 1990 Met Office data shows that there was an average of 20 days when snow fell on the moor, and over 40 days a year with hail, which is as high as anywhere else in the country. This results when cold polar maritime air that has travelled over a large expanse of warmer ocean is forced to rise over high country. == Wildlife == Because of Dartmoor's height and granite geology, it experiences strong winds and has acidic soils. In consequence it has been subject to very little intensive farming, and all these factors combine to form the basis of the important ecosystems found here. The landscape is one of granite with peat bogs overlying it. While the moors topped with granite tors are the most iconic part of Dartmoor's landscape, only about half of Dartmoor is actually moorland. Equally important for wildlife are the blanket bogs, upland heaths and the oak woodlands, which are all of global importance. Dartmoor is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) with four habitats (Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix; European dry heaths; Blanket bogs and Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles) being listed as primary reasons for the selection of Dartmoor as a SAC. In addition the area has a population of the southern damselfly, which is also a primary reason for its selection along with populations of Atlantic salmon and otter being qualifying reasons. Wistman's Wood is one of the old sessile oak woods that contribute to the listing of Dartmoor as a SAC and is possibly a surviving fragment from the earliest Neolithic woodland clearances. It is home to exceptional epiphytic mosses, liverworts and lichens. Nearly 50 species of moss and liverwort are found in the wood along with 120 types of lichen, including Smith's horsehair lichen, speckled sea-storm lichen and pendulous wing-moss. Over 60 species of lichens grow on the exposed surfaces of the granite tors, including granite-speck rim-lichen, purple rock lichen, brown cobblestone lichen and goldspot lichen and many rare lichen grow on rocks exposed by mining that are rich in heavy metals. On the upland heaths heather (ling) and bell heather are common along with western gorse. In dry grassy areas tormentil, heath bedstraw and heath milkwort are all common. Cross-leaved heath and purple moor grass grow in wetter spots and in the boggy areas many different species of sphagnum and other mosses can be found, along with liverworts, Hare's-tail Cotton-grass, round-leaved sundew and bog asphodel, and in the valley bottoms, many different sedges, bogbean and pale butterwort all grow. Mammals found here include otters, hazel dormice and nearly all of the UK's 16 bat species. Three rare species: the barbastelle, and the greater and lesser horseshoe bats are of particular importance. The upper reaches of the rivers are spawning grounds for Salmon and trout; Palmate newts, frogs and toads breed in the numerous small pools. Two shrimp species can be found on Dartmoor: fairy shrimp that can be found in temporary pools, and, in underground streams, very rare cave shrimp. The world's largest land slug, the Ash black, is also found. Reptiles include common lizards and adders. The farmland in the wet valleys around the edge of the moors is the most important habitat for insects, including: the marsh fritillary butterfly, southern damselfly, narrow-bordered bee hawkmoth and bog hoverfly. Areas of bracken are home to the high brown fritillary and pearl-bordered fritillary. Insects found in the heathlands include the emperor moth, green hairstreak and the bilberry bumblebee. The old oak woodlands have a distinctive group of insects including the blue ground beetle and Heckford's pygmy moth, a species found nowhere else in the world. == Restoration and climate change mitigation == The South West Peatland Project aims to restore around 300 hectares of Dartmoor's peatland through collaboration with Dartmoor National Park. Preserving these peatlands will help mitigate climate change through sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. More generally, Dartmoor aims to be carbon negative by 2045. ==History== ===Pre-history=== The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor. The large systems of Bronze Age fields, divided by reaves, cover an area of over of the lower moors. The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees. The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities. Fire was the main method of clearing land, creating pasture and swidden types of fire-fallow farmland. Areas less suited for farming tended to be burned for livestock grazing. Over the centuries these Neolithic practices greatly expanded the upland moors, and contributed to the acidification of the soil and the accumulation of peat and bogs. After a few thousand years, the mild climate deteriorated. This left these areas uninhabited, and, consequently, relatively undisturbed to the present day. The highly acidic soil has ensured that no organic remains have survived, but the durability of the granite has meant that the remains of buildings, enclosures and monuments have survived well, as have flint tools. A number of remains were "restored" by enthusiastic Victorians and, in some cases, they have placed their own interpretation on how an area may have looked. ===Standing stones=== Numerous prehistoric menhirs (more usually referred to locally as standing stones or longstones), stone circles, kistvaens, cairns and stone rows are to be found on the moor. The most significant sites include: Upper Erme stone row is the longest on Dartmoor and in fact in the world at Beardown Man, near Devil's Tor – isolated standing stone high, said to have another below ground. Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of Grimspound — triple stone row. Drizzlecombe, east of Sheepstor village – stone rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns. Grey Wethers, near Postbridge — double circle, aligned almost exactly north south. Laughter Tor, near Two Bridges — standing stone high and two double stone rows, one long. Merrivale, between Princetown and Tavistock — includes a double stone row long, wide, aligned almost exactly east–west, stone circles and a kistvaen. Scorhill (pronounced 'Scorill'), west of Chagford — circle, in circumference, and stone rows. Shovel Down, north of Fernworthy reservoir — double stone row approximately long. Yellowmead Down, a quadruple concentric stone circle and stone rows. ===Hut circles and kistvaens=== There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving although many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls. These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses. The smallest are around in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size. Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain; some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound. It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch. There are also numerous kistvaens, Neolithic stone box-like tombs. ===The historical period=== The climate became wetter and cooler over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, resulting in much of high Dartmoor being largely abandoned by its early inhabitants. The earliest surviving farms, still in operation today, are known as the Ancient Tenements. Most of these date back to the 14th century, and some even earlier. It was not until the early Mediaeval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors. Like their ancient predecessors, they used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the longhouse; some of theses are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries. Many are now used as farm buildings, while others have been abandoned and fallen into ruin. Some way into the moor stands the town of Princetown, the site of Dartmoor Prison, which was originally built by Isbell Rowe & Company, Plymouth, for prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. The prison has a reputation for being escape-proof, due to both the buildings themselves and its physical location. The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries – such as the remains of the Dartmoor tin-mining industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned. See Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor. ==Ownership and access== Over half of Dartmoor National Park (57.3%) is private land; the Forest of Dartmoor being the major part of this, owned by the Duke of Cornwall. The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (see below), 3.8% is owned by water companies (see Dartmoor reservoirs), 3.7% by the National Trust, 1.8% by the Forestry Commission and 1.4% by Dartmoor's national park authority. About 37% of Dartmoor is common land. Dartmoor differs from some other National Parks in England and Wales, in that since the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 much of it has been designated as access land, which, although it remains privately owned, has no restrictions on where walkers can roam. In addition to this access land, there are about of public rights of way on Dartmoor, and many kilometres of permitted footpaths and bridleways where the owners allow access. Because of the 1985 Act, Dartmoor was largely unaffected by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which established similar rights in other rural parts of the country, until 2006, when the 2000 Act opened up much of the remaining restricted land to walkers. In January 2023, in a high court judgement in a case brought by landowner Alexander Darwall, the right for members of the public to wild camp on Dartmoor was lost. Julian Flaux, the chancellor of the high court, ruled: "In my judgment, on the first issue set out at [14] above, the claimants are entitled to the declaration they seek that, on its true construction, section 10(1) of the 1985 Act does not confer on the public any right to pitch tents or otherwise make camp overnight on Dartmoor Commons. Any such camping requires the consent of the landowner." A protest against the new restrictions, led by local storyteller Martin Shaw, was held in January 2023. However, on 31 July the ban was overturned by the Court of Appeal. === Use by the Ministry of Defence === There is a history of military usage of Dartmoor dating back to the Napoleonic Wars. Today, a large British Army training camp remains at Okehampton — also the site of an airbase during the Second World War. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) uses three areas of the northern moor for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises, totalling , The disused Rippon Tor Rifle Range was built to train soldiers during the Second World War, and remained in use until its closure in 1977. ==Preservation== Throughout human history, the landscape has been exploited for industrial purposes. In recent years, controversy has surrounded the work of industrial conglomerates Imerys and Sibelco (formerly Watts Blake Bearne), who have used parts of the moor for china clay mining. Licences were granted by the British Government but were recently renounced after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the Dartmoor Preservation Association. The British government has made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating companies for these licences, which may not have been granted in today's political climate, could prove prohibitive. The military use of the moor has been another source of controversy, as when training was extended in January 2003. The national park authority received 1,700 objections before making the decision. Objectors said that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace. Those who objected included the Open Spaces Society and the Dartmoor Preservation Association. During her lifetime, Sylvia Sayer was another outspoken critic of the damage that she perceived that the army was doing to the moor. ==Towns and villages== The designated Dartmoor National Park area has a resident population of about 33,000, Buckfast Abbey – abbey near Buckfastleigh Burrator Reservoir – late Victorian reservoir Canonteign Falls – second highest waterfall in England Castle Drogo – Edwardian faux castle built by Edwin Lutyens on a crag above Teign Gorge, Drewsteignton Childe's Tomb – ancient burial site Cosdon Hill – prominent hill, northern extremity of moor, site of beacon fire for invasion warning Cranmere Pool – original letterbox site and location of the legend of Cranmere Binjie Crazywell Pool – artificial lake Dartmeet – meeting point of East and West Dart rivers Dartmoor Prison – a prison in the middle of Dartmoor at the village of Princetown Devonport Leat – human-made water channel Duck's Pool – location of a memorial to local writer William Crossing Fernworthy Dam & Reservoir – granite-faced concrete dam and lake in Fernworthy Forest, near Chagford Fingle Bridge – a 17th-century crossing of the River Teign near Chagford Great Links Tor – dominant tor on north west scarp of moor Grey Wethers – pair of ancient stone circles Grimspound – Bronze Age settlement Haytor Granite Tramway – early tramway with stone rails; ran from quarries at Haytor to Stover Canal Haytor Rock – prominent tor and viewpoint between Bovey Tracey and Widecombe Hay Tor – less prominent outcrop behind Haytor Rock when viewed from the south. Popular spot for rock climbing due to its large cliff face and relative ease of access. High Willhays – highest point on Dartmoor Hound Tor – rugged tor with remains of Iron Age village Jay's Grave – burial site Lydford Gorge – deep and narrow gorge with waterfalls Meldon Viaduct and reservoir – wide and high concrete dam and Victorian iron bridge which itself is wide and high North Hessary Tor transmitting station – a TV mast near Princetown which can be seen for many miles. Rippon Tor Rifle Range – disused rifle range Redlake Tramway – disused railway Spitchwick – a swimming spot where the River Webburn joins the River Dart Tavistock Canal – 19th-century canal Two Bridges – 18th-century coaching inn Warren House Inn – highest inn in south west England, rumoured to have a fire which has not gone out in hundreds of years. Widecombe in the moor, village in a valley in southern Dartmoor with a church rumoured to have been struck by lightning in medieval times. Wistman's Wood – copse of stunted oaks in the valley of the West Dart near Two Bridges Yes Tor – tor next to High Willhays, forming the second highest hill in Dartmoor. ==In myths and popular culture== Dartmoor is known for its myths and legends. It is reputedly the haunt of pixies, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of "spectral hounds", and a large black dog, among others. During the Great Thunderstorm of 1638, the moorland village of Widecombe-in-the-Moor was said to have been visited by the Devil. Many landmarks have ancient legends and ghost stories associated with them, such as the ancient burial site of Childe's Tomb, the rock pile called Bowerman's Nose, the stone crosses that mark former mediaeval routes across the moor and the allegedly haunted Jay's Grave. A few stories have emerged in recent decades, such as the "hairy hands", that are said to attack motorists on the B3212 near Two Bridges; and the "Beast of Dartmoor", a supposed big cat. Dartmoor has inspired a number of artists and writers, such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in The Hound of the Baskervilles and The Adventure of Silver Blaze, Bertram Fletcher Robinson, R. D. Blackmore, Eden Phillpotts, Beatrice Chase, Agatha Christie, Rosamunde Pilcher, Gilbert Adair and the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould. In 1820, the newly formed Royal Society of Literature offered a prize for a poem on the subject of Dartmoor, this being won by Felicia Hemans. The Old Dark House is a 1963 comedy horror film directed by William Castle for Hammer Film Productions. It is a remake of Universal's 1932 film of the same name directed by James Whale. Both films are based upon the 1927 novel by J. B. Priestley originally published under the name Benighted. The 1963 film starred Tom Poston, Robert Morley, Janette Scott, Joyce Grenfell and Fenella Fielding, and it is predominantly set on Dartmoor. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the fictional 1994 Quidditch World Cup final between Ireland and Bulgaria was hosted on Dartmoor. Dartmoor was the fictional location of a Ministry of Defence animal testing centre called 'Baskerville' in the second series of the multi-award-winning BBC drama Sherlock. The episode was titled The Hounds of Baskerville and was first broadcast in the UK on 15 January 2012 and in the US on 20 May of that same year. The episode features a character called ‘Fletcher’, modelled upon Bertram Fletcher Robinson and played by Stephen Wight. Dartmoor was the fictional location for the IO Interactive video game titled Hitman 3, which was released during 2021. This depiction features a local and historic mansion house. == Leisure activities == Until the early 19th century Dartmoor was not considered to be a place worth visiting: in the 1540s John Leland wrote in his Itinerary that "Dartmore is muche a wilde Morish and forest Ground", and even by 1789 Richard Gough's opinion was that it is a "dreary mountainous tract". At the turn of the 19th century John Swete was one of the first people to visit Dartmoor for pleasure and his journals and watercolour paintings now provide a valuable historical resource. The oldest leisure pursuit on the moor is hill walking. William Crossing's definitive Guide to Dartmoor was published in 1909, and in 1938 a plaque and letterbox in his memory were placed at Duck's Pool on the southern moor. Parts of the Abbots Way, Two Moors Way and the Templer Way are on Dartmoor. Letterboxing originated on Dartmoor in the 19th century and has become increasingly popular in recent decades. Watertight containers, or 'letterboxes', are hidden throughout the moor, each containing a visitor's book and a rubber stamp. Visitors take an impression of the letterbox's rubber stamp as proof of finding the box and record their visit by stamping their own personal stamp in the letterbox's logbook. A recent related development is geocaching. Geocache clues make use of GPS coordinates, whereas letterboxing clues tend to consist of grid references and compass bearings. Whitewater kayaking and canoeing are popular on the rivers due to the high rainfall and their high quality, though for environmental reasons access is restricted to the winter months. The River Dart is the most prominent meeting place, the section known as the Loop being particularly popular. Other white water rivers are the Erme, Tavy, Plym and Meavy. Other activities are rock climbing on the granite tors and outcrops, some of the well-known venues being Haytor, Hound Tor and The Dewerstone; horse riding, which can be undertaken on any of the common land; cycling (but not on open moorland); and angling for wild brown trout, sea trout and salmon (although much of the river fishing on Dartmoor is privately owned, permits are available for some stretches) . ===Visitor centres=== The park's main visitor centre is located in Princetown and features exhibits about Dartmoor's history, culture and wildlife, as well as changing displays of local art. The visitor centres located in Postbridge and Haytor feature information, maps, guidebooks and items for exploring the area. ==Transport== ===Bus=== Dartmoor is served by the following bus services: 359 Moretonhampstead – Exeter (Country bus) 271 Newton Abbot – Bovey Tracey – Widecombe (Summer Saturdays only) (Country bus) 178 Newton Abbot – Bovey Tracey – M'tonhampstead – Chagford – Okehampton (Country bus) GWR operate direct trains from Exeter to Okehampton.
[ "Castle Drogo", "standing stone", "purple moor grass", "William Crossing", "Hound Tor", "light pollution", "Vipera berus", "Rippon Tor Rifle Range", "The Adventure of Silver Blaze", "Cross-leaved heath", "Benighted (novel)", "sea trout", "bilberry bumblebee", "lichen", "meadow pipit", "River Dart", "pale butterwort", "ria", "Narthecium ossifragum", "Haytor Granite Tramway", "Fingle Bridge", "blue ground beetle", "Crazywell Pool", "gravity anomaly", "intensive farming", "early Mediaeval", "salmon", "sphagnum", "Lydford Gorge", "Dartmoor Discovery", "Hare's-tail Cotton-grass", "frost (temperature)", "access land", "Horrabridge", "Yellowmead Down", "common snipe", "Eristalis cryptarum", "brown trout", "Devon", "Fenella Fielding", "Haytor", "national park authority", "Juncaceae", "Lutra lutra", "River Tavy", "trout", "Met Office", "Grey Wethers", "tormentil", "Robert Morley", "Dartmoor Way", "Merrivale, Devon", "R. D. Blackmore", "Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000", "pixie", "Ivybridge", "Richard Gough (antiquarian)", "Drosera", "peat", "Hammer Film Productions", "Teignmouth", "blanket bog", "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire", "Dartmoor tin-mining", "Dartmoor Commons Act 1985", "stone circle", "Okehampton", "Devon County Council", "tor (rock formation)", "Special Area of Conservation", "southern damselfly", "sedge", "The Hounds of Baskerville", "black dog (folklore)", "Forestry Commission", "gravity anomalies of Britain and Ireland", "Dartmoor Training Area", "Rosamunde Pilcher", "Hitman 3", "Carboniferous", "Precipitation (meteorology)", "Brent Tor", "Princetown, England", "Eriophorum", "Hemaris tityus", "Global Positioning System", "long-distance footpath", "temperate", "hairy hands", "Universal Studios, Inc.", "Stephen Wight", "Ten Tors Challenge", "Totnes", "pluton", "china clay", "Tavistock, Devon", "Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor", "rock climbing", "Widecombe in the Moor", "River Erme", "shale", "Agatha Christie", "Dartmeet", "Sheepstor", "Sphagnum", "Buckfast Abbey", "Plymouth Herald", "barbastelle", "Shovel Down", "Bronze Age", "Joyce Grenfell", "Grimspound", "Gilbert Adair", "Drizzlecombe", "River Taw", "Meldon Viaduct", "Duck's Pool, Dartmoor", "adamellite", "East Dart River", "European pied flycatcher", "Dartmoor reservoirs", "Devil", "Bertram Fletcher Robinson", "The Loop, River Dart", "Ordnance Survey", "Ryder's Hill", "Hindustan Times", "Jay's Grave", "Sir Arthur Conan Doyle", "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty", "River Plym", "moorland", "bog asphodel", "hill walking", "The Great Thunderstorm, Widecombe", "Moorland", "menhir", "Palmate newt", "Ectoedemia heckfordi", "common lizard", "Tor (rock formation)", "heavy metals", "Childes Tomb", "Napoleonic Wars", "Redlake Tramway", "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "coaching inn", "The Old Dark House (1963 film)", "River Avon, Devon", "European stonechat", "South West England", "street light", "HM Prison Dartmoor", "round-leaved sundew", "Ancient Tenements", "Bridford", "Dartmoor kistvaens", "Newsweek", "Districts of England", "Scorhill", "Dartmoor (HM Prison)", "West Dart River", "artifact (archaeology)", "air stream", "drainage basin", "Buckfastleigh", "Beatrice Chase", "heath milkwort", "Rhynchospora", "highland (geography)", "stone row", "geocaching", "Widecombe-in-the-Moor", "Ten Tors", "Salmo salar", "sedimentary rock", "firing range", "River Webburn", "BBC", "J. B. Priestley", "reave", "Alexander Darwall", "British big cats", "Eden Phillpotts", "Postbridge", "Acarospora fuscata", "Felicia Hemans", "Dartmoor National Park Authority", "Spitchwick", "Letterboxing (hobby)", "Canonteign Falls", "Whitewater kayaking", "pearl-bordered fritillary", "Open Spaces Society", "Warren House Inn", "Forest of Dartmoor", "United Kingdom", "Eurasian skylark", "High Willhays", "peatland", "green hairstreak", "western gorse", "Light-emitting diode", "fairy shrimp", "British Government", "Dartmoor Preservation Association", "Cranmere Pool", "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)", "Neolithic", "emperor moth", "heath bedstraw", "lesser horseshoe bat", "Devonport Leat", "liverwort", "IO Interactive", "high brown fritillary", "Avon Dam Reservoir", "peat bog", "Fox Tor", "Two Bridges, Devon", "Rights of way in England and Wales", "National parks of England and Wales", "Wistman's Wood", "Cosdon Hill", "pasture", "James Whale", "film remake", "swidden", "Chagford", "May 2024 solar storms", "Ghosts in European culture", "Calluna", "common land", "Carex", "Bulgaria", "Common Tormentil", "Christow", "common redstart", "lightning", "rain shadow", "comedy horror", "The Independent", "Common cuckoo", "cairn", "Duke of Cornwall", "Limax cinereoniger", "War of 1812", "wood warbler", "John Leland (antiquary)", "Dartmoor longhouse", "Yes Tor", "Julian Flaux", "Dartmoor Commoners' Council", "The Hound of the Baskervilles", "Dartmouth, Devon", "Sherlock (TV series)", "River Teign", "growing season", "greater horseshoe bat", "Drewsteignton", "Teign", "low-pressure area", "prehistoric", "FT.com", "xenolith", "River Meavy", "Yelverton, Devon", "Blanket bog", "Imerys", "Museum of Dartmoor Life", "Prisoner of war", "List of Dartmoor tors and hills", "William Castle", "Victorian era", "marsh fritillary", "The Old Dark House (1932 film)", "Childe's Tomb", "Sabine Baring-Gould", "Tavistock Canal", "bell heather", "bogbean", "Great Links Tor", "Erica tetralix", "Ashburton, Devon", "John Van der Kiste", "PC Gamer", "Postbridge, Devon", "Two Moors Way", "bracken", "Exe Estuary", "ring ouzel", "North Hessary Tor transmitting station", "canoeing", "Tom Poston", "Quidditch", "Princetown", "hut circle", "carbon negative", "Moretonhampstead", "headless horseman", "Dartmoor crosses", "Janette Scott", "Hellhound", "Sylvia Sayer", "bog", "Bowerman's Nose", "Gulf Stream", "River Lyd, Devon", "granite", "Ireland", "South Brent", "Edwin Lutyens" ]
8,169
Dante Alighieri
Dante Alighieri (; most likely baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri; – September 14, 1321), widely known mononymously as Dante, was an Italian poet, writer, and philosopher. His Divine Comedy, originally called (modern Italian: ) and later christened by Giovanni Boccaccio, is widely considered one of the most important poems of the Middle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language. Dante chose to write in the vernacular, specifically, his own Tuscan dialect, at a time when much literature was still written in Latin, which was accessible only to educated readers, and many of his fellow Italian poets wrote in French or Provençal. His (On Eloquence in the Vernacular) was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of the Florentine dialect for works such as The New Life (1295) and Divine Comedy helped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language. His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such as Petrarch and Boccaccio would later follow. Dante was instrumental in establishing the literature of Italy, and is considered to be among the country's national poets and the Western world's greatest literary icons. His depictions of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven provided inspiration for the larger body of Western art and literature. He influenced English writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton, and Alfred Tennyson, among many others. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, or the terza rima, is attributed to him. He is described as the "father" of the Italian language, and in Italy he is often referred to as ("the Supreme Poet"). Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are also called the ("three crowns") of Italian literature. ==Early life== Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, in what is now Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around May 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy. Its first section, the Inferno, begins, "" ("Midway upon the journey of our life"), implying that Dante was around 35 years old, since the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalm 89:10, Vulgate) is 70 years; and since his imaginary travel to the netherworld took place in 1300, he was most probably born around 1265. Some verses of the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign of Gemini: "As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed, from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious" (XXII  151–154). In 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11 (Julian calendar). During Dante's time, most Northern Italian city states were split into two political factions: the Guelphs, who supported the papacy, and the Ghibellines, who supported the Holy Roman Empire. Dante's family was loyal to the Guelphs. The Ghibellines took over Florence at the Battle of Montaperti in 1260, forcing out many of the Guelphs. Although Dante's family were Guelphs, they suffered no reprisals after the battle, probably because of Alighiero's low public standing. The Guelphs later fought the Ghibellines again in 1266 at the Battle of Benevento, retaking Florence from the Ghibellines. Dante said he first met Beatrice Portinari, daughter of Folco Portinari, when he was nine (she was eight), and he claimed to have fallen in love with her "at first sight", apparently without even talking with her. When he was 12, however, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, member of the powerful Donati family. This victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take part in public life, one had to enroll in one of the city's many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild. His name is occasionally recorded as speaking or voting in the councils of the republic. Many minutes from such meetings between 1298 and 1300 were lost, so the extent of his participation is uncertain. ==Education and poetry== Not much is known about Dante's education; he presumably studied at home or in a chapter school attached to a church or monastery in Florence. It is known that he studied Tuscan poetry and that he admired the compositions of the Bolognese poet Guido Guinizelli—in Purgatorio XXVI he characterized him as his "father"—at a time when the Sicilian School (), a cultural group from Sicily, was becoming known in Tuscany. He also discovered the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, such as Arnaut Daniel, and the Latin writers of classical antiquity, including Cicero, Ovid and especially Virgil. Dante's interactions with Beatrice set an example of so-called courtly love, a phenomenon developed in French and Provençal poetry of prior centuries. Dante's experience of such love was typical, but his expression of it was unique. It was in the name of this love that Dante left his imprint on the ("sweet new style", a term that Dante himself coined), and he would join other contemporary poets and writers in exploring never-before-emphasized aspects of love. Love for Beatrice (as Petrarch would express for Laura somewhat differently) would be his reason for writing poetry and for living, together with political passions. In many of his poems, she is depicted as semi-divine, watching over him constantly and providing spiritual instruction, sometimes harshly. When Beatrice died in 1290, Dante sought refuge in Latin literature. The Convivio chronicles his having read Boethius's and Cicero's . He next dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in Santa Maria Novella. He took part in the disputes that the two principal mendicant orders (Franciscan and Dominican) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrines of the mystics and of St. Bonaventure, the latter expounding on the theories of St. Thomas Aquinas. At around the age of 18, Dante met Guido Cavalcanti, Lapo Gianni, Cino da Pistoia and, soon after, Brunetto Latini; together they became the leaders of the . Brunetto later received special mention in the Divine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 28) for what he had taught Dante: "Nor speaking less on that account I go With Ser Brunetto, and I ask who are his most known and most eminent companions". Some fifty poetical commentaries by Dante are known (the so-called Rime, rhymes), others being included in the later and . Other studies are reported, or deduced from or the Comedy, regarding painting and music. ==Florence and politics== Dante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in the Guelph–Ghibelline conflict. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289), with the Florentine Guelphs against Arezzo Ghibellines; he fought as a , responsible for the first attack. To further his political career, he obtained admission to the Guild of Physicians and Apothecaries around 1295. He likely joined the guild due to association between philosophy and medicine, but also may have joined as apothecaries were also booksellers. His guild membership allowed him to hold public office in Florence. As a politician, he held various offices over some years in a city rife with political unrest. After defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White Guelphs ()—Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs (), led by Corso Donati. Although the split was along family lines at first, ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in Florentine affairs. The Blacks supported the Pope and the Whites wanted more freedom from Rome. The Whites took power first and expelled the Blacks. In response, Pope Boniface VIII planned a military occupation of Florence. In 1301, Charles of Valois, brother of King Philip IV of France, was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him as peacemaker for Tuscany, but the city's government had treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influence. It was believed Charles had received other unofficial instructions, so the council sent a delegation that included Dante to Rome to persuade the Pope not to send Charles to Florence. ==Exile from Florence== Pope Boniface quickly dismissed the other delegates and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time (November 1, 1301), Charles of Valois entered Florence with the Black Guelphs, who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies. A new Black Guelph government was installed, and Cante dei Gabrielli da Gubbio was appointed of the city. In March 1302, Dante, a White Guelph by affiliation, along with the Gherardini family, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine. Dante was accused of corruption and financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that Dante was serving as city prior (Florence's highest position) for two months in 1300. The poet was still in Rome in 1302, as the Pope, who had backed the Black Guelphs, had "suggested" that Dante stay there. Florence under the Black Guelphs, therefore, considered Dante an absconder. Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs. He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he had returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake. (In June 2008, nearly seven centuries after his death, the city council of Florence passed a motion rescinding Dante's sentence.) In 1306–07, Dante was a guest of in the region of Lunigiana. Dante took part in several attempts by the White Guelphs to regain power, but these failed due to treachery. Bitter at the treatment he received from his enemies, he grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his former allies and vowed to become a party of one. He went to Verona as a guest of Bartolomeo I della Scala, then moved to Sarzana in Liguria. Later he is supposed to have lived in Lucca with a woman named Gentucca. She apparently made his stay comfortable (and he later gratefully mentioned her in Purgatorio, XXIV, 37). Some speculative sources claim he visited Paris between 1308 and 1310, and other sources even less trustworthy say he went to Oxford; these claims, first made in Giovanni Boccaccio's book on Dante several decades after his death, seem inspired by readers who were impressed with the poet's wide learning and erudition. No longer occupied with the day-to-day affairs of Florentine politics after his exile, Dante deepened his engagement with philosophy and literature, as seen in the intellectual rigor and thematic scope of his prose works from this period. Yet, while his ideas traveled widely, there is no definitive evidence that he ever left Italy. Dante's to Henry VII of Luxembourg confirms his residence "beneath the springs of Arno, near Tuscany" in April 1311. In 1310, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg marched into Italy at the head of 5,000 troops. Dante saw in him a new Charlemagne who would restore the office of the Holy Roman Emperor to its former glory and also retake Florence from the Black Guelphs. He wrote to Henry and several Italian princes, demanding that they destroy the Black Guelphs. Mixing religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of God against his city and suggested several particular targets, who were also his personal enemies. It was during this time that he wrote , proposing a universal monarchy under Henry VII. At some point during his exile, he conceived of the Comedy, but the date is uncertain. The work is far more assured and ambitious than anything he had written in Florence. It is likely that he would have undertaken such a project only after accepting that his political ambitions, which had been central to him before his banishment, may have been indefinitely disrupted. It is also noticeable that Beatrice has returned to his imagination with renewed force and with a wider meaning than in the ; in (written –07) he had declared that the memory of this youthful romance belonged to the past. An early indication that the poem was underway is a notice by Francesco da Barberino, tucked into his (Lessons of Love), probably written in 1314 or early 1315. Francesco notes that Dante followed the Aeneid in a poem called "Comedy" and that the setting of this poem (or part of it) was the underworld; i.e., hell. The brief note gives no incontestable indication that Barberino had seen or read even the Inferno, or that this part had been published at the time, but it indicates composition was well underway and that the sketching of the poem might have begun some years before. (It has been suggested that a knowledge of Dante's work also underlies some of the illuminations in Francesco da Barberino's earlier Officiolum [c. 1305–08], a manuscript that came to light in 2003.) It is known that the Inferno had been published by 1317; this is established by quoted lines interspersed in the margins of contemporary dated records from Bologna, but there is no certainty as to whether the three parts of the poem were each published in full or, rather, a few cantos at a time. Paradiso was likely finished before he died, but it may have been published posthumously. In 1312, Henry assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelphs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the attack on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that he had become unpopular with the White Guelphs, too, and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. Henry VII died (from a fever) in 1313 and with him any hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, where Cangrande I della Scala allowed him to live in certain security and, presumably, in a fair degree of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso, XVII, 76). During the period of his exile, Dante corresponded with Dominican theologian Fr. Nicholas Brunacci (1240–1322), who had been a student of Thomas Aquinas at the Santa Sabina studium in Rome, later at Paris, and of Albert the Great at the Cologne studium. Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina studium, forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and later served in the papal curia. In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to those in exile, including Dante. But for this, Florence required public penance in addition to payment of a high fine. Dante refused, preferring to remain in exile. When Uguccione defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was commuted to house arrest, on condition that he go to Florence to swear he would never enter the town again. He refused to go, and his death sentence was confirmed and extended to his sons. Despite this, he still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honorable terms, particularly in praise of his poetry. ==Death and burial== Dante's final days were spent in Ravenna, where he had been invited to stay in the city in 1318 by its prince, Guido II da Polenta. Dante died in Ravenna on September 14, 1321, aged about 56, of quartan malaria contracted while returning from a diplomatic mission to the Republic of Venice. He was attended by his three children, and possibly by Gemma Donati, and by friends and admirers he had in the city. He was buried in Ravenna at the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called Basilica di San Francesco). Bernardo Bembo, praetor of Venice, erected a tomb for him in 1483. On the grave, a verse of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, is dedicated to Florence: In 1329, Bertrand du Pouget, Cardinal and nephew of Pope John XXII, classified Dante's Monarchia as heretical and sought to have his bones burned at the stake. Ostasio I da Polenta and Pino della Tosa, allies of Pouget, interceded to prevent the destruction of Dante's remains. Florence eventually came to regret having exiled Dante. The city made repeated requests for the return of his remains. The custodians of the body in Ravenna refused, at one point going so far as to conceal the bones in a false wall of the monastery. Florence built a tomb for Dante in 1829, in the Basilica of Santa Croce. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body remaining in Ravenna. The front of his tomb in Florence reads —which roughly translates as "Honor the most exalted poet" and is a quote from the fourth canto of the Inferno. In 1945, the fascist government discussed bringing Dante's remains to the Valtellina Redoubt, the Alpine valley in which the regime intended to make its last stand against the Allies. The case was made that "the greatest symbol of Italianness" should be present at fascism's "heroic" end, but ultimately, no action was taken. A copy of Dante's death mask has been displayed since 1911 in the Palazzo Vecchio; scholars today believe it is not a true death mask and was probably carved in 1483, perhaps by Pietro and Tullio Lombardo. ==Legacy== The first formal biography of Dante was the (also known as ), written after 1348 by Giovanni Boccaccio. Although several statements and episodes of it have been deemed unreliable on the basis of modern research, an earlier account of Dante's life and works had been included in the of the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani. Some 16th-century English Protestants, such as John Bale and John Foxe, argued that Dante was a proto-Protestant because of his opposition to the pope. The 19th century saw a "Dante revival", a product of the medieval revival, which was itself an important aspect of Romanticism. Thomas Carlyle profiled him in "The Hero as Poet", the third lecture in On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History (1841): "He is world-great not because he is worldwide, but because he is world-deep… Dante is the spokesman of the Middle Ages; the Thought they lived by stands here, in everlasting music." Leigh Hunt, Henry Francis Cary and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow were among Dante's translators of the era. Italy's first dreadnought battleship was completed in 1913 and named Dante Alighieri in honor of him. On April 30, 1921, in honor of the 600th anniversary of Dante's death, Pope Benedict XV promulgated an encyclical named , naming Dante as one "of the many celebrated geniuses of whom the Catholic faith can boast" and the "pride and glory of humanity". On December 7, 1965, Pope Paul VI promulgated the Latin titled , which was dedicated to Dante's figure and poetry. In that year, the pope also donated a golden iron Greek Cross to Dante's burial site in Ravenna, on the occasion of the 700th anniversary of his birth. The same cross was blessed by Pope Francis in October 2020. In 2007, a reconstruction of Dante's face was undertaken in a collaborative project. Artists from the University of Pisa and forensic engineers at the University of Bologna at Forlì constructed the model, portraying Dante's features as somewhat different from what was once thought. In 2008, the Municipality of Florence officially apologized for expelling Dante 700 years earlier. In May 2021, a symbolic re-trial was held virtually in Florence to posthumously clear his name. A celebration was held in 2015 at Italy's Senate of the Republic for the 750th anniversary of Dante's birth. It included a commemoration from Pope Francis, who also issued the apostolic letter in honor of the anniversary. ==Works== ===Overview=== Most of Dante's literary work was composed after his exile in 1301. ("The New Life") is the only major work that predates it; it is a collection of lyric poems (sonnets and songs) with commentary in prose, ostensibly intended to be circulated in manuscript form, as was customary for such poems. It also contains, or constructs, the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who later served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the Comedy, a function already indicated in the final pages of the . The work contains many of Dante's love poems in Tuscan, which was not unprecedented; the vernacular had been regularly used for lyric works before, during all the thirteenth century. However, Dante's commentary on his own work is also in the vernacular—both in the and in the —instead of the Latin that was almost universally used. The Divine Comedy describes Dante's journey through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso); he is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil and then by Beatrice. Of the books, Purgatorio is arguably the most lyrical of the three, referring to more contemporary poets and artists than Inferno; Paradiso is the most heavily theological, and the one in which, many scholars have argued, the Divine Comedy most beautiful and mystic passages appear. With its seriousness of purpose, its literary stature and the range—both stylistic and thematic—of its content, the Comedy soon became a cornerstone in the evolution of Italian as an established literary language. Dante was more aware than most early Italian writers of the variety of Italian dialects and of the need to create a literature and a unified literary language beyond the limits of Latin writing at the time; in that sense, he is a forerunner of the Renaissance, with its effort to create vernacular literature in competition with earlier classical writers. Dante's in-depth knowledge (within the limits of his time) of Roman antiquity, and his evident admiration for some aspects of pagan Rome, also point forward to the 15th century. He wrote the Comedy in a language he called "Italian", in some sense an amalgamated literary language predominantly based on the regional dialect of Tuscany, but with some elements of Latin and other regional dialects. He deliberately aimed to reach a readership throughout Italy including laymen, clergymen and other poets. By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the Italian language was suitable for the highest sort of expression. In French, Italian is sometimes nicknamed la langue de Dante. Unlike Boccaccio, Milton or Ariosto, Dante did not really become an author read across Europe until the Romantic era. To the Romantics, Dante, like Homer and Shakespeare, was a prime example of the "original genius" who set his own rules, created persons of overpowering stature and depth, and went beyond any imitation of the patterns of earlier masters; and who, in turn, could not truly be imitated. Throughout the 19th century, Dante's reputation grew and solidified; and by 1865, the 600th anniversary of his birth, he had become established as one of the greatest literary icons of the Western world. New readers often wonder how such a serious work may be called a "comedy". In the classical sense the word comedy refers to works that reflect belief in an ordered universe, in which events tend toward not only a happy or amusing ending but one influenced by a Providential will that orders all things to an ultimate good. By this meaning of the word, as Dante himself allegedly wrote in a letter to Cangrande, the progression of the pilgrimage from Hell to Paradise is the paradigmatic expression of comedy, since the work begins with the pilgrim's moral confusion and ends with the vision of God. A number of other works are credited to Dante. ("The Banquet") is a collection of his longest poems with an (unfinished) allegorical commentary. ("Monarchy") is a summary treatise of political philosophy in Latin which was condemned and burned after Dante's death by the Papal Legate Bertrando del Poggetto; it argues for the necessity of a universal or global monarchy to establish universal peace in this life, and this monarchy's relationship to the Roman Catholic Church as guide to eternal peace. ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular") is a treatise on vernacular literature, partly inspired by the of Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun. ("A Question of the Water and of the Land") is a theological work discussing the arrangement of Earth's dry land and ocean. The Eclogues are two poems addressed to the poet Giovanni del Virgilio. Dante is also sometimes credited with writing ("The Flower"), a series of sonnets summarizing , and ("Tale of Love"), a short narrative poem also based on . These would be the earliest, and most novice, of his known works. is a posthumous collection of miscellaneous poems. ===List of works=== The major works of Dante include the following: Il Fiore and Detto d'Amore ("The Flower" and "Tale of Love", 1283–87) La Vita Nuova ("The New Life", 1294) ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular", 1302–05) ("The Banquet", 1307) Monarchia ("Monarchy", 1313) Divine Comedy (1320) Eclogues (1320) ("A Question of the Water and of the Land", 1320) Le Rime ("The Rhymes") File:Purgatory (Purgatorio).jpg|Illustration for Purgatorio (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré File:Gustave Dore XIV.jpg|Illustration for Paradiso (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré File:Paradise (Paradiso) II.jpg|Illustration for Paradiso (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré === Collections === Dante's works reside in cultural institutions across the world. Many items have been digitized or are available for public consultation. (Florence, Italy) opened in Dante's residence in 1965 and was refurbished in 2020. Princeton University Library (New Jersey, US) holds 160 volumes of Dante's works and books about his life, including two 15th-century editions of the Divine Comedy. University College London Special Collections (London, UK) holds 3,000 volumes of material by and about Dante, including 36 editions of the Divine Comedy. The collection was bequeathed to the university by the scholar Henry Clark Barlow in 1876. The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library (Yale University Library, Connecticut, US) holds a manuscript edition of the Divine Comedy (c. 1385–1400).
[ "Francesco da Barberino", "Forlì", "Holy Roman Empire", "Edward Hutton (writer)", "Tuscany", "Pope", "Papal States", "Boethius", "Alfred, Lord Tennyson", "troubadours", "Tuscan dialect", "Leigh Hunt", "Proto-Protestantism", "Homer", "Harvard University Press", "Guelphs and Ghibellines", "Bernardo Bembo", "Italian geographical region", "Valtellina Redoubt", "Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas", "Ostasio I da Polenta", "Sarzana", "Battle of Campaldino", "Yale University Library", "Santa Maria Novella", "Gemini (astrology)", "Republic of Florence", "John Foxe", "Convivio", "Pope John XXII", "Venice", "Domenico di Michelino", "Enciclopedia Italiana", "Lunigiana", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow", "Bernardo Canaccio", "Dante Alighieri Society", "University of Pisa", "allusion", "Beatrice Portinari", "Henry Holiday", "Comedy", "HarperCollins", "Pliny the Younger", "medieval revival", "motu proprio", "Nuova Cronica", "Cino da Pistoia", "Late Middle Ages", "Geoffrey Chaucer", "Unification of Italy", "Roman curia", "praetor", "Brunetto Latini", "William Shakespeare", "hypocorism", "Albert the Great", "Republic of Venice", "Dictionary of the Middle Ages", "De vulgari eloquentia", "Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor", "John Bale", "De Amicitia", "Monarchia", "Florentine dialect", "Paradiso (Dante)", "Cante dei Gabrielli", "mendicant order", "Inferno (Dante)", "Uguccione della Faggiuola", "Sandro Botticelli", "Senate of the Republic (Italy)", "John Milton", "mononym", "dolce stil nuovo", "Battle of Montaperti", "Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun", "Arezzo", "Lucca", "Oxford University Press", "Divine Comedy", "Quito", "Index Librorum Prohibitorum", "Palazzo Vecchio", "University of Bologna", "Ludovico Ariosto", "Bertrando del Poggetto", "Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library", "quartan malaria", "national poet", "Gemma Donati", "Italian Social Republic", "political theory", "University College London", "Italian battleship Dante Alighieri", "Italians", "Pope Benedict XV", "Charles of Valois", "Virgil", "Arnaut Daniel", "Gubbio", "civil law notary", "Henry Clark Barlow", "Belknap Press", "Basilica of San Francesco, Ravenna", "Tullio Lombardo", "Autobiographical", "Orvieto Cathedral", "Bargello", "Tomb of Dante", "Sicilian School", "Bologna", "Renaissance", "Guido II da Polenta", "Pope Francis", "vernacular", "Gustave Doré", "wikt:posthumous", "On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History", "Sicily", "Franciscan", "Giovanni Boccaccio", "Oxford", "Robert Hollander", "Romanticism", "Collins English Dictionary", "The Consolation of Philosophy", "Allies of World War II", "Le Roman de la Rose", "Western art", "Connecticut", "Aeneid", "Thomas Aquinas", "Cacciaguida", "The Rime", "De Monarchia", "Bertrand du Pouget", "La Vita Nuova", "Bartolomeo I della Scala", "Epistle to Cangrande", "In praeclara summorum", "Verona, Italy", "Jacopo Alighieri", "Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dell'Informazione", "Bonaventure", "Cangrande I della Scala", "Liveright", "Dante", "Epistulae (Pliny)", "Purgatorio", "Western literature", "Lapo Gianni", "Italian poetry", "Philip IV of France", "Guido Guinizelli", "Latin", "Henry Francis Cary", "Charlemagne", "Pope Paul VI", "Enrico Pazzi", "universal monarchy", "Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze", "Cando lucis aeternae", "Le Rime", "Folco Portinari", "Ovid", "Alighiero di Bellincione", "Pietro Lombardo", "Provençal dialect", "Corso Donati", "Giovanni Villani", "Love at first sight", "Yale University", "Gherardini family", "terza rima", "Florentine Republic", "Thomas Carlyle", "Cicero", "Pegasus Books", "Princeton University Library", "Ravenna", "Ecuador", "Florence", "Guido Cavalcanti", "Pope Boniface VIII", "Julian calendar", "Dantedì", "tempera", "Dolce Stil Novo", "podestà", "Andrea del Castagno", "Eclogues (Dante)", "National Research Council (Italy)", "Lexico", "Petrarch", "courtly love", "classical antiquity", "Crosses in heraldry", "New Jersey", "Luxembourg", "Dominican Order", "Occitan language", "Piazza Santa Croce", "Boccaccio", "Middle Ages", "Dino Compagni", "Princeton University Press" ]
8,171
Dennis the Menace
Dennis the Menace may refer to either of two comic strip characters that both appeared in March 1951, one in the UK and one in the US. ==United Kingdom character== Dennis the Menace is the original title of a British comic strip, written and published in Dundee, which first appeared in The Beano on 12 March 1951 and became the longest-running strip in the magazine in 2004. Various television adaptations of the comic strip: Dennis the Menace and Gnasher (1996 TV series) is an animated television series based on the Beano comic strip, known internationally as Dennis And Gnasher. Dennis the Menace and Gnasher (2009 TV series) was released on September 7, 2009. Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed! (2017 TV series) is the latest animated CGI series, first broadcast in November 2017. ==United States character== Dennis the Menace (U.S. comics), a daily American syndicated newspaper comic strip since March 12, 1951 Various television and film adaptations of the comic strip: Dennis the Menace (1959 TV series), a CBS network live action television show Dennis the Menace (1986 TV series), an animated TV series The All-New Dennis the Menace, a 1993 animated television series Dennis the Menace (1993 film), a live-action film released in 1993 Dennis the Menace (video game), based on the 1993 film Dennis the Menace Strikes Again, a 1998 direct-to-video sequel of the 1993 film
[ "Tennis the Menace", "Dennis L. A. White", "Dennis and Gnasher (1996 TV series)", "Cleveland", "Dennis the Menace (U.S. comics)", "Dennis the Menace (1959 TV series)", "Dennis the Menace (video game)", "Dennis the Menace Strikes Again", "Dennis the Menace and Gnasher", "Dennis Kucinich", "Mayoralty of Dennis Kucinich", "Dundee", "Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed!", "Dennis the Menace (1986 TV series)", "The Beano", "The All-New Dennis the Menace", "Dennis the Menace (1993 film)", "Dennis the Menace and Gnasher (2009 TV series)" ]
8,176
Dave Brubeck
David Warren Brubeck (; December 6, 1920 – December 5, 2012) was an American jazz pianist and composer. Often regarded as a foremost exponent of cool jazz, Brubeck's work is characterized by unusual time signatures and superimposing contrasting rhythms, meters, tonalities, and combining different styles and genres, like classic, jazz, and blues. Born in Concord, California, Brubeck was drafted into the US Army, but was spared from combat service when a Red Cross show he had played at became a hit. Within the US Army, Brubeck formed one of the first racially diverse bands. In 1951, he formed the Dave Brubeck Quartet, which kept its name despite shifting personnel. The most successful—and prolific—lineup of the quartet was the one between 1958 and 1968. This lineup, in addition to Brubeck, featured saxophonist Paul Desmond, bassist Eugene Wright and drummer Joe Morello. A U.S. Department of State-sponsored tour in 1958 featuring the band inspired several of Brubeck's subsequent albums, most notably the 1959 album Time Out. Despite its esoteric theme and contrarian time signatures, Time Out became Brubeck's highest-selling album, and the first jazz album to sell over one million copies. The lead single from the album, "Take Five", a tune written by Desmond in time, similarly became the highest-selling jazz single of all time. The quartet followed up Time Out with four other albums in non-standard time signatures, and some of the other songs from this series became hits as well, including "Blue Rondo à la Turk" (in ) and "Unsquare Dance" (in ). Brubeck continued releasing music until his death in 2012. Brubeck's style ranged from refined to bombastic, reflecting both his mother's classical training and his own improvisational skills. He expressed elements of atonality and fugue. Brubeck, with Desmond, used elements of West Coast jazz near the height of its popularity, combining them with the unorthodox time signatures seen in Time Out. Like many of his contemporaries, Brubeck played into the style of the French composer Darius Milhaud, especially his earlier works, including "Serenade Suite" and "Playland-At-The-Beach". Brubeck's fusion of classical music and jazz would come to be known as "third stream", although Brubeck's use of third stream would predate the coining of the term. John Fordham of The Guardian commented: "Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms, and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways." and his maternal grandparents were English and German. He was born on December 6, 1920, in Concord, California, and grew up in the rural town of Ione, California. His father, Peter Howard "Pete" Brubeck, was a cattle rancher. His mother, Elizabeth (née Ivey), had studied piano in England under Myra Hess and intended to become a concert pianist. She taught piano for extra money. Brubeck did not intend to become a musician, although his two older brothers, Henry and Howard, were already on that track. Brubeck did, however, take lessons from his mother. He could not read music during these early lessons, attributing the difficulty to poor eyesight, but "faked" his way through well enough that his deficiency went mostly unnoticed. Planning to work with his father on their ranch, Brubeck entered the liberal arts college College of the Pacific in Stockton, California, in 1938 to study veterinary science. He switched his major to music at the urging of the head of zoology at the time, Dr. Arnold, who told him, "Brubeck, your mind's not here. It's across the lawn in the conservatory. Please go there. Stop wasting my time and yours." Later, Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his music professors discovered that he was unable to sight-read. Several others came forward to his defense, however, arguing that his ability to write counterpoint and harmony more than compensated, and demonstrated his skill with music notation. The college was still concerned, but agreed to allow Brubeck to graduate after he promised never to teach piano. ==Military service== After graduating in 1942, Brubeck was drafted into the United States Army, serving in Europe in the Third Army under George S. Patton. He volunteered to play piano at a Red Cross show; the show was a resounding success, and Brubeck was spared from combat service. He created one of the U.S. armed forces' first racially integrated bands, "The Wolfpack". After serving nearly four years in the army, he returned to California for graduate study at Mills College in Oakland. He was a student of composer Darius Milhaud, who encouraged him to study fugue and orchestration, but not classical piano. While on active duty, he had received two lessons from Arnold Schoenberg at UCLA in an attempt to connect with high modernist theory and practice. However, the encounter did not end on good terms since Schoenberg believed that every note should be accounted for, an approach which Brubeck could not accept. But, according to his son Chris Brubeck, there is a twelve-tone row in The Light in the Wilderness, Dave Brubeck's first oratorio. In it, Jesus's Twelve Disciples are introduced, each singing their own individual notes; it is described as "quite dramatic, especially when Judas starts singing 'Repent' on a high and straining dissonant note". Jack Sheedy owned San Francisco-based Coronet Records, which had previously recorded area Dixieland bands. (This Coronet Records is distinct from the late 1950s New York-based budget label, and also from Australia-based Coronet Records.) In 1949, Sheedy was convinced to make the first recording of Brubeck's octet and later his trio. But Sheedy was unable to pay his bills and in 1949 gave up his masters to his record stamping company, the Circle Record Company, owned by Max and Sol Weiss. The Weiss brothers soon changed the name of their business to Fantasy Records. The first Brubeck records sold well, and he made new records for Fantasy. Soon the company was shipping 40,000 to 50,000 copies of Brubeck records each quarter, making a good profit. ==Career== ===Dave Brubeck Quartet=== In 1951, Brubeck organized the Dave Brubeck Quartet, with Paul Desmond on alto saxophone. The two took up residency at San Francisco's Black Hawk nightclub and had success touring college campuses, recording a series of live albums. The first of these live albums, Jazz at Oberlin, was recorded in March 1953 in the Finney Chapel at Oberlin College. Brubeck's live performance was credited with legitimizing the field of jazz music at Oberlin, and the album is one of the earliest examples of cool jazz. Brubeck returned to College of the Pacific to record Jazz at the College of the Pacific in December of that year. Following the release of Jazz at the College of the Pacific, Brubeck signed with Fantasy Records, believing that he had a stake in the company. He worked as an artists and repertoire promoter for the label, encouraging the Weiss brothers to sign other contemporary jazz performers, including Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker and Red Norvo. Upon discovering that the deal was for a half interest in his own recordings, Brubeck quit to sign with another label, Columbia Records. ====College success==== In June 1954, Brubeck released Jazz Goes to College, with double bassist Bob Bates and drummer Joe Dodge. The album is a compilation of the quartet's visits to three colleges: Oberlin College, University of Michigan, and University of Cincinnati, and features seven songs, two of which were written by Brubeck and Desmond. "Balcony Rock", the opening song on the album, was noted for its timing and uneven tonalities, themes that would be explored by Brubeck later. Brubeck was featured on the cover of Time in November 1954, the second jazz musician to be featured, following Louis Armstrong in February 1949. Brubeck personally found this acclaim embarrassing, since he considered Duke Ellington more deserving and was convinced that he had been favored as a white man. In one encounter with Ellington, he knocked on the door of Brubeck's hotel room to show him the cover; Brubeck's response was, "It should have been you." Early bassists for the group included Ron Crotty, Bates, and Bates's brother Norman; Lloyd Davis and Dodge held the drum chair. In 1956, Brubeck hired drummer Joe Morello, who had been working with pianist Marian McPartland; Morello's presence made possible the rhythmic experiments that were to come. In 1958, African-American bassist Eugene Wright joined for the group's Department of State tour of Europe and Asia. The group visited Poland, Turkey, India, Ceylon, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq on behalf of the Department of State. They spent two weeks in Poland, giving thirteen concerts and visiting with Polish musicians and citizens as part of the People-to-People program. Wright became a permanent member in 1959, finishing the "classic era" of the quartet's personnel. During this time, Brubeck was strongly supportive of Wright's inclusion in the band, and reportedly canceled several concerts when the club owners or hall managers objected to presenting an integrated band. He also canceled a television appearance when he found out that the producers intended to keep Wright off-camera. In January 1960, he cancelled a 25-date tour of colleges and universities in the American South because 22 of the schools refused to allow Wright to perform. ====Time Out==== In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet recorded Time Out. The album, which featured pieces entirely written by members of the quartet, notably uses unusual time signatures in the field of music—and especially jazz—a crux which Columbia Records was enthusiastic about, but which they were nonetheless hesitant to release. The release of Time Out required the cooperation of Columbia Records president Goddard Lieberson, who underwrote and released Time Out, on the condition that the quartet record a conventional album of the American South, Gone with the Wind, to cover the risk of Time Out becoming a commercial failure. Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures, the album quickly went Gold (and was eventually certified Double Platinum), and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200. It was the first jazz album to sell more than a million copies. The single "Take Five" off the album quickly became a jazz standard, despite its unusual composition and its time signature: time. Time Out was followed by several albums with a similar approach, including Time Further Out: Miro Reflections (1961), using more , , and , plus the first attempt at ; Countdown—Time in Outer Space (dedicated to John Glenn, 1962), featuring and more ; Time Changes (1963), with much , and ; and Time In (1966). These albums (except Time In) were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of Joan Miró on Time Further Out, Franz Kline on Time in Outer Space, and Sam Francis on Time Changes. ====Later work==== On a handful of albums in the early 1960s, clarinetist Bill Smith replaced Desmond. These albums were devoted to Smith's compositions and thus had a somewhat different aesthetic than other Brubeck Quartet albums. Nonetheless, according to critic Ken Dryden, "[Smith] proves himself very much in Desmond's league with his witty solos". Smith was an old friend of Brubeck's; they would record together, intermittently, from the 1940s until the final years of Brubeck's career. In 1961, Brubeck and his wife, Iola, developed a jazz musical, The Real Ambassadors, based in part on experiences they and their colleagues had during foreign tours on behalf of the Department of State. The soundtrack album, which featured Louis Armstrong, Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, and Carmen McRae was recorded in 1961; the musical was performed at the 1962 Monterey Jazz Festival. At its peak in the early 1960s, the Brubeck Quartet was releasing as many as four albums a year. Apart from the "College" and the "Time" series, Brubeck recorded four LP records featuring his compositions based on the group's travels, and the local music they encountered. Jazz Impressions of the U.S.A. (1956, Morello's debut with the group), Jazz Impressions of Eurasia (1958), Jazz Impressions of Japan (1964), and Jazz Impressions of New York (1964) are less well-known albums, but they produced Brubeck standards such as "Summer Song", "Brandenburg Gate", "Koto Song", and "Theme from Mr. Broadway". (Brubeck wrote, and the Quartet performed, the theme song for this Craig Stevens CBS drama series; the music from the series became material for the New York album.) In 1961, Brubeck appeared in a few scenes of the British jazz/beat film All Night Long, which starred Patrick McGoohan and Richard Attenborough. Brubeck plays himself, with the film featuring close-ups of his piano fingerings. Brubeck performs "It's a Raggy Waltz" from the Time Further Out album and duets briefly with bassist Charles Mingus in "Non-Sectarian Blues". Brubeck also served as the program director of WJZZ-FM (now WEZN-FM) while recording for the quartet. He achieved his vision of an all-jazz format radio station along with his friend and neighbor John E. Metts, one of the first African Americans in senior radio management. The final studio album for Columbia by the Desmond/Wright/Morello quartet was Anything Goes (1966), featuring the songs of Cole Porter. A few concert recordings followed, and The Last Time We Saw Paris (1967) was the "Classic" quartet's swan-song. ===Later career=== Brubeck produced The Gates of Justice in 1968, a cantata mixing Biblical scripture with the words of Martin Luther King Jr. In 1971, the new senior management at Columbia Records decided not to renew Brubeck's contract, as they wished to focus on rock music. He moved to Atlantic Records. Brubeck's music was used in the 1985 film Ordeal by Innocence. He also composed for—and performed with his ensemble on—"The NASA Space Station", a 1988 episode of the CBS TV series This Is America, Charlie Brown. ==Personal life== Brubeck founded the Brubeck Institute in 2000 with his wife, Iola, at their alma mater, the University of the Pacific. What began as a special archive, consisting of the personal document collection of the Brubecks, has since expanded to provide fellowships and educational opportunities in jazz for students. One of the main streets on which the school resides is named in his honor, Dave Brubeck Way. In 2008, Brubeck became a supporter of the Jazz Foundation of America in its mission to save the homes and the lives of elderly jazz and blues musicians, including those who had survived Hurricane Katrina. Brubeck supported the Jazz Foundation by performing in its annual benefit concert "A Great Night in Harlem". ===Family=== Dave Brubeck married jazz lyricist Iola Whitlock in September 1942; the couple were married for 70 years, until his death in 2012. Iola died at age 90 on March 12, 2014, from cancer in Wilton, Connecticut. Brubeck had six children with Iola, including a daughter Catherine. Four of their sons became professional musicians. The eldest, Darius, named after Brubeck's mentor Darius Milhaud, is a pianist, producer, educator and performer. Dan is a percussionist, Chris is a multi-instrumentalist and composer, and Matthew, the youngest, is a cellist, with an extensive list of composing and performance credits. Another son, Michael, died in 2009. ===Honors=== In 1996, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2006, Brubeck was awarded the University of Notre Dame's Laetare Medal, the oldest and most prestigious honor given to American Catholics, during the university's commencement. He performed "Travellin' Blues" for the graduating class of 2006. ==Death== Brubeck died of heart failure on December 5, 2012, in Norwalk, Connecticut, one day before his 92nd birthday. He was on his way to a cardiology appointment, accompanied by his son Darius. A birthday party concert had been planned for him with family and famous guests. A memorial tribute was held in May 2013. Brubeck is interred at Umpawaug Cemetery in Redding, Connecticut. ==Legacy== The Los Angeles Times noted that he "was one of Jazz's first pop stars", even though he was not always happy with his fame. He felt uncomfortable, for example, that Time magazine had featured him on the cover before it did so for Duke Ellington, saying, "It just bothered me." The New York Times noted he had continued to play well into his old age, performing in 2011 and in 2010 only a month after getting a pacemaker, with Times music writer Nate Chinen commenting that Brubeck had replaced "the old hammer-and-anvil attack with something almost airy" and that his playing at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City was "the picture of judicious clarity". In The Daily Telegraph, music journalist Ivan Hewett wrote: "Brubeck didn't have the réclame of some jazz musicians who lead tragic lives. He didn't do drugs or drink. What he had was endless curiosity combined with stubbornness", adding: "His work list is astonishing, including oratorios, musicals and concertos, as well as hundreds of jazz compositions. This quiet man of jazz was truly a marvel." In The Guardian, John Fordham said: "Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways. His son Chris told The Guardian: "when I hear Chorale, it reminds me of the very best Aaron Copland, something like Appalachian Spring. There's a sort of American honesty to it." Robert Christgau dubbed Brubeck the "jazz hero of the rock and roll generation". The Economist wrote: "Above all they found it hard to believe that the most successful jazz in America was being played by a family man, a laid-back Californian, modest, gentle and open, who would happily have been a rancher all his days—except that he couldn't live without performing, because the rhythm of jazz, under all his extrapolation and exploration, was, he had discovered, the rhythm of his heart." While on tour performing "Hot House" in Toronto, Chick Corea and Gary Burton completed a tribute to Brubeck on the day of his death. Corea played "Strange Meadow Lark", from Brubeck's album Time Out. In the United States, May 4 is informally observed as "Dave Brubeck Day". In the format most commonly used in the U.S., May 4 is written "5/4", recalling the time signature of "Take Five", Brubeck's best-known recording. In September 2019, musicologist Stephen A. Crist's book, Dave Brubeck's Time Out, provided the first scholarly book-length analysis of the seminal album. In addition to his musical analyses of each of the album's original compositions, Crist provides insight into Brubeck's career during a time he was rising to the top of the jazz charts. ===Recognition=== In 1975, the main-belt asteroid 5079 Brubeck was named after Brubeck. Brubeck recorded five of the seven tracks of his album Jazz Goes to College in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He returned to Michigan many times, including a performance at Hill Auditorium where he received a Distinguished Artist Award from the University of Michigan's Musical Society in 2006. Brubeck was presented with a "Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy" by United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice in 2008 for offering an American "vision of hope, opportunity and freedom" through his music. The State Department said in a statement that "as a pianist, composer, cultural emissary and educator, Dave Brubeck's life's work exemplifies the best of America's cultural diplomacy". On October 18, 2008, Brubeck received an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the prestigious Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York. Similarly, at the Monterey Jazz Festival in September 2009, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus. honoris causa) from Berklee College of Music. On May 16, 2010, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (honoris causa) from the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. The ceremony took place on the National Mall. In September 2009, the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts announced Brubeck as a Kennedy Center Honoree for exhibiting excellence in performance arts. The Kennedy Center Honors Gala took place on Sunday, December 6 (Brubeck's 89th birthday), and was broadcast nationwide on CBS on December 29 at 9:00 pm EST. When the award was made, President Barack Obama recalled a 1971 concert Brubeck had given in Honolulu and said, "You can't understand America without understanding jazz, and you can't understand jazz without understanding Dave Brubeck." In 2010, Bruce Ricker and Clint Eastwood produced Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way, a documentary about Brubeck for Turner Classic Movies (TCM) to commemorate his 90th birthday in December 2010. The Concord Boulevard Park in his hometown of Concord, California, was posthumously renamed to "Dave Brubeck Memorial Park" in his honor. Mayor Dan Helix favorably recalled one of his performances at the park, saying: "He will be with us forever because his music will never die." ===Awards=== Connecticut Arts Award (1987) National Medal of Arts, National Endowment for the Arts (1994) DownBeat Hall of Fame (1994) Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (1996) Doctor of Sacred Theology, Doctorate honoris causa, University of Fribourg, Switzerland (2004) Laetare Medal (University of Notre Dame) (2006) BBC Jazz Lifetime Achievement Award (2007) Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy (2008) Inducted into California Hall of Fame (2008) Eastman School of Music Honorary Degree (2008) Kennedy Center Honors (2009) George Washington University Honorary Degree (2010) Honorary Fellow of Westminster Choir College, Princeton, New Jersey (2011) ==Discography==
[ "University of California, Los Angeles", "Bruce Ricker", "racial integration", "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "United States Department of State", "commercial failure", "Legacy Recordings", "Ann Arbor, Michigan", "Robert Christgau", "Billboard 200", "concert pianist", "Bill Smith (jazz musician)", "tonality", "CBS", "Barack Obama", "University of the Pacific (United States)", "Honorary doctorate", "Columbia Records", "Concord, California", "John Fordham (jazz critic)", "timing (music)", "Chet Baker", "All Night Long (1962 film)", "Big Cartoon DataBase", "Fantasy Records", "close-up", "Countdown—Time in Outer Space", "orchestration", "Conservatory of Music, University of the Pacific", "Black Hawk (nightclub)", "Los Angeles Times", "Red Norvo", "jazz", "Naxos (company)", "Apostles in the New Testament", "S. Neil Fujita", "Monterey Jazz Festival", "LP record", "Laetare Medal", "Decca Records", "United States Army", "Rochester, New York", "D.Mus.", "Joe Dodge", "Eastman School of Music", "Jazz Foundation of America", "Coronet Records", "Craig Stevens (actor)", "Hot House (Gary Burton and Chick Corea album)", "Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts", "jazz standard", "Hurricane Katrina", "BBC", "West Coast jazz", "Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way", "Patch.com", "Norwalk, Connecticut", "Goddard Lieberson", "High modernism", "Blue Note Jazz Club", "Cool jazz", "sight-read", "third stream", "Howard Brubeck", "Jazz Impressions of Eurasia", "Bob Bates (musician)", "National Recording Registry", "Westminster Choir College", "U.S. Department of State", "This Is America, Charlie Brown", "Louis Armstrong", "Jazz at the College of the Pacific", "WEZN-FM", "Sam Francis", "The Daily Telegraph", "artists and repertoire", "Third stream", "May 4", "Montreal International Jazz Festival", "Rovi Corporation", "cool jazz", "AllMusic", "Miles Davis", "MusicMasters Records", "cattle rancher", "Lambert, Hendricks & Ross", "veterinary science", "Carmen McRae", "Jazz at Oberlin", "Chris Brubeck", "Charles Mingus", "Darius Milhaud", "White House", "Ione, California", "Microsoft", "BBC Radio 4", "time signatures", "Duke Ellington", "master recording", "Paul Desmond", "MSN Music", "Myra Hess", "Desert Island Discs", "Date format by country", "Maria Shriver", "time signature", "Atlantic Records", "Gerry Mulligan", "Take Five", "Gone with the Wind (album)", "Redding, Connecticut", "The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts", "Dixieland", "Condoleezza Rice", "Sony Music Entertainment", "Asteroid belt", "A&M Records", "Biblical scripture", "Time Out (album)", "Cole Porter", "United States Secretary of State", "Concord Music Group", "Oberlin College", "Jazz Goes to College", "Gary Burton", "California Hall of Fame", "Clint Eastwood", "harmony", "cantata", "George S. Patton", "University of Notre Dame", "honoris causa", "Marian McPartland", "Unsquare Dance", "Matt Brubeck", "Jazz Impressions of the U.S.A.", "Library of Congress", "The Guardian", "Arnold Schwarzenegger", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award", "WNYC", "fugue", "cellist", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "University of Michigan", "College of the Pacific", "Honolulu", "Stockton, California", "Aaron Copland", "Artificial cardiac pacemaker", "Franz Kline", "Amsterdam Airport Schiphol", "Telarc International Corporation", "Joe Morello", "The Economist", "John Glenn", "Berklee College of Music", "Dave Brubeck discography", "Doctor of Music", "Sony Music", "Time Changes", "The Real Ambassadors", "Blue Rondo à la Turk", "Appalachian Spring", "musical notation", "Ordeal by Innocence (film)", "United States Army Central", "classical music", "counterpoint", "5079 Brubeck", "Our Sunday Visitor", "Time (magazine)", "NAMM Oral History Program", "Mills College", "Arnold Schoenberg", "Richard Attenborough", "Wilton, Connecticut", "American South", "Metre (music)", "Jazz Impressions of New York", "Time Further Out", "Music recording certification", "Joan Miró", "Turner Classic Movies", "Jazz", "University of Cincinnati", "Ceylon", "Strange Meadow Lark", "Patrick McGoohan", "zoology", "Chick Corea", "Darius Brubeck", "Portland Magazine", "Norman Bates (musician)", "Jazz Impressions of Japan", "The New York Times", "Eugene Wright", "Time In (album)", "State Department", "Cadence Magazine", "Kennedy Center Honors", "University of Fribourg", "asteroid", "The Atlantic", "live albums", "George Washington University" ]
8,179
Dye
A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the material to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. The majority of natural dyes are derived from non-animal sources such as roots, berries, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. However, due to large-scale demand and technological improvements, most dyes used in the modern world are synthetically produced from substances such as petrochemicals. Some are extracted from insects and/or minerals. Synthetic dyes are produced from various chemicals. The great majority of dyes are obtained in this way because of their superior cost, optical properties (color), and resilience (fastness, mordancy). and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America. Dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been widely carried out for over 5,000 years. Early dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral sources, with no to very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, only few of which are used on a commercial scale. Early industrialization was conducted by J. Pullar and Sons in Scotland. The first synthetic dye, mauve, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856. The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and in organic chemistry in general. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, and induline. Many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. The discovery of mauve also led to developments within immunology and chemotherapy. In 1863 the forerunner to Bayer AG was formed in what became Wuppertal, Germany. In 1891, Paul Ehrlich discovered that certain cells or organisms took up certain dyes selectively. He then reasoned that a sufficiently large dose could be injected to kill pathogenic microorganisms, if the dye did not affect other cells. Ehrlich went on to use a compound to target syphilis, the first time a chemical was used in order to selectively kill bacteria in the body. He also used methylene blue to target the plasmodium responsible for malaria. == Chemistry == The color of a dye is dependent upon the ability of the substance to absorb light within the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (380–750 nm). An earlier theory known as Witt theory stated that a colored dye had two components, a chromophore which imparts color by absorbing light in the visible region (some examples are nitro, azo, quinoid groups) and an auxochrome which serves to deepen the color. This theory has been superseded by modern electronic structure theory which states that the color in dyes is due to excitation of valence π-electrons by visible light. ==Types== Dyes are classified according to their solubility and chemical properties. Mordant dyes require a mordant, which improves the fastness of the dye against water, light and perspiration. The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final color significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant potassium dichromate is applied as an after-treatment. It is important to note that many mordants, particularly those in the heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme care must be taken in using them. Vat dyes are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in alkaline liquor produces the water-soluble alkali metal salt of the dye. This form is often colorless, in which case it is referred to as a Leuco dye, and has an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. The color of denim is due to indigo, the original vat dye. Reactive dyes utilize a chromophore attached to a substituent that is capable of directly reacting with the fiber substrate. The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio. Disperse dyes were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate, and are water-insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder. Their main use is to dye polyester, but they can also be used to dye nylon, cellulose triacetate, and acrylic fibers. In some cases, a dyeing temperature of is required, and a pressurized dyebath is used. The very fine particle size gives a large surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber. The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding. Azoic dyeing is a technique in which an insoluble Azo dye is produced directly onto or within the fiber. This is achieved by treating a fiber with both diazoic and coupling components. With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final color is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components. This method of dyeing cotton is declining in importance due to the toxic nature of the chemicals used. Sulfur dyes are inexpensive dyes used to dye cotton with dark colors. Dyeing is effected by heating the fabric in a solution of an organic compound, typically a nitrophenol derivative, and sulfide or polysulfide. The organic compound reacts with the sulfide source to form dark colors that adhere to the fabric. Sulfur Black 1, the largest selling dye by volume, does not have a well defined chemical structure. Some dyes commonly used in Staining: ==Food dyes== One other class that describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the food dye. Because food dyes are classed as food additives, they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by legislation. Many are azo dyes, although anthraquinone and triphenylmethane compounds are used for colors such as green and blue. Some naturally occurring dyes are also used. ==Other important dyes== A number of other classes have also been established, including: Oxidation bases, for mainly hair and fur Laser dyes: rhodamine 6G and coumarin dyes. Leather dyes, for leather Fluorescent brighteners, for textile fibres and paper Solvent dyes, for wood staining and producing colored lacquers, solvent inks, coloring oils, waxes. Contrast dyes, injected for magnetic resonance imaging, are essentially the same as clothing dye except they are coupled to an agent that has strong paramagnetic properties. Mayhems dye, used in water cooling for looks, often rebranded RIT dye ==Chromophoric dyes== By the nature of their chromophore, dyes are divided into: :Category:Acridine dyes, derivates of acridine :Category:Anthraquinone dyes, derivates of anthraquinone Arylmethane dyes :Category:Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane :Category:Triarylmethane dyes, derivates of triphenylmethane :Category:Azo dyes, based on -N=N- azo structure Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone :Category:Azin dyes :Category:Eurhodin dyes Category:Safranih dyes, derivates of safranin Indamins :Category:Indophenol dyes, derivates of indophenol :Category:Oxazin dyes, derivates of oxazin Oxazone dyes, derivates of oxazone :Category:Thiazine dyes :Category:Thiazole dyes :Category:Safranin dyes Xanthene dyes Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene Pyronin dyes :Category:Fluorone dyes, based on fluorone :Category:Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine == Pollution == Dyes produced by the textile, printing and paper industries are a source of pollution of rivers and waterways. An estimated 700,000 tons of dyestuffs are produced annually (1990 data). The disposal of that material has received much attention, using chemical and biological means. ==Vital dyes== A "vital dye" or stain is a dye capable of penetrating living cells or tissues without causing immediate visible degenerative changes. Such dyes are useful in medical and pathological fields in order to selectively color certain structures (such as cells) in order to distinguish them from surrounding tissue and thus make them more visible for study (for instance, under a microscope). As the visibility is meant to allow study of the cells or tissues, it is usually important that the dye not have other effects on the structure or function of the tissue that might impair objective observation. A distinction is drawn between dyes that are meant to be used on cells that have been removed from the organism prior to study (supravital staining) and dyes that are used within a living body - administered by injection or other means (intravital staining) - as the latter is (for instance) subject to higher safety standards, and must typically be a chemical known to avoid causing adverse effects on any biochemistry (until cleared from the tissue), not just to the tissue being studied, or in the short term. The term "vital stain" is occasionally used interchangeably with both intravital and supravital stains, the underlying concept in either case being that the cells examined are still alive. In a stricter sense, the term "vital staining" means the polar opposite of "supravital staining." If living cells absorb the stain during supravital staining, they exclude it during "vital staining"; for example, they color negatively while only dead cells color positively, and thus viability can be determined by counting the percentage of total cells that stain negatively. Because the dye determines whether the staining is supravital or intravital, a combination of supravital and vital dyes can be used to more accurately classify cells into various groups (e.g., viable, dead, dying).
[ "New World", "Precipitation (chemistry)", "Acid dye", "auxochrome", "Category:Azin dyes", "Paul Ehrlich", "cellulose acetate", "quinone", "pigment", "potassium dichromate", "insect", "cationic", "chemotherapy", "Category:Safranin dyes", "J-aggregate", "wool", "metal", "perspiration", "food additive", "substituent", "Congo red", "soluble", "salt", "methylene blue", "Stain", "lake pigment", "mauveine", "lichen", "William Henry Perkin", "Drimarene K", "Phototendering", "aqueous solution", "Azo compound", "π-electron", "cellulose triacetate", "cochineal", "Industrial dye degradation", "Category:Natural dyes", "Xanthene", "cotton", "anionic", "Bayer AG", "Germany", "Spain", "Before Present", "Category:Oxazin dyes", "induline", "Category:Inorganic pigments", "triphenylmethane", "plasmodium", "Solvent dye", "paper", "blue", "phthalocyanine", "Eosin", "fiber", "pH indicator", "polyester", "Biological pigment", "Fuchsine", "substantive dye", "Wuppertal", "List of dyes", "safranine", "Acid red 88", "color filter array", "Procion MX", "alkaline liquor", "polysulfide", "mineral", "Nitro compound", "rhodamine", "India", "immunology", "law", "serendipity", "Category:Fluorone dyes", "Category:Thiazole dyes", "mordant", "Leuco dye", "flax", "Phoenicia", "Safranin", "hair", "organic dye laser", "Reactive dyes", "chemical reaction", "light", "Category:Azo dyes", "Category:Anthraquinone dyes", "boiling point", "Chemistry World", "sodium chloride", "Disperse dye", "Cellulose", "resist dyeing", "malaria", "Oxidant", "alkali", "Leather", "acetic acid", "Fluorescent brightener", "nylon", "salt (chemistry)", "Vat dye", "Category:Indophenol dyes", "animal", "oxidation", "aniline", "sodium carbonate", "Category:Organic pigments", "coumarin", "acrylic fiber", "Blue Wool Scale", "sodium sulfate", "Pyronin", "Laser dye", "camera sensors", "green", "Category:Eurhodin dyes", "Category:Pigments", "rhodamine 6G", "temperature", "Category:Acridine dyes", "Acid fuchsin", "natural dye", "Haematoxylum campechianum", "fluorone", "Sulfur dye", "Indigo dye", "dyeing", "fuchsine", "isatis tinctoria", "alkaline", "Neolithic", "fluorene", "staining (biology)", "Textile", "Georgia (country)", "Mordant dye", "silk", "Archaeology", "rubia", "water", "CD-R", "anthraquinone", "leather", "food coloring", "covalent", "J. Pullar and Sons", "Hair coloring", "kermes (dye)", "Methylene blue", "chromophore", "Nile red", "Crystal violet", "Saffron (use)", "Tyrian purple", "plant kingdom", "wikt:material", "Category:Diarylmethane dyes", "syphilis", "Category:Rhodamine dyes", "vegetable", "Category:Triarylmethane dyes", "safranin", "Cibacron F", "Category:Thiazine dyes", "cellulose", "Azo dye", "azo compound", "wikt:component", "acridine", "quinoid" ]
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th president of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank as General of the Army. Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II: Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944. Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas, and raised in Abilene, Kansas. His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness. Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, with whom he had two sons. During World War I, he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of brigadier general shortly before the entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany. After the war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952). In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft, who opposed NATO. Eisenhower won that year's election and the 1956 election in landslides, both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II. Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits. In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman's policy of recognizing Taiwan as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution. His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War. After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion, which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out. On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege. He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System, which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik, Eisenhower led the American response which included the creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act. The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program, escalating the Space Race. His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958. In his farewell address, he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending, particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among the upper tier of US presidents. == Family background == The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741. Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized. David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on the family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower, of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas, on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University. David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas, but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $24 () to their name. David worked as a railroad mechanic and then at a creamery. == Early life and education == Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David. His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. He was named Dwight after the evangelist Dwight L. Moody. All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" (Edgar) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike". In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he was remorseful for the remainder of his life. Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River. While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became a voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling. Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of the River Brethren (Brethren in Christ Church) sect of the Mennonites, His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision. Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend Edward "Swede" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911. In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest". He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians. Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in the boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics. Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston. He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as "the class the stars fell on", because 59 members eventually became general officers. After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in the Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution, he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy; and was an honorary member of the Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there. == Personal life == While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa. They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding. The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage. The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia, his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower, who died of scarlet fever at the age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower, was born in Denver, Colorado. John served in the United States Army, retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David, Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968. Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had a basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts, inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln. Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down Tin Lizzie, loaded with paint, has been driven over it". Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation were the Western novels of Zane Grey. With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played the game six nights a week for five months. Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon, earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila". An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during the stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther, considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge a man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in the 70s." == World War I (1914–1918) == Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918. When the US entered World War I, he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas. In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers. His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for the new tank corps, where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army. He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt – his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. His spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule. ==Between the Wars (1918–1939)== === In service of generals === After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major, a rank he held for 16 years. The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later the improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president. He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented. From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall. He first became executive officer to General Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz's On War), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother Milton Eisenhower, then a journalist at the Agriculture Department, he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933. Major Eisenhower graduated from the Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression. He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct. ===Philippine tenure (1935–1939)=== In 1935, Eisenhower accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to the mission. Hence he chose James Ord, a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted the rest of their lives. Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered a life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt. Jesus Villamor, making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis. Also around this time, he was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City, but he declined the offer. == World War II (1939–1945) == Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis, Washington, later becoming the regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce. In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the Third Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers, he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly. At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, commanding general of the Army Air Forces, to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney. He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames, and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7. === Operations Torch and Avalanche === In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar. Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years. French cooperation was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the French armed forces. The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, a French antifascist monarchist. Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud, who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief. Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel's move into the Kasserine Pass, Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall, commanding II Corps. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily. Once Mussolini, the Italian leader, had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1. === Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord === In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific. Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate, and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history: === Liberation of France and victory in Europe === Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley (12th US Army Group) and Devers (Sixth US Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944. In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army, equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. In December 1944, the Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge, which the Allies successfully repelled in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture Berlin, but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a very bloody large-scale battle, and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extent of the Holocaust, Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda (Holocaust denial) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps. == After World War II (1945–1953) == === Military Governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany === Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany, and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main. Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps, he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials. He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to the Geneva Convention. Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization. In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis. ===Army Chief of Staff=== In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army. His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon. Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration, he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for the forthcoming Republican National Convention, Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he was forgoing his only opportunity to be president as Republican Thomas E. Dewey was considered the probable winner and would presumably serve two terms, meaning that Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would be too old to run. === President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander === In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa. The choice was subsequently characterized as not having been a good fit for either party. During that year, Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published. It was a major financial success. and in due course Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by what author David Pietrusza calls "a ruling without precedent" by the Department of the Treasury. It held that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he had to pay only capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000. Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which became the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings", one Aid to Europe member claimed. Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees on the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy". Within months of becoming university president, Eisenhower was requested to advise Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill with what was diagnosed as acute gastroenteritis, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during summer and fall 1950, building financial support for it, including from Columbia Associates, a recently created alumni and benefactor organization for which he had helped recruit members. Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics. The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fundraising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen. He did have some successes at Columbia. Puzzled as to why no American university had undertaken the "continuous study of the causes, conduct and consequences of war", Eisenhower was able to use his network of wealthy friends and acquaintances to secure initial funding for it. Under its founding director, international relations scholar William T. R. Fox, the institute began in 1951 and became a pioneer in international security studies, one that would be emulated by other institutes in the United States and Britain later in the decade. The Institute of War and Peace Studies thus became one of the projects which Eisenhower considered his "unique contribution" to Columbia. The trustees of Columbia University declined to accept Eisenhower's offer to resign in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on June 3, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. Meanwhile, Eisenhower had become the Republican Party nominee for president of the United States, a contest that he won on November 4. Eisenhower tendered his resignation as university president on November 15, 1952, effective January 19, 1953, the day before his inauguration. At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration had been. By the middle of 1951, with American and European support, NATO was a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years. === Presidential campaign of 1952 === President Truman sensed a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, and he again pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat in 1951. But Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democrats and declared himself to be a Republican. A "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert A. Taft. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty to offer himself as a candidate and that there was a mandate from the public for him to be their president. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. and others succeeded in convincing him, and he resigned his command at NATO in June 1952 to campaign full-time. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. His campaign was noted for the simple slogan "I Like Ike". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at the Yalta Conference and to Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated. In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right-wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard Nixon as the vice-president on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist reputation, as well as youth to counter Eisenhower's more advanced age. Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South in the general election, against the advice of his campaign team, refusing to surrender the region to the Democrats. The campaign strategy was dubbed "K1C2" and was intended to focus on attacking the Truman administration on three failures: the Korean War, Communism, and corruption. Two controversies tested him and his staff, but they did not damage the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance. Eisenhower condemned "wickedness in government", an allusion to gay government employees who were conflated with communism during McCarthyism. Eisenhower defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years. Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and he was the oldest president-elect at age 62 since James Buchanan in 1856. He was the third commanding general of the Army to serve as president, after George Washington and Ulysses S. Grant, and the last not to have held political office prior to becoming president until Donald Trump entered office in January 2017. === Election of 1956 === In the United States presidential election of 1956, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, was re-elected. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time "was the response to personal qualities — to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness." == Presidency (1953–1961) == Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations due to a complete estrangement between them as a result of campaigning. Eisenhower selected Joseph M. Dodge as his budget director, then asked Herbert Brownell Jr. and Lucius D. Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, as well as Oveta Culp Hobby. His cabinet consisted of several corporate executives and one labor leader, and one journalist dubbed it "eight millionaires and a plumber". The cabinet was known for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War. Before his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor where they set goals for his first term: balance the budget, end the Korean War, defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and end price and wage controls. He also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations. Eisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost 200 over his two terms. He saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, and he saw value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people. Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism. He described himself as a "progressive conservative", and used terms such as "progressive moderate" and "dynamic conservatism" to describe his approach. He continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into the new Cabinet-level agency of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented racial integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman. In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote: When the 1954 Congressional elections approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses. Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. He then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore." Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but he remained flexible in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. He was recovering from a heart attack late in September 1955 when he met with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group concluded that a second term was well advised, and he announced that he would run again in February 1956. Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about having Nixon as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat who rejected his offer, so Eisenhower resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party, which chose Nixon nearly unanimously. In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6 percent of the popular vote. His campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations. Eisenhower made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support; he rarely drove or even dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player. On August 26, 1959, he was aboard the maiden flight of Air Force One, which replaced the Columbine as the presidential aircraft. ===Atoms for Peace=== Eisenhower gave the Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations General Assembly on 8 December 1953, advocating for constructive use of nuclear fission for electrical energy and nuclear medicine instead of nuclear arms race proliferation. The speech led to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 which allowed the civilian world to develop nuclear fission technology for peaceful and prosperous purposes. === Interstate Highway System === Eisenhower championed and signed the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956. He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by his involvement in the Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with the German autobahn convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. The system could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts. Franklin D. Roosevelt put this system into place with the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944. He thought that an interstate highway system would be beneficial for military operations and would support continued economic growth. The legislation initially stalled in Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and Eisenhower signed the law in June 1956. ===ARPA=== The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was put together by Eisenhower and his Science Advisory Committee in early 1958 in response to the successful launch of the first orbital satellite from the Soviet Union, Sputnik 1. ARPA eventually created the ARPANET which was a predecessor to the internet. === Foreign policy === ==== Space Race ==== Eisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January 1957, nine months before Sputnik, that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year. Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space". His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, but Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955. In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created NASA as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists. Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread communism, so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a surveillance satellite to detect any threats but ballistic missiles that would protect the United States. In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of strategic bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly. Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, "Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts." ==== Korean War, Free China and Red China ==== In late 1952, Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese People's Volunteer Army began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he considered using nuclear weapons if an armistice was not reached. Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists. The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against Red China. With the death of Stalin in March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese communist hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue. In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today. The armistice, which concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Stephen E. Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable. Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between China and the Soviet Union. Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the legitimate government of China, not the Peking (Beijing) regime. There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September 1954. Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response; he thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded. The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Free China Resolution" in January 1955, which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level in defense of Free China and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists and signaled to Beijing that the US was committed to holding the line. These threats prompted Mao Zedong to launch China's nuclear weapons program. Defense of the Republic of China from an invasion remains a core American policy. China invited some American reporters to China in 1956, having previously ousted American reporters after the PRC's founding. Eisenhower upheld the US ban on travel to China. Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions." Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval. When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urging from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS. Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the UK, France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened the Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the US would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam. Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the US out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had put the US back into the conflict. In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam", effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign. In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance. In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam to 900. This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall. After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower, in a briefing with John F. Kennedy, pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat. ==== Legitimation of Francoist Spain ==== The Pact of Madrid, signed on September 23, 1953, by Francoist Spain and the United States, was a significant effort to break international isolation of Spain, together with the Concordat of 1953. This development came at a time when other victorious Allies and much of the rest of the world remained hostile to a fascist regime sympathetic to the cause of the former Axis powers and established with Nazi assistance. This accord took the form of three separate executive agreements that pledged the United States to furnish economic and military aid to Spain. ==== Middle East and Eisenhower doctrine ==== Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) to power. He therefore authorized the CIA to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. This resulted in increased strategic control over Iranian oil by American and British companies. In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt. Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, published in 1965. After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "Eisenhower Doctrine". Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the US would be "prepared to use armed force ... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the US would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East. Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–1958 by dispensing economic aid to Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peacekeeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution. The Marines departed three months later. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis. As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances against it. Critics sometimes called it "pacto-mania". ==== 1960 U-2 incident ==== === Civil rights === While President Truman's 1948 Executive Order 9981 had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces, actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union address in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces". When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended ..., I do not see how any American can justify ... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds". When Robert B. Anderson, Eisenhower's first Secretary of the Navy, argued that the US Navy must recognize the "customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating," Eisenhower overruled him: "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country." The administration declared racial discrimination a national security issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the US as a point of propaganda attack. Eisenhower told Washington, D.C. officials to make the city a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public-school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and of 1960 and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since 1875. In 1957, Arkansas refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the Brown decision. Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor Orval Faubus obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent in the 101st Airborne Division. They protected nine black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school, marking the first time since the Reconstruction Era the federal government had used federal troops in the South to enforce the Constitution. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing "The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock". with Eisenhower issuing Executive Order 10450 in his first year in office in 1953. The order subjected all federal employees to invasive in-depth investigations and interviews of their friends and family in a witch hunt to fire (in large part) lesbian, gay, and bisexual federal employees. The indifference of Eisenhower to the extreme application of his order allowed for mass persecution of queer people within federal agencies, resulting in thousands of job losses, public outing of sexual orientation, and some suicides. During Eisenhower's two presidency terms, thousands of applicants were barred from federal employment and over 5,000 to 10,000 federal employees were fired under suspicions of being homosexual. === Relations with Congress === Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, Republicans held the majority by a one-vote margin. Despite being Eisenhower's political opponent for the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, Senator Majority Leader Robert A. Taft assisted Eisenhower a great deal by promoting the President's proposals among the "Old Guard" Republican Senators. Taft's death in July 1953—six months into Eisenhower's presidency—affected Eisenhower both personally and professionally. The President noted he had lost "a dear friend" with Taft's passing. Eisenhower disliked Taft's successor as Majority Leader, Senator William Knowland, and the relationship between the two men led to tension between the Senate and the White House. This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from the involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners. In late 1953, McCarthy declared on national television that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the 1954 Senate elections. Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists. Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) into McCarthy's witchhunt, which might interfere with the AEC's work on hydrogen bombs and other weapons programs. In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that nuclear scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer had been accused of being a spy for the Soviet Union. Although Eisenhower never really believed these allegations, in January 1954 he ordered that "a blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities. The Oppenheimer security hearing later that year resulted in the physicist losing his security clearance. The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom. Eisenhower later suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Strauss to be Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the Oppenheimer matter. In May 1955, McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel. Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters ... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as executive privilege. Eisenhower's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters and contributed to his ultimate downfall. In early 1954, the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the Bricker Amendment, which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the Yalta Agreements. Eisenhower opposed the measure. The Old Guard agreed with Eisenhower on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC. The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election. Eisenhower had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (later US president) in the Senate and Speaker Sam Rayburn in the House. Joe Martin, the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, Leonard W. Hall, for example, who as chairman of the Republican National Committee tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance." Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress, "resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking." === Judicial appointments === ==== Supreme Court ==== Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Earl Warren, 1953 (Chief Justice) John Marshall Harlan II, 1954 William J. Brennan, 1956 Charles Evans Whittaker, 1957 Potter Stewart, 1958 Whittaker was unsuited for the role and retired in 1962, after Eisenhower's presidency had ended. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism. In selecting a Chief Justice, Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren "represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court ... He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court". === States admitted to the Union === Two states were admitted to the Union during Eisenhower's presidency. Alaska – January 3, 1959 (49th state) Hawaii – August 21, 1959 (50th state) === Health issues === Eisenhower began chain smoking cigarettes at West Point, often three or four packs a day. He joked that he "gave [himself] an order" to stop cold turkey in 1949. However, Evan Thomas says the true story was more complex. At first, he removed cigarettes and ashtrays, but that did not work. He told a friend: He was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office, but people around him deliberately misled the public about his health. On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack. While convalescing at Building 500 Howard McCrum Snyder, his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as indigestion, and failed to call in help that was urgently needed. Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to allow Eisenhower to imply that he was healthy enough to do his job. The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the president. He was treated by Paul Dudley White, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the president's progress. His physician recommended a second presidential term as essential to his recovery. As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which caused a mild stroke during a cabinet meeting on November 25, 1957, when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to move his right hand or to speak. The president also suffered from Crohn's disease, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956. To treat the intestinal block, surgeons bypassed about ten inches of his small intestine. His scheduled meeting with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was postponed so he could recover at his farm. He was still recovering from this operation during the Suez Crisis. Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his diet, but he still drank alcohol. During a visit to England, he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at prime ministerial manor house Chequers on the next day his physician, General Howard Snyder, recalled that Eisenhower "drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks ... three or four wines with the dinner". Eisenhower's health during the last three years of his second term in office was relatively good. After leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks. A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs. a benign adrenalin-secreting tumor that may have made him more vulnerable to heart disease. Eisenhower had seven heart attacks from 1955 until his death. In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed Nixon over Democrat John F. Kennedy. He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy." On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals. He continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex." == Post-presidency (1961–1969) == Following the presidency, Eisenhower moved to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. They also maintained a retirement home in Palm Desert, California. After leaving office, Eisenhower did not completely retreat from political life. He flew to San Antonio, where he had been stationed years earlier, to support John W. Goode, the unsuccessful Republican candidate against the Democrat Henry B. Gonzalez for Texas's 20th congressional district seat. He addressed the 1964 Republican National Convention, in San Francisco, and appeared with party nominee Barry Goldwater in a campaign commercial. That endorsement came somewhat reluctantly, because Goldwater had in the late 1950s criticized Eisenhower's administration as "a dime-store New Deal". On January 20, 1969, the day Nixon was inaugurated as President, Eisenhower issued a statement praising his former vice president and calling it a "day for rejoicing". === Death === At 12:25 p.m. on March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died from congestive heart failure at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C., at age 78. His last words were: "I've always loved my wife, my children, and my grandchildren, and I've always loved my country. I want to go. God, take me." The following day, his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours. He was then transported to the United States Capitol, where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda on March 30 and 31. A state funeral was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on March 31. The president and First Lady, Richard and Pat Nixon, attended, as did former president Lyndon B. Johnson. Former President Harry S. Truman was unable to attend due to having vacation. Also among the 2,000 guests that were invited were the UN Secretary-General U Thant and 191 foreign delegates from 78 countries, including 10 foreign heads of state and government. Guests included President Charles de Gaulle of France, who was in the United States for the first time since the state funeral of John F. Kennedy, Chancellor Kurt-Georg Kiesinger of West Germany, King Baudouin of Belgium and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a special funeral train for its journey from the capital to his hometown of Abilene, Kansas. First incorporated into President Abraham Lincoln's funeral in 1865, a funeral train would not be part of a US state funeral again until 2018. on 2 April 1969 Eisenhower is buried inside the Place of Meditation, the chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Center in Abilene. As requested, he was buried in a Government Issue casket, wearing his World War II uniform, decorated with Army Distinguished Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Legion of Merit. Buried alongside Eisenhower are his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921, and wife Mamie, who died in 1979.}} == Legacy and memory == === Public and scholarly assessments === During his two terms as president, Eisenhower's approval ratings were consistently high, only briefly falling below 50 percent in 1958 and again in 1960. His overall average of 63 percent in the Gallup poll remains the second highest in history. With the popularity of his successor, John F. Kennedy, Eisenhower's reputation declined in the years after he left office. He was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president, which was in stark contrast to Kennedy, who was 26 years his junior. Critics also compared Eisenhower with the likes of Calvin Coolidge as a "do nothing president". Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the associated international embarrassment, for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the nuclear arms race and the Space Race, and for his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend George C. Marshall from attacks by Joseph McCarthy, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics. Following the access of Eisenhower's private papers, his reputation changed amongst presidential historians. Historian John Lewis Gaddis has summarized a more recent turnaround in evaluations by historians: Since 1982, scholars and historians have typically ranked Eisenhower among the ten best US presidents. Rexford Tugwell, a top aide to Franklin Roosevelt, referred to Eisenhower as "the least partisan president since George Washington." Historian Garry Wills called Eisenhower "a political genius" for making difficult foreign policy goals "look easy" to the general public to prevent further stress. Although he sought to slow or contain the New Deal and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright. In doing so, Eisenhower was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party. Since the 19th century, many if not all presidents were assisted by a central figure or "gatekeeper", sometimes described as the president's private secretary, sometimes with no official title. Eisenhower formalized this role, introducing the office of White House Chief of Staff – an idea he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after Lyndon Johnson has appointed staff to this position. As president, Eisenhower also initiated the "up or out" policy that still prevails in the US military. Officers who are passed over for promotion twice are then usually honorably but quickly discharged to make way for younger and more able officers. On December 20, 1944, Eisenhower was appointed to the rank of General of the Army, placing him in the company of George Marshall, Henry "Hap" Arnold, and Douglas MacArthur, the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II. Along with Omar Bradley, they were the only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888, death of Philip Sheridan, and the only five men to hold the rank of five-star general. The rank was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis, when Public Law 78-482 was passed on December 14, 1944, as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was declared permanent on March 23, 1946, by Public Law 333 of the 79th Congress, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list. It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet. Eisenhower founded People to People International in 1956, believing that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace. The program includes a student ambassador component, which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries. During his second term as president, Eisenhower awarded a series of specially designed US Mint presidential appreciation medals. Eisenhower presented the medal to individuals as an expression of his appreciation. The development of the appreciation medals was initiated by the White House and executed by the United States Mint, through the Philadelphia Mint. The medals were struck from September 1958 through October 1960. A total of twenty designs are cataloged with a total mintage of 9,858. Prior to the end of his second term as president, 1,451 medals were turned in to the Bureau of the Mint and destroyed. Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy is a senior war college of the Department of Defense's National Defense University in Washington, DC. Eisenhower graduated from this school when it was known as the Army Industrial College. Eisenhower was honored on the Eisenhower dollar, minted from 1971 to 1978. His centenary was honored on the Eisenhower commemorative dollar issued in 1990. In 1969 four major record companies – ABC Records, MGM Records, Buddha Records and Caedmon Audio – released tribute albums in Eisenhower's honor. In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, to create an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C. In 2009 the commission chose the architect Frank Gehry to design the memorial. The groundbreaking ceremony of the memorial was held on November 3, 2017, and was dedicated on September 17, 2020. It stands on a site near the National Mall on Maryland Avenue, across the street from the National Air and Space Museum. In December 1999 he was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century. In 2009 he was named to the World Golf Hall of Fame in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport. In 1973, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. On 27 October 2023, Fort Gordon was redesignated Fort Eisenhower. == Honors == === Awards and decorations === == Promotions ==
[ "Robert A. Taft", "George Washington", "Suez Crisis", "Great Depression", "Calvin Coolidge", "Charles Evans Whittaker", "First inauguration of Richard Nixon", "Washington, D.C.", "Lecompton, Kansas", "Madrid", "Anti-communism", "George C. Marshall", "international security studies", "Major (United States)", "West Virginia", "Project Genetrix", "nuclear war", "United States Government Publishing Office", "National Order of Honour and Merit", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Order of the Queen of Sheba", "List of presidents of the United States by previous experience", "Jean-Baptiste Faure", "Lieutenant colonel (United States)", "Crusade in Europe", "Médaille militaire", "State of the Union address", "People to People Student Ambassadors", "Stalin's First Government", "Charles De Gaulle", "Military decorations of Mexico", "Henry B. Gonzalez", "Field Marshal", "Liberation of Paris", "National Defense Service Medal", "Brown v. Board of Education", "White House Chief of Staff", "Augusta National Golf Club", "small intestine", "Naval Historical Center", "Chief of Staff of the United States Army", "J. Robert Oppenheimer", "Freedom of the City of London", "Kenyon Joyce", "napalm", "up or out", "oak leaf cluster", "Disarmed Enemy Forces", "Captain (United States O-3)", "Strategic Air Command", "Harvard University", "United States Congress", "George M. Humphrey", "nuclear attack", "Nuclear triad", "cold turkey", "Operation Husky", "Hungarian People's Republic", "History of the United States (1945–1964)", "Joseph W. Martin Jr.", "George Marshall", "ballistic missile", "Mediterranean Sea", "Belfast", "lying in state", "Eisenhower Foundation", "1960 United States presidential election", "Eighth Army (United Kingdom)", "Everett Dirksen", "Wallace Strobel", "Term limits in the United States", "Manuel L. Quezon", "Ethiopian Empire", "Columbia University", "Clifford Roberts", "Greek Civil War", "Sputnik", "Ft. Leavenworth", "Matthew Ridgway", "United States Marine Corps", "President's Science Advisory Committee", "The Age of Eisenhower", "Eisenhower Doctrine", "Former Presidents Act", "Frank Maxwell Andrews", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Containment", "President of the United States", "Republican National Committee", "Grinnell College", "Potsdam Conference", "Philippine Army Air Corps", "Alps", "scarlet fever", "DARPA", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Adlai Stevenson II", "1954 United States Senate elections", "Crohn's disease", "Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia", "Washington College", "Batsford Books", "United States Atomic Energy Commission", "Wendy Beckett", "101st Airborne Division", "Mexican Revolution", "Military Governor", "Order of the Liberator San Martin", "Division (military)", "Stephen E. Ambrose", "moderate conservative", "Oval Office", "Major general (United States)", "military aid", "Eisenhower vetoes", "United States Army War College", "General of the Army (United States)", "List of Presidents of Columbia University", "Italian campaign (World War II)", "David Pietrusza", "Philip Sheridan", "Federal government of the United States", "Order of the Bath", "Maybole", "Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)", "ABC Records", "Little Rock, Arkansas", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Commandant of the Coast Guard", "James Basevi Ord", "Death and state funeral of George H. W. Bush", "Fred Greenstein", "George Van Horn Moseley", "Holocaust", "Colorado", "Barry Goldwater", "River Brethren", "French resistance", "St. Mary's University, Texas", "Transcontinental Motor Convoy", "Siegfried Line campaign", "Freedom of the City", "Frank Gehry", "Frankfurt am Main", "queer", "Ida Stover Eisenhower", "Pactomania", "Civil Rights Act of 1960", "gallstone", "Air warfare of World War II", "The Pentagon", "service star", "Herbert Brownell Jr.", "Cross of Grunwald", "North African campaign", "Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956", "Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav", "Order of Ouissam Alaouite", "United States Department of the Treasury", "Cross of Military Merit", "American Presidents: Life Portraits", "Brevet (military)", "Battle of Cannae", "San Antonio", "French protectorate of Tunisia", "strategic bomber", "William J. Brennan", "Henri Giraud", "Alaska", "Carlisle Indians football", "United States Capitol rotunda", "Ivy League", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria", "Supreme Allied Commander Europe", "Garry Wills", "Province of Pennsylvania", "The Washington Post", "foreign aid", "Manuel Quezon", "Yale University", "Axis powers", "tank", "ashtray", "Yalta Agreement", "Eisenhower baseball controversy", "Operation Overlord", "John F. Kennedy", "Department of Health, Education and Welfare", "Order of Glory (Tunisia)", "Spanish Question (United Nations)", "Battle of Kasserine Pass", "Tunisian campaign", "Denver", "The New York Times", "Federal Highway Administration", "heads of state", "USS Washington (BB-56)", "Karlsbrunn", "Order of Muhammad", "invasion of Normandy", "Deterrence theory", "American Contract Bridge League", "Treaty on Open Skies", "Princeton University Press", "Ely Culbertson", "Sixth United States Army Group", "Legion of Honour", "John Foster Dulles", "Order of Polonia Restituta", "College of William and Mary", "Commandant of the United States Marine Corps", "Integration of the United States military", "North Africa campaign", "Halfback (American football)", "Paul Dudley White", "Operation Dragoon", "Eisenhower commemorative dollar", "European Theater of Operations", "human spaceflight", "Eisenhower family", "Kentucky", "Anglicisation (linguistics)", "Red Army", "People's Volunteer Army", "Texas's 20th congressional district", "world peace", "Georgy Zhukov", "outing", "The Buffalo News", "American entry into World War I", "Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy", "Earl D. Eisenhower", "Howard McCrum Snyder", "List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets", "Francoist Spain", "Gallup poll", "New York City", "HarperCollins", "hydrogen bomb", "United States involvement in regime change", "Soviet Union", "Order of Aeronautical Merit (Brazil)", "Order of Solomon", "Marshall Plan", "National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)", "Caedmon Audio", "Allen Dulles", "Pancho Villa Expedition", "Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)", "Northwestern University", "Hofstra University", "British Pathé", "Palm Desert, California", "Nikolai Bulganin", "Pearl Harbor", "military governor", "Lyndon Johnson", "Gettysburg College", "Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa", "World War I", "French Indochina", "Dien Bien Phu", "Oswald Jacoby", "Cornell University Press", "Order of the Royal House of Chakri", "Navy Distinguished Service Medal", "Battle of the Scheldt", "The Baltimore Sun", "UCLA School of Law", "Interstate 80 in California", "Hans Morgenthau", "Movietone News", "Simon & Schuster", "United States Naval Academy", "Rock of Gibraltar", "Hungarian Revolution of 1956", "Frank D. Fackenthal", "Edward Hazlett", "World War II Victory Medal", "Duce", "21st Army Group", "Quezon City", "US Navy", "Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces", "American City Business Journals", "Omar Bradley", "Order of the Elephant", "ARPANET", "Cardiology", "Edgar N. Eisenhower", "s:Public Law 78-482", "Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty", "Operation Queen", "Henry H. Arnold", "Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)", "Brethren in Christ Church", "state funeral", "Air Force One", "Life (magazine)", "Operation Avalanche", "New Look policy", "American-occupied zone of Germany", "Africa Star", "Valentine's Day", "Presbyterian Church in the United States of America", "canting arms", "Johns Hopkins University", "Allied-occupied Germany", "People to People International", "China and weapons of mass destruction", "William Knowland", "University of Toronto", "New Deal", "Lloyd Fredendall", "Committee on Scientists and Engineers", "court-martial", "nuclear fission", "Leaders of South Vietnam", "international isolation", "Nuclear energy policy of the United States", "Sherman Adams", "Diplomatic missions of Belgium", "1952 United States presidential election", "Civil Rights Act of 1957", "Royal Order of George I", "Legion of Honor (Philippines)", "University of Notre Dame", "Yalta Conference", "1954 Guatemalan coup d'état", "Ike: Countdown to D-Day", "Benito Mussolini", "Order of the Oak Crown", "American Battle Monuments Commission", "David Eisenhower", "military–industrial complex", "Lying in state", "United States Secret Service", "United States in World War I", "benign", "I Like Ike", "People to People Student Ambassador Program", "Louisiana", "French Armed Forces", "Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.", "President of Columbia University", "Jesús A. Villamor", "Sam Rayburn", "Prologue (magazine)", "West Point, New York", "Frederick Funston", "Order of Abdon Calderón", "First Indochina War", "Lockheed U-2", "Communist Party USA", "Oppenheimer security hearing", "Order of Military Merit (Brazil)", "Western Desert Campaign", "Korean War", "United States National Security Council", "List of presidents of the United States", "Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero", "contract bridge", "West Point", "World Golf Hall of Fame", "Albert Nofi", "United States Army Central", "Order of Merit (Chile)", "Social Security (United States)", "Chequers", "Peacock Military Academy", "Border War (1910–1919)", "Secretary of the Navy", "gallbladder", "Normandy landings", "president of Columbia University", "Executive Order 9981", "aneurysm", "Regular Army (United States)", "Kay Summersby", "The Desert Sun", "Harry S. Truman", "Command and General Staff College", "NASA", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home", "Virtuti Militari", "Erwin Rommel", "Nuremberg Trials", "Bricker Amendment", "Hope, Kansas", "Taylor & Francis", "Walter Reed Army Medical Center", "Colonel (United States)", "Philippine Army", "Mexican Border Service Medal", "Operation Market Garden", "Arkansas Army National Guard", "United States Mint", "Antwerp", "Eisenhower's farewell address", "Checkers speech", "United States space program", "Merlo J. Pusey", "Joseph Dodge", "United States Army Air Forces", "Fascism", "Sovereign Military Order of Malta", "European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal", "Leonard W. Hall", "J. Lawton Collins", "atomic bomb", "Abilene, Kansas", "Ohio University", "Military history of the United States during World War II", "Holy See", "Admiralty Tunnel", "Richard Nixon", "Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln", "Rexford Tugwell", "Grayson L. Kirk", "sexual orientation", "Order of the Southern Cross", "Buddha Records", "Sun-Sentinel", "University of Chicago Press", "II Corps (United States)", "1964 Republican National Convention", "Fort Sam Houston", "Concordat of 1953", "Potter Stewart", "Tank Corps, National Army", "James Buchanan", "Order of Sikatuna", "Gibraltar", "Reichsautobahn", "Philadelphia Mint", "US Second Lieutenant", "The Chicago Tribune", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Cold War", "Falaise Pocket", "Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle", "SEATO", "Republican Party (United States)", "Leonard T. Gerow", "Military history of France during World War II", "federal deficit", "creation of NASA", "LGBTQ", "Order of Leopold (Belgium)", "IX Corps (United States)", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "International Bible Students", "general officer", "suicides", "Order of Victory", "Panama Canal Zone", "United States Army", "New Hampshire", "Donald Trump", "Convalescence", "Doctor of Humane Letters", "Taiwan", "Atomic Energy Act of 1954", "nuclear weapon", "United Press International", "Public Broadcasting Service", "Landslide victory", "Interstate 70", "Williams Institute", "Nazi crime", "Thomas E. Stephens (artist)", "G.I. (military)", "War Cross (Belgium)", "Dwight D. Eisenhower's farewell address", "Fox Conner", "Susan Eisenhower", "United States Assistant Secretary of War", "North Vietnam", "Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Smoky Hill River", "Mamie Eisenhower", "National memorial (United States)", "Baik Seon-yup", "Missouri", "lavender scare", "Pathé News", "German involvement in the Spanish Civil War", "Gin and tonic", "15th Infantry Regiment (United States)", "Military budget of the United States", "Kaesong", "Institute of War and Peace Studies", "Order of the Chrysanthemum", "General (United States)", "Formosa Resolution", "LGBTQ rights opposition", "Army Distinguished Service Medal", "Eastern Front (World War II)", "Phi Beta Kappa", "Field marshal (United Kingdom)", "Order of Ismail", "Little Rock Nine", "Ngo Dinh Diem presidential visit to the United States", "Southern United States", "Military Medal (Luxembourg)", "Dartmouth College", "The American Assembly", "Jawaharlal Nehru", "Camp Colt, Pennsylvania", "Nuclear proliferation", "Abilene High School (Abilene, Kansas)", "Order of Merit", "Historical rankings of presidents of the United States", "Battle of Berlin", "National Air and Space Museum", "And I don't care what it is", "First Taiwan Strait Crisis", "Edinburgh", "Gamal Abdel Nasser", "Red-baiting", "Legion of Merit", "Tin Lizzie", "McCarthyism", "Pat Nixon", "Bloomsbury Academic", "Tunisia Campaign", "George S. Patton", "Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial", "Maryland", "executive privilege", "Southern Germany", "Joseph McCarthy", "1954 United States elections", "Reconnaissance satellite", "Arkansas", "Army Black Knights football", "Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)", "Lavender Scare", "Battle of Gettysburg", "Ngo Dinh Diem", "Doctor of Laws", "Coombe, Kingston upon Thames", "Army of Occupation Medal", "Doud Eisenhower", "Hall of Great Westerners", "Mohammad Mosaddegh", "Admiral of the fleet (Royal Navy)", "University of Delhi", "Order of the Redeemer", "Post–World War II economic expansion", "Dwight L. Moody", "commanding officer", "Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force", "United States Department of Justice", "Council on Foreign Relations", "79th Congress", "fraternization", "Lewis Strauss", "Soviet space program", "Internet Public Library", "Sputnik 1", "Recession of 1958", "Chief Justice of the United States", "Mary Jean Eisenhower", "John Marshall Harlan II", "War Medal 1939–1945", "Earl Warren", "Family of Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Eisenhower Presidential Center", "Time (magazine)", "nuclear arms race", "John Lewis Gaddis", "Milton Eisenhower", "1956 United States presidential election", "American Defense Service Medal", "Orval Faubus", "Little Rock Central High School", "Jehovah's Witness", "Jim Thorpe", "infantry", "congestive heart failure", "Jim Brothers", "Act of Congress", "1960 U-2 incident", "Office of Military Government, United States", "Calgary Sun", "Operation Torch", "Extermination camp", "The American Presidency Project", "Louisiana Maneuvers", "Thomas E. Dewey", "MGM Records", "Philippine Commonwealth", "JCS 1067", "Allied Force Headquarters", "Camp David", "Columbia Associates", "John J. Pershing", "End of World War II in Europe", "Civil Rights Act of 1875", "Draft Eisenhower", "Progressive conservatism", "nuclear medicine", "satellite", "Eisenhower method", "Eisenhower jacket", "1953 Iranian coup d'état", "Matsu Islands", "Carl von Clausewitz", "Nishan-e-Pakistan", "Operation Teapot", "Allied invasion of Sicily", "Newsday", "Twelfth United States Army Group", "Frank Gasparro", "Queen's University Belfast", "Abraham Lincoln", "prisoner of war", "Fort Eisenhower", "civil rights movement", "Brigadier general (United States)", "Vichy France", "Eisenhower dollar", "Seven Sisters (oil companies)", "1948 United States presidential election", "Warsaw", "Fort Lewis (Washington)", "Order of the Cloud and Banner", "On War", "Charles de Gaulle", "Baudouin of Belgium", "Mediterranean Theater of Operations", "Order of Suvorov", "School integration in the United States", "Civil Rights Commission", "Capitol Rotunda", "United States Military Academy", "National Army (USA)", "Lebanon", "Distinguished Service Star", "Fort Leavenworth", "Camp Meade", "pheochromocytoma", "National Mall", "John W. O'Daniel", "five-star rank", "Czechoslovak War Cross 1939–1945", "indigestion", "Reconstruction Era", "Operation Blue Bat", "Ulysses S. Grant", "Military Order of the White Lion", "Six-Day War", "state funeral of John F. Kennedy", "Western Front (World War II)", "European Theater of Operations, United States Army", "autobahn", "Korean Armistice Agreement", "chain smoking", "Bard College", "NATO", "Denison, Texas", "Mennonite", "tank warfare", "intercontinental ballistic missile", "Ernest J. King", "Alma Mater (New York sculpture)", "Generalfeldmarschall", "Oveta Culp Hobby", "Cardiovascular disease", "James E. Chaney", "Military Order of Italy", "president of the United States", "the class the stars fell on", "Five-star rank", "John W. Goode", "John Eisenhower", "1958 Lebanon crisis", "Georgia (U.S. state)", "University of Pennsylvania", "Office of the Chief of Military History", "Miller Center of Public Affairs", "Military Demarcation Line", "Nazi concentration camps", "Alfred Gruenther", "65th Brigade Engineer Battalion", "Evan Thomas", "Blanche Wiesen Cook", "White House", "Interstate 290 (Illinois)", "Order of the Holy Sepulchre", "Bachelor of Science", "Lane University", "Captain (U.S. Army)", "Bonus March", "Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder", "South Vietnam", "Space Race", "internet", "attack on Pearl Harbor", "Order of Virtuti Militari", "Google Books", "Onward, Christian Soldiers", "Allied invasion of Italy", "Gallup's List of Widely Admired People", "Winston Churchill", "United Nations General Assembly", "List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States", "Herbert Hoover", "Cadet", "Battle of Remagen", "Order of the Aztec Eagle", "Western Allied invasion of Germany", "racial discrimination", "submarine-launched ballistic missile", "Fitzsimons Army Medical Center", "George S. Patton slapping incidents", "US First Lieutenant", "François Darlan", "communism", "national security", "Croix de guerre 1939–1945", "Bay of Pigs Invasion", "Fort George G. Meade", "University of Oxford", "National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum", "Atoms for Peace", "Allies of World War II", "Myocardial infarction", "Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Berlin", "Corruption in the United States", "National Defense Education Act", "Julie Nixon Eisenhower", "Geneva Conventions", "World War II", "Executive Order 10450", "Lucius D. Clay", "Occupation of Germany", "1948 Republican National Convention", "Kingdom of Yugoslavia", "admitted to the Union", "Zane Grey", "Washington National Cathedral", "Order pro merito Melitensi", "Eisenhower National Historic Site", "Army of the United States", "oil painting", "1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy", "Camp Aguinaldo", "Czechoslovakia", "Boone, Iowa", "U Thant", "National Park Service", "California Digital Newspaper Collection", "Commonwealth of the Philippines", "Syngman Rhee", "approval rating", "Eisenhower Tunnel", "Quemoy", "United States Capitol", "Bolesław Bierut", "Order of Liberation", "United States Department of Agriculture", "William T. R. Fox", "North Atlantic Treaty Organization", "Interstate Highway System", "Joseph L. Bristow", "World War I Victory Medal (United States)", "Doctor of Civil Law", "Bernard Montgomery", "Armistice of 11 November 1918", "Battle of the Bulge", "Nicholas Murray Butler", "Catholic University of America", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "deficit spending", "Order of the Netherlands Lion", "National Archives and Records Administration", "Battle of Port Lyautey", "Fujian", "Kurt-Georg Kiesinger", "Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944", "C-SPAN", "Holocaust denial", "Sereno E. Brett", "funeral train", "campaign star", "James Forrestal", "United States Army Europe", "Douglas MacArthur", "Joseph T. McNarney", "Jacob L. Devers", "Walter Krueger", "General (United Kingdom)", "Lieutenant general (United States)" ]
8,185
Dejima
or Deshima, in the 17th century also called , was an artificial island off Nagasaki, Japan, that served as a trading post for the Portuguese (1570–1639) and subsequently the Dutch (1641–1858). For 220 years, it was the central conduit for foreign trade and cultural exchange with Japan during the isolationist Edo period (1600–1869), and the only Japanese territory open to Westerners. Spanning or , Dejima was created in 1636 by digging a canal through a small peninsula and linking it to the mainland with a small bridge. The island was constructed by the Tokugawa shogunate, whose isolationist policies sought to preserve the existing sociopolitical order by forbidding outsiders from entering Japan while prohibiting most Japanese from leaving. Dejima housed European merchants and separated them from Japanese society while still facilitating lucrative trade with the West. Following a rebellion by mostly Catholic converts, the Portuguese were expelled in 1639. The Dutch were moved to Dejima in 1641, under stricter control and scrutiny, and segregated from Japanese society. The open practice of Christianity was banned, and interactions between Dutch and Japanese traders were tightly regulated, with only a small number of foreign merchants being allowed to disembark in Dejima. Until the mid-19th century, the Dutch were the only Westerners with access to the Japanese markets. Dejima consequently played a key role in the Japanese movement of , an organized scholarly effort to learn the Dutch language in order to understand Western science, medicine, and technology. After the 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa set a precedent for more fully opening Japan to foreign trade and diplomatic relations, the Dutch negotiated their own treaty in 1858, which ended Dejima's status as exclusive trading post, greatly reducing its importance. The island was eventually subsumed into Nagasaki city through land reclamation. In 1922, the "Dejima Dutch Trading Post" was designated a Japanese national historic site, and there are ongoing efforts in the 21st century to restore Dejima as an island. ==History== In 1543, the history of direct contact between Japan and Europe began with the arrival of storm-blown Portuguese merchants on Tanegashima. Six years later the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier landed in Kagoshima. At first Portuguese traders were based in Hirado, but they moved in search of a better port. In 1570 daimyō Ōmura Sumitada converted to Catholicism (choosing Bartolomeu as his Christian name) and made a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki; soon the port was open for trade. In 1580 Sumitada gave the jurisdiction of Nagasaki to the Jesuits, and the Portuguese obtained the de facto monopoly on the silk trade with China through Macau. The shōgun Iemitsu ordered the construction of the artificial island in 1634, to accommodate the Portuguese traders living in Nagasaki and prevent the propagation of their religion. This was one of the many edicts put forth by Iemitsu between 1633 and 1639 moderating contact between Japan and other countries. However, in response to the uprising of the predominantly Christian population in the Shimabara-Amakusa region, the Tokugawa government decided to expel the Portuguese in 1639. Since 1609, the Dutch East India Company had run a trading post on the island of Hirado. The departure of the Portuguese left the Dutch employees of the "Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie" ("VOC") as the sole Westerners with trade access to Japan. For 33 years they were allowed to trade relatively freely. At its maximum, the covered a large area. In 1637 and 1639 stone warehouses were constructed within the ambit of this Hirado trading post. Christian-era year dates were used on the stonework of the new warehouses and these were used in 1640 as a pretext to demolish the buildings and relocate the trading post to Nagasaki. With the expulsion of the last Portuguese in 1639, Dejima became a failed commercial post and without the annual trading with Portuguese ships from Macau, the economy of Nagasaki suffered greatly. The Dutch were forced by government officials to move from Hirado to Dejima in Nagasaki. From 1641 on, only Chinese and Dutch ships were allowed to come to Japan, and Nagasaki harbor was the only one they were allowed to enter. ==Organization== On the administrative level, the island of Dejima was part of the city of Nagasaki. The 25 local Japanese families who owned the land received an annual rent from the Dutch. Dejima was a small island, by , linked to the mainland by a small bridge, guarded on both sides, and with a gate on the Dutch side. It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese officials. The Dutch were watched by several Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a with about fifty subordinates. Numerous merchants supplied goods and catering, and about 150 served. They all had to be paid by the VOC. As the city of Nagasaki, Dejima was under the direct supervision of Edo through a governor (Nagasaki bugyō). Every ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected. Its sails were held by the Japanese until they released the ship to leave. They confiscated religious books and weapons. Christian churches were banned on the island and the Dutch were not allowed to hold any religious services. Despite the financial burden of maintaining the isolated outpost on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the Dutch, initially yielding profits of 50% or more. Trade declined in the 18th century, as only two ships per year were allowed to dock at Dejima. After the bankruptcy of the East-India Company in 1795, the Dutch government took over the exchange with Japan. Times were especially hard when the Netherlands, then called the Batavian Republic, was under French Napoleonic rule. All ties with the homeland were severed at Dejima, and for a while, it was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag was flown. The chief VOC trading post officer in Japan was called the Opperhoofd by the Dutch, or Kapitan (from Portuguese capitão) by the Japanese. This descriptive title did not change when the VOC went bankrupt and trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indies government at Batavia. According to the Sakoku rules of the Tokugawa shogunate, the VOC had to transfer and replace the opperhoofd every year with a new one. And each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun. ==Trade== Originally, the Dutch mainly traded in silk, cotton, and materia medica from China and India. Sugar became more important later. Deer pelts and shark skin were transported to Japan from Formosa, as well as books, scientific instruments and many other rarities from Europe. In return, the Dutch traders bought Japanese copper, silver, camphor, porcelain, lacquer ware, and rice. To this was added the personal trade of VOC employees on Dejima, which was an important source of income for them and their Japanese counterparts. They sold more than 10,000 foreign books on various scientific subjects to the Japanese from the end of the 18th to the early 19th century. These became the basis of knowledge and a factor in the Rangaku movement, or Dutch studies. ==Ships== In all, 606 Dutch ships arrived at Dejima during its two centuries of settlement, from 1641 to 1847. The first period, from 1641 to 1671, was rather free and saw an average of seven Dutch ships every year (12 sank during this period). From 1671 to 1715, about five Dutch ships were allowed to visit Dejima every year. From 1715, only two ships were permitted every year, which was reduced to one ship in 1790, and again increased to two ships in 1799. During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), in which the Netherlands was occupied by (and a satellite of) France, Dutch ships abstained from sailing to Japan directly due to the possibility of being captured by Royal Navy ships. They relied on "neutral" American and Danish ships. The Netherlands was annexed by Napoleon Bonaparte (1810–1813), while Britain captured several Dutch colonial possessions and after the 1811 invasion of Java, Dejima was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag still flew, as ordered by commissioner Hendrik Doeff. In 1815 the Dutch East Indies was returned to the control of the Netherlands and regular Dutch trading traffic was reestablished. == Trade policy == For two hundred years, foreign merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Dejima to Nagasaki. Japanese civilians were likewise banned from entering Dejima, except interpreters, cooks, carpenters, clerks and yūjo ("women of pleasure") from the Maruyama teahouses. The yūjo were handpicked from 1642 by the Japanese, often against their will. From the 18th century, there were some exceptions to this rule, especially following Tokugawa Yoshimune's doctrine of promoting European practical sciences. A few Oranda-yuki ("those who stay with the Dutch") were allowed to stay for longer periods, but they had to report regularly to the Japanese guard post. Once a year the Europeans were allowed to attend the festivities at the Suwa-Shrine under escort. Sometimes physicians such as Engelbert Kaempfer, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Philipp Franz von Siebold were called to high-ranking Japanese patients with the permission of the authorities. Starting in the 18th century, Dejima became known throughout Japan as a center of medicine, military science, and astronomy. Many samurai traveled there for "Dutch studies" (Rangaku). The Opperhoofd was treated like the representative of a tributary state, which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the shōgun in Edo. The Dutch delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790, and once every four years thereafter. This prerogative was denied to the Chinese traders. The lengthy travel to the shogunal court broke the boredom of the Dutch stay, but it was a costly affair. Government officials told them in advance and in detail which (expensive) gifts were expected at the court, such as astrolabes, a pair of glasses, telescopes, globes, medical instruments, medical books, or exotic animals and tropical birds. In return, the Dutch delegation received some gifts from the shōgun. On arrival in Edo, the Opperhoofd and his retinue, usually his scribe and the factory physician, had to wait in the , their mandatory residence, until they were summoned at the court. During the reign of the somewhat eccentric shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, they were expected to perform Dutch dances and songs for the amusement of the shōgun after their official audience, according to Engelbert Kaempfer. But they also used the opportunity of their stay of about two to three weeks in the capital to exchange knowledge with learned Japanese and, under escort, to visit the town. Allegations published in the late 17th and early 18th century that Dutch traders were required by the Shogunate to renounce their Christian faith and undergo the test of treading on a fumi-e, an image of Jesus or Mary, are thought by modern scholars to be propaganda arising from the Anglo-Dutch Wars. ==New introductions to Japan== Photography, first lessons in photography given to Japanese in 1856 by the physician of the island, J. K. van den Broek. Badminton, a sport that originated in India, was introduced by the Dutch during the 18th century; it is mentioned in the Sayings of the Dutch. Billiards were introduced in Japan on Dejima in 1764; it is noted as in the paintings of . Beer seems to have been introduced as imports during the period of isolation. The Dutch governor Doeff made his own beer in Nagasaki, following the disruption of trade during the Napoleonic Wars. Local production of beer started in Japan in 1880. Clover was introduced in Japan by the Dutch as packing material for fragile cargo. The Japanese called it , in reference to its white flowers. Coffee was introduced in Japan by the Dutch under the name Moka and koffie. The latter name appears in 18th-century Japanese books. Siebold refers to Japanese coffee amateurs in Nagasaki around 1823. Japan's oldest piano was introduced by Siebold in 1823, and later given to a tradesperson in the name of . The piano is today on display in the , Hagi City. Paint (Tar), used for ships, was introduced by the Dutch. The original Dutch name () was also adopted in Japanese, . Cabbage and tomatoes were introduced in the 17th century by the Dutch. Chocolate was introduced between 1789 and 1801; it is mentioned as a drink in the pleasure houses of Maruyama. A diving bell with air supply by a pump was bought from Hugh Morton & Co. at Leith Docks near Edinburgh in 1834. ==Nagasaki Naval Training Center== Following the forced opening of Japan by US Navy Commodore Perry in 1854, the Bakufu suddenly increased its interactions with Dejima in an effort to build up knowledge of Western shipping methods. The , a naval training institute, was established in 1855 by the government of the shōgun at the entrance of Dejima, to enable maximum interaction with Dutch naval know-how. The center was equipped with Japan's first steamship, the Kankō Maru, given by the government of the Netherlands the same year. The future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki was one of the students of the Training Center. ==Reconstruction== The Dutch East India Company's trading post at Dejima was abolished when Japan concluded the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States in 1858. This ended Dejima's role as Japan's only window on the Western world during the era of national isolation. Since then, the island was expanded by reclaimed land and merged into Nagasaki. Extensive redesigning of Nagasaki Harbor in 1904 obscured its original location. The original footprint of Dejima Island has been marked by rivets; but as restoration progresses, the ambit of the island will be easier to see at a glance. Dejima today is a work in progress. The island was designated a national historic site in 1922, but further steps were slow to follow. Restoration work was started in 1953, but that project languished. Long-term planning intends that Dejima will again be surrounded by water on all four sides; its characteristic fan-shaped form and all of its embankment walls will be fully restored. This long-term plan will include large-scale urban redevelopment in the area. To make Dejima an island again will require rerouting the Nakashima River and moving a part of Route 499. ==Chronology== 1550: Portuguese ships visit Hirado. 1561: Following the murder of foreigners in the area of the Hirado clan, the Portuguese began to look for other ports to trade. 1570: Christian daimyō Ōmura Sumitada make a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki, six town blocks are built. 1571: Nagasaki Harbor is opened for trade, the first Portuguese ships enter. 1580: Ōmura Sumitada cedes jurisdiction over Nagasaki and Mogi to the Jesuits. 1588: Toyotomi Hideyoshi exerts direct control over Nagasaki, Mogi, and Urakami from the Jesuits. 1609: The Dutch East India Company opens a factory in Hirado. It closes in 1641 when it is moved to Dejima. 1612: Japan's feudal government decrees that Christian proselytizing on Bakufu lands is forbidden. 1616: All trade with foreigners except that with China is confined to Hirado and Nagasaki. 1634: The construction of Dejima begins. 1636: Dejima is completed; the Portuguese are interned on Dejima (Fourth National Isolation Edict). 1638: Shimabara Rebellion of Christian peasants is repressed with Dutch support, Christianity in Japan is repressed. 1639: Portuguese ships are prohibited from entering Japan. Consequently, the Portuguese are banished from Dejima. 1641: The Dutch East India Company Trading Post in Hirado is moved to Nagasaki. 1649: German surgeon Caspar Schamberger comes to Japan. Beginning of a lasting interest in Western style medicine. 1662: A shop is opened on Dejima to sell Imari porcelain. 1673: The English ship Return enters Nagasaki, but the shogunate refuses its request for trade. 1678: A bridge connecting Dejima with the shore is replaced with a stone bridge. 1690: German physician Engelbert Kaempfer comes to Dejima. 1696: Warehouses for secondary cargo reach completion on Dejima. 1698: The Nagasaki Kaisho (trade association) is founded. 1699: The Sea Gate is built at Dejima. 1707: Water pipes are installed on Dejima. 1775: Carl Thunberg starts his term as physician on Dejima. 1779: Surgeon Isaac Titsingh arrives for his first tour of duty as "Opperhoofd". 1798: Many buildings, including the Chief Factor's Residence, are destroyed by the Great Kansei Fire of Dejima. 1804: Russian Ambassador Nikolai Rezanov visits Nagasaki to request an exchange of trade between Japan and Imperial Russia. 1808: The Phaeton Incident occurs. 1823: German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold posted to Dejima. ==Trading post chiefs (Opperhoofden)== Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (plural opperhoofden) which literally means 'supreme head'. The Japanese used to call the trading post chiefs kapitan which is derived from Portuguese capitão (cf. Latin caput, head). In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English Chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as led by a Factor, i.e. agent. ===Notable opperhoofden at Hirado=== François Caron: 03.02.1639 – 13.02.1641 [Caron was last Opperhoofd at Hirado.] ===Notable opperhoofden at Dejima=== François Caron: 03.02.1639 – 13.02.1641 [Caron was the first Opperhoofd in Dejima following the forced move from Hirado.] Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 01.11.1656 – 27.10.1657 Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 22.10.1658 – 04.11.1659 Andreas Cleyer [Andries]: 20.10.1682 -08.11.1683 Andreas Cleyer: 17.10.1685 – 05.11.1686 Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: 23.11.1776 – 11.11.1777 Isaac Titsingh: 29.11.1779 – 05.11.1780 Isaac Titsingh: 24.11.1781 – 26.10.1783 Isaac Titsingh: _.08.1784 – 30.11.1784 Hendrik Doeff: 14.11.1803 – 06.12.1817 Jan Cock Blomhoff: 06.12.1817 – 20.11.1823 Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: 02.11.1852 – 28.02.1860 ==Gallery== File:Dutchmen with Courtesans Nagasaki c1800.jpg|Dutchmen with Keiseis (Courtesans), Nagasaki, ca. 1800 File:HendrikDoeffJapan.jpg|Hendrik Doeff and a Balinese servant in Dejima, Japanese painting, ca. early 19th century File:Nagasaki Dejima C1821.jpg|A monument erected in Dejima by Siebold to honor Kaempfer and Thunberg File:Dejima-scale-model.jpg|A scale model of a Dutch trading post on display in Dejima (1995)
[ "Hendrik Doeff", "Edo (Tokyo)", "wikt:ambit", "Leiden", "Romanization", "Batavia, Dutch East Indies", "1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan", "Kawahara Keiga", "Hirado, Nagasaki", "shōgun", "fumi-e", "astrolabe", "Hendrick Hamel", "First French Empire", "Hirado Island", "Francis Xavier", "Badminton", "New York Public Library", "Nanban trade", "Chief factor", "Netherlands", "daimyō", "Japan–Netherlands relations", "Dutch Empire", "land reclamation", "Edo-Tokyo Museum", "Coffee", "Timon Screech", "Paint", "Imari porcelain", "canal", "Carl Thunberg", "Jan Cock Blomhoff", "reclaimed land", "Engelbert Kaempfer", "Dutch missions to Edo", "Prostitution in Japan", "Dutch East India Company", "Anglo-Dutch Wars", "trading post", "Opperhoofd", "Portuguese Empire", "Guangzhou", "Fur clothing", "Portugal", "Clover", "Phaeton Incident", "United States", "Thirteen Factories", "Mary (mother of Jesus)", "Dutch language", "peninsula", "piano", "Annexation", "monopoly", "Colonial Macau", "Nikolai Rezanov", "Napoleon", "Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG", "Bakufu", "Dutch Formosa", "Shimabara, Nagasaki", "Hagi, Yamaguchi", "de facto", "Meiji period", "gubernatorial", "Caspar Schamberger", "Zacharias Wagenaer", "François Caron", "Kumaya Art Museum", "Andreas Cleyer", "Shimabara Rebellion", "Christianity", "ja:長崎屋源右衛門", "Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop", "Closed Country Edict of 1635", "French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies", "Nagasaki foreign settlement", "hai jin", "Glossary of cue sports terms", "Royal Navy", "Kagoshima", "Treaty of Kanagawa", "Jesus", "Chocolate", "Tanegashima", "Baan Hollanda", "Cabbage", "Hirado", "diving bell", "Nagasaki", "Edo period", "rangaku", "Denmark-Norway", "Nagasaki bugyō", "Batavian Republic", "Isaac Titsingh", "Neutral country", "Shagreen", "Philipp Franz von Siebold", "Thailand", "Naturalis", "Tokugawa Iemitsu", "Tokugawa shogunate", "artificial island", "Napoleonic Wars", "Invasion of Java (1811)", "Tokugawa Yoshimune", "List of Jesuit sites", "RoutledgeCurzon", "National Herbarium of the Netherlands", "silk", "Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie", "Carl Peter Thunberg", "tomato", "Enomoto Takeaki", "camphor", "Society of Jesus", "Rangaku", "Sakoku", "samurai", "Matthew Perry (naval officer)", "Amakusa Islands", "Monuments of Japan", "Toyotomi Hideyoshi", "Portuguese language", "National Museum of Ethnology (Japan)", "Nagasaki, Nagasaki", "Kakure Kirishitan", "The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet", "Nagasaki Naval Training Center", "Photography", "Deer", "Janus Henricus Donker Curtius", "Japan", "Ayutthaya Kingdom", "Beer", "Kankō Maru", "Ōmura Sumitada" ]
8,187
Descriptive statistics
A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a collection of information, while descriptive statistics (in the mass noun sense) is the process of using and analysing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from inferential statistics (or inductive statistics) by its aim to summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. This generally means that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, is not developed on the basis of probability theory, and are frequently nonparametric statistics. Even when a data analysis draws its main conclusions using inferential statistics, descriptive statistics are generally also presented. For example, in papers reporting on human subjects, typically a table is included giving the overall sample size, sample sizes in important subgroups (e.g., for each treatment or exposure group), and demographic or clinical characteristics such as the average age, the proportion of subjects of each sex, the proportion of subjects with related co-morbidities, etc. Some measures that are commonly used to describe a data set are measures of central tendency and measures of variability or dispersion. Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode, while measures of variability include the standard deviation (or variance), the minimum and maximum values of the variables, kurtosis and skewness. ==Use in statistical analysis== Descriptive statistics provide simple summaries about the sample and about the observations that have been made. Such summaries may be either quantitative, i.e. summary statistics, or visual, i.e. simple-to-understand graphs. These summaries may either form the basis of the initial description of the data as part of a more extensive statistical analysis, or they may be sufficient in and of themselves for a particular investigation. For example, the shooting percentage in basketball is a descriptive statistic that summarizes the performance of a player or a team. This number is the number of shots made divided by the number of shots taken. For example, a player who shoots 33% is making approximately one shot in every three. The percentage summarizes or describes multiple discrete events. Consider also the grade point average. This single number describes the general performance of a student across the range of their course experiences. The use of descriptive and summary statistics has an extensive history and, indeed, the simple tabulation of populations and of economic data was the first way the topic of statistics appeared. More recently, a collection of summarisation techniques has been formulated under the heading of exploratory data analysis: an example of such a technique is the box plot. In the business world, descriptive statistics provides a useful summary of many types of data. For example, investors and brokers may use a historical account of return behaviour by performing empirical and analytical analyses on their investments in order to make better investing decisions in the future. ===Univariate analysis=== Univariate analysis involves describing the distribution of a single variable, including its central tendency (including the mean, median, and mode) and dispersion (including the range and quartiles of the data-set, and measures of spread such as the variance and standard deviation). The shape of the distribution may also be described via indices such as skewness and kurtosis. Characteristics of a variable's distribution may also be depicted in graphical or tabular format, including histograms and stem-and-leaf display. ===Bivariate and multivariate analysis=== When a sample consists of more than one variable, descriptive statistics may be used to describe the relationship between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include: Cross-tabulations and contingency tables Graphical representation via scatterplots Quantitative measures of dependence Descriptions of conditional distributions The main reason for differentiating univariate and bivariate analysis is that bivariate analysis is not only a simple descriptive analysis, but also it describes the relationship between two different variables. Quantitative measures of dependence include correlation (such as Pearson's r when both variables are continuous, or Spearman's rho if one or both are not) and covariance (which reflects the scale variables are measured on). The slope, in regression analysis, also reflects the relationship between variables. The unstandardised slope indicates the unit change in the criterion variable for a one unit change in the predictor. The standardised slope indicates this change in standardised (z-score) units. Highly skewed data are often transformed by taking logarithms. The use of logarithms makes graphs more symmetrical and look more similar to the normal distribution, making them easier to interpret intuitively.
[ "central tendency", "box plot", "mass noun", "count noun", "basketball", "median", "statistical inference", "information", "skewness", "scatterplot", "probability theory", "Mode (statistics)", "demographic", "kurtosis", "conditional distribution", "normal distribution", "exploratory data analysis", "average", "mean", "Methods in Molecular Biology", "statistics", "nonparametric statistics", "range (statistics)", "prediction", "Contingency table", "variance", "covariance", "z-score", "sample size", "stem-and-leaf display", "Statistical dispersion", "comorbidity", "Frequency distribution", "statistical population", "Sample (statistics)", "summary statistics", "grade point average", "standard deviation", "quartiles", "summary statistic", "histograms", "percentage", "Univariate analysis", "Spearman's rho", "Correlation and dependence", "Pearson's r", "contingency tables", "Quantitative research" ]
8,189
Demographic statistics
Demographic statistics are measures of the characteristics of, or changes to, a population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy. A useful summary of such data is the population pyramid. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format. Another summary is called the life table. For a cohort of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an abridged life table) is presented in tabular or graphical form. The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population. ==Collection== National population statistics are usually collected by conducting a census. However, because these are usually huge logistical exercises, countries normally conduct censuses only once every five to 10 years. Even when a census is conducted it may miss counting everyone (known as undercount). Also, some people counted in the census may be recorded in a different place than where they usually live, because they are travelling, for example (this may result in overcounting). Consequently, raw census numbers are often adjusted to produce census estimates that identify such statistics as resident population, residents, tourists and other visitors, nationals and aliens (non-nationals). For privacy reasons, particularly when there are small counts, some census results may be rounded, often to the nearest ten, hundred, thousand and sometimes randomly up, down or to another small number such as within 3 of the actual count. Between censuses, administrative data collected by various agencies about population events such as births, deaths, and cross-border migration may be used to produce intercensal estimates. ==Population estimates and projections== Population estimates are usually derived from census and other administrative data. Population estimates are normally produced after the date the estimate is for. Some estimates, such as the Usually resident population estimate who usually lives in a locality as at the census date, even though the census did not count them within that locality. Census questions usually include a questions about where a person usually lives, whether they are a resident or visitor, or also live somewhere else, to allow these estimates to be made. Other estimates are concerned with estimating population on a particular date that is different from the census date, for example the middle or end of a calendar or financial year. These estimates often use birth and death records and migration data to adjust census counts for the changes that have happened since the census. Population projections are produced in advance of the date they are for. They use time series analysis of existing census data and other sources of population information to forecast the size of future populations. Because there are unknown factors that may affect future population changes, population projections often incorporate high and low as well as expected values for future populations. Population projections are often recomputed after a census has been conducted. It depends on how the area is adjusted in a particular demarcation. ==History== While many censuses were conducted in antiquity, there are few population statistics that survive. One example though can be found in the Bible, in chapter 1 of the Book of Numbers. Not only are the statistics given, but the method used to compile those statistics is also described. In modern-day terms, this metadata about the census is probably of as much value as the statistics themselves as it allows researchers to determine not only what was being counted but how and why it was done. ==Metadata== Modern population statistics are normally accompanied by metadata that explains how the statistics have been compiled and adjusted to compensate for any collection issues. ==Statistical sources== Most countries have a census bureau or government agency responsible for conducting censuses. Many of these agencies publish their country's census results and other population statistics on their agency's website.
[ "Population projection", "Cornell University", "Census Bureau", "Census", "overcount", "metadata", "intercensal estimate", "Census block", "life table", "undercount", "Census tract", "Duke University", "population pyramid", "Demographic window", "Census block group", "Intercensal estimate", "census" ]
8,192
Detective fiction
Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—whether professional, amateur or retired—investigates a crime, often murder. The detective genre began around the same time as speculative fiction and other genre fiction in the mid-nineteenth century and has remained extremely popular, particularly in novels. Some of the most famous heroes of detective fiction include C. Auguste Dupin, Sherlock Holmes, Kogoro Akechi, Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Juvenile stories featuring The Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew, and The Boxcar Children have also remained in print for several decades. ==History== ===Ancient=== Some scholars, such as R. H. Pfeiffer, have suggested that certain ancient and religious texts bear similarities to what would later be called detective fiction. In the Old Testament story of Susanna and the Elders (the Protestant Bible locates this story within the apocrypha), the account told by two witnesses broke down when Daniel cross-examines them. In response, author Julian Symons has argued that "those who search for fragments of detection in the Bible and Herodotus are looking only for puzzles" and that these puzzles are not detective stories. ===Early Arabic=== One Thousand and One Nights contains several of the earliest detective stories, anticipating modern detective fiction. The oldest known example of a detective story was "The Three Apples", one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights). In this story, a fisherman discovers a heavy, locked chest along the Tigris river, which he then sells to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid. When Harun breaks open the chest, he discovers the body of a young woman who has been cut into pieces. Harun then orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and to find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails in his assignment. Suspense is generated through multiple plot twists that occur as the story progresses. With these characteristics this may be considered an archetype for detective fiction. It anticipates the use of reverse chronology in modern detective fiction, where the story begins with a crime before presenting a gradual reconstruction of the past. This in turn leads to another assignment in which Ja'far has to find the culprit who instigated the murder within three days or else be executed. Ja'far again fails to find the culprit before the deadline, but owing to chance, he discovers a key item. In the end, he manages to solve the case through reasoning in order to prevent his own execution. On the other hand, two other Arabian Nights stories, "The Merchant and the Thief" and "Ali Khwaja", contain two of the earliest fictional detectives, who uncover clues and present evidence to catch or convict a criminal known to the audience, with the story unfolding in normal chronology and the criminal already known to the audience. The latter involves a climax where the titular detective protagonist Ali Khwaja presents evidence from expert witnesses in a court. The detective is the local magistrate who is usually involved in several unrelated cases simultaneously; The criminal is introduced at the very beginning of the story and his crime and reasons are carefully explained, thus constituting an inverted detective story rather than a "puzzle"; The stories have a supernatural element with ghosts telling people about their death and even accusing the criminal; The stories are filled with digressions into philosophy, the complete texts of official documents, and much more, resulting in long books; and The novels tend to have a huge cast of characters, typically in the hundreds, all described with their relation to the various main actors in the story. Van Gulik chose Di Gong An to translate because in his view it was closer to the Western literary style and more likely to appeal to non-Chinese readers. A number of Gong An works may have been lost or destroyed during the Literary Inquisitions and the wars in ancient China. In traditional Chinese culture, this genre was not prestigious, and was therefore considered less worthy of preservation than works of philosophy or poetry. ===Early Western=== One of the earliest examples of detective fiction in Western literature is Voltaire's Zadig (1748), which features a main character who performs feats of analysis. Thomas Skinner Sturr's anonymous Richmond, or stories in the life of a Bow Street officer was published in London in 1827; the Danish crime story The Rector of Veilbye by Steen Steensen Blicher was written in 1829; and the Norwegian crime novel Mordet paa Maskinbygger Roolfsen ("The Murder of Engine Maker Roolfsen") by Maurits Hansen was published in December 1839. "Das Fräulein von Scuderi" is an 1819 short story by E. T. A. Hoffmann, in which Mlle de Scudery establishes the innocence of the police's favorite suspect in the murder of a jeweller. This story is sometimes cited as the first detective story and as a direct influence on Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841). Also suggested as a possible influence on Poe is 'The Secret Cell', a short story published in September 1837 by William Evans Burton. It has been suggested that this story may have been known to Poe, who worked for Burton in 1839. The story was about a London policeman who solves the mystery of a kidnapped girl. Burton's fictional detective relied on practical methods such as dogged legwork, knowledge of the underworld and undercover surveillance, rather than brilliance of imagination or intellect. ===English genre establishment=== Detective fiction in the English-language literature is considered to have begun in 1841 with the publication of Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", featuring "the first fictional detective, the eccentric and brilliant C. Auguste Dupin". When the character first appeared, the word detective had not yet been used in English; however, the character's name, "Dupin", originated from the English word dupe or deception. Poe devised a "plot formula that's been successful ever since, give or take a few shifting variables." Poe followed with further Auguste Dupin tales: "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" in 1842 and "The Purloined Letter" in 1844. Poe referred to his stories as "tales of ratiocination". contributing an irregular series of stories (under the pseudonym 'Waters') to Chambers's Edinburgh Journal between 1849 and 1852. Unauthorised collections of his stories were published in New York City in 1852 and 1853, entitled The Recollections of a Policeman. Twelve stories were then collated into a volume entitled Recollections of a Detective Police-Officer, published in London in 1856. Literary critic Catherine Ross Nickerson credits Louisa May Alcott with creating the second-oldest work of modern detective fiction, after Poe's Dupin stories, with the 1865 thriller "V.V., or Plots and Counterplots." A short story published anonymously by Alcott, the story concerns a Scottish aristocrat who tries to prove that a mysterious woman has killed his fiancée and cousin. The detective on the case, Antoine Dupres, is a parody of Auguste Dupin who is less concerned with solving the crime than he is in setting up a way to reveal the solution with a dramatic flourish. Ross Nickerson notes that many of the American writers who experimented with Poe's established rules of the genre were women, inventing a subgenre of domestic detective fiction that flourished for several generations. These included Metta Fuller Victor's two detective novels The Dead Letter (1867) and The Figure Eight (1869). The Dead Letter is noteworthy as the first full-length work of American crime fiction. Émile Gaboriau was a pioneer of the detective fiction genre in France. In Monsieur Lecoq (1868), the title character is adept at disguise, a key characteristic of detectives. Gaboriau's writing is also considered to contain the first example of a detective minutely examining a crime scene for clues. Another early example of a whodunit is a subplot in the novel Bleak House (1853) by Charles Dickens. The conniving lawyer Tulkinghorn is killed in his office late one night, and the crime is investigated by Inspector Bucket of the Metropolitan police force. Numerous characters appeared on the staircase leading to Tulkinghorn's office that night, some of them in disguise, and Inspector Bucket must penetrate these mysteries to identify the murderer. Dickens also left a novel unfinished at his death, The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Dickens's protégé, Wilkie Collins (1824–1889)—sometimes called the "grandfather of English detective fiction"—is credited with the first great mystery novel, The Woman in White. T. S. Eliot called Collins's novel The Moonstone (1868) "the first, the longest, and the best of modern English detective novels... in a genre invented by Collins and not by Poe", and Dorothy L. Sayers called it "probably the very finest detective story ever written". The Moonstone contains a number of ideas that have established in the genre several classic features of the 20th century detective story: English country house robbery An "inside job" red herrings A celebrated, skilled, professional investigator Bungling local constabulary Detective inquiries Large number of false suspects The "least likely suspect" A rudimentary "locked room" murder A reconstruction of the crime A final twist in the plot Although The Moonstone is usually seen as the first detective novel, there are other contenders for the honor. A number of critics suggest that the lesser known Notting Hill Mystery (1862–63), written by the pseudonymous "Charles Felix" (later identified as Charles Warren Adams), preceded it by a number of years and first used techniques that would come to define the genre. Literary critics Chris Willis and Kate Watson consider Mary Elizabeth Braddon's first book, the even earlier The Trail of the Serpent (1861), to be the first British detective novel. The Trail of the Serpent "features an innovative detective figure, Mr. Peters, who is lower class and mute, and who is initially dismissed both by the text and its characters."), also features a compelling detective in the person of Detective Grimstone of Scotland Yard. Tom Taylor's melodrama The Ticket-of-Leave Man, an adaptation of Léonard by Édouard Brisbarre and Eugène Nus, appeared in 1863, introducing Hawkshaw the Detective. In short, it is difficult to establish who was the first to write the English-language detective novel, as various authors were exploring the theme simultaneously. Anna Katharine Green, in her 1878 debut The Leavenworth Case and other works, popularized the genre among middle-class readers and helped to shape the genre into its classic form as well as developed the concept of the series detective. In 1887, Arthur Conan Doyle created Sherlock Holmes, arguably the most famous of all fictional detectives. Although Sherlock Holmes is not the first fictional detective (he was influenced by Poe's Dupin and Gaboriau's Lecoq), his name has become synonymous for the part. Conan Doyle stated that the character of Holmes was inspired by Dr. Joseph Bell, for whom Doyle had worked as a clerk at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing large conclusions from the smallest observations. A brilliant London-based "consulting detective" residing at 221B Baker Street, Holmes is famous for his intellectual prowess and is renowned for his skillful use of astute observation, deductive reasoning, and forensic skills to solve difficult cases. Conan Doyle wrote four novels and fifty-six short stories featuring Holmes, and all but four stories are narrated by Holmes's friend, assistant, and biographer, Dr. John H. Watson. ==Detective Fiction in Boys Story Papers== Detective fiction aimed at young male readers emerged as a distinct and highly popular subgenre in the late Victorian and Edwardian eras, particularly in British and American boys' weekly magazines. While school stories remained the dominant form of boys' fiction, detective narratives claimed a strong second place in popularity from the 1890s onward. The American market pioneered serial detective characters, with publications like the "Old Sleuth Library" (1872) and stories featuring Nick Carter establishing the format. In Britain, the genre gained prominence through publishers like James Henderson and Sons and the Aldine Publishing Company, which initially reprinted American detective stories before developing their own characters. The Amalgamated Press with its numerous story papers played a prominent part in the spreading and popularizations of the genre. The most enduring figure in boys' detective fiction was Sexton Blake, who first appeared in 1893 and featured in over 3,000 stories spanning nearly six decades. Blake's longevity was matched by a period of intense creativity in the genre, which saw the creation of numerous competing detective characters. Notable among these was Nelson Lee, created by John William Staniforth (writing as Maxwell Scott), who shared Blake's penchant for globe-trotting adventures and narrow escapes. ==Golden Age novels== The interwar period (the 1920s and 1930s) is generally referred to as the Golden Age of Detective Fiction. During this period, a number of very popular writers emerged, including mostly British but also a notable subset of American and New Zealand writers. Female writers constituted a major portion of notable Golden Age writers. Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, Josephine Tey, Margery Allingham, and Ngaio Marsh were particularly famous female writers of this time. Another common convention in Golden Age detective stories involved an outsider–sometimes a salaried investigator or a police officer, but often a gifted amateur—investigating a murder committed in a closed environment by one of a limited number of suspects. The most widespread subgenre of the detective novel became the whodunit (or whodunnit, short for "who done it?"). In this subgenre, great ingenuity may be exercised in narrating the crime, usually a homicide, and the subsequent investigation. This objective was to conceal the identity of the criminal from the reader until the end of the book, when the method and culprit are both revealed. According to scholars Carole Kismaric and Marvin Heiferman, "The golden age of detective fiction began with high-class amateur detectives sniffing out murderers lurking in rose gardens, down country lanes, and in picturesque villages. Many conventions of the detective-fiction genre evolved in this era, as numerous writers—from populist entertainers to respected poets—tried their hands at mystery stories." Another author, Cecil Street—who also wrote as John Rhode—wrote of a detective, Dr. Priestley, who specialised in elaborate technical devices. In the United States, the whodunit subgenre was adopted and extended by Rex Stout and Ellery Queen, along with others. The emphasis on formal rules during the Golden Age produced great works, albeit with highly standardized form. The most successful novels of this time included “an original and exciting plot; distinction in the writing, a vivid sense of place, a memorable and compelling hero and the ability to draw the reader into their comforting and highly individual world.” Following The Naval Treaty, other Sherlock Holmes stories were similarly translated and serialized. The Crooked Man appeared between October and November 1896, A Case of Identity was published from March to April 1897, and The Final Problem was serialized between April and May of the same year. These translations were part of a broader effort to introduce Western literary works to China, often with a focus on themes that resonated with the reformist agenda of the period. The popularity of Sherlock Holmes paved the way for the translation of other seminal works of Western detective fiction. Among these were L’affaire Lerouge by Émile Gaboriau (1832–1873), published in 1903, John Thorndyke's Cases by Richard Austin Freeman (1862–1943), which appeared in 1911, and Arsène Lupin, Gentleman Burglar by Maurice Leblanc (1864–1941), translated in 1914. These works collectively contributed to the growing interest in detective fiction as a genre that could both entertain and provoke critical reflection on societal issues circulated within the country. Cheng Xiaoqing had first encountered Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's highly popular stories as an adolescent. In the ensuing years, he played a major role in rendering them first into classical and later into vernacular Chinese. Cheng Xiaoqing, who had been self-taught in English from the age of 16, collaborated with a group of friends to translate the complete series of Sherlock Holmes stories into Chinese. Published in 1916 under the title Fuermosi tan’an (The Investigative Cases of Sherlock Holmes) by the Zhonghua shuju publishing house, this translation marked a significant milestone in the introduction of Western detective fiction to Chinese readers. appealing to China that it was the time for opening their eyes to the rest of the world. This style began China's interest in popular crime fiction, and is what drove Cheng Xiaoqing to write his own crime fiction novel, Sherlock in Shanghai. In the late 1910s, Cheng began writing detective fiction inspired by Conan Doyle's style, with Bao as the Watson-like narrator; a rare instance of such a direct appropriation from foreign fiction. === Japan === Edogawa Rampo is the first major Japanese modern mystery writer and the founder of the Detective Story Club in Japan. Rampo was an admirer of western mystery writers. He gained his fame in the early 1920s, when he began to bring to the genre many bizarre, erotic and even fantastic elements. This is partly because of the social tension before World War II. In 1957, Seicho Matsumoto received the Mystery Writers of Japan Award for his short story The Face (顔 kao). The Face and Matsumoto's subsequent works began the "social school" (社会派 shakai ha) within the genre, which emphasized social realism, described crimes in an ordinary setting and sets motives within a wider context of social injustice and political corruption. ====Feluda (Character)==== Feluda, created by renowned filmmaker and author Satyajit Ray, is a celebrated Bengali detective character who first appeared in the 1965 story Feludar Goyendagiri. His full name is Pradosh Chandra Mitra, and he is often referred to affectionately as Feluda. Feluda is characterized by his keen observational skills, sharp intellect, and a flair for deduction, which he employs to solve intricate mysteries. Feluda is often accompanied by his cousin, who is also his assistant, Tapesh Ranjan Mitter (affectionately called Topshe), who serves as the narrator of the stories and his friend Jatayu. , The trio embarks on various adventures that blend mystery with elements of Bengali culture and tradition. The stories often include a touch of humor, engaging dialogues, and philosophical musings, making them appealing to a wide audience. Ray's Feluda series not only captivated readers in literary form but also inspired numerous adaptations in film and television, showcasing Ray's cinematic genius. Feluda's impact on the genre is significant, as he represents a sophisticated blend of intellect and charm, setting a high standard for detective fiction in India. brought to life a vivid array of characters and mysteries. Pushpanath practiced teaching history for several years before becoming a full time writer. Pushpanath authored more than 350 detective novels. === Pakistan === Ibn-e-Safi is the most popular Urdo detective fiction writer. He started writing his famous Jasoosi Dunya Series spy stories in 1952 with Col. Fareedi & Captain. Hameed as main characters. In 1955 he started writing Imran Series spy novels with Ali Imran as X2 the chief of secret service and his companions. After his death many other writers accepted Ali Imran character and wrote spy novels. Another popular spy novel writer was Ishtiaq Ahmad who wrote Inspector Jamsheed, Inspector Kamran Mirza and Shooki brother's series of spy novels. ===Russia=== Stories about robbers and detectives were very popular in Russia since old times. A famous hero in the eighteenth century was Ivan Osipov (1718–after 1756), nicknamed Ivan Kain. Other examples of early Russian detective stories include: "Bitter Fate" (1789) by M. D. Chulkov (1743–1792), "The Finger Ring" (1831) by Yevgeny Baratynsky, "The White Ghost" (1834) by Mikhail Zagoskin, Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880) by Fyodor Dostoevsky. Detective fiction in modern Russian literature with clear detective plots started with The Garin Death Ray (1926–1927) and The Black Gold (1931) by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, Mess-Mend by Marietta Shaginyan, The Investigator's Notes by Lev Sheinin. Boris Akunin is a famous Russian writer of historical detective fiction in modern-day Russia. ===United States=== In the United States, detective fiction emerged in the 1920s, and flourished with stories in pulp magazines. The genre gained prominence in later decades, as the detective character was refined, and became familiar through movies. Detective fiction was also a way for authors to bring stories about various subcultures to mainstream audiences. One scholar wrote about the detective novels of Tony Hillerman, set among the Native American population around New Mexico, "many American readers have probably gotten more insight into traditional Navajo culture from his detective stories than from any other recent books." Other notable writers who have explored regional and ethnic communities in their detective novels are Harry Kemelman, whose Rabbi Small series were set in the Conservative Jewish community of Massachusetts; Walter Mosley, whose Easy Rawlins books are set in the African American community of 1950s Los Angeles; and Sara Paretsky, whose V. I. Warshawski books have explored the various subcultures of Chicago. == Subgenres == ===Hardboiled=== Martin Hewitt, created by British author Arthur Morrison in 1894, is one of the first examples of the modern style of fictional private detective. This character is described as an "'Everyman' detective meant to challenge the detective-as-superman that Holmes represented." By the late 1920s, Al Capone and the American mafia inspired not only fear, but piqued mainstream curiosity about the American criminal underworld. Popular pulp fiction magazines like Black Mask capitalized on this, as authors such as Carrol John Daly published violent stories that focused on the mayhem and injustice surrounding the criminals, not the circumstances behind the crime. Very often, no actual mystery even existed: the books simply revolved around justice being served to those who deserved harsh treatment, which was described in explicit detail." His style of crime fiction came to be known as "hardboiled", a genre that "usually deals with criminal activity in a modern urban environment, a world of disconnected signs and anonymous strangers." Chandler's stories were noted for their evokations of the American criminal underworld, including dark alleys and tough thugs, rich women and powerful men. Several feature and television movies have been made about the Philip Marlowe character. James Hadley Chase wrote a few novels with private eyes as the main heroes, including Blonde's Requiem (1945), Lay Her Among the Lilies (1950), and Figure It Out for Yourself (1950). The heroes of these novels are typical private eyes, very similar to or plagiarizing Raymond Chandler's work. Ross Macdonald, pseudonym of Kenneth Millar, updated the form again with his detective Lew Archer. Archer, like Hammett's fictional heroes, was a camera eye, with hardly any known past. "Turn Archer sideways, and he disappears," one reviewer wrote. Critics praised Macdonald's use of psychology and his prose, which was full of imagery. Like other 'hardboiled' writers, Macdonald aimed to give an impression of realism in his work through violence, sex and confrontation. The 1966 movie Harper starring Paul Newman was based on the first Lew Archer story The Moving Target (1949). Newman reprised the role in The Drowning Pool in 1976. Michael Collins, pseudonym of Dennis Lynds, is generally considered the author who led the form into the Modern Age. Like Hammett, Chandler, and Macdonald, Collins' protagonist was a private investigator, Dan Fortune. However, Collins stories also involved an element of sociological reflection, exploring the meaning of his characters' places in society and the impact society had on people. Full of commentary and clipped prose, his books were more intimate than those of his predecessors, dramatizing that crime can happen in one's own living room. The "hardboiled" novel was a male-dominated field in which female authors seldom found publication until Marcia Muller, Sara Paretsky, and Sue Grafton were finally published in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Each author's detective, also female, was brainy and physical and could hold her own. Their acceptance, and success, caused publishers to seek out other female authors. === Inverted === An inverted detective story, also known as a "howcatchem", is a murder mystery fiction structure in which the commission of the crime is shown or described at the beginning, The story then describes the detective's attempt to solve the mystery. There may also be subsidiary puzzles, such as why the crime was committed, and they are explained or resolved during the story. This format is the inversion of the more typical "whodunit", in which the perpetrator of the crime is not revealed until the story's climax. ===Police procedural=== Many detective stories have police officers as the main characters. These stories may take a variety of forms, but many authors try to realistically depict the routine activities of a group of police officers who are frequently working on more than one case simultaneously. Some of these stories are whodunits; in others, the criminal is well known, and the detective must gather enough evidence to charge them with the crime. In the 1940s the police procedural evolved as a new style of detective fiction. Unlike the heroes of Christie, Chandler, and Spillane, the police detective was subject to error and was constrained by rules and regulations. As Gary Huasladen writes in Places for Dead Bodies, "not all the clients were insatiable bombshells, and invariably there was life outside the job." The detective in the police procedural does the things police officers do to catch a criminal. Prominent writers in the genre include Ed McBain, P. D. James, and Bartholomew Gill. ===Historical mystery=== Historical mystery is set in a time period considered historical from the author's perspective, and the central plot involves the solving of a mystery or crime (usually murder). Though works combining these genres have existed since at least the early 20th century, many credit Ellis Peters's Cadfael Chronicles (1977–1994) for popularizing what would become known as the historical mystery. A variation on this is Josephine Tey's The Daughter of Time. In it, Scotland Yard Inspector Alan Grant—who considers himself a good judge of faces—is surprised to find that what he considers to be the portrait of a sensitive man is in reality a portrait of Richard III, who murdered his brother's children in order to become king. The story details his attempt to get to the historical truth of whether Richard III is the villain he has been made out to be by history. The novel was awarded the top spot in the Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time by the UK Crime Writers' Association and the number 4 spot in The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time Mystery Writers of America ===Cozy mystery=== Cozy mystery began in the late 20th century as a reinvention of the Golden Age whodunit; these novels generally shy away from violence and suspense and frequently feature female amateur detectives. Modern cozy mysteries are frequently, though not necessarily, humorous and thematic . Variations of the subgenre include culinary mystery, animal mystery, and quilting mystery, among others. Cozy mysteries feature minimal violence, sex, and social relevance; a solution achieved by intellect or intuition rather than police procedure, with order restored in the end; honorable characters; and a setting in a closed community. Writers include Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Elizabeth Daly. In this way, the legal system provides the framework for the legal thriller as much as the system of modern police work does for the police procedural. The legal thriller usually begins with the court proceedings following the closure of an investigation, often resulting in a new angle on the investigation, so as to bring about an outcome different from the one originally devised by the investigators. In the legal thriller, court proceedings play a very active, if not to say decisive part in a case reaching its ultimate solution. Erle Stanley Gardner popularized the courtroom novel in the 20th century with his Perry Mason series. Contemporary authors of legal thrillers include Michael Connelly, Linda Fairstein, John Grisham, John Lescroart, Paul Levine, Lisa Scottoline, and Scott Turow. ===Locked room mystery=== The locked room mystery is a subgenre of detective fiction in which a crime—almost always murder—is committed under circumstances which it was seemingly impossible for the perpetrator to commit the crime and/or evade detection in the course of getting in and out of the crime scene. The genre was established in the 19th century. Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841) is considered the first locked-room mystery; since then, other authors have used the scheme. The crime in question typically involves a crime scene with no indication as to how the intruder could have entered or left, i.e., a locked room. Following other conventions of classic detective fiction, the reader is normally presented with the puzzle and all of the clues, and is encouraged to solve the mystery before the solution is revealed in a dramatic climax. ===Occult=== Occult detective fiction is a subgenre of detective fiction that combines the tropes of detective fiction with those of supernatural horror fiction. Unlike the traditional detective, the occult detective is employed in cases involving ghosts, demons, curses, magic, monsters and other supernatural elements. Some occult detectives are portrayed as knowing magic or being themselves psychic or in possession of other paranormal powers. ==='Whodunit'=== A whodunit or whodunnit (a colloquial elision of "Who [has] done it?" or "Who did it?") is a complex, plot-driven variety of the detective story in which the audience is given the opportunity to engage in the same process of deduction as the protagonist throughout the investigation of a crime. The reader or viewer is provided with the clues from which the identity of the perpetrator may be deduced before the story provides the revelation itself at its climax. The "whodunit" flourished during the so-called "Golden Age" of detective fiction, between 1920 and 1950, when it was the predominant mode of crime writing. ==Modern criticism== ===Preserving story secrets=== Even if they do not mean to, advertisers, reviewers, scholars and aficionados sometimes give away details or parts of the plot, and sometimes—for example in the case of Mickey Spillane's novel I, the Jury—even the solution. After the credits of Billy Wilder's film Witness for the Prosecution, the cinemagoers are asked not to talk to anyone about the plot so that future viewers will also be able to fully enjoy the unravelling of the mystery. At the end of each performance of the play The Mousetrap by Agatha Christie, audiences are asked not to reveal the identity of the murderer to anyone outside the theatre, so that the end of the play is not spoiled for future audiences. ===Plausibility and coincidence=== For series involving amateur detectives, their frequent encounters with crime often test the limits of plausibility. The character Miss Marple appears in twelve novels and twenty short stories, William L. De Andrea has described Marple's home town, the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead, as having "put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of Sodom and Gomorrah". Similarly, TV heroine Jessica Fletcher of Murder, She Wrote was confronted with bodies wherever she went, but most notably in her small hometown of Cabot Cove, Maine; The New York Times estimated that, by the end of the series' 12-year run, nearly 2% of the town's residents had been killed. It is arguably more convincing if police, forensic experts or similar professionals are made the protagonist of a series of crime novels. The television series Monk has often made fun of this implausible frequency. The main character, Adrian Monk, is frequently accused of being a "bad luck charm" and a "murder magnet" as the result of the frequency with which murder happens in his vicinity. Likewise Kogoro Mori of the manga series Detective Conan earned a similar reputation. Although Mori is actually a private investigator with his own agency, the police never intentionally consult him as he stumbles from one crime scene to another. The role and legitimacy of coincidence has frequently been the topic of heated arguments ever since Ronald A. Knox categorically stated that "no accident must ever help the detective" (Commandment No. 6 in his "Decalogue"). ===Effects of technology=== Technological progress has also rendered many plots implausible and antiquated. For example, the predominance of mobile phones, pagers, and PDAs has significantly altered the previously dangerous situations in which investigators traditionally might have found themselves. One tactic that avoids the issue of technology altogether is the historical detective genre. As global interconnectedness makes legitimate suspense more difficult to achieve, several writers—including Elizabeth Peters, P. C. Doherty, Steven Saylor, and Lindsey Davis—have eschewed fabricating convoluted plots in order to manufacture tension, instead opting to set their characters in some former period. Such a strategy forces the protagonist to rely on more inventive means of investigation, lacking as they do the technological tools available to modern detectives. Conversely, some detective fiction embraces networked computer technology and deals in cybercrime, like the Daemon novel series by Daniel Suarez. ==Detective Commandments== Several authors have attempted to set forth a sort of list of “Detective Commandments” for prospective authors of the genre. According to "Twenty Rules for Writing Detective Stories," by Van Dine in 1928: "The detective story is a kind of intellectual game. It is more—it is a sporting event. And for the writing of detective stories there are very definite laws—unwritten, perhaps, but nonetheless binding; and every respectable and self-respecting concocter of literary mysteries lives up to them. Herewith, then, is a sort of credo, based partly on the practice of all the great writers of detective stories, and partly on the promptings of the honest author's inner conscience." Ronald Knox wrote a set of Ten Commandments or Decalogue in 1929, crime fiction from the past 100 years has generally contained the following key rules to be a detective novel: A crime, most often murder, is committed early in the narrative There are a variety of suspects with different motives A central character formally or informally acts as a detective The detective collects evidence about the crimes and its victim Usually the detective interviews the suspects, as well as the witnesses The detective solves the mystery and indicates the real criminal Usually this criminal is now arrested or otherwise punished == Influential fictional detectives == ===Sherlock Holmes=== Sherlock Holmes is an English fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. After first appearing in A Study in Scarlet, the Sherlock Holmes stories were not an immediate success. However, after being published in the Strand Magazine in 1891, the detective became unquestionably popular. Following the success of Sherlock Holmes, many mystery writers imitated Conan Doyle's structure in their own detective stories and included aspects of Sherlock Holmes's personalities in their own detectives. Sherlock Holmes as a series is perhaps the most popular form of detective fiction. Conan Doyle attempted to kill the character off after twenty-three stories, but after popular request, he continued to write stories featuring the character. The popularity of Sherlock Holmes extends beyond the written medium. For example, the BBC-produced TV series Sherlock gained a very large following after first airing in 2010, imbuing a renewed interest in the character in the general public. Because of the popularity of Holmes, Conan Doyle was often regarded as being “as well known as Queen Victoria”. Blake featured in more than 4,000 stories by approximately 200 different authors, making him one of the most prolifically chronicled characters in English literature. ===C. Auguste Dupin=== Le Chevalier C. Auguste Dupin is a fictional character created by Edgar Allan Poe. Dupin made his first appearance in Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841), widely considered the first detective fiction story. He reappears in "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" (1842) and "The Purloined Letter" (1844). C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the prototype for many fictional detectives that were created later, including Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle and Hercule Poirot by Agatha Christie. Conan Doyle once wrote, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" ===Ellery Queen=== Ellery Queen is a fictional detective created by American writers Manfred Bennington Lee and Frederic Dannay, as well as the joint pseudonym for the cousins Dannay and Lee. He first appeared in The Roman Hat Mystery (1929), and starred in more than 30 novels and several short story collections. During the 1930s and much of the 1940s, Ellery Queen was possibly the best known American fictional detective. ==Detective debuts and swan songs== Many detectives appear in more than one novel or story. Here is a list of a few debut stories and final appearances. ==Books== Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel – A History by Julian Symons Stacy Gillis and Philippa Gates (Editors), The Devil Himself: Villainy in Detective Fiction and Film, Greenwood, 2001. The Manichean Investigators: A Postcolonial and Cultural Rereading of the Sherlock Holmes and Byomkesh Bakshi Stories by Pinaki Roy, New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2008, Killer Books by Jean Swanson & Dean James, Berkley Prime Crime edition 1998, Penguin Putnam Inc. New York Delightful Murder: A Social History of the Crime Story by Ernest Mandel, 1985. Univ. of Minnesota Press. Clifford's War: The Bluegrass Battleground by J. Denison Reed
[ "Gong An story", "apocrypha", "Jeffery Deaver", "Abbasid Caliphate", "vernacular Chinese", "Inspector Palmu", "pager", "Aurora Floyd", "Lawrence Block", "The Drowning Pool", "Edwy Searles Brooks", "Feludar Goendagiri", "ghost", "The Blessing Way", "Harry D'Amour", "The Garin Death Ray", "Bluebird, Bluebird", "Peter Robinson (novelist)", "Ming dynasty", "Alice Arisugawa", "The Daughter of Time", "Mike Ripley", "Sleeping Murder", "American Mafia", "Plagiarism", "Gosho Aoyama", "Three Blind Mice and Other Stories", "Mickey Spillane", "The Sexton Blake Library", "Detective Conan", "Tintin and the Picaros", "No Man's Nightingale", "Keigo Higashino", "Cover Her Face", "Van Dine's Commandments", "Inspector Alan Banks", "social realism", "Erle Stanley Gardner", "The Wire (India)", "wikt:inside job", "observation", "Carroll John Daly", "PD James", "Aaron Elkins", "Harry Bosch", "The Hollow Man (Carr novel)", "Miss Silver", "Franklin W Dixon", "Eric Ambler", "Stephanie Plum", "Scott Turow", "221B Baker Street", "The Killings at Badger's Drift", "Inspector Morse", "Cabot Cove", "Spenser (fictional detective)", "Ruth Rendell", "The Plague Court Murders", "crime scene", "Sammy Keyes", "Qiu Xiaolong", "Bimal Kar", "Times Union (Albany)", "Lord Peter Wimsey", "Philip Trent", "Crime and Punishment", "Perry Mason", "Arthur Morrison", "Hawkshaw the Detective", "Dixon Hawke", "Trent's Last Case (novel)", "horror fiction", "John Grisham", "Anna Katharine Green", "Harry Kemelman", "Ronald Knox", "Dorothy L. Sayers", "The Continental Op", "Chambers's Edinburgh Journal", "Jim Butcher", "Mary Rogers", "Cormoran Strike", "Rabbi Small", "crime", "Mikhail Zagoskin", "Mafia (party game)", "Bruce Alexander Cook", "Jayanta", "The Leavenworth Case", "Ann Cleeves", "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt", "Billy Wilder", "Ibn-e-Safi", "The Late Scholar", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay", "Robert Van Gulik", "List of Ace mystery numeric-series single titles", "occult", "pulp fiction magazine", "Lew Archer", "criminal investigation", "Byomkesh Bakshi", "Sociology", "Colin Dexter", "short stories", "Martin Beck", "The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place", "Di Renjie", "New Indian Express", "Frederic Dannay", "List of crime writers", "Linda Fairstein", "List of detective fiction authors", "John D. MacDonald", "William L. DeAndrea", "A Great Deliverance", "Robert B. Parker", "Harun al-Rashid", "Tigris", "Father Brown", "Marcia Muller", "Death of a Red Heroine", "Julian Symons", "archetype", "Elizabeth George", "Carter Dickson", "The Moonstone", "Climax (narrative)", "The Mystery of Edwin Drood", "forensic", "Sue Grafton", "The New York Times", "Lost literary work", "reverse chronology", "The Blue Cross (short story)", "Wilkie Collins", "William Evans Burton", "James Hadley Chase", "Don Winslow", "A Study in Scarlet", "The Adventures of Tintin", "monster", "Suspense", "Thursday Next", "V. I. Warshawski", "Kalo Bhramar", "Knight", "Raymond Chandler", "The Mousetrap", "The Mask of Dimitrios", "crime fiction", "speculative fiction", "The Strange Case of Peter the Lett", "genre fiction", "Maj Sjöwall", "Mo Hayder", "fictional detectives", "The Silence of the Lambs (novel)", "Historical mystery", "Parashor Barma", "Dr. Phil D'Amato", "Bao Gong An", "Evidence", "The Secret Adversary", "List of Case Closed characters", "The Salmon of Doubt", "Arthur B. Reeve", "New York City", "Spy fiction", "P. D. James", "Agatha Christie", "Max Allan Collins", "The Cavalier's Cup", "Nick and Nora Charles", "Adrian Monk", "I, the Jury", "Nero Wolfe", "Metaphysical detective story", "Margery Allingham", "Los Angeles", "Ross Macdonald", "private investigator", "The Final Programme", "Douglas Adams", "The Notting Hill Mystery", "Yukito Ayatsuji", "St. Mary Mead", "Jill Paton Walsh", "Whose Body?", "Cat of Many Tails", "Janet Evanovich", "Laurell K. Hamilton", "Feluda", "Lee Child", "deductive reasoning", "Satyanweshi (novel)", "William Russell (fiction writer)", "expert witness", "David Roberts (novelist)", "The Tower Treasure", "detective", "Ronald A. Knox", "Harley Hartwell", "Bible", "Mademoiselle de Scuderi", "Jules Maigret", "The Ticket-of-Leave Man (play)", "Ernest Mandel", "John Fielding", "Philip Youngman Carter", "Ellery Queen", "The Cuckoo's Calling", "Gong'an fiction", "Satyajit Ray", "Tintin and Alph-Art", "Bao Zheng", "Barbara Havers", "The Strand Magazine", "Russian literature", "Raven Black", "Joseph Bell", "The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul", "Persian literature", "Jasper Fforde", "Maurits Hansen", "Fyodor Dostoevsky", "Jack Reacher", "Richard III of England", "George Hamilton Teed", "Books of Blood", "wikt:ratiocination", "Blind Justice (novel)", "The Cadfael Chronicles", "Sir Arthur Conan Doyle", "Dr. Watson", "Bengali culture", "Brother Cadfael's Penance", "plot twist", "Di Gong An", "pseudonym", "Nelson Lee (detective)", "Steen Steensen Blicher", "Elizabeth Peters", "Colonel Niladri Sarkar", "Walter Mosley", "Playback (novel)", "John Lescroart", "Kaoru Kitamura", "Light Thickens", "Rintaro Norizuki", "Grazia Verasani", "Kottayam Pushpanath", "Qing dynasty", "Vincent Calvino", "Val McDermid", "murder", "Anita Blake", "Edmund Clerihew Bentley", "Jerry Cornelius", "Tom Barnaby", "Curtain (novel)", "Peter Decker", "Kinsey Millhone", "The Winter Queen (novel)", "wikt:案", "Tallinn", "Stephen Leather", "forensics", "The Mermaids Singing", "Lincoln Rhyme", "Kurt Wallander", "Gideon's Day", "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", "The Troubled Man", "George Randolph Hearst III", "Jayanta-Manik", "Carolyn Gold Heilbrun", "G. K. Chesterton", "Sexton Blake (TV series)", "Nihar Ranjan Gupta", "From Doon with Death", "curse", "Jakher Dhan", "Cheng Xiaoqing", "The Boxcar Children", "Dr. Gideon Fell", "Easy Rawlins", "Literary realism", "Faye Kellerman", "The Deep Blue Good-by", "Louisa May Alcott", "police procedural", "Sara Paretsky", "\"Y\" Is for Yesterday", "Guilty Pleasures (novel)", "wikt:闌", "The Hardy Boys", "Judge Dee", "Judge Bao", "The Lonely Silver Rain", "Sam Spade", "Charles Warren Adams", "Ace Atkins", "Ellis Peters", "The Private Patient", "Harry Devlin (fictional detective)", "The Secret of the Old Clock", "Daniel Suarez (author)", "Michael Collins (American author)", "Joe Leaphorn", "Literary Inquisition", "Canon of Sherlock Holmes", "Wendelin Van Draanen", "Sodom and Gomorrah", "The Mysterious Affair at Styles", "The Mind Readers", "Albert Campion", "Georges Simenon", "Metta Fuller Victor", "Murder, She Wrote", "J.K. Rowling", "The Trail of the Serpent", "imagery", "Alexander McCall Smith", "Tintin in the Land of the Soviets", "The Roman Hat Mystery", "Dave Robicheaux", "Death on the Nile", "Nancy Drew", "Brill Publishers", "Misir Ali", "Kogoro Mori", "Magic Kaito", "Murder on the Orient Express", "Lisa Scottoline", "Fer-de-Lance (novel)", "Jessica Fletcher", "John Creasey", "Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency", "Harper (film)", "Phil D'Amato", "Edgar Allan Poe", "Urdu", "Reginald Hill", "Marietta Shaginyan", "Clive Barker", "Mystery Writers of Japan Award", "Maigret and Monsieur Charles", "Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee", "Bombshell (slang)", "Massachusetts", "William Godwin", "Roderick Alleyn", "Jonathan Kellerman", "Lev Sheinin", "The Perfect Murder (novel)", "Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams", "Apothecary Melchior series", "locked room mystery", "vizier", "Monsieur Lecoq (novel)", "Suchitra Bhattacharya", "Rennie Airth", "Inspector Wexford", "Mystery Writers of Japan", "A Ghost in the Machine", "Shinichi Kudo", "A Clubbable Woman", "\"A\" Is for Alibi", "Killing Floor (novel)", "Friday the Rabbi Slept Late", "zh:程小青", "inverted detective story", "T. S. Eliot", "Busman's Honeymoon", "private detective", "Soji Shimada", "novels", "Premendra Mitra", "Kogoro Akechi", "Robert Crais", "Patricia Wentworth", "Ja'far ibn Yahya", "And Then There Were None", "Saguru Hakuba", "Kenneth Millar", "Magic in fiction", "wikt:debut", "Protestant", "Red herring (plot device)", "Gordianus the Finder", "Historical whodunnit", "New York Times Book Review", "List of Ace mystery double titles", "The Power of the Dog (Winslow novel)", "The Eyre Affair", "Dr. Priestley", "Per Wahlöö", "J. A. Jance", "Josephine Tey", "Chicago", "Hergé", "Miss Marple", "Philip Macdonald", "The Hindu", "Navajo people", "Adam Dalgliesh", "The Monkey's Raincoat", "Tom Taylor", "Fictional detectives", "Queen Victoria", "The Big Sleep", "Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy", "A Family Affair (novel)", "Dr. Tony Hill", "Tang dynasty", "Edogawa Rampo", "The Woman in White (novel)", "Thomas Lynley", "legal case", "Organized crime", "Charles Dickens", "The Three Apples", "List of Ace mystery letter-series single titles", "Daniel (biblical figure)", "Amalgamated Press", "Zadig", "Inspector Ghote", "Union Jack (magazine)", "Witness for the Prosecution (1957 film)", "Robert Goldsborough (writer)", "wikt:灰", "Knots and Crosses", "Monsieur Lecoq", "interwar period", "Steven Saylor", "Susanna (Book of Daniel: 13)", "Paul Collins (American writer)", "Martin Edwards (author)", "Boris Akunin", "Serial killer", "wikt:狄", "The Purloined Letter", "Henning Mankell", "African American", "Sexton Blake", "The Brothers Karamazov", "Tony Hillerman", "Jasoosi Dunya", "zh:公案小说", "P. C. Doherty", "Gallows View", "The Light of Day (Eric Ambler novel)", "John William Staniforth", "Arthur Conan Doyle", "Circle of Chalk", "The Last Detective (book)", "Matthew Scudder", "The Moving Target", "Mystery film", "police", "Song dynasty", "Yuan dynasty", "Paul Levinson", "Jackson Brodie", "wikt:包", "Calcutta", "The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency", "Willy Corsari", "whodunit", "Imran series", "Kate Atkinson (writer)", "Bartholomew Gill", "James Lee Burke", "Everyman", "Indemnity Only", "Kate Dickens Perugini", "Bleak House", "Humayun Ahmed", "Detective Inspector John Rebus", "Hercule Poirot", "Kate Fansler", "Closed circle of suspects", "Dashiell Hammett", "A Morbid Taste for Bones", "The Murder at the Vicarage", "Tommy and Tuppence", "Black Mask (magazine)", "Ed McBain", "Travis McGee", "Bengali language", "Voltaire", "V.I. Warshawski", "Sherlock (TV series)", "Paul Levine", "Mike Hammer (character)", "trope (literature)", "Kikira", "supernatural", "Jeffrey Archer", "Philip Marlowe", "The Thin Man", "Syed Mustafa Siraj", "Caroline Graham (writer)", "Elizabeth Daly", "List of female detective characters", "demon", "Attica Locke", "Harry Dresden", "A Man Lay Dead", "New Mexico", "The Rector of Veilbye", "Craig Kennedy", "Jake Lassiter", "Roseanna (novel)", "Monash University", "Sixkill (novel)", "Postern of Fate", "Dirk Gently", "The Maltese Falcon (novel)", "Marcus Didius Falco", "Paul Newman", "Rex Stout", "Mitin Masi", "List of Chinese battles", "Taku Ashibe", "Conservative Jewish", "Thomas Adcock", "Lindsey Davis", "Black Alley", "The Crime at Black Dudley", "Monk (TV series)", "Carolyn Keene", "George Gideon", "Thomas Skinner Surr", "Kogoro Mouri", "Christopher G. Moore", "hardboiled", "Kiriti Roy", "mystery fiction", "Daemon (novel series)", "Bimal-Kumar", "Brother Cadfael", "World War II", "C. Auguste Dupin", "Golden Age of Detective Fiction", "Ngaio Marsh", "Case Histories", "Personal digital assistant", "Erast Fandorin", "Black Coffee (play)", "Locked room mystery", "Maine", "The Terrorists", "Precious Ramotswe", "cybercrime", "Mary Elizabeth Braddon", "Birdman (novel)", "The Bone Collector (novel)", "Hemendra Kumar Roy", "Marvin Heiferman", "Yevgeny Baratynsky", "wikt:記", "historical novel", "Auguste Dupin", "John Dickson Carr", "Edinburgh Royal Infirmary", "H. R. F. Keating", "Sherlock Holmes", "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", "Cecil Street", "Harry Blyth", "Scheherazade", "The Tokyo Zodiac Murders", "The Dain Curse", "Dalziel and Pascoe", "English country house", "Faceless Killers", "Alex Delaware", "E. T. A. Hoffmann", "Elvis Cole", "The Silver Pigs", "mobile phone", "Spoiler (media)", "Bimal", "Al Capone", "Michael Connelly", "Manfred Bennington Lee", "Sir Henry Merrivale", "Émile Gaboriau", "One Thousand and One Nights", "Ian Rankin", "intelligence", "wikt:公", "supernatural fiction", "Peter Lovesey", "Michael Moorcock", "Seichō Matsumoto", "Ishtiaq Ahmad (fiction writer)" ]
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Daniel Defoe
Daniel Defoe (; born Daniel Foe; 1660 – 24 April 1731) was an English writer, merchant and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations. He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson. Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him. Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works—books, pamphlets, and journals—on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural. He was also a pioneer of business journalism and economic journalism. == Early life == Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux. "De" is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames. His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely. His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of probable Flemish descent, and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In Defoe's early childhood, he lived through several significant historical events: in 1665, seventy thousand were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe's and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway. His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten. === Education === Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher's boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton's dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there. He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–103. During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the established Church of England. == Business career == Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate. She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children. and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using the name "Defoe" and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary nearby. == Writing == As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes. === Pamphleteering and prison === Defoe's first notable publication was An Essay Upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legion's Memorial to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists. In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested. Many regard it as one of the world's first examples of modern journalism. In the same year, he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France, which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair. When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the Review to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing "Tory" pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view. Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent, and to secure acquiescence by using "underhand methods to predispose Scots' opinion in favour of" the Treaty of Union. He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as The Letters of Daniel Defoe (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents. His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind", he reported. Defoe reportedly "became fearful of being lynched after a threatening crowd surged up the High Street shouting 'No Union! No English dogs!'"|sign=|source=}} Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly" but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England". He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported, For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always kept the last word for himself. He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate. ==== Aftermath ==== In 1709, Defoe authored a lengthy book entitled The History of the Union of Great Britain, an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson. Defoe is cited twice in the book as its author, and gives details of the events leading up to the Acts of Union 1707, dating as far back as 6 December 1604, when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification. This so-called "first draft" for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord. Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehemently in favour of remaining independent from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain, published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was "not the case, but rather the contrary". Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town's name. The Gaelic Glas could mean grey or green, while chu means dog or hollow. Glaschu probably means "Green Hollow". The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God". The "Dear Green Place" and "City of God" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against". === Late writing === The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in Harley's Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include The Family Instructor (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris. From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman (1726) and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law of Subordination Considered (1724) and Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business (1725) and works on the supernatural, like The Political History of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1727) and An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727) and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his most significant work, apart from the novels, is A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. ==== The Complete English Tradesman ==== Published in 1726, The Complete English Tradesman is an example of Defoe's political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior. In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well. Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy. Robinson Crusoe relates the story of a man's shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe's struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine conversion experience. In the opening pages of The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire, married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of "H. F." in A Journal of the Plague Year retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe's family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered. Defoe went to school in Newington Green with a friend named Caruso. The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands, Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan. ==== Captain Singleton ==== Defoe's next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of the geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience. ==== Memoirs of a Cavalier ==== Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720) is set during the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War. ==== A Journal of the Plague Year ==== A Journal of the Plague Year, published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials "H. F.", suggesting the author's uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred. ==== Colonel Jack ==== Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a "gentleman." ==== Moll Flanders ==== Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders, another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader's sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents. Moll Flanders is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society. ==== Roxana ==== Defoe's final novel, Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is relating her story. ==== Patterns ==== In Defoe's writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background). Connected to Defoe's didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in Robinson Crusoe. Another common feature of Defoe's fictional works is that he claimed they were true stories of their subjects. === Attribution and de-attribution === Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names. It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously. As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name "the author of the True-Born Englishman", about 75 works can be attributed to him. Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe. In History of the Union, he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as "Books which are supposed to be De Foe's." Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe. Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe's work, without a means to be absolutely certain. In the Cambridge History of English Literature, the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe's work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe. He was often in debtors' prison. The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke. A street in the Bronx, New York, is named in his honour (De Foe Place). == Selected works == === Novels === The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon: Translated from the Lunar Language (1705) Robinson Crusoe (1719) – originally published in two volumes: The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross (1740) – published anonymously; printed and sold by R. Montagu in London; and attributed to Defoe but more recently not accepted by Moore.
[ "civet", "General Assembly of the Church of Scotland", "English Dissenters", "Nobiliary particle", "First Monday (journal)", "Colonel Jack", "A Journal of the Plague Year", "Presbyterian", "Monmouth Rebellion", "didacticism", "Robert Drury (sailor)", "Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe", "John Robert Moore", "Mark (currency)", "George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys", "Old Bailey", "William Paterson (banker)", "erotica", "Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress", "Dorking", "Chatham, Kent", "The Political History of the Devil", "Flemish people", "Defauw (surname)", "An Essay Upon Projects", "Bloody Assizes", "Mere Nature Delineated", "Great Fire of London", "Juan Fernández Islands", "City Road", "A General History of the Pyrates", "Acts of Union 1707", "Salathiel Lovell", "Henry Avery", "James VI and I", "St Botolph's Aldgate", "Al-Andalus", "History of Essex", "Bedfordshire", "Industrial Revolution", "Dissenter", "The Consolidator", "Parliament of Scotland", "tariff", "high church", "Moubray House", "pillory", "Porto", "The True-Born Englishman", "protectionism", "Fore Street, London", "industrial espionage", "County of Flanders", "Treaty of Ryswick", "House of Tudor", "John Gow", "Great Storm of 1703", "Nicolas Mesnager", "St George's Tron Church", "wikt:mob", "Low Countries", "Charles Morton (educator)", "standing army", "Newington Green", "The King of Pirates", "Newington Green Unitarian Church", "East Saltoun and West Saltoun", "National Maritime Museum", "Tories (British political party)", "The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe", "Nine Years' War", "The Great Law of Subordination Consider'd", "Dutch language", "Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer", "W. R. Owens", "George Chalmers (antiquarian)", "picaresque novel", "Ibn Tufail", "Quaker", "Chadwell St Mary", "tallow", "Parochial Tyranny", "Mary II of England", "John J. Miller (journalist)", "St Giles-without-Cripplegate", "Consumption (economics)", "Newgate Prison", "piracy", "Whigs (British political party)", "Every-body's Business, Is No-body's Business", "Faux (surname)", "Conjugal Lewdness", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain", "gentry", "mercat cross", "Memoirs of a Cavalier", "English Presbyterianism", "Heirs of Anderson", "Muslim", "English Civil War", "Great Plague of London", "A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain", "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan", "Bunhill Fields", "River Thames", "A Plan of the English Commerce", "Augusta Triumphans", "government-granted monopoly", "Chandlery", "The Protestant Monastery", "Edinburgh", "Aphra Behn", "Henry VII of England", "Christian Davies", "Adventure fiction", "Robinson Crusoe Island", "Moll Flanders", "Darien scheme", "Worshipful Company of Butchers", "occasional conformity", "The Shortest Way with the Dissenters", "P. N. Furbank", "Cadiz", "nobleman", "English novel", "business journalism", "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)", "Elizabeth I", "The Guardian", "London", "Borough of Islington", "Economy of the United Kingdom", "Industrialisation", "debtors' prison", "Stoke Newington", "Bristol", "Robinson Crusoe", "Liberty of the Mint", "Dissenting academies", "lynched", "Bank of England", "William Peterfield Trent", "iarchive:systemofmagic00defo", "Alexander Selkirk", "St. Paul's Cathedral", "Thomas Abney", "Minister (Christianity)", "Sir John Clerk, 2nd Baronet", "Tilbury", "gentleman", "Captain Charles Johnson", "War of the Spanish Succession", "Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom", "Scottish Gaelic", "Samuel Richardson", "dowry", "Simon Ockley", "Lisbon", "xenophobic", "James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton", "British Empire", "Governance of England", "William III of England", "Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy", "Thirty Years' War", "Nonconformist (Protestantism)", "Andrew Fletcher (patriot)", "The Apparition of Mrs. Veal", "Glasgow", "Periodical literature", "Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin", "Harley Ministry", "pen name", "raid on the Medway", "Cripplegate", "The Storm (Daniel Defoe)", "Merchant", "David Livingstone", "spiritual autobiography", "Charles Drelincourt", "Apprentice complex", "Treaty of Union", "The Bronx", "River Medway", "William Gregg (clerk and spy)", "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", "Treaty of Utrecht", "Second Thoughts are Best", "Church of England", "Flemish dialects", "Captain Singleton" ]
8,194
December 8
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 395 – Later Yan is defeated by its former vassal Northern Wei at the Battle of Canhe Slope. 757 – The poet Du Fu returns to Chang'an as a member of Emperor Xuanzong's court, after having escaped the city during the An Lushan Rebellion. 877 – Louis the Stammerer (son of Charles the Bald) is crowned king of the West Frankish Kingdom at Compiègne. 1504 – Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah writes his Oran fatwa, arguing for the relaxation of Islamic law requirements for the forcibly converted Muslims in Spain. ===1601–1900=== 1660 – A woman (either Margaret Hughes or Anne Marshall) appears on an English public stage for the first time, in the role of Desdemona in a production of Shakespeare's play Othello. 1851 – Conservative Santiago-based government troops defeat rebels at the Battle of Loncomilla, signaling the end of the 1851 Chilean Revolution. 1854 – In his Apostolic constitution Ineffabilis Deus, Pope Pius IX proclaims the dogmatic definition of Immaculate Conception, which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary was conceived free of Original Sin. 1863 – Between two and three thousand churchgoers die during the Church of the Company Fire. Deemed as probably the largest single building fire by number of victims in modern history, it began at the start of a Mass held at the Church of the Society of Jesus in Santiago, Chile, during the celebration of the recently proclaimed Feast of the Immaculate Conception. 1864 – Pope Pius IX promulgates the encyclical Quanta cura and its appendix, the Syllabus of Errors, outlining the authority of the Catholic Church and condemning various liberal ideas. ===1901–present=== 1907 – King Gustaf V of Sweden accedes to the Swedish throne. 1912 – Leaders of the German Empire hold an Imperial War Council to discuss the possibility that war might break out. 1914 – World War I: A squadron of Britain's Royal Navy defeats the Imperial German East Asia Squadron in the Battle of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic. 1922 – Two days after coming into existence, the Irish Free State executes four leaders of the Irish Republican Army: Liam Mellows, Rory O'Connor, Joe McKelvey and Dick Barrett. 1933 – Anarchist insurrection breaks out in Zaragoza, Spain. 1941 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt declares December 7 to be "a date which will live in infamy", after which the U.S. declares war on Japan. 1941 – World War II: Japanese forces simultaneously invade Shanghai International Settlement, Malaya, Thailand, Hong Kong, the Philippines, and the Dutch East Indies. (See December 7 for the concurrent attack on Pearl Harbor in the Western Hemisphere.) 1943 – World War II: The German 117th Jäger Division destroys the monastery of Mega Spilaio in Greece and executes 22 monks and visitors as part of reprisals that culminated a few days later with the Massacre of Kalavryta. 1953 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers his "Atoms for Peace" speech, which leads to an American program to supply equipment and information on nuclear power to schools, hospitals, and research institutions around the world. 1955 – The Flag of Europe is adopted by Council of Europe. 1962 – Workers at four New York City newspapers (this later increases to nine) go on strike for 114 days. 1963 – Pan Am Flight 214, a Boeing 707, is struck by lightning and crashes near Elkton, Maryland, killing all 81 people on board. 1966 – The Greek ship sinks in a storm in the Aegean Sea, killing over 200. 1969 – Olympic Airways Flight 954 strikes a mountain outside of Keratea, Greece, killing 90 people in the worst crash of a Douglas DC-6 in history. 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War: The Indian Navy launches an attack on West Pakistan's port city of Karachi. 1972 – United Airlines Flight 553, a Boeing 737, crashes after aborting its landing attempt at Chicago Midway International Airport, killing 45. This is the first-ever loss of a Boeing 737. 1974 – A plebiscite results in the abolition of monarchy in Greece. 1980 – John Lennon is murdered by Mark David Chapman in front of The Dakota in New York City. 1985 – The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union in South Asia, is established. 1987 – Cold War: The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the White House. 1987 – An Israeli army tank transporter kills four Palestinian refugees and injures seven others during a traffic accident at the Erez Crossing on the Israel–Gaza Strip border, which has been cited as one of the events which sparked the First Intifada. 1988 – A United States Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II crashes into an apartment complex in Remscheid, Germany, killing five people and injuring 50 others. 1990 – The Galileo spacecraft flies past Earth for the first time. 1991 – The leaders of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine sign an agreement dissolving the Soviet Union and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States. 1992 – The Galileo spacecraft flies past Earth for the second time. 1998 – Eighty-one people are killed by armed groups in Algeria. 2001 – A raid conducted by the Internal Security Department (ISD) of Singapore foils a Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) plot to bomb foreign embassies in Singapore. 2004 – The Cusco Declaration is signed in Cusco, Peru, establishing the South American Community of Nations. 2004 – Columbus nightclub shooting: Nathan Gale opens fire at the Alrosa Villa nightclub in Columbus, Ohio, killing former Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell and three others before being shot dead by a police officer. 2009 – Bombings in Baghdad, Iraq kill 127 people and injure 448 others. 2010 – With the second launch of the Falcon 9, and the first launch of the Dragon, SpaceX becomes the first private company to successfully launch, orbit and recover a spacecraft. 2010 – The Japanese solar-sail spacecraft IKAROS passes the planet Venus at a distance of about . 2013 – Riots break out in Singapore, after a fatal accident in Little India. 2013 – Metallica performs a show in Antarctica, making them the first band to perform on all seven continents. 2019 – First confirmed case of COVID-19 in China. 2024 – Damascus falls to rebels after Syrian troops withdraw and president Bashar al-Assad leaves the country as his government collapses. Israel as a result invaded into the buffer zone between Syria and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 65 BC – Horace, Roman poet (d. 8 BC) 1021 – Wang Anshi, Chinese economist and chancellor (d. 1086) 1412 – Astorre II Manfredi, Italian lord (d. 1468) 1418 – Queen Jeonghui, Queen consort of Korea (d. 1483) 1424 – Anselm Adornes, Belgian merchant, politician and diplomat (d. 1483) 1538 – Miklós Istvánffy, Hungarian politician (d. 1615) 1542 – Mary, Queen of Scots, daughter of James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise (d. 1587) 1558 – François de La Rochefoucauld, Catholic cardinal (d. 1645) ===1601–1900=== 1678 – Antonio de Benavides, colonial governor of Florida (d. 1762) 1678 – Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole, English politician and diplomat, British Ambassador to France (d. 1757) 1699 – Maria Josepha of Austria (d. 1757) 1708 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1765) 1724 – Claude Balbastre, French organist and composer (d. 1799) 1730 – Jan Ingenhousz, Dutch physician, physiologist, and botanist (d. 1799) 1731 – František Xaver Dušek, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1799) 1756 – Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria (d. 1801) 1765 – Eli Whitney, American engineer, invented the cotton gin (d. 1825) 1795 – Peter Andreas Hansen, Danish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1874) 1807 – Friedrich Traugott Kützing, German pharmacist, botanist and phycologist (d. 1893) 1813 – August Belmont, Prussian-American financier and diplomat, 16th United States Ambassador to the Netherlands (d. 1890) 1815 – Adolph Menzel, German painter and illustrator (d. 1905) 1817 – Christian Emil Krag-Juel-Vind-Frijs, Danish lawyer and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1896) 1818 – Charles III, Prince of Monaco (d. 1889) 1822 – Jakov Ignjatović, Hungarian-Serbian author (d. 1889) 1832 – Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian-French author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910) 1860 – Amanda McKittrick Ros, Irish author and poet (d. 1939) 1861 – William C. Durant, American businessman, founded General Motors and Chevrolet (d. 1947) 1861 – Aristide Maillol, French sculptor and painter (d. 1944) 1861 – Georges Méliès, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1938) 1862 – Georges Feydeau, French playwright (d. 1921) 1863 – Charles Lincoln Edwards, American zoologist (d. 1937) 1864 – Camille Claudel, French illustrator and sculptor (d. 1943) 1865 – Rüdiger von der Goltz, German general (d. 1946) 1865 – Jacques Hadamard, French mathematician and academic (d. 1963) 1865 – Jean Sibelius, Finnish violinist and composer (d. 1957) 1874 – Ernst Moro, Austrian physician and pediatrician (d. 1951) 1875 – Frederik Buch, Danish actor and screenwriter (d. 1925) 1877 – Paul Ladmirault, French pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 1944) 1880 – Johannes Aavik, Estonian linguist and philologist (d. 1973) 1881 – Tuomas Bryggari, Finnish politician (d. 1964) 1881 – Albert Gleizes, French painter (d. 1953) 1884 – Francis Balfour, English colonel and politician (d. 1965) 1886 – Diego Rivera, Mexican painter and educator (d. 1957) 1887 – Elizabeth Daryush, English poet (d. 1977) 1890 – Bohuslav Martinů, Czech-American pianist and composer (d. 1959) 1892 – Marcus Lee Hansen, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1938) 1894 – E. C. Segar, American cartoonist, created Popeye (d. 1938) 1894 – James Thurber, American humorist and cartoonist (d. 1961) 1899 – Arthur Leslie, English-Welsh actor and playwright (d. 1970) 1899 – John Qualen, Canadian-American actor (d. 1987) 1900 – Sun Li-jen, Chinese general and politician (d. 1990) 1900 – Ants Oras, Estonian-American author and academic (d. 1982) ===1901–present=== 1902 – Wifredo Lam, Cuban-French painter (d. 1982) 1903 – Zelma Watson George, Black American opera singer (d. 1994) 1908 – Concha Piquer, Spanish singer and actress (d. 1990) 1908 – John A. Volpe, American soldier and politician, 61st Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1994) 1911 – Lee J. Cobb, American actor (d. 1976) 1911 – Nikos Gatsos, Greek poet and songwriter (d. 1992) 1913 – Delmore Schwartz, American poet and short story writer (d. 1966) 1914 – Floyd Tillman, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003) 1914 – Ernie Toshack, Australian cricketer (d. 2003) 1915 – Ernest Lehman, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1916 – Richard Fleischer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2006) 1917 – Ian Johnson, Australian cricketer and administrator (d. 1998) 1919 – Peter Tali Coleman, Samoan-American lawyer and politician, 43rd Governor of American Samoa (d. 1997) 1919 – Julia Bowman, American mathematician and theorist (d. 1985) 1919 – Kateryna Yushchenko, Ukrainian computer scientist and academic (d. 2001) 1920 – McDonald Bailey, Trinidadian-English sprinter and rugby player (d. 2013) 1922 – Lucian Freud, German-English painter and illustrator (d. 2011) 1922 – Jean Ritchie, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1923 – Dewey Martin, American actor (d. 2018) 1923 – Rudolph Pariser, Chinese-American soldier and chemist (d. 2021) 1924 – Lionel Gilbert, Australian historian, author, and academic (d. 2015) 1925 – Sammy Davis Jr., American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1990) 1925 – Nasir Kazmi, Pakistani Urdu poet (d. 1972) 1925 – Carmen Martín Gaite, Spanish author and poet (d. 2000) 1925 – Jimmy Smith, American organist (d. 2005) 1926 – Ralph Puckett, American Army officer (d. 2024) 1927 – Niklas Luhmann, German thinker and social theorist (d. 1998) 1927 – Vladimir Shatalov, Kazakhstani general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2021) 1928 – Bill Hewitt, Canadian journalist and sportscaster (d. 1996) 1928 – Ulric Neisser, German-American psychologist, neuroscientist, and academic (d. 2012) 1929 – Victor Nosach, chronicler of the history of workers and trade union of Russia (d. 2011) 1930 – Julian Critchley, English journalist and politician (d. 2000) 1930 – Maximilian Schell, Austrian-Swiss actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1931 – Bob Arum, American boxing promoter, founded Top Rank 1932 – Claus Luthe, German automotive designer (d. 2008) 1933 – Johnny Green, American basketball player (d. 2023) 1933 – Flip Wilson, American actor and comedian (d. 1998) 1935 – Dharmendra, Indian actor, producer, and politician 1935 – Tatiana Zatulovskaya, Russian-Israeli chess player (d. 2017) 1936 – David Carradine, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2009) 1937 – James MacArthur, American actor (d. 2010) (d. 2024) 1943 – Larry Martin, American paleontologist and ornithologist (d. 2013) 1943 – Jim Morrison, American singer-songwriter and poet (d. 1971) 1946 – Chava Alberstein, Polish-Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist 1946 – John Rubinstein, American actor, director, and composer 1953 – Norman Finkelstein, American author, academic, and activist 1953 – Roy Firestone, American sportscaster and journalist 1953 – Sam Kinison, American comedian (d. 1992) 1953 – Władysław Kozakiewicz, Lithuanian-Polish pole vaulter and coach 1953 – Steve Yates, English footballer 1954 – Harold Hongju Koh, American lawyer, academic, and politician 1954 – Frits Pirard, Dutch cyclist 1955 – Milenko Zablaćanski, Serbian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1956 – Warren Cuccurullo, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Michel Ferté, French race car driver (d. 2023) 1958 – Bob Greene, American physiologist and author 1958 – Mirosław Okoński, Polish footballer 1958 – George Rogers, American football player 1959 – Stephen Jefferies, South African cricketer and coach 1959 – Mark Steyn, Canadian-American author and critic 1960 – Aaron Allston, American game designer and author (d. 2014) 1960 – Lim Guan Eng, Malaysian accountant and politician 1961 – Mark Bugden, Australian rugby league player 1961 – Ann Coulter, American political commentator and author 1961 – Mikey Robins, Australian comedian and television host 1962 – Steve Elkington, Australian-American golfer 1962 – Marty Friedman, American-Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and television host 1966 – Bushwick Bill, Jamaican-American rapper (d. 2019) 1966 – Les Ferdinand, English footballer and coach 1966 – Matthew Labyorteaux, American actor 1968 – Mike Mussina, American baseball player and coach 1968 – Doriano Romboni, Italian motorcycle racer (d. 2013) 1969 – Kristin Lauter, American mathematician and cryptographer 1971 – Abdullah Ercan, Turkish footballer and manager 1972 – Indrek Allmann, Estonian architect 1972 – Janae Kroc, American powerlifter 1972 – Édson Ribeiro, Brazilian sprinter 1973 – Corey Taylor, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1981 – Jeremy Accardo, American baseball player 1981 – Simon Finnigan, English rugby league player 1981 – Philip Rivers, American football player 1982 – Alfredo Aceves, Mexican baseball player 1982 – Halil Altıntop, Turkish footballer 1982 – Hamit Altıntop, Turkish footballer 1982 – Chrisette Michele, American singer-songwriter 1983 – Neel Jani, Swiss race car driver 1983 – Valéry Mézague, Cameroonian footballer (d. 2014) 1984 – Emma Green Tregaro, Swedish high jumper 1984 – Greg Halford, English footballer 1984 – Sam Hunt, American singer-songwriter 1985 – Meagan Duhamel, Canadian figure skater 1985 – Dwight Howard, American basketball player 1985 – Oleksiy Pecherov, Ukrainian basketball player 1986 – Enzo Amore, American wrestler and rapper 1986 – Amir Khan, English boxer 1986 – Sam Tagataese, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player 1986 – Kate Voegele, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1989 – Jesse Sene-Lefao, New Zealand rugby league player 1991 – Philip Holm, Swedish ice hockey player 1991 – Bhavini Purohit, Indian television actress and YouTuber 1992 – Mattias Janmark, Swedish ice hockey player 1992 – Yui Yokoyama, Japanese idol, model, and actress 1993 – Janari Jõesaar, Estonian basketball player 1993 – Cara Mund, American model, Miss America 2018 1993 – Jordan Obita, English footballer 1993 – AnnaSophia Robb, American actress 1994 – Cyriel Dessers, Belgian-Nigerian footballer 1994 – Conseslus Kipruto, Kenyan runner 1994 – Raheem Sterling, English footballer 1995 – Thatcher Demko, American ice hockey player 1996 – Scott McTominay, Scottish footballer 1997 – Hakeem Adeniji, American football player 1997 – Sam Hauser, American basketball player 1998 – Josh Dunne, American ice hockey player 1998 – Owen Teague, American actor 1999 – Tyrus Wheat, American football player 2000 – DeMario Douglas, American football player 2000 – Bayron Matos, Dominican American football player 2000 – Andy Pages, Cuban baseball player 2001 – Josh Christopher, American basketball player 2002 – Sunghoon, South Korean singer 2004 – Billie Starkz, American professional wrestler ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 855 – Drogo of Metz, illegitimate son of Charlemagne (b. 801) 899 – Arnulf of Carinthia (b. 850) 964 – Zhou the Elder, Chinese queen consort 1186 – Berthold IV, Duke of Zähringen (b.c 1125) 1292 – John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury 1365 – Nicholas II, Duke of Opava (b. 1288) 1431 – Hedwig Jagiellon, Polish and Lithuanian princess (b. 1408) 1550 – Gian Giorgio Trissino, Italian humanist, poet, dramatist and diplomat (b. 1478) 1596 – Luis de Carvajal the Younger, Marrano writer and martyr (b. 1566/1567) ===1601–1900=== 1626 – John Davies, English poet, lawyer, and politician (b. 1569) 1632 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b. 1561) 1638 – Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet (b. 1589) 1643 – John Pym, English politician (b. 1583) 1649 – Noël Chabanel, French missionary and saint (b. 1613) 1680 – Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester, English lawyer and politician (b. 1606) 1691 – Richard Baxter, English minister, poet, and hymn-writer (b. 1615) 1695 – Barthélemy d'Herbelot, French orientalist and academic (b. 1625) 1709 – Thomas Corneille, French playwright and philologist (b. 1625) 1722 – Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine (b. 1652) 1734 – James Figg, English prizefighter 1744 – Marie Anne de Mailly, French mistress of Louis XV of France (b. 1717) 1745 – Étienne Fourmont, French orientalist and academic (b. 1683) 1746 – Charles Radclyffe, English courtier and soldier (b. 1693) 1756 – William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington, English politician and diplomat, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1690) 1768 – Jean Denis Attiret, French painter and missionary (b. 1702) 1779 – Nathan Alcock, English physician (b. 1707) 1815 – Mary Bosanquet Fletcher, Methodist preacher and philanthropist (b. 1739) 1830 – Benjamin Constant, Swiss-French philosopher and author (b. 1767) 1856 – Theobald Mathew, Irish social reformer and temperance movement leader (b. 1790) 1859 – Thomas De Quincey, English journalist and author (b. 1785) 1864 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (b. 1815) 1869 – Narcisa de Jesús, Ecuadorian saint (b. 1832) 1885 – William Henry Vanderbilt, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1821) 1886 – Isaac Lea, American conchologist, geologist, and publisher (b. 1792) 1894 – Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician and theorist (b. 1821) ===1901–present=== 1903 – Herbert Spencer, English biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and philosopher (b. 1820) 1907 – King Oscar II of Sweden (b. 1829) 1913 – Camille Jenatzy, Belgian race car driver (b. 1868) 1914 – Melchior Anderegg, Swiss mountain guide (b. 1828) 1914 – Maximilian von Spee, Danish-German admiral (b. 1861) 1917 – Mendele Mocher Sforim, Russian author (b. 1836) 1918 – Josip Stadler, Bosnian Catholic archbishop (b. 1843) 1919 – J. Alden Weir, American painter (b. 1852) 1922 – Joe McKelvey and three other prominent Irish Republican Army officers are executed during the Irish Civil War 1929 – José Vicente Concha, Colombian politician and 8th President of Colombia (b. 1867) 1932 – Gertrude Jekyll, British horticulturist and writer (b. 1843) 1937 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (b. 1856) 1938 – Friedrich Glauser, Swiss author (b. 1896) 1940 – George Lloyd, English-Canadian bishop and theologian (b. 1861) 1941 – Izidor Kürschner, Hungarian football player and coach (b. 1885) 1942 – Albert Kahn, American architect, Fisher Building, Packard Automotive Plant, Ford River Rouge Complex (b. 1869) 1952 – Charles Lightoller, English sailor (b. 1874) 1954 – Claude Cahun, French artist, photographer, and writer (b. 1894) 1954 – Gladys George, American actress (b. 1904) 1954 – Joseph B. Keenan, American lawyer and politician (b. 1888) 1958 – Tris Speaker, American baseball player and manager (b. 1888) 1963 – Sarit Thanarat, Thai field marshal and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1908) 1966 – Ward Morehouse, American playwright, author, and critic (b. 1899) 1971 – Ernst Krenkel, Russian geographer and explorer (b. 1903) 1971 – Eleni Ourani, Greek poet and critic (b. 1896) 1975 – Gary Thain, New Zealand bass player (b. 1948) 1978 – Golda Meir, Ukrainian-Israeli educator and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1898) 1980 – John Lennon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1940) 2006 – Martha Tilton, American singer (b. 1915) 2006 – José Uribe, Dominican baseball player (b. 1959) 2007 – Gerardo García Pimentel, Mexican journalist (b. 1983) 2008 – Oliver Postgate, English voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1925) 2008 – Robert Prosky, American actor (b. 1930) 2009 – Luis Días, Dominican singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952) 2012 – Jerry Brown, American football player (b. 1987) 2012 – John Gowans, Scottish-English 16th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1934) 2012 – Johnny Lira, American boxer (b. 1951) 2013 – John Cornforth, Australian-English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) 2013 – Sándor Szokolay, Hungarian composer and academic (b. 1931) 2013 – Richard S. Williamson, American lawyer and diplomat (b. 1949) 2014 – Tom Gosnell, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1951) 2014 – Russ Kemmerer, American baseball player and coach (b. 1930) 2014 – Knut Nystedt, Norwegian organist and composer (b. 1915) 2015 – Mattiwilda Dobbs, American soprano and actress (b. 1925) 2015 – Alan Hodgkinson, English footballer and coach (b. 1936) 2015 – Douglas Tompkins, American businessman, co-founded The North Face and Esprit Holdings (b. 1943) 2015 – John Trudell, American author, poet, and actor (b. 1946) 2015 – Elsie Tu, English-Hong Kong educator and politician (b. 1913) 2016 – John Glenn, American astronaut and senator, first American to go into orbit (b. 1921) 2018 – David Weatherall, English physician, geneticist, and academic (b. 1933) 2019 – René Auberjonois, American actor (b. 1940) 2019 – Juice Wrld, American rapper, singer and songwriter (b. 1998) 2019 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and actor (b. 1933) 2021 – Robbie Shakespeare, Jamaican bass guitarist and record producer (b. 1953) 2023 – Ryan O'Neal, American actor (b. 1941) 2024 – Jill Jacobson, American actress (b. 1954) 2024 – Clarke Reed, American businessman and politician (b. 1928) ==Holidays and observances== Battle Day (Falkland Islands) Bodhi Day (Japan) CARICOM–Cuba Day (Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba) Christian feast day: Budoc (Beuzec) of Dol Clement of Ohrid (Julian Calendar), and its related observances: Student's Day (Bulgaria) Eucharius Feast of the Immaculate Conception (public holiday in several countries, a holy day of obligation in others), and its related observances: Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion), lesser commemoration Festa da Conceição da Praia, celebrating Yemanjá, Queen of the Ocean in Umbanda (Salvador, Bahia) Festival of Lights (Lyon) Mother's Day (Panama) Lady of Camarin Day (Guam) Patapios of Thebes Pope Eutychian Richard Baxter (US Episcopal Church) Romaric December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Constitution Day (Romania) Constitution Day (Uzbekistan) Day of Finnish Music (Finland) Earliest day on which National Tree Planting Day can fall, while December 14 is the latest; celebrated on the second Monday in December. (Malawi) Hari-Kuyō (Kansai region, Japan) National Youth Day (Albania) Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day (Ethiopia)
[ "Halil Altıntop", "1940", "Jean Denis Attiret", "1722", "Syllabus of Errors", "1886", "Kristin Lauter", "United States Air Force", "Bill Hewitt (sportscaster)", "Norman Finkelstein", "1982", "Soko Richardson", "Singapore", "Belovezh Accords", "Bushwick Bill", "Melchior Anderegg", "AnnaSophia Robb", "The Plain Dealer", "Tyler Mane", "E. C. Segar", "Mattias Janmark", "Keith Holyoake", "1899", "Julie Heldman", "John Davies (poet, born 1569)", "1638", "Johannes Aavik", "Martha Tilton", "1699", "Columbus, Ohio", "German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912", "Aegean Sea", "Lionel Gilbert", "Dan Hartman", "Sam Hunt (musician)", "Juan Ricardo Faccio", "1542", "Flip Wilson", "General of The Salvation Army", "Desdemona", "LOM Ediciones", "Julia Robinson", "Kashiwado Tsuyoshi", "Richard Desmond", "James Blundell (singer)", "2015", "Josip Stadler", "1924", "Péter Kuczka", "Tris Speaker", "1418", "buffer zone", "Luther Adler", "Infamy Speech", "Guam", "Jerry Butler", "Peter Tali Coleman", "Hakeem Adeniji", "1768", "Charles III, Prince of Monaco", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Mike Mussina", "Richard S. Williamson", "Thomas Cech", "Sam Kinison", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)", "Cusco", "Thatcher Demko", "Prime Minister of New Zealand", "Ian Somerhalder", "Teresa Weatherspoon", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Matt Ellison", "1626", "John Gowans", "Santiago de Chile", "phycology", "Camille Jenatzy", "Valéry Mézague", "Lee J. Cobb", "2024 Israeli invasion of Syria", "Philip Holm", "Ryan O'Neal", "1881", "Clarke Reed", "1125", "Marcus Lee Hansen", "1709", "1928", "1915", "1981", "2008", "Anne Marshall", "Rob Byrnes", "Jean Sibelius", "1854", "Battle Day", "Charles Lightoller", "William Shawn", "Ministry of Health (Singapore)", "1946", "Gerardo García Pimentel", "Dewey Martin (actor)", "1813", "Bob Arum", "1887", "Mass (liturgy)", "German Empire", "1950", "Matthew Labyorteaux", "West Pakistan", "Christian Wilhelmsson", "Gustaf V", "Othello", "feast day", "Steve Yates (footballer, born 1953)", "Meagan Duhamel", "Marty Robbins", "Dominic Monaghan", "1979", "Josh Dunne", "Pope Eutychian", "Jan Eggum", "Sarit Thanarat", "1994", "Columbus nightclub shooting", "Vernon Wells (baseball)", "Popeye", "Antarctica", "1972", "1916", "2016", "2013 Little India riot", "Greg Howe", "František Xaver Dušek", "1943", "Rubén González (pianist)", "Charles Lincoln Edwards", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Mattiwilda Dobbs", "Santiago", "Brant Alyea", "Douglas Tompkins", "Battle of Loncomilla", "1954", "Bob Love", "Northern & Shell", "Associated Press", "1860", "Bhavini Purohit", "Ivan Gundulić", "Charlemagne", "Reece James (footballer, born 1999)", "1851", "David Harewood", "Caribbean Community", "Anwar Siraj", "1977", "Rick Baker (makeup artist)", "Eucharius", "1734", "65 BC", "Philippe van Lansberge", "Mendele Mocher Sforim", "Tuomas Bryggari", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "Scott McTominay", "1947", "SpaceX", "Khaw Boon Wan", "Society of Jesus", "Saint Patapios", "John Trudell", "Mark Steyn", "Pan Am Flight 214", "1922", "Jakov Ignjatović", "1596", "Clement of Ohrid", "The New York Times", "1920", "Margaret Hughes", "Boeing 737", "Coronavirus disease 2019", "Diego Rivera", "1931", "Albert Kahn (architect)", "Roy Firestone", "1992", "Jim Morrison", "George Rogers (American football)", "Rose Heilbron", "2013", "Larry Martin", "Greg Halford", "1953", "Malawi", "Japanese invasion of Malaya", "1933", "Ted Irvine", "Salvador, Bahia", "Oleksiy Pecherov", "Georges Feydeau", "Ian Johnson (cricketer)", "Marie Anne de Mailly", "Elkton, Maryland", "Arthur Leslie", "Bertie Higgins", "Zaragoza", "964", "Delmore Schwartz", "1932", "Dariush Mehrjui", "Charles Radclyffe", "Red Berenson", "1951", "South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "François de La Rochefoucauld (cardinal)", "1935", "Serena Ryder", "Óscar Ramírez (footballer, born 1964)", "Jacques Hadamard", "2009", "2021", "Alan Hodgkinson", "Christian Emil Krag-Juel-Vind-Frijs", "Luis Caffarelli", "George Baker (Dutch singer)", "Dwight Howard", "1985", "Conseslus Kipruto", "2010", "Fall of Damascus (2024)", "Methodism", "New York City", "Johnny Green (basketball)", "Gérard Blanc", "Robert Prosky", "Northern Wei", "1990", "Soviet Union", "Hari-Kuyo", "Slick (wrestling)", "Sándor Szokolay", "1765", "Du Fu", "Governor of Massachusetts", "Compiègne", "The Dakota", "Metallica", "Lucian Freud", "Rob Curling", "Conceição Lima", "1961", "Yui Yokoyama", "Oscar II", "1926", "1966", "Kotono Mitsuishi", "Makuuchi", "McDonald Bailey", "Nicholas II, Duke of Opava", "Hamit Altıntop", "Apostolic constitution", "SpaceX Dragon 1", "World War I", "2023", "United States Ambassador to the Netherlands", "Luis de Carvajal the Younger", "1938", "Owen Teague", "Dharmendra", "Prime Minister of Thailand", "CNN", "South American Community of Nations", "1999", "1925", "Gregg Allman", "Frederik Buch", "2019", "Ernest Lehman", "Chile", "Council of Europe", "1830", "1978", "Luis Días (composer)", "Rüdiger von der Goltz", "1962–63 New York City newspaper strike", "1649", "Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II", "1869", "Joseph B. Keenan", "Jemaah Islamiyah", "Claude Balbastre", "1877", "1965", "1987", "Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion)", "1892", "Mark David Chapman", "Richard Fleischer", "1919", "Raymond Lam", "Adolph Menzel", "1939", "Drogo of Metz", "Nasir Kazmi", "Fiqh", "Brettina", "Dimebag Darrell", "Little India, Singapore", "Ulric Neisser", "2002", "2001", "Esprit Holdings", "Ricky Walford", "Second Spanish Republic", "Mega Spilaio", "Panama", "West Francia", "Battle of the Falkland Islands", "1993", "Festa da Conceição da Praia", "Duke Cunningham", "1660", "1815", "Kate Voegele", "Chrisette Michele", "Karachi", "Friedrich Traugott Kützing", "Thomas Corneille", "Margaret Geller", "2003", "Tadjena massacre", "1976", "Vince MacLean", "Jen Ledger", "National Tree Planting Day (Malawi)", "Oran fatwa", "2018", "Hedwig Jagiellon (1408–1431)", "James Thurber", "Razzle (musician)", "Emma Green Tregaro", "2012", "Bayron Matos", "Louis XV of France", "Pantera", "1730", "Wendell Pierce", "An Lushan Rebellion", "Wifredo Lam", "Bill Bryson", "Venus", "Irish Civil War", "1989", "Zelma Watson George", "2000", "José Uribe", "1927", "Kim Basinger", "Later Yan", "1967", "Peter Andreas Hansen", "Singapore embassies attack plot", "1779", "Jeff George", "Miss America 2018", "Sam Hauser", "Bob Brown (offensive lineman)", "1744", "Herbert Spencer", "Falcon 9", "Horace", "Brandt Snedeker", "Steve Atkinson (cricketer)", "1971", "Caroll Spinney", "Sunghoon (singer, born 2002)", "1952", "liberalism", "Raheem Sterling", "Darren Sheridan", "1894", "Michael Hobson", "Sam Tagataese", "Prime Minister of Israel", "Ronald Reagan", "1984", "1643", "Amanda McKittrick Ros", "899", "December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Kansai", "1424", "Mark Bugden", "John Pym", "Japan", "1907", "Oliver Postgate", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "John Waters (actor)", "1937", "Enzo Amore", "1913", "1996", "Galileo (spacecraft)", "Milenko Zablaćanski", "1963", "René Auberjonois", "1880", "1975", "Anita Weyermann", "Andy Pages", "John Oster", "James Tate (writer)", "Claude Cahun", "1756", "Reed Johnson", "Battle of Hong Kong", "Elizabeth Daryush", "1958", "Daniel Fitzhenry", "Public holidays in Bulgaria", "Ineffabilis Deus", "Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson", "Billie Starkz", "Chevrolet", "Albert Gleizes", "1412", "1941", "Cold War", "Yevgeny Minayev", "Betty Holberton", "Ants Oras", "1908", "James Figg", "Mary Gordon (writer)", "President of Colombia", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Emperor Xuanzong of Tang", "1949", "Mike Buchanan (politician)", "Ernst Moro", "Kateryna Yushchenko (scientist)", "395", "1969", "1731", "William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington", "1962", "Joe McKelvey", "1912", "Liam Mellows", "Pope Pius IX", "General Motors", "IKAROS", "2007", "reprisals", "Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)", "Johan Forssell (politician, born 1979)", "Ryan Newman (racing driver)", "Gertrude Jekyll", "1885", "Julian Critchley", "Lord Lieutenant of Ireland", "The North Face", "Original Sin", "Carmen Martín Gaite", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "1957", "Jesse Sene-Lefao", "Cara Mund", "solar-sail", "Michel Ferté", "Cyriel Dessers", "1186", "John Peckham", "James Galway", "Floyd Tillman", "1678", "DeMario Douglas", "Quanta cura", "1818", "1822", "Marty Friedman", "Miklós Istvánffy", "1365", "1746", "Andrius Kubilius", "Anarchist insurrection of December 1933", "Lim Guan Eng", "Hans Molisch", "FBref", "Pafnuty Chebyshev", "Japanese invasion of Thailand", "British Ambassador to France", "Israel–Gaza barrier", "Irish Republican Army", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Greek republic referendum, 1974", "Queen Jeonghui", "Governor of American Samoa", "Internal Security Department (Singapore)", "2004", "Nikos Karageorgiou", "Aristide Maillol", "Gladys George", "1859", "1558", "1929", "James Cama", "Pelucones", "Jeremy Accardo", "CARICOM–Cuba Day", "Operation Python", "Slim Pickens", "Ed Brinkman", "1862", "Josh Donaldson", "Bram Behr", "Ernie Toshack", "Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester", "holy day of obligation", "Theobald Mathew (temperance reformer)", "Top Rank", "Tatiana Zatulovskaya", "Jerry Brown (American football)", "1021", "cotton gin", "Ethiopia", "1538", "John Banville", "Baseball Reference", "1995", "José Vicente Concha", "Geoff Hurst", "Pro Football Reference", "First Intifada", "Chigusa Nagayo", "Jill Jacobson", "Falkland Islands", "Friedrich Glauser", "Arnulf of Carinthia", "Packard Automotive Plant", "Johnny Lira", "John Glenn", "Monarchy of Greece", "Major League Baseball", "Michael Cole (wrestling)", "Izidor Kürschner", "Blessed Virgin Mary", "1884", "Douglas DC-6", "Benjamin Constant", "Kevin Harvick", "Remscheid", "1942", "1903", "Aaron Allston", "André Kamperveen", "Theo Maassen", "1832", "Forced conversion of Muslims in Spain", "Mary of Guise", "1875", "Nick Zinner", "Massacre of Kalavryta", "Mikey Robins", "Juice Wrld", "Eleni Ourani", "Indian Navy", "WNBA", "Semih Sancar", "Howard Rollins", "Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty", "117th Jäger Division (Wehrmacht)", "Jordan Obita", "Peru", "Narcisa de Jesús", "Bohuslav Martinů", "Cuba", "1864", "Claus Luthe", "William Henry Vanderbilt", "Bob Bell (actor)", "1695", "2006", "Antonio de Benavides", "Mirosław Okoński", "1632", "Concha Piquer", "1900", "Gary Thain", "1865", "Nikos Gatsos", "Charles the Bald", "Astorre II Manfredi", "1998", "Teri Hatcher", "1917", "Indrek Allmann", "Simon Finnigan", "United Airlines Flight 553", "Catholic Church", "Sun Li-jen", "1983", "Isaac Lea", "Commonwealth of Independent States", "Richard Barrett (Irish republican)", "1890", "Yuliya Krevsun", "Ingrid Michaelson", "1986", "877", "Rudolph Pariser", "1745", "1851 Chilean Revolution", "Barthélemy d'Herbelot", "2024", "Elsie Tu", "John Qualen", "Abdullah Ercan", "Berry van Aerle", "Robert Sternberg", "Golan Heights", "December 7", "UPI", "Arne Næss Jr.", "Corey Taylor", "Bulgaria", "Ward Morehouse", "Philip Rivers", "Bashar al-Assad", "James V of Scotland", "The Order (white supremacist group)", "Gian Giorgio Trissino", "Drew Doughty", "lightning", "Western Hemisphere", "Camille Claudel", "Zoe Konstantopoulou", "Aleksandra Olsza", "Peter Parfitt", "Public holidays in Guam", "Louis the Stammerer", "AD 757", "1955", "Toshiaki Kawada", "George Boole", "Tom Gosnell", "John Cornforth", "2005", "Robbie Shakespeare", "Janari Jõesaar", "Ralph Puckett", "1431", "Niklas Luhmann", "Haim Laskov", "Fall of the Assad regime", "Boeing 707", "Baghdad", "Ann Coulter", "Steve Elkington", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Tyrus Wheat", "Cristian Castro", "Andrew Nicholson (basketball)", "1956", "Berthold IV, Duke of Zähringen", "dogmatic definition", "J. Alden Weir", "Parliament of Finland", "Felipe Gozon", "1795", "Buck Clayton", "James MacArthur", "1988 Remscheid A-10 crash", "Ukraine", "Cusco Declaration", "Kati-Claudia Fofonoff", "Bob Greene (fitness)", "1991", "COTS Demo Flight 1", "Fisher Building", "Budoc", "1930", "Ford River Rouge Complex", "Sammy Davis Jr.", "2014", "1863", "Algeria", "1968", "Feast of the Immaculate Conception", "Church of the Company Fire", "Doriano Romboni", "John A. Volpe", "Stephen Jefferies", "Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria", "Dutch East Indies campaign", "White House", "Prime Minister of Denmark", "1902", "United States declaration of war upon Japan", "Philippines campaign (1941–1942)", "spacecraft", "1817", "Maximilian Schell", "National Football Foundation", "Les Ferdinand", "Francis Balfour (colonial administrator)", "David Carradine", "Chava Alberstein", "1724", "Eli Whitney", "Nicki Minaj", "1936", "1973", "Mirza Delibašić", "attack on Pearl Harbor", "1708", "Russ Kemmerer", "Routledge", "Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day", "Queen Zhou the Elder", "August Belmont", "Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine", "East Asia Squadron", "Flag of Europe", "Édson Ribeiro", "Wang Anshi", "Władysław Kozakiewicz", "Olympic Airways Flight 954", "1680", "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971", "1944", "Festival of Lights (Lyon)", "1997", "Sinéad O'Connor", "Robert Jay Mathews", "Immaculate Conception", "1691", "Arlette Sombo-Dibélé", "Prime Minister of Lithuania", "Ernst Krenkel", "Thomas De Quincey", "Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah", "Constitution Day (Romania)", "1504", "Yemanjá", "Variety (magazine)", "Royal Navy", "National Youth Day (Albania)", "Neel Jani", "Constitution Day (Uzbekistan)", "Battle of Canhe Slope", "Chang'an", "Erez Crossing", "1918", "1861", "Palestinian refugee", "Atoms for Peace", "1911", "Frits Pirard", "Georges Méliès", "Amir Khan (boxer)", "Alfredo Aceves", "Richard Baxter", "Mary Woronov", "World War II", "Belarus", "Irish Free State", "Harold Hongju Koh", "Phil Collen", "1960", "1948", "Jean Ritchie", "1292", "Noël Chabanel", "1550", "John Rubinstein", "1856", "Romaric", "Paul Ladmirault", "Murder of John Lennon", "William C. Durant", "Knut Nystedt", "Umbanda", "John Lennon", "Bodo Tümmler", "Jimmy Smith (musician)", "1945", "David Weatherall", "Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole", "855", "Anselm Adornes", "1980", "1974", "1988", "Frédéric Piquionne", "Warren Cuccurullo", "Finland", "Nancy Meyers", "1874", "Étienne Fourmont", "Antônio Carlos Jobim", "Monarchy of Sweden", "Bobby Elliott", "Reuters", "Maria Josepha of Austria", "George Lloyd (bishop of Saskatchewan)", "Chicago Midway International Airport", "Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)", "Andy Kapp", "Maximilian von Spee", "Golda Meir", "Bodhi Day", "Shanghai International Settlement", "PGA Tour", "Tim Foli", "1959", "Marrano", "1914", "Janae Kroc", "Mother's Day", "Josh Christopher", "December 2009 Baghdad bombings", "Nathan Alcock", "Mary Bosanquet Fletcher", "1807", "Vladimir Shatalov", "Victor Nosach", "Jan Ingenhousz" ]
8,197
Desmond Morris
Desmond John Morris FLS hon. caus. (born 24 January 1928) is an English zoologist, ethologist and surrealist painter, as well as a popular author in human sociobiology. He is known for his 1967 book The Naked Ape, and for his television programmes such as Zoo Time. ==Early life and education== Morris was born in Purton, Wiltshire, to Marjorie (née Hunt) and children's fiction author Harry Morris. In 1933, the Morrises moved to Swindon where Desmond developed an interest in natural history and writing. He was educated at Dauntsey's School, a boarding school in Wiltshire. In 1946, Morris joined the British Army for two years of national service, becoming a lecturer in fine arts at the Chiseldon Army College in Wiltshire. After being demobilised in 1948, he held his first one-man show of his own paintings at the Swindon Arts Centre, and studied zoology at the University of Birmingham. In 1950 he held a surrealist art exhibition with Joan Miró at the London Gallery. He held many other exhibitions in later years. ==Career== Morris stayed at Oxford, researching the reproductive behaviour of birds. In 1956 he moved to London as Head of the Granada TV and Film Unit for the Zoological Society of London, and studied the picture-making abilities of apes. From 1973 to 1981, Morris was a Research Fellow at Wolfson College, Oxford. In 1979 he undertook a television series for Thames TV, The Human Race, followed in 1982 by Man Watching in Japan, The Animals Road Show in 1986 and then several other series. Morris is a Fellow honoris causa of the Linnean Society of London. Parallel to his academic and media career, Morris continued to create paintings in a Surrealist style. His art career spanned 70 years of his long life, though for decades his paintings were not widely known. But gradually they featured in exhibitions and were bought by public galleries, including the Tate in London. In 2017 his paintings were the subject of a BBC Four documentary The Secret Surrealist.  Morris continued to paint Surrealist artworks quite prolifically into his nineties. ==Personal life== Morris's father suffered lung damage in World War I, and died when Morris was 14. He was not allowed to go to the funeral and said later; "It was the beginning of a lifelong hatred of the establishment. The church, the government and the military were all on my hate list and have remained there ever since." His grandfather William Morris, an enthusiastic Victorian naturalist and founder of the Swindon local newspaper, Morris lived in the same house in North Oxford as the 19th-century lexicographer James Murray who worked on the Oxford English Dictionary. He has exhibited at the Taurus Gallery in North Parade, Oxford, close to where he lived. He is the patron of the Friends of Swindon Museum and Art Gallery and gave a talk to launch the charity in 1993. Since the death of his wife in 2018 he has lived with his son and family in Ireland.
[ "national service", "Royal Institution Christmas Lectures", "Horace Romano Harré", "Zoology", "iarchive:isbn 9781570762192", "Niko Tinbergen", "Dauntsey's School", "Reaktion Books", "Granada TV", "Swindon Museum and Art Gallery", "The Naked Woman", "The Naked Ape", "Institute of Contemporary Arts", "National Life Stories", "Linnean Society of London", "surrealist", "World War I", "ten-spined stickleback", "North Parade", "University of Birmingham", "zoologist", "Purton", "Joan Miró", "ethologist", "University of Oxford", "Thames TV", "North Oxford", "Tie signs", "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm", "Victorian era", "Chiseldon", "zoology", "WP:INFONAT", "Doctor of Philosophy", "natural history", "Knopf", "Malta", "The Human Animal (TV series)", "The Guardian", "The Bodley Head", "Wolfson College, Oxford", "The Human Zoo (book)", "Big cat", "BBC Two", "Wiltshire", "gender role", "Department of Zoology, University of Oxford", "fine arts", "Adam Rutherford", "Swindon", "Swindon Arts Centre", "Zoological Society of London", "animal behaviour", "James Murray (lexicographer)", "Oxford United F.C.", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Royal Festival Hall", "British Library", "Minoan", "British Army", "sociobiology", "common chimpanzee", "Social Issues Research Centre" ]
8,198
December 28
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 418 – A papal election begins, resulting in the election of Pope Boniface I. 457 – Majorian is acclaimed as Western Roman emperor. 484 – Alaric II succeeds his father Euric and becomes king of the Visigoths. He establishes his capital at Aire-sur-l'Adour (Southern Gaul). 893 – An earthquake destroys the city of Dvin, Armenia. 1065 – Edward the Confessor's Romanesque monastic church at Westminster Abbey is consecrated. 1308 – The reign of Emperor Hanazono of Japan begins. ===1601–1900=== 1659 – The Marathas defeat the Adilshahi forces in the Battle of Kolhapur. 1768 – King Taksin's coronation achieved through conquest as a king of Thailand and established Thonburi as a capital. 1795 – Construction of Yonge Street, formerly recognized as the longest street in the world, begins in York, Upper Canada (present-day Toronto). 1832 – John C. Calhoun becomes the first Vice President of the United States to resign. He resigned after being elected Senator from South Carolina. 1835 – Osceola leads his Seminole warriors in Florida into the Second Seminole War against the United States Army. 1836 – South Australia and Adelaide are founded. 1836 – Spain recognizes the independence of Mexico with the signing of the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty. 1846 – Iowa is admitted as the 29th U.S. state. 1879 – Tay Bridge disaster: The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom collapses as a train passes over it, killing 75. 1885 – Indian National Congress, a political party of India, is founded in Bombay Presidency, British India. 1895 – The Lumière brothers perform for their first paying audience at the Grand Cafe in Boulevard des Capucines. 1895 – Wilhelm Röntgen publishes a paper detailing his discovery of a new type of radiation, which later will be known as x-rays. ===1901–present=== 1902 – The Syracuse Athletic Club defeat the New York Philadelphians, 5–0, in the first indoor professional football game, which was held at Madison Square Garden. 1908 – The 7.1 Messina earthquake shakes Southern Italy with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), killing between about 80,000. 1912 – The first municipally owned streetcars take to the streets in San Francisco. 1918 – Constance Markievicz, while detained in Holloway prison, becomes the first woman to be elected Member of Parliament (MP) to the British House of Commons. 1941 – World War II: Operation Anthropoid, the plot to assassinate high-ranking Nazi officer Reinhard Heydrich, commences. 1943 – Soviet authorities launch Operation Ulussy, beginning the deportation of the Kalmyk nation to Siberia and Central Asia. 1943 – World War II: After eight days of brutal house-to-house fighting, the Battle of Ortona concludes with the victory of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division over the German 1st Parachute Division and the capture of the Italian town of Ortona. 1944 – Maurice Richard becomes the first player to score eight points in one game of NHL ice hockey. 1948 – The DC-3 airliner NC16002 disappears south of Miami. 1956 – Chin Peng, David Marshall and Tunku Abdul Rahman meet in Baling, Malaya to try and resolve the Malayan Emergency situation. 1958 – "Greatest Game Ever Played": The Baltimore Colts defeat the New York Giants in the first ever National Football League sudden death overtime game at New York's Yankee Stadium to win the NFL Championship. 1967 – American businesswoman Muriel Siebert becomes the first woman to own a seat on the New York Stock Exchange. 1972 – The last scheduled day for induction into the military by the Selective Service System. Due to the fact that President Richard Nixon declared this day a national day of mourning due to former President Harry S Truman's death, approximately 300 men were not able to report due to most Federal offices being closed. Since the draft was not resumed in 1973, they were never drafted. 1973 – The United States Endangered Species Act is signed into law by President Richard Nixon. 1978 – United Airlines Flight 173 crashes in a residential neighborhood near Portland International Airport, killing 10 people. 1989 – A magnitude 5.6 earthquake hits Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, killing 13 people. 2006 – War in Somalia: The militaries of Somalia's Transitional Federal Government and Ethiopian troops capture Mogadishu unopposed. 2009 – Forty-three people die in a suicide bombing in Karachi, Pakistan, where Shia Muslims are observing the Day of Ashura. 2014 – Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashes into the Karimata Strait en route from Surabaya to Singapore, killing all 162 people aboard. 2014 – Nine people die and another 19 are reported missing, when the MS Norman Atlantic catches fire in the Strait of Otranto, in the Adriatic Sea, in Italian waters. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1461 – Louise of Savoy, French nun (d. 1503) 1510 – Nicholas Bacon, English politician (d. 1579) 1535 – Martin Eisengrein, German theologian (d. 1578) ===1601–1900=== 1619 – Antoine Furetière, French author and scholar (d. 1688) 1635 – Elizabeth Stuart, second daughter of King Charles I of England (d. 1650) 1651 – Johann Krieger, German organist and composer (d. 1735) 1655 – Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Suffolk (d. 1698) 1665 – George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1716) 1722 – Eliza Lucas, Caribbean-American agriculturalist (d. 1793) 1724 – Christoph Franz von Buseck, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg (d. 1805) 1763 – John Molson, English-Canadian brewer, founded the Molson Brewery (d. 1836) 1775 – Jean-Gabriel Eynard, Swiss banker and photographer (d. 1863) 1789 – Catharine Maria Sedgwick, American novelist of "domestic fiction" (d. 1867) 1798 – Thomas Henderson, Scottish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1844) 1818 – Carl Remigius Fresenius, German chemist and academic (d. 1897) 1842 – Calixa Lavallée, Canadian-American lieutenant and composer (d. 1891) 1856 – Woodrow Wilson, American historian and politician, 28th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924) 1865 – Félix Vallotton, Swiss/French painter (d. 1925) 1870 – Charles Bennett, English runner (d. 1949) 1882 – Arthur Eddington, English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician (d. 1944) 1882 – Lili Elbe, Danish model and painter (d. 1931) 1887 – Werner Kolhörster, German physicist and academic (d. 1946) 1888 – F. W. Murnau, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1931) 1890 – Quincy Wright, American political scientist, historian, and academic (d. 1970) 1895 – Carol Ryrie Brink, American author and playwright (d. 1981) 1898 – Carl-Gustaf Rossby, Swedish-American meteorologist and academic (d. 1957) 1898 – Shigematsu Sakaibara, Japanese admiral (d. 1947) 1900 – Ted Lyons, American baseball player (d. 1986) ===1901–present=== 1902 – Mortimer J. Adler, American philosopher and author (d. 2001) 1902 – Shen Congwen, Chinese author and educator (d. 1988) 1903 – Earl Hines, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1983) 1903 – John von Neumann, Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist (d. 1957) 1907 – Ze'ev Ben-Haim, Ukrainian-Israeli linguist and academic (d. 2013) 1908 – Lew Ayres, American actor (d. 1996) 1910 – Billy Williams, American singer (d. 1972) 1911 – Wil van Beveren, Dutch sprinter and journalist (d. 2003) 1913 – Lou Jacobi, Canadian-American actor (d. 2009) 1914 – Bidia Dandaron, Russian author and educator (d. 1974) 1914 – Pops Staples, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2000) 1917 – Ellis Clarke, Trinidadian politician, 1st President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2010) 1919 – Emily Cheney Neville, American author (d. 1997) 1920 – Tufty Mann, South African cricketer (d. 1952) 1920 – Bruce McCarty, American architect, designed the Knoxville City-County Building (d. 2013) 1920 – Steve Van Buren, Honduran-American football player (d. 2012) 1920 – Al Wistert, American football player and coach (d. 2016) 1921 – Johnny Otis, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012) 1922 – Lionel Bowen, Australian politician, 6th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2012) 1922 – Stan Lee, American publisher, producer, and actor (d. 2018) 1924 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, Ethiopian politician; President of Ethiopia (d. 2018) 1925 – Hildegard Knef, German actress and singer (d. 2002) 1925 – Milton Obote, Ugandan engineer and politician, 2nd President of Uganda (d. 2005) 1926 – Donald Carr, German-English cricketer and referee (d. 2016) 1928 – Moe Koffman, Canadian flute player, saxophonist, and composer (d. 2001) 1928 – John William Thomson, Canadian politician (d. 2025) 1929 – Brian Redhead, English journalist and author (d. 1994) 1929 – Terry Sawchuk, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1970) 1929 – Maarten Schmidt, Dutch astronomer (d. 2022) 1930 – Mariam A. Aleem, Egyptian illustrator and academic (d. 2010) 1931 – Guy Debord, French theorist and author (d. 1994) 1931 – Martin Milner, American actor (d. 2015) 1932 – Dhirubhai Ambani, Indian businessman, founded Reliance Industries (d. 2002) 1932 – Dorsey Burnette, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979) 1932 – Roy Hattersley, English journalist and politician, Shadow Home Secretary 1932 – Harry Howell, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2019) 1932 – Nichelle Nichols, American actress (d. 2022) 1932 – Manuel Puig, Argentine author and playwright (d. 1990) 1933 – John Y. Brown Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 55th Governor of Kentucky (d. 2022) 1934 – Rudi Faßnacht, German footballer and manager (d. 2000) 1934 – Maggie Smith, English actress (d. 2024) 1936 – Alan Coleman, English-Australian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1936 – Lawrence Schiller, American journalist, director, and producer 1937 – Ratan Tata, Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2024) 1938 – Dick Sudhalter, American trumpet player, scholar, and critic (d. 2008) 1939 – Philip Anschutz, American businessman, founded Anschutz Entertainment Group 1939 – Frank McLintock, Scottish footballer and manager 1939 – Michelle Urry, American journalist and illustrator (d. 2006) 1940 – A. K. Antony, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Defence 1940 – Don Francisco, Chilean-American journalist and talk show host 1941 – Intikhab Alam, Indian-Pakistani cricketer and coach 1942 – Roger Swerts, Belgian cyclist 1943 – Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne, Peruvian cardinal 1943 – David Peterson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Premier of Ontario 1943 – Joan Ruddock, Welsh politician 1944 – Sandra Faber, American astronomer and academic 1944 – Johnny Isakson, American sergeant and politician (d. 2021) 1944 – Kary Mullis, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019) 1944 – Gordon Taylor, English footballer 1945 – Birendra, King of Nepal (d. 2001) 1945 – Max Hastings, English journalist, historian, and author 1946 – Mike Beebe, American lawyer and politician, 45th Governor of Arkansas 1946 – Pierre Falardeau, Canadian director, screenwriter, and activist (d. 2009) 1946 – Hubert Green, American golfer (d. 2018) 1946 – Tim Johnson, American lawyer and politician (d. 2024) 1946 – Barbara, Lady Judge, American-English lawyer and businesswoman (d. 2020) 1946 – Bill Lee, American baseball player and author 1946 – Laffit Pincay Jr., Panamanian jockey 1946 – Edgar Winter, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1947 – Dick Diamonde, Dutch-Australian rock bass player (d. 2024) 1947 – Aurelio Rodríguez, Mexican baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2000) 1948 – Ziggy Modeliste, American drummer 1950 – Alex Chilton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010) 1950 – Clifford Cocks, English mathematician and cryptographer 1950 – Rainer Maria Latzke, German-American painter and academic 1952 – Arun Jaitley, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Indian Minister of Law and Justice (d. 2019) 1952 – Bridget Prentice, Scottish educator and politician 1953 – Richard Clayderman, French pianist 1953 – Tatsumi Fujinami, Japanese wrestler and promoter, founded Dradition wrestling promotion 1953 – Charlie Pierce, American journalist and author 1953 – Martha Wash, American singer-songwriter 1954 – Tony Ables, American serial killer 1954 – Gayle King, American television journalist 1954 – Denzel Washington, American actor, director, and producer 1955 – Stephen Frost, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1955 – Liu Xiaobo, Chinese author, academic, and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1956 – Nigel Kennedy, English violinist 1958 – Terry Butcher, English footballer and manager 1958 – Curt Byrum, American golfer 1958 – Zoran Gajić, Serbian volleyball trainer 1959 – Hansjörg Kunze, German runner and sportscaster 1959 – Daniel Léo Simpson, American composer 1959 – Ana Torroja, Spanish singer-songwriter 1960 – Ray Bourque, Canadian ice hockey player 1960 – John Fitzgerald, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster 1960 – Chad McQueen, American actor and race car driver (d. 2024) 1960 – Melvin Turpin, American basketball player (d. 2010) 1961 – Kent Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager 1962 – Michel Petrucciani, French jazz pianist (d. 1999) 1964 – Tex Perkins, Australian singer-songwriter 1964 – Maite Zúñiga, Spanish runner 1965 – Allar Levandi, Estonian skier 1967 – Chris Ware, American illustrator 1968 – Akihiko Hoshide, Japanese engineer and astronaut 1969 – Linus Torvalds, Finnish-American computer programmer, developed Linux kernel 1970 – Elaine Hendrix, American actress 1970 – James Jett, American sprinter and football player 1970 – Brenda Schultz-McCarthy, Dutch tennis player 1971 – Benny Agbayani, American baseball player 1971 – Sergi Barjuán, Spanish footballer and manager 1971 – Anita Doth, Dutch singer-songwriter 1971 – William Gates, American basketball player 1972 – Roberto Palacios, Peruvian footballer 1972 – Patrick Rafter, Australian-Bermudian tennis player and model 1972 – Adam Vinatieri, American football player 1973 – Holger Blume, German sprinter 1973 – Marc Blume, German sprinter 1973 – Seth Meyers, American actor, producer, screenwriter, and talk show host 1973 – Ids Postma, Dutch speed skater 1974 – Jocelyn Enriquez, American singer 1974 – Rob Niedermayer, Canadian ice hockey player 1974 – Markus Weinzierl, German footballer and manager 1975 – B. J. Ryan, American baseball player 1976 – Brendan Hines, American actor and singer 1976 – Joe Manganiello, American actor 1976 – Trond Nymark, Norwegian race walker 1976 – Ben Tune, Australian rugby player 1976 – Igor Žiković, Croatian footballer 1976 – Deddy Corbuzier, Indonesian presenter and magician 1977 – Derrick Brew, American sprinter 1977 – Shane Elford, Australian rugby league player 1977 – Vanessa Ferlito, American actress 1977 – Seun Ogunkoya, Nigerian sprinter 1978 – Chris Coyne, Australian footballer and manager 1978 – John Legend, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor 1979 – James Blake, American tennis player 1979 – Senna Gammour, German singer-songwriter 1979 – Bill Hall, American baseball player 1979 – Zach Hill, American musician and artist 1979 – André Holland, American actor 1979 – Noomi Rapace, Swedish actress 1980 – Lomana LuaLua, Congolese footballer 1980 – Ryta Turava, Belarusian race walker 1981 – Khalid Boulahrouz, Dutch footballer 1981 – Elizabeth Jordan Carr, American journalist 1981 – Sienna Miller, American-British actress and fashion designer 1981 – David Moss, American ice hockey player 1981 – Narsha, South Korean singer and dancer 1981 – Frank Turner, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1981 – Mika Väyrynen, Finnish footballer 1982 – Cedric Benson, American football player (d. 2019) 1982 – Beau Garrett, American actress and model 1982 – François Gourmet, Belgian decathlete 1982 – Curtis Glencross, Canadian hockey player 1984 – Martin Kaymer, German golfer 1984 – Duane Solomon, American runner 1986 – Tom Huddlestone, English footballer 1987 – Thomas Dekker, American actor and musician 1989 – Austin Barnes, American baseball player 1989 – Mackenzie Rosman, American actress 1990 – Ayele Abshero, Ethiopian runner 1990 – Marcos Alonso, Spanish footballer 1990 – David Archuleta, American singer 1990 – John Henson, American basketball player 1990 – Bastiaan Lijesen, Dutch swimmer 1992 – Tomáš Jurčo, Slovak ice hockey player 1994 – Adam Peaty, English swimmer 1995 – Dylan Cease, American baseball player 1995 – Mauricio Lemos, Uruguayan footballer 1995 – Nahitan Nández, Uruguayan footballer 1996 – Tanguy Ndombele, French footballer 1999 – Iqbaal Ramadhan, Indonesian actor and singer 2001 – Maitreyi Ramakrishnan, Canadian actress 2002 – Tom Cannon, British-Irish footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 925 – Wang Zongbi, general of the Chinese state of Former Shu 1218 – Robert II, Count of Dreux (b. 1154) 1297 – Hugh Aycelin, French cardinal (b. 1230) 1326 – Sir David II Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl, Constable of Scotland, and Chief Warden of Northumberland 1367 – Ashikaga Yoshiakira, Japanese shōgun (b. 1330) 1394 – Maria Angelina Doukaina Palaiologina, queen of Epirus (b. 1350) 1446 – Antipope Clement VIII (b. 1369) 1491 – Bertoldo di Giovanni, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435) 1503 – Piero the Unfortunate, Italian ruler (b. 1471) 1538 – Andrea Gritti, Doge of Venice (b. 1455) 1547 – Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (b. 1465) 1558 – Hermann Finck, German organist and composer (b. 1527) ===1601–1900=== 1622 – Francis de Sales, French bishop and saint (b. 1567) 1663 – Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Italian mathematician and physicist (b. 1618) 1671 – Johann Friedrich Gronovius, German scholar and critic (b. 1611) 1694 – Mary II of England (b. 1662) 1706 – Pierre Bayle, French philosopher and author (b. 1647) 1708 – Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, French botanist and mycologist (b. 1656) 1715 – William Carstares, Scottish minister and academic (b. 1649) 1734 – Rob Roy MacGregor, Scottish outlaw (b. 1671) 1736 – Antonio Caldara, Italian composer (b. 1670) 1785 – Peter Ernst Wilde, Polish-Estonian physician and journalist (b. 1732) 1795 – Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian physician and lawyer (b. 1747) 1859 – Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay, English historian and politician, Secretary at War (b. 1800) 1872 – James Van Ness, American lawyer and politician, 7th Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1808) 1890 – Dennis Miller Bunker, American painter (b. 1861) 1897 – William Corby, American priest and academic (b. 1833) 1900 – Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Portuguese soldier and explorer (b. 1846) ===1901–present=== 1907 – Louise Granberg, Swedish playwright (b. 1812) 1913 – Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Turkish journalist and translator (b. 1844) 1916 – Eduard Strauss, Austrian violinist and composer (b. 1835) 1917 – Alfred Edwin McKay, Canadian captain and pilot (b. 1892) 1918 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian poet and journalist (b. 1865) 1919 – Johannes Rydberg, Swedish physicist and academic (b. 1854) 1924 – Léon Bakst, Russian painter and costume designer (b. 1866) 1932 – Jack Blackham, Australian cricketer (b. 1854) 1935 – Clarence Day, American author and illustrator (b. 1874) 1937 – Maurice Ravel, French pianist and composer (b. 1875) 1938 – Florence Lawrence, Canadian actress (b. 1886) 1942 – Alfred Flatow, German gymnast (b. 1869) 1943 – Steve Evans, American baseball player (b. 1885) 1945 – Theodore Dreiser, American novelist and journalist (b. 1871) 1946 – Elie Nadelman, Polish-American sculptor (b. 1882) 1947 – Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (b. 1869) 1949 – Jack Lovelock, New Zealand runner and soldier (b. 1910) 1959 – Ante Pavelić, Croatian fascist dictator during World War II (b. 1889) 1960 – Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (b. 1895) 1963 – Paul Hindemith, German violist, composer, and conductor (b. 1895) 1967 – Katharine McCormick, American biologist and philanthropist (b. 1875) 1968 – David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie, Scottish peer, soldier and courtier (b. 1893) 1971 – Max Steiner, Austrian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1888) 1976 – Katharine Byron, American politician (b. 1903) 1981 – Allan Dwan, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1885) 1983 – Dennis Wilson, American drummer, songwriter, and producer (b. 1944) 1984 – Sam Peckinpah, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1925) 1984 – Mary Stewart, Baroness Stewart of Alvechurch, British politician and educator (b. 1903) 1986 – John D. MacDonald, American colonel and author (b. 1916) 1986 – Jan Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter (b. 1922) 1989 – Hermann Oberth, Romanian-German physicist and engineer (b. 1894) 1990 – Warren Skaaren, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1946) 1992 – Sal Maglie, American baseball player and coach (b. 1917) 1993 – William L. Shirer, American journalist and historian (b. 1904) 1994 – Jean-Louis Lévesque, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1911) 1999 – Clayton Moore, American actor (b. 1914) 2001 – Samuel Abraham Goldblith, American lieutenant, biologist, and engineer (b. 1919) 2001 – William X. Kienzle, American priest and author (b. 1928) 2003 – Benjamin Thurman Hacker, American admiral (b. 1935) 2004 – Jerry Orbach, American actor and singer (b. 1935) 2004 – Susan Sontag, American novelist, essayist, critic, and playwright (b. 1933) 2006 – Jamal Karimi-Rad, Iranian politician, Iranian Minister of Justice (b. 1956) 2008 – Irene Lieblich, Polish-American painter and illustrator (b. 1923) 2009 – Jimmy Sullivan, American musician, composer and songwriter. Known by his stage name The Rev (b. 1981) 2010 – Billy Taylor, American pianist and composer (b. 1921) 2010 – Terry Peder Rasmussen, American serial killer (b. 1943) 2012 – Nicholas Ambraseys, Greek-English seismologist and engineer (b. 1929) 2012 – Mark Crispin, American computer scientist and academic, designed the IMAP (b. 1956) 2012 – Václav Drobný, Czech footballer (b. 1980) 2012 – Frankie Walsh, Irish hurler and manager (b. 1936) 2013 – Halton Arp, American-German astronomer and critic (b. 1927) 2013 – Esther Borja, Cuban soprano and actress (b. 1913) 2013 – Andrew Jacobs, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1932) 2013 – Alfred Marshall, American businessman, founded Marshalls (b. 1919) 2013 – Joseph Ruskin, American actor and producer (b. 1924) 2013 – Ilya Tsymbalar, Ukrainian-Russian footballer and manager (b. 1969) 2014 – Leelah Alcorn, American transgender teenager (b. 1997) 2014 – Vahan Hovhannisyan, Armenian politician (b. 1956) 2014 – Frankie Randall, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938) 2015 – John Bradbury, English drummer and songwriter (b. 1953) 2015 – Eloy Inos, Mariana Islander businessman and politician, 8th Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands (b. 1949) 2015 – Lemmy, English musician, singer, and songwriter (b. 1945) 2016 – Debbie Reynolds, American actress, singer and dancer (b. 1932) 2016 – Jean-Christophe Victor, French political scientist (b. 1947) 2017 – Rose Marie, American actress and comedienne (b. 1923) 2021 – Grichka Bogdanoff, French television presenter and scientific essayist (b. 1949) 2021 – John Madden, American football Hall of Fame coach and commentator (b. 1936) 2021 – Harry Reid, American lawyer, politician, and former Senate majority leader (b. 1939) 2022 – Philomena Franz, German Romani author (b. 1922) 2023 – Vijayakanth, Indian actor and politician (b. 1952) 2024 – Charles Dolan, American businessman, founded Cablevision and HBO (b. 1926) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Abel (Coptic Church) Caterina Volpicelli Feast of the Holy Innocents or Childermas; in Spain and Latin American countries the festival is celebrated with pranks (inocentadas), similar to April Fools' Day (Catholic Church, Church of England, Lutheran Church), and its related observances: Els Enfarinats (Ibi, Spain) Simon the Athonite December 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) King Taksin Memorial Day (Thailand) Proclamation Day (South Australia), celebration started on the day following Christmas (South Australia) Republic Day (South Sudan) The fourth of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
[ "Yankee Stadium (1923)", "Lili Elbe", "1940", "1921", "Douglas DC-3", "Chris Coyne", "Billy Taylor", "Jean-Gabriel Eynard", "1722", "Ids Postma", "Austin Barnes", "David Archuleta", "Narsha", "Tim Johnson (South Dakota politician)", "Elizabeth Stuart (daughter of Charles I)", "Endangered Species Act", "Ray Bourque", "Maite Zúñiga", "Consecration", "1982", "Steve Van Buren", "Ratan Tata", "Brendan Hines", "1715", "Mariam A. Aleem", "The Plain Dealer", "Michelle Urry", "James Jett", "Robert II, Count of Dreux", "Maurice Richard", "David Peterson", "James Blake (tennis)", "Ilya Tsymbalar", "Harry Reid", "1910", "1671", "Ante Pavelić", "André Holland", "Frankie Randall (singer)", "Transitional Federal Government of Somalia", "Ellis Clarke", "2015", "Tribunnews", "1924", "Vice President of the United States", "Proclamation Day (South Australia)", "Calendar of saints", "Mortimer J. Adler", "1768", "1879", "Pope Boniface I", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Hansjörg Kunze", "Maggie Smith", "Auguste and Louis Lumière", "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)", "Sal Maglie", "1898", "1872", "Alfred Flatow", "New York Stock Exchange", "Calixa Lavallée", "Mary II of England", "Jamal Karimi-Rad", "Tatsumi Fujinami", "1928", "1981", "Ashikaga Yoshiakira", "2008", "1308", "Philip Anschutz", "Death of Leelah Alcorn", "President of the United States", "Jean-Louis Lévesque", "1946", "Jack Lovelock", "Antoine Furetière", "Maarten Schmidt", "Sergi Barjuán", "1887", "1950", "Lutheranism", "Roger Swerts", "John Bradbury (drummer)", "Elaine Hendrix", "1979", "1510", "Governor of Kentucky", "Premier of Ontario", "François Gourmet", "Eloy Inos", "Gordon Taylor (footballer)", "Stan Lee", "1994", "The Rev", "Esther Borja", "Singapore Changi Airport", "Selective Service System", "1972", "1916", "2016", "Second Seminole War", "Félix Vallotton", "1943", "John Fitzgerald (tennis)", "Martin Milner", "Johann Friedrich Gronovius", "1954", "Reinhard Heydrich", "Akihiko Hoshide", "David II Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl", "Katharine McCormick", "Bombay Presidency", "Associated Press", "Wilhelm Röntgen", "Olavo Bilac", "Daniel Léo Simpson", "Battle of Ortona", "John D. MacDonald", "Charles Bennett (athlete)", "Marcos Alonso (footballer, born 1990)", "Lawrence Schiller", "Samuel Abraham Goldblith", "1977", "Former Shu", "Armenia", "Catharine Maria Sedgwick", "1734", "Alaric II", "Mary Stewart, Baroness Stewart of Alvechurch", "Euric", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Anita Doth", "F. W. Murnau", "Secretary at War", "Benny Agbayani", "Madison Square Garden (1890)", "Dorsey Burnette", "Pops Staples", "1922", "A. K. Antony", "December 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "World Series of Football (1902–03)", "The New York Times", "1920", "Donald Carr", "Adriatic Sea", "Patrick Rafter", "David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie", "1931", "Jack Blackham", "1992", "Antonio Caldara", "418", "Wang Zongbi", "1218", "Shia Islam", "Florence Lawrence", "Dvin (ancient city)", "2013", "Deputy Prime Minister of Australia", "Church of England", "1535", "1953", "Manuel Puig", "1933", "Christoph Franz von Buseck", "Society for American Baseball Research", "Sandra Faber", "Katharine Byron", "San Francisco Municipal Railway", "Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501", "Tony Ables", "1665", "Stephen Frost", "Andrea Gritti", "Baling Talks", "1932", "Adelaide", "San Francisco", "Hubert Green", "Western Roman Empire", "Mike Beebe", "John Legend", "Tay Rail Bridge", "New York Giants", "1935", "1655", "1908 Messina earthquake", "1970", "Dylan Cease", "Lemmy", "Ibi, Spain", "War in Somalia (2006–09)", "2009", "Nahitan Nández", "2021", "2010", "Dick Sudhalter", "Los Angeles Times", "1948 Airborne Transport DC-3 (DST) disappearance", "Baling", "Hildegard Knef", "Lionel Bowen", "1870", "Maria Angelina Doukaina Palaiologina", "Richard Clayderman", "1990", "Visigoths", "David Moss (ice hockey)", "Bill Lee (left-handed pitcher)", "Harry Howell (ice hockey)", "Frank Turner", "Léon Bakst", "Mark Crispin", "Jakarta", "1961", "Maratha Confederacy", "Halton Arp", "1926", "Max Steiner", "Brenda Schultz-McCarthy", "2023", "1938", "Arthur Eddington", "1999", "Constance Markievicz", "1925", "Mercalli intensity scale", "Louise Granberg", "Rob Niedermayer", "IMAP", "1989 Newcastle earthquake", "Johnny Isakson", "1978", "Gaul", "1651", "Gayle King", "Dradition", "Tomáš Jurčo", "1965", "Václav Drobný", "1987", "Hermann Finck", "Nobel Peace Prize", "1919", "1939", "Caterina Volpicelli", "Adam Vinatieri", "Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis", "Vijayakanth", "Alan Coleman", "2002", "2001", "Federation of Malaya", "Jerry Orbach", "1326", "Battle of Kolhapur", "Denzel Washington", "York, Upper Canada", "1993", "Tay Bridge disaster", "Francis de Sales", "ESPN", "Clarence Day", "Debbie Reynolds", "Zoran Gajić", "Vanessa Ferlito", "Karachi", "Frank McLintock", "Duane Solomon", "Hermann Oberth", "The Guardian", "2003", "Adil Shahi dynasty", "Christmas", "1976", "Iqbaal Ramadhan", "Johannes Rydberg", "Edward the Confessor", "Alfred Marshall (businessman)", "Charlie Pierce", "Surakarta", "2012", "1958 NFL Championship Game", "sudden death (sport)", "1763", "Bridget Prentice", "Theodore Dreiser", "1461", "1547", "Seun Ogunkoya", "Simon the Athonite", "Nicholas Bacon (Lord Keeper)", "Kary Mullis", "Roberto Palacios", "Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne", "Aurelio Rodríguez", "Piero the Unfortunate", "893 Dvin earthquake", "Harry S Truman", "1989", "Tufty Mann", "Clifford Cocks", "HBO", "David Marshall (Singaporean politician)", "1967", "Girma Wolde-Giorgis", "Terry Butcher", "Don Francisco (television host)", "Iowa", "1663", "South Australia", "1394", "Thonburi", "1971", "1952", "Dennis Wilson", "Emily Cheney Neville", "Rudi Faßnacht", "Vahan Hovhannisyan", "Republic Day (South Sudan)", "Milton Obote", "John von Neumann", "1984", "Louise of Savoy (nun)", "Rainer Maria Latzke", "Molson Brewery", "National Football League", "Martin Eisengrein", "Portland International Airport", "Pro Football Hall of Fame", "1907", "Terry Sawchuk", "1736", "National Basketball Association", "1937", "Lomana LuaLua", "1913", "1996", "1635", "1619", "1963", "Richard Nixon", "1975", "Florida", "Nazism", "Tanguy Ndombele", "Maitreyi Ramakrishnan", "George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland", "1958", "1888", "1895", "Governor of Arkansas", "Elizabeth Jordan Carr", "Ministry of Justice (Iran)", "1941", "Joe Manganiello", "B. J. Ryan", "Mayor of San Francisco", "Northumberland", "1908", "Andrew Jacobs, Jr.", "Jean-Christophe Victor", "Arun Jaitley", "Tom Cannon (footballer)", "Beau Garrett", "Ortona", "John William Thomson", "1949", "Ryta Turava", "Noomi Rapace", "1969", "1842", "Shigematsu Sakaibara", "1934", "Curtis Glencross", "1962", "Johnny Otis", "United Press International", "1912", "Cedric Benson", "1706", "Malayan Emergency", "Quincy Wright", "Shadow Home Secretary", "U.S. state", "Pierre Bayle", "Roy Hattersley", "United States", "Chris Ware", "1885", "Ahmet Mithat Efendi", "925", "List of heads of state of Trinidad and Tobago", "New York (World Series of Football)", "Indian National Congress", "Jan Nieuwenhuys", "1818", "x-ray", "Premier League", "Igor Žiković", "1836", "Laffit Pincay Jr.", "Southern Italy", "Miami", "Ben Tune", "2004", "Terry Peder Rasmussen", "Marshalls", "Werner Kolhörster", "Carol Ryrie Brink", "457", "1367", "1929", "1558", "1859", "2022", "Carl-Gustaf Rossby", "1798", "Nicholas Ambraseys", "Senna Gammour", "Al Wistert", "Moe Koffman", "1297", "Rose Marie", "urban warfare", "List of Presidents of Ethiopia", "Pierre Falardeau", "Lew Ayres", "Yonge Street", "Chin Peng", "William Gates (basketball)", "Barbara, Lady Judge", "Birendra of Nepal", "Philomena Franz", "Ethiopia", "1538", "1995", "484", "Tom Huddlestone", "Bruce McCarty", "1622", "Khalid Boulahrouz", "Markus Weinzierl", "Thailand", "Joseph Ruskin", "Elie Nadelman", "April Fools' Day", "List of Governors of the Northern Mariana Islands", "MS Norman Atlantic", "Major League Baseball", "Billy Williams (singer)", "Joan Ruddock", "Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay", "Kalmyk deportations of 1943", "Ted Lyons", "Martha Wash", "John C. Calhoun", "1942", "1903", "Martin Kaymer", "Day of Ashura", "Allan Dwan", "Anschutz Entertainment Group", "Rob Roy MacGregor", "Intikhab Alam", "Tex Perkins", "1832", "Somalia", "Susan Sontag", "Thomas Dekker (actor)", "Taksin", "Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico", "King Taksin Memorial Day", "ice hockey", "Jocelyn Enriquez", "Earl of Atholl", "indoor American football", "Fall of Mogadishu", "Thomas Henderson (astronomer)", "Western Christianity", "Clayton Moore", "History of the Indianapolis Colts", "2006", "Strait of Otranto", "Lou Jacobi", "Dennis Miller Bunker", "Allar Levandi", "1900", "1865", "Romanesque architecture", "Alexandre de Serpa Pinto", "2009 Karachi bombing", "1917", "Adam Peaty", "Ana Torroja", "Majorian", "Catholic Church", "1983", "Karimata Strait", "Liu Xiaobo", "1890", "1986", "Shane Elford", "Newcastle, New South Wales", "Eliza Lucas", "Linux kernel", "Derrick Brew", "Constable of Scotland", "2024", "John Molson", "Tram", "UPI", "Knoxville City-County Building", "Toronto", "Johann Krieger", "Bill Hall (utility player)", "Alfred Edwin McKay", "BBC News", "Seth Meyers", "William Carstares", "Dundee", "1897", "The Independent", "Sienna Miller", "Guy Debord", "Reliance Industries", "Twelve Days of Christmas", "Dick Diamonde", "1955", "Holger Blume", "Sam Peckinpah", "John Henson (basketball)", "1956", "Ayele Abshero", "1659", "William L. Shirer", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "History of China", "1795", "Els Enfarinats", "Carl Remigius Fresenius", "Frankie Walsh", "Muriel Siebert", "Curt Byrum", "1882", "Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire", "Operation Anthropoid", "Nichelle Nichols", "Maurice Ravel", "1930", "Emperor Hanazono", "Eugenio Espejo", "2014", "1968", "Warren Skaaren", "John Madden", "Cain and Abel", "Mauricio Lemos", "Aire-sur-l'Adour", "Minister of Defence (India)", "Ziggy Modeliste", "1902", "893", "Seminole", "1846", "Westminster Abbey", "United Airlines Flight 173", "1724", "Melvin Turpin", "1936", "1973", "Massacre of the Innocents", "1708", "Trond Nymark", "William Corby", "John Y. Brown Jr.", "Bidia Dandaron", "Charles Dolan", "1694", "Grichka Bogdanoff", "Peter Ernst Wilde", "1491", "William X. Kienzle", "1st Parachute Division (Germany)", "1944", "Edgar Winter", "1st Canadian Infantry Division", "Mackenzie Rosman", "Bastiaan Lijesen", "Lord Lieutenant of Suffolk", "Philippe Panneton", "The Hill (newspaper)", "Hugh Aycelin", "1503", "1785", "Dhirubhai Ambani", "Cablevision", "Linus Torvalds", "1918", "1835", "Senate majority leader", "1911", "Nigel Kennedy", "Ze'ev Ben-Haim", "Max Hastings", "World War II", "Victor Emmanuel III of Italy", "Brian Redhead", "1960", "1948", "Marc Blume", "1856", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Deddy Corbuzier", "Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria", "Mika Väyrynen", "Benjamin Thurman Hacker", "Kent Nielsen", "1945", "Joseph Pitton de Tournefort", "Wil van Beveren", "President of Uganda", "Francesco Maria Grimaldi", "Earl Hines", "2017", "Woodrow Wilson", "Zach Hill", "Chad McQueen", "1980", "radiation", "Juanda International Airport", "1974", "Antipope Clement VIII", "Shen Congwen", "Irene Lieblich", "Steve Evans (baseball)", "James Van Ness", "1789", "Tempo.co", "Alex Chilton", "Syracuse Pros", "Tunku Abdul Rahman", "1775", "1446", "Konrad Peutinger", "Paul Hindemith", "1065", "Osceola", "1959", "1914", "Michel Petrucciani", "Bertoldo di Giovanni", "Overtime (sports)", "Eduard Strauss" ]
8,199
Denis Diderot
He would occasionally make his point by slapping her thighs. In a letter to Madame Geoffrin, Catherine wrote: {{Blockquote|Your Diderot is an extraordinary man. I emerge from interviews with him with my thighs bruised and quite black. I have been obliged to put a table between us to protect myself and my members. She should publicly declare that "there is no true sovereign other than the nation, and there can be no true legislator other than the people." She should create a new Russian legal code establishing an independent legal framework and starting with the text: "We the people, and we the sovereign of this people, swear conjointly these laws, by which we are judged equally." Ultimately, Diderot decided not to send these notes to Catherine; however, they were delivered to her with his other papers after he died. When she read them, she was furious and commented that they were an incoherent gibberish devoid of prudence, insight, and verisimilitude. == Philosophy == In his youth, Diderot was originally a follower of Voltaire and his deist Anglomanie, but gradually moved away from this line of thought towards materialism and atheism, a move which was finally realised in 1747 in the philosophical debate in the second part of his The Skeptic's Walk (1747). Diderot opposed mysticism and occultism, which were highly prevalent in France at the time he wrote, and believed religious truth claims must fall under the domain of reason, not mystical experience or esoteric secrets. However, Diderot showed some interest in the work of Paracelsus. He was "a philosopher in whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another" (Rosenkranz). In his 1754 book On the interpretation of Nature, Diderot expounded on his views about nature, evolution, materialism, mathematics, and experimental science. It is speculated that Diderot may have contributed to his friend Baron d'Holbach's 1770 book The System of Nature. Diderot had enthusiastically endorsed the book stating that: {{blockquote|What I like is a philosophy clear, definite, and frank, such as you have in the System of Nature. The author is not an atheist on one page and a deist on another. His philosophy is all of one piece. Why be moral in a world without god? How should we appreciate art? What are we and where do we come from? What are sex and love? How can a philosopher intervene in political affairs? == Death and burial == Diderot died of pulmonary thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. He has several times been denied burial in the Panthéon with other French notables. Diderot's remains were unearthed by grave robbers in 1793, leaving his corpse on the church's floor. His remains were then presumably transferred to a mass grave by the authorities. ==Appreciation and influence== Marmontel and commented on the great pleasure of having intellectual conversations with Diderot. Diderot's contemporary, and rival, Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote in his Confessions that after a few centuries Diderot would be accorded as much respect by posterity as was given to Plato and Aristotle. As atheism fell out of favor during the French Revolution, Diderot was vilified and considered responsible for the excessive persecution of the clergy. In the next century, Diderot was admired by Balzac, Delacroix, Stendhal, Zola, and Schopenhauer. According to Comte, Diderot was the foremost intellectual in an exciting age. ==Modern tributes== Otis Fellows and Norman Torrey have described Diderot as "the most interesting and provocative figure of the French eighteenth century." In 1993, American writer Cathleen Schine published Rameau's Niece, a satire of academic life in New York that took as its premise a woman's research into an (imagined) 18th-century pornographic parody of Diderot's Rameau's Nephew. The book was praised by Michiko Kakutani in the New York Times as "a nimble philosophical satire of the academic mind" and "an enchanting comedy of modern manners." French author Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt wrote a play titled Le Libertin (The Libertine) which imagines a day in Diderot's life including a fictional sitting for a woman painter which becomes sexually charged but is interrupted by the demands of editing the Encyclopédie. It was first staged at Paris' Théâtre Montparnasse in 1997 starring Bernard Giraudeau as Diderot and Christiane Cohendy as Madame Therbouche and was well received by critics. In 2013, the 300th anniversary of Diderot's birth, his hometown of Langres held a series of events in his honor and produced an audio tour of the town highlighting places that were part of Diderot's past, including the remains of the convent where his sister Angélique took her vows. On 6 October 2013, a museum of the Enlightenment focusing on Diderot's contributions to the movement, the Maison des Lumières Denis Diderot, was inaugurated in Langres. The French government considered memorializing the 300th anniversary of his birth, but this did not come to pass.
[ "Charles Darwin", "Nakaz", "American Philosophical Society", "Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient", "John Mills (encyclopedist)", "D'Alembert's Dream", "National Library of the Netherlands", "University of Pennsylvania Press", "atheism", "Spinoza", "Vincennes", "Le Rêve de d’Alembert", "Darwinistic", "Encyclopédie", "Stendhal", "Lettre sur les sourds et muets", "lettre de cachet", "Schiller", "La Promenade du sceptique", "University of Paris", "Germaine de Staël", "Teleological argument", "Letter on the Blind", "Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society", "Le père de famille", "box set (theatre)", "Paris Law Faculty", "La Mettrie", "Philosophical Thoughts", "Auguste Comte", "Le neveu de Rameau", "Supplément au voyage de Bougainville", "Académie Française", "Individualism", "Salon (Paris)", "Bohemianism", "Pierre Louis Maupertuis", "mechanical arts", "deist", "Eugène Delacroix", "University of Chicago", "La Religieuse (novel)", "speech disorder", "Gottfried Sellius", "Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury", "l'esprit d'escalier", "Western philosophy", "Jules de Goncourt", "Divine Providence", "Panthéon, Paris", "Jean-Philippe Rameau", "rhetoric", "Guillaume Thomas François Raynal", "Paradox of the Actor", "The System of Nature", "Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz", "Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur", "Contributions to liberal theory", "French Revolution", "List of liberal theorists", "The Skeptic's Walk", "Province of Champagne", "Histoire des deux Indes", "Frederic the Great", "Jakin (magazine)", "University of Michigan Library", "irony", "The Sofa: A Moral Tale", "Saint Petersburg", "Jacques the Fatalist", "Cutlery", "Antoinette Champion", "Voltaire", "Lapham's Quarterly", "Jean Gautherin", "Leonhard Euler", "Louise-Henriette Volland", "Friedrich Schiller", "Marc-Antoine Eidous", "Jonathan Israel", "Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)", "Epicureanism", "Jean-François Marmontel", "sense", "Oxford University Press", "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman", "Materialism", "Madeleine de Puisieux", "Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon", "Republic of Letters", "Baron d'Holbach", "Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm", "Index Librorum Prohibitorum", "deism", "Rousseau", "Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune", "Urs App", "Robert Wokler", "Le rêve de D'Alembert", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "proscenium", "National Library of Russia", "Pulmonary embolism", "Profession", "fourth wall", "Pensées sur l'interprétation de la nature", "Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin", "Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences", "Mystification (Diderot)", "philologist", "Langres", "Genetic variability", "Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve", "Naturalism (philosophy)", "Diderot effect", "pantheist", "Nicholas Saunderson", "Saint-Roch, Paris", "hermaphroditism", "Catherine the Great", "Didier Diderot", "air resistance", "wikt:emboîtement", "matter", "On the interpretation of Nature", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "18th-century philosophy", "Marc-Antoine-Nicolas de Croismare", "The Indiscreet Jewels", "Bobbs-Merrill Company", "Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes", "Denis Diderot House Of Enlightenment (France)", "Karl Marx", "André Morellet", "deaf", "French materialism", "Meaning of life (philosophy)", "Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary", "Paris Diderot University", "evolution", "Jean le Rond d'Alembert", "fatalist", "freedom of thought", "Jacques le fataliste", "Age of Enlightenment", "Jean-Baptiste Greuze", "Society of the Friends of Truth", "Joxe Azurmendi", "Temple Stanyan", "Encyclopedist", "atheist", "Le Père de famille", "Encyclopédistes", "Émile Zola", "Portrait of Denis Diderot", "Ephraim Chambers", "Schopenhauer", "Spontaneous generation", "Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva)", "André le Breton", "argument from design", "Paradise Lost", "natural selection", "Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers", "Jacques le fataliste et son maître", "State University of New York Press", "SAGE Publishing", "Mme de Maux", "Critical and Miscellaneous Essays", "Biblical miracles", "Émilie du Châtelet", "François-Vincent Toussaint", "Socrates", "Café de la Régence", "Le Fils naturel", "History of evolutionary thought", "Cato Institute", "Systeme de la Nature", "knowledge", "acoustics", "World Digital Library", "Madame de La Carlière", "Otis Fellows", "Denis Diderot House of Enlightenment", "grave robbers", "Robert James (physician)", "Goethe", "materialism", "Horace", "Rameau's Nephew", "Ceci n'est pas un conte", "Corpuscularianism", "Society of Jesus", "religious tolerance", "Le Neveu de Rameau", "Paracelsus", "master–slave dialectic", "Jules Michelet", "Deism", "art critic", "Edmond de Goncourt", "Conway Zirkle", "l'esprit de l'escalier", "libertine novel", "Anne-Antoinette Diderot", "Louis-Michel van Loo", "Louvre", "Honoré de Balzac", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe" ]
8,200
Discovery of chemical elements
The discoveries of the 118 chemical elements known to exist as of 2025 are presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately determined. There are plans to synthesize more elements, and it is not known how many elements are possible. Each element's name, atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and notes related to the discovery are listed. == Periodic table of elements == == Graphical timeline == ImageSize = width:1600 height:120 # barincrement:0 PlotArea = top:70 bottom:30 right:10 left:10 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:gray1 value:gray(0.85) legend:Independent id:gray2 value:gray(0.95) DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:1665 till:2025 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1670 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1665 TextData = textcolor:black fontsize:s pos:(10,110) text:"Au: 40000 BC" pos:(10,100) text:"C: 26000 BC" pos:(10,90) text:"Cu: 9000 BC" pos:(10,80) text:"Pb: 7000 BC" pos:(10,70) text:"Ag," pos:(28,70) text:"Fe: by 5000 BC" pos:(110,110) text:"Sn: 3500 BC" pos:(110,100) text:"Sb: 3000 BC" pos:(110,90) text:"S: by 2000 BC" pos:(110,80) text:"Hg: 1500 BC" pos:(110,70) text:"Zn: by 1000 BC" pos:(200,110) text:"Pt: c. 600 BC–AD 200" pos:(200,110) text:"Au: 6000 BC" pos:(200,100) text:"As: c. AD 300" pos:(200,90) text:"Bi: c. 1500" PlotData = bar:elements width:20 from:1660 till:2020 align:center fontsize:S width:15 shift:(0,10) at:1671 mark:(line,black) text:"H" shift:(0,10) at:1868 mark:(line,black) text:"He" shift:(0,10) at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Li" shift:(0,20) at:1798 mark:(line,black) text:"Be" shift:(-2,10) at:1787 mark:(line,black) text:"B" shift:(0,40) at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:"N" shift:(0,20) at:1771 mark:(line,black) text:"O" shift:(0,30) at:1771 mark:(line,black) text:"F" shift:(0,30) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Ne" shift:(0,10) at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:"Na" at:1755 mark:(line,black) text:"Mg" at:1746 mark:(line,black) text:"Al" shift:(0,10) at:1739 mark:(line,black) text:"Si" at:1669 mark:(line,black) text:"P" shift:(0,10) at:1774 mark:(line,black) text:"Cl" shift:(0,10) at:1894 mark:(line,black) text:"Ar" shift:(0,20) at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:"K" shift:(0,20) at:1739 mark:(line,black) text:"Ca" shift:(0,30) at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Sc" shift:(0,10) at:1791 mark:(line,black) text:"Ti" shift:(0,10) at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:"V" shift:(0,10) at:1797 mark:(line,black) text:"Cr" shift:(0,10) at:1770 mark:(line,black) text:"Mn" shift:(0,10) at:1735 mark:(line,black) text:"Co" at:1751 mark:(line,black) text:"Ni" shift:(0,10) at:1875 mark:(line,black) text:"Ga" shift:(0,20) at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:"Ge" shift:(0,20) at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Se" shift:(0,10) at:1825 mark:(line,black) text:"Br" shift:(0,40) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Kr" shift:(0,20) at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:"Rb" shift:(-2,30) at:1790 mark:(line,black) text:"Sr" shift:(0,10) at:1794 mark:(line,black) text:"Y" shift:(0,10) at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:"Zr" shift:(0,20) at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:"Nb" shift:(0,10) at:1778 mark:(line,black) text:"Mo" shift:(0,10) at:1937 mark:(line,black) text:"Tc" shift:(0,10) at:1844 mark:(line,black) text:"Ru" at:1804 mark:(line,black) text:"Rh" shift:(0,30) at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:"Pd" shift:(0,30) at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Cd" shift:(0,10) at:1863 mark:(line,black) text:"In" shift:(0,20) at:1782 mark:(line,black) text:"Te" shift:(0,10) at:1811 mark:(line,black) text:"I" shift:(0,50) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Xe" shift:(0,10) at:1860 mark:(line,black) text:"Cs" shift:(0,50) at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:"Ba" shift:(0,10) at:1838 mark:(line,black) text:"La" shift:(0,50) at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Ce" shift:(0,10) at:1885 mark:(line,black) text:"Pr" shift:(0,20) at:1841 mark:(line,black) text:"Nd" shift:(0,10) at:1945 mark:(line,black) text:"Pm" shift:(0,40) at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Sm" shift:(0,20) at:1896 mark:(line,black) text:"Eu" shift:(0,60) at:1880 mark:(line,black) text:"Gd" shift:(0,30) at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:"Tb" shift:(0,30) at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:"Dy" shift:(0,10) at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:"Ho" shift:(0,40) at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:"Er" shift:(0,50) at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Tm" shift:(0,20) at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:"Yb" shift:(0,10) at:1906 mark:(line,black) text:"Lu" shift:(0,10) at:1922 mark:(line,black) text:"Hf" shift:(0,40) at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:"Ta" shift:(0,10) at:1781 mark:(line,black) text:"W" shift:(0,20) at:1908 mark:(line,black) text:"Re" shift:(0,60) at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Os" shift:(0,70) at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Ir" shift:(0,30) at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:"Tl" shift:(0,60) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Po" shift:(0,30) at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:"At" shift:(0,10) at:1899 mark:(line,black) text:"Rn" shift:(0,20) at:1939 mark:(line,black) text:"Fr" shift:(0,70) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Ra" shift:(0,10) at:1902 mark:(line,black) text:"Ac" shift:(0,10) at:1829 mark:(line,black) text:"Th" shift:(0,10) at:1913 mark:(line,black) text:"Pa" shift:(0,20) at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:"U" shift:(0,40) at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:"Np" shift:(0,10) at:1941 mark:(line,black) text:"Pu" shift:(0,30) at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:"Am" shift:(0,20) at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:"Cm" shift:(0,10) at:1949 mark:(line,black) text:"Bk" shift:(0,20) at:1950 mark:(line,black) text:"Cf" shift:(0,10) at:1952 mark:(line,black) text:"Es" shift:(0,20) at:1953 mark:(line,black) text:"Fm" shift:(0,10) at:1955 mark:(line,black) text:"Md" shift:(0,10) at:1965 mark:(line,black) text:"No" shift:(0,10) at:1961 mark:(line,black) text:"Lr" shift:(0,10) at:1969 mark:(line,black) text:"Rf" shift:(0,20) at:1970 mark:(line,black) text:"Db" shift:(0,10) at:1974 mark:(line,black) text:"Sg" shift:(0,10) at:1981 mark:(line,black) text:"Bh" shift:(0,10) at:1984 mark:(line,black) text:"Hs" shift:(0,20) at:1982 mark:(line,black) text:"Mt" shift:(0,10) at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:"Ds" shift:(0,20) at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:"Rg" shift:(0,30) at:1996 mark:(line,black) text:"Cn" shift:(0,20) at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:"Nh" shift:(0,10) at:1999 mark:(line,black) text:"Fl" shift:(0,30) at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:"Mc" shift:(0,20) at:2000 mark:(line,black) text:"Lv" shift:(0,10) at:2009 mark:(line,black) text:"Ts" shift:(0,10) at:2002 mark:(line,black) text:"Og" == Cumulative diagram == == Pre-modern and early modern discoveries == ==Modern discoveries== For 18th-century discoveries, around the time that Antoine Lavoisier first questioned the phlogiston theory, the recognition of a new "earth" has been regarded as being equivalent to the discovery of a new element (as was the general practice then). For some elements (e.g. Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo), this presents further difficulties as their compounds were widely known since medieval or even ancient times, even though the elements themselves were not. Since the true nature of those compounds was sometimes only gradually discovered, it is sometimes very difficult to name one specific discoverer. Its name first appears in print in the work of in 1676. Recognised as an element by Lavoisier. Henry Cavendish in 1766 was the first to distinguish from other gases. Lavoisier named it in 1783. It was the first elemental gas known. |- | 11 | Sodium | 1702 | G. E. Stahl | 1807 | H. Davy | rowspan=2|Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. Andreas Sigismund Marggraf again recognised the difference between soda ash and potash in 1758, but not all chemists accepted his conclusion. In 1797, Martin Heinrich Klaproth suggested the names natron and kali for the two alkalis (whence the symbols). Davy isolated sodium metal a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis on sodium hydroxide and potash respectively. |- | 19 | Potassium | 1702 | G. E. Stahl | 1807 | H. Davy |- | 27 | Cobalt | 1735 | G. Brandt | 1735 | G. Brandt | Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously. |- | 20 | Calcium | 1739 | J. H. Pott | 1808 | H. Davy | Lime was known as a substance for centuries, but only in the 18th century was its chemical nature recognised. Pott recognised terra calcarea (calcareous earth) as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739. Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy suggested in 1787 that it was the oxide of an element. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from quicklime. In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon, and Berzelius obtained the pure element in 1823. The name was proposed to be changed to silicon by Thomas Thomson in 1817, and this was eventually accepted because of its analogies to boron and carbon. |- | 13 | Aluminium | 1746 | J. H. Pott | 1825 | H.C.Ørsted | Paracelsus recognised aluminis as separate from vitriol in 1570, and Andreas Libavius proposed in his 1597 treatise to name the unknown earth of alum alumina. In 1746, Johann Heinrich Pott published a treatise distinguishing alum from lime and chalk, and Marggraf precipitated the new earth in 1756. However, some scientists questioned his isolation. The first undisputed isolation of aluminium was done by Friedrich Wöhler in 1827. |- | 12 | Magnesium | 1755 | J. Black | 1808 | H. Davy | Joseph Black observed that magnesia alba (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO) in 1755; until then, both substances had been confused. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from magnesia. |- | 25 | Manganese | 1770 | T. O. Bergman | 1774 | J. G. Gahn | Torbern Olof Bergman distinguished pyrolusite as the calx of a new metal, but failed to reduce it. Ignatius Gottfred Kaim might have isolated it in 1770, but there is uncertainty on that. It was isolated by reduction of manganese dioxide with carbon. Given its present name in 1779 by Guyton de Morveau; prior to that it was called magnesia. |- | 9 | Fluorine | 1771 | W. Scheele | 1886 | H. Moissan | Fluorspar was described by Georgius Agricola in 1529. Scheele studied fluorspar and correctly concluded it to be the lime (calcium) salt of an acid. Radical fluorique appears on the list of elements in Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie from 1789, but radical muriatique also appears instead of chlorine. |- | 8 | Oxygen | 1771 | W. Scheele | 1771 | W. Scheele | Scheele obtained it by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Joseph Priestley also prepared this new air by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777. Before him, Sendivogius had produced oxygen by heating saltpetre, correctly identifying it as the "food of life". |- | 7 | Nitrogen | 1772 | D. Rutherford | 1772 | D. Rutherford | Rutherford discovered nitrogen while studying at the University of Edinburgh. He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775–6. |- | 56 | Barium | 1772 | W. Scheele | 1808 | H. Davy | Scheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) in baryte in 1772. He did not name his discovery; Guyton de Morveau suggested barote in 1782. |- | 17 | Chlorine | 1774 | W. Scheele | 1774 | W. Scheele | Obtained it from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1810 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element. |- | 42 | Molybdenum | 1778 | W. Scheele | 1788 | J. Hjelm | Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent of molybdena. Before that, Axel Cronstedt had assumed that molybdena contained a new earth in 1758. Since that time both names, tungsten and wolfram, have been used depending on language. Klaproth isolated it in 1798. As the element turned out not to be a metal, he revised his proposal to boron in 1812. Te; some elements were listed in the table as unextracted "radicals" (Cl, F, B) or as oxides (Ca, Mg, Ba, Al, Si). He also redefines the term "element". |- | 40 | Zirconium | 1789 | H. Klaproth | 1824 | J. Berzelius | Martin Heinrich Klaproth identified a new oxide in zircon in 1789, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it. |- | 38 | Strontium | 1790 | A. Crawford | 1808 | H. Davy | Adair Crawford in 1790 found that strontianite (strontium carbonate) and witherite (barium carbonate) have different chemical properties, and suspected strontianite contained a new earth. Before him, strontianite is seen as a type of witherite. Strontium was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Davy. |- | 22 | Titanium | 1791 | W. Gregor | 1875 | D. K. Kirillov | Gregor found an oxide of a new metal in ilmenite; Klaproth independently discovered the element in rutile in 1795 and named it. In 1825, Jöns Jacob Berzelius claimed isolation of metallic titanium, but his substance did not react with hydrofluoric acid, whereas titanium does. In 1910, Matthew A. Hunter obtained metallic titanium of 99% purity. |- | 39 | Yttrium | 1794 | J. Gadolin | 1843 | H. Rose | Johan Gadolin discovered the earth in gadolinite in 1794. He did not name his discovery, but Anders Gustaf Ekeberg did so when he confirmed it in 1797. but Rose proved otherwise in 1843 and correctly isolated the element himself that year. |- | 24 | Chromium | 1797 | N. Vauquelin | 1798 | N. Vauquelin | Vauquelin analysed the composition of crocoite ore in 1797, and later isolated the metal by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven. |- | 4 | Beryllium | 1798 | N. Vauquelin | 1828 | F. Wöhler and A. Bussy | Vauquelin discovered the oxide in beryl and emerald in 1798, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it. Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in 1830 and named it vanadium. Friedrich Wöhler then showed that vanadium was identical to erythronium and thus that del Río had been right in the first place. Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of vanadium(II) chloride, VCl2, with hydrogen. |- | 41 | Niobium | 1801 | C. Hatchett | 1864 | W. Blomstrand | Hatchett found the element in columbite ore and named it columbium. In 1809, W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false. |- | 73 | Tantalum | 1802 | G. Ekeberg | 1864 | J.C.G. de Marignac | Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite, and named it after Tantalus from Greek mythology because of its inability to be dissolved by acids (just as Tantalus was tantalised by water that receded when he tried to drink it). De Marignac's sample contained impurities; relatively pure tantalum was produced by Werner von Bolton in 1903. |- | 46 | Palladium | 1802 | W. H. Wollaston | 1802 | W. H. Wollaston | Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discovered asteroid, Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroid Pallas. |- | 58 | Cerium | 1803 | H. Klaproth, J. Berzelius, and W. Hisinger | 1875 | W. F. Hillebrand and T. H. Norton | Berzelius and Hisinger discovered a new earth in cerite, considered it to be an oxide of a new element and named the element after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples. Mosander (1825) and Wöhler (1867) claimed to have isolated metallic cerium, but their samples were rather impure. |- | 76 | Osmium | 1803 | S. Tennant | 1803 | S. Tennant | Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium. |- | 77 | Iridium | 1803 | S. Tennant and H.-V. Collet-Descotils | 1803 | S. Tennant | Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium, and published the iridium results in 1804. Collet-Descotils also found iridium the same year, but not osmium. |- | 53 | Iodine | 1811 | B. Courtois | 1811 | B. Courtois | Courtois discovered it in the ashes of seaweed. The name iode was given in French by Gay-Lussac and published in 1813. Davy gave it the English name iodine in 1814. Brande isolated it electrolytically from lithium oxide. |- | 34 | Selenium | 1817 | J. Berzelius and G. Gahn | 1817 | J. Berzelius and G. Gahn | While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it was different. |- | 35 | Bromine | 1825 | J. Balard and C. Löwig | 1825 | J. Balard and C. Löwig | They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825. Balard published his results the next year, but Löwig did not publish until 1827. |- | 90 | Thorium | 1829 | J. Berzelius | 1914 | D. Lely, Jr. and L. Hamburger | Berzelius obtained a new earth (the oxide of a new element) in thorite. |- | 57 | Lanthanum | 1838 | G. Mosander | 1904 | W. Muthmann, L. Weiss | Mosander found a new earth in samples of ceria in 1838. |- | 60 | Neodymium | 1841 | G. Mosander | 1901 | W. Muthmann, H. Hofer, L. Weiss | Discovered by Mosander and called didymium. Carl Auer von Welsbach later split it into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium. Neodymium had formed the greater part of the old didymium and received the prefix "neo-". |- | 68 | Erbium | 1843 | G. Mosander | 1934 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer |rowspan=2| Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper, erbia, and terbia. The names underwent some confusion: Mosander's erbia was yellow and his terbia was red. But in 1860, Nils Johan Berlin could only find the rose-coloured earth, confusingly renamed as erbia, and questioned the existence of the yellow earth. Marc Delafontaine adopted Berlin's nomenclature where erbia was the rose-coloured earth, but proved in 1878 that the yellow earth also existed. At the prompting of Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, he named the yellow earth terbia; thus Mosander's names were swapped from his original choices. However, in 1844 Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was one new metal, and reused Osann's name "ruthenium". |- | 55 | Caesium | 1860 | R. Bunsen and R. Kirchhoff | 1882 | C. Setterberg | Bunsen and Kirchhoff were the first to suggest finding new elements by spectrum analysis. They discovered caesium by its two blue emission lines in a sample of Dürkheim mineral water. The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 by Setterberg. |- | 37 | Rubidium | 1861 | R. Bunsen and G. R. Kirchhoff | 1863 | R. Bunsen | Bunsen and Kirchhoff discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral lepidolite. The metal was isolated by Bunsen around 1863. |- | 49 | Indium | 1863 | F. Reich and T. Richter | 1864 | T. Richter | Reich and Richter first identified it in sphalerite by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line. Richter isolated the metal the next year. |- | | | 1869 | D. I. Mendeleev | | | Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time (omitting terbium, as chemists were unsure of its existence, and helium, as it was not found on Earth) into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others. |- | 31 | Gallium | 1875 | P. E. L. de Boisbaudran | 1878 | P. E. L. de Boisbaudran and E. Jungfleisch | Boisbaudran observed on a pyrenea blende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminium that was predicted by Mendeleev in 1871. He and Jungfleisch isolated the metal three years later by electrolysis. |- | 67 | Holmium | 1878 | J.-L. Soret and M. Delafontaine | 1939 | H. Bommer | Soret found it in samarskite and later, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. Delafontaine's philippium turned out to be identical to what Soret found. |- | 21 | Scandium | 1879 | F. Nilson | 1937 | W. Fischer, K. Brünger, H. Grieneisen | Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched Mendeleev's 1871 predicted eka-boron. |- | 69 | Thulium | 1879 | T. Cleve | 1936 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. |- | 62 | Samarium | 1879 | P.E.L. de Boisbaudran | 1903 | W. Muthmann | Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it samaria after the mineral. |- | 64 | Gadolinium | 1880 | J. C. G. de Marignac | 1935 | Félix Trombe | Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite. |- | 59 | Praseodymium | 1885 | C. A. von Welsbach | 1904 | W. Muthmann, L. Weiss | Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered it in Mosander's didymia. |- | 32 | Germanium | 1886 | C. A. Winkler | 1886 | C. A. Winkler | In February 1886 Winkler found in argyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871. |- | 66 | Dysprosium | 1886 | P.E.L. de Boisbaudran | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia. |- | 18 | Argon | 1894 | Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay | 1894 | Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay | They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be isolated. |- | 63 | Europium | 1896 | E.-A. Demarçay | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | Demarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, provisionally designated the element as Σ, and gave it its present name in 1901. Metallic europium was isolated in 1937. |- | 36 | Krypton | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point. |- | 10 | Neon | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | 1898 | W. Ramsay and W. Travers | In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point. |- | 84 | Polonium | 1898 | P. and M. Curie | 1946 | W. H. Beamer and C. R. Maxwell | In an experiment done on 13 July 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from pitchblende, which they ascribed to an unknown element. Independently rediscovered and isolated in 1902 by Marckwald, who named it radiotellurium. Pure polonium was obtained in 1946. |- | 88 | Radium | 1898 | P. and M. Curie | 1910 | Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne | The Curies reported on 26 December 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated from uraninite. In September 1910, Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne announced that they had isolated radium as a pure metal. |- | 86 | Radon | 1899 | E. Rutherford and R. B. Owens | 1910 | W. Ramsay and R. Whytlaw-Gray | Rutherford and Owens discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of thorium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray. In 1900, Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered a longer-lived isotope of the same gas from the radioactive decay of radium. Since "radon" was first used to specifically designate Dorn's isotope before it became the name for the element, he is often mistakenly given credit for the latter instead of the former. |- | 89 | Actinium | 1902 | F. O. Giesel | 1955 | Joseph G. Stites, Murrell L. Salutsky, Bob D. Stone | Giesel obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of lanthanum and named it emanium. André-Louis Debierne had previously (in 1899 and 1900) reported the discovery of a new element actinium that was supposedly similar to titanium and thorium, which cannot have included much actual element 89. But by 1904, when Giesel and Debierne met, both had samples containing element 89, and so Debierne has generally been given credit for the discovery. |- | 71 | Lutetium | 1906 | C. A. von Welsbach and G. Urbain | 1937 | W. Klemm and H. Bommer | von Welsbach proved that the old ytterbium also contained a new element, which he named cassiopeium (he renamed the larger part of the old ytterbium to aldebaranium). Urbain also proved this at about the same time (von Welsbach's paper was published first, but Urbain sent his to the editor first), naming the new element lutetium and the old one neoytterbium (which later reverted to ytterbium). However, Urbain's samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen name lutetium was adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights, whose membership included Urbain. The German Atomic Weights Commission adopted cassiopeium for the next forty years. Finally in 1949 IUPAC decided in favour of the name lutetium as it was more often used. |- | 75 | Rhenium | 1908 | M. Ogawa | 1908 | M. Ogawa | Masataka Ogawa found it in thorianite in 1908, but assigned it as element 43 and named it nipponium. (Elements 43 and 75 are in the same group of the periodic table.) Because of the erroneous assignment, and because some of his key results were published only in Japanese, his claim was not widely recognised. However, the optical emission spectrum described by Ogawa and the X-ray photographic plate for one of his samples match element 75, and his claim has thus been rehabilitated in much of the modern literature. In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite, identified it correctly as element 75, and gave it the present name. |- | 91 | Protactinium | 1913 | O. H. Göhring and K. Fajans | 1934 | A. von Grosse | The two obtained the first isotope of this element, 234mPa, that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as a member of the natural decay of 238U: they named it brevium. A longer-lived isotope 231Pa was found in 1918 by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, and was named by them protactinium: since it is longer-lived, it gave the element its name. William Crookes in 1900 reported his discovery of the radioelement "uranium X", that later was proven to be mixture of uranium X1 (234Th) and uranium X2 (234mPa). |- | 72 | Hafnium | 1922 | D. Coster and G. von Hevesy | 1924 | Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer | Georges Urbain claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, while Vladimir Vernadsky independently found it in orthite. Neither claim was confirmed due to World War I, and neither could be confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium. After the war, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon. Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heated tungsten filament in 1924. Hafnium was the last stable element to be discovered (noting however the difficulties regarding the discovery of rhenium). |- | 43 | Technetium | 1937 | C. Perrier and E. Segrè | 1947 | S. Fried | The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in a cyclotron, the first element to be discovered by synthesis. It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese. In 1952, Paul W. Merrill found its spectral lines in S-type red giants. Minuscule trace quantities were finally found on Earth in 1962 by B. T. Kenna and Paul K. Kuroda: they isolated it from Belgian Congo pitchblende, where it occurs as a spontaneous fission product of uranium. The Noddacks (rediscoverers of rhenium) claimed to have discovered element 43 in 1925 as well and named it masurium (after Masuria), but their claims were disproven by Kuroda, who calculated that there cannot have been enough technetium in their samples to have enabled a true detection. |- | 87 | Francium | 1939 | M. Perey | | | Perey discovered it as a decay product of 227Ac. Francium was the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although four of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine, and promethium) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well. Before Perey, it is likely that Stefan Meyer, Viktor F. Hess, and Friedrich Paneth had observed the decay of 227Ac to 223Fr in Vienna in 1914, but they could not follow up and secure their work because of the outbreak of World War I. Shortly before that, Yoshio Nishina and Kenjiro Kimura discovered the uranium isotope 237U and found that it beta decays into 23793, but were unable to measure the activity of the element 93 product because its half-life was too long. McMillan and Abelson succeeded because they used 239U, as 23993 has a much shorter half-life. McMillan and Abelson found that 23993 itself undergoes beta decay and must produce an isotope of element 94, but the quantities they used were not enough to isolate and identify element 94 along with 93. Natural traces were found in Belgian Congo pitchblende by D. F. Peppard et al. in 1952. |- | 85 | Astatine | 1940 | D. R. Corson, K. R. MacKenzie and E. Segrè | | | Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. In 1943, Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert found it in nature; due to World War II, they were initially unaware of Corson et al.'s results. |- | 94 | Plutonium | 1941 | Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl, W. Kennedy and E.M. McMillan | 1943 | H. L. Baumbach, S. Fried, P. L. Kirk and, R. S. Rosenfels | Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons. Seaborg and Morris L. Perlman then found it as traces in natural Canadian pitchblende in 1941–1942, though this work was kept secret until 1948. The first sample of plutonium metal was created from the reduction of plutonium trifluoride in November 1943. |- | 96 | Curium | 1944 | Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso | 1950 | J. C. Wallmann, W. W. T. Crane and B. B. Cunningham | Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project. Curium metal was produced in 1950 by reduction of CmF3 with barium. |- | 95 | Americium | 1944 | G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, O. Morgan and A. Ghiorso | 1951 | Edgar F. Westrum Jr. and LeRoy Eyring | Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the Manhattan Project. Americium metal was produced in 1951 by reduction of AmF3 with barium. |- | 61 | Promethium | 1945 | Charles D. Coryell, Jacob A. Marinsky, and Lawrence E. Glendenin | 1963 | F. Weigel | It was probably first prepared at the Ohio State University in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945. The metal was later isolated by F. Weigel in 1963, by reducing promethium fluoride with lithium. Found on Earth in trace quantities by Olavi Erämetsä in 1965; so far, promethium is the most recent element to have been found on Earth. |- | 97 | Berkelium | 1949 | G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) | | | Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles. |- | 98 | Californium | 1950 | S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) | 1974 | R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz | Bombardment of curium with alpha particles. Californium metal was produced in 1974 by reduction of Cf2O3 with lanthanum. |- | 99 | Einsteinium | 1952 | A. Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) | 1979 | R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz | Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; kept secret for several years. Einsteinium metal was produced in 1979 by reduction of Es2O3 with lanthanum. |- | 100 | Fermium | 1953 | A. Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) | | | Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; first identified in early 1953; kept secret for several years. |- | 101 | Mendelevium | 1955 | A. Ghiorso, G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson and G. T. Seaborg (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) | | | Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles. |- | 103 | Lawrencium | 1961 | A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, E. Larsh and M. Latimer (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) | | | First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms. |- | 102 | Nobelium | 1965 | E. D. Donets, V. A. Shchegolev and V. A. Ermakov (JINR in Dubna) | | | First prepared by bombardment of uranium with neon atoms. Although earlier claims exist, the first complete and incontrovertible report of its detection only came in 1966 from JINR in Dubna, on the basis of experiments done in 1965. |- | 104 | Rutherfordium | 1969 | A. Ghiorso et al. (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and I. Zvara et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | | Prepared by bombardment of californium with carbon atoms by Albert Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms by Zvara's team. |- | 105 | Dubnium | 1970 | A. Ghiorso et al. (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and V. A. Druin et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | | Prepared by bombardment of californium with nitrogen atoms by Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of americium with neon atoms by Druin's team. |- | 106 | Seaborgium | 1974 | A. Ghiorso et al. (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) | | | Prepared by bombardment of californium with oxygen atoms. |- | 107 | Bohrium | 1981 | G.Münzenberg et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) | | | Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium. |- | 109 | Meitnerium | 1982 | G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) | | | Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms. |- | 108 | Hassium | 1984 | G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) | | | Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron atoms |- | 110 | Darmstadtium | 1994 | S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) | | | Prepared by bombardment of lead with nickel |- | 111 | Roentgenium | 1994 | S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) | | | Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with nickel |- | 112 | Copernicium | 1996 | S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) | | | Prepared by bombardment of lead with zinc. |- | 114 | Flerovium | 1999 | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | | Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with calcium. It may have already been found at Dubna in 1998, but that result has not been confirmed. |- | 116 | Livermorium | 2000 | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | | Prepared by bombardment of curium with calcium |- | 118 |Oganesson | 2002 | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | |Prepared by bombardment of californium with calcium |- | 115 |Moscovium | 2003 | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | |Prepared by bombardment of americium with calcium |- | 113 |Nihonium | 2003–2004 | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) and K. Morita et al. (RIKEN in Wako, Japan) | | | Prepared by decay of moscovium by Oganessian's team Both teams began their experiments in 2003; Oganessian's team detected its first atom in 2003, but Morita's only in 2004. However, both teams published in 2004. |- | 117 |Tennessine | 2009 | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) | | |Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with calcium |}
[ "mercury(II) sulfide", "Ida Noddack", "Joseph W. Kennedy", "Magnesium", "Félix Trombe", "Robert M. Latimer", "Dubnium", "Atomic number", "Iridium", "Anders Gustaf Ekeberg", "Friedrich Ernst Dorn", "Uranus", "Dysprosium", "Vanadium", "Gold", "Masataka Ogawa", "Chromium", "Marie Curie", "group 5 element", "Morris W. Travers", "Scientific American", "orthite", "mercuric oxide", "Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand", "Robert Boyle", "Cadmium", "History of the periodic table", "Dürkheim", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "Henry Cavendish", "Philip H. Abelson", "Arsenic", "quicklime", "Los Alamos Laboratory", "Ferdinand Reich", "cyclotron", "Lithium", "group 8 element", "Eugène-Melchior Péligot", "Joseph Gay-Lussac", "Mendeleev's predicted elements", "alumina", "witherite", "Daniel Rutherford", "Hydrogen", "Californium", "GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research", "chalcogen", "saltpetre", "Robert B. Owens", "Le Moyne College", "Lars Fredrik Nilson", "Yoshio Nishina", "Jan Hendrik de Boer", "Hassium", "Almon E. Larsh", "Thallium", "rutile", "Inca", "Friedrich Wöhler", "Nils Langlet", "Palladium", "William Crookes", "Antimony", "Dmitri Mendeleev", "Hieronymous Theodor Richter", "Friedrich Paneth", "boric acid", "Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie", "Manhattan Project", "mineral water", "Bismuth bronze", "Bismuth", "Robert Bunsen", "Thomas Thomson (chemist)", "sodium hydroxide", "Ceres (dwarf planet)", "Iraq", "lanthanum", "Praseodymium", "Humphry Davy", "Joseph Black", "Chalcolithic", "crocoite", "Silver", "Sir William Ramsay", "Eugène-Anatole Demarçay", "Sodium", "Group (periodic table)", "chemical element", "Çatalhöyük", "columbite", "Sphalerite", "Masuria", "Environment Canada", "Einsteinium", "John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh", "thorianite", "wolframite", "Varna Necropolis", "Georg Ernst Stahl", "Rubidium", "P. M. de Respour", "Zosimos of Panopolis", "De Gruyter", "Bernard Courtois", "asteroid", "Juan José Elhuyar", "Borax", "red giant", "Hippolyte-Victor Collet-Descotils", "Gabarnmung", "Jacob A. Marinsky", "strontianite", "Cassiterite", "Antoine Jérôme Balard", "Taxila", "Transfermium Wars", "scheelite", "Joint Institute for Nuclear Research", "Georgius Agricola", "samarskite", "Nils Johan Berlin", "hydrogen", "Argon", "Physical Review C", "Indium", "Claude Louis Berthollet", "Lead", "University of California, Berkeley", "Caesium", "Plutonium", "Curium", "Iron Age", "Antonio de Ulloa", "John Dalton", "Charles Hatchett", "Gallium", "Leipzig", "Dirk Coster", "Tantalum", "baryte", "Friedrich Stromeyer", "Carbothermic reaction", "boron group", "Johann Schröder (physician)", "Meitnerium", "Helium", "Nils Gabriel Sefström", "Emil Jungfleisch", "argyrodite", "Tennessine", "World War I", "petalite", "Louis Guyton de Morveau", "Sirr al-khaliqa", "Bronze Age", "Incas", "stibnite", "Nobelium", "Die Naturwissenschaften", "Cinnabar", "Francium", "thorite", "Glenn T. Seaborg", "Bromine", "zinc oxide", "Wilhelm Klemm", "group 12 element", "alkaline earth metal", "Joseph Priestley", "Kenjiro Kimura", "Dubna", "Shepenupet II", "Vladimir Vernadsky", "Annales de chimie et de physique", "Copper", "Julius Caesar Scaliger", "Georg von Hevesy", "BaO", "Jöns Jakob Berzelius", "Stefan Meyer (physicist)", "Molybdenum", "erbia", "Aluminum", "Paleolithic", "Liquefaction of gases", "Kenneth Street, Jr.", "Neptunium", "Radium", "Manganese", "Zirconium", "Strontium", "Spectroscopy", "halogen", "group 9 element", "Polonium", "phlogiston", "list of elements by name", "plutonium trifluoride", "hydrochloric acid", "Journal of the American Chemical Society", "Peter Armbruster", "alkali metal", "Johan Gottlieb Gahn", "Smithson Tennant", "Gregory R. Choppin", "archaeological", "silica", "tria prima", "promethium fluoride", "Zinc", "Ernest Rutherford", "Robert Whytlaw-Gray", "pitchblende", "Albert Ghiorso", "Physical Review Letters", "Chlorine", "Lise Meitner", "Tin", "Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link", "Boron", "Antoine Lavoisier", "Per Theodor Cleve", "Period 3 element", "Clemens Winkler", "doi:10.1007/BF01498184", "Chaldea", "Bohrium", "Lutetium", "Walter Noddack", "Torbjørn Sikkeland", "Marc Delafontaine", "niccolite", "terbia", "Carlo Perrier", "Gottfried Wilhelm Osann", "Paul Kuroda", "Period 5 element", "Mendelevium", "Georges Urbain", "group 3 element", "Pliny the Elder", "Gottfried Münzenberg", "Extended periodic table", "Mercury (element)", "atomic number", "Nihonium", "William Gregor", "Pierre Janssen", "uraninite", "Annalen der Physik", "Ignatius Gottfred Kaim", "Fluorine", "Period 2 element", "Friedrich Oskar Giesel", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele", "group 4 element", "Actinium", "Thulium", "Henry Enfield Roscoe", "Gustav Kirchhoff", "Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy", "Pierre Curie", "Johann Gottlieb Gahn", "Nickel", "Cerium", "Molybdenite", "Livermorium", "Otto Berg (scientist)", "Rhodium", "Sulfur", "Carl Setterberg", "Periodic table", "Silicon", "cleveite", "Georg Brandt", "electrolysis", "Johann Heinrich Pott", "Promethium", "Serbia", "sphalerite", "Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie", "Titanium", "Yvette Cauchois", "Louis Nicolas Vauquelin", "Oxford University Press", "Aluminium", "Scandium", "Antoine Bussy", "Uranium", "Adair Crawford", "Iron", "Period 1 element", "Louis Jacques Thénard", "Werner von Bolton", "Fluorspar", "Europium", "Tellurium", "Osmium", "sulfur-mercury theory of metals", "Americium", "Egypt", "Claude François Geoffroy", "ilmenite", "William Brownrigg", "Lawrence E. Glendenin", "Pedanius Dioscorides", "Osiris", "Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein", "Rutherfordium", "S-type star", "Period 4 element", "beryl", "Terbium", "Hans Christian Ørsted", "group 6 element", "Rasaratna Samuchaya", "Period 7 element", "Argonne Laboratory", "Rudnik (mountain)", "Oswald Helmuth Göhring", "Leon O. Morgan", "Horia Hulubei", "Charles D. Coryell", "potash", "Carl Gustaf Mosander", "Barium", "Beryllium", "spontaneous fission", "Xenon", "cementation process", "Abydos, Egypt", "Fermium", "Nitrogen", "Skokie, Illinois", "carbon group", "Claude Berthollet", "noble gas", "Seaborgium", "Neolithic", "Henri Moissan", "ytterbium", "South America", "Diamond", "vanadinite", "ytterbia", "Carbon", "Hafnium", "transuranium element", "Yttrium", "Johan August Arfwedson", "Iodine", "Protactinium", "Andreas Libavius", "Paul W. Merrill", "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory", "brass", "seaweed", "The Mystery of Matter", "Charles Wood (ironmaster)", "group 10 element", "Cesium", "charcoal (art)", "Kestel (archaeological site)", "Tungsten", "Stanley G. Thompson", "Fausto Elhuyar", "Oganesson", "Yuri Oganessian", "nitrate", "Calcium", "William Hyde Wollaston", "pre-Columbian", "metal", "RIKEN", "Period 6 element", "Ralph A. James", "Krypton", "Rhenium", "soda ash", "Sigurd Hofmann", "Neodymium", "Bulgaria", "Erbium", "De re metallica", "Samarium", "Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann", "Middle East", "Astatine", "Karl Ernst Claus", "Berkelium", "Esmeraldas, Ecuador", "Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran", "Darmstadtium", "Albertus Magnus", "phlogiston theory", "Sendivogius", "manganese dioxide", "lithium oxide", "William Thomas Brande", "Niobium", "Peter Jacob Hjelm", "Magnesia (mineral)", "History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent", "Matthew A. Hunter", "Nature (journal)", "Torbern Olof Bergman", "Heinrich Rose", "Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau", "Ytterbium", "cerite", "Platinum", "Jabir ibn Hayyan", "Turkey", "doi:10.1002/bbpc.19180241107", "William Francis Hillebrand", "Neon", "Thorium", "Radon", "Technetium", "Gadolinium", "Vannoccio Biringuccio", "Stone Age", "Physikalische Zeitschrift", "Anton Eduard van Arkel", "André-Louis Debierne", "Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils", "Aristid von Grosse", "Hennig Brand", "Oxygen", "Copernicium", "Marguerite Perey", "Period (periodic table)", "Reinhold Book Corporation", "Phosphorus", "Lanthanum", "Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau", "Girsu", "meteoric iron", "2 Pallas", "Cobalt", "Andreas Sigismund Marggraf", "calx", "Berta Karlik", "vanadium(II) chloride", "William Ramsay", "barium", "group 7 element", "Holmium", "Kenneth Ross MacKenzie", "pnictogen", "Ruthenium", "Bernard G. Harvey", "Antoine-François de Fourcroy", "Johann Joachim Becher", "Tantalus", "Olavi Erämetsä", "pyrolusite", "Andrés Manuel del Río", "Wilhelm Hisinger", "Anatolia", "World War II", "Johan Gadolin", "tungstic acid", "Potassium", "Selenium", "Moscovium", "Claude-Auguste Lamy", "Germanium", "Carl Jacob Löwig", "Kasimir Fajans", "Emilio Segrè", "Carl Auer von Welsbach", "Edwin McMillan", "bronze", "Martin Heinrich Klaproth", "lepidolite", "Asia Minor", "University of Edinburgh", "Roentgenium", "uranium oxide", "Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac", "group 11 element", "gadolinite", "Lawrencium", "zircon", "Paracelsus", "Jacques-Louis Soret", "Otto Hahn", "Axel Fredrik Cronstedt", "Flerovium", "Ferrous metallurgy", "orpiment", "Indian subcontinent", "Joseph Norman Lockyer", "Dale R. Corson", "Arthur Wahl", "tungsten", "Ebers Papyrus", "emission line" ]
8,202
Diatonic scale
In music theory a diatonic scale is a heptatonic (seven-note) scale that includes five whole steps (whole tones) and two half steps (semitones) in each octave, in which the two half steps are separated from each other by either two or three whole steps. In other words, the half steps are maximally separated from each other. The seven pitches of any diatonic scale can also be obtained by using a chain of six perfect fifths. For instance, the seven natural pitch classes that form the C-major scale can be obtained from a stack of perfect fifths starting from F: F–C–G–D–A–E–B. Any sequence of seven successive natural notes, such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B, and any transposition thereof, is a diatonic scale. Modern musical keyboards are designed so that the white-key notes form a diatonic scale, though transpositions of this diatonic scale require one or more black keys. A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone. In musical set theory, Allen Forte classifies diatonic scales as set form 7–35. The term diatonic originally referred to the diatonic genus, one of the three genera of the ancient Greeks, and comes from , of uncertain etymology. Most likely, it refers to the intervals being "stretched out" in that tuning, in contrast to the other two genera (chromatic and enharmonic). This article does not concern alternative seven-note scales such as the harmonic minor or the melodic minor which, although sometimes called "diatonic", do not fulfill the condition of maximal separation of the semitones indicated above. ==History== Western music from the Middle Ages until the late 19th century (see common practice period) is based on the diatonic scale and the unique hierarchical relationships created by this system of organizing seven notes. ===Antiquity=== Evidence that the Sumerians and Babylonians used a version of the diatonic scale is found in cuneiform inscriptions that contain both musical compositions and a tuning system. Despite the conjectural nature of reconstructions of the Hurrian songs, the diatonic nature of the tuning system is demonstrated by the fact that it involves a series of six perfect fifths, which is a recipe for the construction of a diatonic scale. The 9,000-year-old flutes found in Jiahu, China, indicate the evolution over 1,200 years of flutes having 4, 5 and 6 holes to having 7 and 8 holes, the latter exhibiting striking similarity to diatonic hole spacings and sounds. ===Middle Ages=== The scales corresponding to the medieval church modes were diatonic. Depending on which of the seven notes of the diatonic scale you use as the beginning, the positions of the intervals fall at different distances from the starting tone (the "reference note"), producing seven different scales. One of these, the one starting on B, has no pure fifth above its reference note (B–F is a diminished fifth): it is probably for this reason that it was not used. Of the six remaining scales, two were described as corresponding to two others with a B instead of a B: A–B–C–D–E–F–G–A was described as D–E–F–G–A–B–C–D (the modern Aeolian modes whose reference notes are A and D, respectively, corresponding to the Aeolian modes of C major and F major, respectively) C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C was described as F–G–A–B–C–D–E–F (the modern Ionian modes whose reference notes are C and F, respectively, corresponding to the Ionian modes of C major and F major, respectively). As a result, medieval theory described the church modes as corresponding to four diatonic scales only (two of which had the variable B/). They were the modern Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes of C major, plus the Aeolian and Ionian modes of F major when B was substituted into the Dorian and Lydian modes of C major, respectively. ===Renaissance=== Heinrich Glarean considered that the modal scales including a B had to be the result of a transposition. In his Dodecachordon, he not only described six "natural" diatonic scales (still neglecting the seventh one with a diminished fifth above the reference note), but also six "transposed" ones, each including a B, resulting in the total of twelve scales that justified the title of his treatise. These were the 6 non-Locrian modes of C major and F major. ===Modern=== By the beginning of the Baroque period, the notion of the musical key was established, describing additional possible transpositions of the diatonic scale. Major and minor scales came to dominate until at least the start of the 20th century, partly because their intervallic patterns are suited to the reinforcement of a central triad. Some church modes survived into the early 18th century, as well as appearing in classical and 20th-century music, and jazz (see chord-scale system). ==Theory== Of Glarean's six natural scales, three have a major third/first triad: (Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian), and three have a minor one: Dorian, Phrygian, and Aeolian). To these may be added the seventh diatonic scale, with a diminished fifth above the reference note, the Locrian scale. These could be transposed not only to include one flat in the signature (as described by Glarean), but to all twelve notes of the chromatic scale, resulting in a total of eighty-four diatonic scales. The modern musical keyboard originated as a diatonic keyboard with only white keys. The black keys were progressively added for several purposes: improving the consonances, mainly the thirds, by providing a major third on each degree; allowing all twelve transpositions described above; and helping musicians to find their bearings on the keyboard. The pattern of elementary intervals forming the diatonic scale can be represented either by the letters T (tone) and S (semitone) respectively. With this abbreviation, a major scale, for instance, can be represented as T–T–S–T–T–T–S ===Major scale=== The major scale or Ionian mode is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven distinct notes, plus an eighth that duplicates the first an octave higher. The pattern of seven intervals separating the eight notes is T–T–S–T–T–T–S. In solfège, the syllables used to name each degree of the scale are Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Ti–Do. A sequence of successive natural notes starting from C is an example of major scale, called C-major scale. The eight degrees of the scale are also known by traditional names, especially when used in a tonal context: 1st – Tonic (key note) 2nd – Supertonic 3rd – Mediant 4th – Subdominant 5th – Dominant 6th – Submediant 7th – Leading tone 8th – Tonic (Octave) ===Natural minor scale=== For each major scale, there is a corresponding natural minor scale, sometimes called its relative minor. It uses the same sequence of notes as the corresponding major scale but starts from a different note. That is, it begins on the sixth degree of the major scale and proceeds step-by-step to the first octave of the sixth degree. A sequence of successive natural notes starting from A is an example of a natural minor scale, called the A natural minor scale. The degrees of the natural minor scale, especially in a tonal context, have the same names as those of the major scale, except the seventh degree, which is known as the subtonic because it is a whole step below the tonic. The term leading tone is generally reserved for seventh degrees that are a half step (semitone) below the tonic, as is the case in the major scale. Besides the natural minor scale, five other kinds of scales can be obtained from the notes of a major scale, by simply choosing a different note as the starting note. All these scales meet the definition of diatonic scale. ===Modes=== The whole collection of diatonic scales as defined above can be divided into seven different scales. As explained above, all major scales use the same interval sequence T–T–S–T–T–T–S. This interval sequence was called the Ionian mode by Glarean. It is one of the seven modern modes. From any major scale, a new scale is obtained by taking a different degree as the tonic. With this method it is possible to generate six other scales or modes from each major scale. Another way to describe the same result would be to consider that, behind the diatonic scales, there exists an underlying diatonic system which is the series of diatonic notes without a reference note; assigning the reference note in turn to each of the seven notes in each octave of the system produces seven diatonic scales, each characterized by a different interval sequence: The first column examples shown above are formed by natural notes (i.e. neither sharps nor flats, also called "white-notes", as they can be played using the white keys of a piano keyboard). However, any transposition of each of these scales (or of the system underlying them) is a valid example of the corresponding mode. In other words, transposition preserves mode. This is shown in the second column, with each mode transposed to start on C. The whole set of diatonic scales is commonly defined as the set composed of these seven natural-note scales, together with all of their possible transpositions. As discussed elsewhere, different definitions of this set are sometimes adopted in the literature. ===Diatonic scales and tetrachords=== A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone. For example, under this view the two tetrachord structures of C major would be: [C–D–E–F] – [G–A–B–C] each tetrachord being formed of two tones and a semitone, T–T–S, and the natural minor of A would be: [A–B–C–D] – [E–F–G–A] formed two different tetrachords, the first consisting in a semitone between two tones, T–S–T, and the second of a semitone and two tones, S–T–T. The medieval conception of the tetrachordal structure, however, was based on one single tetrachord, that of the D scale, [D–E–F–G] – [A–B–C–D] each formed of a semitone between tones, T–S–T. It viewed other diatonic scales as differently overlapping disjunct and conjunct tetrachords: E scale: E–F–G | A–B–C–D = D–E F scale: F–G | A–B–C–D = D–E–F G scale: G | A–B–C–D = D–E–F–G A scale: A–B–C–D = D–E–F–G | A B scale: B–C–D = D–E–F–G | A–B C scale: C–D = D–E–F–G | A–B–C (where G | A indicates the disjunction of tetrachords, always between G and A, and D = D indicates their conjunction, always on the common note D). ==Tuning== Diatonic scales can be tuned variously, either by iteration of a perfect or tempered fifth, or by a combination of perfect fifths and perfect thirds (Just intonation), or possibly by a combination of fifths and thirds of various sizes, as in well temperament. ===Iteration of the fifth=== If the scale is produced by the iteration of six perfect fifths, for instance F–C–G–D–A–E–B, the result is Pythagorean tuning: This tuning dates to Ancient Mesopotamia (see ), and was done by alternating ascending fifths with descending fourths (equal to an ascending fifth followed by a descending octave), resulting in the notes of a pentatonic or heptatonic scale falling within an octave. Six of the "fifth" intervals (C–G, D–A, E–B, F–C', G–D', A–E') are all = 1.5 (701.955 cents), but B–F' is the discordant tritone, here = 1.423828125 (611.73 cents). Tones are each = 1.125 (203.91 cents) and diatonic semitones are ≈ 1.0535 (90.225 cents). Extending the series of fifths to eleven fifths would result into the Pythagorean chromatic scale. ===Equal temperament=== Equal temperament is the division of the octave in twelve equal semitones. The frequency ratio of the semitone then becomes the twelfth root of two ( ≈ 1.059463, 100 cents). The tone is the sum of two semitones. Its ratio is the sixth root of two ( ≈ 1.122462, 200 cents). Equal temperament can be produced by a succession of tempered fifths, each of them with the ratio of 2 ≈ 1.498307, 700 cents. ===Meantone temperament=== The fifths could be tempered more than in equal temperament, in order to produce better thirds. See quarter-comma meantone for a meantone temperament commonly used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and sometimes after, which produces perfect major thirds. ===Just intonation=== Just intonation often is represented using Leonhard Euler's Tonnetz, with the horizontal axis showing the perfect fifths and the vertical axis the perfect major thirds. In the Tonnetz, the diatonic scale in just intonation appears as follows: F–A, C–E and G–B, aligned vertically, are perfect major thirds; A–E–B and F–C–G–D are two series of perfect fifths. The notes of the top line, A, E and B, are lowered by the syntonic comma, , and the "wolf" fifth D–A is too narrow by the same amount. The tritone F–B is ≈ 1.40625. This tuning has been first described by Ptolemy and is known as Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale. It was also mentioned by Zarlino in the 16th century and has been described by theorists in the 17th and 18th centuries as the "natural" scale. Since the frequency ratios are based on simple powers of the prime numbers 2, 3, and 5, this is also known as five-limit tuning.
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8,203
Deutschlandlied
The "'", officially titled "'", is the national anthem of Germany. It was first adopted in 1922 during the period of the Weimar Republic, replacing "Heil dir im Siegerkranz". The first stanza of "Deutschlandlied" was used alongside the "Horst-Wessel-Lied" during the Nazi regime from 1933 until the end of World War II. Since then, only the third stanza has been used officially as the national anthem. Its phrase "" ('Unity and Justice and Freedom') is considered the unofficial national motto of Germany, and is inscribed on modern German Army belt buckles and the rims of some German coins. The music is derived from that of "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser", composed in 1797 by the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn as an anthem for the birthday of Francis II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and later of Austria. In 1841, the German linguist and poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the lyrics of "" as a new text for that music, counterposing the national unification of Germany to the eulogy of a monarch: lyrics that were considered revolutionary at the time. The "" was adopted as the national anthem of Germany in 1922, during the Weimar Republic, to which all three stanzas were used. West Germany retained it as its official national anthem in 1952, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions. After German reunification in 1990, in 1991 only the third stanza was reconfirmed as the national anthem. It is discouraged, although not illegal, to perform the first stanza (or to some degree, the second), due to association with the Nazi regime. ==Title== The "" is also well known by the incipit and refrain of the first stanza, "" ('Germany, Germany above all'), but this has never been its title. This line originally meant that the most important aim of 19th-century German liberal revolutionaries should be a unified Germany which would overcome loyalties to the local kingdoms, principalities, duchies and palatines (Kleinstaaterei) of then-fragmented Germany, essentially that the idea of a unified Germany should be above all else. Later, and especially in Nazi Germany, these words came to more strongly express not only German superiority over and domination of other countries in particular, but that the idea of Germany is to root of all possible idealism among Germans. == Melody == The melody of the "Deutschlandlied" was written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ("God save Francis the Emperor") by Lorenz Leopold Haschka. In its original form, the song was an anthem honouring Francis II, emperor of the Austrian Empire. It was intended as an impetus to Austrian patriotism, modelled on Great Britain's "God Save the King". The melody later became the music of the national anthem of Austria-Hungary, prior to the abolition of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918. The re-use of Haydn's melody in the "Deutschlandslied" is one of a great number of later such adaptations and reuses. In the score below, Haydn's tune is shown along with the lyrics of the "Deutschlandlied". \relative c' { \key es \major \time 4/4 \partial 2 \repeat volta 2 { es4. f8 | g4 f as g | f8 (d) es4 c' bes | as g f g8 (es) | bes'2 } f4 g | f8 (d) bes4 as' g | f8 (d) bes4 bes' as | g4. g8 a4 a8 (bes) | bes2 \repeat volta 2 { es4. d8 | d (c) bes4 c4. bes8 | bes (as) g4 f4. g16 (as) | bes8 [(c)] as [(f)] es4 g8 (f) | es2 } } \addlyrics { << { Ei -- nig -- keit und Recht und Frei -- heit für das deut -- sche Va -- ter -- land! } \new Lyrics { Da -- nach lasst uns al -- le stre -- ben brü -- der -- lich mit Herz und Hand! } >> Ei -- nig -- keit und Recht und Frei -- heit sind des Glü -- ckes Un -- ter -- pfand. Blüh im Glan -- ze die -- ses Glü -- ckes, blü -- he, deut -- sches Va -- ter -- land! } == Historical background == The Holy Roman Empire, stemming from the Middle Ages, was already disintegrating when the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars altered the political map of Central Europe. However, hopes for human rights and republican government after Napoleon's defeat in 1815 were dashed when the Congress of Vienna reinstated many small German principalities. In addition, with the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich and his secret police enforced censorship, mainly in universities, to keep a watch on the activities of teachers and students, whom he held responsible for the spread of radical liberalist ideas. Since reactionaries among the monarchs were the main adversaries, demands for freedom of the press and other liberal rights were most often uttered in connection with the demand for a united Germany, even though many revolutionaries-to-be held differing opinions over whether a republic or a constitutional monarchy would be the best solution for Germany. The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund, 1815–1866) was a federation of 35 monarchical states and four republican free cities, with a Federal Assembly in Frankfurt. The federation was essentially a military alliance, but it was also abused by the larger powers to oppress liberal and national movements. Another federation, the German Customs Union (Zollverein) was formed among the majority of the states in 1834. In 1840, Hoffmann wrote a song about the Zollverein, also to Haydn's melody, in which he ironically praised the free trade of German goods which brought Germans and Germany closer. After the 1848 March Revolution, the German Confederation handed over its authority to the Frankfurt Parliament. For a short period in the late 1840s, Germany was united with the borders described in the anthem, and a democratic constitution was being drafted, and with the black-red-gold flag representing it. However, after 1849, the two largest German monarchies, Prussia and Austria, put an end to this liberal movement towards national unification. == Lyrics == August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the text in 1841 while on holiday on the North Sea island Heligoland, then a possession of the United Kingdom (now part of Germany). Hoffmann von Fallersleben intended "" to be sung to Haydn's tune; the first publication of the poem included the music. The first line, "" ('Germany, Germany above all, above all in the world'), was an appeal to the various German monarchs to give the creation of a united Germany a higher priority than the independence of their small states. In the third stanza, with a call for "" (unity and justice and freedom), Hoffmann expressed his desire for a united and free Germany where the rule of law, not arbitrary monarchy, would prevail. In the era after the Congress of Vienna, influenced by Metternich and his secret police, Hoffmann's text had a distinctly revolutionary and at the same time liberal connotation, since the appeal for a united Germany was most often made in connection with demands for freedom of the press and other civil rights. Its implication that loyalty to a larger Germany should replace loyalty to one's local sovereign was then a revolutionary idea. The year after he wrote "Das Deutschlandlied", Hoffmann lost his job as a librarian and professor in Breslau, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland) because of this and other revolutionary works, and was forced into hiding until he was pardoned following the revolutions of 1848 in the German states. Only the third stanza, in bold, is used as the modern German national anthem. == Use before 1922 == The melody of the "Deutschlandlied" was originally written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ('God save Franz the Emperor') by Lorenz Leopold Haschka. The song was a birthday anthem to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor of the House of Habsburg, and was intended to rival in merit the British "God Save the King". After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, "" became the official anthem of the emperor of the Austrian Empire. After the death of Francis II new lyrics were composed in 1854, Gott erhalte, Gott beschütze, that mentioned the Emperor, but not by name. With those new lyrics, the song continued to be the anthem of Imperial Austria and later of Austria-Hungary. Austrian monarchists continued to use this anthem after 1918 in the hope of restoring the monarchy. The adoption of the Austrian anthem's melody by Germany in 1922 was not opposed by Austria. By December 1914, according to George Haven Putnam, the song had "come to express the […] war spirit of the Fatherland" and "the supremacy of Germans over all other peoples", despite being, in past years, "an expression simply of patriotic devotion". Morris Jastrow Jr., then an American apologist for Germany, maintained that it meant only "that Germany is dearer to Germans than anything else". J. William White wrote into the Public Ledger to confirm Putnam's view. == Official adoption == The melody used by the "Deutschlandlied" was still in use as the anthem of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its demise in 1918. On 11 August 1922, German President Friedrich Ebert, a Social Democrat, made the "Deutschlandlied" the official German national anthem. In 1919 the black, red and gold tricolour, the colours of the 19th century liberal revolutionaries advocated by the political left and centre, was adopted (rather than the previous black, white and red of Imperial Germany). Thus, in a political trade-off, the conservative right was granted a nationalistic composition, although Ebert continued to advocate the use of the third stanza only (as after World War II). During the Nazi era, only the first stanza was used, followed by the SA song "Horst-Wessel-Lied". It was played at occasions of great national significance, such as the opening of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, when Hitler and his entourage, along with Olympic officials, walked into the stadium amid a chorus of three thousand Germans singing "". In this way, the first stanza became closely identified with the Nazi regime. == Use after World War II == After its founding in 1949, West Germany did not have a national anthem for official events for some years, despite a growing need for one for the purpose of diplomatic procedures. In lieu of an official national anthem, popular German songs such as the "Trizonesien-Song", a self-deprecating carnival song, were used at some sporting events. A variety of musical compositions was used or discussed, such as the finale of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, which is a musical setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem "An die Freude" ("Ode to Joy"). Though the black, red and gold colours of the national flag had been incorporated into Article 22 of the (West) German constitution, no national anthem had been specified. On 29 April 1952, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer asked President Theodor Heuss in a letter to accept "" as the national anthem, with only the third stanza to be sung on official occasions. However, the first and second stanzas were not outlawed, contrary to popular belief. President Heuss agreed to this on 2 May 1952. This exchange of letters was published in the Bulletin of the Federal Government. Since it was viewed as the traditional right of the President as head of state to set the symbols of the state, the "" thus became the national anthem. Meanwhile, East Germany had adopted its own national anthem, "Auferstanden aus Ruinen" ("Risen from Ruins"). As the lyrics of this anthem called for "Germany, united Fatherland", they were no longer officially used from approximately 1972 onwards, when East Germany abandoned its goal of uniting Germany under communism. By design, with slight adaptations, the lyrics of "" can be sung to the melody of the "" and vice versa. In the 1970s and 1980s, efforts were made by conservatives in Germany to reclaim all three stanzas for the national anthem. The Christian Democratic Union of Baden-Württemberg, for instance, attempted twice (in 1985 and 1986) to require German high school students to study all three stanzas, and in 1989, CDU politician Christean Wagner decreed that all high school students in Hesse were to memorise the three stanzas. On 7 March 1990, months before reunification, the Federal Constitutional Court declared only the third stanza of Hoffmann's poem to be legally protected as a national anthem under German criminal law; Section 90a of the Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch) makes defamation of the national anthem a crime, but does not specify what the national anthem is. This did not mean that stanzas one and two were no longer part of the national anthem, but that their peculiar status as "part of the [national] anthem but unsung" disqualified them for penal law protection, since the penal law must be interpreted in the narrowest manner possible. In November 1991, President Richard von Weizsäcker and Chancellor Helmut Kohl agreed in an exchange of letters to declare the third stanza alone to be the national anthem of the reunified republic. Hence, as of then, the national anthem of Germany is unmistakably the third stanza of the "Deutschlandlied", and only this stanza, set to Haydn's music. The incipit of the third stanza, "" ('Unity and Justice and Freedom'), is widely considered to be the national motto of Germany, although it has never been officially proclaimed as such. It appears on Bundeswehr soldiers' belt buckles (replacing the earlier "Gott mit uns" ('God with us') of the Imperial German Army and the Nazi-era Wehrmacht) and on 2 euro coins minted in Germany, and on the edges of the obsolete 2 and 5 Deutsche Mark coins. == Criticisms == ===Geographical=== The first stanza, which is no longer part of the national anthem and is not sung on official occasions, names three rivers and one strait – the Meuse (Maas in German), Adige (Etsch) and Neman (Memel) Rivers and the Little Belt strait. The song was written before German unification, and there was no intention to delineate borders of Germany as a nation-state. Nevertheless, these geographical references have been variously criticised as irredentist or misleading. Today, no part of any of these four natural boundaries lies in Germany. The Meuse and the Adige were parts of the German Confederation when the song was composed, and were no longer part of the German Reich as of 1871; the Little Belt strait and the Neman became German boundaries later (the Belt until 1920, and the Neman between 1920 and 1939). None of these natural boundaries formed a distinct ethnic border. The Duchy of Schleswig (to which the Belt refers) was inhabited by both Germans and Danes, with the Danes forming a clear majority near the strait. Around the Adige there was a mix of German, Venetian and Gallo-Italian speakers, and the area around the Neman was not homogeneously German, but also accommodated Prussian Lithuanians. If taken as referencing the Duchy of Limburg, nominally part of the German Confederation for 28 years due to the political consequences of the Belgian Revolution then the Meuse was ethnically Dutch, with few Germans. Nevertheless, such nationalistic rhetoric was relatively common in 19th-century public discourse. For example, Georg Herwegh in his poem "The German Fleet" (1841) gives the Germans as the people "between the Po and the Sound," and in 1832 Philipp Jakob Siebenpfeiffer, a noted journalist, declared at the Hambach Festival that he considered all "between the Alps and the North Sea" to be Deutschtum, or the ethnic and spiritual German community. ===Textual=== The anthem has frequently been criticised for its generally nationalistic tone, the immodest geographic definition of Germany given in the first stanza, and an alleged male-chauvinistic attitude in the second stanza. A relatively early critic was Friedrich Nietzsche, who called the grandiose claim in the first stanza "" (the most idiotic slogan in the world), and in Thus Spoke Zarathustra said, "—I fear that was the end of German philosophy". === Modern use of the first stanza === As the first stanza of the "Deutschlandlied" is historically associated with the Nazi regime and its crimes, the singing of the first stanza is considered taboo within modern German society. Although the first stanza is not forbidden within Germany based on the German legal system, any mention of the first stanza is considered to be incorrect, inaccurate, and improper during official settings and functions, within Germany or abroad. In 1974, the singer Nico released a recording of all three verses as the last track on her album The End.... In 1977, the German pop singer Heino produced a record of the song which included all three stanzas for use in primary schools in Baden-Württemberg. The inclusion of the first two stanzas was met with criticism at the time. In 2009, the English rock musician Pete Doherty sang "Deutschlandlied" live on radio at Bayerischer Rundfunk in Munich with all three stanzas. As he sang the first stanza, he was booed by the audience. Three days later, Doherty's spokesperson declared that the singer was "not aware of the historical background and regrets the misunderstanding". A spokesperson for Bayerischer Rundfunk welcomed the apology, noting that further cooperation with Doherty would not have been possible otherwise. When the first stanza was played as the German national anthem at the canoe sprint world championships in Hungary in August 2011, German athletes were reportedly "appalled". Eurosport, under the headline of "Nazi anthem", erroneously reported that "the first stanza of the piece [had been] banned in 1952 ". Similarly, in 2017, the first stanza was mistakenly sung by Will Kimble, an American soloist, during the welcome ceremony of the Fed Cup tennis match between Andrea Petkovic (Germany) and Alison Riske (U.S.) at the Center Court in Lahaina, Hawaii. In an attempt to drown out the soloist, German tennis players and fans began to sing the third stanza instead. Also, in 2018, during the 2018 World Masters Athletics Championships in Málaga, Spain, the first stanza was mistakenly played when Thomas Stewens, a German athlete, won a gold medal in a decathlon. He instead sang the third stanza. == Variants and additions == === Additional or alternative stanzas === Hoffmann von Fallersleben also intended the text to be used as a drinking song; the second stanza's toast to German wine, women and song is typical of this genre. The original Heligoland manuscript included a variant ending of the third stanza for such occasions: An alternative version called "" (Children's Hymn) was written by Bertolt Brecht shortly after his return from exile in the U.S. to a war-ravaged, bankrupt and geographically shrunken Germany at the end of World War II, and set to music by Hanns Eisler in the same year. It gained some currency after the 1990 unification of Germany, with a number of prominent Germans calling for his "antihymn" to be made official: In the English version of this "antihymn", the second stanza refers ambiguously to "people" and "other folk", but the German version is more specific: the author encourages Germans to find ways to relieve the people of other nations from needing to flinch at the memory of things Germans have done in the past, so that people of other nations can feel ready to shake hands with a German again as they would with anyone else. === Notable performances and recordings === The German musician Nico sometimes performed the national anthem at concerts and dedicated it to militant Andreas Baader, leader of the Red Army Faction. She included a version of "" on her 1974 album The End.... In 2006, the Slovenian industrial band Laibach incorporated Hoffmann's lyrics in a song titled "Germania", on the album Volk, which contains fourteen songs with adaptations of national anthems. === Influences === The German composer Max Reger quotes the "Deutschlandlied" in the final section of his collection of organ pieces Sieben Stücke, Op. 145, composed in 1915–16 when it was a patriotic song but not yet the national anthem. An Afrikaans patriotic song, "Afrikaners Landgenote", has been written with an identical melody and similarly structured lyrics to the "Deutschlandlied". The lyrics of this song consist of three stanzas, the first of which sets the boundaries of the Afrikaans homeland with the means of geographical areas, the second of which states the importance of "Afrikaans mothers, daughters, sun, and field", recalling the "German women, loyalty, wine, and song", and the third of which describes the importance of unity, justice, and freedom, along with love.
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8,204
December 31
It is known by a collection of names including: Saint Sylvester's Day, New Year's Eve or Old Year's Day/Night, as the following day is New Year's Day. It is the last day of the year; the following day is January 1, the first day of the following year. ==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gaul. 535 – Byzantine general Belisarius completes the conquest of Sicily, defeating the Gothic garrison of Palermo (Panormos), and ending his consulship for the year. 870 – Battle of Englefield: The Vikings clash with ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire. The invaders are driven back to Reading (East Anglia); many Danes are killed. 1105 – Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV is forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Henry V, in Ingelheim. 1225 – The Lý dynasty of Vietnam ends after 216 years by the enthronement of the boy emperor Trần Thái Tông, husband of the last Lý monarch, Lý Chiêu Hoàng, starting the Trần dynasty. 1229 – James I the Conqueror, King of Aragon, enters Medina Mayurqa (now known as Palma, Spain), thus consummating the Christian reconquest of the island of Majorca. 1501 – The First Battle of Cannanore commences, seeing the first use of the naval line of battle. 1600 – The British East India Company is chartered. ===1601–1900=== 1660 – James, Duke of York is named Duke of Normandy by Louis XIV of France. 1670 – The expedition of John Narborough leaves Corral Bay, having surveyed the coast and lost four hostages to the Spanish. 1687 – The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope. 1757 – Empress Elizabeth I of Russia issues her ukase incorporating Königsberg into Russia. 1759 – Arthur Guinness signs a 9,000-year lease at £45 per annum and starts brewing Guinness. 1775 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Quebec: British forces under General Guy Carleton repulse an attack by Continental Army General Richard Montgomery in a snowstorm. 1790 – Efimeris, the oldest Greek newspaper of which issues have survived till today, is published for the first time. 1796 – The incorporation of Baltimore as a city. 1831 – Gramercy Park is deeded to New York City. 1844 – The Philippines skipped this date in order to align the country with the rest of Asia, as the trading interest switched to China, Dutch East Indies and neighboring territories after Mexico gained independence from Spain on 27 September 1821. In the islands, Monday, 30 December 1844 was immediately followed by Wednesday, 1 January 1845. 1853 – A dinner party is held inside a life-size model of an iguanodon created by Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins and Sir Richard Owen in south London, England. 1857 – Queen Victoria chooses Ottawa, then a small logging town, as the capital of the Province of Canada. 1862 – American Civil War: The three-day Battle of Stones River begins near Murfreesboro, Tennessee between the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General Braxton Bragg and the Union Army of the Cumberland under General William S. Rosecrans. 1862 – American Civil War: Abraham Lincoln signs an enabling act that would admit West Virginia to the Union, thus dividing Virginia in two. 1878 – Karl Benz, working in Mannheim, Germany, files for a patent on his first reliable two-stroke gas engine. He was granted the patent in 1879. 1879 – Thomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lighting to the public for the first time, in Menlo Park, New Jersey. ===1901–present=== 1906 – Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar signs the Persian Constitution of 1906. 1907 – The first ever ball drop in Times Square. 1942 – USS Essex, first aircraft carrier of a 24-ship class, is commissioned. 1942 – World War II: The Royal Navy defeats the Kriegsmarine at the Battle of the Barents Sea. This leads to the resignation of Grand Admiral Erich Raeder a month later. 1944 – World War II: Operation Nordwind, the last major Wehrmacht offensive on the Western Front, begins. 1946 – President Harry S. Truman officially proclaims the end of hostilities in World War II. 1951 – Cold War: The Marshall Plan expires after distributing more than US$13.3 billion in foreign aid to rebuild Western Europe. 1955 – General Motors becomes the first U.S. corporation to make over US$1 billion in a year. 1956 – The Romanian Television network begins its first broadcast in Bucharest. 1961 – RTÉ, Ireland's state broadcaster, launches its first national television service. 1963 – The Central African Federation officially collapses, subsequently becoming Zambia, Malawi and Rhodesia. 1965 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, leader of the Central African Republic army, and his military officers begin a coup d'état against the government of President David Dacko. 1968 – The first flight of the Tupolev Tu-144, the first civilian supersonic transport in the world. 1968 – MacRobertson Miller Airlines Flight 1750 crashes near Port Hedland, Western Australia, killing all 26 people on board. 1981 – A coup d'état in Ghana removes President Hilla Limann's PNP government and replaces it with the Provisional National Defence Council led by Flight lieutenant Jerry Rawlings. 1983 – The AT&T Bell System is broken up by the United States Government. 1983 – Benjamin Ward is appointed New York City Police Department's first ever African American police commissioner. 1983 – In Nigeria, a coup d'état led by Major General Muhammadu Buhari ends the Second Nigerian Republic. 1991 – All official Soviet Union institutions have ceased operations by this date, five days after the Soviet Union is officially dissolved. 1992 – Czechoslovakia is peacefully dissolved in what is dubbed by media as the Velvet Divorce, resulting in the creation of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. 1994 – This date is skipped altogether in Kiribati as the Phoenix Islands and Line Islands change time zones from UTC−11:00 to UTC+13:00 and UTC−10:00 to UTC+14:00, respectively. 1994 – The First Chechen War: The Russian Ground Forces begin a New Year's storming of Grozny. 1995 – The final comic of Calvin and Hobbes is published. 1998 – The European Exchange Rate Mechanism freezes the values of the legacy currencies in the Eurozone, and establishes the value of the euro currency. 1999 – The first President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin, resigns from office, leaving Prime Minister Vladimir Putin as the acting President and successor. 1999 – The U.S. government hands control of the Panama Canal (as well all the adjacent land to the canal known as the Panama Canal Zone) to Panama. This act complied with the signing of the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties. 1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 hijacking ends after seven days with the release of 190 survivors at Kandahar Airport, Afghanistan. 2001 – Rwanda adopts a new national flag and anthem. 2004 – The official opening of Taipei 101, the tallest skyscraper at that time in the world, standing at a height of . 2009 – Both a blue moon and a lunar eclipse occur. 2010 – Tornadoes touch down in midwestern and southern United States, including Washington County, Arkansas; Greater St. Louis, Sunset Hills, Missouri, Illinois, and Oklahoma, with a few tornadoes in the early hours. A total of 36 tornadoes touched down, resulting in the deaths of nine people and $113 million in damages. 2011 – NASA succeeds in putting the first of two Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory satellites in orbit around the Moon. 2014 – A New Year's Eve celebration stampede in Shanghai kills at least 36 people and injures 49 others. 2015 – A fire breaks out at the Downtown Address Hotel in Downtown Dubai, United Arab Emirates, located near the Burj Khalifa, two hours before the fireworks display is due to commence. Sixteen injuries were reported; one had a heart attack, another suffered a major injury, and fourteen others with minor injuries. 2018 – Thirty-nine people are killed after a ten-story building collapses in the industrial city of Magnitogorsk, Russia. 2019 – The World Health Organization is informed of cases of pneumonia with an unknown cause, detected in Wuhan. This later turned out to be COVID-19, the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020 – The World Health Organization issues its first emergency use validation for a COVID-19 vaccine. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 695 – Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, Umayyad general (d. 715) 1378 – Pope Callixtus III (d. 1458) 1491 – Jacques Cartier, French navigator and explorer (d. 1557) 1493 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino (d. 1570) 1504 – Beatrice of Portugal, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1538) 1514 – Andreas Vesalius, Belgian anatomist, physician, and author (d. 1564) 1539 – John Radcliffe, English politician (d. 1568) 1550 – Henry I, Duke of Guise (d. 1588) 1552 – Simon Forman, English occultist and astrologer (d. 1611) 1572 – Emperor Go-Yōzei of Japan, (d. 1617) 1585 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and politician, 24th Governor of the Duchy of Milan (d. 1645) ===1601–1900=== 1668 – Herman Boerhaave, Dutch botanist and physician (d. 1738) 1714 – Arima Yoriyuki, Japanese mathematician and educator (d. 1783) 1720 – Charles Edward Stuart, Scottish claimant to the throne of England (d. 1788) 1738 – Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of India (d. 1805) 1741 – Gottfried August Bürger, German poet and academic (d. 1794) 1763 – Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, French admiral (d. 1806) 1776 – Johann Spurzheim, German-American physician and phrenologist (d. 1832) 1798 – Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Estonian physician, philologist, and academic (d. 1850) 1805 – Marie d'Agoult, German-French historian and author (d. 1876) 1815 – George Meade, American general and engineer (d. 1872) 1830 – Isma'il Pasha, Egyptian ruler (d. 1895) 1830 – Alexander Smith, Scottish poet and critic (d. 1867) 1833 – Hugh Nelson Scottish-Australian politician, 11th Premier of Queensland (d. 1906) 1834 – Queen Kapiolani of Hawaii (d. 1899) 1838 – Émile Loubet, French lawyer and politician, 7th President of France (d. 1929) 1842 – Giovanni Boldini, Italian painter (d. 1931) 1851 – Henry Carter Adams, American economist and academic (d. 1921) 1855 – Giovanni Pascoli, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1912) 1857 – King Kelly, American baseball player and manager (d. 1894) 1860 – Joseph S. Cullinan, American businessman, co-founded Texaco (d. 1937) 1864 – Robert Grant Aitken, American astronomer and academic (d. 1951) 1869 – Henri Matisse, French painter and sculptor (d. 1954) 1872 – Fred Marriott, American race car driver (d. 1956) 1873 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (d. 1936) 1874 – Julius Meier, American businessman and politician, 20th Governor of Oregon (d. 1937) 1877 – Lawrence Beesley, English journalist and author (d. 1967) 1878 – Elizabeth Arden, Canadian businesswoman, founded Elizabeth Arden, Inc. (d. 1966) 1878 – Horacio Quiroga, Uruguayan-Argentinian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937) 1880 – Fred Beebe, American baseball player and coach (d. 1957) 1880 – George Marshall, American general and politician, 50th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959) 1881 – Max Pechstein, German painter and academic (d. 1955) 1884 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball and soccer player (d. 1964) 1884 – Mihály Fekete, Hungarian actor, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1960) 1885 – Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1970) 1899 – Silvestre Revueltas, Mexican violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1940) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Karl-August Fagerholm, Finnish politician, valtioneuvos, the Speaker of the Parliament and the Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1984) 1901 – Nikos Ploumpidis, Greek educator and politician (d. 1954) 1902 – Lionel Daunais, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 1982) 1902 – Roy Goodall, English footballer (d. 1982) 1903 – William Heynes, English engineer (d. 1989) 1905 – Helen Dodson Prince, American astronomer and academic (d. 2002) 1908 – Simon Wiesenthal, Ukrainian-Austrian Nazi hunter and author (d. 2005) 1909 – Jonah Jones, American trumpet player and saxophonist (d. 2000) 1910 – Carl Dudley, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1973) 1910 – Enrique Maier, Spanish tennis player (d. 1981) 1911 – Dal Stivens, Australian soldier and author (d. 1997) 1912 – John Frost, Indian-English general (d. 1993) 1914 – Mary Logan Reddick, American neuroembryologist (d. 1966) 1915 – Sam Ragan, American journalist, author, and poet (d. 1996) 1917 – Evelyn Knight, American singer (d. 2007) 1917 – Wilfrid Noyce, English mountaineer and author (d. 1962) 1918 – Ray Graves, American football player and coach (d. 2015) 1919 – Tommy Byrne, American baseball player, coach, and politician (d. 2007) 1919 – Carmen Contreras-Bozak, Puerto Rican-American soldier (d. 2017) 1920 – Rex Allen, American actor and singer-songwriter (d. 1999) 1922 – Tomás Balduino, Brazilian bishop (d. 2014) 1922 – Halina Czerny-Stefańska, Polish pianist and educator (d. 2001) 1922 – Luis Zuloaga, Venezuelan baseball player (d. 2013) 1923 – Giannis Dalianidis, Greek actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1924 – Taylor Mead, American actor and poet (d. 2013) 1925 – Irina Korschunow, German author and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1925 – Sri Lal Sukla, Indian author (d. 2011) 1925 – Daphne Oram, British composer and electronic musician (d. 2003) 1926 – Valerie Pearl, English historian and academic (d. 2016) 1926 – Billy Snedden, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Attorney-General for Australia (d. 1987) 1928 – Ross Barbour, American pop singer (d. 2011) 1928 – Hugh McElhenny, American football player (d. 2022) 1928 – Veijo Meri, Finnish author and translator (d. 2015) 1928 – Tatyana Shmyga, Russian actress and singer (d. 2011) 1928 – Siné, French cartoonist (d. 2016) 1929 – Mies Bouwman, Dutch television host (d. 2018) 1929 – Peter May, English cricketer (d. 1994) 1930 – Jaime Escalante, Bolivian-American educator (d. 2010) 1930 – Odetta, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (d. 2008) 1931 – Bob Shaw, Northern Irish journalist and author (d. 1996) 1932 – Don James, American football player and coach (d. 2013) 1932 – Felix Rexhausen, German journalist and author (d. 1992) 1933 – Edward Bunker, American author, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2005) 1934 – Ameer Muhammad Akram Awan, Indian author, poet, and scholar (d. 2017) 1937 – Avram Hershko, Hungarian-Israeli biochemist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate 1937 – Barry Hughes, Welsh footballer and manager (d. 2019) 1937 – Tess Jaray, Austrian-English painter and educator 1938 – Rosalind Cash, American singer and actress (d. 1995) 1938 – Atje Keulen-Deelstra, Dutch speed skater (d. 2013) 1939 – Willye White, American sprinter and long jumper (d. 2007) 1940 – Mani Neumeier, German drummer 1941 – Sir Alex Ferguson, Scottish footballer and manager 1944 – Taylor Hackford, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1945 – Connie Willis, American author 1946 – Roy Greenslade, English journalist and academic 1946 – Bryan Hamilton, Northern Irish footballer and coach 1946 – Raphael Kaplinsky, South African international development academic 1946 – Pius Ncube, Zimbabwean archbishop 1946 – Lyudmila Pakhomova, Russian ice dancer (d. 1986) 1946 – Cliff Richey, American tennis player 1946 – Eric Robson, Scottish journalist and author 1946 – Nigel Rudd, English businessman, founded Williams Holdings 1946 – Tim Stevens, English bishop 1948 – Sandy Jardine, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2014) 1949 – Ellen Datlow, American anthologist and author 1949 – Flora Gomes, Bissau-Guinean filmmaker 1949 – Susan Shwartz, American author 1950 – Bob Gilder, American golfer 1950 – Inge Helten, German sprinter 1950 – Cheryl Womack, American businesswoman 1951 – Kenny Roberts, American motorcycle racer 1952 – Vaughan Jones, New Zealand mathematician and academic (d. 2020) 1952 – Jean-Pierre Rives, French rugby player, painter, and sculptor 1953 – Jane Badler, American actress 1954 – Alex Salmond, Scottish economist and politician, First Minister of Scotland (d. 2024) 1954 – Hermann Tilke, German racing driver, architect and engineer 1955 – Pula Nikolao Pula, 9th governor of American Samoa 1956 – Robert Goodwill, English farmer and politician 1956 – Helma Knorscheidt, German shot putter 1956 – Steve Rude, American author and illustrator 1958 – Geoff Marsh, Australian cricketer and coach 1959 – Liveris Andritsos, Greek basketball player 1959 – Val Kilmer, American actor (d. 2025) 1959 – Phill Kline, American lawyer and politician, Kansas Attorney General 1959 – Baron Waqa, Nauruan composer and politician, 14th President of Nauru 1960 – Steve Bruce, English footballer and manager 1961 – Rick Aguilera, American baseball player and coach 1961 – Jeremy Heywood, English economist and civil servant (d. 2018) 1961 – Nina Li Chi, Hong Kong actress 1962 – Tyrone Corbin, American basketball player and coach 1962 – Chris Hallam, English-Welsh swimmer and wheelchair racer (d. 2013) 1962 – Jennifer Higdon, American composer 1964 – Winston Benjamin, Antiguan cricketer 1964 – Michael McDonald, American comedian, actor, and director 1965 – Tony Dorigo, Australian-English footballer and sportscaster 1965 – Julie Doucet, Canadian cartoonist and author 1965 – Laxman Sivaramakrishnan, Indian cricketer 1967 – Paul McGregor, Australian rugby league player and coach 1968 – Gerry Dee, Canadian comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1968 – Junot Diaz, Dominican-born American novelist, short story writer, and essayist 1970 – Jorjão, Brazilian footballer 1970 – Danny McNamara, English singer-songwriter 1970 – Carlos Morales Quintana, Spanish-Danish architect and sailor 1970 – Bryon Russell, American basketball player 1971 – Brent Barry, American basketball player and sportscaster 1971 – Esteban Loaiza, Mexican baseball player 1971 – Heath Shuler, American football player and politician 1972 – Grégory Coupet, French footballer 1972 – Scott Manley, Scottish YouTube personality 1973 – Shandon Anderson, American basketball player 1973 – Malcolm Middleton, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 – Curtis Myden, Canadian swimmer 1974 – Mario Aerts, Belgian cyclist 1974 – Tony Kanaan, Brazilian race car driver 1974 – Ryan Sakoda, Japanese-American wrestler and trainer 1975 – Rami Alanko, Finnish ice hockey player 1975 – Toni Kuivasto, Finnish footballer and coach 1975 – Rob Penders, Dutch footballer 1975 – Sander Schutgens, Dutch runner 1976 – Luís Carreira, Portuguese motorcycle racer (d. 2012) 1976 – Matthew Hoggard, English cricketer 1977 – Wardy Alfaro, Costa Rican footballer and coach 1979 – Paul O'Neill, English racing driver 1979 – Jeff Waldstreicher, American lawyer and politician 1979 – Ricky Whittle, British actor 1980 – Jesse Carlson, American baseball player 1980 – Matt Cross, American wrestler 1980 – Richie McCaw, New Zealand rugby player 1980 – Carsten Schlangen, German runner 1981 – Jason Campbell, American football player 1981 – Francisco García, Dominican basketball player 1981 – Matthew Pavlich, Australian footballer 1981 – Margaret Simpson, Ghanaian heptathlete 1982 – Julio DePaula, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Craig Gordon, Scottish footballer 1982 – Luke Schenscher, Australian basketball player 1982 – The Rocket Summer, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1983 – Jana Veselá, Czech basketball player 1984 – Corey Crawford, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Ben Hannant, Australian rugby league player 1984 – Édgar Lugo, Mexican footballer 1984 – Calvin Zola, Congolese footballer 1985 – Jonathan Horton, American gymnast 1985 – Jan Smit, Dutch singer and television host 1986 – Nate Freiman, American baseball player 1986 – Kade Snowden, Australian rugby league player 1987 – Javaris Crittenton, American basketball player 1987 – Seydou Doumbia, Ivorian footballer 1987 – Danny Holla, Dutch footballer 1987 – Nemanja Nikolić, Hungarian footballer 1988 – Michal Řepík, Czech ice hockey player 1989 – Ryo Aitaka, Japanese kickboxer and professional wrestler 1989 – Kelvin Herrera, Dominican baseball player 1991 – Dennis Everberg, Swedish ice hockey player 1991 – Djené, Togolese footballer 1991 – ND Stevenson, American cartoonist 1992 – Amy Cure, Australian track cyclist 1992 – Karl Kruuda, Estonian racing driver 1995 – Gabby Douglas, American gymnast 1995 – Edmond Sumner, American basketball player 1996 – J. J. Arcega-Whiteside, Spanish-American football player 1997 – Ludovic Blas, French footballer 1997 – Cameron Carter-Vickers, English-American soccer player 1997 – Bright Osayi-Samuel, Nigerian footballer 1999 – Calvin Bassey, Italian-Nigerian footballer 1999 – Leif Davis, English footballer 2000 – Alycia Parks, American tennis player 2001 – Katie Volynets, American tennis player 2002 – Ryan Flamingo, Dutch footballer 2002 – Joe Scally, American soccer player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 45 BC – Quintus Fabius Maximus, consul suffectus 192 – Commodus, Roman emperor (b. 161) 335 – Pope Sylvester I 669 – Li Shiji, Chinese general (b. 594) 914 – Ibn Hawshab, founder of the Isma'ili community in Yemen 1032 – Ahmad Maymandi, Persian statesman, vizier of the Ghaznavid Empire 1164 – Ottokar III of Styria (b. 1124) 1194 – Leopold V, Duke of Austria (b. 1157) 1298 – Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford, English politician, Lord High Constable of England (b. 1249) 1299 – Margaret, Countess of Anjou (b. 1273) 1302 – Frederick III, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1238) 1384 – John Wycliffe, English philosopher, theologian, and translator (b. 1331) 1386 – Johanna of Bavaria, Queen of Bohemia (b. c. 1362) 1426 – Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter (b. 1377) 1439 – Margaret Holland, English noblewoman (b. 1385) 1460 – Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b. 1400) 1510 – Bianca Maria Sforza, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1472) 1535 – William Skeffington, English-Irish politician, Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1465) 1568 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyō (b. 1493) 1575 – Pierino Belli, Italian commander and jurist (b. 1502) 1583 – Thomas Erastus, Swiss physician and theologian (b. 1524) ===1601–1900=== 1610 – Ludolph van Ceulen, German-Dutch mathematician and academic (b. 1540) 1637 – Christian, Count of Waldeck-Wildungen, German count (b. 1585) 1650 – Dorgon, Chinese emperor (b. 1612) 1655 – Janusz Radziwiłł, Polish–Lithuanian politician (b. 1612) 1655 – Sir John Wray, 2nd Baronet, English politicians and Roundheads supporter (b. 1586) 1673 – Oliver St John, English judge and politician, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas (b. 1598) 1679 – Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Italian physiologist and physicist (b. 1608) 1691 – Robert Boyle, Anglo-Irish chemist and physicist (b. 1627) 1691 – Dudley North, English merchant and economist (b. 1641) 1705 – Catherine of Braganza (b. 1638) 1719 – John Flamsteed, English astronomer and academic (b. 1646) 1730 – Carlo Gimach, Maltese architect, engineer and poet (b. 1651) 1742 – Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine (b. 1661) 1775 – Richard Montgomery, American general (b. 1738) 1799 – Jean-François Marmontel, French historian and author (b. 1723) 1818 – Jean-Pierre Duport, French cellist (b. 1741) 1872 – Aleksis Kivi, Finnish author and playwright (b. 1834) 1876 – Catherine Labouré, French nun and saint (b. 1806) 1877 – Gustave Courbet, French-Swiss painter and sculptor (b. 1819) 1888 – Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi and scholar (b. 1808) 1889 – Ion Creangă, Romanian author and educator (b. 1837) 1889 – George Kerferd, English-Australian politician, 10th Premier of Victoria (b. 1831) 1890 – Pancha Carrasco, Costa Rican soldier (b. 1826) 1891 – Samuel Ajayi Crowther, Nigerian bishop and linguist (b. 1809) 1894 – Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch mathematician and academic (b. 1856) ===1901–present=== 1909 – Spencer Trask, American financier and philanthropist (b. 1844) 1910 – Archibald Hoxsey, American pilot (b. 1884) 1910 – John Moisant, American pilot and engineer (b. 1868) 1921 – Boies Penrose, American lawyer and politician (b. 1860) 1934 – Cornelia Clapp, American marine biologist (b. 1849) 1936 – Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish philosopher, author, and poet (b. 1864) 1948 – Malcolm Campbell, English racing driver and journalist (b. 1885) 1949 – Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, Turkish philosopher, poet, and politician (b. 1869) 1949 – Raimond Valgre, Estonian pianist and composer (b. 1913) 1950 – Charles Koechlin, French composer and educator (b. 1867) 1951 – Murtaza Hasan Chandpuri, Indian Muslim scholar (b. 1868) 1953 – Albert Plesman, Dutch businessman, founded KLM (b. 1889) 1964 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball and soccer player (b. 1884) 1964 – Ólafur Thors, Icelandic lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1892) 1964 – Henry Maitland Wilson, English field marshal (b. 1881) 1968 – George Lewis, American clarinet player and composer (b. 1900) 1970 – Cyril Scott, English composer, writer, and poet (b. 1879) 1972 – Roberto Clemente, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and Marine (b. 1934) 1972 – Henry Gerber, German-American activist, founded the Society for Human Rights (b. 1892) 1978 – Basil Wolverton, American illustrator (b. 1909) 1980 – Marshall McLuhan, Canadian philosopher and theorist (b. 1911) 1980 – Raoul Walsh, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1887) 1983 – Sevim Burak, Turkish author and playwright (b. 1931) 1985 – Ricky Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b. 1940) 1987 – Jerry Turner, American journalist (b. 1929) 1988 – Nicolas Calas, Greek-American poet and critic (b. 1907) 1990 – George Allen, American football player and coach (b. 1918) 1990 – Vasily Lazarev, Russian physician, colonel, and astronaut (b. 1928) 1990 – Giovanni Michelucci, Italian architect and urban planner, designed the Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station (b. 1891) 1993 – Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Georgian anthropologist and politician, 1st President of Georgia (b. 1939) 1993 – Brandon Teena, American murder victim (b. 1972) 1993 – Big Bertha, Irish cattle and twice Guinness World Record holder (oldest cow, cow with most offspring) (b. 1945) 1994 – Woody Strode, American football player, wrestler, and actor (b. 1914) 1996 – Wesley Addy, American actor (b. 1913) 1997 – Floyd Cramer, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1933) 1997 – Billie Dove, American actress (b. 1903) 1998 – Ted Glossop, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1934) 1999 – Elliot Richardson, American lawyer and politician, 69th United States Attorney General (b. 1920) 1999 – Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Indian Muslim scholar and author (b. 1914) 2000 – Alan Cranston, American journalist and politician (b. 1914) 2000 – José Greco, Italian-American dancer and choreographer (b. 1918) 2000 – Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane, American-Israeli rabbi and scholar (b. 1966) 2001 – Eileen Heckart, American actress (b. 1919) 2002 – Kevin MacMichael, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1951) 2003 – Arthur R. von Hippel German-American physicist and author (b. 1898) 2004 – Gérard Debreu, French economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921) 2005 – Enrico Di Giuseppe, American tenor and educator (b. 1932) 2005 – Phillip Whitehead, English screenwriter, producer, and politician (b. 1937) 2006 – Ya'akov Hodorov, Israeli footballer (b. 1927) 2006 – Seymour Martin Lipset, American sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1922) 2006 – George Sisler, Jr., American businessman (b. 1917) 2007 – Roy Amara, American scientific researcher (b. 1925) 2007 – Michael Goldberg, American painter and educator (b. 1924) 2007 – Bill Idelson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1919) 2007 – Milton L. Klein, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1910) 2007 – Ettore Sottsass, Austrian-Italian architect and designer (b. 1917) 2008 – Donald E. Westlake, American author and screenwriter (b. 1933) 2009 – Cahal Daly, Irish cardinal and philosopher, Archbishop of Armagh (b. 1917) 2009 – Justin Keating, Irish surgeon, journalist, and politician, Minister for Industry and Commerce (b. 1930) 2010 – Raymond Impanis, Belgian cyclist (b. 1925) 2010 – Per Oscarsson, Swedish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2012 – Tarak Mekki, Tunisian businessman and politician (b. 1958) 2012 – Jovette Marchessault, Canadian author and playwright (b. 1938) 2012 – Günter Rössler, German photographer and journalist (b. 1926) 2013 – James Avery, American actor (b. 1945) 2013 – Roberto Ciotti, Italian guitarist and composer (b. 1953) 2013 – Bob Grant, American radio host (b. 1929) 2013 – Irina Korschunow, German author and screenwriter (b. 1925) 2014 – Edward Herrmann, American actor (b. 1943) 2014 – Abdullah Hussain, Malaysian author (b. 1920) 2014 – Norm Phelps, American author and activist (b. 1939) 2014 – S. Arthur Spiegel, American captain, lawyer, and judge (b. 1920) 2014 – Valerian Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington, British soldier and politician (b. 1915) 2015 – Natalie Cole, American singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1950) 2015 – Wayne Rogers, American actor and investor (b. 1933) 2016 – William Christopher, American actor (b. 1932) 2018 – Kader Khan, Indian actor (b. 1937) 2021 – Betty White, American actress, comedian and producer (b. 1922) 2022 – Pope Benedict XVI, German Roman Catholic cardinal and theologian, pope (2005–2013) and archbishop of Munich and Freising (1977–1982) (b. 1927) 2022 – Barry Lane, English golfer (b. 1960) 2023 – Cale Yarborough, American Hall of Fame racing driver and founder of Cale Yarborough Motorsports, NASCAR Cup Series champion (1976, 1977, 1978) (b. 1939) 2024 – Arnold Rüütel, Estonian politician, 3rd President of Estonia (b. 1928) 2024 – Johnnie Walker, British radio DJ (b. 1945) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Pope Sylvester I (Catholic Church) December 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) International Solidarity Day of Azerbaijanis (Azerbaijan) New Year's Eve (International observance), and its related observances: First Night (United States) Last Day of the Year or Bisperás ng Bagong Taón, special holiday between Rizal Day and New Year's Day (Philippines) Novy God Eve (Russia) Ōmisoka (Japan) The first day of Hogmanay or "Auld Year's Night" (Scotland) The seventh of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity) The sixth and penultimate day of Kwanzaa (United States)
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Truman", "NASA", "1971", "Jeff Waldstreicher", "Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland", "1952", "1894", "Giovanni Alfonso Borelli", "Sunset Hills, Missouri", "Joseph S. Cullinan", "José Greco", "Palma, Majorca", "1984", "Governor of the Duchy of Milan", "Gottfried August Bürger", "Rizal Day", "Jean-Pierre Rives", "Willye White", "Cameron Carter-Vickers", "Japan", "Battle of Stones River", "1907", "Émile Loubet", "European Exchange Rate Mechanism", "1923", "National Basketball Association", "1552", "1937", "Nikos Ploumpidis", "Alex Ferguson", "James I of Aragon", "Wesley Addy", "1996", "Aleksis Kivi", "1963", "Felix Rexhausen", "Laxman Sivaramakrishnan", "Mannheim", "Russian Prussia", "France", "1880", "1298", "Indian Airlines Flight 814", "1975", "1844", "Zambia", "Russian Ground Forces", "List of tallest buildings and structures in the world", "UTC−11:00", "King Kelly", "Der Spiegel", "1958", "1888", "914", "skyscraper", "Raphael Kaplinsky", "Western Europe", "Robert Goodwill", "Susan Shwartz", "Rolling Stone", "Holy Roman Emperor", "Paul O'Neill (racing driver)", "Grégory Coupet", "George Kerferd", "Silvestre Revueltas", "UTC+13:00", "Cold War", "Kevin MacMichael", "Leopold V, Duke of Austria", "Horacio Quiroga", "Alycia Parks", "1908", "1742", "Baltimore", "valtioneuvos", "Samson Raphael Hirsch", "Brent Barry", "Quintus Fabius Maximus (consul 45 BC)", "Richie McCaw", "Giovanni Michelucci", "Nazi hunter", "Panama Canal Zone", "1949", "Ólafur Thors", "Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine", "Lord Deputy of Ireland", "1229", "logging", "Queen Kapiolani", "BBC", "1842", "1934", "1799", "Malcolm Middleton", "1962", "Matthew Pavlich", "People's National Party (Ghana)", "1912", "Halina Czerny-Stefańska", "Bianca Maria Sforza", "Dudley North (economist)", "Phillip Whitehead", "1889", "Times Square", "General Motors", "Menlo Park, New Jersey", "Governor-General of India", "Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı", "Helma Knorscheidt", "Seymour Martin Lipset", "Murtaza Hasan Chandpuri", "Michael McDonald (comedian)", "1105", "Lý dynasty", "Henry Maitland Wilson", "2007", "Palermo", "Bright Osayi-Samuel", "1891", "Matthew Hoggard", "United States", "1637", "Calvin Zola", "Prime Minister of Russia", "1885", "First Minister of Scotland", "Shimazu Tadayoshi", "Jean-François Marmontel", "Ludovic Blas", "1757", "Ted Glossop", "Jean-Pierre Duport", "Kriegsmarine", "Cyril Scott", "Tommy Byrne (baseball)", "Beatrice of Portugal, Duchess of Savoy", "Gérard Debreu", "1818", "Williams Holdings", "Texaco", "Chief Justice of the Common Pleas", "Premier League", "Ibn Hawshab", "Bisperás ng Bagong Taón", "Pound sterling", "669", "Army of the Cumberland", "1302", "First Night", "Jaime Escalante", "1876", "First Chechen War", "Craig Gordon", "KLM", "Mary Logan Reddick", "Province of Canada", "Wayne Rogers", "Arnold Rüütel", "Azerbaijan", "Kandahar Airport", "535", "2004", "Muhammad ibn al-Qasim", "1983 Nigerian coup d'état", "2022", "1929", "1572", "1798", "New Year's Day", "Corey Crawford", "Union (American Civil War)", "1585", "Fred Marriott", "UTC−10:00", "1862", "Danny Holla", "ND Stevenson", "Isma'ili", "Boies Penrose", "La Repubblica", "Eric Robson", "Times Square Ball", "The Wall Street Journal", "Carl Dudley", "Two-stroke engine", "Guinness World Record", "Boris Yeltsin", "1995", "Lyudmila Pakhomova", "Konstantin Konik", "Dorgon", "Magnitogorsk", "Avram Hershko", "Queen Victoria", "Society for Human Rights", "Flag of Rwanda", "Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis", "Jane Badler", "Jovette Marchessault", "Major League Baseball", "John Radcliffe (died 1568)", "1738", "Guinness", "Arthur R. von Hippel", "1714", "1884", "Ingelheim", "International Motorsports Hall of Fame", "1942", "1903", "Henry Gerber", "January 0", "Barry Lane", "Ship commissioning", "Sevim Burak", "Julie Doucet", "Central African Republic", "1032", "1805", "Jacques Cartier", "East India Company", "Mihály Fekete", "1909", "Justin Keating", "Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford", "WNBA", "1673", "1873", "Alans", "Enrique Maier", "Johann Spurzheim", "Kelvin Herrera", "Edward Herrmann", "Margaret Holland", "Cale Yarborough", "Western Christianity", "Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar", "African Americans", "1864", "Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein", "William Heynes", "Ellen Datlow", "Nina Li Chi", "Raimond Valgre", "2006", "1225", "Danny McNamara (musician)", "American Civil War", "Tony Dorigo", "Bob Gilder", "satellite", "Thomas Joannes Stieltjes", "AT&T Corporation", "Herman Boerhaave", "Raoul Walsh", "2014 Shanghai stampede", "1905", "Murfreesboro, Tennessee", "Jean-Bédel Bokassa", "Javaris Crittenton", "695", "1998", "Cale Yarborough Motorsports", "1917", "Alexander Smith (poet)", "Abraham Lincoln", "45 BC", "Catholic Church", "1493", "1983", "Norm Phelps", "1878", "1890", "Gramercy Park", "George Lewis (clarinetist)", "UTC+14:00", "1776", "Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane", "1986", "Natalie Cole", "Acting President of Russia", "Heath Shuler", "Wardy Alfaro", "John Wycliffe", "Catherine Labouré", "Incandescent light bulb", "Pope Callixtus III", "Tim Stevens", "Attorney-General for Australia", "Nicolas Calas", "Bob Grant (radio host)", "2024", "Bobby Byrne (baseball)", "Amy Cure", "Günter Rössler", "English expedition to Valdivia", "Odetta", "Philippines", "Floyd Cramer", "BNO News", "December 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "BBC News", "Julio DePaula", "S. Arthur Spiegel", "ukase", "Lord High Constable of England", "Vandals", "Twelve Days of Christmas", "Shanghai", "1955", "George Meade", "William Skeffington", "Estonian Minister of Education", "2005", "Western Front (World War II)", "Marie d'Agoult", "Oliver St John", "1901", "Reading, Berkshire", "1956", "George Sisler, Jr.", "Chris Hallam", "406", "John Flamsteed", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh", "1991", "Moon", "Panama Canal", "1930", "2014", "1460", "1968", "George Allen (American football coach)", "Bucharest", "Prime Minister of Finland", "Jerry Turner (anchorman)", "International Solidarity Day of Azerbaijanis", "consul", "Alan Cranston", "Christian, Count of Waldeck-Wildungen", "Phill Kline", "COVID-19 vaccine", "1705", "Tupolev Tu-144", "1902", "Washington County, Arkansas", "1831", "patent", "Slovakia", "1670", "1514", "coup d'état", "Braxton Bragg", "Matt Cross (wrestler)", "First Battle of Cannanore", "1973", "1936", "Bryan Hamilton", "Junot Diaz", "Malcolm Campbell", "Wilfrid Noyce", "Giovanni Boldini", "Sander Schutgens", "Bell System", "Conquest of Majorca", "Steve Bruce", "1687", "Nate Freiman", "1491", "1719", "Curtis Myden", "euro", "fireworks", "Francisco García (basketball)", "Bundesliga", "Helen Dodson Prince", "Jorjão (footballer)", "Miguel de Unamuno", "Ricky Nelson", "1944", "1997", "Daphne Oram", "Jennifer Higdon", "Samuel Ajayi Crowther", "New York City Police Department", "Tatyana Shmyga", "Commodus", "1691", "Bryon Russell", "Calvin Bassey", "Bill Idelson", "Majorca", "1504", "1668", "Ostrogoths", "Roy Greenslade", "World Health Organization", "Sicily", "Royal Navy", "335", "Entertainment Tonight", "Baron Waqa", "Liveris Andritsos", "1918", "Provisional National Defence Council", "1911", "Jeremy Heywood", "Operation Nordwind", "Suebi", "Wuhan", "Nigel Rudd", "President of Estonia", "Djené", "Gerry Dee", "World War II", "Rhodesia", "Aviation Safety Network", "USS Essex (CV-9)", "United Arab Emirates", "Elizabeth Arden, Inc.", "1948", "1960", "Gabby Douglas", "Jerry Rawlings", "Torrijos–Carter Treaties", "1550", "Roy Goodall", "Margaret, Countess of Anjou", "Czechoslovakia", "Hogmanay", "1977 NASCAR Cup Series", "Crossing of the Rhine", "Illinois", "Ludolph van Ceulen", "Hermann Tilke", "Richard Montgomery", "Brandon Teena", "1945", "1857", "Ghaznavid Empire", "Donald E. 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8,205
Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping (22 August 190419 February 1997) was a Chinese statesman, revolutionary, and political theorist who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to 1989. In the aftermath of Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng succeeded in consolidating power to lead China through a period of reform and opening up that transformed its economy into a socialist market economy. He is widely regarded as the "Architect of Modern China" for his contributions to socialism with Chinese characteristics and Deng Xiaoping Theory. Born in Sichuan, the son of landowning peasants, Deng first learned of Marxism–Leninism while studying and working abroad in France in the early 1920s through the Work-Study Movement. In France, he met future collaborators like Zhou Enlai. In 1924, he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and continued his studies in Moscow. Following the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang (KMT) and CCP, Deng worked in the Jiangxi Soviet, where he developed good relations with Mao. He served as a political commissar in the Chinese Red Army during the Long March and Second Sino-Japanese War, and later helped to lead the People's Liberation Army (PLA) to victory in the civil war, participating in the PLA's capture of Nanjing. After the proclamation of the PRC in 1949, Deng held several key regional roles, eventually rising to vice premier and CCP secretary-general in the 1950s. He presided over economic reconstruction efforts and played a significant role in the Anti-Rightist Campaign. During the Cultural Revolution from 1966, Deng was condemned as the party's "number two capitalist roader" after Liu Shaoqi, and was purged twice by Mao, exiled to work in a tractor factory for 4 years. After Mao's death in 1976, Deng outmaneuvered his rivals to become the country's leader in 1978. Upon coming to power, Deng began a massive overhaul of China's infrastructure and political system. Due to the institutional disorder and political turmoil from the Mao era, he and his allies launched the Boluan Fanzheng program which sought to restore order by rehabilitating those who were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. He also initiated a reform and opening up program that introduced elements of market capitalism to the Chinese economy by designating special economic zones within the country. In 1980, Deng embarked on a series of political reforms including the setting of constitutional term limits for state officials and other systematic revisions which were incorporated in the country's fourth constitution. He later championed a one-child policy to deal with China's perceived overpopulation crisis, helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, and oversaw the launch of the 863 Program to promote science and technology. The reforms carried out by Deng and his allies gradually led China away from a command economy and Maoist dogma, opened it up to foreign investments and technology, and introduced its vast labor force to the global market—thereby transforming China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies. Deng helped negotiate the eventual return of Hong Kong and Macau to China (which took place after his death) and developed the principle of "one country, two systems" for their governance. During the course of his leadership, Deng was named the Time Person of the Year for 1978 and 1985. Despite his contributions to China's modernization, Deng's legacy is also marked by controversy. He ordered the military crackdown on the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, which ended his political reforms and remains a subject of global criticism. The one-child policy introduced in Deng's era also drew criticism. Nonetheless, his policies laid the foundation for China's emergence as a major global power. Deng was succeeded as paramount leader by Jiang Zemin, who continued his policies. == Early life and family == Deng's ancestors can be traced back to Jiaying County (now renamed as Meixian), Guangdong, a prominent ancestral area for the Hakka people, and had settled in Sichuan for several generations. Deng's daughter Deng Rong wrote in the book My Father Deng Xiaoping () that his ancestry was probably, but not definitely, Hakka. Sichuan was originally the origin of the Deng lineage until one of them was hired as an official in Guangdong during the Ming dynasty, but when the Qing dynasty planned to increase the population in 1671, they moved back to Sichuan. Deng was born in Guang'an District, Guang'an on 22 August 1904 in Sichuan province. Deng's father, Deng Wenming, was a mid-level landowner who had studied at the University of Law and Political Science in Chengdu, Sichuan. He was locally prominent. His mother, surnamed Dan, died early in Deng's life, leaving Deng, his three brothers, and three sisters. At the age of five, Deng was sent to a traditional Chinese-style private primary school, followed by a more modern primary school at the age of seven. Deng's first wife, one of his schoolmates from Moscow, died aged 24 a few days after giving birth to their first child, a baby girl who also died. His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after Deng came under political attack in 1933. His third wife, Zhuo Lin, was the daughter of an industrialist in Yunnan. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and married Deng a year later in front of Mao's cave dwelling in Yan'an. They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, Deng Nan and Deng Rong) and two sons (Deng Pufang and Deng Zhifang). Deng quit smoking when he was 86. === Education and early career === Deng's given name was Xiansheng (). When Deng first attended school, his tutor objected to him having the given name Xiansheng, instead calling him "Xixian" (), which includes the characters "to aspire to" and "goodness", with overtones of wisdom. In the summer of 1919, Deng graduated from the Chongqing School. He and 80 schoolmates travelled by ship to France (travelling steerage) to participate in the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, a work-study program in which 4,001 Chinese would participate by 1927. Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students in the group, had just turned 15. Wu Yuzhang, the local leader of the Movement in Chongqing, enrolled Deng and his paternal uncle, Deng Shaosheng, in the program. Deng's father strongly supported his son's participation in the work-study abroad program. The night before his departure, Deng's father took his son aside and asked him what he hoped to learn in France. He repeated the words he had learned from his teachers: "To learn knowledge and truth from the West in order to save China." Deng was aware that China was suffering greatly, and that the Chinese people must have a modern education to save their country. On 19 October 1920, a French packet ship, the André Lebon, sailed into Marseille with 210 Chinese students aboard including Deng. The sixteen-year-old Deng briefly attended middle schools in Bayeux and Châtillon, but he spent most of his time in France working, including at a Renault factory and as a fitter at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel Plant in La Garenne-Colombes, a north-western suburb of Paris where he moved in April 1921. Coincidentally, when Deng's later political fortunes were down and he was sent to work in a tractor factory in 1969 during the Cultural Revolution, he found himself a fitter again and proved to still be a master of the skill. In La Garenne-Colombes Deng met future CCP leaders Zhou Enlai, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Li Fuchun, Li Lisan and Li Weihan. In June 1923 he joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe. In the second half of 1924, he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe. In 1926 Deng traveled to the Soviet Union and studied at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, where one of his classmates was Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Chiang Kai-shek. === Return to China === In late 1927, Deng left Moscow to return to the Republic of China, where he joined the army of Feng Yuxiang, a military leader in northwest China, who had requested assistance from the Soviet Union in his struggle with other local leaders in the region. At that time, the Soviet Union, through the Comintern, an international organization supporting the Communist movements, supported the Communists' alliance with the Nationalists of the Kuomintang (KMT) party founded by Sun Yat-sen. He arrived in Xi'an, the stronghold of Feng Yuxiang, in March 1927. He was part of the Fengtian clique's attempt to prevent the break of the alliance between the KMT and the Communists. This split resulted in part from Chiang Kai-shek's forcing them to flee areas controlled by the KMT. After the breakup of the alliance between Communists and Nationalists, Feng Yuxiang stood on the side of Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists who participated in their army, such as Deng Xiaoping, were forced to flee. == Political rise == Although Deng got involved in the Marxist revolutionary movement in China, the historian Mobo Gao has argued that "Deng Xiaoping and many like him [in the Chinese Communist Party] were not really Marxists, but basically revolutionary nationalists who wanted to see China standing on equal terms with the great global powers. They were primarily nationalists and they participated in the Communist revolution because that was the only viable route they could find to Chinese nationalism." === Activism in Shanghai and Wuhan === After leaving the army of Feng Yuxiang in the northwest, Deng ended up in the city of Wuhan, where the Communists at that time had their headquarters. At that time, he began using the nickname "Xiaoping" and occupied prominent positions in the party apparatus. He participated in the historic emergency session on 7 August 1927 in which, by Soviet instruction, the Party dismissed its founder Chen Duxiu, and Qu Qiubai became the general secretary. In Wuhan, Deng first established contact with Mao Zedong, who was then little valued by militant pro-Soviet leaders of the party. Between 1927 and 1929, Deng lived in Shanghai, where he helped organize protests that would be harshly persecuted by the Kuomintang authorities. The death of many Communist militants in those years led to a decrease in the number of members of the Communist Party, which enabled Deng to quickly move up the ranks. Deng married Zhang Xiyuan, who died in 1930 during childbirth. The CSR had a central government as well as local and regional governments. In one of his trips to Yan'an in 1939, he married, for the third and last time in his life, Zhuo Lin, a young native of Kunming, who, like other young idealists of the time, had traveled to Yan'an to join the Communists. Deng was considered a "revolutionary veteran" because of his participation in the Long March. He took a leading role in the Hundred Regiments Offensive which boosted his standing among his comrades. === Resumed war against the Nationalists === After Japan's defeat in World War II, Deng traveled to Chongqing, the city in which Chiang Kai-shek established his government during the Japanese invasion, to participate in peace talks between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. The results of those negotiations were not positive and military confrontation between the two antagonistic parties resumed shortly after the meeting in Chongqing. While Chiang Kai-shek re-established the government in Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China, the Communists were fighting for control in the field. Following up with guerrilla tactics from their positions in rural areas against cities under the control of the government of Chiang and their supply lines, the Communists were increasing the territory under their control, and incorporating more and more soldiers who had deserted the Nationalist army. Deng played a major part in the Huaihai Campaign against the nationalists. Expressing his view as a rhetorical question, Deng stated that while ideally no landlords would die in the process, "If some tightfisted landlords hang themselves, does that mean our policies are wrong? Are we responsible?" Deng Xiaoping would spend three years in Chongqing, the city where he had studied in his teenage years before going to France. In 1952 he moved to Beijing, where he occupied different positions in the central government. === Political rise in Beijing === In July 1952, Deng came to Beijing to assume the posts of Vice Premier and Deputy Chair of the Committee on Finance. Soon after, he took the posts of Minister of Finance and Director of the Office of Communications. In 1954, he was removed from all these positions, holding only the post of Vice Premier. In 1956, he became Head of the Communist Party's Organization Department and member of the Central Military Commission. After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his Anti-Rightist Movement of 1957, Deng acted as Secretary-General of the Secretariat and ran the country's daily affairs with President Liu Shaoqi and Premier Zhou Enlai. Deng and Liu's policies emphasized economics over ideological dogma, an implicit departure from the mass fervor of the Great Leap Forward. Both Liu and Deng supported Mao in the mass campaigns of the 1950s, in which they attacked the bourgeois and capitalists, and promoted Mao's ideology. However, the failure of the Great Leap Forward was seen as an indictment on Mao's ability to manage the economy. Peng Dehuai began openly criticizing Mao, while Liu and Deng maintained a more cautious tone, ultimately taking charge of economic policy as Mao ceased to be involved in the day-to-day affairs of the party and state. Mao agreed to cede the presidency (the de jure head of state position) to Liu, while retaining his leadership positions in the party and army. In 1955, he was considered as a candidate for the PLA rank of Marshal of the People's Republic of China but he was ultimately not awarded the rank. At the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 1956, Deng supported removing all references to "Mao Zedong Thought" from the party statutes. After the "Seven Thousand Cadres Conference" in 1962, Liu and Deng's economic reforms of the early 1960s were generally popular and restored many of the economic institutions previously dismantled during the Great Leap Forward. Deng was one of the primary drafters of the Third Five Year Plan. In draft form, it emphasized a consumer focus and further development in China's more industrialized coastal cities. For this and other reasons, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his positions. During the Cultural Revolution, he and his family were targeted by Red Guards, who imprisoned Deng's eldest son, Deng Pufang. Deng Pufang was tortured and jumped out, or was thrown out, of the window of a four-story building in 1968, becoming a paraplegic. In October 1969 Deng Xiaoping was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker. He operated a lathe. Deng spent his spare time writing. He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than President Liu Shaoqi. In 1971, Mao's second official successor and the sole Vice Chairman of the party, Lin Biao, was killed in an air crash. According to official reports, Lin was trying to flee from China after a failed coup against Mao. Mao purged all of Lin's allies, who made up nearly all of the senior ranks of the PLA, leaving Deng (who had been political commissar of the 2nd Field Army during the civil war) the most influential of the remaining army leaders. Mao sought Deng to take over for Zhou Enlai, who was seriously ill. He remained careful, however, to avoid contradicting Maoist ideology on paper. In January 1975, he was additionally elected Vice Chairman of the party by the 10th Central Committee for the first time in his party career; Li Desheng had to resign in his favour. Deng was one of five Vice Chairmen, with Zhou being the First Vice Chairman. During his brief ascendency in 1973, Deng established the Political Research Office, headed by intellectuals Hu Qiaomu, Yu Guangyuan and Hu Sheng, delegated to explore approaches to political and economic reforms. He led the group himself and managed the project within the State Council, in order to avoid rousing the suspicions of the Gang of Four. In 1975, Deng sought to re-orient Chinese Academy of Sciences towards more theoretical research, which had not been a focus during the Cultural Revolution. Deng described scientific research in China as lagging behind the needs of socialist construction and the state of the advanced countries, and stated that to catch up, China should emphasize basic science in order to develop a sound theoretical foundation. Mao, too, was suspicious that Deng would destroy the positive reputation of the Cultural Revolution, which Mao considered one of his greatest policy initiatives. Beginning in late 1975, Deng was asked to draw up a series of self-criticisms. Although he admitted to having taken an "inappropriate ideological perspective" while dealing with state and party affairs, he was reluctant to admit that his policies were wrong in essence. His antagonism with the Gang of Four became increasingly clear, and Mao seemed to lean in the Gang's favour. Mao refused to accept Deng's self-criticisms and asked the party's Central Committee to "discuss Deng's mistakes thoroughly". ==== "Criticize Deng" campaign ==== Zhou Enlai died in January 1976, to an outpouring of national grief. On 3 March, Mao issued a directive reaffirming the legitimacy of the Cultural Revolution and specifically pointed to Deng as an internal, rather than external, problem. This was followed by a Central Committee directive issued to all local party organs to study Mao's directive and criticize Deng. Deng's reputation as a reformer suffered a severe blow when the Qingming Festival, after the mass public mourning of Zhou on a traditional Chinese holiday, culminated in the Tiananmen Incident on 5 April 1976, an event the Gang of Four deemed counter-revolutionary and threatening to their power. Deng was removed from all party roles and moved to a house east to Tiananmen Square. but Hua Guofeng wanted to rid the Party of extremists and successfully marginalised the Gang of Four. On 22 July 1977, Deng was restored to the posts of vice-chairman of the Central Committee, Vice-chairman of the Military Commission and Chief of the General Staff of the People's Liberation Army. By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the party, Deng outmaneuvered Hua, who had pardoned him, then ousted Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980. In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua to retain membership in the Central Committee and quietly retire, helping to set the precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm. During his paramount leadership, his official state positions were Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1978 to 1983 and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (an ad hoc body comprising the most senior members of the party elite) of the People's Republic of China from 1983 to 1990, while his official party positions were Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1977 to 1982, Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party from 1981 to 1989 and Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission from 1982 to 1987. He was offered the rank of General First Class in 1988 when the PLA restored military ranks, but as in 1955, he once again declined. Even after retiring from the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 1987 and the Central Military Commission in 1989, Deng continued to exert influence over China's policies until his death in 1997. Important decisions were always taken in Deng's home at No. 11 Miliangku Hutong with a caucus of eight senior party cadres, called "Eight Elders", especially with Chen Yun and Li Xiannian. Despite Deng's recognition as paramount leader, in practice these elders governed China as a small collective leadership. Deng ruled as "paramount leader" although he never held the top title of the party, and was able to successively remove three party leaders, including Hu Yaobang. Deng stepped down from the Central Committee and its Politburo Standing Committee. However, he remained as the chairman of the State and Party's Central Military Commission and was still seen as the paramount leader of China rather than General Secretary Zhao Ziyang and Presidents Li Xiannian and Yang Shangkun. === Boluan Fanzheng === Deng repudiated the Cultural Revolution and, in 1977, launched the "Beijing Spring", which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period, and restored the National College Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) which had been cancelled for ten years during the Cultural Revolution. Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolition of the class background system. Under this system, the CCP removed employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class; its removal allowed a faction favoring the restoration of the private market to enter the Communist Party. Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents. By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time. Deng also received a great deal of popular support. As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CCP, Hua was replaced by Zhao Ziyang as premier in 1980, and by Hu Yaobang as party chairman in 1981, despite the fact that Hua was Mao Zedong's designated successor as the "paramount leader" of the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Republic of China. During the Boluan Fanzheng period, the Cultural Revolution was invalidated, and victims of more than 3 million "unjust, false, wrongful cases" by 1976 were officially rehabilitated. Deng's elevation to China's new number-one figure meant that the historical and ideological questions around Mao Zedong had to be addressed properly. Because Deng wished to pursue deep reforms, it was not possible for him to continue Mao's hard-line "class struggle" policies and mass public campaigns. In 1982 the Central Committee of the Communist Party released a document entitled Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China. Mao retained his status as a "great Marxist, proletarian revolutionary, militarist, and general", and the undisputed founder and pioneer of the country and the People's Liberation Army. "His accomplishments must be considered before his mistakes", the document declared. Deng personally commented that Mao was "seven parts good, three parts bad". The document also steered the prime responsibility of the Cultural Revolution away from Mao (although it did state that "Mao mistakenly began the Cultural Revolution") to the "counter-revolutionary cliques" of the Gang of Four and Lin Biao. === International affairs === Deng prioritized China's modernization and opening up to the outside world, stating that China's "strategy in foreign affairs is to seek a peaceful environment" for the Four Modernizations. Under Deng's leadership, China opened up to the outside world, to learn from more advanced countries. This decentralized approach led to consideration of a number of interests and views, but also fragmentation of policy institutions and extensive bargaining between different bureaucratic units during the policy-making process. In late 1978, the aerospace company Boeing announced the sale of 747 aircraft to various airlines in the PRC, and the beverage company Coca-Cola made public their intention to open a production plant in Shanghai. On 1 January 1979, the United States recognized the People's Republic of China, leaving the (Taiwan) Republic of China's nationalist government to one side, and business contacts between China and the West began to grow. In early 1979, Deng undertook an official visit to the United States, meeting President Jimmy Carter in Washington as well as several Congressmen. The Chinese insisted that former President Richard Nixon be invited to the formal White House reception, a symbolic indication of their assertiveness on the one hand, and their desire to continue with the Nixon initiatives on the other. As part of the discussions with Carter, Deng sought United States approval for China's contemplated invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese war. According to United States National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski, Carter reserved judgment, an action which Chinese diplomats interpreted as tacit approval, and China launched the invasion shortly after Deng's return. In response to criticism from within the Party regarding his United States policy, Deng wrote, "I am presiding over the work on the United States. If there are problems, I take full responsibility." Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing power that set a good example for China economically. Deng initially continued to adhere to the Maoist line of the Sino–Soviet split era that the Soviet Union was a superpower as "hegemonic" as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its close proximity. Relations with the Soviet Union improved after Mikhail Gorbachev took over the Kremlin in 1985, and formal relations between the two countries were finally restored at the 1989 Sino-Soviet Summit. Deng responded to the Western sanctions following the Tiananmen Square protests by adopting the "twenty-four character guidelines" for China's international affairs: observe carefully (冷静观察), secure China's positions (稳住阵脚), calmly cope with the challenges (沉着应付), hide China's capacities and bide its time (韬光养晦), be good at maintaining a low profile (善于守拙), and never claim leadership (绝不当头). The end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union removed the original motives underlying rapprochement between China and the United States. Deng was motivated by concerns that the United States might curtail support for China's modernization, and adopted a low-profile foreign policy to live with the fact of United States hegemony and focus primarily on domestic development. Deng championed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence stating that they should be used as the "guiding norms of international relations". === Reform and Opening-up === At the outset of China's reform and opening up, Deng set out the Four Cardinal Principles that had to be maintained in the process: (1) the leadership of the Communist Party, (2) the socialist road, (3) Marxism, and (4) the dictatorship of the proletariat. Overall, reform proceeded gradually, with Deng delegating specific issues to proteges such as Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, who in turn addressed them under the guiding principle of "seeking truth from facts" - meaning that the correctness of an approach had to be gauged by its economic results. In Deng's view, socialism could not be considered superior to capitalism unless it improved the lives of the people in material ways. During Reform and Opening-up, he criticized those he deemed as the ideologues of the Cultural Revolution for seeking "poor socialism" and "poor communism" and believing that communism was a "spiritual thing". Deng worked with his team, especially as Zhao Ziyang, who in 1980 replaced Hua Guofeng as premier, and Hu Yaobang, who in 1981 did the same with the post of party chairman. Deng thus took the reins of power and began to emphasize the goals of "four modernizations" (economy, agriculture, scientific and technological development and national defense). He announced an ambitious plan of opening and liberalizing the economy. The last position of power retained by Hua Guofeng, chairman of the Central Military Commission, was taken by Deng in 1981. However, progress toward military modernization went slowly. A border war with Vietnam in 1977–1979 made major changes unwise. The war puzzled outside observers, but Xiaoming Zhang argues that Deng had multiple goals: stopping Soviet expansion in the region, obtain American support for his four modernizations, and mobilizing China for reform and integration into the world economy. Deng also sought to strengthen his control of the PLA, and demonstrate to the world that China was capable of fighting a real war. Zhang thinks punishment of Vietnam for its invasion of Cambodia was a minor factor. In the event, the Chinese forces did poorly, in terms of equipment, strategy, leadership, and battlefield performance. Deng subsequently used the PLA's poor performance to overcome resistance by military leaders to his military reforms. retiring the elderly and corrupt senior officers and their cronies. He emphasized the recruitment of much better educated young men who would be able to handle the advanced technology when it finally arrived. Instead of patronage and corruption in the officer corps, he imposed strict discipline in all ranks. In 1982 he established a new Commission for Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense to plan for using technology developed in the civilian sector. ==== Three steps to economic development ==== In 1986, Deng explained to Mike Wallace on 60 Minutes that some people and regions could become prosperous first in order to bring about common prosperity faster. In October 1987, at the Plenary Session of the National People's Congress, Deng was re-elected as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but he resigned as Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission and was succeeded by Chen Yun. Deng continued to chair and develop the reform and opening up as the main policy, and he advanced the three steps suitable for China's economic development strategy within seventy years: the first step, to double the 1980 GNP and ensure that the people have enough food and clothing, was attained by the end of the 1980s; the second step, to quadruple the 1980 GNP by the end of the 20th century, was achieved in 1995 ahead of schedule; the third step, to increase per capita GNP to the level of the medium-developed countries by 2050, at which point, the Chinese people will be fairly well-off and modernization will be basically realized. ==== Further reforms ==== Improving relations with the outside world was the second of two important philosophical shifts outlined in Deng's program of reform termed Gaige Kaifang (lit. Reforms and Openness). China's domestic social, political, and most notably, economic systems would undergo significant changes during Deng's time. The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the Four Modernizations, those of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and the military. The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the socialist market economy. Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of socialism and that the duty of the party was to perfect so-called "socialism with Chinese characteristics", Deng's economic policy prioritized developing China's productive forces. In Deng's view, this development "is the most fundamental revolution from the viewpoint of historical development[,]" and "[p]oor socialism" is not socialism.}} Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected outright simply because it was not associated with Mao. Unlike more conservative leaders such as Chen Yun, Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones that were found in capitalist nations. This political flexibility towards the foundations of socialism is strongly supported by quotes such as: Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, the general consensus amongst historians is that few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself. Premier Zhou Enlai, for example, pioneered the Four Modernizations years before Deng. In addition, many reforms would be introduced by local leaders, often not sanctioned by central government directives. If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally. An often cited example is the household responsibility system, which was first secretly implemented by a poor rural village at the risk of being convicted as "counter-revolutionary". This experiment proved very successful. Deng openly supported it and it was later adopted nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the East Asian Tigers. This was in sharp contrast to the pattern of perestroika undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev, in which most major reforms originated with Gorbachev himself. The bottom-up approach of Deng's reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of perestroika, was likely a key factor in the success of the former. Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms. Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market value. Under Deng Xiaoping's leadership, the Cultural Revolution-era trend towards localizing authority over state-owned enterprises was reversed, and SOE management was again centralized. ==== Export focus ==== In the move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth. Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base. With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in technologically more advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments. However, in sharp contrast to the similar, but much less successful reforms in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the People's Republic of Hungary, these investments were not government mandated. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China. These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance. China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West. In October 1978, to exchange the instruments of ratification for the "Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China", Deng Xiaoping visited Japan for the first time and was warmly received by Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda and others. Deng Xiaoping was only Vice Premier during the time of his meetings with Japanese officials, but the Japanese government received Deng as the effective paramount leader of China due to his long history with the CCP, nonetheless. Deng was deemed the first Chinese leader to receive an audience in addition to Japanese Emperor Showa. A news article from NHK Japan in 1978 reported that Deng diplomatically stated "we talked about our past, but His Majesty's focus on building a better future is something I noticed." Deng’s statement suggests the new era of China’s political reform through foreign economic diplomacy. Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China is an ongoing pact between the two nations to this day. Article 1 of the treaty describes mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, and mutual non-interference in internal affairs. Article 2 proclaims anti-hegemony. Article 3 discusses the further development of economic and cultural relations between the two countries, and Article 4 addresses the relationship of this treaty with third countries. Although it took six years from the restoration of diplomatic relations for the peace treaty negotiations to be concluded as the "anti-hegemony" clause and the "third country" clause were considered the most contentious, the agreement still informs much of contemporary Sino-Japanese relations. By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development. From 1980, Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of Special Economic Zones, where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged. The reforms sought to improve labor productivity. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms. There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Vladimir Lenin's NEP as well as those of Nikolai Bukharin's economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning. As academics Christopher Marquis and Kunyuan Qiao observe, Deng had been present in the Soviet Union when Lenin implemented the NEP, and it is reasonable to infer that it may have impacted Deng's view that markets could exist within socialism. The result of these negotiations was the Sino-British Joint Declaration, signed on 19 December 1984, which formally outlined the United Kingdom's return of the whole Hong Kong colony to China by 1997. The Chinese government pledged to respect the economic system and civil liberties of the British colony for fifty years after the handover. Deng's theory of one country, two systems applied to Hong Kong and Macau and Deng intended to also present it as an attractive option to the people of Taiwan for eventual incorporation of that island, where sovereignty over the territory is still disputed. In 1982, Deng first explained the concept of one country, two systems in relation to Taiwan. Deng's statements during the 1987 drafting of the Basic Law of Hong Kong showed his view of the principle in the Hong Kong context. At that time, Deng stated that the central government would not intervene in the daily business of Hong Kong, but predicted Hong Kong would sometimes have issues affecting national interests that would require the central government's involvement. In June 1988, Deng stated that "Hong Kong's political system today is neither the British system nor the American system, and it should not transplant the Western ways in the future." The policy applied to urban areas, and included forced abortions. In August 1983, Deng launched the "Strike hard" Anti-crime Campaign due to the worsening public safety after the Cultural Revolution. although more recent estimates have placed the number at 24,000 who were sentenced to death (mostly in the first "battle" of the campaign). A number of people arrested (some even received death penalty) were children or relatives of government officials at various levels, including the grandson of Zhu De, demonstrating the principle of "all are equal before the law". The campaign had an immediate positive effect on public safety, while controversies also arose such as whether some of the legal punishments were too harsh and whether the campaign had long-term positive effect on public safety. Increasing economic freedom was being translated into a greater freedom of opinion, and critics began to arise within the system, including the famous dissident Wei Jingsheng, who coined the term "fifth modernization" in reference to democracy as a missing element in the renewal plans of Deng Xiaoping. In the late 1980s, dissatisfaction with the authoritarian regime and growing inequalities caused the biggest crisis to Deng's leadership. === Crackdown of Tiananmen Square protests === The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, culminating in the June Fourth Massacre, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in the People's Republic of China (PRC) between 15 April and 5 June 1989, a year in which many other communist governments collapsed. The protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang, a reformist official backed by Deng but ousted by the Eight Elders and the conservative wing of the politburo. Many people were dissatisfied with the party's slow response and relatively subdued funeral arrangements. Public mourning began on the streets of Beijing and universities in the surrounding areas. In Beijing, this was centered on the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square. The mourning became a public conduit for anger against perceived nepotism in the government, the unfair dismissal and early death of Hu, and the behind-the-scenes role of the "old men". By the eve of Hu's funeral, the demonstration had reached 100,000 people on Tiananmen Square. While the protests lacked a unified cause or leadership, participants raised the issue of corruption within the government and some voiced calls for economic liberalization within the structure of the government while others called for a less authoritarian and less centralized form of socialism. During the demonstrations, Deng's pro-market ally General Secretary Zhao Ziyang supported the demonstrators and distanced himself from the Politburo. Martial law was declared on 20 May by the socialist hardliner, Chinese premier Li Peng, but the initial military advance on the city was blocked by residents. The movement lasted seven weeks. On 3–4 June, over two hundred thousand soldiers in tanks and helicopters were sent into the city to quell the protests by force, resulting in hundreds to thousands of casualties. Many ordinary people in Beijing believed that Deng had ordered the intervention, but political analysts do not know who was actually behind the order. To purge sympathizers of Tiananmen demonstrators, the Communist Party initiated a one-and-a-half-year-long program similar to the Anti-Rightist Movement. Old-timers like Deng Fei aimed to deal "strictly with those inside the party with serious tendencies toward bourgeois liberalization", and more than 30,000 communist officers were deployed to the task. Deng privately told former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau that factions of the Communist Party could have grabbed army units and the country had risked a civil war. Two years later, Deng endorsed Zhu Rongji, a Shanghai Mayor, as a vice-premier candidate. Zhu Rongji had refused to declare martial law in Shanghai during the demonstrations even though socialist hardliners had pressured him. == Resignation and 1992 southern tour == Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the Central Military Commission in November 1989 and his successor Jiang Zemin became the new Chairman of the Central Military Commission and paramount leader. China, however, was still in the era of Deng Xiaoping. He continued to be widely regarded as the de facto leader of the country, believed to have backroom control despite no official position apart from being chairman of the Chinese Contract Bridge Association, and appointed Hu Jintao as Jiang's successor at the 14th Party Congress in 1992. Deng was recognized officially as "the chief architect of China's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization". To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply Comrade Xiaoping, with no title attached. Because of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, Deng's power had been significantly weakened and there was a growing formalist faction opposed to Deng's reforms within the Communist Party. To reassert his economic agenda, in the spring of 1992, Deng made a tour of southern China, visiting Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and spending the New Year in Shanghai, using his travels as a method of reasserting his economic policy after his retirement from office. He said "Some people slander our socialist system as the Qin system, which is vexatious! Our system is not totalitarian, but democratic centralism. During the period of Chairman Mao, it was not the Qin system, but also democratic centralism. I would say that it is more like the system of France." The 1992 Southern Tour is widely regarded as a critical point in the modern history of China, as it saved the Chinese economic reform and preserved the stability of the society. Deng's health deteriorated drastically after 1994. In January 1995, Deng's daughter told the press that "A year ago, he could walk for 30 minutes twice a day, but now he cannot walk … He needs two people to support him." It was also reported that Parkinson's experts were sent to Beijing to help him in 1995. Deng generally preferred not to directly speak of dying, instead describing himself as "going to see the Premier", meaning Zhou Enlai. The public was largely prepared for his death, as there had been rumors that his health was deteriorating. At 10:00 on the morning of 24 February, people were asked by Premier Li Peng to pause in silence for three minutes. The nation's flags flew at half-mast for over a week. Deng's official obituary instructed Chinese people to study Deng Xiaoping's method of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. Some elements, notably modern Maoists and radical reformers (the far left and the far right), had negative views, however. Deng's death drew international reaction. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said Deng was to be remembered "in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development". French President Jacques Chirac said "In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes"; British Prime Minister John Major commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control; Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien called Deng a "pivotal figure" in Chinese history. The Kuomintang chair in Taiwan also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity. The Dalai Lama voiced regret that Deng died without resolving questions over Tibet. The song Story of Spring, by Dong Wenhua, celebrates Deng's achievements. At the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, Jiang Zemin and the third generation of leaders stated, "Development is the Party's top priority in governing and rejuvenating the country." Deng Xiaoping's Former Residence in his hometown of Paifang Village in Sichuan has been preserved as an historical museum. In Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyzstan, there is a six-lane boulevard, wide and long, the Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on 18 June 1997. A two-meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route. The epigraph is written in Chinese, Russian and Kyrgyz. The documentary, Deng Xiaoping, released by CCTV in January 1997, presents his life from his days as a student in France to his "Southern Tour" of 1993. In 2014, CCTV released a TV series, Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads, in anticipation of the 110th anniversary of his birth. === Assessment === Deng has been called the "architect of contemporary China" and is widely considered to have been one of the most influential figures of the 20th century. He was the Time Person of the Year in 1978 and 1985, the third Chinese leader (after Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling) and the fourth time for a communist leader (after Joseph Stalin, picked twice; and Nikita Khrushchev) to be selected. Deng is remembered primarily for the economic reforms he initiated while paramount leader of the People's Republic of China, which pivoted China towards a market economy, led to high economic growth, increased standards of living of hundreds of millions, expanded personal and cultural freedoms, and substantially integrated the country into the world economy. More people were lifted out of poverty during his leadership than during any other time in human history, attributed largely to his reforms. Deng is also credited with reducing the cult of Mao Zedong and with bringing an end to the chaotic era of the Cultural Revolution. Furthermore, his strong-handed tactics have been credited with keeping the People's Republic of China unified, in contrast to the other major Communist power of the time, the Soviet Union, which collapsed in 1991. However, Deng is also remembered for human rights violations and for numerous instances of political violence. As paramount leader, he oversaw the Tiananmen Square massacre; afterwards, he was influential in the Communist Party's domestic cover-up of the event. Furthermore, he is associated with some of the worst purges during Mao Zedong's rule; for instance, he ordered an army crackdown on a Muslim village in Yunnan which resulted in the deaths of 1,600 people, including 300 children. In August 1980, he started China's political reforms by setting term limits for officials and proposing a systematic revision of China's third Constitution which was made during the Cultural Revolution; the new Constitution embodied Chinese-style constitutionalism and was passed by the National People's Congress in December 1982, with most of its content still being effective as of today. He helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, and revived China's political reforms. == Works ==
[ "Kunming", "Zhu De", "Jacques Chirac", "Time Person of the Year", "Moderately prosperous society", "Cultural Revolution", "proclamation of the People's Republic of China", "One-child policy", "Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement", "Ming dynasty", "Kyrgyz language", "Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party", "Guang'an", "Death and state funeral of Deng Xiaoping", "Ye Jianying", "Xinwen Lianbo", "People's Liberation Army General Staff Department", "Lianhuashan Park", "Fengtian clique", "Chinese Red Army", "Orders of precedence in the People's Republic of China", "Romanization of Chinese", "Zhuhai", "Special economic zones of China", "Chen Duxiu", "Hu Sheng", "Kuomintang", "Boeing", "Ruijin", "constitutionalism", "Packet trade", "Red Guards (China)", "Secretary-General of the Chinese Communist Party", "Bishkek", "Contract bridge", "Death-penalty", "Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)", "Chiang Ching-kuo", "Compulsory education", "2nd Field Army", "Yang Shangkun", "Parkinson's disease", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Belknap Press", "Basic research", "Third Front (China)", "reform and opening up", "Third five-year plan (China)", "The Search for Modern China", "self-criticism (Marxism-Leninism)", "Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama", "Boeing 747", "capitalist roader", "Hu Jintao", "Kyrgyzstan", "Boluan Fanzheng", "Peng Dehuai", "Xu Shiyou", "Honolulu", "term limit", "paraplegic", "Stanford University Press", "Operation Yellowbird", "political commissar", "1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China", "Feng Yuxiang", "Zhao Ziyang", "An Ziwen", "The Washington Post", "Zhuo Lin", "CCTV (China)", "Long March", "Jean Chrétien", "Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence", "The New York Times", "University of Hawaii Press", "Yan'an", "Zhu Rongji", "Great Leap Forward", "Atlanta", "Vice Premier of China", "Chinese Academy of Sciences", "People's Republic of China–Japan relations", "The Japan Times", "Xi'an", "Social Anarchism (journal)", "Sino–Soviet split", "Second Sino-Japanese War", "Foreign Relations Series", "half-mast", "Jiangxi Soviet", "Qu Qiubai", "The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press", "Tan Zhenlin", "Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party", "Liu Bocheng", "Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party", "Wei Jingsheng", "Steerage (deck)", "Los Angeles Times", "Marshal of the People's Republic of China", "State visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States", "Bangkok", "Soviet Union", "Nikolai Bukharin", "revolutionary nationalist", "General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party", "seek truth from facts", "1976 Tiananmen Incident", "Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery", "Wang Ming", "North China Military Exercise", "Generations of Chinese leadership", "Cornell University Press", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Deng Rong", "60 Minutes", "Wutai Mountains", "Châlette-sur-Loing", "Yu Guangyuan", "Four Cardinal Principles", "Second Field Army", "Dong Wenhua", "Anti-Rightist Campaign", "Li Weihan", "Land Reform Movement (China)", "Sino-Vietnamese War", "People's Republic of China", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Equality before the law", "New Economic Policy", "Chinese Dream", "Deng Pufang", "Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads", "Li Lisan", "Xu Xiangqian", "Comintern", "Wang Hongwen", "Li Xiannian", "Sun Yat-sen", "household responsibility system", "Story of Spring", "Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship", "Scientific Outlook on Development", "military exercise", "Four Modernizations", "Qing dynasty", "market economy", "Chinese economic reform", "Modernization of the People's Liberation Army", "Minister of Finance (China)", "Chengdu", "National College Entrance Examination", "Constitution of the People's Republic of China", "Rao Shushi", "State Council of the People's Republic of China", "Chen Yun", "Revolutions of 1989", "1989 Sino-Soviet Summit", "Le Creusot", "Cat theory (Deng Xiaoping)", "Jiang Qing", "Nie Rongzhen", "Chinese nationalism", "Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference", "Shadian incident", "Marseille", "Deng Zhuodi", "productive forces", "Deng Xiaoping Theory", "Guangdong", "People's Republic of Hungary", "Hakka people", "Richard Nixon", "socialism with Chinese characteristics", "National People's Congress", "Paramount leader", "Kang Sheng", "Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party", "La Garenne-Colombes", "Sino-British Joint Declaration", "Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China", "John Major", "Columbia University Press", "Central Advisory Commission", "Taiwan", "Yunnan", "10th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party", "Bo Gu", "Zunyi Conference", "Political Commissar", "Mike Wallace", "Huang Yongsheng", "Guangzhou", "dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Moscow Sun Yat-sen University", "Deng (Chinese surname)", "Oxford University Press", "Kofi Annan", "Deng Nan", "hegemony", "1982 Constitution of the People's Republic of China", "Chongqing", "martial law", "Times Higher Education", "The Diplomat (magazine)", "Christopher Marquis", "Foreign Affairs", "Cadre system of the Chinese Communist Party", "paramount leader", "Houston", "reformist", "sentenced to death", "Eighth Route Army", "Beijing Spring", "primary stage of socialism", "Bloomsbury Academic", "Anti-Rightist Movement", "1989 Tiananmen Square protests", "8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party", "Vladimir Lenin", "Zbigniew Brzezinski", "Cambridge University Press", "Central Military Commission (People's Republic of China)", "Jiang Zemin", "Chinese Soviet Republic", "one country, two systems", "Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China", "Li Desheng", "China Daily", "Lin Biao incident", "Wang Zhen (general)", "Wang Dongxing", "Huichang County", "Gospel Hall", "Time (magazine)", "Basic Law of Hong Kong", "Red Guards", "The China Quarterly", "Globalization in China", "Margaret Thatcher", "one-child policy", "The Coca-Cola Company", "Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China", "Mao Zedong", "Song Renqiong", "export-oriented industrialization", "CIA", "iarchive:changingfaceofch00gitt", "Deng Xiaoping's Former Residence", "Sichuan", "Qingming Festival", "Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong", "dictatorship of the proletariat", "State-owned enterprises of China", "Deng Yingchao", "Joseph Stalin", "Shanxi", "Shenzhen", "Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center", "Zhou Enlai", "Shaanxi", "863 Program", "Li Peng", "Fitter (occupation)", "Châtillon, Hauts-de-Seine", "Chen Yi (marshal)", "Guang'an District", "Yang Dezhi", "Yale University Press", "Maoism", "History of the People's Republic of China", "Tibet", "Taipei Times", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Four Asian Tigers", "Soong Mei-ling", "Li Fuchun", "new economic policy", "Chief of the General Staff", "Handover of Hong Kong", "Zhang Chunqiao", "Applied science", "Bo Yibo", "Huaihai Campaign", "Hainan", "Chinese Communist Party", "handover of Macau", "handover of Hong Kong", "Longzhou Uprising", "Armand Hammer", "1979 visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States", "Liu Shaoqi", "Marxism–Leninism", "Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party", "Lee Kuan Yew", "People's Liberation Army at the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests", "Lin Biao", "market socialism", "Seattle", "Central Military Commission (China)", "Gang of Four", "Monument to the People's Heroes", "Bayeux", "standards of living", "Seven Thousand Cadres Conference", "Baise Uprising", "Hua Guofeng", "Hebei", "14th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party", "University of Michigan Press", "13th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party", "Renault", "perestroika", "TV series (China)", "Pierre Trudeau", "Tiananmen Square massacre", "Wuhan", "Chiang Kai-shek", "Suisheng Zhao", "Xi Jinping", "Chinese Civil War", "Hu Yaobang", "socialist market economy", "People's Liberation Army", "1983 \"Strike Hard\" Anti-crime Campaign", "Meixian District", "Communist", "Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party", "Gulf of Tonkin incident", "Eight Elders", "Nanjing", "Hundred Regiments Offensive", "Wan Li", "Hu Qiaomu", "Human overpopulation", "command economy", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "head of state", "Christopher C. Kraft" ]
8,206
HM Prison Dartmoor
HM Prison Dartmoor is a Category C men's prison, located in Princetown, high on Dartmoor in the English county of Devon. Its high granite walls dominate this area of the moor. The prison is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and is operated by His Majesty's Prison Service. The prison closed temporarily in 2024 for radon mitigation and investigation works. Dartmoor Prison was given Grade II heritage listing in 1987. ==History== ===Prisoners of War=== In 1805, the United Kingdom was at war with Napoleonic France, a conflict during which thousands of prisoners were taken and confined in prison "hulks" or derelict ships. This was considered a security risk, partially due to the proximity of the Royal Naval dockyard at Devonport (then called Plymouth Dock) and living conditions were appalling in the extreme; consequently, a prisoner of war depot was planned in the remote isolation of Dartmoor. The prison was designed by Daniel Asher Alexander. Construction by local labour started in 1806, taking three years to complete. In 1809, the first French prisoners arrived and the prison was full by the end of the year. From the spring of 1813 until March 1815, about 6,500 American sailors from the War of 1812 were imprisoned at Dartmoor in poor conditions (food was bad and the roofs leaked). These were either naval prisoners or impressed American seamen discharged from British vessels. Whilst the British were in overall charge of the prison, the prisoners created their own governance and culture. They had courts which meted out punishments, a market, a theatre and a gambling room. About 1,000 of the prisoners were Black. A recent examination of the General Entry Book of American Prisoners of War at Dartmoor, by Nicholas Guyatt, found "Eight Hundred and Twenty - Nine Sailors of Colour had been entered into the register by the end of October 1814." ===Escapes=== Unlike many detention facilities of the period, Dartmoor Prison was purpose built in an isolated location, ringed by high stone walls, and manned by hundreds of armed militia sentries. In addition a rope ran around the entire circumference of the prison, linked to a series of bells, which quickly spread an alarm. Even if a determined prisoner made it beyond the walls, he would still have to traverse ten miles on foot, over wild moorland and bogs, an area frequently beset with fog and chilling winds, to reach the nearest town. Local residents turning in an escapee could expect a reward of a guinea. Yet, despite these daunting odds, scholar Nicholas Guyatt has tallied a total of twenty-four American POWs successfully making their way to freedom. Disorder Although the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent on 24 December 1814, American prisoners of war remained in Dartmoor because the British government refused to grant them parole or to take any steps until the treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on 17 February 1815. It took several weeks for the American agent to secure ships for their transportation home, and the men grew very impatient. On 4 April, a food contractor attempted to work off some damaged hardtack on them in place of soft bread, but was forced to yield by their insurrection. The commandant, Captain T. G. Shortland, suspected them of a design to break out of the gaol. This was the reverse of the truth in general, as they would lose their chance of going on the ships, but a few had made threats of the sort, and the commandant was very uneasy. By July 1815 at least 270 Americans and 1,200 French prisoners had died. ===1815 closure, and reopening === After all American and French prisoners had been released, paroled and repatriated, the gaol on Dartmoor was left unused for 35 years until 1850. Work then began to rebuild and recommission the prison for civilian convicts. It reopened in 1851. The POW remains that had been originally buried on the moor were exhumed and re-interred in two cemeteries behind the prison when the prison farm was established in about 1852. During the First World War in 1917, criminals were removed from the gaol when it was converted into a Home Office Work Centre for conscientious objectors granted release from other prisons. The cells were left unlocked, inmates wore their own clothes and could go outside to visit the village in their off-duty time. Prisoners made numerous attempts to get out of the prison and onto the moors, leading to massive manhunts by the police and prison service. Instances of disobedience included a model prisoner attacking a popular guard with a razor blade and rough treatment by prisoners of a prisoner being removed to solitary. At the parade later that day, 50 prisoners refused orders, and the rest were marched back to their cells but refused to enter. At this point, the prison governor and his staff fled to an unused part of the prison and secured themselves there. The prisoners then released those held in solitary. There was extensive damage to property, and a prisoner was shot by one of the staff, but no prison staff were injured. F. Digby Hardy John Williams Frank Mitchell Fahad Mihyi, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine terrorist behind the 1978 London bus attack Aravindan Balakrishnan ==Modern operations== Dartmoor continues to suffer from its age. In 2001 a Board of Visitors report condemned sanitation, as well as highlighting a list of urgent repairs needed. A year later, the prison was converted to a Category C prison for less violent offenders. In 2002, the Prison Reform Trust warned that the prison might be breaching the Human Rights Act 1998 due to severe overcrowding. A year later, however, the Chief Inspector of Prisons declared that the prison had made substantial improvements to its management and regime. In March 2008, staff at the prison passed a vote of no confidence in the governor Serena Watts, claiming they felt bullied by managers and unsafe. Dartmoor is now a Category C prison, which means it houses mainly non-violent offenders and white-collar criminals. It also holds people with convictions for sexual offences, but it is designated as a support site only for these individuals, and as such does not offer treatment programmes for them. Dartmoor operates cell accommodation on six wings. Education is available at the prison (full and part-time), and ranges from basic educational skills to Open University courses. Vocational training includes electronics, brickwork and carpentry courses up to City & Guilds and NVQ level, Painting and Decorating courses, industrial cleaning and desktop publishing. Full-time employment is also available in catering, farming, gardening, laundry, textiles, Braille, contract services, furniture manufacturing and polishing. Employment is supported with NVQ or City & Guilds vocational qualifications. All courses and qualifications at Dartmoor are operated by South Gloucestershire and Stroud College and Cornwall College. The "Dartmoor Jailbreak" is a yearly event, in which members of the public "escape" from the prison and must travel as far as possible in four days, without directly paying for transport. By doing so they raise money for charity. In September 2013, it was announced that discussions would commence with the Duchy of Cornwall about the long-term future of HMP Dartmoor. In January 2014 it was stated on the BBC news website that the notice period with the Duchy for closing is 10 years. In November 2015 the Ministry of Justice confirmed that, as part of a major programme to replace older prisons, it would not renew its lease on the prison. It was announced in October 2019 that HMP Dartmoor would close in 2023, but in December 2021 it was confirmed that, following negotiations with the Duchy, it would remain open beyond 2023 and for the foreseeable future. The region, and the prison, is contaminated by hazardous radon gas generated by the decay of uranium in the region's bedrock, and prison walls. In 2023, 96 inmates of the prison were evacuated due to this. According to one source no inmates or staff are said to have suffered adverse health effects from radon poisoning at HMP Dartmoor, although this is disputed. (although no planned reopening date was announced), Princetown villagers expressed doubt that the jail would ever reopen because of the complications of rehabilitating such an old building, although a new 25-year lease of the prison from the Duchy of Cornwall had been entered into in 2023. Radon concentrations of 14 times the permissible limit have been recorded in the prison, and in 2025 about 500 inmates and staff, many of whom attributed serious health problems including cancers to radon, were planning to sue the Ministry of Justice. ==Dartmoor Prison Museum== The Dartmoor Prison Museum, which focuses on the history of HMP Dartmoor, is located in the old dairy buildings; exhibits include the prison's role in housing prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, manacles and weapons, memorabilia, clothing and uniforms, famous prisoners, and the changed focus of the prison. It sold garden ornaments and other items made in the prison concrete and carpentry shops by prisoners engaged in educational courses. There are also displays and information on less well known aspects of the prison, such as the incarceration of conscientious objectors during World War One. The museum remained open during the closure of the prison for radon mitigation from 2024. In the John Galsworthy play, Escape, Dartmoor is the prison from which the hero, Captain Denman escapes. The stage production in 1927 starred Leslie Howard and the 1930 film version starred Sir Gerald du Maurier. The 1929 movie A Cottage on Dartmoor begins with an escapee from Dartmoor prison, and proceeds to a flashback as to how he came to be incarcerated. Decline and Fall, a novel by Evelyn Waugh, first published in 1928 makes thinly disguised references to Dartmoor Prison. Dartmoor Prison is mentioned in The Thirteen Problems, a short story collection written by Agatha Christie, and first published in 1932. Christie's The Sittaford Mystery (1931) is set on Dartmoor and features an escaped prisoner. Arthur Conan Doyle made reference to 'Princetown Prison' in four stories that he wrote between 1890 and 1903. In The Hound of the Baskervilles (1902), an escaped prisoner from Princetown serves as a red herring for Holmes and Watson. Dressed to Kill, a 1946 Sherlock Holmes film uses Dartmoor Prison in the plot as the supposed location where three music boxes were made that contain a secret code for a criminal gang. In the Tales of Old Dartmoor episode (recorded in 1956) of The Goons radio comedy series, Grytpype-Thynne arranges for the prison to put to sea to visit the Château d'If in France as part of a plan to find the treasure the Count of Monte Cristo hid there. A cardboard replica is left in its place, which is left standing after the original Dartmoor Prison sinks with all hands at the end of the episode. In an episode of The Saint television series entitled "Escape Route" (1966), Simon Templar (Roger Moore) is sent to Dartmoor to uncover a planned escape. In 1988, the prison played host to a storyline in EastEnders, where Den Watts (played by Leslie Grantham) was being held on remand for arson at a prison called Dickens Hill. He was joined by Nick Cotton (played by John Altman), imprisoned for a different offence. Dartmoor prison is implicated in the local Dartmoor 'Hairy hands' ghost story/legend. Dartmoor prison plays a central role in The Lively Lady, American author Kenneth Roberts' 1931 historical novel taking place during The War of 1812 In the first episode of the second TV series of James May's Man Lab, James May and Oz Clarke were demonstrating map-reading skills by pretending to escape from Dartmoor prison and cross Dartmoor to their escape car (although they had to start their escape from outside the prison grounds as they were not allowed permission inside the prison). One of the intersecting story lines in Edward Marston's novel, Shadow of the Hangman (2013) involves two American seamen who escape during the 1815 riot. The prison and the American sailors imprisoned towards the end of the War of 1812 are central to Simon Mayo's 2018 novel Mad Blood Stirring. The narrator of the Hammond Innes novel Maddon's Rock is sentenced to (and escapes from) Dartmoor along with a co-conspirator after being wrongly convicted of mutiny.
[ "Reginald Horace Blyth", "Devonport, Devon", "Evelyn Waugh", "Arthur Conan Doyle", "The Times", "Princetown, England", "Human Rights Act 1998", "First World War", "The Goon Show", "United States Navy", "EastEnders", "polishing", "vote of no confidence", "Hercules Grytpype-Thynne", "Kenneth Roberts (author)", "Dartmoor", "His Majesty's Prison Service", "Bruno Tolentino", "janitor", "Treaty of Ghent", "Hammond, Louisiana", "radon", "United States Senate", "Escape (play)", "NVQ", "Frank Mitchell (prisoner)", "Agatha Christie", "1978 London bus attack", "War of 1812", "Éamon de Valera", "legend", "The Sittaford Mystery", "Simon Mayo", "cancer", "brickwork", "John Rodker", "Plymouth Herald", "carpentry", "Jack McVitie", "Herbert du Parcq, Baron du Parcq", "Darkie Hutton", "John Altman (actor)", "City & Guilds", "Nick Cotton", "Duchy of Cornwall", "Michael Davitt", "Simon Templar", "Dressed to Kill (1946 film)", "Lambeth slavery case", "Château d'If", "desktop publishing", "Arthur Owens", "Victor Bridges", "ghost story", "The Thirteen Problems", "Fred Longden", "Devon", "White-collar crime", "uranium", "John George Haigh", "Listed building", "Den Watts", "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine", "moorland", "Open University", "Board of Visitors", "Hairy hands", "Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor", "Byline Times", "Oz Clarke", "electronics", "Maddon's Rock", "manacles", "South Gloucestershire and Stroud College", "Leslie Grantham", "Moondyne Joe", "Cornwall College (England)", "Jack Comer", "Braille", "Roger Moore", "The Saint (TV series)", "Napoleonic Wars", "conscientious objectors", "James May", "Sherlock Holmes", "Daniel Asher Alexander", "Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom", "F. Digby Hardy", "A Cottage on Dartmoor", "Decline and Fall", "Prison Reform Trust", "radon mitigation", "John Boyle O'Reilly", "Painting and Decorating", "Daily Mirror", "Prison security categories in the United Kingdom", "granite", "John Williams (convict)", "prisoners of war", "Dartmoor Jailbreak", "James May's Man Lab", "Hammond Innes" ]
8,207
Dilation and curettage
Dilation (or dilatation) and curettage (D&C) is a medical procedure that dilates (widens or opens) the cervix and surgically removes tissue from the lining of the uterus by scraping or scooping (curettage). The D&C gynecologic procedure is used for treatment, diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. D&C can be used to end an unwanted pregnancy or to remove the remains of a non-viable fetus. It can also be used to remove the placenta after childbirth, abortion, or miscarriage. D&C is a commonly used method for first trimester abortion or miscarriage. D&C can also be used to remove tissue from the uterus for diagnostic purposes. D&C normally refers to a procedure involving a curette, also called sharp curettage. ==Clinical uses== D&Cs may be performed in pregnant and non-pregnant patients, for different clinical indications. Such examples are for early abortion, removing the remains of a non-viable pregnancy or retention of placenta from a pregnancy loss/abortion. Treatment of menopause induced anomalies with menstrual cycle. === During pregnancy or postpartum === A D&C may be performed early in pregnancy to remove pregnancy tissue, either in the case of a non-viable pregnancy, such as a missed or incomplete miscarriage, or an undesired pregnancy, as in a surgical abortion. The World Health Organization recommends D&C with a Sharp Curette as a method of surgical abortion only when manual vacuum aspiration with a suction curette is unavailable. For patients who have recently given birth, a D&C may be indicated to remove retained placental tissue that does not pass spontaneously or for postpartum hemorrhage. === Non-pregnant patients === D&Cs for non-pregnant patients are commonly performed in tandem with Hysteroscopy another diagnostic procedure, for the diagnosis of gynecological conditions usually involving abnormal bleeding; during menopause or with various abnormal structures growing within the uterus to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome; to remove tissue in the uterus that may be causing abnormal uterine bleeding, such as endometrial polyps or uterine fibroids; ==Procedure== Depending on the anticipated duration and difficulty expected with the procedure, as well as the clinical indication and patient preferences, a D&C may be performed with local anesthesia, moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia. The first step in a D&C is to place a speculum in the vagina so as to see the cervix. Often, a tenaculum is placed to steady the cervix. Next, the provider will dilate the cervix. This can be done with Hegar or similar dilators. The amount of dilation depends on the amount of tissue to be removed as well as the size of the instruments to be used. After sufficient dilation, a curette, a metal rod with a handle on one end and a loop on the other, is then inserted into the uterus through the dilated cervix. The curette is used to gently scrape the lining of the uterus and remove the tissue in the uterus. If a suction curette is used, as in a vacuum aspiration, a plastic tubular curette will be introduced into the uterus and connected to suction to remove all tissue in the uterus. This tissue is examined for completeness (in the case of abortion or miscarriage treatment) or by pathology for abnormalities (in the case of treatment for abnormal bleeding). Aside from the surgery itself, complications related to anesthesia administration may also occur. Infection is uncommon after D&C for a non-pregnant patient, and society practice guidelines do not recommend routine prophylactic antibiotics to patients. However, for curettage of a pregnant patient, the risk of infection is higher, and patients should receive antibiotics that cover the bacteria commonly found in the vagina and gastrointestinal tract; doxycycline is a common recommendation, though azithromycin may also be used. Perforation may cause excessive bleeding or damage to organs outside the uterus. If the provider is concerned about ongoing bleeding or the possibility of injury to organs outside the uterus, a laparoscopy may be done to verify that there has been no undiagnosed injury. Another potential risk is Asherman's syndrome, a condition where intrauterine adhesions lead to subfertility, amenorrhea, or recurrent pregnancy loss. Although older studies described a high (25-30%) risk of developing this condition after dilation and curettage for treatment of miscarriage, these procedures were likely done using sharp curettage, which is no longer routinely performed in modern miscarriage and abortion care. Newer studies reflect the common technique of suction curettage and demonstrate a much lower risk of Asherman's syndrome, with incidence in large prospective trials ranging from 0.7 to 1.6%. A history of multiple (>3) procedures There are currently no studies linking asymptomatic intrauterine adhesions and long-term reproductive outcomes, and similar pregnancy outcomes have been found after miscarriage regardless of whether surgical treatment, medication management, or conservative management (i.e. watchful waiting) was chosen.
[ "vacuum aspiration", "Dilation and evacuation", "Vacuum aspiration", "Infection", "endometrial cancer", "tenaculum", "Hysteroscopy", "misoprostol", "curettage", "undesired pregnancy", "American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists", "Missed abortion", "Cervical dilation", "Guttmacher Institute", "Endometrial polyp", "amenorrhea", "miscarriage", "uterine fibroid", "local anesthesia", "uterine perforation", "World Health Organization", "Abortion", "UNICEF", "pathology", "Asherman's syndrome", "Conscious sedation", "polycystic ovary syndrome", "Hegar dilators", "Mayo Clinic", "mifepristone", "Speculum (medical)", "Centers for Disease Control", "cervix", "laparoscopy", "abortion", "Recurrent miscarriage", "watchful waiting", "Menstrual extraction", "General anaesthesia", "curette", "incomplete miscarriage", "gynecological", "Dysfunctional uterine bleeding", "anesthesia", "doxycycline", "uterus", "Infertility", "post-menopausal bleeding", "Suction curettage" ]
8,209
Doctor Who
{{Infobox television | image = Doctor Who title card.png | caption = Title card (2024–present) | genre = | creator = | showrunner = | writer = Various | starring = | theme_music_composer = Ron Grainer | opentheme = Doctor Who theme music | composer = | country = United Kingdom | language = English | num_seasons = 26 (1963–1989) | num_series = 15 (2005–present) | num_episodes = | list_episodes = Lists of Doctor Who episodes | executive_producer = | camera = | runtime = {{collapsible list|title=| | {{indented plainlist| 18–29 mins (1963–1984, 1986–1989) 44–46 mins (1984, 1985) 85–89 mins (1996){{efn|The 1996 television film has a running time in NTSC regions of 89 minutes. In PAL regions, the film is affected by PAL speedup, shortening the running time to 85 minutes. and elsewhere; it has gained a cult following. It has influenced generations of British television professionals, many of whom grew up watching the series. Fans of the series are sometimes referred to as Whovians. The series has been listed in Guinness World Records as the longest-running science-fiction television series in the world, as well as the "most successful" science-fiction series of all time, based on its overall broadcast ratings, DVD and book sales. The series originally ran from 1963 to 1989. There was an unsuccessful attempt to revive regular production in 1996 with a backdoor pilot in the form of a television film titled Doctor Who. The series was relaunched in 2005 and was produced in-house by BBC Wales in Cardiff. Since 2023, the show has been co-produced by Bad Wolf and BBC Studios Productions in Cardiff. Doctor Who has spawned numerous spin-offs as part of the Whoniverse, including comic books, films, novels and audio dramas, and the television series Torchwood (2006–2011), The Sarah Jane Adventures (2007–2011), K9 (2009–2010), Class (2016), Tales of the TARDIS (2023–2024), and the upcoming The War Between the Land and the Sea. It has been the subject of many parodies and references in popular culture. ==Premise== Doctor Who follows the adventures of the title character, a rogue Time Lord with somewhat unknown origins who goes by the name "the Doctor". The Doctor fled Gallifrey, the planet of the Time Lords, in a stolen TARDIS ("Time and Relative Dimension(s) in Space"), a time machine that travels by materialising into, and dematerialising out of, the time vortex. The TARDIS has a vast interior but appears smaller on the outside, and is equipped with a "chameleon circuit" intended to make the machine take on the appearance of local objects as a disguise. Because of a malfunction, the Doctor's TARDIS remains fixed as a blue British police box. Across time and space, the Doctor's many incarnations often find events that pique their curiosity, and try to prevent evil forces from harming innocent people or changing history, using only ingenuity and minimal resources, such as the versatile sonic screwdriver. The Doctor rarely travels alone and is often joined by one or more companions on these adventures; these companions are usually humans, owing to the Doctor's fascination with planet Earth, which also leads to frequent collaborations with the international military task force UNIT when Earth is threatened. The Doctor is centuries old and, as a Time Lord, has the ability to regenerate when there is mortal damage to their body. The Doctor's various incarnations have gained numerous recurring enemies during their travels, including the Daleks, their creator Davros, the Cybermen, and the renegade Time Lord the Master. ==History== Doctor Who was originally intended to appeal to a family audience as an educational programme using time travel as a means to explore scientific ideas and famous moments in history. The programme first appeared on the BBC Television Service at 17:16:20 GMT on 23 November 1963; this was eighty seconds later than the scheduled programme time, because of announcements concerning the previous day's assassination of John F. Kennedy. It was to be a regular weekly programme, each episode 25 minutes of transmission length. Discussions and plans for the programme had been in progress for a year. The head of drama Sydney Newman was mainly responsible for developing the programme, with the first format document for the series being written by Newman along with the head of the script department (later head of serials) Donald Wilson and staff writer C. E. Webber; in a 1971 interview Wilson claimed to have named the series, and when this claim was put to Newman he did not dispute it. Writer Anthony Coburn, story editor David Whitaker and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series. On 31 July 1963, Whitaker commissioned Terry Nation to write a story under the title The Mutants. As originally written, the Daleks and Thals were the victims of an alien neutron bomb attack but Nation later dropped the aliens and made the Daleks the aggressors. When the script was presented to Wilson, it was immediately rejected as the programme was not permitted to contain any "bug-eyed monsters". According to Lambert, "We didn't have a lot of choice—we only had the Dalek serial to go ... We had a bit of a crisis of confidence because Donald [Wilson] was so adamant that we shouldn't make it. Had we had anything else ready we would have made that." Nation's script became the second Doctor Who serial – The Daleks (also known as The Mutants). The serial introduced the eponymous aliens that would become the series' most popular monsters, dubbed "Dalekmania", and was responsible for the BBC's first merchandising boom. The BBC drama department produced the programme for 26 seasons, broadcast on BBC One. Due to his increasingly poor health, William Hartnell, first actor to play the Doctor, was succeeded by Patrick Troughton in 1966. In 1970, Jon Pertwee replaced Troughton and the series began production in colour. In 1974, Tom Baker was cast as the Doctor. His eccentric personality became hugely popular, with viewing figures for the series returning to a level not seen since the height of "Dalekmania" a decade earlier. After seven years in the role, Baker was replaced by Peter Davison in 1981, and Colin Baker replaced Davison in 1984. In 1985, the channel's controller Michael Grade cancelled the upcoming twenty-third season, forcing the series into an eighteen-month hiatus. In 1986, the series was recommissioned on the condition that Baker left the role of the Doctor, Although it was effectively cancelled, the BBC repeatedly affirmed over several years that the series would return. Segal's negotiations eventually led to a Doctor Who television film as a pilot for an American series, broadcast on the Fox Network in 1996, as an international co-production between Fox, Universal Pictures, the BBC and BBC Worldwide. Starring Paul McGann as the Doctor, the film was successful in the UK (with 9.1 million viewers), but was less so in the United States and did not lead to a series. BBC Television announced the in-house production of a new series, after several years of attempts by BBC Worldwide to find backing for a feature film version. The 2005 revival of Doctor Who is a direct plot continuation of the original 1963–1989 series and the 1996 television film. The executive producers of the new incarnation of the series were Queer as Folk writer Russell T Davies and BBC Cymru Wales head of drama Julie Gardner. From 2005, the series switched from a multi-camera to a single-camera setup. Starring Christopher Eccleston as the Doctor, Doctor Who returned with the episode "Rose" on BBC One on 26 March 2005, after a 16-year hiatus of in-house production. Eccleston left after one series and was replaced by David Tennant. Davies left the production team in 2009. Steven Moffat, a writer under Davies, was announced as his successor, along with Matt Smith as the new Doctor. Smith decided to leave the role of the Doctor in 2013, the 50th anniversary year. He was replaced by Peter Capaldi. In January 2016, Moffat announced that he would step down after the 2017 finale, to be replaced by Chris Chibnall in 2018. Jodie Whittaker, the first female Doctor, appeared in three series, the last of which was shortened due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Both Whittaker and Chibnall announced that they would depart the series after a series of specials in 2022. Davies returned as showrunner from the 60th anniversary specials, twelve years after he had left the series previously. Bad Wolf's involvement sees Gardner return to the series alongside Davies and Jane Tranter, who recommissioned the series in 2005. The programme has been sold to many other countries worldwide . ===Public consciousness=== It has been claimed that the transmission of the first episode was delayed by ten minutes due to extended news coverage of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy the previous day; in fact, it went out after a delay of eighty seconds. The BBC believed that coverage of the assassination, as well as a series of power blackouts across the country, had caused many viewers to miss this introduction to a new series, and it was broadcast again on 30 November 1963, just before episode two. The programme soon became a national institution in the United Kingdom, with a large following among the general viewing audience. The show received controversy over the suitability of the series for children. Morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse repeatedly complained to the BBC over what she saw as the programme's violent, frightening and gory content. According to Radio Times, the series "never had a more implacable foe than Mary Whitehouse". A BBC audience research survey conducted in 1972 found that, by their own definition of violence ("any act[s] which may cause physical and/or psychological injury, hurt or death to persons, animals or property, whether intentional or accidental"), Doctor Who was the most violent of the drama programmes the corporation produced at the time. The same report found that 3% of the surveyed audience believed the series was "very unsuitable" for family viewing. Responding to the findings of the survey in The Times newspaper, journalist Philip Howard maintained that, "to compare the violence of Dr Who, sired by a horse-laugh out of a nightmare, with the more realistic violence of other television series, where actors who look like human beings bleed paint that looks like blood, is like comparing Monopoly with the property market in London: both are fantasies, but one is meant to be taken seriously." Other notable moments in that decade include a disembodied brain falling to the floor in The Brain of Morbius and the Doctor apparently being drowned by a villain in The Deadly Assassin (both 1976). Mary Whitehouse's complaint about the latter incident prompted a change in BBC policy towards the series, with much tighter controls imposed on the production team, and the series' next producer, Graham Williams, was under a directive to take out "anything graphic in the depiction of violence". John Nathan-Turner produced the series during the 1980s and said in the documentary More Than Thirty Years in the TARDIS that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments because the ratings of the series would increase soon after she had made them. Nathan-Turner also got into trouble with BBC executives over the violence he allowed to be depicted for season 22 of the series in 1985, which was publicly criticised by controller Michael Grade and given as one of his reasons for suspending the series for 18 months. The phrase "hiding " (or "watching from behind the sofa") entered British pop culture, signifying the stereotypical but apocryphal early-series behaviour of children who wanted to avoid seeing frightening parts of a television programme while remaining in the room to watch the remainder of it. The Economist presented "hiding behind the sofa whenever the Daleks appear" as a British cultural institution on a par with Bovril and tea-time. Paul Parsons, author of The Science of Doctor Who, explains the appeal of hiding behind the sofa as the activation of the fear response in the amygdala in conjunction with reassurances of safety from the brain's frontal lobe. The phrase retains this association with Doctor Who, to the point that in 1991 the Museum of the Moving Image in London named its exhibition celebrating the programme Behind the Sofa. The electronic theme music too was perceived as eerie, novel, and frightening at the time. A 2012 article placed this childhood juxtaposition of fear and thrill "at the center of many people's relationship with the series", and a 2011 online vote at Digital Spy deemed the series the "scariest TV show of all time". The image of the TARDIS has become firmly linked to the series in the public's consciousness; BBC scriptwriter Anthony Coburn, who lived in the resort of Herne Bay, Kent, was one of the people who conceived the idea of a police box as a time machine. In 1996, the BBC applied for a trademark to use the TARDIS' blue police box design in merchandising associated with Doctor Who. In 1998, the Metropolitan Police Authority filed an objection to the trademark claim; but in 2002, the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC. The 21st-century revival of the programme became the centrepiece of BBC One's Saturday schedule and "defined the channel". Many renowned actors have made guest-starring appearances in various stories including Kylie Minogue, Sir Ian McKellen, and Andrew Garfield among others. According to an article in the Daily Telegraph in 2009, the revival of Doctor Who had consistently received high ratings, both in number of viewers and as measured by the Appreciation Index. In 2007, Caitlin Moran, television reviewer for The Times, wrote that Doctor Who is "quintessential to being British". According to Steven Moffat, the American film director Steven Spielberg has commented that "the world would be a poorer place without Doctor Who". On 4 August 2013, a live programme titled Doctor Who Live: The Next Doctor was broadcast on BBC One, during which the actor who was going to play the Twelfth Doctor was revealed. The live show was watched by an average of 6.27 million in the UK, and was also simulcast in the United States, Canada and Australia. ==Episodes== Doctor Who originally ran for 26 seasons on BBC One, from 23 November 1963 until 6 December 1989. During the original run, each weekly episode formed part of a story (or "serial")—usually of four to six parts in earlier years and three to four in later years. Some notable exceptions were: The Daleks' Master Plan, which aired twelve episodes (plus an earlier one-episode teaser, "Mission to the Unknown", featuring none of the regular cast); almost an entire season of seven-episode serials (season 7); the ten-episode serial The War Games; and The Trial of a Time Lord, which ran for fourteen episodes (albeit divided into three production codes and four narrative segments) during season 23. Occasionally, serials were loosely connected by a story line, such as season 8 focusing on the Doctor battling a rogue Time Lord called the Master, season 16's quest for the Key to Time, season 18's journey through E-Space and the theme of entropy, and season 20's Black Guardian trilogy. The programme was intended to be educational and for family viewing on the early Saturday evening schedule. It initially alternated stories set in the past, which taught younger audience members about history, and with those in the future or outer space, focusing on science. with one exception: Black Orchid (1982), set in 1920s England. The early stories were serialised in nature, with the narrative of one story flowing into the next and each episode having its own title, although produced as distinct stories with their own production codes. Following The Gunfighters (1966), however, each serial was given its own title, and the individual parts were assigned episode numbers. while Douglas Adams became the best known outside Doctor Who itself, due to the popularity of his Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy works. The serial format changed for the 2005 revival, with what was now called a series usually consisting of thirteen 45-minute, self-contained episodes (60 minutes with adverts, on overseas commercial channels) and an extended 60-minute episode broadcast on Christmas Day. This system was shortened to twelve episodes and one Christmas special following the revival's eighth series, and ten episodes from the eleventh series. Each series includes standalone and multiple episodic stories, often linked with a loose story arc resolved in the series finale. As in the early "classic" era, each episode has its own title, whether stand-alone or part of a larger story. Occasionally, regular-series episodes will exceed the 45-minute run time; for example, the episodes "Journey's End" (2008) and "The Eleventh Hour" (2010) were longer than an hour. Doctor Who instalments have been televised since 1963, ranging between 25-minute episodes (the most common format for the classic era), 45/50-minute episodes (for Resurrection of the Daleks in the 1984 series, a single season in 1985, and the most common format for the revival era since 2005), two feature-length productions (1983's "The Five Doctors" and the 1996 television film), twelve Christmas specials (most of approximately 60 minutes' duration, one of 72 minutes), and four additional specials ranging from 60 to 75 minutes in 2009, 2010, and 2013. Four mini-episodes, running about eight minutes each, were also produced for the 1993, 2005, and 2007 Children in Need charity appeals, while another mini-episode was produced in 2008 for a Doctor Who–themed edition of The Proms. The 1993 two-part story, entitled Dimensions in Time, was made in collaboration with the cast of the BBC soap-opera EastEnders and was filmed partly on the EastEnders set. A two-part mini-episode was also produced for the 2011 edition of Comic Relief. Starting with the 2009 special "Planet of the Dead", the series was filmed in 1080i for HDTV and broadcast simultaneously on BBC One and BBC HD. To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the show, a special 3D episode, "The Day of the Doctor", was broadcast in 2013. In March 2013, it was announced that Tennant and Piper would be returning and that the episode would have a limited cinematic release worldwide. In June 2017, it was announced that due to the terms of a deal between BBC Worldwide and SMG Pictures in China, the company has first right of refusal on the purchase for the Chinese market of future series of the programme until and including Series 15. ===Missing episodes=== Between 1967 and 1978, large amounts of older material stored in the BBC's various video tape and film libraries was either destroyed or wiped. This included many early episodes of Doctor Who, those stories featuring the first two Doctors: William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton. In all, 97 of 253 episodes produced during the programme's first six years are not held in the BBC's archives (most notably seasons 3, 4, and 5, from which 79 episodes are missing). In 1972, almost all episodes then made were known to exist at the BBC, while by 1978 the practice of wiping tapes and destroying "spare" film copies had been brought to a stop. No 1960s episodes exist on their original videotapes (all surviving prints being film transfers), though some were transferred to film for editing before transmission and exist in their broadcast form. Some episodes have been returned to the BBC from the archives of other countries that bought prints for broadcast or by private individuals who acquired them by various means. Early colour videotape recordings made off-air by fans have also been retrieved, as well as excerpts filmed from the television screen onto 8 mm cine film and clips that were shown on other programmes. Audio versions of all lost episodes exist from home viewers who made tape recordings of the show. Short clips from every story with the exception of Marco Polo (1964), "Mission to the Unknown" (1965) and The Massacre (1966) also exist. In addition to these, there are off-screen photographs made by photographer John Cura, who was hired by various production personnel to document many of their programmes during the 1950s and 1960s, including Doctor Who. These have been used in fan reconstructions of the serials. The BBC has tolerated these amateur reconstructions, provided they are not sold for profit and are distributed as low-quality copies. One of the most sought-after lost episodes is part four of the last William Hartnell serial, The Tenth Planet (1966), which ends with the First Doctor transforming into the Second. The only portion of this in existence, barring a few poor-quality silent 8 mm clips, is the few seconds of the regeneration scene, as it was shown on the children's magazine show Blue Peter. With the approval of the BBC, efforts are now underway to restore as many of the episodes as possible from the extant material. "Official" reconstructions have also been released by the BBC on VHS, on MP3 CD-ROM, and as special features on DVD. The BBC, in conjunction with animation studio Cosgrove Hall, reconstructed the missing episodes 1 and 4 of The Invasion (1968), using remastered audio tracks and the comprehensive stage notes for the original filming, for the serial's DVD release in November 2006. The missing episodes of The Reign of Terror were animated by animation company Theta-Sigma, in collaboration with Big Finish, and became available for purchase in May 2013 through Amazon.com. Subsequent animations made in 2013 include The Tenth Planet, The Ice Warriors (1967) and The Moonbase (1967). In April 2006, Blue Peter launched a challenge to find missing Doctor Who episodes with the promise of a full-scale Dalek model as a reward. In December 2011, it was announced that part 3 of Galaxy 4 (1965) and part 2 of The Underwater Menace (1967) had been returned to the BBC by a fan who had purchased them in the mid-1980s without realising that the BBC did not hold copies of them. On 10 October 2013, the BBC announced that films of eleven episodes, including nine missing episodes, had been found in a Nigerian television relay station in Jos. Six of the eleven films discovered were the six-part serial The Enemy of the World (1968), from which all but the third episode had been missing. The remaining films were from another six-part serial, The Web of Fear (1968), and included the previously missing episodes 2, 4, 5 and 6. Episode 3 of The Web of Fear is still missing. ==Characters== ===The Doctor=== The Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery. In the programme's early days, the character was an eccentric alien traveller of great intelligence who battled injustice while exploring time and space in an unreliable time machine, the "TARDIS" (an acronym for Time and Relative Dimension in Space), which notably appears much larger on the inside than on the outside. The initially irascible and slightly sinister Doctor quickly mellowed into a more compassionate figure and was eventually revealed to be a Time Lord, whose race are from the planet Gallifrey, which the Doctor fled by stealing the TARDIS. ====Changes of appearance==== Producers introduced the concept of regeneration to permit the recasting of the main character. This was prompted by the poor health of the original star, William Hartnell. The term "regeneration" was not conceived until the Doctor's third on-screen regeneration; Hartnell's Doctor merely described undergoing a "renewal", and the Second Doctor underwent a "change of appearance". The device has allowed for the recasting of the actor various times in the show's history, as well as the depiction of alternative Doctors either from the Doctor's relative past or future. The serials The Deadly Assassin (1976) and Mawdryn Undead (1983) established that a Time Lord can only regenerate 12 times, for a total of 13 incarnations. This line became stuck in the public consciousness despite not often being repeated and was recognised by producers of the show as a plot obstacle for when the show finally had to regenerate the Doctor a thirteenth time. The episode "The Time of the Doctor" (2013) depicted the Doctor acquiring a new cycle of regenerations, starting from the Twelfth Doctor, due to the Eleventh Doctor being the product of the Doctor's twelfth regeneration from his original set. Although the idea of casting a woman as the Doctor had been suggested by the show's writers several times, including by Newman in 1986 and Davies in 2008, until 2017, all official depictions were played by men. Jodie Whittaker took over the role as the Thirteenth Doctor at the end of the 2017 Christmas special and is the first woman to be cast as the character. The show introduced the Time Lords' ability to change sex on regeneration in earlier episodes, first in dialogue, then with Michelle Gomez's version of the Master and T'Nia Miller's version of the General. Upon Whittaker's final appearance as the character in "The Power of the Doctor" on 23 October 2022, she regenerated into a form portrayed by David Tennant, who was confirmed to be the Fourteenth Doctor and the first actor to play two incarnations, having previously played the Tenth Doctor. In the same year, Ncuti Gatwa was revealed to be portraying the Fifteenth Doctor, making him the first black actor to headline the series. In addition to those actors who have headlined the series, others have portrayed versions of the Doctor in guest roles. Notably, in 2013, John Hurt guest-starred as a hitherto unknown incarnation of the Doctor known as the War Doctor in the run-up to the show's 50th-anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor". He is shown in mini-episode "The Night of the Doctor" retroactively inserted into the show's fictional chronology between McGann's and Eccleston's Doctors, although his introduction was written so as not to disturb the established numerical naming of the Doctors. The show later introduced another such unknown past Doctor with Jo Martin's recurring portrayal of the Fugitive Doctor, beginning with "Fugitive of the Judoon" (2020). An example from the classic series comes from The Trial of a Time Lord (1986), in which Michael Jayston's character the Valeyard is described as an amalgamation of the darker sides of the Doctor's nature, somewhere between the twelfth and final incarnation. The most recent example is when Richard E. Grant, who previously portrayed an alternate version of the Doctor known as the Shalka Doctor in the animated series Scream of the Shalka (2003), appeared as a hologram of a past Doctor in "Rogue" (2024). On rare occasions, other actors have stood in for the lead. In "The Five Doctors", Richard Hurndall played the First Doctor due to William Hartnell's death in 1975; 34 years later David Bradley similarly replaced Hartnell in "Twice Upon a Time". In Time and the Rani, Sylvester McCoy briefly played the Sixth Doctor during the regeneration sequence, carrying on as the Seventh. In other media, the Doctor has been played by various other actors, including Peter Cushing in two films. The casting of a new Doctor has often inspired debate and speculation. Common topics of focus include the Doctor's sex (prior to the casting of Whittaker, all official incarnations were male), race (all Doctors were white prior to the casting of Jo Martin in "Fugitive of the Judoon") and age (the youngest actor to be cast is Smith at 26, and the oldest are Capaldi and Hartnell, both 55). ====Meetings of different incarnations==== There have been instances of actors returning later to reprise their specific Doctor's role. In 1973's The Three Doctors, William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton returned alongside Jon Pertwee. For 1983's "The Five Doctors", Troughton and Pertwee returned to star with Peter Davison, and Tom Baker appeared in previously unseen footage from the uncompleted Shada serial. For this episode, Richard Hurndall replaced William Hartnell. Patrick Troughton again returned in 1985's The Two Doctors with Colin Baker. In "The Name of the Doctor" (2013), the Eleventh Doctor meets a previously unseen incarnation of himself, subsequently revealed to be the War Doctor. In 2017, the First Doctor (this time portrayed by David Bradley) returned alongside Peter Capaldi in "The Doctor Falls" and "Twice Upon a Time". In "The Giggle" (2023), following the unusual bi-generation of the Fourteenth Doctor which saw the Fifteenth Doctor split out from him, the two Doctors shared a scene together as they defeated the episode's villain, the Toymaker. Additionally, multiple incarnations of the Doctor have met in various audio dramas and novels based on the television show. ===Companions=== The companion figure – generally a human – has been a constant feature in Doctor Who since the programme's inception in 1963. One of the roles of the companion is to be a reminder for the Doctor's "moral duty". The Doctor's first companions seen on-screen were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell). These characters were intended to act as audience surrogates, through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor, who was to act as a mysterious father figure. Notable companions from the earlier series include a Time Lady named Romana (Mary Tamm and Lalla Ward), and humans such as Jamie McCrimmon (Frazer Hines), Jo Grant (Katy Manning), Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen), Tegan Jovanka (Janet Fielding), Peri Brown (Nicola Bryant), and Ace (Sophie Aldred). Dramatically, these characters provide a figure with whom the audience can identify and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes—or loves—on worlds they have visited. Some have died during the course of the series. Companions are usually humans or humanoid aliens. The primary companions of the Ninth and Tenth Doctors were Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman), and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate), with Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) and Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) recurring as secondary companion figures. The Eleventh Doctor became the first to travel with a married couple, Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), whilst out-of-sync meetings with River Song (Alex Kingston) and Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) The tenth series included the alien Nardole (Matt Lucas) and introduced Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor's first openly gay companion. Pearl Mackie said that the increased representation of LGBTQ people is important on a mainstream show. The Thirteenth Doctor primarily travelled with Ryan Sinclair (Tosin Cole), Graham O'Brien (Bradley Walsh), Yasmin Khan (Mandip Gill), and Dan Lewis (John Bishop). When David Tennant returned as the Fourteenth Doctor, former co-star Catherine Tate joined him to reprise her role of Donna Noble for the 2023 specials. The Fifteenth Doctor travelled with Ruby Sunday (Millie Gibson) in his first series and Belinda Chandra (Varada Sethu) in his second. The combination of Gatwa and Sethu was notable for being the first time the primary cast of the show consisted entirely of non-white actors. Some companions have gone on to reappear, either in the main series or in spin-offs. Sarah Jane Smith became the central character in The Sarah Jane Adventures (2007–2011) following a return to Doctor Who in 2006. Guest stars in the series include former companions Jo Grant, K9, and Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney). The character of Jack Harkness also served to launch a spin-off, Torchwood (2006–2011), in which Martha Jones also appeared. ===Foes=== When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction. However, monsters were popular with audiences and so became a staple of Doctor Who almost from the beginning. Daleks, Cybermen, and the Master are some of the most iconic foes the Doctor has battled in the series. The Autons with the Nestene Consciousness, first seen in 1970's Spearhead from Space, and Daleks, first seen in 1963's The Daleks, returned in series 1. Davies's successor, Steven Moffat, continued the trend by reviving the Silurians, also first seen in 1970, in series 5 and Zygons, first seen in 1975, in the 50th-anniversary special. Since its 2005 return, the series has also introduced new recurring aliens: Slitheen (Raxacoricofallapatorians), Ood, Judoon, Weeping Angels and the Silence. ====Daleks==== The Daleks, which first appeared in the show's second serial in 1963, are Doctor Whos oldest villains. The Daleks are Kaleds from the planet Skaro, mutated by the scientist Davros and housed in mechanical armour shells for mobility. The actual creatures resemble octopuses with large, pronounced brains. Their armour shells have a single eye-stalk, a sink-plunger-like device that serves the purpose of a hand, and a directed-energy weapon. Their main weakness is their eyestalk; attacks upon them using various weapons can blind a Dalek, making it go mad. Their chief role in the series plot, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to "exterminate" all non-Dalek beings. They even attack the Time Lords in the Time War, as shown during the 50th Anniversary of the show. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise, having appeared in every series since 2005. Davros has also been a recurring figure since his debut in Genesis of the Daleks, although played by several different actors. The Daleks were created by the writer Terry Nation (who intended them to be an allegory of the Nazis) and BBC designer Raymond Cusick. The Daleks' début in the programme's second serial, The Daleks (1963–1964), made both the Daleks and Doctor Who very popular. A Dalek appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon. The Daleks received another stamp in 2013 as part of the 50th anniversary. In "Victory of the Daleks" a new set of Daleks were introduced that come in a range of colours; the colour denoting its role within the species. ==== Cybermen ==== Cybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more and more artificial parts into their bodies. This led to the race becoming coldly logical and calculating cyborgs, with emotions usually only shown when naked aggression was called for. With the demise of Mondas, they acquired Telos as their new home planet. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise. The Cybermen have evolved dramatically over the course of the show. They were reintroduced in the 2006 series in the form of alternate universe aliens, with radically different back stories. The standard Cybermen returned in "Closing Time", though they kept their 2006 design. In the 2020 series, the Cybermen aligned themselves with The Master, and were given the ability to regenerate. ====The Master==== The Master is the Doctor's archenemy, a renegade Time Lord who desires to rule the universe. Conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes", the character first appeared in 1971. As with the Doctor, the role has been portrayed by several actors, since the Master is a Time Lord as well and able to regenerate; the first of these actors was Roger Delgado, who continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over and continued to play the character until Doctor Whos hiatus in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of Doctor Who, and was played by American actor Eric Roberts. Following the series revival in 2005, Derek Jacobi provided the character's reintroduction in the 2007 episode "Utopia". During that story, the role was then assumed by John Simm, who returned to the role multiple times throughout the Tenth Doctor's tenure. In the 2014 episode "Dark Water", it was revealed that the Master had become a female incarnation or "Time Lady", going by the name of "Missy" (short for Mistress, the feminine equivalent of "Master"). This incarnation is played by Michelle Gomez. Simm returned to his role as the Master alongside Gomez in the tenth series. The Master returned for the 2020 twelfth series with Sacha Dhawan in the role. This incarnation dubbed himself the "Spy Master" referencing a role he had taken with MI6. ==Music== ===Theme music=== The Doctor Who theme music was one of the first electronic music signature tunes for television, and after more than a half century remains one of the most easily recognised. The original theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, with assistance from Dick Mills, and was released as a single on Decca F 11837 in 1964. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of season 17 (1979–1980). It is regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music recorded well before the availability of commercial synthesisers or multitrack mixers. Each note was individually created by cutting, splicing, speeding up and slowing down segments of analogue tape containing recordings of a single plucked string, white noise, and the simple harmonic waveforms of test-tone oscillators, intended for calibrating equipment and rooms, not creating music. New techniques were invented to allow mixing of the music, as this was before the era of multitrack tape machines. On hearing the finished result, Grainer asked, "Jeez, Delia, did I write that?" She answered, "Most of it." Although Grainer was willing to give Derbyshire the co-composer credit, it was against BBC policy at the time. She would not receive an on-screen credit until the 50th-anniversary story "The Day of the Doctor" in 2013. A different arrangement was recorded by Peter Howell for season 18 (1980), which was in turn replaced by Dominic Glynn's arrangement for the season-long serial The Trial of a Time Lord in season 23 (1986). Keff McCulloch provided the new arrangement for the Seventh Doctor's era, which lasted from season 24 (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. American composer John Debney created a new arrangement of Grainer's original theme for Doctor Who in 1996. For the return of the series in 2005, Murray Gold provided a new arrangement, which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added in the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion". A new arrangement of the theme, once again by Gold, was introduced in the 2007 Christmas special episode, "Voyage of the Damned". Gold returned as composer for the 2010 series, and was responsible for a new version of the theme which was reported to have had a hostile reception from some viewers. In 2011, the theme tune charted at number 228 of radio station Classic FM's Hall of Fame, a survey of classical music tastes. A revised version of Gold's 2010 arrangement had its debut over the opening titles of the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen", and a further revision of the arrangement was made for the 50th-anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor" in November 2013. With the arrival of new composer Segun Akinola for series 11 came a new version of the opening theme, which incorporated elements of Derbyshire's original arrangement. Akinola also created a new arrangement of the show's closing theme to play over the end credits of "Demons of the Punjab" in the style of Punjabi music. Versions of the "Doctor Who Theme" have also been released as pop music. In the early 1970s, Jon Pertwee, who had played the Third Doctor, recorded a version of the Doctor Who theme with spoken lyrics, titled, "Who Is the Doctor". In 1978, a disco version of the theme in the UK, Denmark and Australia by the group Mankind, which reached number 24 in the UK charts. In 1988, the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (later known as The KLF) released the single "Doctorin' the Tardis" under the name The Timelords, which reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in Australia; this version incorporated several other songs, including "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Gary Glitter (who recorded vocals for some of the CD-single remix versions of "Doctorin' the Tardis"). Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include Orbital, The incidental music for the first Doctor Who adventure, An Unearthly Child, was written by Norman Kay. Many of the stories of the William Hartnell period were scored by electronic music pioneer Tristram Cary, whose Doctor Who credits include The Daleks, Marco Polo, The Daleks' Master Plan, The Gunfighters and The Mutants. Other composers in this early period included Richard Rodney Bennett, Carey Blyton and Geoffrey Burgon. The most frequent musical contributor during the first 15 years was Dudley Simpson, who is also well known for his theme and incidental music for Blake's 7, and for his haunting theme music and score for the original 1970s version of The Tomorrow People. Simpson's first Doctor Who score was Planet of Giants (1964) and he went on to write music for many adventures of the 1960s and 1970s, including most of the stories of the Jon Pertwee/Tom Baker periods, ending with The Horns of Nimon (1979). He also made a cameo appearance in The Talons of Weng-Chiang (as a Music hall conductor). In 1980 starting with the serial The Leisure Hive the task of creating incidental music was assigned to the Radiophonic Workshop. Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell contributed many scores in this period and other contributors included Roger Limb, Malcolm Clarke and Jonathan Gibbs. The Radiophonic Workshop was dropped after 1986's The Trial of a Time Lord series, and Keff McCulloch took over as the series' main composer until the end of its run, with Dominic Glynn and Mark Ayres also contributing scores. From the 2005 revival to the 2017 Christmas episode "Twice Upon a Time", all incidental music for the series was composed by Murray Gold and Ben Foster and has been performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales from the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion" onwards. A concert featuring the orchestra performing music from the first two series took place on 19 November 2006 to raise money for Children in Need. David Tennant hosted the event, introducing the different sections of the concert. Murray Gold and Russell T Davies answered questions during the interval, and Daleks and Cybermen appeared whilst music from their stories was played. The concert aired on BBCi on Christmas Day 2006. A Doctor Who Prom was celebrated on 27 July 2008 in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the annual BBC Proms. The BBC Philharmonic and the London Philharmonic Choir performed Murray Gold's compositions for the series, conducted by Ben Foster, as well as a selection of classics based on the theme of space and time. The event was presented by Freema Agyeman and guest-presented by various other stars of the show with numerous monsters participating in the proceedings. It also featured the specially filmed mini-episode "Music of the Spheres", written by Russell T Davies and starring David Tennant. On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for series 11 would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola. and Akinola remained composer throughout Chibnall's tenure, scoring all of the Thirteenth Doctor's episodes. When Davies returned to produce the show in 2023, he rehired Gold to work on the series for the 60th anniversary episodes and continuing into the Fifteenth Doctor's tenure. Gold made a cameo in the 2024 episode "The Devil's Chord". Six soundtracks have been released since 2005. The first featured tracks from the first two series, the second and third featured music from the third and fourth series respectively. The fourth was released on 4 October 2010 as a two-disc special edition and contained music from the 2008–2010 specials (The Next Doctor to "End of Time Part 2"). The soundtrack for Series 5 was released on 8 November 2010. In February 2011, a soundtrack was released for the 2010 Christmas special "A Christmas Carol", and in December 2011, the soundtrack for Series 6 was released, both by Silva Screen Records. In 2013, a 50th-anniversary boxed set of audio CDs was released featuring music and sound effects from Doctor Who's 50-year history. The celebration continued in 2016 with the release of Doctor Who: The 50th Anniversary Collection Four LP Box Set by New York City-based Spacelab9. The company pressed 1,000 copies of the set on "Metallic Silver" vinyl, dubbed the "Cyberman Edition". ==Viewership== ===United Kingdom=== Premiering the day after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the first episode of Doctor Who was repeated with the second episode the following week. Doctor Who has always appeared initially on the BBC's mainstream BBC One channel, where it is regarded as a family show, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers; The programme's popularity has waxed and waned over the decades, with three notable periods of high ratings. The first of these was the "Dalekmania" period (), when the popularity of the Daleks regularly brought Doctor Who ratings of between 9 and 14 million, even for stories which did not feature them. Figures remained respectable into the 1980s, but fell noticeably after the programme's 23rd series was postponed in 1985 and the show was off the air for 18 months. Its late 1980s performance of three to five million viewers was seen as poor at the time and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the ITV soap opera Coronation Street, the most popular show at the time. During Tennant's run (the third notable period of high ratings), the show had consistently high viewership, with the Christmas specials regularly attracting over 10 million. The current revival also garners the highest audience Appreciation Index of any drama on television. ===International=== Doctor Who has been broadcast internationally outside of the United Kingdom since 1964, a year after the show first aired. , the modern series has been broadcast in more than 50 countries. The 50th anniversary episode, "The Day of the Doctor", was broadcast in 94 countries and screened to more than half a million people in cinemas across Australia, Latin America, North America and Europe. The scope of the broadcast was a world record, according to Guinness World Records. Doctor Who is one of the five top-grossing titles for BBC Worldwide, the BBC's commercial arm. BBC Worldwide CEO John Smith has said that Doctor Who is one of a small number of "Superbrands" which are heavily promoted worldwide. Only four episodes have premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 20th-anniversary special "The Five Doctors" had its debut on 23 November (the actual date of the anniversary) on a number of PBS stations two days before its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story Silver Nemesis was broadcast with all three episodes airing back to back on TVNZ in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there. Starting with the 60th-anniversary specials in 2023, Doctor Who has been released on Disney+ outside the United Kingdom and Ireland. ====Oceania==== New Zealand was the first country outside the United Kingdom to screen Doctor Who, beginning in September 1964, and continued to screen the series for many years, including the new revived series that aired on Prime Television from 2005 to 2017. In 2018, the series is aired on Fridays on TVNZ 2, and on TVNZ On Demand on the same episode as the UK. The series moved to TVNZ 1 in 2021, before TVNZ lost the rights to the show altogether in 2022. In Australia, the show has had a strong fan base since its inception, having been exclusively first run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) since January 1965. The ABC has periodically repeated episodes; of note were the daily screenings of all available classic episodes starting in 2003 for the show's 40th anniversary and the weekly screenings of all available revived episodes in 2013 for the show's 50th anniversary. The ABC broadcast the modern series' first run on ABC1 and ABC Me, with repeats on ABC2 and streaming available on ABC iview. ====Americas==== The series also has a fan base in the United States, where it was shown in syndication from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly on PBS stations. TVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with The Three Doctors and aired each series (several years late) through to series 24 in 1991. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who introduced the episode and then, after the episode concluded, tried to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel. Its airing of The Talons of Weng-Chiang was cancelled as a result of accusations that the story was racist; the story was later broadcast in the 1990s on cable station YTV. CBC began showing the series again in 2005. The series moved to the Canadian cable channel Space in 2009. and the Sci Fi Channel began on 6 July 2007, starting with the second Christmas special at 8:00 pm E/P followed by the first episode. Series four aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel (now known as Syfy), beginning in April 2008. It aired on CBC beginning 19 September 2008, although the CBC did not air the "Voyage of the Damned" special. The Canadian cable network Space (now known as CTV Sci-Fi Channel) broadcast "The Next Doctor" (in March 2009) and all subsequent series and specials. The series was aired in Brazil at the TV networks Syfy and, more frequently, at the public broadcaster TV Cultura. Expect international distribution rights holders, it had already been made available on local streaming platforms Looke and Globoplay. Starting from 2024, the previous 13 series will be available at the upcoming streaming service +SBT. ====Asia==== Series 1 through 3 of Doctor Who were broadcast on various NHK channels from 2006 to 2008 with Japanese subtitles. Beginning on 2 August 2009, upon the launch of Disney XD in Japan, the series has been broadcast with Japanese dubbing. ===Home media=== A wide selection of serials is available from BBC Video on DVD, on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to regularly release serials on DVD. The 2005 series is also available in its entirety on UMD for the PlayStation Portable. Eight original series serials have been released on Laserdisc and many have also been released on Betamax tape and Video 2000. One episode of Doctor Who (The Infinite Quest) was released on VCD. Initially, only the series from 2005 onwards were also available on Blu-ray, along with the 1996 TV film Doctor Who, released in September 2016. However in March 2021, it was announced that the classic run would be released on Blu-ray starting with seasons 12 and 19. Over 600 episodes of the classic series (the first 8 Doctors, from 1963 to 1996) are available to stream on BritBox (launched in 2017) and Pluto TV. From 2020, the revival series is available for streaming on HBO Max, as well as spin-offs Sarah Jane Adventures and Torchwood. Ahead of the 60th anniversary of the series, BBC cleared the rights to allow almost every single non-missing episode of Doctor Who onto iPlayer. Additionally various spin-offs were also added to iPlayer including Torchwood, The Sarah Jane Adventures, Class, and Doctor Who Confidential. ==Adaptations and other appearances== ===Films=== There are two Dr. Who feature films: Dr. Who and the Daleks, released in 1965 and Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. in 1966. Both are retellings of existing television stories (specifically, the first two Dalek serials, The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth respectively) with a larger budget and alterations to the series concept. In these films, Peter Cushing plays a human scientist named "Dr. Who" who travels with his granddaughter, niece, and other companions in a time machine he has invented. The Cushing version of the character reappears in both comic strips and a short story, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series. In addition, several planned films were proposed, including a sequel, The Chase, loosely based on the original series story, for the Cushing Doctor, plus many attempted television movie and big-screen productions to revive the original Doctor Who after the original series was cancelled. Paul McGann starred in the only television film as the eighth incarnation of the Doctor. After the film, he continued the role in audio dramas and was confirmed as the eighth incarnation through flashback footage and a mini episode in the 2005 revival, effectively linking the two series and the television movie. In 2011, David Yates announced that he had started work with the BBC on a Doctor Who film, a project that would take three or more years to complete. Yates indicated that the film would take a different approach from Doctor Who, although then showrunner Steven Moffat stated later that any such film would not be a reboot of the series and that a film should be made by the BBC team and star the current TV Doctor. ===Spin-offs=== Doctor Who has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, Trevor Martin played the role in Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday. In the late 1980s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a play titled Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure. For two performances, while Pertwee was ill, David Banks (better known for playing Cybermen) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while Terry Nation wrote The Curse of the Daleks, a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor. A pilot episode ("A Girl's Best Friend") for a potential spin-off series, K-9 and Company, aired in 1981, with Elisabeth Sladen reprising her role as companion Sarah Jane Smith and John Leeson as the voice of K9, but was not picked up as a regular series. Concept art for an animated Doctor Who series was produced by animation company Nelvana in the 1980s, but the series was not produced. Following the success of the 2005 series produced by Russell T Davies, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled Torchwood (an anagram of "Doctor Who"), set in modern-day Cardiff and investigating alien activities and crime. The series debuted on BBC Three on 22 October 2006. John Barrowman reprised his role of Jack Harkness from the 2005 series of Doctor Who. Two other actresses who appeared in Doctor Who also star in the series: Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper, who played the similarly named servant girl Gwyneth in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead", and Naoko Mori, who reprised her role as Toshiko Sato, first seen in "Aliens of London". A second series of Torchwood aired in 2008; for three episodes, the cast was joined by Freema Agyeman reprising her Doctor Who role of Martha Jones. A third series was broadcast from 6 to 10 July 2009, and consisted of a single five-part story called Children of Earth which was set largely in London. A fourth series, Torchwood: Miracle Day jointly produced by BBC Wales, BBC Worldwide and the American entertainment company Starz debuted in 2011. The series was predominantly set in the United States, though Wales remained part of the show's setting. The Sarah Jane Adventures, starring Elisabeth Sladen who reprised her role as investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith, was developed by CBBC; a special aired on New Year's Day 2007, and a full series began on 24 September 2007. A second series followed in 2008, featuring the return of Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart. A third in 2009 featured a crossover appearance from the main show by David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. In 2010, a fourth season featured Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor alongside former companion actress Katy Manning reprising her role as Jo Grant. A final, three-story fifth series was transmitted in autumn 2011 – uncompleted due to Sladen's death in early 2011. An animated serial, The Infinite Quest, aired alongside the 2007 series of Doctor Who as part of the children's television series Totally Doctor Who. The serial featured the voices of series regulars David Tennant and Freema Agyeman but is not considered part of the 2007 series. A second animated serial, Dreamland, aired in six parts on the BBC Red Button service, and the official Doctor Who website in 2009. Class, featuring students of Coal Hill School, was first aired on-line on BBC Three from 22 October 2016, as a series of eight 45 minute episodes, written by Patrick Ness. Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor appears in the show's first episode. The series was picked up by BBC America on 8 January 2016 and by BBC One a day later. On 7 September 2017, BBC Three controller Damian Kavanagh confirmed that the series had officially been cancelled. On 27 January 2023, Russell T Davies confirmed via GQ that future Doctor Who spin-offs were in the works. At San Diego Comic-Con in July 2024, Davies confirmed a new spin-off series, The War Between the Land and the Sea, was in development. Davies wrote the spin-off with Pete McTighe, which will consist of five parts, and is set to be directed by Dylan Holmes Williams. Jemma Redgrave and Alexander Devrient are expected to reprise their roles from Doctor Who as Kate Lethbridge-Stewart and Colonel Ibrahim, while Russell Tovey and Gugu Mbatha-Raw, who portrayed characters in Doctor Who, were cast as new characters. The series is expected to see the return of the Sea Devils. Numerous other spin-off series have been created not by the BBC but by the respective owners of the characters and concepts. Such spin-offs include the novel and audio drama series Faction Paradox, Iris Wildthyme and Bernice Summerfield; as well as the made-for-video series P.R.O.B.E.; the Australian-produced television series K-9, which aired a 26-episode first season on Disney XD; and the audio spin-off Counter-Measures. ===Aftershows=== When the revived series of Doctor Who was brought back, an aftershow series was created by the BBC, titled Doctor Who Confidential. There have been five aftershow series created, with the latest one titled Doctor Who: Unleashed, which began airing from the 60th anniversary specials. Each series follows behind-the-scenes footage on the making of Doctor Who through clips and interviews with the cast, production crew and other people, including those who have participated in the television series in some manner. Each episode deals with a different topic, and in most cases refers to the Doctor Who episode that preceded it. ===Charity episodes and appearances=== In 1983, coinciding with the series' 20th anniversary, "The Five Doctors" was shown as part of the annual BBC Children in Need Appeal, however it was not a charity-based production, simply scheduled within the line-up of Friday 25 November 1983. This was the programme's first co-production with Australian broadcaster ABC. At 90 minutes long it was the longest single episode of Doctor Who produced to date. It featured three of the first five Doctors, a new actor to replace the deceased William Hartnell, and unused footage to represent Tom Baker. In 1993, for the franchise's 30th anniversary, another charity special, Dimensions in Time, was produced for Children in Need, featuring all the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions. It also featured a crossover with the soap opera EastEnders, the action taking place in the latter's Albert Square location and around Greenwich. The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the Pulfrich effect, requiring glasses with one darkened lens; the picture would look normal to those viewers who watched without the glasses. In 1999, another special, Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death, was made for Comic Relief and later released on VHS. An affectionate parody of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with cliffhangers, and running down the same corridor several times when being chased (the version released on video was split into only two episodes). In the story, the Doctor (Rowan Atkinson) encounters both the Master (Jonathan Pryce) and the Daleks. During the special, the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, Richard E. Grant, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Grant, and Joanna Lumley. The script was written by Steven Moffat, later to be head writer and executive producer of the revived series. Since the return of Doctor Who in 2005, the franchise has produced two original "mini-episodes" to support Children in Need. The first, which aired in November 2005, was an untitled seven-minute scene introducing David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. It was followed in November 2007 by "Time Crash", a 7-minute scene that featured the Tenth Doctor meeting the Fifth Doctor, Peter Davison. A set of two mini-episodes, titled "Space" and "Time" respectively, were produced to support Comic Relief. They were aired during the Comic Relief 2011 event. During Children in Need 2011, an exclusively filmed segment showed the Doctor addressing the viewer, attempting to persuade them to purchase items of his clothing, which were going up for auction for Children in Need. Children in Need 2012 featured the mini-episode "The Great Detective". In 2014, the Twelfth Doctor Peter Capaldi designed a Doctor Who-themed Paddington Bear statue, which was located at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich (one of 50 placed around London), which was auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). ===Spoofs and cultural references=== Doctor Who has been satirised and spoofed on many occasions by comedians including Spike Milligan (a Dalek invades his bathroom—Milligan, naked, hurls a soap sponge at it) and Lenny Henry. Jon Culshaw frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC Dead Ringers series. Doctor Who fandom has also been lampooned on programs such as Saturday Night Live, The Chaser's War on Everything, Mystery Science Theater 3000, Family Guy, American Dad!, Futurama, South Park, Community as Inspector Spacetime, The Simpsons and The Big Bang Theory. As part of the 50th-anniversary programmes, former Fifth Doctor Peter Davison directed, wrote, and co-starred in the parody The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot, which also starred two other former Doctors, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy, and had cameo appearances from cast and crew involved in the programme, including showrunner Steven Moffat and Doctors Paul McGann, David Tennant, and Matt Smith. There have also been many references to Doctor Who in popular culture and other science fiction, including Star Trek: The Next Generation ("The Neutral Zone") and Leverage. In the Channel 4 series Queer as Folk (created by later Doctor Who executive producer Russell T. Davies), the character of Vince was portrayed as an avid Doctor Who fan, with references appearing many times throughout in the form of clips from the programme. In a similar manner, the character of Oliver on Coupling (created and written by Steven Moffat) is portrayed as a Doctor Who collector and enthusiast. References to Doctor Who have also appeared in the young adult fantasy novels Brisingr and High Wizardry, the video game Rock Band, the Adult Swim comedy show Robot Chicken, the Family Guy episodes "Blue Harvest" and "420", and the game RuneScape. It has also been referenced in Destroy All Humans! 2, by civilians in the game's variation of England, and multiple times throughout the Ace Attorney series. It has been featured in Good Omens through the first Doctor Who Annual. Doctor Who has been a reference in several political cartoons, from a 1964 cartoon in the Daily Mail depicting Charles de Gaulle as a Dalek to a 2008 edition of This Modern World by Tom Tomorrow in which the Tenth Doctor informs an incredulous character from 2003 that the Democratic Party will nominate an African-American as its presidential candidate. The word "TARDIS" is an entry in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. ===Audio=== The earliest Doctor Who–related audio release was a 21-minute narrated abridgement of the First Doctor television story The Chase released in 1966. Ten years later, the first original Doctor Who audio was released on LP record; Doctor Who and the Pescatons featuring the Fourth Doctor. The first commercially available audiobook was an abridged reading of the Fourth Doctor story State of Decay in 1981. In 1988, during a hiatus in the television show, Slipback, the first radio drama, was transmitted. Since 1999, Big Finish Productions has released several different series of Doctor Who audios on CD. The earliest of these featured the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Doctors, with Paul McGann's Eighth Doctor joining the line in 2001. Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor began appearing for Big Finish in 2012. Along with the main range, adventures of the First, Second and Third Doctors have been produced in both limited cast and full cast formats, as well as audiobooks. The 2013 series Destiny of the Doctor, produced as part of the series' 50th-anniversary celebrations, marked the first time Big Finish created stories (in this case audiobooks) featuring the Doctors from the revived show. Along with this, in May 2016, the Tenth Doctor, David Tennant, appeared alongside Catherine Tate in a collection of three audio adventures, before receiving his own range. In 2020 Big Finish revealed that The Monthly Adventures would come to an end in favor of individual box sets. In 2022, BBC Sounds began airing Doctor Who: Redacted, a podcast written by Juno Dawson and starring Charlie Craggs and Jodie Whittaker. The podcast focuses on a trio of friends who host a paranormal conspiracy podcast, "The Blue Box Files", and end up getting involved in much more than they expected. The podcast was later renewed for a second series. ===Books=== Doctor Who books have been published from the mid-sixties through to the present day. From 1965 to 1991 the books published were primarily novelised adaptations of broadcast episodes; beginning in 1991 an extensive line of original fiction was launched, the Virgin New Adventures and Virgin Missing Adventures. Since the relaunch of the programme in 2005, a new range of novels has been published by BBC Books. Numerous non-fiction books about the series, including guidebooks and critical studies, have also been published, and a dedicated Doctor Who Magazine (DWM) with newsstand circulation has been published regularly since 1979: DWM is recognised by Guinness World Records as the longest running TV tie-in magazine, celebrating 40 years of continuous publication on 11 October 2019. This is published by Panini, as is the Doctor Who Adventures magazine for younger fans. ===Video games=== Numerous Doctor Who video games have been created from the mid-80s through to the present day. A Doctor Who game was planned for the Sega Mega Drive but never released. One of the recent ones is a match-3 game released in November 2013 for iOS, Android, Amazon App Store and Facebook called Doctor Who: Legacy. It has been constantly updated since its release and features all the Doctors as playable characters as well as over 100 companions. Another video game instalment is Lego Dimensions – in which Doctor Who is one of the many "Level Packs" in the game. The pack contains the Twelfth Doctor (who can reincarnate into the others), K9, the TARDIS and a Victorian London adventure level area. The game and pack released in November 2015. Doctor Who: Battle of Time was a digital collectible card game developed by Bandai Namco Entertainment and released for iOS and Android. It was soft-launched on 30 May 2018 in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Thailand, but was shut down on 26 November of that same year. Doctor Who Infinity was released on Steam on 7 August 2018. It was nominated for "Best Start-up" at The Independent Game Developers' Association Awards 2018. ==Chronology and canonicity== Since the creation of the Doctor Who character by BBC Television in the early 1960s, a myriad of stories have been published about Doctor Who, in different media: apart from the actual television episodes that continue to be produced by the BBC, there have also been novels, comics, short stories, audio books, radio plays, interactive video games, game books, webcasts, DVD extras, and stage performances. The BBC takes no position on the canonicity of any of such stories, and producers of the show have expressed distaste for the idea of canonicity. ==Awards== The show has received recognition as one of Britain's finest television programmes, winning the 2006 British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series and five consecutive (2005–2010) awards at the National Television Awards during Russell T Davies' tenure as executive producer. In 2011, Matt Smith became the first Doctor to be nominated for a BAFTA Television Award for Best Actor, and in 2016, Michelle Gomez became the first woman to receive a BAFTA nomination for the series, getting a Best Supporting Actress nomination for her work as Missy. In 2013, the Peabody Awards honoured Doctor Who with an Institutional Peabody "for evolving with technology and the times like nothing else in the known television universe." The programme is listed in Guinness World Records as the longest-running science-fiction television show in the world, as the "most successful" science-fiction series of all time—based on its overall broadcast ratings, DVD and book sales, and iTunes traffic In 1975, Season 11 of the series won a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award for Best Writing in a Children's Serial. In 1996, BBC television held the "Auntie Awards" as the culmination of their "TV60" series, celebrating 60 years of BBC television broadcasting, where Doctor Who was voted as the "Best Popular Drama" the corporation had ever produced, ahead of such ratings heavyweights as EastEnders and Casualty. In 2000, Doctor Who was ranked third in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century, produced by the British Film Institute and voted on by industry professionals. In 2005, the series came first in a survey by SFX magazine of "The Greatest UK Science Fiction and Fantasy Television Series Ever". In Channel 4's 2001 list of the 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows, Doctor Who was placed at number nine. In 2004 and 2007, Doctor Who was ranked number 18 and number 22 on TV Guide's Top Cult Shows Ever. In 2013, TV Guide ranked it as the sixth-best sci-fi show. The revived series has received recognition from critics and the public, across various awards ceremonies. It won five BAFTA TV Awards, including Best Drama Series, the highest-profile and most prestigious British television award for which the series has ever been nominated. It was very popular at the BAFTA Cymru Awards, with 25 wins overall including Best Drama Series (twice), Best Screenplay/Screenwriter (thrice) and Best Actor. It was also nominated for 7 Saturn Awards, winning the only Best International Series in the ceremony's history. In 2009, Doctor Who was voted the 3rd greatest show of the 2000s by Channel 4, behind Top Gear and The Apprentice. The episode "Vincent and the Doctor" was shortlisted for a Mind Award at the 2010 Mind Mental Health Media Awards for its "touching" portrayal of Vincent van Gogh. It has won the Short Form of the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, the oldest science fiction/fantasy award for films and series, six times since 2006. The winning episodes were "The Empty Child"/"The Doctor Dances" (2006), "The Girl in the Fireplace" (2007), "Blink" (2008), "The Waters of Mars" (2010), "The Pandorica Opens"/"The Big Bang" (2011), and "The Doctor's Wife" (2012). The 2016 Christmas special "The Return of Doctor Mysterio" was also a finalist for the 2017 Hugo Awards. Doctor Who star Matt Smith won Best Actor in the 2012 National Television awards alongside Karen Gillan, who won Best Actress. As a British series, the majority of its nominations and awards have been for national competitions such as the BAFTAs, but it has occasionally received nominations in mainstream American awards, most notably a nomination for "Favorite Sci-Fi Show" in the 2008 People's Choice Awards, and the series has been nominated multiple times in the Spike Scream Awards, with Smith winning Best Science Fiction Actor in 2011. The Canadian Constellation Awards have also recognised the series. In 2019, Doctor Who was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame based in Seattle, Washington.
[ "Blue Harvest", "acronym", "The Power of the Doctor", "QuickTime", "Doctor Who Adventures", "Bernice Summerfield", "RuneScape", "The Neutral Zone (Star Trek: The Next Generation)", "TVNZ", "Doctor Who Extra", "Jonathan Pryce", "Doctor Who News Page", "EMAP", "CBBC", "BBC HD", "EastEnders", "Rory Williams", "List of unmade Doctor Who serials and films", "Totally Doctor Who", "Fox Network", "Doctorin' the Tardis", "Doctor Who (1996 film)", "Peter Pratt", "Guinness World Records", "Tristram Cary", "Robot Chicken", "Spike Milligan", "PAL speedup", "Julie Gardner", "Coupling (British TV series)", "Caitlin Moran", "Saturday Night Live", "Malcolm Clarke (composer)", "Brazil", "Record Store Day", "Ncuti Gatwa", "Valeyard", "John Nathan-Turner", "Star Wars (film)", "Ben Foster (orchestrator)", "Steven Moffat", "Gary Glitter", "Roger Limb", "Fugitive Doctor", "Clara Oswald", "Regeneration (Doctor Who)", "Ood", "Andrew Garfield", "Deadline Hollywood", "chameleon circuit", "BBC Television Centre", "Zygon", "Utopia (Doctor Who)", "allegory", "Time and the Rani", "Belinda Chandra", "Mean Machines Sega", "Doctor Who and the Pescatons", "Den of Geek", "Doctor Who Confidential", "3D television", "The KLF", "GQ", "cliffhanger", "time travelling", "1080i", "South Park", "Russell Tovey", "Dead Ringers (series)", "directed-energy weapon", "Peabody Award", "Broadcast syndication", "Android (operating system)", "Diane Duane", "Thals", "SMG Pictures", "Doctor Who Magazine", "Jodie Whittaker", "Scream of the Shalka", "parody", "NHK", "bug-eyed monster", "List of Doctor Who producers", "Mark Ayres", "Museum of the Moving Image (London)", "British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actress", "John Hurt", "David Yates", "P.R.O.B.E.", "ABC2", "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.", "Lost television broadcast", "The Web of Fear", "Cybermen", "Museum of Broadcast Communications", "Appreciation Index", "The Master (Doctor Who)", "Philip Hinchcliffe", "Skaro", "Dimensions in Time", "cameo appearance", "Patrick Troughton", "Saturn Award for Best International Series", "Geoffrey Burgon", "Dylan Holmes Williams", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Spearhead from Space", "Kylie Minogue", "BBC America", "Sylvester McCoy", "Gugu Mbatha-Raw", "High Wizardry", "Adventure fiction", "Doctor Who: Original Television Soundtrack - Series 5", "time machine", "Mickey Smith", "TVLine", "Derrick Sherwin", "The Independent Game Developers' Association", "The Infinite Quest", "racist", "Professor Moriarty", "Terror of the Autons", "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", "cancellation (television)", "Terry Nation", "CTV Sci-Fi Channel", "HDTV", "London", "Entertainment Weekly", "i (British newspaper)", "Dark Water (Doctor Who)", "The Massacre (Doctor Who)", "Auton", "Science fiction", "Roger Delgado", "NTSC", "Tosin Cole", "Disney XD (British & Irish TV channel)", "cult following", "Ace Attorney", "The Tomorrow People", "The Economist", "Peter Howell (musician)", "Brisingr", "Television pilot", "Arthur Darvill", "Doctor Who in popular culture", "Malcolm Hulke", "War Doctor", "music download", "Music of Punjab", "SFX (magazine)", "ITV (TV network)", "Toshiko Sato", "John Cura", "Nazis", "Juno Dawson", "17th National Television Awards", "Freema Agyeman", "electronic music", "DVD", "Outpost Gallifrey", "Universal Television", "BBC Magazines", "The Simpsons", "Patrick Ness", "John Barrowman", "PBS", "Graham O'Brien", "BBC Books", "Independent Games Developers Association", "Michael Grade", "Space.com", "WP:WHO/MOS", "Zap2it", "Paul McGann", "John F. Kennedy", "Doctor Who missing episodes", "Doctor Who theme music", "BBC One", "Community (TV series)", "IMDb", "Torchwood", "Doctor Who: Original Television Soundtrack - Series 4: The Specials", "Looke", "Donald Wilson (writer and producer)", "Random House", "GMT", "Judoon", "Torchwood: Miracle Day", "frontal lobe", "monster", "Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death", "PAL", "Michael Jayston", "The Waters of Mars", "Pluto TV", "Royal Birmingham Conservatoire", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Museum of Pop Culture", "audience surrogates", "The Horns of Nimon", "Seattle, Washington", "Richard Hurndall", "Doctor Who (2023 specials)", "Steven Spielberg", "Doctor Who series 12", "Blue Peter", "Alfred A. Knopf", "Blu-ray", "Eve Myles", "Shorter Oxford English Dictionary", "international co-production", "Marco Polo (Doctor Who)", "Russell T Davies", "television program", "Chris Chibnall", "white noise", "Journey's End (Doctor Who)", "T'Nia Miller", "stock music", "Doctor Who (series 1)", "Time Lords", "BBC Online", "Syfy", "Alex Kingston", "Rose Tyler", "Single-camera", "TV Aratu", "Multi-camera", "Douglas Adams", "Tegan Jovanka", "Companion (Doctor Who)", "Dominic Glynn", "Voyage of the Damned (Doctor Who)", "The Unquiet Dead", "Yahoo! Entertainment", "expatriate", "Doctor Who season 17", "Colin Baker", "Carole Ann Ford", "iTunes", "American Dad!", "science fiction television series", "The Daily Telegraph", "Third Doctor", "Anthony Coburn", "Jos", "British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series", "Dalek", "The Time of the Doctor", "The Ice Warriors", "Doctor Who: Thirty Years in the TARDIS", "405-line television system", "This Modern World", "Resurrection of the Daleks", "Canterbury", "Lenny Henry", "ITN Source", "plot device", "Blam Blam Blam", "Television New Zealand", "Dr. Who (Dalek films)", "Aliens of London", "Wales on Sunday", "The Daleks' Master Plan", "Master (Doctor Who)", "trademark", "Pearl Mackie", "Locus (magazine)", "cultural institution", "The Snowmen", "Screenonline", "Janet Fielding", "British Academy Television Award for Best Actor", "Casualty (TV series)", "Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form", "Blink (Doctor Who)", "Davros", "FourPlay Electric String Quartet", "National Television Awards", "Nicholas Courtney", "An Unearthly Child", "Jamie McCrimmon", "BBC Wales", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "David Tennant", "Barbara Wright (Doctor Who)", "ABC iview", "The Highlanders (Doctor Who)", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Family Guy", "single-camera", "BBC Television", "Genesis of the Daleks", "Doctor Who series 2", "Fourteenth Doctor", "Watch (TV channel)", "CD-ROM", "The Guardian", "Jo Grant", "BritBox", "The Return of Doctor Mysterio", "Constellation Awards", "ECW Press", "BBC Worldwide", "Columbia Pictures", "MI6", "The Girl in the Fireplace", "Daily Telegraph", "Prime (New Zealand TV channel)", "The Brain of Morbius", "BBC Studios Productions", "Doctor Who: The Monthly Adventures", "Adult Swim", "TV Guide", "Weeping Angel", "Facebook", "Canon (fiction)", "Joanna Lumley", "Ron Grainer", "TVNZ 1", "Phil&nbsp;Collinson", "multi-camera", "VCD", "History of Doctor Who", "Time Lord", "CTVGlobemedia", "Tom Tomorrow", "Kate Lethbridge-Stewart", "David Banks (British actor)", "Jim Broadbent", "Black Orchid (Doctor Who)", "The Dalek Invasion of Earth", "John Wiles", "Sega Mega Drive", "The Empty Child", "BBC Cymru Wales", "Video 2000", "Bill Potts (Doctor Who)", "The Doctor's Wife", "Millie Gibson", "Sixth Doctor", "Fugitive of the Judoon", "Doctor Who: Children in Need", "CITV-DT", "pop culture", "Sir Ian McKellen", "The Five Doctors", "Noel Clarke", "Doctor Who (film)", "Richard Curtis", "The Gunfighters (Doctor Who)", "Richard Rodney Bennett", "The Beatles", "Doctor Who season 22", "Metropolitan Police Authority", "People's Choice Awards", "Rose (Doctor Who episode)", "Drama (film and television)", "William Hartnell", "Paddy Kingsland", "Broadcast (magazine)", "Coronation Street", "Ian Chesterton", "Faction Paradox", "List of Doctor Who villains", "Ryan Sinclair", "analogue tape", "Time Crash", "Virgin Missing Adventures", "The Pandorica Opens", "Total Film", "Ron Jones (television director)", "Doctor Who Prom (2008)", "Class (2016 TV series)", "Earth", "The Devil's Chord", "List of Doctor Who DVD releases", "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation", "incarnation", "Sea Devil (Doctor Who)", "Jack Harkness", "John Leeson", "RadioTimes", "Doctor Who spin-offs", "Jenna-Louise Coleman", "Silence (Doctor Who)", "The Robots of Death", "The Daleks", "The Wrap", "Herne Bay, Kent", "Tenth Doctor", "List of awards and nominations received by Doctor Who", "The Times", "TARDIS", "The Enemy of the World", "Slitheen", "Dr. Who and the Daleks", "Barack Obama", "Doctor Who (series 12)", "Nardole", "Mary Whitehouse", "Time War (Doctor Who)", "Peter Cregeen", "amygdala", "The Reign of Terror (Doctor Who)", "Naoko Mori", "Douglas Camfield", "Channel 4", "Doctor Who: Original Television Soundtrack - Series 3", "Christopher Eccleston", "The Big Bang Theory", "Sophie Aldred", "Doctor Who Access All Areas", "Robert Holmes (scriptwriter)", "Laserdisc", "625-line television system", "LP record", "Eighth Doctor", "NZ Herald", "Ruby Sunday", "Frazer Hines", "Columbia Pictures Television", "Orbital (band)", "Mary Tamm", "BAFTA TV Award", "Varada Sethu", "BBC", "Seventh Doctor", "Norman Kay (composer)", "The Day of the Doctor", "cover version", "Disney+", "Dreamland (Doctor Who)", "Doctor Who fandom", "Verity Lambert", "Virgin Books", "Vincent and the Doctor", "First Doctor", "Doctor Who season 16", "Steam (service)", "ABC Me", "Universal Pictures", "Disney XD Japan", "Music hall", "Nicola Bryant", "List of Doctor Who writers", "TV Cultura", "Philip Segal", "popular culture", "Terrance Dicks", "Pink Floyd", "The Talons of Weng-Chiang", "Time travel in fiction", "science fiction fans", "Guardian News and Media Ltd.", "Whoniverse", "Enemy", "Doctor Who season 20", "Gallifrey", "The Moonbase", "BAFTA Cymru Awards", "Doctor Who (series 10)", "Peter Davison", "The Next Doctor", "Forbes", "sampling (music)", "List of Doctor Who composers", "Katy Manning", "The Three Doctors (Doctor Who)", "harmonic", "David Bradley (English actor)", "Betamax", "Mind (charity)", "anagram", "The Name of the Doctor", "Trevor Martin", "420 (Family Guy)", "Slipback", "Doctor Who: Original Television Soundtrack - Series 4", "Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão", "Sarah Jane Smith", "Eric Roberts", "Paddington Bear", "Richard E. Grant", "Jacqueline Hill", "Peter Cushing", "Michelle Gomez", "Saturn Award", "Charlie Craggs", "Destroy All Humans! 2", "Bandai Namco Entertainment", "The Stage", "Jo Martin", "Victory of the Daleks", "retroactive continuity", "Guinness World Record", "The Underwater Menace", "Script editor", "The Doctor Dances", "The Chaser's War on Everything", "The Deadly Assassin", "Space (Canadian TV channel)", "CBC Television", "Red Ventures", "BBC1", "UK Patent Office", "William Russell (English actor)", "Hugh Grant", "WonderCon", "BBC Magazine", "the Key to Time", "Pocket Gamer", "Peter Capaldi", "The Night of the Doctor", "Carey Blyton", "SyFy", "extraterrestrial being", "Tone generator", "London Philharmonic Choir", "Bad Wolf (production company)", "Doctor Who: Legacy", "Continuity (fiction)", "Queer as Folk (British TV series)", "Yasmin Khan (Doctor Who)", "Fifth Doctor", "The Chase (Doctor Who)", "Windows Media", "Iris Wildthyme", "National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children", "The Two Doctors", "List of guest appearances in Doctor Who", "The Timeless Children", "Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)", "List of Doctor Who Christmas and New Year's specials", "Peri Brown", "BBC Red Button", "Shada (Doctor Who)", "The Christmas Invasion", "State of Decay (Doctor Who)", "Nelvana", "archenemy", "Keff McCulloch", "100 Greatest British Television Programmes", "Cardiff", "BBC Radiophonic Workshop", "The Trial of a Time Lord", "Cosplay", "Ace (Doctor Who)", "Bovril", "Demons of the Punjab", "Sydney Newman", "match-3", "Top Gear (2002 TV series)", "Spacecraft", "Big Finish Productions", "Jon Culshaw", "Donna Noble", "Planet of Giants", "Tom Baker", "Scream Awards", "Murray Gold", "Thirteenth Doctor", "Planet of the Dead", "The Invasion (Doctor Who)", "Once, Upon Time", "Doctor Who season 24", "TVOntario", "The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot", "Doctor Who season 11", "cine film", "Galaxy 4", "Doctor Who: Original Television Soundtrack", "Derek Martinus", "Martha Jones", "John Smith (BBC executive)", "BBC Studios", "HBO Max", "Rogue (Doctor Who)", "BBC Proms", "Royal Observatory, Greenwich", "The End of Time (Doctor Who)", "Doctor Who (series 8)", "Jemma Redgrave", "Chris Clough", "Mystery Science Theater 3000", "The Eleventh Hour (Doctor Who)", "humanoid", "List of Welsh television series", "Charles de Gaulle", "The War Games", "Nicholas Mallett", "Rowan Atkinson", "Radio Times", "The Sarah Jane Adventures", "iPlayer", "Toronto", "BBC News", "Geoffrey Beevers", "Good Omens (TV series)", "tea (meal)", "The Independent", "iOS", "Vincent van Gogh", "Billie Piper", "Lord Snowdon", "the Beach Boys", "Pete McTighe", "shortlisted", "Cosgrove Hall", "ABC1", "Fourth Doctor", "Lalla Ward", "Music of the Spheres (Doctor Who)", "Philip Martin (screenwriter)", "Telos Publishing", "BBC Three", "Doctor Who: Original Television Soundtrack - Series 6", "Leverage (American TV series)", "The Giggle", "The War Between the Land and the Sea", "The Great Detective (Doctor Who)", "Mandip Gill", "The Proms", "The Leisure Hive", "Blake's 7", "London Olympia", "Amy Pond", "The Doctor Falls", "San Diego Comic-Con", "Digital Spy", "neutron bomb", "Elisabeth Sladen", "Telegraph Media Group", "Audio mixing (recorded music)", "Universal Media Disc", "Doctor Who season 8", "video games", "John Bishop", "Tales of the TARDIS", "The A.V. Club", "Jenna Coleman", "BBC National Orchestra of Wales", "Children in Need 2011", "Second Doctor", "Pulfrich effect", "Doctor Who season 18", "Writers' Guild of Great Britain", "List of actors who have played the Doctor", "The Tenth Planet", "Doctor Who specials (2023)", "Greenwich", "Bradley Walsh", "Jon Pertwee", "K9 (TV series)", "Ninth Doctor", "Silver Nemesis", "Monopoly (game)", "BBC iPlayer", "Bill Bailey", "List of Doctor Who parodies", "BBC television drama", "John Simm", "Judith Merril", "Children in Need 2012", "British Film Institute", "Seattle", "Graham Williams (television producer)", "Dennis Spooner", "Romana (Doctor Who)", "Mawdryn Undead", "The Big Bang (Doctor Who)", "Derek Jacobi", "Gwen Cooper", "Anthony Ainley", "police box", "Broadcasters' Audience Research Board", "the Doctor", "Assassination of John F. Kennedy", "The Pogues", "Dudley Simpson", "K9 (Doctor Who)", "Comic Relief", "BBC Sounds", "Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)", "California", "Star Trek: The Next Generation", "Doctor Who season 23", "The Mutants", "Doctor Who: The Fan Show", "sonic screwdriver", "A Girl's Best Friend", "Doctor Who Restoration Team", "John Debney", "Karen Gillan", "Destiny of the Doctor", "C. E. Webber", "David Whitaker (screenwriter)", "Thin Lizzy", "IGN", "Variety (magazine)", "Children in Need", "Catherine Tate", "River Song (Doctor Who)", "Lego Dimensions", "Mission to the Unknown", "Matt Lucas", "David Maloney", "cyborg", "Eleventh Doctor", "Royal Albert Hall", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Fifteenth Doctor", "Segun Akinola", "Twelfth Doctor", "Raymond Cusick", "Jane Tranter", "Pip and Jane Baker", "Terence Dudley", "Susan Foreman", "Dalekmania", "Doctor Who season 19", "UNIT", "Albert Square", "Closing Time (Doctor Who)", "Doctor Who (series 11)", "Sherlock Holmes", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Matt Smith", "Silurians", "Sacha Dhawan", "Counter-Earth", "The Apprentice (British TV series)", "SFX magazine", "Space and Time (Doctor Who)", "assassination of John F. Kennedy", "PlayStation Portable", "Virgin New Adventures", "K-9 and Company", "Rock Band (video game)", "Futurama", "Doctor Who: Unleashed", "backdoor pilot", "Mitch Benn", "Delia Derbyshire", "Globoplay", "Daily Mail", "Dub Syndicate", "Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart", "Jonathan Gibbs (composer)", "The Ultimate Foe", "The Runaway Bride (Doctor Who)", "oppressed" ]
8,211
Democritus
Democritus (, ; , Dēmókritos, meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. Democritus wrote extensively on a wide variety of topics. None of Democritus' original work has survived, except through second-hand references. Many of these references come from Aristotle, who viewed him as an important rival in the field of natural philosophy. He was known in antiquity as the ‘laughing philosopher’ because of his emphasis on the value of cheerfulness. ==Life== Democritus was born in Abdera, on the coast of Thrace. He was a polymath and prolific writer, producing nearly eighty treatises on subjects such as poetry, harmony, military tactics, and Babylonian theology. He traveled extensively, visiting Egypt and Persia, but was not particularly impressed by these countries. He once remarked that he would rather uncover a single scientific explanation than become the king of Persia. Democritus was a student of Leucippus. Early sources such as Aristotle and Theophrastus credit Leucippus with creating atomism and sharing its ideas with Democritus, but later sources credit only Democritus, making it hard to distinguish their individual contributions. ===Atomic hypothesis=== We have various quotes from Democritus on atoms, one of them being: He concluded that divisibility of matter comes to an end, and the smallest possible fragments must be bodies with sizes and shapes, although the exact argument for this conclusion of his is not known. The smallest and indivisible bodies he called "atoms". He also wrote a treatise on the purpose of life and the nature of happiness. He held that "happiness was not to be found in riches but in the goods of the soul and one should not take pleasure in mortal things". Another saying that is often attributed to him is "The hopes of the educated were better than the riches of the ignorant". He also stated that "the cause of sin is ignorance of what is better", which become a central notion later in the Socratic moral thought. Another idea he propounded which was later echoed in the Socratic moral thought was the maxim that "you are better off being wronged than doing wrong". ===Aesthetics=== Later Greek historians consider Democritus to have established aesthetics as a subject of investigation and study, as he wrote theoretically on poetry and fine art long before authors such as Aristotle. Specifically, Thrasyllus identified six works in the philosopher's oeuvre which had belonged to aesthetics as a discipline, but only fragments of the relevant works are extant; hence of all Democritus writings on these matters, only a small percentage of his thoughts and ideas can be known. ==Works== Diogenes Laertius attributes several works to Democritus, but none of them have survived in a complete form. Ethics: Pythagoras, On the Disposition of the Wise Man, On the Things in Hades, Tritogenia, On Manliness or On Virtue, The Horn of Amaltheia, On Contentment, Ethical Commentaries Natural science: The Great World-System, Cosmography, On the Planets, On Nature, On the Nature of Man or On Flesh (two books), On the Mind, On the Senses, On Flavours, On Colours, On Different Shapes, On Changing Shape, Buttresses, On Images, On Logic (three books) Nature: Heavenly Causes, Atmospheric Causes, Terrestrial Causes, Causes Concerned with Fire and Things in Fire, Causes Concerned with Sounds, Causes Concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits, Causes Concerned with Animals (three books), Miscellaneous Causes, On Magnets Mathematics: On Different Angles or On contact of Circles and Spheres, On Geometry, Geometry, Numbers, On Irrational Lines and Solids (two books), Planispheres, On the Great Year or Astronomy (a calendar) Contest of the Waterclock, Description of the Heavens, Geography, Description of the Poles, Description of Rays of Light, Literature: On the Rhythms and Harmony, On Poetry, On the Beauty of Verses, On Euphonious and Harsh-sounding Letters, On Homer, On Song, On Verbs, Names Technical works: Prognosis, On Diet, Medical Judgment, Causes Concerning Appropriate and Inappropriate Occasions, On Farming, On Painting, Tactics, Fighting in Armor Commentaries: On the Sacred Writings of Babylon, On Those in Meroe, Circumnavigation of the Ocean, On History, Chaldaean Account, Phrygian Account, On Fever and Coughing Sicknesses, Legal Causes, Problems A collections of sayings credited to Democritus have been preserved by Stobaeus, as well as a collection of sayings ascribed to Democrates which some scholars including Diels and Kranz have also ascribed to Democritus. ==Legacy== Diogenes Laertius claims that Plato disliked Democritus so much that he wished to have all of his books burned. He was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle, and was the teacher of Protagoras. Democritus is evoked by English writer Samuel Johnson in his poem, The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749), ll. 49–68, and summoned to "arise on earth, /With chearful wisdom and instructive mirth, /See motley life in modern trappings dress'd, /And feed with varied fools th'eternal jest." File:Bust of Democritus.jpg|Portrait of a philosopher, possibly Democritus. Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum. File:Vincent, François-André - Democritus among the Abderites.jpg|Democritus among the Abderites. File:Charles-Antoine Coypel - The Cheerful Democritus.jpg|Charles-Antoine Coypel, Cheerful Democritus, 1746. File:Greece donates Democritus Bust (01613420) (50691165646).jpg|2020 bust of Democritus presented to the International Atomic Energy Agency by Greece.
[ "Eudoxus of Cnidus", "Plutarch", "empirical evidence", "photon", "Petronius", "Epicurus", "Diogenes Laërtius", "Atoms", "Atom", "Aristoxenus", "cross-section (geometry)", "Diels-Kranz numbering", "Hermann Alexander Diels", "Lucretius", "Pseudo-Democritus", "Leucippus", "Sextus Empiricus", "Democritus University of Thrace", "The Vanity of Human Wishes", "Physis", "Stobaeus", "Samuel Johnson", "Theophrastus", "National Centre of Scientific Research \"DEMOKRITOS\"", "Archimedes", "The Void (philosophy)", "Kaṇāda (philosopher)", "Satyricon", "natural philosophy", "Pauli exclusion principle", "Democrates", "Zeno of Elea", "Pyrrho", "Mochus", "Thrace", "Atomism", "Eleatic school", "collision", "humans", "Pre-Socratic philosophy", "Anaxagoras", "Aristotle", "Ancient Greece", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "Diogenes Laertius", "Diodorus Siculus", "universe", "quantum physics", "Thomas Heath (classicist)", "polymath", "Diels–Kranz numbering", "Abdera, Thrace", "Vaisheshika", "Bibliotheca historica", "Western philosophy", "atomism", "elementary particle", "Parmenides", "Diels–Kranz numbering system", "atom", "Protagoras", "boson", "Greece", "John Dalton", "Cosmic pluralism", "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers", "infinitesimal calculus", "Fermion", "mechanics", "Villa of the Papyri", "Book burning", "aesthetics", "Vacuum" ]
8,212
Disc golf
Disc golf, also known as frisbee golf, is a flying disc sport in which players throw a disc at a target, using rules similar to golf. The sport is usually played on a course with 9 or 18 holes, each consisting of a teeing area and target (basket). Players complete a hole by throwing a disc from a tee pad or tee area toward a basket, throwing again from where the previous throw came to rest, until the disc comes to rest in the designated basket. Disc golf targets are composed of a metal basket supported by a center pole, with chains hanging from an upper band. They are designed to catch the incoming discs, which then fall into the basket. Usually, the number of throws a player uses to reach each basket is tallied (most often in relation to par), and players seek to complete each hole in the lowest number of total throws. Par is considered to be the number of strokes a skilled player is expected to make for a given hole or a group of holes (usually 9 or 18). The game is played in about 40 countries, and as of 2023, there are active members of the Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA) worldwide. According to the UDisc course directory, there are over 15,000 disc golf courses, with roughly 90% being accessible for free. == Origin and early history == Modern disc golf started in the early 1960s, but there is debate over who came up with the idea first. The consensus is that multiple groups of people played independently throughout the 1960s. Students at Rice University in Houston, Texas, for example, held tournaments with trees as targets as early as 1964, and in the early 1960s, players in Pendleton King Park in Augusta, Georgia, would toss Frisbees into 50-gallon barrel trash cans designated as targets. In 1968 Frisbee Golf was also played in Alameda Park in Santa Barbara, California, by teenagers in the Anacapa and Sola street areas. Gazebos, water fountains, lamp posts, and trees were all part of the course. This took place for several years and an Alameda Park collectors edition disc still exists, though rare, as few were made. Clifford Towne from this group went on to hold a National Time Aloft record. === 1970s === Ed Headrick, also known as "Steady" Ed Headrick, (June 28, 1924 – August 12, 2002) was an American toy inventor. He is most well known as the father of both the modern-day Frisbee and of the sport and game of disc golf. In 1975, Headrick's tenure at Wham-O where he helped redesign the flying disc known as the frisbee ended, and ties between Headrick and Wham-O eventually split. Headrick left the company to start out on his own to focus all his efforts on his new interest, which he coined and trademarked "Disc Golf". In 1976, "Steady" Ed Headrick and his son Ken Headrick started the first disc golf company, the Disc Golf Association (DGA). The purpose of DGA was to manufacture discs and baskets and to formalize the sport. The first disc golf target was Ed's pole hole design which consisted of a pole sticking out of the ground. == Courses == Most disc golf courses have 9 or 18 holes, and exceptions most often have holes in multiples of three. Courses with 6, 10, 12, 21, 24 or 27 holes are not uncommon. The PDGA recommends that courses average per hole, with holes no shorter than . The longest holes in the world measure more than long. Course designers use trees, bushes, elevation changes, water hazards, and distance variation, along with out-of-bounds zones and mandatory flight paths (often referred to as "Mandos") to make each hole challenging and unique. Many courses include multiple tee positions or multiple target positions to cater to players of different ability levels. === List by country === Three countries account for 85% of all disc golf courses worldwide: the United States (75%), Finland (7%) and Canada (3%). Other notable countries include Sweden and Estonia, which has the highest density of disc golf courses per km2 of dry land of any country and the second-highest number of courses per capita. Iceland and Finland have 150 and 111 courses per million inhabitants, respectively. Outside the North American and European continents, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea have the most courses. There are disc golf courses on every continent, including 24 in Latin America, 8 in Africa, and one in Antarctica. Åland has been defined as the world's largest single disc golf park, with one course in each of the 16 municipalities of Åland. * indicates "Disc golf in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links. === Tees === A disc golf tee (commonly referred to as a tee pad, tee box or the box) is the starting position of a hole. The PDGA recommends that the tee area be no smaller than 1.2 meters wide by 3 meters long, allowing ample space to run up and release the disc. There are many different brands of baskets made by numerous manufacturers. == Gameplay == The sport of disc golf is set up similar to a game of golf. A "round" is played on a disc golf course consisting of a number of "holes", usually 9 or 18. Each hole includes a tee position for starting play and a disc golf target some distance away, often with obstacles such as trees, hills or bodies of water in between. Players begin by throwing a disc from the tee, without crossing over the front of the tee prior to releasing the disc when throwing. This could lead to a fault similar to a bowling foot fault in cricket. Players then navigate the hole by picking up the disc where it comes to rest and throwing again until they reach the target. The object of the game is to get through the course with the lowest number of total throws. Play is usually in groups of five or fewer, with each player taking turn at the tee box, then progressing with the player furthest from the hole throwing first, while the other players stand aside. Each course is unique, and so requires a different combination of throws to complete, with the best players aiming to shape the flight of the disc to account for distance, terrain, obstacles and weather. In order to facilitate making different shots, players carry a variety of discs with different flight characteristics, choosing an appropriate disc for each throw. Some players also carry a mini marker disc, used to accurately mark the throwing position before each throw.  Use of mini marker discs is particularly prevalent in formal competitive play. Many courses include out-of-bounds areas, commonly called "OB zones" or just "OB". If the disc lands in these areas, the player is usually required to add a penalty throw onto their score and continue play from near where the disc entered the out-of-bounds zone. Some courses include out-of-bounds areas with special rules requiring the player to resume play from a specified area called a drop zone or requiring the player to restart the hole from the tee. Some courses also include Mandatories (also called "Mandos") which require the path of the disc to be above, below or to one side of a specific line indicated by a sign. By tradition, players throw from the tee box in the order of their score on the previous hole, with the lowest scorer throwing first. Most players also follow a loose code of courtesy while playing, which includes norms such as standing out of the sight line of the throwing player and avoiding making distracting noises. Because a thrown disc could injure someone, the Professional Disc Golf Association recommends that players "Never throw into a blind area or when spectators, pedestrians or facility users are within range." Formal competitive play is governed by the PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf and the PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf events. == Disc types == Disc golf discs are smaller than Ultimate flying discs or general-purpose recreational frisbees. They typically measure in diameter and weigh . All PDGA-approved discs measure in diameter and weigh no more than . Discs used for disc golf are designed and shaped for control, speed, and accuracy, while general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or ultimate, have a more traditional shape, similar to a catch disc. There is a wide variety of discs used in disc golf and they are generally divided into three categories: drivers, mid-range discs, and putters. === Driver === Drivers are recognized by their sharp, beveled edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout. They are optimized for aerodynamics and designed to travel maximum distances at high speeds. They are typically thrown by experienced players during tee-off and other long distance fairway throws. Some disc brands further sub-divide their drivers into different categories. For example, Innova has Distance Drivers and Fairway Drivers, with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance driver and a mid-range disc. Discraft has three categories of drivers: Long Drivers, Extra Long Drivers, and Maximum Distance Drivers. Another type of driver, used less frequently, is a roller. As the name indicates, it has an edge designed to roll rather than fly. (Although any disc can be used for a roller, some behave quite differently than others.) The world record distance for a golf disc was once , thrown by Simon Lizotte on October 25, 2014. That record was held for approximately 17 months until David Wiggins Jr. broke it with a distance of on March 28, 2016. === Mid-range === Mid-range discs feature a dull, beveled edge and a moderate rim width. They offer more control than drivers, but they have a smaller range. Mid-range discs are typically used as approach discs. Beginner players will often use mid-ranges instead of drivers at tee-off, as they require less strength and technique to fly straight than higher speed drivers. === Putter === Putters are designed to fly straight, predictably, and very slowly compared to mid-range discs and drivers. They are typically used for tight, controlled shots that are close to the basket, although some players use them for short drives where trees or other obstacles come into play. Additionally, higher speed discs will not fly properly without a fast enough release snap, so a putter or mid-range with lower snap requirements is more forgiving and will behave in a more regular way. Professional players often carry multiple putters with varying flight characteristics. === Stability === Stability is the measurement of a disc's tendency to bank laterally during its flight. A disc that is over-stable will tend to track left (for a right-handed, backhand throw), whereas a disc that is under-stable will tend to track right (also for a right-handed, backhand throw). The stability rating of the discs differs depending on the manufacturer of the disc. Innova Discs rate stability as "turn" and "fade". "Turn" references how the disc will fly at high speed during the beginning and middle of its flight, and is rated on a scale of +1 to −5, where +1 === Plastics === There are dozens of different types of plastic used for making discs by the various disc manufacturers. The type of plastic affects the feel of the disc's grip as well as its durability, which in turn affects its flight pattern as the disc becomes worn. === Stamps === Stamps refer to the artwork or lettering that appears on a disc. Stamps can appear on the top or the bottom of a disc. Stamps are applied by disc manufacturers by using a hot stamp machine, usually with foil. Stamps not only serve a creative design purpose, but are also used to identify different disc molds. == Throwing styles == While there are many different grips and styles to throwing the disc, there are two basic throwing techniques: backhand and forehand (or sidearm). These techniques vary in effectiveness under different circumstances. Their understanding and mastery can greatly improve a player's game and offer diverse options in maneuvering the disc to the basket with greater efficacy. Many players use what is referred to as a run-up during their drive. This is practiced to build more forward disc momentum and distance. Throwing styles vary from player to player, and there is no standard throwing style. All discs when thrown will naturally fall to a certain direction determined by the rotation direction of the disc when released. This direction is termed hyzer, the natural fall of the disc, or anhyzer, making the disc fall against its natural flight pattern. For a right-handed backhand throw (RHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the left. For a right-handed forehand throw (RHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the right. For a left-handed, backhand throw (LHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the right. For a left-handed, forehand throw (LHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the left. === Backhand === To perform this throw, the disc is rapidly drawn from across the front of the body, and released towards a forward aimpoint. Due to the high level of potential spin generated with this technique, it often results in greater distance than with a forehand throw. Power is created by initiating momentum from the feet and allow it to travel up the body, hips, and shoulders, culminating in the transfer of energy to the disc. === Forehand === The forehand (sidearm) throw is performed by drawing the disc from behind and partially across the front of the body: similar to a sidearm throw in baseball. The term sidearm actually predates the term forehand, which is seemingly in use today as a simpler means to communicate the technique, equating to a tennis forehand. === Alternative throws === The following examples of throws may be used to better deliver a disc where the former common two throws would be impeded by obstacles such as bushes, trees, boulders, or artificial structures. Common alternative styles The Hatchet (or Tomahawk). Gripped similarly to the sidearm toss but thrown with an overhand motion; the disc orientation is nearly perpendicular to the ground over much of the flight. The Thumber (or U.D.). Thrown in an overhand manner but with thumb held on the disc's underside. The Roller. Thrown either backhand or forehand, the disc will predominately be in contact with the ground. The disc remains in motion while travelling on its edge at a slight angle and can travel exceedingly far in ideal situations. Once perfected, the roller is an invaluably versatile tool in the golfer's arsenal. The Turbo-Putt Thrown with a putter when the player holds the disc upright, supported in the middle by the thumb, with the finger tips outside of the edge, somewhat like a waiter holding a platter. The player stands with the leg opposite from the throwing arm forward, reaches back, and then extends their arm towards the basket, throwing the disc in a motion similar to that of throwing a dart. Ideally the thrower's wrist does not rotate; the act of following through will give the disc its spin. The Turbo-Putt is a throw known for its accuracy, but it has extremely limited range. Other alternative styles The Baseball or Grenade. Thrown as in the backhand, but with the disc upside-down. This shot is used often to get up and down on a short shot where there is danger of a shot rolling away or going out of bounds if thrown too far. Primarily used on downhill shots but can be used to go up and over. Also due to the quick turn and backspin of this shot, it is sometimes used to get out of the woods. The Overhand wrist flip (or chicken-wing [ambiguous origin] ). This is a very difficult and stylized throw with which accomplished free-stylers and classic ultimate players are familiar; it is less used in disc golf. It is thrown in the same manner as the "baseball" but drawn on the sidearm side of the body, and by inverting the arm and disc. Using the thumb as the power finger, the disc is drawn from the thigh area rearwards and up from behind the body to over the shoulder, releasing toward a forward aimpoint. The disc flies in a conventional flight pattern. To the untrained eye, this appears to be an ungainly throw. It is, however, elegant and accurate. The term "overhand wristflip" has been in use since at least circa 1970. == Scoring == Stroke play is the most common scoring method used in the sport but there are many other forms. These include match play, skins, speed golf and captain's choice, which in disc golf is referred to as "doubles" (not to be confused with partner or team play). Regardless of which form of play the participants choose, the main objectives of disc golf are conceptually the same as traditional golf in the sense that players follow the same scorekeeping technique. Scoring terms for a single hole: Condor – Where a player is four throws under par, or "-4". Albatross (or double-eagle) – Where a player is three throws under par, or "-3". Eagle (or double-birdie) – Where a player is two throws under par, or "-2". Birdie – Where a player is one throw under par, or "-1". Par – Where a player has thrown par, "E" or "0". Bogey – Where a player is one throw over par, or "+1". Double Bogey – Where a player is two throws over par, or "+2". Triple Bogey – Where a player is three throws over par, or "+3". Doubles play is a unique style of play that many local courses offer on a weekly basis. In this format, teams of two golfers are determined. Sometimes this is done by random draw, and other times it is a pro-am format. On the course, it is a "best-disc" scramble, meaning both players throw their tee shot and then decide which lie they would like to play. Both players then play from the same lie, again choosing which lie is preferable. The World Amateur Doubles Format includes best shot, alternate shot, best score (players play singles and take the best result from the hole) and worst shot (both players must sink the putt). == Tournaments == Tournaments are held nationwide and yearlong in the United States. Sanctioned Tournament play is communicated through the Professional Disc Golf Association Membership. The PDGA provides international, professional, and amateur disc golf tournaments as well as communicates event results, opinions and other information beneficial to the sport via electronic and printed media. In 1982 the PDGA hosted the first World Championship Tournament. Since then, the World Championships have been held in 17 different American states, as well as Toronto, Ontario. One of the largest disc golf tournaments is the United States Disc Golf Championship, held in October in Rock Hill, South Carolina. As a show of the year-round sustainability of the sport, annual winter tournaments, known as Ice Bowls, are held at courses around the world. Using the motto "No Wimps, No Whiners", Ice Bowls collectively create sport awareness and are considered charity events that typically benefit a local food bank. The official website reports that the 2010 Ice Bowls raised over $250,000 and donated over 67,000 pounds of food in the 222 tournaments for the year. Other charitable tournaments include the annual St. Jude Disc Golf Tournament which started in 2017 and has raised over $100,000 for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. == Popularity == A website that tracks courses worldwide along with their opening dates has shown a rapid increase in installed permanent courses with an average of more than 400 new courses added each year between 2007 and 2017. The site lists 9744 courses worldwide . During the COVID-19 pandemic, as shutdowns and social distancing forced people to avoid indoor gatherings, disc golf experienced significant growth. Although most players play on a casual, amateur level, the professional disc golf scene is also growing rapidly, with the top professionals playing full-time and earning their livings through tournament winnings and sponsorship from equipment manufacturers. Online viewership of major tournaments and events has increased rapidly, with coverage of the 2019 world championship achieving more than 3 million views on YouTube, and a clip of an albatross by professional Philo Brathwaite gaining more than 1.4 million views. === Post-round coverage === Increased popularity of disc golf can be largely attributed to increased coverage of pro tour events, available for free on YouTube. Jomez Productions, Gatekeeper Media, and Go Throw (formerly GKPro) all film events the day of, and then air them the morning after. Often, these videos can have a reach of as many as 200,000 viewers. Jomez's coverage of the final round of the 2019 World Championships has more than 5.5 million YouTube views. In the 2020 season, Jomez Productions and the Disc Golf Pro Tour reached an agreement with CBS Sports and ESPN 2 to air post production coverage of a tournament on each network. The Dynamic Discs Open was shown on CBS Sports, and the Disc Golf Pro Tour championship was re-aired on ESPN2 November 24, 2020. With 225,000 viewers, it was the most-watched show on the channel that day. === Women in disc golf === While there are more male than female players, the Women's Disc Golf Association exists to encourage female players and arrange women's tournaments. A PDGA survey from 2020 states that out of its 71,016 active members, 4,752 are female. Several companies have started programs and websites to help attract women to the sport. The PDGA Women's Committee is "Dedicated to Attract, Encourage, and Retain Female Participation in Organized Disc Golf Events". The PDGA Women's Committee set historical records on 12 May 2012 by running the Inaugural Women's Global Event that attracted 636 female players in 24 states and 4 countries. The Women's Global Event was expected to take place every two years from 2014, with hopes of increasing the number of participants. The 2021 Women's Global Event had 99 registered tournaments that spanned the globe, from Minnesota to Malaysia, with a combined turnout of 3224 women competing in 23 different PDGA divisions. There are also disc golf companies such as Disc-Diva, that have started up with a primary, though not exclusive, focus on women in the sport, promoting accessories geared towards women and using catch phrases like "you wish you threw like a girl". Sassy Pants is another group that focuses on getting more involvement from women in the sport, advocating for sponsorship of women to enter tournaments. Women's disc golf teams are involved in the National Collegiate Disc Golf Championship, and the Mississippi State Women's Team were the inaugural champions. == The Disc Golf Hall of Fame == Inductees: == Disc golf associations ==
[ "Santa Barbara, California", "List of countries and dependencies by area", "Alameda Park", "List of disc golf brands and manufacturers", "Eagle (golf)", "Flying disc", "Ed Headrick", "Åland", "skins game", "speed golf", "Dave Dunipace", "Augusta, Georgia", "Condor (golf)", "List of disc golf courses in Norway", "artificial turf", "COVID-19 pandemic", "gravel", "Appling, Georgia", "Disc golf in Finland", "disc golf basket", "List of disc golf courses in the United States", "Lahaina, Hawaii", "Frisbee", "baseball", "Stroke play", "Barry Schultz", "2001 World Games", "Professional Disc Golf Association", "Guts (flying disc game)", "Par (score)", "Bogey (golf)", "Regina, Saskatchewan", "Wham-O", "ESPN2", "Basket (disc golf)", "YouTube", "Ken Westerfield", "Prague", "Asphalt concrete", "Disc golf in Estonia", "match play", "Innova Discs", "Reichenbach im Kandertal", "Stancil Johnson", "List of disc golf courses in Austria", "Albatross (golf)", "Glossary of disc golf terms", "golf", "United States Disc Golf Championship", "List of disc golf courses in Canada", "Flying disc games", "Thermoplastic polyurethane", "CBS Sports", "Pärnu", "John Houck", "Valarie Jenkins", "Poissy", "Disc golf basket", "Tom Monroe (disc golfer)", "Flying disc sports", "concrete", "rubber", "Rice University", "Gothenburg", "List of disc golf players", "Discraft", "PDGA World Championships", "Birdie (golf)", "Facebook", "Simon Lizotte", "Ken Climo", "Ultimate (sport)" ]
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Decimal
The decimal numeral system (also called the base-ten positional numeral system and denary or decanary) is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers (decimal fractions) of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The way of denoting numbers in the decimal system is often referred to as decimal notation. A decimal numeral (also often just decimal or, less correctly, decimal number), refers generally to the notation of a number in the decimal numeral system. Decimals may sometimes be identified by a decimal separator (usually "." or "," as in or ). Decimal may also refer specifically to the digits after the decimal separator, such as in " is the approximation of to two decimals". Zero-digits after a decimal separator serve the purpose of signifying the precision of a value. The numbers that may be represented in the decimal system are the decimal fractions. That is, fractions of the form , where is an integer, and is a non-negative integer. Decimal fractions also result from the addition of an integer and a fractional part; the resulting sum sometimes is called a fractional number. Decimals are commonly used to approximate real numbers. By increasing the number of digits after the decimal separator, one can make the approximation errors as small as one wants, when one has a method for computing the new digits. Originally and in most uses, a decimal has only a finite number of digits after the decimal separator. However, the decimal system has been extended to infinite decimals for representing any real number, by using an infinite sequence of digits after the decimal separator (see decimal representation). In this context, the usual decimals, with a finite number of non-zero digits after the decimal separator, are sometimes called terminating decimals. A repeating decimal is an infinite decimal that, after some place, repeats indefinitely the same sequence of digits (e.g., ). An infinite decimal represents a rational number, the quotient of two integers, if and only if it is a repeating decimal or has a finite number of non-zero digits. ==Origin== Many numeral systems of ancient civilizations use ten and its powers for representing numbers, possibly because there are ten fingers on two hands and people started counting by using their fingers. Examples are firstly the Egyptian numerals, then the Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals. Very large numbers were difficult to represent in these old numeral systems, and only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large numbers. These difficulties were completely solved with the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system for representing integers. This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called decimal fractions or decimal numbers, for forming the decimal numeral system. the decimal separator is the dot "" in many countries (mostly English-speaking), and a comma "" in other countries. For example, the decimal expressions 0.8, 14.89, 0.00079, 1.618, 3.14159 represent the fractions , , , and , and therefore denote decimal fractions. An example of a fraction that cannot be represented by a decimal expression (with a finite number of digits) is , 3 not being a power of 10. More generally, a decimal with digits after the separator (a point or comma) represents the fraction with denominator , whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator. It follows that a number is a decimal fraction if and only if it has a finite decimal representation. Expressed as fully reduced fractions, the decimal numbers are those whose denominator is a product of a power of 2 and a power of 5. Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are 1=2^0\cdot 5^0, 2=2^1\cdot 5^0, 4=2^2\cdot 5^0, 5=2^0\cdot 5^1, 8=2^3\cdot 5^0, 10=2^1\cdot 5^1, 16=2^4\cdot 5^0, 20=2^2\cdot5^1, 25=2^0\cdot 5^2, \ldots ===Approximation using decimal numbers=== Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers. Nevertheless, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates , being less than 10−5 off; so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life. More precisely, for every real number and every positive integer , there are two decimals and with at most digits after the decimal mark such that and . Numbers are very often obtained as the result of measurement. As measurements are subject to measurement uncertainty with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well-represented by a decimal with digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolute measurement error is bounded from above by . In practice, measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error bounds. For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same number, the decimal numeral 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures). ==Infinite decimal expansion== For a real number and an integer , let denote the (finite) decimal expansion of the greatest number that is not greater than that has exactly digits after the decimal mark. Let denote the last digit of . It is straightforward to see that may be obtained by appending to the right of . This way one has , and the difference of and amounts to \left\vert \left [ x \right ]_n-\left [ x \right ]_{n-1} \right\vert=d_n\cdot10^{-n}, which is either 0, if , or gets arbitrarily small as ' tends to infinity. According to the definition of a limit, ' is the limit of when tends to infinity. This is written as\; x = \lim_{n\rightarrow\infty} [x]_n \;or , which is called an infinite decimal expansion of . Conversely, for any integer and any sequence of digits\;(d_n)_{n=1}^{\infty} the (infinite) expression is an infinite decimal expansion of a real number '. This expansion is unique if neither all are equal to 9 nor all are equal to 0 for ' large enough (for all greater than some natural number ). If all for equal to 9 and , the limit of the sequence\;([x]_n)_{n=1}^{\infty} is the decimal fraction obtained by replacing the last digit that is not a 9, i.e.: , by , and replacing all subsequent 9s by 0s (see 0.999...). Any such decimal fraction, i.e.: for , may be converted to its equivalent infinite decimal expansion by replacing by and replacing all subsequent 0s by 9s (see 0.999...). In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion. Each decimal fraction has exactly two infinite decimal expansions, one containing only 0s after some place, which is obtained by the above definition of , and the other containing only 9s after some place, which is obtained by defining as the greatest number that is less than , having exactly digits after the decimal mark. === Rational numbers === Long division allows computing the infinite decimal expansion of a rational number. If the rational number is a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an infinite expansion by adding infinitely many zeros. If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may continue indefinitely. However, as all successive remainders are less than the divisor, there are only a finite number of possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indefinitely in the quotient. That is, one has a repeating decimal. For example, = 0.012345679012... (with the group 012345679 indefinitely repeating). The converse is also true: if, at some point in the decimal representation of a number, the same string of digits starts repeating indefinitely, the number is rational. or, dividing both numerator and denominator by 6, . == Decimal computation == Most modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally). For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems. For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.) Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of binary-coded decimal, especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in use (including decimal floating point such as in newer revisions of the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic). Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results of adding (or subtracting) values with a fixed length of their fractional part always are computed to this same length of precision. This is especially important for financial calculations, e.g., requiring in their results integer multiples of the smallest currency unit for book keeping purposes. This is not possible in binary, because the negative powers of 10 have no finite binary fractional representation; and is generally impossible for multiplication (or division). See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for exact calculations. == History == Many ancient cultures calculated with numerals based on ten, perhaps because two human hands have ten fingers. Standardized weights used in the Indus Valley Civilisation () were based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, while their standardized ruler – the Mohenjo-daro ruler – was divided into ten equal parts. Egyptian hieroglyphs, in evidence since around 3000 BCE, used a purely decimal system, as did the Linear A script () of the Minoans and the Linear B script (c. 1400–1200 BCE) of the Mycenaeans. The Únětice culture in central Europe (2300-1600 BC) used standardised weights and a decimal system in trade. The number system of classical Greece also used powers of ten, including an intermediate base of 5, as did Roman numerals. Notably, the polymath Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) invented a decimal positional system in his Sand Reckoner which was based on 108. Hittite hieroglyphs (since 15th century BCE) were also strictly decimal. The Egyptian hieratic numerals, the Greek alphabet numerals, the Hebrew alphabet numerals, the Roman numerals, the Chinese numerals and early Indian Brahmi numerals are all non-positional decimal systems, and required large numbers of symbols. For instance, Egyptian numerals used different symbols for 10, 20 to 90, 100, 200 to 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, to 10,000. The world's earliest positional decimal system was the Chinese rod calculus. Calculations with decimal fractions of lengths were performed using positional counting rods, as described in the 3rd–5th century CE Sunzi Suanjing. The 5th century CE mathematician Zu Chongzhi calculated a 7-digit approximation of . Qin Jiushao's book Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections (1247) explicitly writes a decimal fraction representing a number rather than a measurement, using counting rods. The number 0.96644 is denoted . Historians of Chinese science have speculated that the idea of decimal fractions may have been transmitted from China to the Middle East. Al-Khwarizmi introduced fractions to Islamic countries in the early 9th century CE, written with a numerator above and denominator below, without a horizontal bar. This form of fraction remained in use for centuries. Positional decimal fractions appear for the first time in a book by the Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi written in the 10th century. The Jewish mathematician Immanuel Bonfils used decimal fractions around 1350 but did not develop any notation to represent them. The Persian mathematician Jamshid al-Kashi used, and claimed to have discovered, decimal fractions in the 15th century. John Napier introduced using the period (.) to separate the integer part of a decimal number from the fractional part in his book on constructing tables of logarithms, published posthumously in 1620. === Natural languages === A method of expressing every possible natural number using a set of ten symbols emerged in India. Several Indian languages show a straightforward decimal system. Dravidian languages have numbers between 10 and 20 expressed in a regular pattern of addition to 10. The Hungarian language also uses a straightforward decimal system. All numbers between 10 and 20 are formed regularly (e.g. 11 is expressed as "tizenegy" literally "one on ten"), as with those between 20 and 100 (23 as "huszonhárom" = "three on twenty"). A straightforward decimal rank system with a word for each order (10 , 100 , 1000 , 10,000 ), and in which 11 is expressed as ten-one and 23 as two-ten-three, and 89,345 is expressed as 8 (ten thousands) 9 (thousand) 3 (hundred) 4 (tens) 5 is found in Chinese, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities. Japanese, Korean, and Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system. Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades. For example, in English 11 is "eleven" not "ten-one" or "one-teen". Incan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as ten with one and 23 as two-ten with three. Some psychologists suggest irregularities of the English names of numerals may hinder children's counting ability. === Other bases === Some cultures do, or did, use other bases of numbers. Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya used a base-20 system (perhaps based on using all twenty fingers and toes). The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal (base-8) systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves. The existence of a non-decimal base in the earliest traces of the Germanic languages is attested by the presence of words and glosses meaning that the count is in decimal (cognates to "ten-count" or "tenty-wise"); such would be expected if normal counting is not decimal, and unusual if it were. Where this counting system is known, it is based on the "long hundred" = 120, and a "long thousand" of 1200. The descriptions like "long" only appear after the "small hundred" of 100 appeared with the Christians. Gordon's Introduction to Old Norse p. 293, gives number names that belong to this system. An expression cognate to 'one hundred and eighty' translates to 200, and the cognate to 'two hundred' translates to 240. Goodare details the use of the long hundred in Scotland in the Middle Ages, giving examples such as calculations where the carry implies i C (i.e. one hundred) as 120, etc. That the general population were not alarmed to encounter such numbers suggests common enough use. It is also possible to avoid hundred-like numbers by using intermediate units, such as stones and pounds, rather than a long count of pounds. Goodare gives examples of numbers like vii score, where one avoids the hundred by using extended scores. There is also a paper by W.H. Stevenson, on 'Long Hundred and its uses in England'. Many or all of the Chumashan languages originally used a base-4 counting system, in which the names for numbers were structured according to multiples of 4 and 16. Many languages use quinary (base-5) number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot and Saraveca. Of these, Gumatj is the only true 5–25 language known, in which 25 is the higher group of 5. Some Nigerians use duodecimal systems. So did some small communities in India and Nepal, as indicated by their languages. The Huli language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-15 numbers. Ngui means 15, ngui ki means 15 × 2 = 30, and ngui ngui means 15 × 15 = 225. Umbu-Ungu, also known as Kakoli, is reported to have base-24 numbers. Tokapu means 24, tokapu talu means 24 × 2 = 48, and tokapu tokapu means 24 × 24 = 576. Ngiti is reported to have a base-32 number system with base-4 cycles. Mer means 6, mer an thef means 6 × 2 = 12, nif means 36, and nif thef means 36×2 = 72.
[ "John Napier", "Kuurn Kopan Noot language", "binary-coded decimal", "fully reduced fraction", "fractional part", "Decimal representation", "Encyclopedia of Mathematics", "Binary numeral system", "Mycenaean Greece", "Linear A", "base 32", "Decimal classification", "Chinese language", "6", "radix", "decimal floating point", "Binary-coded decimal", "Decimal separator", "decimal representation", "approximation error", "glyph", "Karl Menninger (mathematics)", "infinity", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Nunggubuyu language", "Ventureño language", "Vinculum (symbol)", "exponentiation", "Jamshid al-Kashi", "Maya numerals", "Densely packed decimal", "Mexico", "if and only if", "Al-Khwarizmi", "16th IEEE Symposium on Computer Arithmetic", "Rod calculus", "World Scientific", "octal", "approximation (mathematics)", "long hundred", "Gumatj language", "Quechuan languages", "Pre-Columbian", "Dravidian languages", "Sunzi Suanjing", "4", "Cowlishaw", "Roman numerals", "Simon Stevin", "Duodecimal", "Vietnamese language", "Linear B", "Archimedes", "classical Greece", "decimal separator", "8", "Yuki tribe", "fraction (mathematics)", "engineering", "Papua New Guinea", "De Thiende", "denominator", "toe", "numeral system", "approximations of π", "IEEE 754", "Aymara language", "Ngiti language", "Long division", "limit (mathematics)", "rod calculus", "science", "1", "Hindu–Arabic numeral system", "Qin Jiushao", "non-negative number", "integer", "integer part", "The Sand Reckoner", "Decimal section numbering", "9", "Minoan civilization", "base 24", "quotient", "Decimal computer", "3", "California", "Únětice culture", "Saraveca", "duodecimal", "Mike Cowlishaw", "2", "Hittites", "7", "Scientific notation", "Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections", "decimal digit", "quaternary numeral system", "Egyptian numerals", "upper bound", "0.999...", "decimal mark", "Werner Buchholz", "Nigeria", "Ndom language", "real number", "rational number", "0", "5", "Brahmi numerals", "Solomon Gandz", "Umbu-Ungu language", "Zu Chongzhi", "Hebrew numerals", "Arbitrary-precision arithmetic", "Greek numerals", "Octal", "non-negative integer", "Indus Valley Civilisation", "Mesoamerica", "Arabic", "hexadecimal", "measurement uncertainty", "Decimalisation", "vigesimal", "number", "pentadecimal", "accuracy and precision", "significant figures", "Decimal time", "Metric prefix", "Korean language", "Hungarian language", "Thai language", "Japanese language", "computer", "minus sign", "Algorism", "negative number", "truncation", "repeating decimal", "computing", "Fraction (mathematics)", "Chumashan languages", "sequence (mathematics)", "measurement", "Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi", "positional numeral system", "Huli language", "IBM 650", "Serial decimal", "natural number", "Chinese numerals", "Immanuel Bonfils", "Commons:File:The Construction of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms.djvu", "John Wiley & Sons", "Lam Lay Yong", "base-6", "ENIAC", "quinary" ]
8,216
Dorians
The Dorians (; , , singular , ) were one of the four major ethnic groups into which the Hellenes (or Greeks) of Classical Greece divided themselves (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans, and Ionians). They are almost always referred to as just "the Dorians", as they are called in the earliest literary mention of them in the Odyssey, where they already can be found inhabiting the island of Crete. They were diverse in way of life and social organization, varying from the populous trade center of the city of Corinth, known for its ornate style in art and architecture, to the isolationist, military state of Sparta; and yet, all Hellenes knew which localities were Dorian and which were not. Dorian states at war could more likely, but not always, count on the assistance of other Dorian states. Dorians were distinguished by the Doric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions. In the 5th century BC, Dorians and Ionians were the two most politically important Greek , whose ultimate clash resulted in the Peloponnesian War. The degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as "Ionian" or "Dorian" has itself been disputed. At one extreme concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, in spite of anti-Dorian elements in Athenian propaganda. At the other extreme John Alty reinterprets the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions. Moderns viewing these ethnic identifications through the 5th and 4th century BC literary tradition have been profoundly influenced by their own social politics. Also, according to E. N. Tigerstedt, nineteenth-century European admirers of virtues they considered "Dorian" identified themselves as "Laconophile" and found responsive parallels in the culture of their day as well; their biases contribute to the traditional modern interpretation of "Dorians". ==Origin== Accounts vary as to the Dorians' place of origin. One theory, widely believed in ancient times, is that they originated in the mountainous regions of Greece, such as Macedonia and Epirus, and obscure circumstances brought them south into the Peloponnese, to certain Aegean islands. ===Peloponnesian dialect replacement=== The origin of the Dorians is a multifaceted concept. In modern scholarship, the term has often meant the location of the population disseminating the Doric Greek dialect within a hypothetical Proto-Greek speaking population. The dialect is known from records of classical northwestern Greece, the Peloponnesus and Crete and some of the islands. The geographic and ethnic information found in the West's earliest known literary work, the Iliad, combined with the administrative records of the former Mycenaean states, prove to universal satisfaction that East Greek (Ionian) speakers were once dominant in the Peloponnesus but suffered a setback there and were replaced at least in official circles by West Greek (Doric) speakers. A historical event is associated with the overthrow, called anciently the Return of the Heracleidai and by moderns the Dorian Invasion. This theory of a return or invasion presupposes that West Greek speakers resided in northwest Greece but overran the Peloponnesus replacing the East Greek there with their own dialect. No records other than Mycenaean ones are known to have existed in the Bronze Age so a West Greek of that time and place can be neither proved nor disproved. West Greek speakers were in western Greece in classical times. Unlike the East Greeks, they are not associated with any evidence of displacement events. That provides circumstantial evidence that the Doric dialect disseminated among the Hellenes of northwest Greece, a highly-mountainous and somewhat-isolated region. ===Dorian invasion=== The Dorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for: at least the replacement of dialects and traditions in southern Greece in pre-classical times more generally, the distribution of the Dorians in Classical Greece the presence of the Dorians in Greece at all On the whole, none of the objectives has been met, but the investigations served to rule out various speculative hypotheses. Most scholars doubt that the Dorian invasion was the main cause of the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. The source of the West Greek speakers in the Peloponnese remains unattested by any solid evidence. ===Post-migrational distribution of the Dorians=== Though most of the Dorians settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled on Rhodes and Sicily and in what is now Southern Italy. In Asia Minor existed the Dorian Hexapolis (the six great Dorian cities): Halikarnassos (Halicarnassus) and Knidos (Cnidus) in Asia Minor, Kos, and Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialyssos on the island of Rhodes. The six cities would later become rivals with the Ionian cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also settled Crete. The origin traditions remained strong into classical times: Thucydides saw the Peloponnesian War in part as "Ionians fighting against Dorians" and reported the tradition that the Syracusans in Sicily were of Dorian descent. Other such "Dorian" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. Also Taras was a Spartan colony. ==Identity== ===Ethnonym=== ====Dorian of Bronze Age Pylos==== A man's name, Dōrieus, occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions later invaded and subjugated by the Dorians. Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in the dative case as do-ri-je-we, *Dōriēwei, a third- or consonant-declension noun with stem ending in w. An unattested nominative plural, *Dōriēwes, would have become Dōrieis by loss of the w and contraction. The tablet records the grain rations issued to the servants of "religious dignitaries" celebrating a religious festival of Potnia, the mother goddess. The nominative singular, Dōrieus, remained the same in the classical period. Many Linear B names of servants were formed from their home territory or the places where they came into Mycenaean ownership. Carl Darling Buck sees the -eus suffix as very productive. One of its uses was to convert a toponym to an anthroponym; for example, Megareus, "Megarian", from Megara. A Dōrieus would be from Dōris, the only classical Greek state to serve as the basis for the name of the Dorians. The state was a small one in the mountains of west central Greece. However, classical Doris may not have been the same as Mycenaean Doris. ====Dorians of upland Doris==== A number of credible etymologies by noted scholars have been proposed. Julius Pokorny derives Δωριεύς, Dōrieus from δωρίς, dōris, "woodland" (which can also mean upland). The dōri- segment is from the o-grade (either ō or o) of Proto-Indo-European *deru-, "tree", which also gives the Homeric Δούρειος Ἵππος (Doureios Hippos, "Wooden Horse"). This derivation has the advantage of naming the people after their wooded, mountainous country. ====Lancers==== A second popular derivation was given by the French linguist, Émile Boisacq, from the same root, but from Greek (doru) 'spear-shaft' (which was made of wood); i.e., "the people of the spear" or "spearmen." In this case the country would be named after the people, as in Saxony from the Saxons. However, R. S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and asserted that no good etymology exists. ====Chosen Greeks==== It sometimes happens that different derivations of an Indo-European word exploit similar-sounding Indo-European roots. Greek doru, "lance," is from the o-grade of Indo-European *deru, "solid," in the sense of wood. It is similar to an extended form, *dō-ro-, of *dō-, (give), as can be seen in the modern Greek imperative δώσε (dose, "give [sing.]!") appearing in Greek as δῶρον (dōron, "gift"). This is the path taken by Jonathan Hall, relying on elements taken from the myth of the Return of the Herakleidai. Hall cites the tradition, based on a fragment of the poet, Tyrtaeus, that "Sparta is a divine gift granted by Zeus and Hera" to the Heracleidae. In another version, Tyndareus gives his kingdom to Heracles in gratitude for restoring him to the throne, but Heracles "asks the Spartan king to safeguard the gift until his descendants might claim it." Hall, therefore, proposes that the Dorians are the people of the gift. They assumed the name on taking possession of Lacedaemon. Doris was subsequently named after them. Hall makes comparisons of Spartans to Hebrews as a chosen people maintaining a covenant with God and being assigned a Holy Land. To arrive at this conclusion, Hall relies on Herodotus' version of the myth (see below) that the Hellenes under Dorus did not take his name until reaching the Peloponnesus. In other versions the Heracleidae enlisted the help of their Dorian neighbors. Hall does not address the problem of the Dorians not calling Lacedaemon Doris, but assigning that name to some less holy and remoter land. Similarly, he does not mention the Dorian servant at Pylos, whose sacred gift, if such it was, was still being ruled by the Achaean Atreid family at Lacedaemon. A minor, and perhaps regrettably forgotten, episode in the history of scholarship was the attempt to emphasize the etymology of Doron with the meaning of 'hand'. This in turn was connected to an interpretation of the famous lambda on Spartan shields, which was to rather stand for a hand with outstanding thumb than the initial letter of Lacedaimon. Given the origin of the Spartan shield lambda legend, however, in a fragment by Eupolis, an Athenian comic poet, there has been a recent attempt to suggest that a comic confusion between the letter and the hand image may yet have been intended. ===Social structure=== Dorian social structure was characterized by a communal social structure and separation of the sexes. The lives of free men centered around military campaigns. When not abroad, men stayed in all-male residences focusing on military training until the age of 30, regardless of marital status. Dorian women had greater freedom and economic power than women of other Greek ethnicities. Unlike other Hellenic women, Dorian women were able to own property, manage their husbands' estate, and delegate many domestic tasks to slaves. Women in ancient Sparta possessed the greatest agency and economic power, likely due to the prolonged absences of men during military campaigns. Dorian women wore the peplos, which was once common to all Hellenes. This tunic was pinned at the shoulders by brooches and had slit skirts which bared the thighs and permitted more freedom of movement than the voluminous Ionian chiton (costume). ===Distinctions of language=== The Doric dialect was spoken in northwest Greece, the Peloponnese, Crete, southwest Asia Minor, the southernmost islands of the Aegean Sea, and the various Dorian colonies of Magna Graecia in Southern Italy and Sicily. After the classical period, it was mainly replaced by the Attic dialect upon which the Koine or "common" Greek language of the Hellenistic period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of Proto-Indo-European , long , which in Attic-Ionic became , . A famous example is the valedictory phrase uttered by Spartan mothers to their sons before sending them off to war: ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς (ḕ tàn ḕ epì tâs, literally "either with it or on it": return alive with your shield or dead upon it) would have been ἢ τὴν ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς (ḕ tḕn ḕ epì tês) in the Attic-Ionic dialect of an Athenian mother. Tsakonian, a descendant of Doric Greek, is still spoken in some parts of the southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, in the modern prefecture of Arcadia. ===Other cultural distinctions=== Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, Doric colonies retained their characteristic Doric calendar that revolved round a cycle of festivals, the Hyacinthia and the Carneia being especially important. ==Ancient traditions== In Greek historiography, the Dorians are mentioned by many authors. The chief classical authors to relate their origins are Herodotus, Thucydides and Pausanias. The most copious authors, however, lived in Hellenistic and Roman times, long after the main events. This apparent paradox does not necessarily discredit the later writers, who were relying on earlier works that did not survive. The customs of the Spartan state and its illustrious individuals are detailed at great length in such authors as Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus. ===Homer=== The Odyssey has one reference to the Dorians:There is a land called Crete, in the midst of the wine-dark sea, a fair, rich land, begirt with water, and therein are many men, past counting, and ninety cities. They have not all the same speech, but their tongues are mixed. There dwell Achaeans, there great-hearted native Cretans, there Cydonians, and Dorians of waving plumes, and goodly Pelasgians. The reference is not compatible with a Dorian invasion that brought Dorians to Crete only after the fall of the Mycenaean states. In the Odyssey, Odysseus and his relatives visit those states. Two solutions are possible, either the Odyssey is anachronistic or Dorians were on Crete in Mycenaean times. The uncertain nature of the Dorian invasion defers a definitive answer until more is known about it. Also, the Messenian town of Dorium is mentioned in the Catalogue of Ships. If its name comes from Dorians, it would imply there were settlements of the latter in Messenia during that time as well. ===Tyrtaeus=== Tyrtaeus, a Spartan poet, became advisor of the Lacedaemonians in their mid-7th-century war to suppress a rebellion of the Messenians. The latter were a remnant of the Achaeans conquered "two generations before", which suggests a rise to supremacy at the end of the Dark Age rather than during and after the fall of Mycenae. The Messenian population was reduced to serfdom. Only a few fragments of Tyrtaeus' five books of martial verse survive. His is the earliest mention of the three Dorian tribes: Pamphyli, Hylleis, Dymanes. He also says: Erineus was a village of Doris. He helped to establish the Spartan constitution, giving the kings and elders, among other powers, the power to dismiss the assembly. He established a rigorous military training program for the young including songs and poems he wrote himself, such as the "Embateria or Songs of the Battle-Charge which are also called Enoplia or Songs-under-Arms". These were chants used to establish the timing of standard drills under arms. He stressed patriotism: ===Herodotus=== Herodotus was from Halicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast of Asia Minor; following the literary tradition of the times he wrote in Ionic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so. He described the Persian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians. Herodotus gives a general account of the events termed "the Dorian Invasion", presenting them as transfers of population. Their original home was in Thessaly, central Greece. He goes on to expand in mythological terms, giving some of the geographic details of the myth:1.56.2-3 And inquiring he found that the Lacedemonians and the Athenians had the pre-eminence, the first of the Dorian and the others of the Ionian race. For these were the most eminent races in ancient time, the second being a Pelasgian and the first a Hellenic race: and the one never migrated from its place in any direction, while the other was very exceedingly given to wanderings; for in the reign of Deucalion this race dwelt in Pthiotis, and in the time of Doros the son of Hellen in the land lying below Ossa and Olympos, which is called Histiaiotis; and when it was driven from Histiaiotis by the sons of Cadmos, it dwelt in Pindos and was called Makednian; and thence it moved afterwards to Dryopis, and from Dryopis it came finally to Peloponnesus, and began to be called Dorian. 1.57.1-3 What language however the Pelasgians used to speak I am not able with certainty to say. But if one must pronounce judging by those that still remain of the Pelasgians who dwelt in the city of Creston above the Tyrsenians, and who were once neighbours of the race now called Dorian, dwelling then in the land which is now called Thessaliotis, and also by those that remain of the Pelasgians who settled at Plakia and Skylake in the region of the Hellespont, who before that had been settlers with the Athenians, and of the natives of the various other towns which are really Pelasgian, though they have lost the name,—if one must pronounce judging by these, the Pelasgians used to speak a Barbarian language. If therefore all the Pelasgian race was such as these, then the Attic race, being Pelasgian, at the same time when it changed and became Hellenic, unlearnt also its language. For the people of Creston do not speak the same language with any of those who dwell about them, nor yet do the people of Phakia, but they speak the same language one as the other: and by this it is proved that they still keep unchanged the form of language which they brought with them when they migrated to these places. 1.58 As for the Hellenic race, it has used ever the same language, as I clearly perceive, since it first took its rise; but since the time when it parted off feeble at first from the Pelasgian race, setting forth from a small beginning it has increased to that great number of races which we see, and chiefly because many Barbarian races have been added to it besides. Moreover it is true, as I think, of the Pelasgian race also, that so far as it remained Barbarian it never made any great increase. Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not name themselves after Dorus until they had reached Peloponnesus. Herodotus does not explain the contradictions of the myth; for example, how Doris, located outside the Peloponnesus, acquired its name. However, his goal, as he relates in the beginning of the first book, is only to report what he had heard from his sources without judgement. In the myth, the Achaeans displaced from the Peloponnesus gathered at Athens under a leader Ion and became identified as "Ionians". Herodotus' list of Dorian states is as follows. From northeastern Greece were Phthia, Histiaea and Macedon. In central Greece were Doris (the former Dryopia) and in the south Peloponnesus, specifically the states of Lacedaemon, Corinth, Sicyon, Epidaurus and Troezen. Hermione was not Dorian but had joined the Dorians. Overseas were the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus and the Anatolian cities of Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis and Calydna. Dorians also colonised Crete including founding of such towns as Lato, Dreros and Olous. The Cynurians were originally Ionians but had become Dorian under the influence of their Argive masters. ===Thucydides=== Thucydides professes little of Greece before the Trojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks. The Hellenes came from Phthiotis. The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled. After the Trojan War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling." Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese." Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Leucadia, Ambracia, Potidaea, Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae. He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during the Battle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other:For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn. He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...." ===Plato=== In the Platonic work Laws is mentioned that the Achaeans who fought in the Trojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed "Dorians". Now during this period of ten years, while the siege lasted, the affairs of each of the besiegers at home suffered much owing to the seditious conduct of the young men. For when the soldiers returned to their own cities and homes, these young people did not receive them fittingly and justly, but in such a way that there ensued a vast number of cases of death, slaughter, and exile. So they, being again driven out, migrated by sea; and because Dorieus was the man who then banded together the exiles, they got the new name of "Dorians", instead of "Achaeans". But as to all the events that follow this, you Lacedaemonians relate them all fully in your traditions. ===Pausanias=== The Description of Greece by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly. They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles, but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of the Heracleidae." They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth. This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers. Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor. ===Diodorus Siculus=== Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially the Library of History. He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary. The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political. Diodorus quoting from an earlier historian Hecataeus of Abdera details that during the Exodus many Israelites went into the islands of Greece and other places. All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited. Heracles was a Perseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece. His mother Alcmene had both Perseids and Pelopids in her ancestry. A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he was Amphitryon. Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of succession Eurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right. Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed. On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform 12 labors. Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems. He took a retinue of Arcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae. He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors. The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of king Tyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles. The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön. He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it. Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance. Subsequently, he founded a colony in Aetolia, then in Trachis. After displacing the Dryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under king Aegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superior Lapithae. The Dorians promised him of Doris (which they did not yet possess). He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land "in trust" until it should be claimed by a descendant. He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife, Deianeira. He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and "passed from among men into the company of the gods." ===Strabo=== Strabo, who depends on the books available to him, goes on to elaborate: Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of the Iliad of the Heraclid Tlepolemus, a warrior on the side of Achaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities in Rhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation.
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8,217
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution; the French title can be translated in the modern era as "Declaration of Human and Civic Rights". Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, the declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a significant impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide places. The declaration was initially drafted by Marquis de Lafayette with assistance from Thomas Jefferson, but the majority of the final draft came from Abbé Sieyès. Influenced by the doctrine of natural right, human rights are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law. It is included at the beginning of the constitutions of both the French Fourth Republic (1946) and French Fifth Republic (1958) and is considered valid as constitutional law. ==History== The content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment. Marquis de Lafayette prepared the principal drafts in consultation with his close friend Thomas Jefferson. In August 1789, Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the final Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on 26 August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the declaration was discussed by the representatives based on a 24-article draft proposed by , led by The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted. ==Background== The concepts in the declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights, as was the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776). These principles were shared widely throughout European society, rather than being confined to a small elite as in the past. This took different forms, such as 'English coffeehouse culture', and extended to areas colonised by Europeans, particularly British North America. Contacts between diverse groups in Edinburgh, Geneva, Boston, Amsterdam, Paris, London, or Vienna were much greater than often appreciated. Transnational elites who shared ideas and styles were not new; what changed was their extent and the numbers involved. Under Louis XIV, Versailles was the centre of French culture, fashion and political power. Improvements in education and literacy over the course of the 18th century meant larger audiences for newspapers and journals, with Masonic lodges, coffee houses and reading clubs providing areas where people could debate and discuss ideas. The emergence of this "public sphere" led to Paris replacing Versailles as the cultural and intellectual centre, leaving the Court isolated and less able to influence opinion. Assisted by Jefferson, then American diplomat to France, Lafayette prepared a draft which echoed some of the provisions of the U.S. declaration. However, there was no consensus on the role of the Crown, and until this question was settled it was impossible to create political institutions. When presented to the legislative committee on 11 July 1789, it was rejected by pragmatists such as Jean Joseph Mounier, President of the Assembly, who feared creating expectations that could not be satisfied. Conservatives like Gérard de Lally-Tollendal wanted a bicameral system, with an upper house appointed by the king who would have the right of veto. On 10 September, the majority led by Sieyès and Talleyrand rejected this in favour of a single assembly, while Louis XVI retained only a "suspensive veto"; this meant he could delay the implementation of a law but not block it. With these questions settled, a new committee was convened to agree on a constitution; the most controversial remaining issue was citizenship, itself linked to the debate on the balance between individual rights and obligations. Ultimately, the 1791 Constitution distinguished between active citizens and passive citizens. As a result, it was never fully accepted by radicals in the Jacobin club. After editing by Mirabeau, it was published on 26 August as a statement of principle. The final draft contained provisions then considered radical in any European society, let alone France in 1789. French historian Georges Lefebvre argues that combined with the elimination of privilege and feudalism, it "highlighted equality in a way the (American Declaration of Independence) did not". More importantly, the two differed in intent; Jefferson saw the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights as fixing the political system at a specific point in time, claiming they 'contained no original thought...but expressed the American mind' at that stage. The 1791 French Constitution was viewed as a starting point, the declaration providing an aspirational vision, a key difference between the two revolutions. Attached as a preamble to the French Constitution of 1791, and that of the 1870 to 1940 French Third Republic, it was incorporated into the current Constitution of France in 1958. ==Summary of principles== The declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good." They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to life. According to this theory, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore, the government should be carried on by elected representatives. When it was written, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality. The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and revolution. It encountered opposition, as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion. This declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future. ==Substance== The declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights, which are qualified as "natural, unalienable and sacred" and "simple and incontestable principles" on which citizens could base their demands. In the second article, "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" are defined as "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression". It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom, and equal rights for all "Men" and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens had the right to participate in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests were outlawed. The declaration also asserts the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents," eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy. ===Articles=== Article I – Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. Article II – The goal of any political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression. Article III – The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. Article IV – Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the fruition of these same rights. These borders can be determined only by the law. Article V – The law has the right to forbid only actions harmful to society. Anything which is not forbidden by the law cannot be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it does not order. Article VI – The law is the expression of the general will. All the citizens have the right of contributing personally or through their representatives to its formation. It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents. Article VII – No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the cases determined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he renders himself culpable by resistance. Article VIII – The law should establish only penalties that are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgated before the offense and legally applied. Article IX – Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable if it is judged indispensable to arrest him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimanded by the law. Article X – No one may be disquieted for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law. Article XI – The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined by the law. Article XII – The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted. Article XIII – For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay. Article XIV – Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration. Article XV – The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration. Article XVI – Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no constitution. Article XVII – Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity. ===Active and passive citizenship=== While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants. This meant that at the time of the declaration, only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics. The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations excluded from political rights in the declaration. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, the poor, domestic servants, enslaved people, children, and foreigners. As the General Assembly voted upon these measures, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the French First Republic. This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III to eliminate the label of an active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners. Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights or openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. Women in particular were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events." By working with men, as opposed to working apart from men, she may have been able to further the fight for revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political power. ===Women's rights=== The declaration recognizes many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after the Women's March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own". The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women's rights, and this prompted de Gouges to publish her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in September 1791, modeled after the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It is ironic in the formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states: "This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society." The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen follows the 17 articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point. Camille Naish has described it as "almost a parody... of the original document". The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility." The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replies: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility". De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law, women were fully punishable yet denied equal rights, declaring, "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker's rostrum". ===Slavery=== The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery in the French colonies, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissot's Les Amis des Noirs and opposed by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac, because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the declaration, it inspired the slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue in the Haitian Revolution, as discussed in C. L. R. James's history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins. In Louisiana, the organizers of the Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1795 also drew information from the declaration. Deplorable conditions for the thousands of enslaved people in Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later formerly enslaved people took control. In 1794, the convention was dominated by the Jacobins and abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. After suffering the losses of two-thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1803. Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815. Slavery in France was finally abolished in 1848. ===Homosexuality=== The vast amount of personal freedom given to citizens by the document created a situation where homosexuality was decriminalized by the French Penal Code of 1791, which covered felonies; the law simply failed to mention sodomy as a crime, and thus no one could be prosecuted for it. The 1791 Code of Municipal Police did provide misdemeanor penalties for "gross public indecency," which the police could use to punish anyone having sex in public places or otherwise violating social norms. This approach to punishing homosexual conduct was reiterated in the French Penal Code of 1810.
[ "general will", "Etta Palm d'Aelders", "Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord", "University of Pennsylvania Press", "human rights", "Haitian Revolution", "Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette", "Henrician Articles", "upper house", "Natural rights and legal rights", "Saint-Domingue", "Pacta conventa", "National Assembly (French Revolution)", "Civil and political rights", "subversion", "Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès", "divine right of kings", "Madame Roland", "Rights of Man", "British North America", "Universality (philosophy)", "universality (philosophy)", "Cortes of León", "individualism", "The Black Jacobins", "Constitution of the United States", "National Constituent Assembly (France)", "Petition of Right", "Statute of Kalisz", "Natural person in French law", "French Revolution", "Kouroukan Fouga", "Liège Revolution", "United States Declaration of Independence", "Civil liberties", "Bill of Rights 1689", "Geneva", "Palace of Versailles", "right to resist", "Louis XVI", "Representative democracy", "Oxford University Press", "Amsterdam", "French Fifth Republic", "individual rights", "Abolitionism", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "Jean-Baptiste Belley", "social contract", "Louis XIV", "Egalitarianism", "Georges Lefebvre", "Napoleon", "Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1795", "public sphere", "democracy", "separation of powers", "Moral universalism", "Boston", "social equality", "feudalism", "Human rights in France", "French Third Republic", "Olympe de Gouges", "Women's Petition to the National Assembly", "Edinburgh", "Right to life", "Slavery in France", "Bill of rights", "Masonic lodges", "Jean Joseph Mounier", "Committee of United Belgians and Liégeois", "Brabantine Revolution", "liberty", "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793", "Republic of Haiti", "Women's March on Versailles", "Right to property", "citizenship", "Louisiana Purchase", "Constitution of the Year III", "Republic of Liège", "sovereignty", "French Penal Code of 1791", "1791 in France", "Age of Enlightenment", "French Fourth Republic", "Freedom of speech", "women's rights", "London", "French Constitution of 1791", "Provisional Representatives of the People of Holland", "anarchy", "United States Bill of Rights", "Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau", "Stanford University Press", "Slavery abolition efforts by Les Amis des Noirs", "Batavian Republic", "Club Massiac", "Free persons of color", "Constitution of France", "English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries", "Montesquieu", "Claim of Right Act 1689", "popular sovereignty", "Magna Carta", "suspensive veto", "Freedom of the press", "Virginia Declaration of Rights", "Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776", "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen", "sodomy", "French First Republic", "Thomas Jefferson", "Nicolas de Condorcet", "Bicameralism", "Guadeloupe", "French Penal Code of 1810", "constitutional law", "Innocence", "Paris", "Active citizenship", "Thomas Paine", "Gérard de Lally-Tollendal", "C. L. R. James", "Jacobin club", "Vienna" ]
8,218
Dennis Ritchie
{{Infobox scientist | name = Dennis Ritchie | image = Dennis Ritchie 2011.jpg | caption = Ritchie in 2011 | birth_name = Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie | birth_date = | birth_place = Bronxville, New York, U.S. | death_date = | death_place = Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, U.S. | alma_mater = Harvard University (BS) | doctoral_advisor = Patrick C. Fischer | doctoral_students = | known_for = ALTRANBBCPLCMulticsUnix | footnotes = | field = Computer science | workplaces = Lucent TechnologiesBell Labs | prizes = IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award (1982)Turing Award (1983)National Medal of Technology (1998)IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (1990)Computer Pioneer Award (1994)Computer History Museum Fellow (1997) on switching circuit theory. In 2020, the Computer History Museum worked with Ritchie's family and Fischer's family and found a copy of the lost dissertation. During the 1960s, Ritchie and Ken Thompson worked on the Multics operating system at Bell Labs. Thompson then found an old PDP-7 machine and developed his own application programs and operating system from scratch, aided by Ritchie and others. In 1970, Brian Kernighan suggested the name "Unix", a pun on the name "Multics". To supplement assembly language with a system-level programming language, Thompson created B. Later, B was replaced by C, created by Ritchie, who continued to contribute to the development of Unix and C for many years. During the 1970s, Ritchie collaborated with James Reeds and Robert Morris on a ciphertext-only attack on the M-209 US cipher machine that could solve messages of at least 2000–2500 letters. Ritchie relates that, after discussions with the National Security Agency, the authors decided not to publish it, as they were told that the principle applied to machines still in use by foreign governments. == C and Unix == Ritchie created the C programming language and was one of the developers of the Unix operating system. With Brian Kernighan, he co-wrote the book The C Programming Language, which is often referred to as K&R after their initials. Ritchie worked together with Ken Thompson, who is credited with writing the original version of Unix; one of Ritchie's contributions to Unix was its porting to different machines and platforms. They were so influential on Research Unix that Doug McIlroy later wrote, "The names of Ritchie and Thompson may safely be assumed to be attached to almost everything not otherwise attributed." Nowadays, the C language is widely used in application, operating system, and embedded system development, and its influence is seen in most modern programming languages. C is a low-level language with constructs closely translating to the hardware's instruction set. However, it is not tied to any given hardware, making it easy to write programs on any machine that supports C. Moreover, C is a high-level programming language with constructs mapping to data structures in application software. C influenced several other languages and derivatives, such as C++, Objective-C used by Apple, C# used by Microsoft, and Java used in corporate environments extensively and by Android. Ritchie and Thompson used C to write Unix, which has been influential in establishing many computing concepts and principles that are adopted widely. In an interview from 1999, Ritchie clarified that he saw Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) operating systems as a continuation of the basis of the Unix operating system, and as derivatives of Unix: In the same interview, he stated that he viewed Unix and Linux as "the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago." Ritchie's Turing Award lecture was titled "Reflections on Software Research". In 1990, both Ritchie and Thompson received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), "for the origination of the UNIX operating system and the C programming language". In 1997, both Ritchie and Thompson were made Fellows of the Computer History Museum, "for co-creation of the UNIX operating system, and for development of the C programming language." On April 21, 1999, Thompson and Ritchie jointly received the National Medal of Technology of 1998 from President Bill Clinton for co-inventing the UNIX operating system and the C programming language which, according to the citation for the medal, "led to enormous advances in computer hardware, software, and networking systems and stimulated growth of an entire industry, thereby enhancing American leadership in the Information Age". In 2005, the Industrial Research Institute awarded Ritchie its Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to science and technology, and to society generally, with his development of the Unix operating system. In 2011, Ritchie, along with Thompson, was awarded the Japan Prize for Information and Communications for his work in the development of the Unix operating system. ==Death== Ritchie was found dead on October 12, 2011, at the age of 70 at his home in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, where he lived alone. He had been in frail health for several years following treatment for prostate cancer and heart disease. News of Ritchie's death was largely overshadowed by the media coverage of the death of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, which occurred the week before. ==Legacy== Following Ritchie's death, computer historian Paul E. Ceruzzi stated: In an interview shortly after Ritchie's death, long-time colleague Brian Kernighan said Ritchie never expected C to be so significant. Kernighan told The New York Times "The tools that Dennis built—and their direct descendants—run pretty much everything today." Kernighan reminded readers of how important a role C and Unix had played in the development of later high-profile projects, such as the iPhone. Other testimonials to his influence followed. Reflecting upon his death, a commentator compared the relative importance of Steve Jobs and Ritchie, concluding that "[Ritchie's] work played a key role in spawning the technological revolution of the last forty years—including technology on which Apple went on to build its fortune." Another commentator said, "Ritchie, on the other hand, invented and co-invented two key software technologies which make up the DNA of effectively every single computer software product we use directly or even indirectly in the modern age. It sounds like a wild claim, but it really is true." Another said, "many in computer science and related fields knew of Ritchie's importance to the growth and development of, well, everything to do with computing,..." The Fedora 16 Linux distribution, which was released about a month after he died, was dedicated to his memory. FreeBSD 9.0, released January 12, 2012, was also dedicated in his memory. Asteroid 294727 Dennisritchie, discovered by astronomers Tom Glinos and David H. Levy in 2008, was named in his memory. == Publications and academic papers == Ritchie has been the author or contributor to about 50 academic papers, books and textbooks and which have had over 15,000 citations. Here are some of his most cited works: The C Programming Language, BW Kernighan, DM Ritchie, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1978) Programming languages, D Ritchie (1978) The UNIX time-sharing system, DM Ritchie, K Thompson, Classic operating systems, 195-220 (2001) Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment, WR Stevens, SA Rago, DM Ritchie, Addison-Wesley (1992, 2008)
[ "physics", "Doug McIlroy", "Berkeley Software Distribution", "Unix-like", "Industrial Research Institute", "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers", "Phoronix", "Java (programming language)", "Linux", "Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment", "embedded system", "BCPL", "ALTRAN", "Brian Kernighan", "iPhone", "Patrick C. Fischer", "List of pioneers in computer science", "Computer Pioneer Award", "Firstpost", "David H. Levy", "Usenix", "Harold Pender Award", "294727 Dennisritchie", "IRI Achievement Award", "Lucent Technologies", "Computer science", "C++", "Plan 9 from Bell Labs", "Linux distribution", "C Sharp (programming language)", "prostate cancer", "Steve Jobs", "Computer History Museum", "Bronxville, New York", "heart disease", "Harvard University", "Wired (magazine)", "IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal", "Android (operating system)", "Forbes India", "academic degree", "Turing Award", "The C Programming Language", "National Security Agency", "Research Unix", "workstation", "mainframe computer", "Japan Prize", "Association for Computing Machinery", "Deccan Herald", "Objective-C", "IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award", "B (programming language)", "Tom Glinos", "PDP-11", "POSIX", "C (programming language)", "B. S.", "computer scientist", "Ken Thompson", "Unix", "data structure", "Summit, New Jersey", "Minor Planet Circulars", "Man page", "Bell Labs", "PDP-7", "HP-UX", "The Hindu", "Steven Bellovin", "ciphertext-only attack", "Extreme Tech", "FreeBSD", "Apple Inc.", "Berkeley Heights, New Jersey", "Inferno (operating system)", "high-level programming language", "Fedora 16", "Multics", "Lucent", "application software", "Paul E. Ceruzzi", "Bill Clinton", "switching circuit theory", "Limbo (programming language)", "operating system", "Robert Morris (cryptographer)", "Oracle Solaris", "IEEE", "Summit High School (New Jersey)", "Rob Pike", "M-209", "The New York Times", "IBM AIX", "National Medal of Technology", "Salt Lake City", "Minor Planet Center", "chalet", "applied mathematics" ]
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==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 714 – Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the Merovingian palace, dies at Jupille (modern Belgium). He is succeeded by his infant grandson Theudoald, while his widow Plectrude holds actual power in the Frankish Kingdom. 755 – An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Yanjing, initiating the An Lushan Rebellion during the Tang dynasty of China. 1431 – Hundred Years' War: Henry VI of England is crowned King of France at Notre Dame in Paris. 1497 – Vasco da Gama passes the Great Fish River at the southern tip of Africa, where Bartolomeu Dias had previously turned back to Portugal. 1575 – An earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 strikes Valdivia, Chile. 1598 – Seven-Year War: Battle of Noryang: The final battle of the Seven-Year War is fought between the China and the Korean allied forces and Japanese navies, resulting in a decisive allied forces victory. ===1601–1900=== 1653 – English Interregnum: The Protectorate: Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. 1689 – Convention Parliament: The Declaration of Right is embodied in the Bill of Rights. 1707 – Most Recent Eruption of Mount Fuji. 1761 – Seven Years' War: After a four-month siege, the Russians under Pyotr Rumyantsev take the Prussian fortress of Kołobrzeg. 1773 – American Revolution: Boston Tea Party: Members of the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk Indians dump hundreds of crates of tea into Boston harbor as a protest against the Tea Act. 1777 – Virginia becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. 1782 – British East India Company: Muharram Rebellion: Hada and Mada Miah lead the first anti-British uprising in the subcontinent against Robert Lindsay and his contingents in Sylhet Shahi Eidgah. 1811 – The first two in a series of four severe earthquakes occur in the vicinity of New Madrid, Missouri. 1826 – Benjamin W. Edwards rides into Mexican-controlled Nacogdoches, Texas, and declares himself ruler of the Republic of Fredonia. 1838 – Great Trek: Battle of Blood River: Voortrekkers led by Andries Pretorius and Sarel Cilliers defeat Zulu impis, led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and Ndlela kaSompisi in what is today KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. 1850 – The Charlotte Jane and the Randolph bring the first of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton, New Zealand. 1863 – American Civil War: Confederate President Jefferson Davis appoints General Joseph E. Johnston to replace General Braxton Bragg as commander of the Army of Tennessee. 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Nashville ends as the Union Army of the Cumberland under General George H. Thomas routs and destroys the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General John Bell Hood, ending its effectiveness as a combat unit. 1880 – Outbreak of the First Boer War between the Boer South African Republic and the British Empire. 1882 – Wales and England contest the first Home Nations (now Six Nations) rugby union match. 1883 – Tonkin Campaign: French forces capture the Sơn Tây citadel. ===1901–present=== 1905 – In Rugby Union, The "Match of the Century" is played between Wales and New Zealand at Cardiff Arms Park. 1912 – First Balkan War: The Royal Hellenic Navy defeats the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Elli. 1914 – World War I: Admiral Franz von Hipper commands a raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby. 1920 – The Haiyuan earthquake of 8.5, rocks the Gansu province in China, killing an estimated 200,000. 1942 – The Holocaust: Schutzstaffel chief Heinrich Himmler orders that Roma candidates for extermination be deported to Auschwitz. 1944 – World War II: The Battle of the Bulge begins with the surprise offensive of three German armies through the Ardennes forest. 1951 – A Miami Airlines Curtiss C-46 Commando crashes in Elizabeth, New Jersey, killing all 58 aboard including dancer Doris Ruby. 1960 – A United Air Lines Douglas DC-8 and a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation collide over Staten Island, New York and crash, killing all 128 people aboard both aircraft and six more on the ground. 1968 – Second Vatican Council: Official revocation of the Edict of Expulsion of Jews from Spain. 1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: The surrender of the Pakistan Army brings an end to both conflicts. This is commemorated annually as Victory Day in Bangladesh and Vijay Diwas in India respectively. 1971 – The United Kingdom recognizes Bahrain's independence, which is commemorated annually as Bahrain's National Day. 1972 – The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh was enacted. 1973 – Aeroflot Flight 2022 crashes in the Soviet Union's (now Russia) Volokolamsky District, killing all 51 aboard, including four Lithuanian doctors. 1986 – Jeltoqsan: Riots erupt in Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR, in response to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's dismissal of ethnic Kazakh Dinmukhamed Kunaev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, and his replacement with Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian from the Russian SFSR. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests break out in Timișoara, Romania, in response to an attempt by the government to evict dissident Hungarian pastor László Tőkés. 2011 – Zhanaozen massacre: Violent protests by oil workers take place in Zhanaozen, Kazakhstan, leading to 16 people dead and 100 injured by the security forces. 2013 – A bus falls from an elevated highway in the Philippines capital Manila killing at least 18 people with 20 injured. 2014 – Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan militants attack an Army Public School in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 150 people, 132 of them schoolchildren. 2022 – A landslide occurs at a camp at an organic farm near the town of Batang Kali in Selangor, Malaysia, trapping 92 people and killing 31. 2024 – A Abundant Life Christian School shooting: A mass shooting occurs at Abundant Life Christian School in Madison, Wisconsin, killing 3 people (including the shooter) and injuring several others. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1364 – Emperor Manuel III of Trebizond (d. 1417) 1485 – Catherine of Aragon, Spanish princess, later queen consort of England (d. 1536) 1534 – Hans Bol, Flemish artist (d. 1593) 1582 – Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey (d. 1642) 1584 – John Selden, English jurist and scholar (d. 1654) 1585 – Livia della Rovere, Italian noble (d. 1641) ===1601–1900=== 1605 – Jerome Weston, 2nd Earl of Portland, English diplomat (d. 1663) 1614 – Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674) 1630 – Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort, British botanist (d. 1715) 1714 – George Whitefield, English Anglican priest (d. 1770) 1716 – Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, French poet and diplomat (d. 1798) 1717 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet and scholar (d. 1806) 1730 – Diego Silang, Filipino revolutionary leader (d. 1763) 1742 – Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, German field marshal (d. 1819) 1770 – Ludwig van Beethoven, composer (d. 1827) 1775 – Jane Austen, English novelist (d. 1817) 1775 – François-Adrien Boieldieu, French pianist and composer (d. 1834) 1776 – Johann Wilhelm Ritter, German chemist, physicist, and philosopher (d. 1810) 1778 – John Ordronaux, French-American soldier (d. 1841) 1787 – Mary Russell Mitford, English author and playwright (d. 1855) 1790 – Leopold I of Belgium (d. 1865) 1804 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1889) 1812 – Stuart Donaldson, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of New South Wales (d. 1867) 1834 – Léon Walras, French-Swiss economist and theorist (d. 1910) 1836 – Ernst von Bergmann, Latvian-German surgeon and academic (d. 1907) 1849 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (d. 1902) 1861 – Antonio de La Gándara, French painter and illustrator (d. 1917) 1863 – George Santayana, Spanish philosopher, novelist, and poet (d. 1952) 1865 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian journalist and poet (d. 1918) 1866 – Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-French painter and theorist (d. 1944) 1867 – Amy Carmichael, Irish missionary and humanitarian (d. 1951) 1869 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian physician and activist, co-founded the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (d. 1952) 1869 – Bertha Lamme Feicht, American electrical engineer (d. 1943) 1872 – Anton Denikin, Russian general (d. 1947) 1882 – Jack Hobbs, English cricketer and journalist (d. 1963) 1882 – Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer, conductor, and musicologist (d. 1967) 1882 – Walther Meissner, German physicist and engineer (d. 1974) 1883 – Károly Kós, Hungarian-Romanian architect, ethnologist, and politician (d. 1977) 1883 – Max Linder, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1925) 1884 – John Gunn, Australian politician, 29th Premier of South Australia (d. 1959) 1884 – Seibo Kitamura, Japanese sculptor (d. 1987) 1888 – Alexander I of Yugoslavia (d. 1934) 1888 – Alphonse Juin, Algerian-French general (d. 1967) 1889 – Kim Chwa-chin, South Korean guerrilla leader (d. 1930) 1895 – Marie Hall Ets, American author and illustrator (d. 1984) 1896 – Anna Anderson, an imposter who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia (d. 1984) 1899 – Noël Coward, English actor, playwright, and composer (d. 1973) 1900 – Lucille Lortel, American actress and producer (d. 1999) 1900 – V. S. Pritchett, British writer and literary critic (d. 1997) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Margaret Mead, American anthropologist and author (d. 1978) 1902 – Rafael Alberti, Spanish poet and playwright (d. 1999) 1903 – Hardie Albright, American actor (d. 1975) 1903 – Harold Whitlock, English race walker and coach (d. 1985) 1905 – Piet Hein, Danish mathematician, author, and poet (d. 1996) 1905 – Ruben Nirvi, Finnish linguist and professor (d. 1986) 1907 – Barbara Kent, Canadian-born American film actress (d. 2011) 1908 – Remedios Varo, Spanish-Mexican surrealist painter & anarchist (d. 1963) 1910 – Freddie Brown, Peruvian-English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1991) 1913 – George Ignatieff, Russian-Canadian scholar and diplomat, 8th Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 1989) 1914 – O. Winston Link, American photographer (d. 2001) 1916 – Ruth Johnson Colvin, American author and educator, founded ProLiteracy Worldwide (d. 2024) 1917 – Nabi Bux Khan Baloch, Pakistani author and scholar (d. 2011) 1917 – Pete T. Cenarrusa, American soldier, pilot, and politician, Secretary of State of Idaho (d. 2013) 1917 – Arthur C. Clarke, English science fiction writer (d. 2008) 1920 – Frederick Rotimi Williams, Nigerian lawyer and politician (d. 2005) 1921 – Eulalio González, Mexican singer-songwriter, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2003) 1922 – Cy Leslie, American record producer, founded Pickwick Records (d. 2008) 1923 – Menahem Pressler, German-American pianist (d. 2023) 1923 – Ernst Florian Winter, Austrian-American historian and political scientist (d. 2014) 1924 – Nicolas Sidjakov, Latvian-American illustrator (d. 1993) 1926 – James McCracken, American tenor and actor (d. 1988) 1926 – A. N. R. Robinson, Tobagonian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2014) 1926 – Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1927 – Peter Dickinson, Rhodesian-English author and poet (d. 2015) 1927 – Randall Garrett, American author and poet (d. 1987) 1928 – Terry Carter, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2024) 1928 – Philip K. Dick, American philosopher and author (d. 1982) 1929 – Nicholas Courtney, Egyptian-English actor (d. 2011) 1930 – Bill Brittain, American author (d. 2011) 1930 – Sam Most, American flute player and saxophonist (d. 2013) 1930 – Bill Young, American sergeant and politician (d. 2013) 1932 – Grace Alele-Williams, Nigerian mathematician and academic (d. 2022) 1932 – Quentin Blake, English author and illustrator 1932 – Lin Zhao, Chinese dissident and Christian executed during the Cultural Revolution (d. 1968) 1936 – Morris Dees, American lawyer and activist, co-founded the Southern Poverty Law Center 1937 – Joyce Bulifant, American actress 1937 – Edward Ruscha, American painter and photographer 1938 – Frank Deford, American journalist and author (d. 2017) 1938 – Liv Ullmann, Norwegian actress, director, and screenwriter 1939 – Philip Langridge, English tenor (d. 2010) 1939 – Gordon Miller, English high jumper 1941 – Lesley Stahl, American journalist and actress 1941 – Roger Neil Wheeler, English general 1942 – Donald Carcieri, American educator and politician, 73rd Governor of Rhode Island 1943 – Steven Bochco, American television writer and producer (d. 2018) 1943 – Patti Deutsch, American actress and comedian (d. 2017) 1944 – Jeff Kanew, American director and screenwriter 1944 – Don Meyer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014) 1945 – Tony Hicks, English singer and guitarist 1946 – Benny Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 1946 – Charles Dennis, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1946 – Trevor Pinnock, English harpsichord player and conductor 1946 – Tom Stern, American cinematographer 1947 – Ben Cross, English actor (d. 2020) 1947 – Vincent Matthews, American sprinter 1947 – Martyn Poliakoff, English chemist and academic 1947 – Trevor Żahra, Maltese novelist, poet and illustrator 1949 – Billy Gibbons, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1949 – Heather Hallett, English lawyer and judge 1950 – Claudia Cohen, American journalist (d. 2007) 1950 – Roy Schuiten, Dutch cyclist and manager (d. 2006) 1951 – Aykut Barka, Turkish scientist (d. 2002) 1951 – Sally Emerson, English author and poet 1951 – Mike Flanagan, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2011) 1951 – Robben Ford, American guitarist and songwriter 1951 – Mark Heard, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1992) 1952 – Joel Garner, Barbadian cricketer and manager 1952 – Francesco Graziani, Italian footballer and manager 1953 – Rebecca Forstadt, American voice actress and screenwriter 1955 – Xander Berkeley, American actor and producer 1955 – Carol Browner, American lawyer and environmentalist, 8th Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency 1955 – Prince Lorenz of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este 1955 – Chiharu Matsuyama, Japanese singer-songwriter 1956 – Lizzy Mercier Descloux, French musician, singer-songwriter, composer, actress, writer and painter (d. 2004) 1957 – Antonio Vega, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009) 1958 – Bart Oates, American football player and lawyer 1958 – Jeff Ruland, American basketball player 1959 – H. D. Kumaraswamy, Indian social worker and politician, 18th Chief Minister of Karnataka 1959 – Alison La Placa, American actress 1959 – Alexander Lebedev, Russian businessman and politician 1959 – Steve Mattsson, American author and illustrator 1960 – Pat Van Den Hauwe, Belgian footballer and manager 1961 – André Andersen, Russian-Danish keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1961 – Shane Black, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1961 – Bill Hicks, American comedian and musician (d. 1994) 1961 – LaChanze, American actress, singer, and dancer 1961 – Sam Robards, American actor 1961 – Jon Tenney, American actor and director 1962 – Maruschka Detmers, Dutch-French actress 1962 – William Perry, American football player and wrestler 1963 – Benjamin Bratt, American actor and producer 1963 – Cathy Johnston-Forbes, American golfer 1963 – James Mangold, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1963 – Nadia Moscufo, Belgian politician 1964 – Heike Drechsler, German sprinter and long jumper 1964 – Todd Glass, American comedian 1964 – John Kirwan, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1964 – Georgie Parker, Australian actress 1964 – Billy Ripken, American baseball player and sportscaster 1965 – Melanie Sloan, American lawyer and activist 1965 – J. B. Smoove, American comedian, writer, and actor 1966 – Fatima Lamarti, Belgian politician 1966 – Paul McGinley, Irish golfer 1966 – Clifford Robinson, American basketball player (d. 2020) 1966 – Dennis Wise, English footballer and manager 1967 – Donovan Bailey, Canadian sprinter and sportscaster 1967 – Indrek Kaseorg, Estonian decathlete 1967 – Miranda Otto, Australian actress 1968 – Wendy Doolan, Australian golfer 1968 – Lalah Hathaway, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 1968 – Greg Kovacs, Canadian bodybuilder (d. 2013) 1969 – Simon Grayson, English footballer and manager 1969 – Kent Hehr, Canadian politician 1969 – Adam Riess, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic Nobel Prize laureate 1969 – Michelle Smith, Irish swimmer 1969 – Dmitri Tymoczko, American composer and theorist 1969 – Craig White, English cricketer and coach 1970 – Valerie Chow, Canadian-Hong Kong actress and publicist 1970 – Daniel Cosgrove, American actor 1971 – Seyhan Kurt, French-Turkish poet and sociologist 1971 – Paul van Dyk, German musician, producer and DJ 1971 – Michael McCary, American R&B singer 1972 – Charles Gipson, American baseball player 1972 – Zeljko Kalac, Australian soccer player and manager 1972 – Paul Leyden, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1972 – Travis Morrison, American singer-songwriter 1973 – Themba Mnguni, South African footballer 1973 – Scott Storch, American songwriter and producer, founded Storch Music Company 1975 – Valentin Bădoi, Romanian footballer and manager 1975 – Kaba Diawara, French-Guinean footballer 1975 – Benjamin Kowalewicz, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Paul Maynard, English politician 1976 – Jen Golbeck, American computer scientist and academic 1977 – Éric Bélanger, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Sylvain Distin, French footballer 1978 – John Morris, Canadian curler and firefighter 1978 – Gunter Van Handenhoven, Belgian footballer and manager 1979 – Trevor Immelman, South African golfer 1979 – Brodie Lee, American wrestler (d. 2020) 1979 – Daniel Narcisse, French handball player 1979 – Mihai Trăistariu, Romanian singer-songwriter 1979 – Jessie Ward, American wrestler and producer 1980 – Danish Kaneria, Pakistani cricketer 1981 – Krysten Ritter, American actress, musician, and model 1981 – Reanna Solomon, Nauruan weightlifter (d. 2022) 1981 – Gareth Williams, Scottish footballer 1982 – Antrel Rolle, American football player 1982 – Anna Sedokova, Ukrainian singer, actress and television presenter 1982 – Stanislav Šesták, Slovak footballer 1983 – Kelenna Azubuike, Nigerian-American basketball player 1983 – Frankie Ballard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 – Joey Dorsey, American basketball player 1984 – Theo James, English actor 1985 – Stanislav Manolev, Bulgarian footballer 1985 – James Nash, English race car driver 1985 – Amanda Setton, American actress 1986 – Alcides Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player 1986 – Zoltán Kovács, Hungarian footballer (d. 2013) 1986 – Pärt Uusberg, Estonian actor, composer, and conductor. 1987 – Mame Biram Diouf, Senegalese footballer 1987 – Beau Dowler, Australian footballer 1987 – Hallee Hirsh, American actress 1988 – Mats Hummels, German footballer 1988 – Anna Popplewell, English actress 1988 – Alexey Shved, Russian basketball player 1989 – Mikkel Bødker, Danish ice hockey player 1990 – Rebecca Marino, Canadian tennis player 1991 – Craig Goodwin, Australian footballer 1991 – David Johnson, American football player 1992 – Ulrikke Eikeri, Norwegian tennis player 1992 – Anamul Haque, Bangladeshi cricketer 1992 – Pietro Perdichizzi, Belgian footballer 1992 – Tom Rogic, Australian footballer 1993 – Jyoti Amge, Indian actress 1993 – Stephan James, Canadian actor 1994 – Nigel Hayes, American basketball player 1994 – Elliot Lee, English footballer 1994 – Nicola Murru, Italian footballer 1994 – José Rodríguez, Spanish footballer 1996 – Wilfred Ndidi, Nigerian footballer 1996 – Sergio Reguilón, Spanish footballer 1996 – Henry Thornton, Australian cricketer 1998 – Mira Antonitsch, Austrian tennis player 1998 – Zhou Jieqiong, Chinese singer and actress 2001 – Kai Cenat, American streamer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 604 – Houzhu, emperor of the Chen dynasty (b. 553) 705 – Wu Zetian, Empress of the Zhou dynasty (b. 624) 714 – Pepin of Herstal, Frankish statesman (b. 635) 867 – Eberhard of Friuli, Frankish duke (b. 815) 874 – Ado, archbishop of Vienne 882 – John VIII, pope of the Catholic Church 902 – Wei Yifan, chancellor of the Tang dynasty 999 – Adelaide of Italy, Holy Roman Empress (b. 931) 1153 – Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester, Norman nobleman 1263 – Haakon IV, king of Norway (b. 1204) 1316 – Öljaitü, Mongolian ruler (b. 1280) 1325 – Charles, French nobleman (b. 1270) 1378 – Secondotto, marquess of Montferrat (b. 1360) 1379 – John FitzAlan, 1st Baron Arundel, English general and politician, Lord Marshall of England (b. 1348) 1470 – John II, duke of Lorraine (b. 1424) 1474 – Ali Qushji, Uzbek astronomer, mathematician, and physicist (b. 1403) 1515 – Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese admiral and politician, 3rd Viceroy of Portuguese India (b. 1453) 1558 – Thomas Cheney, English diplomat and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports 1583 – Ivan Fyodorov, Russian printer 1594 – Allison Balfour, Scottish witch 1598 – Yi Sun-sin, Korean general (b. 1545) ===1601–1900=== 1669 – Nathaniel Fiennes, English soldier and politician (b. 1608) 1687 – William Petty, English economist and philosopher (b. 1623) 1751 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (b. 1700) 1774 – François Quesnay, French economist, physician, and philosopher (b. 1694) 1783 – Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer and educator (b. 1699) 1783 – Sir William James, 1st Baronet, Welsh-English commander and politician (b. 1720) 1805 – Saverio Cassar, Gozitan priest and rebel leader (b. 1746) 1809 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (b. 1755) 1859 – Wilhelm Grimm, German anthropologist and author (b. 1786) 1892 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (b. 1810) 1897 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1840) 1898 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and art collector (b. 1832) ===1901–present=== 1908 – American Horse, American tribal leader and educator (b. 1840) 1917 – Frank Gotch, American wrestler (b. 1878) 1921 – Camille Saint-Saëns, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1835) 1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz, Lithuanian–Polish engineer and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Poland (b. 1865) 1928 – Elinor Wylie, American poet and author (b. 1885) 1935 – Thelma Todd, American actress and comedian (b. 1905) 1936 – Frank Eugene, American-German photographer and educator (b. 1865) 1940 – Eugène Dubois, Dutch paleoanthropologist (b. 1858) 1940 – Billy Hamilton, American baseball player and manager (b. 1866) 1943 – George Bambridge, English diplomat (b. 1892) 1944 – Betsie ten Boom, Dutch Holocaust victim (b. 1885) 1945 – Giovanni Agnelli, Italian businessman, founded Fiat (b. 1866) 1945 – Fumimaro Konoe, Japanese lawyer and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1891) 1949 – Sidney Olcott, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1873) 1952 – Robert Henry Best, American journalist (b. 1896) 1956 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh painter and author (b. 1890) 1961 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1882) 1965 – W. Somerset Maugham, British playwright, novelist, and short story writer (b. 1874) 1968 – Futabayama Sadaji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 35th Yokozuna (b. 1912) 1968 – Muhammad Suheimat, Jordanian general and politician (b. 1916) 1969 – Alphonse Castex, French rugby union player (b. 1899) 1969 – Soe Hok Gie, Indonesian activist and academic (b. 1942) 1970 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (b. 1914) 1974 – Kostas Varnalis, Greek poet and playwright (b. 1884) 1976 – Réal Caouette, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1917) 1977 – Risto Jarva, Finnish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1934) 1980 – Colonel Sanders, American businessman, founded KFC (b. 1890) 1980 – Hellmuth Walter, German-American engineer (b. 1900) 1982 – Colin Chapman, English engineer and businessman, founded Lotus Cars (b. 1928) 1983 – Debs Garms, American baseball player (b. 1907) 1984 – Karl Deichgräber, German philologist and academic (b. 1903) 1985 – Thomas Bilotti, American mobster (b. 1940) 1985 – Paul Castellano, American mobster (b. 1915) 1989 – Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1913) 1989 – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (b. 1930) 1989 – Aileen Pringle, American actress (b. 1895) 1989 – Lee Van Cleef, American actor (b. 1925) 1991 – Eszter Tamási, Hungarian actress and journalist (b. 1938) 1993 – Moses Gunn, American actor (b. 1929) 1993 – Kakuei Tanaka, Japanese soldier and politician, 64th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1918) 1996 – Quentin Bell, English historian and author (b. 1910) 1997 – Lillian Disney, American illustrator and philanthropist (b. 1899) 1998 – William Gaddis, American author and academic (b. 1922) 2001 – Stuart Adamson, English-Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1958) 2001 – Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (b. 1913) 2003 – Robert Stanfield, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician, 17th Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1914) 2003 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945) 2004 – Ted Abernathy, American baseball player (b. 1933) 2004 – Deyda Hydara, Gambian journalist, co-founded The Point (b. 1946) 2004 – Agnes Martin, American painter and educator (b. 1912) 2005 – Kenneth Bulmer, English author (b. 1921) 2005 – Ed Hansen, American director and screenwriter (b. 1937) 2005 – John Spencer, American actor (b. 1946) 2006 – Don Jardine, Canadian wrestler and trainer (b. 1940) 2006 – Taliep Petersen, South African singer-songwriter and director (b. 1950) 2006 – Pnina Salzman, Israeli pianist and educator (b. 1922) 2006 – Stanford J. Shaw, American historian and academic (b. 1930) 2007 – Dan Fogelberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951) 2009 – Roy E. Disney, American businessman (b. 1930) 2009 – Yegor Gaidar, Russian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Russia (b. 1956) 2009 – Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, South African physician and politician, 22nd South African Minister of Health (b. 1940) 2010 – Melvin E. Biddle, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1923) 2010 – Ayinde Barrister, Nigerian fuji musician (b. 1948) 2011 – Robert Easton, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1930) 2011 – Nicol Williamson, Scottish actor (b. 1938) 2012 – Elwood V. Jensen, American biologist and academic (b. 1920) 2012 – Jake Adam York, American poet and academic (b. 1972) 2013 – James Flint, English commander (b. 1913) 2013 – Ray Price, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1926) 2013 – Marta Russell, American journalist, author, and activist (b. 1951) 2014 – Martin Brasier, English paleontologist, biologist, and academic (b. 1947) 2014 – Tim Cochran, American mathematician and academic (b. 1955) 2015 – Peter Dickinson, Rhodesian-English author and poet (b. 1927) 2015 – Lizmark, Mexican wrestler (b. 1950) 2015 – George Earl Ortman, American painter and sculptor (b. 1926) 2017 – Keely Smith, American singer and actress (b. 1928) 2024 – Dick Van Arsdale, American basketball player (b. 1943) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Adelaide of Italy Haggai Ralph Adams Cram, Richard Upjohn and John La Farge (Episcopal Church (USA)) December 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of Reconciliation, formerly celebrated as Day of the Vow by the Afrikaners (South Africa) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Kazakhstan from the Soviet Union in 1991. National Day, celebrates the withdrawal of United Kingdom from Bahrain, making Bahrain an independent emirate in 1971. National Sports Day (Thailand) The beginning of the nine-day celebration beginning December 16 and ending December 24, celebrating the trials which Mary and Joseph endured before finding a place to stay where Jesus could be born (Hispanidad): The first day of Las Posadas (Mexico, Latin America) The first day of the Simbang Gabi novena of masses (Philippines) Victory Day observances, celebration of the Indo-Bangla allied victory over Pakistan armed forces and the Liberation of Bangladesh. (Bangladesh and India)
[ "Benny Andersson", "1940", "1921", "Greg Kovacs", "Seven Years' War", "V. S. Pritchett", "Dennis Wise", "Sam Most", "1594", "Charles Gipson", "1770", "1982", "Rebecca Marino", "Johann Wilhelm Ritter", "882", "Danish Kaneria", "Tony Hicks", "1598", "raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby", "Battle of Elli", "Wales national rugby union team", "Claudia Cohen", "Frank Eugene", "New Zealand national rugby union team", "Cultural Revolution", "The Plain Dealer", "Trevor Immelman", "1850", "Confederate States of America", "1899", "Shane Black", "Ardennes", "Eugène Dubois", "Terry Carter", "Paul Castellano", "Zoltán Kodály", "Alhambra Decree", "Steven Bochco", "705", "Viktor Bunyakovsky", "1910", "Henry Yesler", "Edward Ruscha", "Africa", "1605", "Earl Marshal", "Adam Riess", "Taliep Petersen", "George Ignatieff", "Moses Gunn", "Lee Van Cleef", "Colonel Sanders", "2015", "Kakuei Tanaka", "New Madrid Seismic Zone", "Billy Hamilton (baseball, born 1866)", "1924", "Joseph E. Johnston", "Declaration of independence of Kazakhstan", "1826", "Frederick Rotimi Williams", "Canterbury Association", "Quentin Blake", "Betsie ten Boom", "Jeff Ruland", "Las Posadas", "Tim Cochran", "National Hockey League", "Premier of South Australia", "1964", "Batang Kali", "Max Linder", "Stuart Donaldson", "Hellenic Navy", "Allison Balfour", "1898", "Mary (mother of Jesus)", "Alphonse Castex", "Battle of Noryang", "Kostas Varnalis", "National Sports Day (Thailand)", "714", "Army of Tennessee", "Yegor Gaidar", "1872", "Barbara Kent", "1777", "Elizabeth, New Jersey", "The Holocaust", "Gansu", "Michael McCary", "South African Republic", "Yanjing", "Simon Grayson", "Second Vatican Council", "Constitution of Bangladesh", "1928", "1981", "Harold Whitlock", "1653", "Philip K. Dick", "Deyda Hydara", "Dan Fogelberg", "Ruth Johnson Colvin", "Doris Ruby", "1946", "First Boer War", "Mass (liturgy)", "1950", "Charles, Count of Valois", "French Third Republic", "1783", "Ayinde Barrister", "Liv Ullmann", "Soe Hok Gie", "feast day", "George Henry Thomas", "Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia", "Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg", "1979", "James Flint (RAF officer)", "Paul McGinley", "Auschwitz concentration camp", "1994", "1972", "1916", "James McCracken", "George Bambridge", "H. D. Kumaraswamy", "1497", "Jesus", "Ali Qushji", "1943", "604", "First Balkan War", "Charles Dennis", "Valentin Bădoi", "Convention Parliament (1689)", "Piet Hein (scientist)", "1717", "Associated Press", "Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization", "Theo James", "Stanislav Manolev", "1515", "Six Nations Championship", "Antrel Rolle", "The Point (the Gambia)", "Olavo Bilac", "Bill Young (Florida politician)", "American Horse", "Károly Kós", "Jake Adam York", "Francesco Graziani", "Todd Glass", "Independence Day (Bahrain)", "Hans Rebane", "Jack Hobbs", "Independence Day (Kazakhstan)", "Secondotto, Marquess of Montferrat", "Pavel Tretyakov", "1811", "1977", "Francia", "John Gunn (Australian politician)", "David Johnson (running back)", "British Empire", "1689", "1947", "Ben Cross", "José Rodríguez (footballer, born 1994)", "Zhanaozen massacre", "Sidney Olcott", "Kai Cenat", "Hellmuth Walter", "Bangladesh Liberation War", "Réal Caouette", "1922", "1838", "The New York Times", "1920", "Ted Abernathy", "Billy Ripken", "George Santayana", "Zeljko Kalac", "Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency", "1992", "William Gaddis", "2013", "Great Fish River", "Romanian Revolution", "Rebecca Forstadt", "Charlotte Jane", "1534", "National Day", "1953", "Manuel III of Trebizond", "Roy E. Disney", "Craig White", "Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Soviet Union)", "Alexander Lebedev", "Episcopal Church (USA)", "1790", "John Kirwan (rugby)", "United Airlines", "Southern Poverty Law Center", "1716", "Eulalio González", "Wassily Kandinsky", "Noël Coward", "1932", "Mary Russell Mitford", "LaChanze", "Mohawk people", "KwaZulu-Natal", "1951", "Sir William James, 1st Baronet", "1935", "1970", "1316", "2009", "Cathy Johnston-Forbes", "Eszter Tamási", "1883", "Theudoald", "Bill Hicks", "1985", "2010", "Alphonse Juin", "Henry VI of England", "Jefferson Davis", "Ruben Nirvi", "Los Angeles Times", "New York City", "1582", "Tom Rogic", "Risto Jarva", "1990", "Soviet Union", "874", "867", "Mark Heard", "Muhammad Suheimat", "1961", "Melanie Sloan", "Wilhelm Grimm", "1378", "2022 Batang Kali landslide", "1926", "1966", "Saverio Cassar", "William Petty", "Patti Deutsch", "Bill of Rights 1689", "1575 Valdivia earthquake", "Makuuchi", "1669", "World War I", "Agnes Martin", "J. B. Smoove", "Marta Russell", "1938", "Wilfred Ndidi", "1960 New York mid-air collision", "The Protectorate", "Hōei eruption", "Ottoman Navy", "Jen Golbeck", "1978", "Mats Hummels", "Nigel Hayes", "Premier of New South Wales", "1869", "Gennady Kolbin", "Prince Lorenz of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este", "People's Republic of Bangladesh", "Pope John VIII", "Beau Dowler", "Pepin of Herstal", "George Earl Ortman", "Heather Hallett", "Carol Browner", "1965", "Paul van Dyk", "Curtiss C-46 Commando", "Boston", "1987", "Stephan James (actor)", "Gareth Williams (Scottish footballer)", "1892", "Don Jardine", "Chiharu Matsuyama", "1939", "Nicholas Courtney", "Pakistani Instrument of Surrender", "1804", "Oscar Lewis", "Hispanidad", "Mame Biram Diouf", "Almaty", "Pietro Perdichizzi", "2001", "Amy Carmichael", "Battle of Nashville", "Tom Stern (cinematographer)", "Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau", "1993", "Yi Sun-sin", "1583", "ESPN", "Frank Deford", "Antonio Vega (singer)", "Nicolas Sidjakov", "2002 Commonwealth Games", "Lucille Lortel", "1787", "The Guardian", "Benjamin W. Edwards", "Chen Shubao", "Kołobrzeg", "2003", "impi", "1976", "Lizzy Mercier Descloux", "Camille Saint-Saëns", "Krysten Ritter", "Trevor Pinnock", "Margaret Mead", "2012", "Alcides Escobar", "1730", "Amanda Setton", "Daniel Cosgrove", "An Lushan Rebellion", "Robert Easton (actor)", "An Lushan", "1575", "Quentin Bell", "1989", "novena", "1773", "Tonkin Campaign", "1927", "Anna Sedokova", "1967", "1153", "Afonso de Albuquerque", "Craig Goodwin", "Mira Antonitsch", "Antonio de La Gándara", "Zoltán Kovács (footballer, born 1986)", "Keely Smith", "Frank Gotch", "Heike Drechsler", "Kent Hehr", "Paul Leyden", "1971", "Lotus Cars", "1952", "Kaba Diawara", "1751", "Remedios Varo", "Reanna Solomon", "Jeltoqsan", "Lizmark", "1984", "Bill Brittain", "Wu Zetian", "Scott Storch", "Nathaniel Fiennes", "earthquake", "Michelle Smith", "Day of the Vow", "1907", "Giovanni Agnelli", "1584", "Schutzstaffel", "Valerie Chow", "Frankie Ballard", "Bahrain", "Manila", "1923", "National Basketball Association", "1937", "Alexey Shved", "1913", "1996", "W. Somerset Maugham", "1963", "2013 Manila Skyway bus accident", "1951 Miami Airlines C-46 crash", "1707", "1880", "Peter Dickinson", "1975", "Jeff Kanew", "1474", "Abundant Life Christian School", "1888", "Tea Act", "1958", "Joey Dorsey", "Indrek Kaseorg", "1895", "Dmitri Tymoczko", "Plectrude", "Silvana Mangano", "Arthur C. Clarke", "1941", "Miranda Otto", "Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester", "1325", "Henry Thornton (cricketer)", "1778", "Mike Flanagan (baseball)", "1908", "Benjamin Kowalewicz", "1742", "Donald Carcieri", "Freddie Brown (cricketer)", "Brodie Lee", "Walther Meissner", "1867", "Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy", "1949", "Dick Van Arsdale", "1470", "Nicol Williamson", "Jane Austen", "755", "1809", "Nabi Bux Khan Baloch", "1969", "1962", "1912", "Georgie Parker", "John La Farge", "1889", "A. N. R. Robinson", "American Revolution", "Ado of Vienne", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "Kazakhstan", "2007", "Franz von Hipper", "Chancellor of the Tang dynasty", "Adelaide of Italy", "Öljaitü", "1614", "Prime Minister of Russia", "Bart Oates", "1957", "Aileen Pringle", "KFC", "Staten Island", "Kenneth Bulmer", "harpsichord", "Bartolomeu Dias", "Peshawar", "Morris Dees", "Sam Robards", "Mikkel Bødker", "Sơn Tây (Hanoi)", "Stuart Adamson", "1849", "Hardie Albright", "1761", "Premier League", "United Kingdom", "Japanese invasions of Korea (1592&ndash;98)", "German Army (Wehrmacht)", "1782", "1836", "John FitzAlan, 1st Baron Arundel", "Army of the Cumberland", "Merovingian dynasty", "Léon Walras", "Simbang Gabi", "Yang Guozhong", "1920 Haiyuan earthquake", "Pete T. Cenarrusa", "Voortrekkers", "John Spencer (actor)", "2004", "Ralph Adams Cram", "List of Canadian ambassadors to the United Nations", "1859", "Boston Tea Party", "2022", "1558", "1929", "Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort (1630–1715)", "Bangladesh", "Union (American Civil War)", "1585", "Bertha Lamme Feicht", "Benjamin Bratt", "1630", "Randall Garrett", "AD 999", "Zhanaozen", "Joyce Bulifant", "Stefan Heym", "1896", "Hallee Hirsh", "Jerome Weston, 2nd Earl of Portland", "Gordon Miller (athlete)", "Anna Popplewell", "Chief Minister of Karnataka", "guerrilla", "ProLiteracy Worldwide", "Vincent Matthews (athlete)", "1774", "Elwood V. Jensen", "Trans World Airlines", "Rafael Alberti", "Abundant Life Christian School shooting", "Governor of Rhode Island", "Pärt Uusberg", "Madison, Wisconsin", "Haggai", "Heinrich Himmler", "Pickwick Records", "Grace Alele-Williams", "Dinmukhamed Kunaev", "Robert Lindsay (Sylhet)", "Mayor of Seattle", "Sylvain Distin", "Tang dynasty", "1714", "Anton Denikin", "Romani people", "1884", "Alison La Placa", "1942", "1903", "Philip Langridge", "Women's Tennis Association", "Anna Anderson", "Sarel Cilliers", "Rugby Union", "1805", "Secretary of State of Idaho", "Colin Chapman", "Andries Pretorius", "List of governors of Portuguese India", "Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)", "Storch Music Company", "Alexander I of Yugoslavia", "Alphonse Daudet", "Notre Dame de Paris", "Aeroflot Flight 2022", "Clifford Robinson (basketball, born 1966)", "Sylhet Shahi Eidgah", "Wendy Doolan", "Mary Hartwell Catherwood", "Fumimaro Konoe", "Roger Wheeler (British Army officer)", "1864", "2014 Peshawar school massacre", "2006", "American Civil War", "Fredonian Rebellion", "1900", "British East India Company", "1865", "List of Presidents of Trinidad and Tobago", "Siege of Kolberg (Seven Years' War)", "Eberhard of Friuli", "1905", "1263", "Livia della Rovere", "Donovan Bailey", "1998", "Don Meyer", "1917", "Pakistan", "1866", "Saint Joseph", "Jupille-sur-Meuse", "Selangor", "Robben Ford", "1983", "1776", "Jeffrey Stone", "1986", "Roy Schuiten", "Cardiff Arms Park", "Cy Leslie", "Day of Reconciliation", "Pat Van Den Hauwe", "2024", "James Mangold", "1379", "UPI", "François-Adrien Boieldieu", "Leopold I of Belgium", "Philippines", "National Geographic Society", "Stanford J. Shaw", "Victory Day (Bangladesh)", "Richard Upjohn", "Lesley Stahl", "1485", "Nadia Moscufo", "1897", "Prime Minister of Japan", "Zulu people", "1812", "Paul Maynard", "1955", "Nicola Murru", "Romania", "2005", "1431", "King of France", "Lord Protector", "1901", "Manto Tshabalala-Msimang", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "John Ordronaux (privateer)", "1956", "Lillian Disney", "December 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Gunter Van Handenhoven", "Elliot Lee", "Éric Bélanger", "Jessie Ward", "1882", "Lin Zhao", "Mihai Trăistariu", "Randolph (ship)", "1991", "Gary Stewart (singer)", "1930", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "2014", "Thomas Cheney", "1863", "1968", "Kim Chwa-chin", "Pyotr Rumyantsev", "Hans Bol", "1364", "William Perry (American football)", "Latin America", "Hundred Years' War", "Ray Price (musician)", "László Tőkés", "1902", "Articles of Confederation", "Medal of Honor", "Ernst von Bergmann", "Elinor Wylie", "Thomas Bilotti", "Pakistan Army", "India", "Menahem Pressler", "Themba Mnguni", "Gabriel Narutowicz", "Catherine of Aragon", "Braxton Bragg", "1936", "1973", "Ernst Florian Winter", "Seyhan Kurt", "Premier of Nova Scotia", "1811&ndash;12 New Madrid earthquakes", "Diego Silang", "Jyoti Amge", "John Morris (curler)", "Timișoara", "Sergio Reguilón", "Sally Emerson", "Futabayama Sadaji", "1687", "Ivan Fyodorov (printer)", "John II, Duke of Lorraine", "Oliver Cromwell", "Martin Brasier", "John Bell Hood", "Commonwealth of England", "Daniel Narcisse", "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971", "Seibo Kitamura", "Martyn Poliakoff", "1944", "1997", "Minister of Health (South Africa)", "Melvin E. Biddle", "Travis Morrison", "Tobagonian", "Hristo Tatarchev", "Thelma Todd", "Billy Gibbons", "Fatima Lamarti", "Anamul Haque", "Oscar Alfredo Gálvez", "Aykut Barka", "Stanislav Šesták", "Marie Hall Ets", "Joel Garner", "Xander Berkeley", "Pakistan armed forces", "Trevor Żahra", "John Selden", "Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini", "Pnina Salzman", "1861", "Kelenna Azubuike", "Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan", "Ndlela kaSompisi", "Sơn Tây Campaign", "Nacogdoches, Texas", "England national rugby union team", "World War II", "Boer", "Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey", "1960", "Maruschka Detmers", "Vasco da Gama", "Wei Yifan", "George Whitefield", "Prussia", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Robert Stanfield", "Ulrikke Eikeri", "Karl Deichgräber", "Match of the Century (Rugby Union)", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Great Trek", "Elizabeth Carter", "1945", "Johann Adolph Hasse", "O. Winston Link", "Ed Hansen", "2017", "Battle of Blood River", "Muharram Rebellion", "1980", "Lyttelton, New Zealand", "1988", "1974", "James Nash (racing driver)", "Debs Garms", "Lalah Hathaway", "Battle of the Bulge", "Zhou Jieqiong", "Jon Tenney", "1775", "Afrikaner", "Interregnum (England)", "Sons of Liberty", "the subcontinent", "2011", "Robert Henry Best", "Nina Hamnett", "1959", "Steve Mattsson", "1914", "902", "Volokolamsky District", "Haakon IV of Norway", "André Andersen", "François Quesnay", "1834", "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic" ]
8,220
Doctrine and Covenants
The Doctrine and Covenants (sometimes abbreviated and cited as D&C or D. and C.) is a part of the open scriptural canon of several denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. Originally published in 1835 as Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God, editions of the book continue to be printed mainly by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints [RLDS Church]). The book originally contained two parts: a sequence of lectures setting forth basic church doctrine, followed by a compilation of revelations, or "covenants" of the church: thus the name "Doctrine and Covenants". The "doctrine" portion of the book, however, has been removed by both the LDS Church and Community of Christ. The remaining portion of the book contains revelations on numerous topics, most of which were dictated by the movement's founder Joseph Smith, supplemented by materials periodically added by each denomination. Controversy has existed between the two largest denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement over some sections added to the 1876 LDS edition, attributed to founder Smith. Whereas the LDS Church believes these sections to have been revelations to Smith, the RLDS Church traditionally disputed their authenticity. ==History== The Doctrine and Covenants was first published in 1835 as a later version of the Book of Commandments, which had been partially printed in 1833. This earlier book contained 65 early revelations to church leaders, notably Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery. Before many copies of the book could be printed, the printing press and most of the printed copies were destroyed by a mob in Missouri. On September 24, 1834, a committee was appointed by the general assembly of the church to organize a new volume containing the most significant revelations. This committee of Presiding Elders, consisting of Smith, Cowdery, Sidney Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams, began to review and revise numerous revelations for inclusion in the new work. The committee eventually organized the book into two parts: a "Doctrine" part and a "Covenants" part. The "Doctrine" part of the book consisted of a theological course now called the "Lectures on Faith". The lectures were a series of doctrinal courses used in the School of the Prophets which had recently been completed in Kirtland, Ohio. According to the committee, these lectures were included in the compilation "in consequence of their embracing the important doctrine of salvation." The "Covenants" part of the book, labeled "Covenants and Commandments of the Lord, to his servants of the church of the Latter Day Saints", contained a total of 103 revelations. These 103 revelations were said to "contain items or principles for the regulation of the church, as taken from the revelations which have been given since its organization, as well as from former ones." In 1835, the book was printed and published under the title Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God. A copy of the Doctrine and Covenants from NASA photographer M. Edward Thomas traveled to the moon and back in 1972 with astronaut John Young aboard Apollo 16. ==LDS Church editions== In the LDS Church, The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stands alongside the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the Pearl of Great Price as scripture. Together the LDS Church's scriptures are referred to as the "standard works". The LDS Church's version of the Doctrine and Covenants is described by the church as "containing revelations given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with some additions by his successors in the Presidency of the Church." ===Sections Included in LDS edition=== The 138 sections and two official declarations in LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–134, 137: From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44) Sections 135–136: During the administration of the Quorum of the Twelve (1844–47) Official Declaration 1: From the presidency of Wilford Woodruff (1889–98) Section 138: From the presidency of Joseph F. Smith (1901–18) Official Declaration 2: From the presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (1973–85) The following sections consist of letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 102, 123, 127–131, 134, 135, and Official Declarations 1 and 2. ===1844 Edition=== In 1844, the church added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition. In the current edition, these added sections are numbered 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135. ===1876 Edition=== In 1876, a new LDS Church edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included 26 sections not included in previous editions, now numbered as sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108–111, 113–118, 120–123, 125, 126, 129–132, and 136. Previous editions had been divided into verses with the early versifications generally following the paragraph structure of the original text. It was with the 1876 edition that the currently used versification was first employed. In 1876, section 101 from the 1835 edition (and subsequent printings) was removed. Section 101 was a "Statement on Marriage" as adopted by an 1835 conference of the church, and contained the following text: This section was removed because it had been superseded by section 132 of the modern LDS edition, recorded in 1843, which contains a revelation received by Joseph Smith on eternal marriage and plural marriage, the origin of the principles of which the LDS Church traces to as early as 1831. During the 1880s, five foreign editions contained two revelations to John Taylor that were received in 1882 and 1883; these revelations "set in order" the priesthood, gave more clarification about the roles of priesthood offices—especially the seventy—and required "men who ... preside over my priesthood" to live plural marriage in order to qualify to hold their church positions. Due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to polygamy in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions of the Doctrine and Covenants. ===1921 Edition=== In 1921, the LDS Church removed the "Lectures on Faith" portion of the book, with an explanation that the lectures "were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons". The lectures contain theology concerning the Godhead and emphasize the importance of faith and works. ===Latter-day Revelation=== In 1930, a small volume edited by apostle James E. Talmage titled Latter-day Revelation: Selections from the Book of Doctrine and Covenants was published, which was a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants printed in paragraph format rather than verses. Talmage wrote that the book's purpose was "to make the strictly doctrinal parts of the Doctrine and Covenants of easy access and reduce its bulk" by including only "the sections comprising scriptures of general and enduring value". Ninety-five of the sections of the Doctrine and Covenants were completely omitted—most notably section 132 on plural and celestial marriage—along with parts of 21 others. As a result, church president Heber J. Grant ordered the withdrawal of the book from sale with the remaining copies shredded in order to "avoid further conflict with the fundamentalists". No new revelatory sections have been added since 1981. The LDS Church's 1981 edition contains two "Official Declarations" at the book's conclusion. The 1890 Official Declaration 1 ended the church-authorized practice of plural marriage, and the 1978 Official Declaration 2 announces the opening of priesthood ordination to all worthy male members without regard to race or color. The two Official Declarations are not revelations, but they serve as the formal announcements that a revelation was received. In neither case is the revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants. The text of Official Declaration 1 has been included in every LDS Church printing of the Doctrine and Covenants since 1908. Until 1981, editions of the book used code names for certain people and places in those sections that dealt with the United Order. The 1981 LDS edition replaced these with the real names, relegating the code names to footnotes. The Community of Christ edition still uses the code names. ===2013 Edition=== A new edition was released in 2013. Changes included adjustments and corrections to the book's introduction and section introductions. The changes reflect the modern scholarship that came from The Joseph Smith Papers. ==Community of Christ editions== Officials of the Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints [RLDS Church]) first published an edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition. A general conference of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President Joseph Smith III had equal standing to those previously included in the work. Since that time, the church has continued to add sections to its edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents. The most recent addition was formally authorized on April 14, 2010, after being presented to the church for informal consideration on January 17, 2010. The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by the LDS Church and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration. ===Sections added to the Community of Christ edition=== The 167 sections of the Community of Christ's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–113 (includes 108A): From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44) Sections 114–131: From the presidency of Joseph Smith III (1860–1914) Sections 132–138: From the presidency of Frederick M. Smith (1914–46) Sections 139–144: From the presidency of Israel A. Smith (1946–58) Sections 145–152 (includes 149A): From the presidency of W. Wallace Smith (1958–78) Sections 153–160: From the presidency of Wallace B. Smith (1978–96) Sections 161–162: From the presidency of W. Grant McMurray (1996–2004) Sections 163–165: From the presidency of Stephen M. Veazey (2005–) The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 99, 108A, 109–113, and 123. Based on the above, the number of revelations (accounting for sections that are not revelations) presented by each Community of Christ president, are as follows: Joseph Smith: 107 Joseph Smith III: 17 Frederick M. Smith: 7 Israel A. Smith: 6 W. Wallace Smith: 9 Wallace B. Smith: 8 W. Grant McMurray: 2 Stephen M. Veazey: 3 ===Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition=== The Community of Christ removed the "Lectures on Faith" in 1897. The 1970 World Conference concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions—mainly dealing with the subjects of temple worship and baptism for the dead—had been published without proper approval of a church conference. As a result, the World Conference removed sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 to a historical appendix, which also includes documents that were never published as sections. Of these, only section 107 was a revelation. The World Conference of 1990 subsequently removed the entire appendix from the Doctrine and Covenants. Section 108A contained the minutes of a business meeting, which, because of its historical nature, was moved to the Introduction in the 1970s. After 1990, the Introduction was updated, and what was section 108A was removed entirely. ====Developments in 2023 and 2024==== A proposal to decanonize section 116 and move it to historical records was debated at the 2023 World Conference, which voted to refer the issue to the First Presidency. Section 116 had been received by Joseph Smith III in 1865, shortly after the conclusion of the American Civil War, and stipulates that men of all ethnic backgrounds should be ordained (contrast the LDS Church policy at the time forbidding Black ordination), but hedges this with caution against taking a "hasty" or indiscriminate attitude in ordination of men of the "Negro race", noting that many of the existing priesthood holders had failed to adequately fulfill their responsibilities. After consulting with Black priesthood members, the First Presidency decided to retain it, so as not to appear to be sanitising the church's history. The Diversity and Inclusion team and the Church History and Sacred Story team were opposed to removing the section, arguing that it represented an important historical step towards inclusivity. The Church History and Sacred Story team, moreover, opined that the removal of sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 had been a "mistake" based on "naive misunderstandings" of scripture and revelation, arguing that many other scriptural texts contain sexist, racist and violent language as a result of the backgrounds and biases of the writers, and that responsible interpretation of scripture needs to take this into account when seeking to discern God's will. is contained in the Community of Christ version's section 156, presented by Prophet–President Wallace B. Smith and added in 1984, which called for the ordination of women to the priesthood and set out the primary purpose of temples to be "the pursuit of peace". A resulting schism over the legitimacy of these change led to the formation of the Restoration Branches movement, the Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and the Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. While some of the prose in the new revelations seems designed to guide the denomination on matters of church governance and doctrine, others are seen as inspirational. One such example can be cited from section 161, presented as counsel to the church by W. Grant McMurray in 1996: "Become a people of the Temple—those who see violence but proclaim peace, who feel conflict yet extend the hand of reconciliation, who encounter broken spirits and find pathways for healing." ==Editions used by other denominations== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) uses the 1846 edition that was published in Nauvoo, Illinois; this version is virtually identical to the 1844 edition. Most recently a facsimile reprint was produced for the church at Voree, Wisconsin by Richard Drew in 1993. The Church of Christ (Temple Lot) contends that the thousands of changes made to the original revelations as published in the Book of Commandments (including the change of the church's name) are not doctrinal and result from Joseph Smith's fall from his original calling. As a result, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) prefers to use reprints of the Book of Commandments text. The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) accepts the 1844 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, including the Lectures on Faith, which it insists are as much inspired as the revelations themselves. The Restoration Branches generally use the older RLDS Church Doctrine and Covenants, typically sections 1–144. The Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints uses the older RLDS Church version of the Doctrine and Covenants up to section 144, and also 19 new revelations from their previous president, Frederick Niels Larsen. "Remnant" movement, a spiritual movement in schism with the LDS Church, published an online "Restoration" edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 2017. It includes any sections authored by Joseph Smith. It also: includes a new version of D&C 54, as revised by Denver Snuffer; excludes the Kirtland Temple visitation by Elijah and other angelic beings in D&C 110; excludes portions based on fragmentary teachings by Smith in D&C 129; includes Smith's Lectures on Faith; and includes a new appendix titled, "A Prophet’s Prerogative," by Jeff Savage. ==Chart comparison of editions== The following chart compares the current editions of the Doctrine and Covenants used by the LDS Church (LDS ed.) and Community of Christ (CofC ed.) with the 1833 Book of Commandments (BofC), the 1835 edition published in Kirtland, and the 1844 edition published in Nauvoo. Unless otherwise specified, the document is styled a "revelation" of the person delivering it.
[ "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 80", "degrees of glory", "continuous revelation", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 93", "Book of Mormon", "President of the Church (LDS Church)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 94", "1978 Revelation on Priesthood", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 88", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 45", "Hyrum Smith", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 83", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 136", "Godhead (Mormonism)", "Outline of the Doctrine and Covenants", "Messenger and Advocate", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 122", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 39", "Sabbath (LDS Church)", "Baptism (Latter Day Saints)", "William Marks (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 53", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 133", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 97", "Exaltation (Mormonism)", "Frederick M. Smith", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 132", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 75", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 78", "James E. Talmage", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 47", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 90", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 20", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 133", "Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)", "Black people and the LDS priesthood", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 71", "Jackson County, Missouri", "Martin Harris (Latter Day Saints)", "Joseph Smith III", "Jesus Christ", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Official Declaration 1", "John the Apostle", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 127", "Cincinnati, Ohio", "Macmillan Publishing", "General Conference (LDS Church)", "God the Father", "List of code names in the Doctrine and Covenants", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 21", "Book of Isaiah", "Seer stone (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 138", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 38", "Book of Moses", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 12", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 8", "Religion Dispatches", "John the Baptist", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 11", "Elder (Mormonism)", "Presiding high council", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 116", "World Conference (Community of Christ)", "Peter A. Judd", "Orson Pratt", "Holy Ghost", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 59", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 98", "United States Constitution", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 79", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 111", "Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 46", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 114", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 122", "Temple (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 27", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 135", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 36", "plural marriage", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 36", "Thomas Burdick", "Moses", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 118", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 102", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 56", "Wallace B. Smith", "Brigham Young", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 130", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 23", "Warren Parrish", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 125", "Jesse Gause", "David W. Patten", "Proclamations of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 112", "Nauvoo House", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 89", "Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 84", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 121", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 131", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 34", "temple (Latter Day Saints)", "Reynolds Cahoon", "Religious Studies Center", "William E. McLellin", "Marion G. Romney", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 121", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 76", "Bible", "resurrection", "Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 115", "Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible", "Shakers", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 37", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 109", "standard works", "Patriarch (Latter Day Saints)", "Kirtland Temple", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 82", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 48", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 66", "Ohio", "scripture", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 105", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 74", "Holy Spirit", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 42", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 77", "Lyman E. Johnson", "Stephen M. Veazey", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 26", "First Presidency", "BYU", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 106", "Joseph F. Smith", "One Mighty and Strong", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 1", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 63", "Urim and Thummim (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 131", "Stake (Mormonism)", "List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 83", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 13", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 126", "Revelation (Latter Day Saints)", "Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints", "Priesthood (Mormonism)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 86", "Second Coming", "Voree, Wisconsin", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 19", "s:en:Pearl Of Great Price (1851)/A Key to the Revelations of St. John", "Enoch (ancestor of Noah)", "Three Witnesses", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 134", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 10", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 128", "B. H. Roberts", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 68", "Church of Christ (Temple Lot)", "Community of Christ", "Sylvester Smith (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 54", "Official Declaration 1", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 69", "Word of Wisdom", "Benjamin E. Park", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 87", "Mormon pioneer", "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 64", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 72", "Book of Revelation", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 67", "angel", "First Presidency (Community of Christ)", "Independence, Missouri", "Quorum (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 15", "Quorum of the Twelve", "Thomas B. Marsh", "Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 103", "List of non-canonical revelations in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Oliver Cowdery", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 101", "Leman Copley", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 115", "United Order", "Graceland University", "Bishop (Latter Day Saints)", "John Taylor (Mormon)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 22", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 30", "eternal marriage", "Branch (Latter Day Saint movement)", "David Whitmer", "John Whitmer", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 35", "Plural marriage", "W. W. Phelps (Mormon)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 73", "John Gould (Mormon)", "Joseph Smith, Sr.", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 120", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 29", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 132", "Elijah", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Missouri", "Oliver Granger", "Ensign (LDS magazine)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 108", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 49", "Peter Whitmer, Jr.", "Orson Hyde", "Emma Smith", "ordination of women", "Newel K. Whitney", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 16", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 119", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 61", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 114", "History of the Church (Joseph Smith)", "celestial marriage", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 100", "Kirtland, Ohio", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 58", "tithe", "Wilford Woodruff", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 137", "Far West, Missouri", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 32", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 24", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 92", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 52", "Official Declaration 2", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 28", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 4", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 65", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 96", "Luke Johnson (Mormon)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 81", "Israel A. Smith", "Moroni (Book of Mormon prophet)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 111", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 44", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 116", "Zion (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 117", "Encyclopedia of Mormonism", "Adam-ondi-Ahman", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 129", "1843 polygamy revelation", "Council of Twelve Apostles (Community of Christ)", "John Murdock (Mormon)", "Restoration Branches", "Society Islands", "W. Grant McMurray", "Collection of Sacred Hymns (Kirtland, Ohio)", "Apocrypha", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 40", "Articles of Faith (Talmage)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 14", "Jared Carter (Latter Day Saints)", "Heber J. Grant", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 43", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 3", "Zion's Camp", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "American Civil War", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 5", "President of the Church", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 91", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 95", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 113", "Warren A. Cowdery", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 51", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 60", "baptism for the dead", "Spencer W. Kimball", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 127", "The Joseph Smith Papers", "N. Eldon Tanner", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 129", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 123", "Samuel H. Smith (Latter Day Saints)", "lost 116 pages", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 118", "Presiding Bishopric (Community of Christ)", "Account of John", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 70", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 104", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 31", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 99", "1 Corinthians", "Lectures on Faith", "Satan", "Mormon fundamentalism", "Seventy (LDS Church)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 123", "unity in diversity", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 6", "Pearl of Great Price (Latter Day Saints)", "Sacrament (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 107", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 117", "golden plates", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 18", "s:en:The Pearl of Great Price (1913)/Moses", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 126", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 124", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 2", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 9", "sealing power", "Ziba Peterson", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 125", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 108A", "Herald House", "Sacrament meeting", "Parable of the Tares", "s:en:Pearl Of Great Price (1851)/A Revelation and Prophecy by the Prophet", "s:en:Pearl Of Great Price (1851)/The words of God, which he spake unto Moses", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 41", "School of the Prophets", "Olivet Discourse", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 22", "Sidney Rigdon", "1890 Manifesto", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 33", "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 17", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 119", "Edward Partridge", "Common consent (Mormonism)", "Latter Day Saint movement", "Nauvoo Temple", "John Young (astronaut)", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 62", "Book of Commandments", "Council on the Disposition of the Tithes", "Joseph Knight, Sr.", "Frederick Niels Larsen", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 85", "Algernon Sidney Gilbert", "biblical canon", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 120", "English language", "F. Henry Edwards", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 57", "W. Wallace Smith", "Denver Snuffer", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 25", "Apollo 16", "Remnant movement", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 110", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants (1922 RLDS)/Section 128", "Parley P. Pratt", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 130", "Lyman R. Sherman", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 124", "Joseph Smith", "Death of Joseph Smith", "Independence Temple", "Newel Knight", "Spirit world (Latter Day Saints)", "Frederick G. Williams", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 50", "s:en:The Doctrine and Covenants/Section 55", "Nauvoo, Illinois", "Ezra Thayre", "Iowa" ]
8,221
Death
Death is the end of life; the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death eventually and inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose shortly after death. Some organisms, such as Turritopsis dohrnii, are biologically immortal; however, they can still die from means other than aging. Death is generally applied to whole organisms; the equivalent for individual components of an organism, such as cells or tissues, is necrosis. Something that is not considered an organism, such as a virus, can be physically destroyed but is not said to die, as a virus is not considered alive in the first place. As of the early 21st century, 56 million people die per year. The most common reason is aging, followed by cardiovascular disease, which is a disease that affects the heart or blood vessels. As of 2022, an estimated total of almost 110 billion humans have died, or roughly 94% of all humans to have ever lived. A substudy of gerontology known as biogerontology seeks to eliminate death by natural aging in humans, often through the application of natural processes found in certain organisms. For all organisms with a brain, death can instead be focused on this organ. The cause of death is usually considered important, and an autopsy can be done to determine it. There are many causes, from accidents to diseases. Many cultures and religions have a concept of an afterlife. There are also different customs for honoring the body, such as a funeral, cremation, or sky burial. ==== Defining life to define death ==== One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death seems to refer to the moment when life ends. Determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems. Such determination, therefore, requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is difficult due to there being little consensus on how to define life. It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, an organism can be said to have died. One of the flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms that are alive but probably not conscious. Another problem is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. Additionally, many religious traditions, including Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold that death does not (or may not) entail the end of consciousness. In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another. Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of organismic functioning and human death, which refers to irreversible loss of personhood. More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all functioning. ==== Definition of death by heartbeat and breath ==== Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been subjective or imprecise. Death was defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. This type of death where circulatory and respiratory arrest happens is known as the circulatory definition of death (CDD). Proponents of the CDD believe this definition is reasonable because a person with permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory function should be considered dead. Critics of this definition state that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not mean the situation is irreversible because if CPR is applied fast enough, the person could be revived. people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. Suspension of consciousness must be permanent and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, electroencephalograms (EEGs) are used to tell the difference. The category of "brain death" is seen as problematic by some scholars. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, a senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s... the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)." While "brain death" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there are proponents of it that believe this definition of death is the most reasonable for distinguishing life from death. The reasoning behind the support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria that is reliable and reproducible. Also, the brain is crucial in determining our identity or who we are as human beings. The distinction should be made that "brain death" cannot be equated with one in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity temporarily; because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions. ==== Neocortical brain death ==== One view is that the neocortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness, and that therefore only electrical activity of the neocortex should be considered when defining death. Eventually, the criterion for death may be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone, given current and foreseeable medical technology. Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated. ==== Total brain death ==== At present, in most places, the more conservative definition of death (irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex) has been adopted. One example is the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States. In the past, the adoption of this whole-brain definition was a conclusion of the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1980. They concluded that this approach to defining death sufficed in reaching a uniform definition nationwide. A multitude of reasons was presented to support this definition, including uniformity of standards in law for establishing death, consumption of a family's fiscal resources for artificial life support, and legal establishment for equating brain death with death to proceed with organ donation. ==== Problems in medical practice ==== Aside from the issue of support of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in this categorical definition: the variability of its application in medical practice. In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) established the criteria that became the medical standard for diagnosing neurologic death. At that time, three clinical features had to be satisfied to determine "irreversible cessation" of the total brain, including coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing, and lack of brainstem reflexes. These criteria were updated again, most recently in 2010, but substantial discrepancies remain across hospitals and medical specialties. Respiratory arrest (no breathing) Cardiac arrest (no pulse) Brain death (no neuronal activity) The stages that follow after death are: , paleness which happens in 15–120 minutes after death , the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature , the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate , a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body Putrefaction, the beginning signs of decomposition Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor. Skeletonization, the end of decomposition, where all soft tissues have decomposed, leaving only the skeleton. Fossilization, the natural preservation of the skeletal remains formed over a very long period ===Legal=== The death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between jurisdictions. Most countries follow the whole-brain death criteria, where all functions of the brain must have completely ceased. However, in other jurisdictions, some follow the brainstem version of brain death. ===Misdiagnosis=== There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then "coming back to life," sometimes days later in their coffin or when embalming procedures are about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the rectum. Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although some estimates peg the figure to be closer to 800. In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. This "diving response," in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex. == Causes == The leading cause of human death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. By an extremely wide margin, the largest unifying cause of death in the developed world is biological aging, In 2004, malaria caused about 2.7 million deaths annually. The AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025. According to Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008, mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide, approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients. thumb|American children smoking in 1910. [[Tobacco smoking caused an estimated 100 million deaths in the 20th century. Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death. Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He demonstrated that stress decreases the adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted. Selye assumed that adaptability is a finite supply presented at birth. Later, Goldstone proposed the concept of production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit) as a capital reserve of adaptation. In recent works, adaptation energy is considered an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted. In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes as the leading cause of human injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls, and murder. Accidents and disasters, from nuclear disasters to structural collapses, also claim lives. One of the deadliest incidents of all time is the 1975 Banqiao Dam Failure, with varying estimates, up to 240,000 dead. Other incidents with high death tolls are the Wanggongchang explosion (when a gunpowder factory ended up with 20,000 deaths), a collapse of a wall of Circus Maximus that killed 13,000 people, and the Chernobyl disaster that killed between 95 and 4,000 people. Natural disasters kill around 45,000 people annually, although this number can vary from thousands to millions on a per-decade basis. Some of the deadliest natural disasters are the 1931 China floods, which killed an estimated 4 million people, although estimates widely vary; the 1887 Yellow River flood, which killed an estimated 2 million people in China; and the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed as many as 500,000 people in East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh). If naturally occurring famines are considered natural disasters, the Chinese famine of 1906–1907, which killed 15–20 million people, can be considered the deadliest natural disaster in recorded history. In animals, predation can be a common cause of death. Livestock have a 6% death rate from predation. However, younger animals are more susceptible to predation. For example, 50% of young foxes die to birds, bobcats, coyotes, and other foxes as well. Young bear cubs in the Yellowstone National Park only have a 40% chance to survive to adulthood from other bears and predators. === Autopsy === An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist. Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together. == Death before birth == Death before birth can happen in several ways: stillbirth, when the fetus dies before or during the delivery process; miscarriage, when the embryo dies before independent survival; and abortion, the artificial termination of the pregnancy. Stillbirth and miscarriage can happen for various reasons, while abortion is carried out purposely. === Stillbirth === Stillbirth can happen right before or after the delivery of a fetus. It can result from defects of the fetus or risk factors present in the mother. Reductions of these factors, caesarean sections when risks are present, and early detection of birth defects have lowered the rate of stillbirth. However, 1% of births in the United States end in a stillbirth. === Miscarriage === A miscarriage is defined by the World Health Organization as, "The expulsion or extraction from its mother of an embryo or fetus weighing 500g or less." Miscarriage is one of the most frequent problems in pregnancy, and is reported in around 12–15% of all clinical pregnancies; however, by including pregnancy losses during menstruation, it could be up to 17–22% of all pregnancies. There are many risk-factors involved in miscarriage; consumption of caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, drugs, having a previous miscarriage, and the use of abortion can increase the chances of having a miscarriage. === Abortion === An abortion may be performed for many reasons, such as pregnancy from rape, financial constraints of having a child, teenage pregnancy, and the lack of support from a significant other. There are two forms of abortion: a medical abortion and an in-clinic abortion or sometimes referred to as a surgical abortion. A medical abortion involves taking a pill that will terminate the pregnancy no more than 11 weeks past the last period, and an in-clinic abortion involves a medical procedure using suction to empty the uterus; this is possible after 12 weeks, but it may be more difficult to find an operating doctor who will go through with the procedure. == Senescence == Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being can survive all calamities but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age. Conversely, premature death can refer to a death that occurs before old age arrives, for example, human death before a person reaches the age of 75. Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from the deterioration of cellular activity and the ruination of regular functioning. The aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur daily relates to senescence, while around the world, it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily. Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence." Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. Of all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day. Of these, two-thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence). Where in the process, a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. == Life extension == Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing or reversing aging processes through anti-aging measures. Aging is the most common cause of death worldwide. Aging is seen as inevitable, so according to Aubrey de Grey little is spent on research into anti-aging therapies, a phenomenon known as pro-aging trance. Theoretically, the extension of the maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair, or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues. A United States poll found religious and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes, have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people. 38% said they would desire to have their aging process cured. Researchers of life extension can be known as "biomedical gerontologists." They try to understand aging, and develop treatments to reverse aging processes, or at least slow them for the improvement of health and maintenance of youthfulness. Those who use life extension findings and apply them to themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists." The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply anti-aging methods to attempt to live long enough to benefit from a cure for aging. === Cryonics === Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals, including humans, who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future. Cryopreservation of people and other large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions, may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent 'information-theoretic' definition of death. Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics. Medical science and cryobiologists generally regard cryonics with skepticism. == Location == Around 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls. By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital. By the start of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution. The shift from dying at home towards dying in a professional medical environment has been termed the "Invisible Death." == Psychology == Death studies is a field within psychology. To varying degrees people inherently fear death, both the process and the eventuality; it is hard wired and part of the 'survival instinct' of all animals. Discussing, thinking about, or planning for their deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization. Mortality salience is the awareness that death is inevitable. However, self-esteem and culture are ways to reduce the anxiety this effect can cause. The awareness of someone's own death can cause a deepened bond in their in-group as a defense mechanism. This can also cause the person to become very judging. In a study, two groups were formed; one group was asked to reflect upon their mortality, the other was not, afterwards, the groups were told to set a bond for a prostitute. The group that did not reflect on death had an average of $50, the group who was reminded about their death had an average of $455. Different people have different responses to the idea of their deaths. Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation. In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future. == Society and culture == In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its mortality has, for millennia, been a concern of the world's religious traditions and philosophical inquiry. Including belief in resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated with secular humanism). Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning, funeral practices, and ceremonies of honoring the deceased. The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or cremated, though among the world's cultures, there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal. In the English language, blessings directed towards a dead person include rest in peace (originally the Latin, requiescat in pace) or its initialism RIP. Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet. Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures to retard the rate of decay. The rise of secularism resulted in material mementos of death declining. Some parts of death in culture are legally based, having laws for when death occurs, such as the receiving of a death certificate, the settlement of the deceased estate, and the issues of inheritance and, in some countries, inheritance taxation. Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes, such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world, courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. Mutiny is punishable by death in the United States. Additionally, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the Western world—with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II, and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history—death for a cause by way of suicide attack, including martyrdom, have had significant cultural impacts. Suicide, in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin. Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu god Yama, and Father Time. In the west, the Grim Reaper, or figures similar to it, is the most popular depiction of death in western cultures. In Brazil, death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry. Before being able to file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official birth at the cartório. Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means of their family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away the burden, the hidden costs, and fees of filing for a death. For many impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to a more appealing, unofficial, local, and cultural burial, which, in turn, raises the debate about inaccurate mortality rates. Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue in most cultures. Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites. === Origins of death === The origin of death is a theme or myth of how death came to be. It is present in nearly all cultures across the world, as death is a universal happening. This makes it an origin myth, a myth that describes how a feature of the natural or social world appeared. There can be some similarities between myths and cultures. In North American mythology, the theme of a man who wants to be immortal and a man who wants to die can be seen across many Indigenous people. In Christianity, death is the result of the fall of man after eating the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. == Consciousness == Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. The belief that the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term afterlife. Near-death experiences (NDEs) describe the subjective experiences associated with impending death. Some survivors of such experiences report it as "seeing the afterlife while they were dying". Seeing a being of light and talking with it, life flashing before the eyes, and the confirmation of cultural beliefs of the afterlife are common themes in NDEs. == In biology == After death, the remains of a former organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of an organism. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice, and millipedes. Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be fully decomposed. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example. === Natural selection === The contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection. It is considered that organisms less adapted to their environment are more likely to die, having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one. Death also has a role in competition, where if a species out-competes another, there is a risk of death for the population, especially in the case where they are directly fighting over resources. === Extinction === Death plays a role in extinction, the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity, due to extinction being generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. === Evolution of aging and mortality === Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age. However, there are exceptions, such as Hydra and the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, which research shows to be biologically immortal. Organisms showing only asexual reproduction, such as bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many amoebozoans, and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction, colonial or not, like the volvocine algae Pandorina and Chlamydomonas, are "immortal" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being eaten or meeting with a fatal accident. In multicellular organisms and also in multinucleate ciliates with a Weismannist development, that is, with a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and "immortal" germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line. The Volvox algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely different cell types, and as a consequence, include the death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated part of its life history. === Grief in animals === Animals have sometimes shown grief for their partners or "friends". When two chimpanzees form a bond together, sexual or not, and one of them dies, the surviving chimpanzee will show signs of grief, ripping out their hair in anger and starting to cry; if the body is removed, they will resist, they will eventually go quiet when the body is gone, but upon seeing the body again, the chimp will return to a violent state. Furthermore, anthropologist Barbara J. King has suggested that one way to evaluate the expression of grief in animals is to look for altered behaviors such as social withdrawal, disrupted eating or sleeping, expression of affect, or increased stress reactions in response to the death of a family member, mate, or friend. These criteria do not assume the ability to anticipate death, understand its finality, or experience emotions equivalent to those of humans, but at the same time do not rule out the possibility of those abilities existing in some animals or that different kinds of emotional experiences might constitute grief. Based on these criteria, King gives examples of observed potential mourning behaviors in animals such as cetaceans, apes and monkeys, elephants, domesticated animals (including dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, and farmed animals), giraffes, peccaries, donkeys, prairie voles, and some species of birds. === Death of abiotic factors === Some non-living things can be considered dead. For example, a volcano, batteries, electrical components, and stars are all nonliving things that can "die," whether from destruction or cessation of function. A volcano, a break in the earth's crust that allows lava, ash, and gases to escape, has three states that it may be in, active, dormant, and extinct. An active volcano has recently or is currently erupting; in a dormant volcano, it has not erupted for a significant amount of time, but it may erupt again; in an extinct volcano, it may be cut off from the supply of its lava and will never be expected to erupt again, so the volcano can be considered to be dead. A battery can be considered dead after the charge is fully used up. Electrical components are similar in this fashion, in the case that it may not be able to be used again, such as after a spill of water on the components, the component can be considered dead. Stars also have a life-span and, therefore, can die. After it starts to run out of fuel, it starts to expand, this can be analogous to the star aging. After it exhausts all fuel, it may explode in a supernova, collapse into a black hole, or turn into a neutron star. == Religious views == === Buddhism === In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role. Awareness of death motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to find the "deathless" and finally attain enlightenment. In Buddhist doctrine, death functions as a reminder of the value of having been born as a human being. Rebirth as a human being is considered the only state in which one can attain enlightenment. Therefore, death helps remind oneself that one should not take life for granted. The belief in rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death anxiety since all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with suffering, and being reborn many times does not necessarily mean that one progresses. Death is part of several key Buddhist tenets, such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination. Representing the same transformation Jesus Christ embodied after his body was placed in the tomb for three days, each person's body will be resurrected, reuniting the spirit and body in a perfect form. This process allows the individual's soul to withstand death and transform into life after death. ===Hinduism=== In Hindu texts, death is described as the individual eternal spiritual jiva-atma (soul or conscious self) exiting the current temporary material body. The soul exits this body when the body can no longer sustain the conscious self (life), which may be due to mental or physical reasons or, more accurately, the inability to act on one's kama (material desires). During conception, the soul enters a compatible new body based on the remaining merits and demerits of one's karma (good/bad material activities based on dharma) and the state of one's mind (impressions or last thoughts) at the time of death. Usually, the process of reincarnation makes one forget all memories of one's previous life. Because nothing really dies and the temporary material body is always changing, both in this life and the next, death means forgetfulness of one's previous experiences. ===Islam=== The Islamic view is that death is the separation of the soul from the body as well as the beginning of the afterlife. The afterlife, or akhirah, is one of the six main beliefs in Islam. Rather than seeing death as the end of life, Muslims consider death as a continuation of life in another form. In Islam, life on earth right now is a short, temporary life and a testing period for every soul. True life begins with the Day of Judgement when all people will be divided into two groups. The righteous believers will be welcomed to janna (heaven), and the disbelievers and evildoers will be punished in jahannam (hellfire). Muslims believe death to be wholly natural and predetermined by God. Only God knows the exact time of a person's death. The Quran emphasizes that death is inevitable, no matter how much people try to escape death, it will reach everyone. (Q50:16) Life on earth is the one and only chance for people to prepare themselves for the life to come and choose to either believe or not believe in God, and death is the end of that learning opportunity. === Judaism === There are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none of them contradict the preference for life over death. This is partially because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any commandments. == Language == The word "death" comes from Old English dēaþ, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauþuz (reconstructed by etymological analysis). This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the "process, act, condition of dying." The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms. When a person has died, it is also said they have "passed away", "passed on", "expired", or "gone", among other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms. As a formal reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of "decease", as in "the deceased"; another noun form is "decedent". Bereft of life, the dead person is a "corpse", "cadaver", "body", "set of remains", or when all flesh is gone, a "skeleton". The terms "carrion" and "carcass" are also used, usually for dead non-human animals. The ashes left after a cremation are lately called "cremains".
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"Voyager Golden Record", "Chlamydomonas", "cognition", "existential angst", "personality psychology", "1887 Yellow River flood", "Yama", "Jesus", "virus", "Trafficking in human beings", "Galen Strawson", "developed countries", "active volcano", "List of expressions related to death", "cryopreservation", "disposal of human corpses", "pathologist", "mourning", "tuberculosis", "natural selection", "amoebozoan", "Helsinki railway station", "Four Noble Truths", "nerve", "anti-aging", "s:St. Vincent's Manual/Considerations on Death", "organ transplants", "biogerontology", "The Washington Post", "embryo", "infectious disease", "Skeletonization", "Volvocales", "wikt:resuscitate", "Pyroclastic flow", "Decomposition", "cause of death", "s:Preparation for Death", "military justice", "Microorganism", "Personal identity", "Hydra (genus)", "dulce et decorum est pro patria mori", "neutron star", "death notification", "euthanasia", "WP:RSPSCRIPTURE", "Birth defect", "Mummies of Guanajuato", "volcano", "necrosis", "accident", "USAID", "gene", "Human beings in Buddhism", "Physiological", "metabolism", "Hans Selye", "last offices", "Chinese famine of 1906–1907", "abortion", "Erupting volcano", "suicide", "cardiovascular disease", "Circus Maximus", "electric shock", "religious traditions", "Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Pandora's box", "gerontology", "neocortex", "heart", "Structural integrity and failure", "food chain", "eternal oblivion", "pregnancy from rape", "Competition (biology)", "Biological immortality", "swamp", "caesarean section", "resurrection", "cryonics", "burial", "maximum lifespan", "President of the Republic of Finland", "predation", "Death drive", "Elsevier Academic Press", "multicellular", "coyote", "asexual reproduction", "germ cell", "samsara (Buddhism)", "brain death", "cremated", "Intimate relationship", "aging-associated diseases", "Defence mechanism", "extinction", "Survivalism (life after death)", "estate (law)", "dead donor rule", "inheritance tax", "adultery", "anxiety", "Colony (biology)", "Abrahamic religions", "Disposal of human corpses", "The Guardian", "breathing", "obesity", "secular humanism", "courts-martial", "self-esteem", "Old English", "rest in peace", "autopsy", "legal death", "sexual reproduction", "Grief", "biological immortality", "gene pool", "Stress (biology)", "Wanggongchang Explosion", "Sossusvlei", "speciation", "NASA", "Fossil", "cetacea", "Alcor Foundation", "hospice", "origin myth", "Proto-Indo-European language", "Electric battery", "tobacco smoking", "akhirah", "Greek mythology", "Cryopreservation", "detritivore", "Gautama Buddha", "Bail bond", "Charles Darwin", "amrta", "hypothermia", "Cardiac arrest", "tree of the knowledge of good and evil", "mammalian diving reflex", "1975 Banqiao Dam failure", "dead body", "Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents", "malnutrition", "white dwarf", "emergency room", "significant other", "vital signs", "Turritopsis dohrnii", "Darwinian fitness", "Greek language", "cowardice", "kamikaze", "University of California Press", "adaptation", "Thanatology", "Western world", "medical abortion", "Faked death", "participle", "micronutrient", "Rigor mortis", "Reincarnation", "disease", "Jiva", "cerebral cortex", "supernova", "menstruation", "Oxford University Press", "gerontologist", "pro-aging trance", "Putrefaction", "Eschatology", "Platonic love", "jahannam", "Senescence", "funeral", "psychology", "atherosclerosis", "Ancient Egyptian burial customs", "detritus", "Dharmic religions", "Proverb", "Cell (biology)", "life", "medical technology", "End-of-life care", "defibrillation", "chimpanzee", "Prentice Hall", "endotherm", "1931 China floods", "martyrdom", "Aubrey de Grey", "Klaus Fleming", "Pratītyasamutpāda", "National Geographic (magazine)", "euglenoid", "Biological life cycle", "malaria", "embalming", "Mitzvah", "Cannibalism", "Quran", "Bangladesh", "death certificate", "scavenger", "causality", "Pregnancy", "MOS:SEEALSO", "black hole", "initialism", "Georgetown University Press", "Father Time", "dormant volcano", "homeostasis", "Karma", "Death row", "Alcoholic beverage", "fetus", "Dharma", "Weismann barrier", "Medical examination", "Last rites", "negligible senescence", "cadaver", "miscarriage", "range (biology)", "Hindu texts", "sky burial", "rejuvenation (aging)", "Brain death", "biological process", "exercise", "physician", "Taxon", "cremation", "fall of man", "nanobiotechnology", "Death (personification)", "wikt: deathbed", "Springer Publishing Company", "seppuku", "biogeochemical cycle", "developing nations", "next of kin", "electrical components", "developing countries", "Journal of Genetics", "human lung", "Pandorina", "Online Etymology Dictionary", "life support", "predator", "consciousness", "fossil fuel", "diet (nutrition)", "cardiopulmonary resuscitation", "Qaf (surah)", "Tissue (biology)", "desertion", "respite care", "stillbirth", "tissue engineering", "Tibet", "Kama", "Irreversible process", 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Norton", "maximum life span", "senescence", "somatic cells", "millipede", "infectious diseases", "apostasy", "obituary", "enlightenment (Buddhism)", "Pallor mortis", "organ donation", "suicide attack", "rectum", "Use of capital punishment by nation", "Yellowstone National Park", "dukkha", "Chernobyl disaster", "evolution of aging", "breath", "tissue (biology)", "blood vessel", "Livor mortis", "HIV/AIDS", "origin of death", "Azrael", "hypoxia (medical)", "woodlice", "mutiny", "caffeine", "World Health Organization", "Natural disaster", "Menstrual cycle", "tobacco", "East Pakistan", "World War II", "Traffic collision", "Elsevier Science", "skeleton", "Latin", "heart rate", "Bird of prey", "s:Sermons (Massillon)/Sermon 9", "will and testament", "Calorie restriction", "life expectancy", "Stream of consciousness (psychology)", "lifespan extension", "calorie restriction", "clinical death", "Death trajectory", "Spiritual death", "reincarnation", "Uniform Determination Of Death Act", "sodomy", "Hindu", "Lifestyle (social sciences)", "secularism", "Albert Edelfelt", "Proto-Germanic language", "insubordination", "Rembrandt", "Risk factor (epidemiology)", "Jewish eschatology", "Near-death experience" ]
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Deseret alphabet
The Deseret alphabet (; Deseret: or ) is a phonemic English-language spelling reform developed between 1847 and 1854 by the board of regents of the University of Deseret under the leadership of Brigham Young, the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). which were used to replace those of Isaac Pitman's English phonotypic alphabet. He was also the "New Alphabet's" first serious user. The Deseret alphabet was an outgrowth of the Restorationist idealism and utopianism of Young and the early LDS Church. Young and the Mormon pioneers believed "all aspects of life" were in need of reform for the imminent Millennium, and the Deseret alphabet was just one of many ways in which they sought to bring about a complete "transformation in society," Young wrote of the reform that "it would represent every sound used in the construction of any known language; and, in fact, a step and partial return to a pure language which has been promised unto us in the latter days", which meant the pure Adamic language spoken before the Tower of Babel. In public statements, Young claimed the alphabet would replace the traditional Latin alphabet with an alternative, more phonetically accurate alphabet for the English language. This would offer immigrants an opportunity to learn to read and write English, the orthography of which, he said, is often less phonetically consistent than those of many other languages. Between 1854 and 1869, the alphabet was used in scriptural newspaper passages, selected church records, a few diaries, and some correspondence. Occasional street signs and posters used the new letters. In 1860 a $5 gold coin was embossed 𐐐𐐬𐑊𐐨𐑌𐐮𐑅 𐐻𐐭 𐑄 𐐢𐐫𐑉𐐼 (Holiness to the Lord). In 1868–9, after much difficulty creating suitable fonts, Despite repeated and costly promotion by the early LDS Church, the alphabet never enjoyed widespread use, and it has been regarded by historians as a failure. However, in recent years, aided by digital typography, the Deseret alphabet has been revived as a cultural heirloom. Similar neographies have been attempted, the most well-known of which for English is the Shavian alphabet. == History == === Creation (1847–1854) === The Deseret alphabet was a project of the Mormon pioneers, a group of early followers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) who, motivated by revelations of a unique premillennial eschatology, had set about building a unique theocracy in the Utah desert, which was then still claimed by Mexico, after the death of the church's founder, the prophet Joseph Smith. They were to build a "city of Zion" where converts would gather in preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. As part of that Gathering, in 1848, Church leaders urged converts in Europe to "emigrate as speedily as possible" to the Great Basin. There, in the "Kingdom of God," under fused theo-democratic leadership, they would be safe from the fall of the apostate world of so-called "Babylon." March 6, 1849, Church authorities organized the "free and independent government" called the State of Deseret, while retaining the Council of Fifty. In that historical context, which has been called "The Forgotten Kingdom," there was a "compete identity of religious and temporal purpose throughout the history of the Alphabet." This theo-linguistic fusion has been noted by multiple historians. The "New Alphabet" was intended to correct "the corruptions and perversions of language which was originally pure", and to meet the urgent need for a language to "answer the demands of a constant intercommunication between several thousand languages". One "fitted to meet the great emergency of the great gathering and great work of teaching the law of the Lord to all people." This reformation of English orthography was a first step to the ultimate restoration of Adamic language for use in the anticipated millennial dispensation of the fulness of times. Brigham Young, Church President and Prophet, the "driving force" for the reform, looked forward to the time "when a man is full of light of eternity", and stated, "I shall yet see the time that I can converse with this people without opening my mouth." The Deseret alphabet was developed primarily by a committee made up of the board of regents of the University of Deseret, members of which included LDS Church leaders Brigham Young, Parley P. Pratt, Heber C. Kimball, and several of the other Apostles. According to Brigham Young University professor Richard G. Moore, most scholars believe that George D. Watt's contribution to the actual form the alphabet took, its unique glyphs, was the greatest; along with Pratt. After several months' practice writing with the new alphabet, Watt wrote to Brigham Young that he was unhappy with it, and proposed a complete overhaul, which was never followed up on. Word of the new alphabet soon spread outside Utah, and most press reports in non-Mormon papers were critical. to praise. some coinage, letters, diaries, and meeting minutes. One of the more curious items found in the Deseret alphabet is an English-Hopi dictionary prepared by two Mormon missionaries. The handwritten document sat in the LDS Church Archives, largely ignored until 2014 when writing system researcher and computer scientist Kenneth R. Beesley re-discovered it and transcribed it into standard written English. === Decline (1869–1877) === Despite years of heavy promotion, the Deseret alphabet was never widely adopted. This reluctance was partly due to prohibitive costs; the project had already cost the early church $20,000, with $6,000 going to Pratt as remuneration for his transcription effort and most of the rest going to cutting metal type featuring the new alphabet and printing costs. Pratt had also prepared an apparent sequel to the primers, the Deseret Phonetic Speller. After the sales failure, however, none of these books were ever published and were thought lost until being rediscovered in a storage area of the LDS Church Archives in Salt Lake City in May 1967. In a retrospective piece, historian A. J. Simmonds claims that the new railroad doomed the alphabet. According to him, easy access to "the whole literature of the English speaking world" rendered the alphabet useless. Freely licensed Deseret alphabet fonts can be used at no additional cost. Film director Trent Harris used the Deseret alphabet in his 1994 satire of Mormon theology, Plan 10 from Outer Space, where it features as an alien language used on a mysterious "Plaque of Kolob". Also in 1996, Buffalo River Press published a reprint of the Deseret First Book, of which only 10,000 were originally printed. The entire Book of Mormon in the Deseret alphabet has been likewise reprinted, as only 500 copies from the original print run exist, and they can sell on eBay for ≈$7,500 (as of 2004). John Jenkins has gone on to publish many classic pieces of English literature in the Deseret alphabet, such as Alice in Wonderland, Pride and Prejudice, and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Owing to the character set's inclusion in Unicode, most of the original books and many of the original manuscripts have been transcribed into plain text, All computers running Microsoft's Windows 7 operating system or newer can display the entire Deseret alphabet Unicode range as the glyphs are included in the Segoe UI Symbol font. Besides maintaining a Deseret input method for Windows, Joshua Erickson, a UCLA alumnus, also maintains a large collection of freeware Unicode fonts for the alphabet, which he collectively terms the "Bee Fonts." There also exist free software fonts for the Deseret alphabet. Google, through its Noto Sans project, the aim of which is "to support all languages with a harmonious look and feel", has also released a Deseret font under the name "Noto Sans Deseret". George Douros maintains a public domain font called "Analecta" as part of his Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts project, which supports the Coptic, Gothic, and Deseret scripts. Deseret glyphs are also available in the popular pan-Unicode fonts Code2001 and Everson Mono (as of version 5.1.5). == Alphabet == Although the Deseret alphabet has letter case, usually the only difference between the minuscule and majuscule forms is that the majuscule forms are larger. A degree of free spelling is allowed to accommodate dialectal differences in English. For example, in the Deseret edition of The Book of Mormon, the word "wherefore" is written as 𐐸𐐶𐐩𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉 (), which means that the translator of the book did not exhibit the wine–whine merger. Those who do exhibit the merger might instead prefer the spelling 𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉 to match the pronunciation (), or, depending on dialect, perhaps 𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐫𐑉 (). === Versions === There have been several published versions of the alphabet. Most versions (including the versions used in The Deseret First Book, The Deseret Second Book, The Deseret News and The Book of Mormon) had only 38 letters, but some versions contained two ligatures, 𐐧 (ew) and 𐐦 (oi). In place of 𐐮𐐭 or 𐐷𐐭, In the 23 February 1859 edition of the Deseret News, the editors announced their approval of the two new letters and eventual intention to use them in the newsletter. However, due to the hot metal typesetting technology in use at the time, casting the new letters for use would have been a considerable expense, so it was never realized. an early Mormon missionary, proposed the addition of a new glyph to represent the schwa, a simple vertical line of the same height as other Deseret characters with a similar appearance to the Turkish dotless i (ı). The addition of this glyph did not catch on among his contemporaries, however, and no document outside of ones penned by Shelton makes use of it. === Syllabic values === Each letter in the Deseret alphabet has a name, and when a letter is written on its own it has the value of that name. This allows some short words to be written with a single letter, and is called a letter's "syllabic value". The most common word in English, the, is written simply 𐑄, as the letter's name is and that is the stressed pronunciation of the word. The consonants with syllabic values are 𐐶 (woo), 𐐷 (yee), 𐐸 (ha), 𐐹 (pee), 𐐺 (be/bee), 𐐻 (tee/tea), 𐐽 (qi), 𐐾 (jee), 𐑀 (gay), and 𐑄 (the/thee). === Cursive === The cursive form of the Deseret alphabet was mainly used by two people: George D. Watt, and James Henry Martineau. His new alphabet closely resembled an 1853 publication of Isaac Pitman, containing only 33 letters. However, at this point, Young was still enamored with the original Deseret alphabet, and so he rejected the proposal and Watt continued to publicly promote the alphabet as part of his job despite his reservations. that makes type look "monotonous" On 4 March 1872, The New York Times called the alphabet "rude, awkward and cumbersome". == Other motives == Officially, the Deseret alphabet was created to simplify the spelling of English words for the benefit of children and English as a second language learners. Some of the alphabet's contemporaries, however, posited an alternative motivation for its development: increasing the isolation of the early Mormons. === To keep outsiders from reading Mormon secrets (largely dismissed) === The charge that the Deseret alphabet's main purpose was to keep outsiders ("gentiles" in LDS terminology) in the dark was brought almost immediately, as evidenced by the following 1858 Lyttelton Times reprint of an unnamed "New York newspaper": Modern historians, however, doubt the veracity of this theory. In another article, the Deseret News cited an example of the kind of literature Mormons would benefit from not being able to read: The Police Gazette. According to Kenneth R. Beesley, who submitted the proposal to expand the encoding, This is because the Unicode Consortium chose to use glyphs from 1855 as the reference glyphs, while by 1859 those glyphs were already outmoded and replaced with newer glyphs. Beesley thus recommends using LaTeX along with his Metafont font to typeset Deseret text, The table can be used to display approximations of titles in non-Latin scripts using the Latin alphabet for use in library catalogs that do not support non-Latin alphabets.
[ "Google", "American Fork, Utah", "theocracy", "abugida", "Adamic language", "typesetting", "death of Joseph Smith", "Portable Document Format", "New England", "North American English", "Unicode", "Willard Richards", "digital typography", "President of the Church (LDS Church)", "Book of Mormon", "Mercury (element)", "Cedar City, Utah", "Plan 10 from Outer Space", "father–bother merger", "Brigham Young", "Mormon missionary", "Intellectual Reserve, Inc.", "English Phonotypic Alphabet", "dispensation of the fulness of times", "theo-democratic", "sort (typesetting)", "Lyttelton Times", "Deseret News", "matrix (printing)", "Gathering of Israel", "wood type", "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", "glyph", "Erastus Snow", "Basic Multilingual Plane", "prophet", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Bishop (Latter Day Saints)", "Utah War", "phoneme", "hot metal typesetting", "Italian language", "Lehi, Utah", "Shavian alphabet", "New York City", "TUGboat", "Church History Library", "Benn Pitman", "Mexico", "ascender (typography)", "Proto-Sinaitic script", "spelling reform", "Phonemic orthography", "St. Louis", "Jules Remy", "phonetics", "Gothic language", "eschatology", "Fontographer", "Book of Alma", "W. W. Phelps (Mormon)", "Baptism in Mormonism", "Type specimen", "orthography", "cot–caught merger", "Evertype", "Exhibit design", "Bible", "Kingdom of God (Latter Day Saints)", "New Testament", "English-language spelling reform", "Alice in Wonderland", "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Code2000", "descender", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Southern Paiute", "Social change", "abjad", "ə", "new wine into old bottles", "Pleasant Grove, Utah", "TeX Users Group", "Turkey", "Utah Territory", "Logan, Utah", "penny dreadful", "Microsoft", "Isaac Pitman", "George D. Watt", "State of Deseret", "Utah State University Press", "punchcutting", "primer (textbook)", "writing system", "Coptic language", "alphabet", "board of regents", "Bodoni", "The Book of Mormon", "Second Coming of Jesus", "Zero indexing", "Southern United States", "Film director", "Richard F. Burton", "Pitman shorthand", "Free content", "Block letters", "Vowel", "Restorationism", "Tower of Babel", "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)", "Thales Hastings Haskell", "Phonological change", "premillennialism", "neographies", "Heber C. Kimball", "English as a second language", "Brigham Young University", "Book of Omni", "Latin alphabet", "wine–whine merger", "Provo, Utah", "Welsh language", "Farmington, Utah", "Doctrine and Covenants", "Windows 7", "Noto Sans", "George A. Smith", "Phoenician alphabet", "phonological", "Don Quixote", "Old Italic scripts", "input method", "First Presidency (LDS Church)", "Turkish dotless i", "Metafont", "multiphasic liquid", "font", "Library of Congress", "Board of Regents", "Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Kolob", "Mormon historian", "wikt:en:ukase", "freeware", "History of education in the United States", "Julius Brenchley", "font foundry", "University of Deseret", "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "LaTeX", "Segoe", "Gentile", "Apple Inc.", "GitHub", "English language", "Everson Mono", "Scandinavia", "Multiphasic liquid", "activity book", "Oil", "German language", "heirloom", "Apostasy", "gibberish", "List of dialects of the English language", "American pioneer", "mid central vowel", "cursive", "UCLA", "ALA-LC romanization", "hapax legomenon", "Marion Jackson Shelton", "plain text", "Orayvi", "Ledger", "Parley P. Pratt", "ideal (ethics)", "Orson Pratt", "Council of Fifty", "Transcontinental railroad", "utopianism", "letter case", "Scottish English", "water", "revelation", "public domain", "Mormon pioneers", "Ancient Egypt", "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star", "free software", "Deseret (Book of Mormon)", "electronic publishing", "stenographer", "Second Coming in Mormonism", "People's Party of Utah", "Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)", "First Book of Nephi", "Joseph Smith", "Hopi language", "Pride and Prejudice", "isolationism", "honeybee", "John Jaques (Mormon)", "Greek alphabet", "pulp magazine", "Salt Lake City", "Trent Harris", "English literature", "pica (typography)", "yellow-back", "The Police Gazette", "Utah Legislature", "Typographic ligature" ]
8,226
Danish
Danish may refer to: Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark == People == A Danish person, also called a "Dane", can be a national or citizen of Denmark (see Demographics of Denmark) Culture of Denmark Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ancestral or ethnic identity A member of the Danes, a Germanic tribe Danish (name), a male given name and surname == Language == Danish language, a North Germanic language used mostly in Denmark and Northern Germany Danish tongue or Old Norse, the parent language of all North Germanic languages == Food == Danish cuisine Danish pastry, often simply called a "Danish"
[ "Culture of Denmark", "List of Danes", "Danish pastry", "Gdańsk", "Languages of Denmark", "Denmark", "Danish language", "Old Norse", "Danish cuisine", "Danish (name)", "Dane (disambiguation)", "Danes (tribe)", "Danes", "Demographics of Denmark" ]
8,227
Danish language
Danish (, ; , ) In the 17th and 18th centuries, standard German and French superseded Low German influence, and in the 20th century, English became the main supplier of loanwords, especially after World War II. Although many old Nordic words remain, some were replaced with borrowed synonyms, for example (to eat) was mostly supplanted by the Low German . As well as loanwords, new words can be freely formed by compounding existing words. In standard texts of contemporary Danish, Middle Low German loans account for about 16–17% of the vocabulary, Graeco-Latin loans 4–8%, French 2–4% and English about 1%. }} By the eighth century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse. This language was generally called the "Danish tongue" (), or "Norse language" (). Norse was written in the runic alphabet, first with the elder futhark and from the 9th century with the younger futhark. Possibly as far back as the seventh century, the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, resulting in the appearance of two dialect areas, Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). Most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway. A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong æi (Old West Norse ei) to the monophthong e, as in to . This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read and the later . Also, a change of au as in into ø as in occurred. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from into . Moreover, the (Old West Norse ) diphthong changed into , as well, as in the Old Norse word for "island". This monophthongization started in Jutland and spread eastward, having spread throughout Denmark and most of Sweden by 1100. Through Danish conquest, Old East Norse was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England. Many words derived from Norse, such as "gate" () for street, still survive in Yorkshire, the East Midlands and East Anglia, and parts of eastern England colonized by Danish Vikings. The city of York was once the Viking settlement of Jorvik. Several other English words derive from Old East Norse, for example "knife" (), "husband" (), and "egg" (). The suffix "-by" for 'town' is common in place names in Yorkshire and the east Midlands, for example Selby, Whitby, Derby, and Grimsby. The word "dale" meaning valley is common in Yorkshire and Derbyshire placenames. === Old and Middle dialects === In the medieval period, Danish emerged as a separate language from Swedish. The main written language was Latin, and the few Danish-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet, although the runic alphabet seems to have lingered in popular usage in some areas. The main text types written in this period are laws, which were formulated in the vernacular language to be accessible also to those who were not Latinate. The Jutlandic Law and Scanian Law were written in vernacular Danish in the early 13th century. Beginning in 1350, Danish began to be used as a language of administration, and new types of literature began to be written in the language, such as royal letters and testaments. The orthography in this period was not standardized nor was the spoken language, and the regional laws demonstrate the dialectal differences between the regions in which they were written. Throughout this period, Danish was in contact with Low German, and many Low German loan words were introduced in this period. With the Protestant Reformation in 1536, Danish also became the language of religion, which sparked a new interest in using Danish as a literary language. Also in this period, Danish began to take on the linguistic traits that differentiate it from Swedish and Norwegian, such as the , the voicing of many stop consonants, and the weakening of many final vowels to /e/. The first printed book in Danish dates from 1495, the (Rhyming Chronicle), a history book told in rhymed verses. The first complete translation of the Bible in Danish, the Bible of Christian II translated by Christiern Pedersen, was published in 1550. Pedersen's orthographic choices set the de facto standard for subsequent writing in Danish. From around 1500, several printing presses were in operation in Denmark publishing in Danish and other languages. In the period after 1550, presses in Copenhagen dominated the publication of material in the Danish language. === Early Modern === Following the first Bible translation, the development of Danish as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Danish, first among them Rasmus Bartholin's 1657 Latin grammar ; then Laurids Olufsen Kock's 1660 grammar of the Zealand dialect ; and in 1685 the first Danish grammar written in Danish, ("The Art of the Danish Language") by Peder Syv. Major authors from this period are Thomas Kingo, poet and psalmist, and Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, whose novel (Remembered Woes) is considered a literary masterpiece by scholars. Orthography was still not standardized and the principles for doing so were vigorously discussed among Danish philologists. The grammar of Jens Pedersen Høysgaard was the first to give a detailed analysis of Danish phonology and prosody, including a description of the . In this period, scholars were also discussing whether it was best to "write as one speaks" or to "speak as one writes", including whether archaic grammatical forms that had fallen out of use in the vernacular, such as the plural form of verbs, should be conserved in writing (i.e. "he is" vs. "they are"). The East Danish provinces were lost to Sweden after the Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645) after which they were gradually Swedified; just as Norway was politically severed from Denmark, beginning also a gradual end of Danish influence on Norwegian (influence through the shared written standard language remained). With the introduction of absolutism in 1660, the Danish state was further integrated, and the language of the Danish chancellery, a Zealandic variety with German and French influence, became the de facto official standard language, especially in writing—this was the original so-called ("Danish of the Realm"). Also, beginning in the mid-18th century, the , the uvular R sound (), began spreading through Denmark, likely through influence from Parisian French and German. It affected all of the areas where Danish had been influential, including all of Denmark, Southern Sweden, and coastal southern Norway. In the 18th century, Danish philology was advanced by Rasmus Rask, who pioneered the disciplines of comparative and historical linguistics, and wrote the first English-language grammar of Danish. Literary Danish continued to develop with the works of Ludvig Holberg, whose plays and historical and scientific works laid the foundation for the Danish literary canon. With the Danish colonization of Greenland by Hans Egede, Danish became the administrative and religious language there, while Iceland and the Faroe Islands had the status of Danish colonies with Danish as an official language until the mid-20th century. === Standardized national language === Following the loss of Schleswig to Germany, a sharp influx of German speakers moved into the area, eventually outnumbering the Danish speakers. The political loss of territory sparked a period of intense nationalism in Denmark, coinciding with the so-called "Golden Age" of Danish culture. Authors such as N.F.S. Grundtvig emphasized the role of language in creating national belonging. Some of the most cherished Danish-language authors of this period are existential philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and prolific fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen. The influence of popular literary role models, together with increased requirements of education did much to strengthen the Danish language, and also started a period of homogenization, whereby the Copenhagen standard language gradually displaced the regional vernacular languages. Throughout the 19th century, Danes emigrated, establishing small expatriate communities in the Americas, particularly in the United States, Canada, and Argentina, where memory and some use of Danish remains today. After the Schleswig referendum in 1920, a number of Danes remained as a minority within German territories. After the occupation of Denmark by Germany in World War II, the 1948 orthography reform dropped the German-influenced rule of capitalizing nouns, and introduced the letter . Three 20th-century Danish authors have become Nobel Prize laureates in Literature: Karl Gjellerup and Henrik Pontoppidan (joint recipients in 1917) and Johannes V. Jensen (awarded 1944). With the exclusive use of , the High Copenhagen Standard, in national broadcasting, the traditional dialects came under increased pressure. In the 20th century, they have all but disappeared, and the standard language has extended throughout the country. Minor regional pronunciation variation of the standard language, sometimes called ("regional languages") remain, and are in some cases vital. Today, the major varieties of Standard Danish are High Copenhagen Standard, associated with elderly, well to-do, and well educated people of the capital, and low Copenhagen speech traditionally associated with the working class, but today adopted as the prestige variety of the younger generations. Also, in the 21st century, the influence of immigration has had linguistic consequences, such as the emergence of a so-called multiethnolect in the urban areas, an immigrant Danish variety (also known as ), combining elements of different immigrant languages such as Arabic, Turkish, and Kurdish, as well as English and Danish. == Geographic distribution and status == === Danish Realm === Within the Danish Realm, Danish is the national language of Denmark and one of two official languages of the Faroe Islands (alongside Faroese). There is a Faroese variant of Danish known as Gøtudanskt. Until 2009, Danish was also one of two official languages of Greenland (alongside Greenlandic). Danish now acts as a lingua franca in Greenland, with a large percentage of native Greenlanders able to speak Danish as a second language (it was introduced into the education system as a compulsory language in 1928). About 10% of the population speaks Danish as their first language, due to immigration. Iceland was a territory ruled by Denmark–Norway, one of whose official languages was Danish. Though Danish ceased to be an official language in Iceland in 1944, it is still widely used and is a mandatory subject in school, taught as a second foreign language after English. No law stipulates an official language for Denmark, making Danish the de facto official language only. The Code of Civil Procedure does, however, lay down Danish as the language of the courts. Since 1997, public authorities have been obliged to follow the official spelling system laid out in the Orthography Law. In the 21st century, discussions have been held with a view to create a law that would make Danish the official language of Denmark. ===Surrounding countries=== In addition, a noticeable community of Danish speakers is in Southern Schleswig, the portion of Germany bordering Denmark, and a variant of Standard Danish, Southern Schleswig Danish, is spoken in the area. Since 2015, Schleswig-Holstein has officially recognized Danish as a regional language, just as German is north of the border. Furthermore, Danish is one of the official languages of the European Union and one of the working languages of the Nordic Council. Under the Nordic Language Convention, Danish-speaking citizens of the Nordic countries have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any interpretation or translation costs. and Gutnish (Gutamål) were influenced by Danish. ===Other locations=== There are also Danish emigrant communities in other places of the world who still use the language in some form. In the Americas, Danish-speaking communities can be found in the US, Canada, Argentina and Brazil. == Dialects == Standard Danish () is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital, Copenhagen. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 25% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area of the capital, and most government agencies, institutions, and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, which has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm. Danish dialects can be divided into the traditional dialects, which differ from modern Standard Danish in both phonology and grammar, and the Danish accents or regional languages, which are local varieties of the Standard language distinguished mostly by pronunciation and local vocabulary colored by traditional dialects. Traditional dialects are now mostly extinct in Denmark, with only the oldest generations still speaking them. Danish traditional dialects are divided into three main dialect areas: Insular Danish (), including dialects of the Danish islands of Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster, and Møn Jutlandic (), further divided in North, East, West, and South Jutlandic East Danish (), including dialects of Bornholm (), Scania, Halland and Blekinge Jutlandic is further divided into Southern Jutlandic and Northern Jutlandic, with Northern Jutlandic subdivided into North Jutlandic and West Jutlandic. Insular Danish is divided into Zealand, Funen, Møn, and Lolland-Falster dialect areas―each with additional internal variation. Bornholmian is the only Eastern Danish dialect spoken in Denmark. Since the Swedish conquest of the Eastern Danish provinces Skåne, Halland and Blekinge in 1645/1658, the Eastern Danish dialects there have come under heavy Swedish influence. Many residents now speak regional variants of Standard Swedish. However, many researchers still consider the dialects in Scania, Halland () and Blekinge () as part of the East Danish dialect group. The Swedish National Encyclopedia from 1995 classifies Scanian as an Eastern Danish dialect with South Swedish elements. Traditional dialects differ in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary from standard Danish. Phonologically, one of the most diagnostic differences is the presence or absence of . Four main regional variants for the realization of stød are known: In Southeastern Jutlandic, Southernmost Funen, Southern Langeland, and Ærø, no is used, but instead a pitch accent (like in Norwegian, Swedish and Gutnish). South of a line (, 'the stød border') going through central South Jutland, crossing Southern Funen and central Langeland and north of Lolland-Falster, Møn, Southern Zealand and Bornholm neither nor pitch accent exists. Most of Jutland and on Zealand use , and in Zealandic traditional dialects and regional language, occurs more often than in the standard language. In Zealand, the line divides Southern Zealand (without ), an area which used to be directly under the Crown, from the rest of the Island that used to be the property of various noble estates. Grammatically, a dialectally significant feature is the number of grammatical genders. Standard Danish has two genders and the definite form of nouns is formed by the use of suffixes, while Western Jutlandic has only one gender and the definite form of nouns uses an article before the noun itself, in the same fashion as West Germanic languages. The Bornholmian dialect has maintained to this day many archaic features, such as a distinction between three grammatical genders. Insular Danish traditional dialects also conserved three grammatical genders. By 1900, Zealand insular dialects had been reduced to two genders under influence from the standard language, but other Insular varieties, such as Funen dialect had not. Besides using three genders, the old Insular or Funen dialect, could also use personal pronouns (like he and she) in certain cases, particularly referring to animals. A classic example in traditional Funen dialect is the sentence: "Katti, han får unger", literally The cat, he is having kittens, because cat is a masculine noun, thus is referred to as (he), even if it is a female cat. == Phonology == The sound system of Danish is unusual, particularly in its large vowel inventory. In informal or rapid speech, the language is prone to considerable reduction of unstressed syllables, creating many vowel-less syllables with syllabic consonants, as well as reduction of final consonants. Furthermore, the language's prosody does not include many clues about the sentence structure, unlike many other languages, making it relatively more difficult to perceive the different sounds of the speech flow. These factors taken together make Danish pronunciation difficult to master for learners, and research shows Danish children take slightly longer in learning to segment speech in early childhood. === Vowels === Although somewhat depending on analysis, most modern variants of Danish distinguish 12 long vowels, 13 short vowels, and two central vowels, and , which only occur in unstressed syllables. This gives a total of 27 different vowel phonemes – a very large number among the world's languages. At least 19 different diphthongs also occur, all with a short first vowel and the second segment being either , , or . The table below shows the approximate distribution of the vowels as given by in Modern Standard Danish, with the symbols used in IPA/Danish. Questions of analysis may give a slightly different inventory, for example based on whether r-colored vowels are considered distinct phonemes. gives 25 "full vowels", not counting the two unstressed "schwa" vowels. === Consonants === The consonant inventory is comparatively simple. distinguishes 17 non-syllabic consonant phonemes in Danish. Many of these phonemes have quite different allophones in onset and coda where intervocalic consonants followed by a full vowel are treated as in onset, otherwise as in coda. Phonetically there is no voicing distinction among the stops, rather the distinction is one of aspiration. are aspirated in onset realized as , but not in coda. The pronunciation of t, , is in between a simple aspirated and a fully affricated (as has happened in German with the second High German consonant shift from t to z). There is dialectal variation, and some Jutlandic dialects may be less affricated than other varieties, with Northern and Western Jutlandic traditional dialects having an almost unaspirated dry t. is pronounced as a in syllable coda, so e.g. () is pronounced . often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as approximants. Danish differs from the English sound that is conventionally transcribed with the same IPA symbol, in that it is not a dental fricative but an alveolar approximant which is frequently heard as by second language learners. The sound is found for example in the word /sjovˀ/ "fun" pronounced and "marijuana" pronounced . Some analyses have posited it as a phoneme, but since it occurs only after or and does not occur after these phonemes, it can be analyzed as an allophone of , which is devoiced after voiceless alveolar frication. This makes it unnecessary to postulate a -phoneme in Danish. Jutlandic dialects often lack the sound and pronounce the sj cluster as or . In onset, is realized as a uvular-pharyngeal approximant, , but in coda it is either realized as a non-syllabic low central vowel, or simply coalesces with the preceding vowel. The phenomenon is comparable to the r in German or in non-rhotic pronunciations of English. The Danish realization of as guttural – the so-called skarre-r – distinguishes the language from those varieties of Norwegian and Swedish that use trilled . Only very few, middle-aged or elderly, speakers of Jutlandic retain a frontal which is then usually realised as a flapped or approximant . === Prosody === Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called (). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice. Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon. The occurrence is also dependent on stress, and some varieties also realize it primarily as a tone. The has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as ("peasants") with , versus ("beans") without . The distribution of in the vocabulary is related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian pitch accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish. Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as "cheapest" and "car driver". Intonation reflects the stress group, sentence type and prosodic phrase. In Copenhagen Standard Danish, the pitch pattern reaches its lowest peak within the stress group on the stressed syllable followed by its highest peak on the following unstressed syllable, after which it declines gradually until the next stress group. In interaction, pitch can mark e.g. the end of a story and turn-taking. == Grammar == Similarly to the case of English, modern Danish grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax. Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in Danish, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut or umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs ("takes/took") and ("foot/feet")) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as "love/loved", "car/cars"). Vestiges of the Germanic case and gender system are found in the pronoun system. Typical for an Indo-European language, Danish follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Danish distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, numerals, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and onomatopoeia. === Nouns === Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and definiteness, and are classified into two grammatical genders. Only pronouns inflect for case, and the previous genitive case has become an enclitic. A distinctive feature of the Nordic languages, including Danish, is that the definite articles, which also mark noun gender, have developed into suffixes. Typical of Germanic languages plurals are either irregular or "strong" stems inflected through umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem) (e.g. "foot/feet", "man/men") or "weak" stems inflected through affixation (e.g. "ship/ships", "woman/women"). ==== Gender ==== Standard Danish has two nominal genders: common and neuter; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category. Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast. While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the common gender, and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. The gender of a noun determines the form of adjectives that modify it, and the form of the definite suffixes. ==== Definiteness ==== Definiteness is marked by two mutually exclusive articles: either a postposed enclitic or a preposed article which is the obligatory way to mark definiteness when nouns are modified by an adjective. Neuter nouns take the clitic , and common gender nouns take . Indefinite nouns take the articles (common gender) or (neuter). Hence, the common gender noun "a man" (indefinite) has the definite form "the man", whereas the neuter noun "a house" (indefinite) has the definite form, "the house" (definite) . Indefinite: Jeg så et hus: "I saw a house" Definite with enclitic article: Jeg så huset: "I saw the house" Definite with preposed demonstrative article: Jeg så det store hus: "I saw the big house" The plural definite ending is (e.g. "boys > "the boys" and "girls" > "the girls"), and nouns ending in lose the last before adding the -ne suffix (e.g. "Danes" > "the Danes"). When the noun is modified by an adjective, the definiteness is marked by the definite article (common) or (neuter) and the definite/plural form of the adjective: "the big man", "the big house". ==== Number ==== There are three different types of regular plurals: Class 1 forms the plural with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), Class 2 with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), and Class 3 takes no suffix for the plural indefinite form and for the plural definite. Most irregular nouns have an ablaut plural (i.e. with a change in the stem vowel), or combine ablaut stem-change with the suffix, and some have unique plural forms. Unique forms may be inherited (e.g. the plural of "eye", which is the old dual form ), or for loan words they may be borrowed from the donor language (e.g. the word "account" which is borrowed from Italian and uses the Italian masculine plural form "accounts"). ==== Possession ==== Possessive phrases are formed with the enclitic -s, for example "my father's house" where the noun carries the possessive enclitic. This is however not an example of genitive case marking, because in the case of longer noun phrases the -s attaches to the last word in the phrase, which need not be the head-noun or even a noun at all. For example, the phrases "the king of Denmark's candy factory", where the factory is owned by the king of Denmark, or "that is the daughter of the girl that Uffe lives with", where the enclitic attaches to a stranded preposition. ==== Nominal compounds ==== Like all Germanic languages, Danish forms compound nouns. These are represented in Danish orthography as one word, as in , "the female national handball team". In some cases, nouns are joined with s as a linking element, originally possessive in function, like (from , "country", and , "man", meaning "compatriot"), but (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with the linking element instead, like (from and , meaning "guest book"). There are also irregular linking elements. === Pronouns === As does English, the Danish pronominal system retains a distinction between nominative and oblique case. The nominative form of pronouns is used when pronouns occur as grammatical subject of a sentence (and only when non-coordinated and without a following modifier), and oblique forms are used for all non-subject functions including direct and indirect object, predicative, comparative and other types of constructions. The third person singular pronouns also distinguish between animate masculine ( "he"), animate feminine ( "she") forms, as well as inanimate neuter ( "it") and inanimate common gender ( "it"). "I sleep" "you sleep" "I kiss you" "you kiss me" Possessive pronouns have independent and adjectival uses, but the same form. The form is used both adjectivally preceding a possessed noun ( "it is my horse"), and independently in place of the possessed noun ( "it is mine"). In the third person singular, is used when the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, whereas ("his"), (her) and "its" is used when the possessor is different from the grammatical subject. Han tog sin hat: He took his (own) hat Han tog hans hat: He took his hat (someone else's hat) === Verbs === Danish verbs are morphologically simple, marking very few grammatical categories. They do not mark person or number of subject, although the marking of plural subjects was still used in writing as late as the 19th century. Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative. ==== Tense, aspect, mood, and voice ==== Verbs can be divided into two main classes, the strong/irregular verbs and the regular/weak verbs. The regular verbs are also divided into two classes, those that take the past suffix and those that take the suffix . The infinitive always ends in a vowel, usually -e (pronounced ), infinitive forms are preceded by the article (pronounced ) in some syntactic functions. The non-past or present tense takes the suffix , except for a few strong verbs that have irregular non-past forms. The past form does not necessarily mark past tense, but also counterfactuality or conditionality, and the non-past has many uses besides present tense time reference. The present participle ends in (e.g. "running"), and the past participle ends in (e.g. "run"), (e.g. købt "bought"). The Perfect is constructed with ("to have") and participial forms, like in English. But some intransitive verbs form the perfect using ("to be") instead, and some may use both with a difference in meaning. . : She has walked. The plane has flown . : She has left. The plane has taken off . : She had walked. The plane had flown . : She had left. The plane had taken off The passive form takes the suffix -s: ("the newspaper is read every day"). Another passive construction uses the auxiliary verb "to become": . The imperative form is the infinitive without the final schwa-vowel, with potentially being applied depending on syllable structure.: "run!" === Numerals === Certain numerals are formed on the basis of a vigesimal system with various rules. In the word forms of numbers above 20, the units are stated before the tens, so 21 is rendered , literally "one and twenty". The numeral means (literally "half second", implying "one plus half of the second one"). The numerals (), () and () are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below. Similarly, the temporal designation () halv tre, literally "half three (o'clock)", is half past two. One peculiar feature of the Danish language is that the numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 are (as are the French numerals from 80 through 99) based on a vigesimal system, meaning that the score (20) is used as a base unit in counting. (short for , "three times twenty") means 60, while 50 is (short for , "half third times twenty", implying two score plus half of the third score). The ending meaning "times twenty" is no longer included in cardinal numbers, but may still be used in ordinal numbers. Thus, in modern Danish fifty-two is usually rendered as from the now obsolete , whereas 52nd is either or . Twenty is (derived from Old Danish , Old Norse form , meaning 'two tens'), while thirty is (Old Danish , "three tens"), and forty is (Old Danish , "four tens", still used today as the archaism ). Thus, the suffix should be understood as a plural of (10), though to modern Danes means 20, making it hard to explain why is 40 (four tens) and not 80 (four twenties). For large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that the short-scale billion (1,000,000,000) is called , and the short-scale trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is . === Syntax === Danish basic constituent order in simple sentences with both a subject and an object is Subject–Verb–Object. However, Danish is also a V2 language, which means that the verb must always be the second constituent of the sentence. Following the Danish grammarian Paul Diderichsen Danish grammar tends to be analyzed as consisting of slots or fields, and in which certain types of sentence material can be moved to the pre-verbal (or foundation) field to achieve different pragmatic effects. Usually the sentence material occupying the preverbal slot has to be pragmatically marked, usually either new information or topics. There is no rule that subjects must occur in the preverbal slot, but since subject and topic often coincide, they often do. Therefore, whenever any sentence material that is not the subject occurs in the preverbal position the subject is demoted to postverbal position and the sentence order becomes VSO. "Peter saw Jytte" but "Yesterday, Peter saw Jytte" When there is no pragmatically marked constituents in the sentence to take the preverbal slot (for example when all the information is new), the slot has to take a dummy subject "der". there came a girl in through the door, "A girl came in the door" ==== Main clauses ==== describes the basic order of sentence constituents in main clauses as comprising the following 8 positions: Position 0 is not part of the sentence and can only contain sentential connectors (such as conjunctions or interjections). Position 1 can contain any sentence constituent. Position 2 can only contain the finite verb. Position 3 is the subject position, unless the subject is fronted to occur in position 1. Position 4 can only contain light adverbs and the negation. Position 5 is for non-finite verbs, such as auxiliaries. Position 6 is the position of direct and indirect objects, and position 7 is for heavy adverbial constituents. Questions with wh-words are formed differently from yes/no questions. In wh-questions the question word occupies the preverbal field, regardless of whether its grammatical role is subject or object or adverbial. In yes/no questions the preverbal field is empty, so that the sentence begins with the verb. Wh-question: whom saw she, "whom did she see?" saw she him?, "did she see him?" ==== Subordinate clauses ==== In subordinate clauses, the word order differs from that of main clauses. In the subordinate clause structure the verb is preceded by the subject and any light adverbial material (e.g. negation). Complement clauses begin with the particle in the "connector field". Han sagde, at han ikke ville gå: he said that he not would go, "He said that he did not want to go" Relative clauses are marked by the relative pronouns or which occupy the preverbal slot: ''Jeg kender en mand, som bor i Helsingør: "I know a man who lives in Elsinore" == Writing system and alphabet == The oldest preserved examples of written Danish (from the Iron and Viking Ages) are in the Runic alphabet. The introduction of Christianity also brought the Latin script to Denmark. And at the end of the High Middle Ages, runes had more or less been replaced by Latin letters. Danish orthography is conservative, using most of the conventions established in the 16th century. The spoken language however has changed a lot since then, creating a gap between the spoken and written languages. Since 1955, Dansk Sprognævn has been the official language council in Denmark. The modern Danish alphabet is similar to the English one, with three additional letters: , , and , which come at the end of the alphabet, in that order. The letters , , , and are only used in loan words. A spelling reform in 1948 introduced the letter , already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the digraph . The old usage continues to occur in some personal and geographical names; for example, the name of the city of is spelled with following a decision by the City Council in the 1970s and decided to go back to in 2011. When representing the same sound , is treated like in alphabetical sorting, though it appears to be two letters. When the letters are not available due to technical limitations, they are often replaced by (for ), or (for ), and (for ), respectively. The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as the past tense (would), (could) and (should), to their current forms of , and (making them identical to the infinitives in writing, as they are in speech). Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs slightly, particularly with the phonetic spelling of loanwords; for example the spelling of and in Danish remains identical to other languages, whereas in Norwegian, they are transliterated as and . == Example text == Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Danish: Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
[ "Intonation (linguistics)", "non-rhotic", "Norwegian language", "Norway", "Scania", "Danish dialects", "Greenland", "Paul Diderichsen", "French language", "Uvular consonant", "Danelaw", "stress (linguistics)", "Schleswig plebiscites, 1920", "diphthong", "Zealand", "Parisian French", "East Danish", "multiethnolect", "Insular Danish", "morphosyntactic alignment", "Schleswig", "Nordic Language Convention", "Approximant consonant", "glottal stop", "ordinal number", "Conservative (linguistics)", "ø", "Denmark", "Orthography", "Southern Schleswig", "suffix", "grammatical gender", "Old East Norse", "Codex Holmiensis", "Malmö", "Angel Danish", "minority language", "Proto Indo-European", "Prosody (linguistics)", "dialect group", "dialect continuum", "stød", "Proto-Norse", "Hans Egede", "Faroese language", "Demographics of Greenland", "cardinal number", "Rasmus Rask", "North Frisian language", "Brazil", "written language", "first language", "endonym", "Leonora Christina Ulfeldt", "strong inflection", "minimal pair", "Denmark–Norway", "elder futhark", "Low German language", "Dansk Sprognævn", "voiced uvular fricative", "Late Middle Ages", "SVO word order", "Blekinge", "interfix", "spelling reform", "Historical linguistics", "Germany", "Peder Syv", "Aarhus", "Johannes Vilhelm Jensen", "allophone", "East Scandinavian languages", "Southern Jutland", "Snorri Sturluson", "Danish people", "Analytic language", "Nominative–accusative language", "Argentina", "Viking Age", "younger futhark", "Jens Pedersen Høysgaard", "mutual intelligibility", "Vikings", "Schleswig-Holstein", "Dummy pronoun", "High Middle Ages", "Canada", "runic alphabet", "Reformation", "Bible", "Rasmus Bartholin", "United States", "Interrogative word", "Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology", "Old Danish", "Southern Schleswig Danish", "Latin script", "ablaut", "Protestant Reformation in Denmark", "Greenlandic language", "History of Danish", "Scanian dialect", "collating", "Bornholmsk dialect", "Danish and Norwegian alphabet", "Interactional linguistics", "European Union", "Close-mid vowel", "Open vowel", "Relative clause", "Danish minority of Southern Schleswig", "philosopher", "inflection", "Copenhagen", "Low German", "Heimskringla", "Laurids Olufsen Kock", "fairy tale", "Duchy of Schleswig", "Guttural R", "existentialism", "Danish Braille", "phonemes", "Lingua franca", "Comparative linguistics", "Perkerdansk", "Nobel Prize", "Nasal stop", "Syllable onset", "onomatopoeia", "de facto", "West Germanic languages", "History of printing", "Scots language", "Norwegian phonology", "Christiern Pedersen", "North Germanic languages", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Karl Adolph Gjellerup", "Fricative consonant", "Runic alphabet", "Old Norse", "approximant", "the Faroe Islands", "prosody (linguistics)", "Scanian Law", "vowel", "South Jutlandic", "Close vowel", "æ", "Swedish language", "Thomas Kingo", "Christianity", "standard language", "Perfect (grammar)", "Old Norse language", "V2 word order", "Stop consonant", "Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger", "å", "Dano-Norwegian", "Danish Realm", "Jutlandic dialect", "near-open central vowel", "Open-mid vowel", "Nynorsk", "Søren Kierkegaard", "time", "Ludvig Holberg", "grammatical case", "Subject–verb–object", "Standard Swedish", "Palatal consonant", "Dependent-marking language", "Dyggvi", "pitch accent", "Faroe Islands", "World War II", "Syllable coda", "glottal consonant", "Icelandic language", "Central vowel", "archaism", "monophthong", "Complement clause", "Scandinavia", "Iceland", "Back vowel", "N.F.S. Grundtvig", "German language", "regional language", "Topic and comment", "Labial consonant", "vigesimal", "Grammatical gender", "Danish Golden Age", "Yorkshire", "Danish islands", "Reflexive pronoun", "interpreting", "Gøtudanskt accent", "Glottolog", "US", "Hans Christian Andersen", "Germanic peoples", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)", "Gutnish", "Rígsþula", "Kingdom of Denmark", "Pharyngeal consonant", "Danish alphabet", "Halland", "York", "Henrik Pontoppidan", "Nordic Council", "History of Denmark", "Northwest Germanic", "Old Norwegian", "Front vowel", "creaky voice", "Aalborg", "Fusional language", "enclitic", "geographical name", "Sweden", "20 (number)", "loanwords", "Alveolar consonant", "High German consonant shift", "Indo-European languages", "digraph (orthography)", "Umlaut (linguistics)", "Long and short scales", "Bokmål", "mutually intelligible", "Jutlandic", "translation", "Middle Norwegian", "Velar consonant", "Swedish phonology", "Germanic languages" ]
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Decade (Neil Young album)
Decade is a compilation album by Canadian–American musician Neil Young, originally released in 1977 as a triple album and later issued on two compact discs. It contains 35 of Young's songs recorded between 1966 and 1976, among them five tracks that had been unreleased up to that point. It peaked at No. 43 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart, and was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1986. ==History== Compiled by Young himself, with his hand-written liner notes about each track, Decade represents almost every album from his career and various affiliations through 1977 with the exception of 4 Way Street and Time Fades Away. Of the previously unreleased songs, "Down to the Wire" features the New Orleans pianist Dr. John with Buffalo Springfield on an item from their shelved Stampede album; "Love Is a Rose" was a minor hit for Linda Ronstadt in 1975; "Winterlong" received a cover by Pixies on the Neil Young tribute album from 1989, The Bridge; and "Campaigner" is a Young song critical of Richard Nixon. The track "Long May You Run" is a different mix to that found on the album of the same name, featuring the harmonies of the full Crosby Stills & Nash before David Crosby and Graham Nash left the recording sessions. For many years, Decade was the only Neil Young compilation album available. A 1993 compilation called Lucky Thirteen was released, but it only covered Young's 1982–1988 output. It was not until 2004 that Reprise Records released a single-disc retrospective of his best-known tracks, titled Greatest Hits. Throughout the 1980s and '90s, Young promised fans a follow-up to the original Decade collection, provisionally titled Decade II; eventually, this idea was scrapped in favor of a much more comprehensive anthology to be titled Archives, spanning his entire career and ranging in size from a box set to an entire series of audio and/or video releases. The first release of archival material since Decade and Lucky Thirteen would appear in 2006, Live at the Fillmore East, a recording from a 1970 concert featuring Crazy Horse with Danny Whitten. Several other archival live releases followed, and in 2009 the first of several planned multi-disc box sets, The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972, was issued. In April 2017 Decade was reissued on vinyl as a limited-edition Record Store Day release, with remastered vinyl and CD editions planned for general release in June 2017. ==Alternate early version== Initially, Decade was to be released in 1976, but was pulled at the last minute by Young. It was shelved until the following year, where it appeared with two songs removed from the original track list (a live version of "Don't Cry No Tears" recorded in Japan in 1976, and a live version of "Pushed It Over the End" recorded in 1974). Also removed were the following comments on those two songs and Time Fades Away, from Young's handwritten liner notes: ==Reception== The album has been lauded in many quarters as one of the best examples of a career retrospective for a rock artist, and as a template for the box set collections that would follow in the 1980s and beyond. However, in the original article on Young from the first edition of the Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll and a subsequent article in the 1983 Rolling Stone Record Guide, critic Dave Marsh used this album to accuse Young of deliberately manufacturing a self-mythology, arguing that while his highlights could be seen to place him on a level with other artists from his generation like Bob Dylan or The Beatles, the particulars of his catalogue did not bear this out. The magazine has since excised the article from subsequent editions of the Illustrated History book. ==Track listing== All songs written by Neil Young. ===Side one=== "Down to the Wire" – 2:25 Previously unreleased (1967); performed with Buffalo Springfield members Stephen Stills and Richie Furay along with Dr. John; planned for inclusion on the unreleased album Stampede Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – vocal; Mac Rebennack – piano; Bobby West – bass; Jesse Hill – drums, timpani Recorded at Gold Star Studios & Columbia Recording Studio, Hollywood, 3/28/1967, 3/30-4/18/1967. "Burned" – 2:14 Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield (1966) Neil Young – guitar, piano, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – drums Recorded at Gold Star Recording Studios, Hollywood, 8/15/1966. "Mr. Soul" – 2:41 Performed by Buffalo Springfield; recorded live in the studio in New York City, with guitar overdubs added subsequently; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again (1967) Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – drums Recorded at Atlantic Studios, New York City, 1/9/1967. "Broken Arrow" – 6:13 Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar; Chris Sarns – guitar; Don Randi – piano, organ; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – Drums, vocal; Also – strings. Jazz theme: Don Randi – piano; Jim Horn – clarinet; Hal Blaine – drums; Also – bass Recorded at Columbia Recording Studio & Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 8/25/1967, 9/5-18/1967. "Expecting to Fly" – 3:44 Appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again but no band member other than Neil Young appears on the track. Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Jack Nitzsche – electric piano; Don Randi – piano, harpsichord; Russ Titelman – guitar; Carol Kaye – bass; Jim Gordon – drums; Choir – Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Jones, Sherlie Matthews, Gracia Nitzsche; Also – English horn, vibes, timpani, strings Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 5/6/1967. "Sugar Mountain" – 5:43 Released as the B-side to "The Loner", February 21, 1969 Neil Young – guitar, vocal Recorded live in concert at the Canterbury House, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 11/10/1968. ===Side two=== "I Am a Child" – 2:17 Appears on the Buffalo Springfield album Last Time Around (1968) but features no members of the band other than Neil Young and drummer Dewey Martin Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Gary Marker – bass; Dewey Martin – drums Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 2/5/1968. "The Loner" – 3:50 Appears on the album Neil Young (1968) Neil Young – guitar, pipe organ, vocal; Jim Messina – bass; George Grantham – drums; Also – strings and celli Recorded at TTG Recording Studios, Los Angeles, 9/28/1968. "The Old Laughing Lady" – 5:59/5:35** Appears on the album Neil Young (** – Edited version on 1988 CD reissue) Neil Young – vocal; Ry Cooder – guitar; Jack Nitzsche – electric piano; Carol Kaye – bass; Earl Palmer – drums; Choir: Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Jones, Sherlie Matthews, and Gracia Nitzsche; Also – trumpet, trombone, tenor sax, French horn, clarinet, strings and timpani Recorded at Sunwest Recording Studios, Hollywood, 10/17/1968. "Cinnamon Girl" – 2:59 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere (1969) Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 3/20/1969. "Down by the River" – 9:16/9:00** Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 1/17/1969. ===Side three=== "Cowgirl in the Sand" – 10:01 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 1/18/1969. "I Believe in You" – 3:27 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album After the Gold Rush (1970) Neil Young – guitar, piano, vibes, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 8/5/1969. "After the Gold Rush" – 3:45 Appears on the album After the Gold Rush Neil Young – piano, vocal; Bill Peterson – flugelhorn Recorded at Home Studio, Topanga, CA, 3/12/1970. "Southern Man" – 5:31 Appears on the album After the Gold Rush Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Nils Lofgren – piano, vocal; Greg Reeves – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal; Danny Whitten – vocal Recorded at Home Studio, Topanga, CA, 3/19/1970. "Helpless" – 3:34 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; appears on the album Déjà Vu (1970) Neil Young – acoustic guitar, harmonica, vocal; Stephen Stills – lead guitar, piano, vocal; David Crosby – vocal; Graham Nash – guitar, vocal; Greg Reeves – bass; Dallas Taylor – drums Recorded at Wally Heider Studios, San Francisco, 11/7/1969. ===Side four=== "Ohio" – 2:56 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; released as a non-album single in June, 1970 and later appeared on So Far, 1974 Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; David Crosby – guitar, vocal; Graham Nash – vocal; Calvin "Fuzzy" Samuels – bass; Johnny Barbata – drums Recorded at The Record Plant, Hollywood, 5/21/1970. "Soldier" – 2:28 Edited version originally from the album Journey Through the Past (1972) Neil Young – piano, vocal Recorded at Sawdust Burner, Kings Mountain, CA, 11/15/1971. "Old Man" – 3:21 Appears on the album Harvest (1972) Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; James McMahon – piano; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums; Linda Ronstadt – vocal; James Taylor – banjo, vocal Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 2/6/1971. "A Man Needs a Maid" – 3:58 Appears on the album Harvest Neil Young – piano, vocal; with the London Symphony Orchestra Recorded at Barking Town Hall, London, 3/1/1971. "Harvest" – 3:08 Appears on the album Harvest Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; John Harris – piano; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 4/4/1971. "Heart of Gold" – 3:06 Appears on the album Harvest Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Teddy Irwin – guitar; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums; Linda Ronstadt – vocal; James Taylor – vocal Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 2/8/1971. "Star of Bethlehem" – 2:46 Appears on the album American Stars 'n Bars (1977); originally recorded in November 1974 Neil Young – guitar, vocal, harmonica; Ben Keith – dobro, vocal; Tim Drummond – bass; Karl T. Himmel – drums; Emmylou Harris – vocal Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 12/13/1974. ===Side five=== "The Needle and the Damage Done" – 2:02 Appears on the album Harvest Neil Young – guitar, vocal Recorded live in concert at the Royce Hall, University of California, Westwood, Los Angeles, 1/30/1971. "Tonight's the Night" (Part 1) – 4:41 Appears on the album Tonight's the Night (1975); originally recorded in 1973 Neil Young – piano, vocal; Nils Lofgren – guitar; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at S.I.R., Hollywood, 8/26/1973. "Tired Eyes" – 4:33 Appears on the album Tonight's the Night Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Nils Lofgren – piano, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass, vocal; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at S.I.R., Hollywood, 8/26/1973. "Walk On" – 2:40 Appears on the album On the Beach (1974) Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – slide guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/30/1973. "For the Turnstiles" – 3:01 Appears on the album On the Beach Neil Young – banjo guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – dobro, vocal Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 12/14/1973. "Winterlong" – 3:05 Previously unreleased; appeared on certain acetate pressings of Tonight's the Night Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/28/1973. "Deep Forbidden Lake" – 3:39 Previously unreleased Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; Tim Drummond – bass; Karl T. Himmel – drums Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 12/13/1974. ===Side six=== "Like a Hurricane" – 8:16 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; previously unreleased; different lead vocal dub from version on American Stars 'n Bars (Regular version on 1988 reissue CD) Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Frank "Poncho" Sampedro – Stringman, vocals; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/29/1975. "Love Is a Rose" – 2:16 Previously unreleased; later released on Homegrown (2020) Neil Young – guitar, vocal, harmonica; Tim Drummond – bass Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, Woodside, CA, 6/16/1974. "Cortez the Killer" – 7:29 Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Zuma (1975) Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Frank "Poncho" Sampedro – guitar; Billy Talbot – bass, vocal; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal Recorded at House, Point Dume, CA, 5/22/1975. "Campaigner" – 3:30 / 4:19 [US LP test pressings and first LP pressings in Germany included an unedited 4:19 version with an extra verse] Previously unreleased; unedited version later released on Hitchhiker (2017) Neil Young – guitar, vocal Recorded at Indigo Ranch Recording Studio, Malibu, 8/11/1976. "Long May You Run" – 3:48 Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; previously unreleased; original mix (without Crosby and Nash's vocals) appears on the Stills-Young Band album Long May You Run (1976) Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Joe Lala – percussion, vocal; Joe Vitale – drums, vocal; George "Chocolate" Perry – bass, vocal; Jerry Aiello – organ; David Crosby – vocal; Graham Nash – vocal Recorded at Criteria Studios, Miami, 2/5/1976. ==Personnel== Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, piano, vibes, banjo, pipe organ, vocals Billy Talbot – bass, vocals Bobby West, Bruce Palmer, Calvin "Fuzzy" Samuels, Carol Kaye, Donald "Duck" Dunn, Gary Marker, George "Chocolate" Perry, Greg Reeves, Jim Fielder, Jim Messina, Tim Drummond – bass Jim Horn – clarinet Dallas Taylor, Dewey Martin, Earl Palmer, George Grantham, Hal Blaine, Jim Keltner, Joe Vitale, John Barbata, Karl T. Himmel, Kenny Buttrey – drums Ralph Molina – drums, vocals Jesse Hill – drums, timpani Jack Nitzsche – electric piano Bill Peterson – flugelhorn Chris Sarns, Ry Cooder, Teddy Irwin – guitar Danny Whitten – guitar, vocals Jerry Aiello – organ Joe Lala – percussion James McMahon, John Harris, Mac Rebennack, Spooner Oldham – piano Nils Lofgren – piano, guitar, vocals Ben Keith – slide/pedal steel guitars, Dobro, vocals James Taylor – banjo-guitar, vocals David Crosby, Graham Nash, Richie Furay – guitar, vocals Stephen Stills – guitar, piano, vocals Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Richetta Jones, Sherlie Matthews, Gracia Nitzsche, Linda Ronstadt, Emmylou Harris – vocals London Symphony Orchestra Additional roles Neil Young, Elliot Mazer, Tim Mulligan, David Briggs, Jack Nitzsche, Ahmet Ertegun, Charles Greene, Brian Stone, Ry Cooder, Henry Lewy, L.A. Johnson, Kendall Pacios, Stephen Stills, Don Gehman – production Joel Bernstein, Gary Burden, Henry Diltz – photography Tom Wilkes – photography, cover layout Tommy Grekel – album packaging ==Charts== == Certifications ==
[ "University of California, Los Angeles", "Ohio (1970 song)", "James Taylor", "Tonight's the Night (Neil Young album)", "New Orleans", "Ann Arbor, Michigan", "Southern Man (song)", "Pixies (band)", "Richard Nixon", "Billboard 200", "Dewey Martin (musician)", "Omnibus Press", "Greatest Hits (Neil Young album)", "Stephen Stills", "Danny Whitten", "Rolling Stone", "Elliot Mazer", "Comes a Time", "Encyclopedia of Popular Music", "Dr. John", "Zuma (Neil Young & Crazy Horse album)", "A Man Needs a Maid (song)", "Joel Bernstein", "Cash Box (magazine)", "Record Plant", "Henry Lewy", "Ticknor & Fields", "Patty Hearst", "Don't Cry No Tears", "Merry Clayton", "David Crosby", "Journey Through the Past", "Neil Young", "Larry Johnson (film producer)", "Record Store Day", "compact discs", "Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young", "Emmylou Harris", "Jim Messina (musician)", "The Needle and the Damage Done", "Gary Marker", "Richie Furay", "Earl Palmer", "Billboard magazine", "Tom Wilkes", "folk rock", "Don Gehman", "Broken Arrow (Buffalo Springfield song)", "Royce Hall", "Sunset Sound Recorders", "Billy Talbot", "Kent Music Report", "Record World", "So Far (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young album)", "Old Man (song)", "Brenda Holloway", "George Grantham (musician)", "Buffalo Springfield Again", "Joe Vitale (musician)", "Russ Titelman", "Audio mixing (recorded music)", "Tim Drummond", "Rolling Stone Record Guide", "Like a Hurricane (Neil Young song)", "Ry Cooder", "AllMusic", "VG-lista", "Sherlie Matthews", "After the Gold Rush (song)", "Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies", "Ben Keith", "Nils Lofgren", "Greg Reeves", "Music recording sales certification", "Atlantic Studios", "triple album", "Jim Fielder", "The Old Laughing Lady", "Acetate disc", "George \"Chocolate\" Perry", "Patrice Holloway", "Buffalo Springfield (album)", "American Stars 'n Bars", "Neil Young Archives", "London Symphony Orchestra", "Jim Gordon (musician)", "4 Way Street", "rock and roll", "Long May You Run (song)", "Spooner Oldham", "Harvest (Neil Young album)", "The Loner (Neil Young song)", "Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere", "Cowgirl in the Sand", "John Barbata", "Linda Ronstadt", "Dave Marsh", "Don Randi", "liner notes", "Dallas Taylor (drummer)", "Last Time Around", "Carol Kaye", "Time Fades Away", "The Broadway (theatre)", "Tonight's the Night (Neil Young song)", "Déjà Vu (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young album)", "Ralph Molina", "Reprise Records", "Recording Industry Association of America", "Down by the River (Neil Young song)", "Live at the Fillmore East (Neil Young album)", "Neil Young (album)", "Lucky Thirteen (Neil Young album)", "TTG Studios", "Cinnamon Girl", "Westwood, Los Angeles", "Expecting to Fly (song)", "I Believe in You (Neil Young song)", "Heart of Gold (Neil Young song)", "Homegrown (Neil Young album)", "Harvest (Neil Young song)", "Buffalo Springfield", "Country rock", "The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972", "The Bridge: A Tribute to Neil Young", "Mr. Soul", "UK Albums Chart", "Warner Bros. Records", "Bob Dylan", "Sugar Mountain (song)", "Bruce Palmer", "Crazy Horse (band)", "Crosby Stills & Nash", "Vibraphone", "Henry Diltz", "Calvin \"Fuzzy\" Samuels", "Soldier (Neil Young song)", "Graham Nash", "Cortez the Killer", "Long May You Run", "Hal Blaine", "After the Gold Rush", "Joe Lala", "Love Is a Rose", "The Beatles", "Hitchhiker (Neil Young album)", "Donald \"Duck\" Dunn", "box set", "Gary Burden", "Kenny Buttrey", "David Briggs (record producer)", "Jim Keltner", "Jim Horn", "Jack Nitzsche", "RPM (magazine)", "B-side", "Helpless (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young song)", "Tired Eyes (Neil Young song)", "On the Beach (Neil Young album)", "Gloria Jones" ]
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Demeter
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter (; Attic: Dēmḗtēr ; Doric: Dāmā́tēr) is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over crops, grains, food, and the fertility of the earth. Although Demeter is mostly known as a grain goddess, she also appeared as a goddess of health, birth, and marriage, and had connections to the Underworld. She is also called Deo ( Dēṓ). In Greek tradition, Demeter is the second child of the Titans Rhea and Cronus, and sister to Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. Like her other siblings except Zeus, she was swallowed by her father as an infant and rescued by Zeus. Through Zeus, she became the mother of Persephone, a fertility goddess and resurrection deity. One of the most notable Homeric Hymns, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, tells the story of Persephone's abduction by Hades and Demeter's search for her. When Hades, the King of the Underworld, wished to make Persephone his wife, he abducted her from a field while she was picking flowers, with Zeus' leave. Demeter searched everywhere to find her missing daughter to no avail until she was informed that Hades had taken her to the Underworld. In response, Demeter neglected her duties as goddess of agriculture, plunging the earth into a deadly famine where nothing would grow, causing mortals to die. Zeus ordered Hades to return Persephone to her mother to avert the disaster. However, because Persephone had eaten food from the Underworld, she could not stay with Demeter forever, but had to divide the year between her mother and her husband, explaining the seasonal cycle as Demeter does not let plants grow while Persephone is gone. Her cult titles include Sito (), "she of the Grain", as the giver of food or grain, and Thesmophoros (, thesmos: divine order, unwritten law; , phoros: bringer, bearer), "giver of customs" or "legislator", in association with the secret female-only festival called the Thesmophoria. Though Demeter is often described simply as the goddess of the harvest, she presided also over the sacred law and the cycle of life and death. She and Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which promised the initiated a happy afterlife. This religious tradition was based on ancient agrarian cults of agricultural communities and predated the Olympian pantheon, probably having its roots in the Mycenaean period –1200 BC. Demeter was often considered to be the same figure as the Anatolian goddess Cybele, and she was identified with the Roman goddess Ceres. ==Etymology== Demeter may appear in Linear A as da-ma-te on three documents (AR Zf 1 and 2, and KY Za 2), all three dedicated to religious situations and all three bearing just the name (i-da-ma-te on AR Zf 1 and 2). It is unlikely that Demeter appears as da-ma-te in a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription (PY En 609); the word , da-ma-te, probably refers to "households". On the other hand, , si-to-po-ti-ni-ja, "Potnia of the Grain", is regarded as referring to her Bronze Age predecessor or to one of her epithets. Demeter's character as mother-goddess is identified in the second element of her name meter () derived from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *méh₂tēr (mother). In antiquity, different explanations were already proffered for the first element of her name. It is possible that Da (), a word which corresponds to Gē () in Attic, is the Doric form of De (), "earth", the old name of the chthonic earth-goddess, and that Demeter is "Mother-Earth". Liddell & Scott find this "improbable" and Beekes writes, "there is no indication that [da] means "earth", although it has also been assumed in the name of Poseidon found in the Linear B inscription E-ne-si-da-o-ne, "earth-shaker". John Chadwick also argues that the dā element in the name of Demeter is not so simply equated with "earth". M. L. West has proposed that the word Demeter, initially Damater, could be a borrowing from an Illyrian deity attested in the Messapic goddess Damatura, with a form dā- ("earth", from PIE *dʰǵʰ(e)m-) attached to -matura ("mother"), akin to the Illyrian god Dei-paturos (dei-, "sky", attached to -paturos, "father"). The Lesbian form Dō- may simply reflect a different colloquial pronunciation of the non-Greek name. Another theory suggests that the element De- might be connected with Deo, an epithet of Demeter and it could derive from the Cretan word dea (), Ionic zeia ()—variously identified with emmer, spelt, rye, or other grains by modern scholars—so that she is the mother and the giver of food generally. This view is shared by British scholar Jane Ellen Harrison, who suggests that Démeter's name means Grain-Mother, instead of Earth-Mother. An alternative Proto-Indo-European etymology comes through Potnia and Despoina, where Des- represents a derivative of PIE *dem (house, dome), and Demeter is "mother of the house" (from PIE *dems-méh₂tēr). R. S. P. Beekes rejects a Greek interpretation, but not necessarily an Indo-European one. In Arcadia, she was known as "Black Demeter". She was said to have taken the form of a mare to escape the pursuit of her younger brother, Poseidon, and having been raped by him despite her disguise, she dressed all in black and retreated into a cave to mourn and to purify herself. She was consequently depicted with the head of a horse in this region. A sculpture of the Black Demeter was made by Onatas. ==Description== In the earliest conceptions of Demeter she is the goddess of grain and threshing, however her functions were extended beyond the fields and she was often identified with the earth goddess (Gaia). Some of the epithets of Gaia and Demeter are similar showing the identity of their nature. In most of her myths and cults, Demeter is the "Grain-Mother" or the "Earth-Mother". In the older chthonic cults the earth goddess was related to the Underworld and in the secret rites (mysteries) Demeter and Persephone share the double function of death and fertility. Demeter is the giver of the secret rites and the giver of the laws of cereal agriculture. She was occasionally identified with the Great Mother Rhea-Cybele who was worshipped in Crete and Asia Minor with the music of cymbals and violent rites. It seems that poppies were connected with the cult of the Great Mother. ===As an agricultural goddess=== In epic poetry and Hesiod's Theogony, Demeter is the Grain-Mother, the goddess of cereals who provides grain for bread and blesses its harvesters. In Homer's Iliad, the light-haired Demeter with the help of the wind separates the grain from the chaff. Homer mentions the Thalysia a Greek harvest-festival of first fruits in honour of Demeter . In Hesiod, prayers to Zeus-Chthonios (chthonic Zeus) and Demeter help the crops grow full and strong. This was her main function at Eleusis, and she became panhellenic. In Cyprus, "grain-harvesting" was damatrizein. Demeter was the zeidoros arοura, the Homeric "Mother Earth arοura" who gave the gift of cereals (zeai or deai). Most of the epithets of Demeter describe her as a goddess of grain. Her name Deo in literature probably relates her with deai a Cretan word for cereals. In Attica she was called Haloas (of the threshing floor) according to the earliest conception of Demeter as the Corn-Mother. She was sometimes called Chloe (ripe-grain or fresh-green) and sometimes Ioulo (ioulos : grain sheaf). Chloe was the goddess of young corn and young vegetation and "Iouloi" were harvest songs in honour of the goddess. The reapers called Demeter Amallophoros (bringer of sheaves) and Amaia (reaper). The goddess was the giver of abundance of food and she was known as Sito (of the grain) and Himalis (of abundance ). The bread from the first harvest-fruits was called thalysian bread (Thalysia) in honour of Demeter. The sacrificial cakes burned on the altar were called "ompniai" and in Attica the goddess was known as Ompnia (related to corns). These cakes were offered to all gods. In some feasts big loafs (artoi) were offered to the goddess and in Boeotia she was known as Megalartos (of the big loaf) and Megalomazos (of the big mass, or big porridge). Her function was extended to vegetation generally and to all fruits and she had the epithets eukarpos (of good crop), karpophoros (bringer of fruits), malophoros (apple bearer) and sometimes Oria (all the fruits of the season). These epithets show an identity in nature with the earth goddess. The central theme in the Eleusinian Mysteries was the reunion of Persephone with her mother, Demeter when new crops were reunited with the old seed, a form of eternity. According to the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates, Demeter's greatest gifts to humankind were agriculture which gave to men a civilized way of life, and the Mysteries which give the initiate higher hopes in this life and the afterlife. These two gifts were intimately connected in Demeter's myths and mystery cults. Demeter is the giver of mystic rites and the giver of the civilized way of life (teaching the laws of agriculture). Her epithet Eleusinia relates her with the Eleusinian mysteries, however at Sparta Eleusinia had an early use, and it was probably a name rather than an epithet. Demeter Thesmophoros (law-giving) is closely associated to the laws of cereal agriculture. The festival Thesmophoria was celebrated throughout Greece and was connected to a form of agrarian magic. Her epithet (as paired with Auxesia for Persephone) was the center of the festival called the Lithobolia. Near Pheneus in Arcadia she was known as Demeter-Thesmia (lawfull), and she received rites according to the local version. Demeter's emblem is the poppy, a bright red flower that grows among the barley. ===As an earth and underworld goddess=== In addition to her role as an agricultural goddess, Demeter was often worshipped more generally as a goddess of the earth, from which crops spring up. Her individuality was rooted to the less developed personality of Gaia (earth). In Arcadia Demeter Melaina (the black Demeter) was represented as snake-haired with a horse's head holding a dove and dolphin, perhaps to symbolize her power over the Underworld, the air, and the water. The cult of Demeter in the region was related to Despoina, a very old chthonic divinity. Demeter shares the double function of death and fertility with her daughter Persephone. Demeter and Persephone were called Despoinai (the mistresses) and Demeters. This duality was also used in the classical period (Thesmophoroi, Double named goddesses) and particularly in an oath: "By the two goddesses". In the cult of Phlya she was worshipped as Anesidora who sends up gifts from the Underworld. In Sparta, she was known as Demeter-Chthonia (chthonic Demeter). After each death the mourning should end with a sacrifice to the goddess. Pausanias believes that her cult was introduced from Hermione, where Demeter was associated with Hades. In a local legend a hollow in the earth was the entrance to the underworld, by which the souls could pass easily. In Elis she was called Demeter-Chamyne (goddess of the ground), Pindar uses the rare epithet Chalkokrotos (bronze sounding). Brazen musical instruments were used in the mysteries of Demeter and the Great-Mother Rhea-Cybele was also worshipped with the music of cymbals. In central Greece Demeter was known as Amphictyonis (of the dwellers-round), in a cult of the goddess at Anthele near Thermopylae (hot gates). She was the patron goddess of an ancient Amphictyony. Thermopylae is the place of hot springs considered to be entrances to Hades, since Demeter was a chthonic goddess in the older local cults. The Athenians called the dead "Demetrioi", In Arcadia Demeter had the epithets Erinys (fury) and Melaina (black) which are associated with the myth of Demeter's rape by Poseidon. The epithets stress the darker side of her character and her relation to the dark underworld, in an old chthonic cult associated with wooden structures (xoana). In the mysteries of Pheneus the goddess was known as Cidaria. Her priest would put on the mask of Demeter, which was kept secret. The cult may have been connected with both the Underworld and a form of agrarian magic. ===As a poppy goddess=== Theocritus described one of Demeter's earlier roles as that of a goddess of poppies: Karl Kerényi asserted that poppies were connected with a Cretan cult which was eventually carried to the Eleusinian Mysteries in Classical Greece. In a clay statuette from Gazi, the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. According to Kerényi, "It seems probable that the Great Mother Goddess who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to Eleusis and it is almost certain that in the Cretan cult sphere opium was prepared from poppies." ==Epithets== See :Category:Epithets of Demeter Antaea (Ancient Greek: Ἀνταία): 'A goddess whom man may approach in prayers'. The epithet belongs not only to Demeter but also to Rhea and Cybele. Amphictyonis (Ancient Greek: Ἀμφικτυονίς): The form of Demeter who symbolizes wine and friendship between nations, worshiped at Anthela because it was a meeting place for the amphictyons of Thermopylae, where sacrifices were offered to her at the start of every meeting. Azesia (Ancient Greek: Ἀζησία): This epithet was the subject of several ancient Greek proverbs. One was "Amaia looked for Azesia", with "Amaia" being an epithet for Demeter, and Azesia in this instance indicating Persephone, and referring to Demeter's long search for her daughter after she had been kidnapped by Hades. It was used to refer to someone who took a long time to do something. Similarly, "Amaia has found Azesia" was an expression used to indicate that something greatly missed and sought after has been found. Chloe (Greek: Χλόη): "Blooming", "fertility", "young, green foliage" or "shoots of plants in spring". Chrysaoros (Greek: Χρυσαόρος): Demeter's epithet as "Lady of the Golden Blade", a reference to golden blades of wheat. Chtonia (Ancient Greek: Χθονία). 'Of the earth'. It was an epithet of Demeter and several other chthonic goddess, such as Hecate, Nyx or Melinoe. Daduchos (Ancient Greek): δᾳδοῦχος "torch-bearer", from δᾶις+ἔχω): An epithet of Demeter seeking her lost daughter Persephine with a torch. It was also an epithet of Hecate and Artemis, two goddesses associated with torches. It was also the title of the second priest (ranking after the Hierophant) at the Eleusinian Mysteries. This title was given in the Rhodes Island in Greece. During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cults. In the Linear B inscriptions po-ti-ni-ja (potnia) refers to the goddess of nature who was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic apects. Some scholars believe that she was the universal mother goddess. A Linear B inscription at Knossos mentions the potnia of the labyrinth da-pu-ri-to-jo po-ti-ni-ja. Poseidon was often given the title wa-na-ka (wanax) in Linear B inscriptions in his role as King of the Underworld, and his title E-ne-si-da-o-ne indicates his chthonic nature. He was the male companion (paredros) of the goddess in the Minoan and probably Mycenean cult. Elements of this early form of worship survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: "the mighty Potnia had born a strong son." ===On the Greek mainland=== Tablets from Pylos of BC record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two Queens and Poseidon" ("to the Two Queens and the King":wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te). The "Two Queens" may be related to Demeter and Persephone or their precursors, goddesses who were no longer associated with Poseidon in later periods. Major cults to Demeter are known at Eleusis in Attica, Hermion (in Crete), Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thoricus, Dion (in Macedonia) Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna, and Samothrace. Probably the earliest Amphictyony centred on the cult of Demeter at Anthele (Ἀνθήλη), lay on the coast of Malis south of Thessaly, near Thermopylae. Mysian Demeter had a seven-day festival at Pellené in Arcadia. The geographer Pausanias passed the shrine to Mysian Demeter on the road from Mycenae to Argos and reports that according to Argive tradition, the shrine was founded by an Argive named Mysius who venerated Demeter. ===="Saint Demetra"==== Even after Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica and banned paganism throughout the Roman Empire, people throughout Greece continued to pray to Demeter as "Saint Demetra", patron saint of agriculture. Around 1765–1766, the antiquary Richard Chandler, alongside the architect Nicholas Revett and the painter William Pars, visited Eleusis and mentioned a statue of a caryatid as well as the folklore that surrounded it, they stated that it was considered sacred by the locals because it protected their crops. They called the statue "Saint Demetra", a saint whose story had many similarities to the myth of Demeter and Persephone, except that her daughter had been abducted by the Turks and not by Hades. The locals covered the statue with flowers to ensure the fertility of their fields. This tradition continued until 1865, ===Festivals=== Demeter's two major festivals were sacred mysteries. Her Thesmophoria festival (11–13 October) was women-only. Her Eleusinian mysteries were open to initiates of any gender or social class. At the heart of both festivals were myths concerning Demeter as the mother and Persephone as her daughter. ===Conflation with other goddesses=== In the Roman period, Demeter became conflated with the Roman agricultural goddess Ceres through interpretatio romana. The worship of Demeter has formally merged with that of Ceres around 205 BC, along with the ritus graecia cereris, a Greek-inspired form of cult, as part of Rome's general religious recruitment of deities as allies against Carthage, towards the end of the Second Punic War. The cult originated in southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) and was probably based on the Thesmophoria, a mystery cult dedicated to Demeter and Persephone as "Mother and Maiden". It arrived along with its Greek priestesses, who were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods "with a foreign and external knowledge, but with a domestic and civil intention". The new cult was installed in the already ancient Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera, Rome's Aventine patrons of the plebs; from the end of the 3rd century BC, Demeter's temple at Enna, in Sicily, was acknowledged as Ceres' oldest, most authoritative cult centre, and Libera was recognized as Proserpina, Roman equivalent to Persephone. Their joint cult recalls Demeter's search for Persephone after the latter's abduction into the Underworld by Hades. At the Aventine, the new cult took its place alongside the old. It did not refer to Liber, whose open and gender-mixed cult played a central role in plebeian culture as a patron and protector of plebeian rights, freedoms and values. The exclusively female initiates and priestesses of the new "greek style" mysteries of Ceres and Proserpina were expected to uphold Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated social hierarchy and traditional morality. Unmarried girls should emulate the chastity of Proserpina, the maiden; married women should seek to emulate Ceres, the devoted and fruitful mother. Their rites were intended to secure a good harvest and increase the fertility of those who partook in the mysteries. Beginning in the 5th century BCE in Asia Minor, Demeter was also considered equivalent to the Phrygian goddess Cybele. Demeter's festival of Thesmophoria was popular throughout Asia Minor, and the myth of Persephone and Adonis in many ways mirrors the myth of Cybele and Attis. Some late antique sources syncretized several "great goddess" figures into a single deity. For example, the Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, identified Ceres (Demeter) with Isis, having her declare: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; ... the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; ... and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis. --Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass ==Mythology== ===Lineage, consorts, and offspring=== Demeter is the second child of the Titans Rhea and Cronus. Alongside the rest of her sisters and brothers with the exception of her youngest brother Zeus, she was swallowed as a newborn by her father due to his fear of being overthrown by one of his children; she was later freed when Zeus made Cronus disgorge all of his children by giving him a special potion made by Metis. Demeter is notable as the mother of Persephone, described by both Hesiod and in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter as the result of a union with Zeus. An alternate recounting of the matter appears in a fragment of the lost Orphic theogony, which preserves part of a myth in which Zeus mates with his mother, Rhea, in the form of a snake, explaining the origin of the symbol on Hermes' staff. Their daughter is said to be Persephone, whom Zeus, in turn, mates with to conceive Dionysus. According to the Orphic fragments, "After becoming the mother of Zeus, she who was formerly Rhea became Demeter." There is some evidence that the figures of the Queen of the Underworld and the daughter of Demeter were initially considered separate goddesses. However, they must have become conflated by the time of Hesiod in the 7th century BC. In Arcadia they were known as "the Great Goddesses" and "the mistresses". In Mycenaean Pylos, Demeter and Persephone were probably called the "queens" (wa-na-ssoi). Both Homer and Hesiod, writing c. 700 BC, described Demeter making love with the agricultural hero Iasion in a ploughed field during the marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia. According to Hesiod, this union resulted in the birth of Plutus. According to Diodorus Siculus, in his Bibliotheca historica written in the 1st century BC, Demeter and Zeus were also the parents of Dionysus. Diodorus described the myth of Dionysus' double birth (once from the earth, i.e. Demeter, when the plant sprouts) and once from the vine (when the fruit sprouts from the plant). Diodorus also related a version of the myth of Dionysus' destruction by the Titans ("sons of Gaia"), who boiled him, and how Demeter gathered up his remains so that he could be born a third time (Diod. iii.62). Diodorus states that Dionysus' birth from Zeus and his older sister Demeter was somewhat of a minority belief, possibly via conflation of Demeter with her daughter, as most sources state that the parents of Dionysus were Zeus and Persephone, and later Zeus and Semele. Hesiod's Theogony (c. 700 BC) describes Demeter as the second daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and the sister of Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. In Arcadia, a major Arcadian deity known as Despoina ("Mistress") was said to be the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon. According to Pausanias, a Thelpusian tradition said that during Demeter's search for Persephone, Poseidon pursued her. Demeter turned into a horse to avoid her younger brother's advances. However, he turned into a stallion and mated with the goddess, resulting in the birth of the horse god Arion and a daughter "whose name they are not wont to divulge to the uninitiated". Elsewhere, he says that the Phigalians assert that the offspring of Poseidon and Demeter was not a horse, but Despoina, "as the Arcadians call her". In Orphic literature, Demeter seems to be the mother of the witchcraft goddess Hecate. The goddess took Mecon, a young Athenian, as a lover; he was at some point transformed into a poppy flower. The following is a list of Demeter's offspring, by various fathers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source (in some cases approximately) dates. ===Abduction of Persephone=== Demeter searched for her missing daughter Persephone ceaselessly for nine days, preoccupied with her grief. Hecate then approached her and said that while she had not seen what happened to Persephone, she heard her screams. Together the two goddesses went to Helios, the sun god, who witnessed everything that happened on earth thanks to his lofty position. Helios then revealed to Demeter that her brother Hades, god of the Underworld, had snatched a screaming Persephone to make her his wife with the permission of Zeus, the girl's father. Demeter was then filled with anger, and so the seasons halted and all living things ceased their growth and began to die. Faced with the extinction of all life on earth, Zeus sent his messenger Hermes to the Underworld to bring Persephone back to her mother. Hades agreed to release her if she had eaten nothing while in his realm, but Persephone had eaten a small number of pomegranate seeds. This bound her to Hades and the Underworld for certain months of every year, most likely the dry Mediterranean summer, when plant life is threatened by drought, despite the popular belief that it is autumn or winter. There are several variations on the basic myth; the earliest account, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, relates that Persephone is secretly slipped a pomegranate seed by Hades and in Ovid's version, Persephone secretly eats the pomegranate seeds, thinking to deceive Hades, but she was discovered and made to stay. Contrary to popular perception, Persephone's time in the Underworld does not correspond with the unfruitful seasons of the ancient Greek calendar, nor her return to the upper world with springtime. Demeter's descent to retrieve Persephone from the Underworld is connected to the Eleusinian Mysteries. The myth of the capture of Persephone seems to be pre-Greek. In the Greek version, Ploutos (πλούτος, wealth) represents the wealth of the corn that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi). Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for funerary practices. At the beginning of the autumn, when the corn of the old crop is laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother, Demeter, for at this time, the old crop and the new meet each other. In the Orphic tradition, while she was searching for her daughter, a mortal woman named Baubo received Demeter as her guest and offered her a meal and wine. Demeter declined them both because she mourned the loss of Persephone. Baubo then, thinking she had displeased the goddess, lifted her skirt and showed her genitalia to the goddess, simultaneously revealing Iacchus, Demeter's son. Demeter was most pleased with the sight and delighted she accepted the food and wine. This tale survives in the account of Clement of Alexandria, an early Christian writer who wrote about pagan practices and mythology. Several Baubo figurines (figurines of women revealing their vulvas) have been discovered, supporting the story. ===Demeter at Eleusis=== Demeter's search for her daughter Persephone took her to the palace of Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. She assumed the form of an old woman and asked him for shelter. He took her in, to nurse Demophon and Triptolemus, his sons by Metanira. To reward his kindness, she planned to make Demophon immortal; she secretly anointed the boy with ambrosia and laid him in the hearth's flames to gradually burn away his mortal self. But Metanira walked in, saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright. Demeter abandoned the attempt. Instead, she taught Triptolemus the secrets of agriculture, and he, in turn, taught them to any who wished to learn them. Thus, humanity learned how to plant, grow and harvest grain. The myth has several versions; some are linked to figures such as Eleusis, Rarus and Trochilus. The Demophon element may be based on an earlier folk tale. ===Demeter and Iasion=== Homer's Odyssey (c. late 8th century BC) contains perhaps the earliest direct references to the myth of Demeter and her consort Iasion, a Samothracian hero whose name may refer to bindweed, a small white flower that frequently grows in wheat fields. In the Odyssey, Calypso describes how Demeter, "without disguise", made love to Iasion. "So it was when Demeter of the braided tresses followed her heart and lay in love with Iasion in the triple-furrowed field; Zeus was aware of it soon enough and hurled the bright thunderbolt and killed him." However, Ovid states that Iasion lived up to old age as the husband of Demeter. In ancient Greek culture, part of the opening of each agricultural year involved the cutting of three furrows in the field to ensure its fertility. Hesiod expanded on the basics of this myth. According to him, the liaison between Demeter and Iasion took place at the wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia in Crete. Demeter, in this version, had lured Iasion away from the other revellers. Hesiod says that Demeter subsequently gave birth to Plutus. ===Demeter and Poseidon=== In Arcadia, located in what is now southern Greece, the major goddess Despoina was considered the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios ("Horse-Poseidon"). In the associated myths, Poseidon represents the river spirit of the Underworld, and he appears as a horse, as often happens in northern European folklore. The myth describes how he pursued his older sister, Demeter, who hid from him among the horses of the king Onkios, but even in the form of a mare, she could not conceal her divinity. Poseidon caught and raped his older sister in the form of a stallion. Demeter was furious at Poseidon's assault; in this furious form, she became known as Demeter Erinys. Her anger at Poseidon drove her to dress all in black and retreat into a cave to purify herself, an act which was the cause of a universal famine. Demeter's absence caused the death of crops, livestock, and eventually of the people who depended on them (later Arcadian tradition held that it was both her rage at Poseidon and her loss of her daughter caused the famine, merging the two myths). "In her alliance with Poseidon," Kerényi noted, "she was Earth, who bears plants and beasts, and could therefore assume the shape of an ear of grain or a mare." Moreover, she bore a daughter Despoina (: the "Mistress"), whose name should not be uttered outside the Arcadian Mysteries, and a horse named Arion, with a black mane and tail. At Phigaleia, a xoanon (wood-carved statue) of Demeter was erected in a cave which, tradition held, was the cave into which Black Demeter retreated. The statue depicted a Medusa-like figure with a horse's head and snake-like hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, which probably represented her power over air and water: ===Demeter and Erysichthon=== Another myth involving Demeter's rage resulting in famine is that of Erysichthon, king of Thessaly. In a variation, Erysichthon tore down a temple of Demeter, wishing to build a roof for his house; she punished him the same way, and near the end of his life, she sent a snake to plague him. Afterwards, Demeter put him among the stars (the constellation Ophiuchus), as she did the snake, to continue to inflict its punishment on Erysichthon. In the Pergamon Altar, which depicts the battle of the gods against the Giants (Gigantomachy), survive remains of what seems to have been Demeter fighting a Giant labelled "Erysichthon." Demeter is also depicted fighting against the Giants next to Hermes in the Suessula Gigantomachy vase, now housed in the Louvre Museum. Usually, ancient depictions of the Gigantomachy tend to exclude Demeter due to her non-martial nature. ===Wrath myths=== Demeter turned the Sirens into half-bird monsters for not helping her daughter Persephone when she was abducted by Hades. While travelling far and wide looking for her daughter, Demeter arrived exhausted in Attica. A woman named Misme took her in and offered her a cup of water with pennyroyal and barley groats, for it was a hot day. Demeter, in her thirst, swallowed the drink clumsily. Witnessing that, Misme's son Ascalabus laughed, mocked her, and asked her if she would like a deep jar of that drink. Demeter then poured her drink over him and turned him into a gecko, hated by both men and gods. It was said that Demeter showed her favour to those who killed geckos. Demeter pinned Ascalaphus under a rock for reporting, as sole witness, to Hades that Persephone had consumed some pomegranate seeds. Later, after Heracles rolled the stone off Ascalaphus, Demeter turned him into a short-eared owl instead. Before Hades abducted Persephone, he had kept Minthe as his mistress. But after he married Persephone, he set Minthe aside. Minthe would often brag about being lovelier and more queenly than Persephone and say Hades would soon come back to her and kick Persephone out of his halls. Demeter, hearing that insult towards her daughter, grew angry and trampled Minthe; from the earth then sprang a lovely-smelling herb named after the nymph. In other versions, Persephone herself is the one who kills and turns Minthe into a plant. In an Argive myth, when Demeter travelled to Argolis, a man named Colontas refused to receive her in his house, whereas his daughter Chthonia disapproved of his actions. Colontas was punished by being burnt along with his house, but Demeter took Chthonia to Hermione, where she built a sanctuary for the goddess. Once, the Colchian princess Medea ended a famine that plagued Corinth by making sacrifices to Demeter and the nymphs. ===Favour myths=== During her wanderings, Demeter came upon the town of Pheneus; to the Pheneates that received her warmly and offered her shelter, she gave all sorts of pulse, except for beans, deeming it impure. Two of the Pheneates, Trisaules and Damithales, had a temple of Demeter built for her. Demeter also gifted a fig tree to Phytalus, an Eleusinian man, for welcoming her in his home. Demeter gave Triptolemus her serpent-drawn chariot (one of the serpents that drew this chariot was Kykreides) and seed and bade him scatter it across the earth (teach humankind the knowledge of agriculture). Triptolemus rode through Europe and Asia until he came to the land of Lyncus, a Scythian king. Lyncus pretended to offer what's accustomed of hospitality to him, but once Triptolemus fell asleep, he attacked him with a dagger, wanting to take credit for his work. Demeter then saved Triptolemus by turning Lyncus into a lynx and ordered Triptolemus to return home airborne. Hyginus records a very similar myth, in which Demeter saves Triptolemus from an evil king named Carnabon who additionally seized Triptolemus' chariot and killed one of the dragons, so he might not escape; Demeter restored the chariot to Triptolemus, substituted the dead dragon with another one, and punished Carnabon by putting him among the stars holding a dragon as if to kill it. When her son Philomelus invented the plough and used it to cultivate the fields, Demeter was so impressed by his good work that she immortalized him in the sky by turning him into a constellation, the Boötes. In the tale of Eros and Psyche, Demeter, along with her sister Hera, visited Aphrodite, raging with fury about the girl who had married her son. Aphrodite asks the two to search for her; the two try to talk sense into her, arguing that her son is not a little boy, although he might appear as one, and there's no harm in him falling in love with Psyche. Aphrodite took offence at their words. Sometime later, Psyche in her wanderings came across an abandoned shrine of Demeter, and sorted out the neglected sickles and harvest implements she found there. As she was doing so, Demeter appeared to her and called from afar; she warned the girl of Aphrodite's great wrath and her plan to take revenge on her. Then Psyche begged the goddess to help her, but Demeter answered that she could not interfere and incur Aphrodite's anger at her, and for that reason, Psyche had to leave the shrine or else be kept as a captive of hers. Hierax, a man of justice and distinction, set up sanctuaries for Demeter and received plenteous harvests from her in return. When the tribe neglected Poseidon in favour of Demeter, the sea god destroyed all of her crops, so Hierax sent them instead his own food and was transformed into a hawk by Poseidon. Besides giving gifts to those who were welcoming to her, Demeter was also a goddess who nursed the young; all of Plemaeus's children born by his first wife died in a cradle; Demeter took pity on him and reared herself his son Orthopolis. Plemaeus built a temple to her to thank her. Demeter also raised Trophonius, the prophetic son of either Apollo or Erginus. ===Other accounts=== Demeter seems to have accompanied Dionysus when he descended into the Underworld to retrieve his mother Semele in order to visit her now married daughter, and perhaps lead her back to the land of the living for the remainder of the year. In many vases from Athens Dionysus is seen in the company of mother and daughter. Once Tantalus, a son of Zeus, invited the gods over for dinner. Tantalus, wanting to test them, cut his son Pelops, cooked him and offered him as a meal to them. They all saw through Tantalus' crime except Demeter, who ate Pelops' shoulder before the gods brought him back to life. ==Genealogy==
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Death metal
Death metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking; deep growling vocals; aggressive, powerful drumming, featuring double kick and blast beat techniques; minor keys or atonality; abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes; and chromatic chord progressions. The lyrical themes of death metal may include slasher film-style violence, political conflict, religion, nature, philosophy, true crime and science fiction. Building from the musical structure of thrash metal and early black metal, death metal emerged during the mid-1980s. Bands such as Venom, Celtic Frost, Slayer, and Kreator were important influences on the genre's creation. Possessed, Death, Necrophagia, Obituary, Autopsy, and Morbid Angel are often considered pioneers of the genre. Since then, death metal has diversified, spawning several subgenres. Melodic death metal combines death metal elements with those of the new wave of British heavy metal. Technical death metal is a complex style, with uncommon time signatures, atypical rhythms, and unusual harmonies and melodies. Death-doom combines the deep growled vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal with the slow tempos and melancholic atmosphere of doom metal. Deathgrind, goregrind, and pornogrind mix the complexity of death metal with the intensity, speed, and brevity of grindcore. Deathcore combines death metal with metalcore traits. Death 'n' roll combines death metal's growled vocals and highly distorted, detuned guitar riffs with elements of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal. ==History== ===Emergence and early history (early to mid–1980s)=== English extreme metal band Venom, from Newcastle, crystallized the elements of what later became known as thrash metal, death metal and black metal, with their first two albums Welcome to Hell and Black Metal, released in late 1981 and 1982, respectively. Their dark, blistering sound, harsh vocals, and macabre, proudly Satanic imagery proved a major inspiration for extreme metal bands. Another highly influential band, Slayer, formed in 1981. Although the band was a thrash metal act, Slayer's music was more violent than their thrash contemporaries Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax. Their breakneck speed and instrumental prowess combined with lyrics about death, violence, war, and Satanism won Slayer a cult following. According to Mike McPadden, Hell Awaits, Slayer's second album, "largely invent[ed] much of the sound and fury that would evolve into death metal." According to AllMusic, their third album Reign in Blood inspired the entire death metal genre. It had a big impact on genre leaders such as Death, Obituary, and Morbid Angel. While attributed as having a Slayer influence, current and former members of the band had actually cited Venom and Motörhead, as well as early work by Exodus, as the main influences on their sound. Although the group had released only two studio albums and an EP in their formative years, they have been described by music journalists and musicians as either being "monumental" in developing the death metal style, or as being the first death metal band. Earache Records noted that "the likes of Trey Azagthoth and Morbid Angel based what they were doing in their formative years on the Possessed blueprint laid down on the legendary Seven Churches recording. Possessed arguably did more to further the cause of 'Death Metal' than any of the early acts on the scene back in the mid-late 80's." During the same period as the dawn of Possessed, a second influential metal band was formed in Orlando, Florida. Originally called Mantas, Death was formed in 1983 by Chuck Schuldiner, Kam Lee, and Rick Rozz. Inspired by the Brandon, Florida act Nasty Savage, they took the sound of Nasty Savage and deepened it. In 1984, they released their first demo entitled Death by Metal, followed by several more. The tapes circulated through the tape trader world, quickly establishing the band's name. With Death guitarist Schuldiner adopting vocal duties, the band made a major impact in the emerging Florida death metal scene. The fast minor-key riffs and solos were complemented with fast drumming, creating a style that would catch on in tape trading circles. Schuldiner has been credited by AllMusic's Eduardo Rivadavia for being widely recognized as the "Father of Death Metal". Death's 1987 debut release, Scream Bloody Gore, has been described by About.com's Chad Bowar as being the "evolution from thrash metal to death metal", and "the first true death metal record" by the San Francisco Chronicle. In an Interview Jeff Becerra talked about the discussions of being the creator of the genre, saying that Schuldiner cited Possessed as a massive influence, and Death were even called "Possessed clones" early on. Along with Possessed and Death, other pioneers of death metal in the United States include Macabre, Master, Massacre, Immolation, Cannibal Corpse, Obituary, and Post Mortem. ===Growing popularity (late 1980s to late 1990s)=== By 1989, many bands had been signed by eager record labels wanting to cash in on the subgenre, including Florida's Obituary, Morbid Angel and Deicide. This collective of death metal bands hailing from Florida are often labeled as "Florida death metal". Morbid Angel pushed the genre's limits both musically and lyrically, with the release of their debut album Altars of Madness in 1989. The album "redefined what it meant to be heavy while influencing an upcoming class of brutal death metal." According to Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic, "Venom and Slayer redefined the extent to which a metal band could align itself with all things evil during the beginning of the decade, but Morbid Angel made these two groups sound like children's music." Following the original death metal innovators, new subgenres began to develop the end of the decade, such as melodic death metal. Death released their fourth album Human in 1991, which has become a hallmark in technical death metal. Death's founder Schuldiner helped push the boundaries of the genre with uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, combining intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos. Earache Records, Relativity Records and Roadrunner Records became the genre's most important labels, with Earache releasing albums by Carcass, Napalm Death, Morbid Angel, and Entombed, and Roadrunner releasing albums by Obituary, and Pestilence. Although these labels had not been death metal labels, they initially became the genre's flagship labels at the beginning of the 1990s. In addition to these, other labels formed as well, such as Nuclear Blast, Century Media, and Peaceville. Many of these labels would go on to achieve successes in other genres of metal throughout the 1990s. In September 1990, Death's manager Eric Greif held one of the first North American death metal festivals, Day of Death, in Milwaukee suburb Waukesha, Wisconsin, and featured 26 bands including Autopsy, Broken Hope, Hellwitch, Obliveon, Revenant, Viogression, Immolation, Atheist, and Cynic. Death metal's popularity achieved its initial peak during 1992–1993, with some bands such as Morbid Angel and Cannibal Corpse enjoying mild commercial success. However, the genre as a whole never broke into the mainstream. The genre's mounting popularity may have been partly responsible for a strong rivalry between Norwegian black metal and Swedish death metal scenes. Fenriz of Darkthrone has noted that Norwegian black metal musicians were "fed up with the whole death metal scene" at the time. Death metal diversified in the 1990s, spawning a rich variety of subgenres that still have a large "underground" following at the present. ===Later history (2000–present)=== In the 2000s, a number of bands in the hardcore punk scene, including Black Breath and Trap Them began to incorporate elements of death metal into their sound. This was followed by a wave of bands expanding upon the death-doom style of Incantation while incorporating elements of ambient music, including Dead Congregation and Necros Christos. One of the earliest groups in this wave was Horrendous, who formed in 2009, who along with Tomb Mold took a progressive take the genre. In a 2022 article by MetalSucks writer Christopher Krovatin stated "Right now, as a music journalist, all I hear about is death metal." In the UK, this movement became the "New Wave of British Death Metal", fronted by Mortuary Spawn, Vacuous and Celestial Sanctuary, this name being coined by Tom Cronin, of Celestial Sanctuary, in order to separate these hardcore-indebted bands from the country's prior movements. The earliest bands in this wave were Cruciamentum and Grave Miasma. A large part of the New Wave of Old School Death Metal was death metal bands who originated from the hardcore scene, some of which merge elements of hardcore into their style. Xibalba and Fuming Mouth were two of the earliest groups, with the wave being solidified by Gatecreeper, 200 Stab Wounds, Creeping Death, Sanguisugabogg and Kruelty. Venom Prison came from this scene and gained particular attention for their confrontation of what Kerrang! called death metal's "misogyny problem", by instead writing "rape-revenge narrative[s]". Their lead vocalist Larissa Stupar was described by the publication as "metal's most important - and uncompromising - voice". ==Characteristics== ===Instrumentation=== The setup most frequently used within the death metal genre is two guitarists, a bass player, a vocalist, and a drummer often using "hyper double-bass blast beats". Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to occasionally incorporate other instruments such as electronic keyboards. ===Vocals and lyrics=== Death metal vocals are referred to as death growls; which are coarse roars/snarls. Death growling is mistakenly thought to be a form of screaming using the lowest vocal register known as vocal fry, however vocal fry is actually a form of overtone screaming, and while growling can be performed this way by experienced vocalists who use the fry screaming technique, "true" death growling is in fact created by an altogether different technique. Growling has been called Cookie Monster vocals, tongue-in-cheek, due to the vocal similarity to the voice of the popular Sesame Street character of the same name. Although often criticized, death growls serve the aesthetic purpose of matching death metal's aggressive lyrical content. The lyrical themes of death metal may invoke slasher film-stylised violence, Additionally, contributing artists to the genre often defend death metal as little more than an extreme form of art and entertainment, similar to horror films in the motion picture industry. Christian death metal bands often utilize the gory themes of death metal to invoke violent imagery against Satan, demons, sin and sinners, much of the violent imagery being drawn from the Bible. Satanic and anti-Christian imagery is also frequently inverted. ==Etymology== Verifiable uses of the term "death metal" began around 1983, however it was largely interchangeable with what is now understood as thrash metal. The 1983 premier issue of the zine Metal Chaos used the term to describe the music that disc-jockey Gene Khoury played on WMSC (FM) and the Winter 1983–1984 issue of Metal Forces used the term to describe Metal Church and Hellhammer. During 1984, use of the term began to gravitate towards more extreme bands, such as Bathory, Destruction, Onslaught, Slayer and Sodom. Hellhammer, in particular, put a significant emphasis on the term, being used in the liner notes for Apocalyptic Raids (1984), Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn. Kim Kelly, journalist from Vice, has called Faustcoven as "one of the finest bands to ever successfully meld black, death, and doom metal into a cohesive, legible whole." Blackened death metal bands are also more likely to wear corpse paint and suits of armour, than bands from other styles of death metal. Lower range guitar tunings, death growls and abrupt tempo changes are common in the genre. Examples of blackened death metal bands are Belphegor, Behemoth, Akercocke, and Sacramentum. ====Melodic black-death==== Melodic black-death Some bands who have played this style include Dissection, Sacramentum, Dawn, and Cardinal Sin. ====War metal==== War metal (also known as war black metal or bestial black metal) described by Rock Hard journalist Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann as "rabid" Archgoat, Bestial Warlust, and Zyklon-B. ===Brutal death metal=== Brutal death metal is a subgenre of death metal that privileges heaviness, speed, and complex rhythms over other aspects, such as melody and timbres. Brutal death metal bands employ high-speed, palm-muted power chording and single-note riffage. Dying Fetus, Cryptopsy, and Skinless. ====Slam death metal==== Slam death metal is a brutal death metal microgenre that evolved from the 1990s New York death metal scene, incorporating elements of hardcore punk. In contrast to other death metal styles, it is not generally focused on guitar solos and blast beats; instead, it employs mid-tempo rhythms, breakdowns, and palm-muted riffing, as well as hip hop-inspired vocal and drum beat rhythms. The first wave of bands in the genre were New York bands like Internal Bleeding and Pyrexia, with notable subsequent acts including Devourment and Cephalotripsy. ===Death-doom=== Death-doom is a style that combines the slow tempos and pessimistic atmosphere of doom metal with the deep growling vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal. Influenced mostly by the early work of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost, the style emerged during the late 1980s and gained a certain amount of popularity during the 1990s. It is played at a very slow tempo, and places an emphasis on evoking a sense of emptiness and despair. Typically, electric guitars are heavily distorted and dark ambient aspects such as keyboards or synthesizers are often used to create a dreamlike atmosphere. Vocals consist of mournful chants or growls and are often in the background. ===Death 'n' roll=== Death 'n' roll is a style that combines death metal's growled vocals and highly distorted detuned guitar riffs along with elements of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal. Notable examples include Entombed, Dying Fetus was also influencing deathcore through their extensive use of slam riffs, breakdowns, and hardcore-inspired grooves. Their 1996 album Purification Through Violence and 1998's Killing on Adrenaline introduced a mix of brutal death metal and hardcore elements that would later be adopted by deathcore bands. Early pioneers of deathcore include the Red Chord, Suicide Silence, Despised Icon, Ion Dissonance, Salt the Wound, Whitechapel, Job For A Cowboy, Carnifex, and the Acacia Strain. These bands combined the technicality of death metal with the breakdown-driven structures of metalcore, creating a distinct and influential sound. ===Deathgrind, goregrind and pornogrind=== Goregrind, deathgrind and pornogrind are styles that mix grindcore with death metal, with goregrind focused on themes like gore and forensic pathology, and pornogrind dealing with sexual and pornographic themes. Some notable examples of these genres are Brujeria, Cattle Decapitation, Cephalic Carnage, Pig Destroyer, Circle of Dead Children, Rotten Sound, Gut, and Cock and Ball Torture. ===Deathrash=== Deathrash, also known as death-thrash, is a shorthand term to describe bands who play a fusion of death metal and thrash metal. The genre gained notoriety in Bali, Indonesia, where it attracted criticism of being related to the accelerated tourism development on the island and the superseding of its local culture, particularly by Jakartan one. Notable bands include Grave, Mortification, The Crown, Incapacity, Darkane, Deathchain, ===Industrial death metal=== Industrial death metal is a genre of death metal that adds elements of industrial music. Some notable bands include Fear Factory, Anaal Nathrakh, Autokrator, and Meathook Seed. ===Melodic death metal=== Swedish death metal could be considered the forerunner of "melodic death metal." Melodic death metal, occasionally shortened to "melodeath", is a fusion of heavy metal with elements of death metal. The subgenre is heavily influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal. Unlike most other death metal, melodeath usually features screams instead of growls, slower tempos, and much stronger emphasis on melody. Clean vocals may be used on occasion. Carcass is sometimes credited with releasing the first melodic death metal album with 1993's Heartwork, although Swedish bands In Flames, Dark Tranquillity, and At the Gates are usually mentioned as the main pioneers of the genre and of the Gothenburg metal sound. ===Old school death metal=== Old school death metal is a style of death metal that is characterized by slower tempos and simpler song structures.The style typically employs fewer blast beats and is less concerned with the technical aspects of songwriting. It gained prominence in the late 1990s, with bands like Repugnant, Thanatos, Necrophagia, Abscess, Bloodbath and Mortem. ===Symphonic death metal=== Symphonic death metal is a genre of death metal that adds elements of classical music. Bands described as symphonic death metal include Fleshgod Apocalypse, Septicflesh, Necronomicon, and Children of Bodom. Haggard's 2000 album, Awaking the Centuries, has been described as death metal-styled symphonic metal. ===Technical death metal=== Technical death metal (also known as tech-death, progressive death metal, or prog-death) is a subgenre of death metal that employs dynamic song structures, uncommon time signatures, atypical rhythms and unusual harmonies and melodies. Bands described as technical death metal or progressive death metal usually fuse common death metal aesthetics with elements of progressive rock, jazz or classical music. While the term technical death metal is sometimes used to describe bands that focus on speed and extremity as well as complexity, the line between progressive and technical death metal is thin. Tech death and prog death, for short, are terms commonly applied to such bands as Nile, Edge of Sanity, and Opeth. Necrophagist and Spawn of Possession are known for a classical music-influenced death metal style. Death metal pioneers Death also refined their style in a more progressive direction in their final years. Some albums for this subgenre are Hallucinations (1990) by the German band Atrocity and Death's Human (1991). This style has significantly influenced many bands, creating a stream that in Europe was carried out at first by bands such as Gory Blister and Electrocution. The Polish band Decapitated gained recognition as one of Europe's primary modern technical death metal acts.
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8,237
Don Quixote
', the full title being The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha', is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes. It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615. Considered a founding work of Western literature, it is often said to be the first modern novel. The novel has been labelled by many well-known authors as the "best book of all time"{{efn|Milan Kundera, John le Carré, John Irving, Don Quixote is also one of the most-translated books in the world and one of the best-selling novels of all time. The plot revolves around the adventures of a member of the lowest nobility, an hidalgo from La Mancha named Alonso Quijano, who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his mind and decides to become a knight-errant () to revive chivalry and serve his nation, under the name . He recruits as his squire a simple farm labourer, Sancho Panza, who brings a unique, earthy wit to Don Quixote's lofty rhetoric. In the first part of the book, Don Quixote does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story meant for the annals of all time. However, as Salvador de Madariaga pointed out in his Guía del lector del Quijote (1972 [1926]), referring to "the Sanchification of Don Quixote and the Quixotization of Sancho", as "Sancho's spirit ascends from reality to illusion, Don Quixote's declines from illusion to reality". The book had a major influence on the literary community, as evidenced by direct references in Alexandre Dumas's The Three Musketeers (1844), and Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) as well as the word quixotic. Mark Twain referred to the book as having "swept the world's admiration for the mediaeval chivalry-silliness out of existence". It has been described by some as the greatest work ever written. ==Summary== For Cervantes and the readers of his day, Don Quixote was a one-volume book published in 1605, divided internally into four parts, not the first part of a two-part set. The mention in the 1605 book of further adventures yet to be told was totally conventional, did not indicate any authorial plans for a continuation, and was not taken seriously by the book's first readers. ===Part 1=== ====The first sally==== Cervantes, in a metafictional narrative, writes that the first few chapters were taken from "the archives of La Mancha", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish historian Cide Hamete Benengeli. Alonso Quixano is a hidalgo nearing 50 years of age who lives in a deliberately unspecified region of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper. While he lives a frugal life, as an avid reader of chivalric romances, he is full of fantasies about chivalry. Eventually, he goes mad and decides to become a knight errant. So, he dons an old suit of armor, renames himself "Don Quixote", names his old workhorse "Rocinante", and designates Aldonza Lorenzo (a slaughterhouse worker with a famed hand for salting pork) his lady love, renaming her Dulcinea del Toboso. As he travels in search of adventure, he arrives at an inn that he believes to be a castle, calls the prostitutes he meets there "ladies", and demands that the innkeeper, whom he takes to be the lord of the castle, dub him a knight. The innkeeper agrees. Quixote starts the night holding vigil at the inn's horse trough, which Quixote imagines to be a chapel. He then becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way. Quixote encounters a servant named Andres who is tied to a tree and beaten by his master over disputed wages. Quixote orders the master to stop beating Andres and untie him and makes the master swear to treat Andres fairly. However, the beating is resumed, and redoubled, as soon as Quixote leaves. Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo. He demands that they agree that Dulcinea del Toboso is the most beautiful woman in the world. One of them demands to see her picture so that he can decide for himself. Enraged, Quixote charges at them but his horse stumbles, causing him to fall. One of the traders beats up Quixote, who is left at the side of the road until a neighboring peasant brings him back home. While Quixote lies unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books. They seal up the room which contained the library, later telling Quixote that it was done by a wizard. ====The second sally==== Don Quixote asks his neighbour, the poor farm labourer Sancho Panza, to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship. Sancho agrees and they sneak away at dawn. Their adventures together begin with Quixote's attack on some windmills which he believes to be ferocious giants. They next encounter two Benedictine friars and, nearby, an unrelated lady in a carriage. Quixote takes the friars to be enchanters who are holding the lady captive, knocks one of them from his horse, and is challenged by an armed Basque travelling with the company. The combat ends with the lady leaving her carriage and begging him not to harm the Basque. After a friendly encounter with some goatherds and a less friendly one with some Yanguesan porters driving Galician ponies, Quixote and Sancho return go to another inn owned by Juan Palomeque, where a mix-up involving a servant girl's romantic rendezvous with another guest results in a brawl. Quixote explains to Sancho that the inn is enchanted. They decide to leave, but Quixote, following the example of the fictional knights, leaves without paying. Sancho ends up wrapped in a blanket and tossed in the air by several mischievous guests at the inn before he manages to follow. After further adventures involving a dead body, a barber's basin that Quixote imagines as the legendary helmet of Mambrino, and a group of galley slaves, they wander into the Sierra Morena. There they encounter the dejected and mostly mad Cardenio, who relates his story. Quixote decides to imitate Cardenio and live like a hermit. He sends Sancho to deliver a letter to Dulcinea, but instead Sancho finds the barber and priest from his village. They make a plan to trick Quixote into coming home, recruiting Dorotea, a woman they discover in the forest, to pose as the Princess Micomicona, a damsel in distress. The plan works and Quixote and the group return to the inn, though Quixote is now convinced, thanks to a lie told by Sancho when asked about the letter, that Dulcinea wants to see him. At the inn, several other plots intersect and are resolved. Meanwhile, a sleepwalking Quixote does battle with some wineskins which he takes to be the giant who stole the princess Micomicona's kingdom. An officer of the Santa Hermandad arrives with a warrant for Quixote's arrest for freeing the galley slaves, but the priest begs for the officer to have mercy on account of Quixote's insanity. The officer agrees and Quixote is locked in a cage which he is made to think is an enchantment. He has a learned conversation with a Toledo canon he encounters by chance on the road, in which the canon expresses his scorn for untruthful chivalric books, but Don Quixote defends them. The group stops to eat and lets Quixote out of the cage; he gets into a fight with a goatherd and with a group of pilgrims, who beat him into submission, before he is finally brought home. The narrator ends the story by saying that he has found manuscripts of Quixote's further adventures. ===Part 2=== Although the two parts are now published as a single work, Don Quixote, Part Two was a sequel published ten years after the original novel. In an early example of metafiction, Part Two indicates that several of its characters have read the first part of the novel and are thus familiar with the history and peculiarities of the two protagonists. ====The third sally==== Don Quixote and Sancho are on their way to El Toboso to meet Dulcinea, with Sancho aware that his story about Dulcinea was a complete fabrication. They reach the city at daybreak and decide to enter at nightfall. However, a bad omen frightens Quixote into retreat and they quickly leave. Sancho is instead sent out alone by Quixote to meet Dulcinea and act as a go-between. Sancho's luck brings three peasant girls along the road and he quickly tells Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting and as beautiful as ever. Since Quixote only sees the peasant girls, Sancho goes on to pretend that an enchantment of some sort is at work. A duke and duchess encounter the duo. These nobles have read Part One of the story and are themselves very fond of books of chivalry. They decide to play along for their own amusement, beginning a string of imagined adventures and practical jokes. As part of one prank, Quixote and Sancho are led to believe that the only way to release Dulcinea from her spell is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes. Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master. Under the duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets his promised governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be a wise and practical ruler before all ends in humiliation. Near the end, Don Quixote reluctantly sways towards sanity. Quixote battles the Knight of the White Moon (a young man from Quixote's hometown who had earlier posed as the Knight of Mirrors) on the beach in Barcelona. Defeated, Quixote submits to prearranged chivalric terms: the vanquished must obey the will of the conqueror. He is ordered to lay down his arms and cease his acts of chivalry for a period of one year, by which time his friends and relatives hope he will be cured. On the way back home, Quixote and Sancho "resolve" the disenchantment of Dulcinea. Upon returning to his village, Quixote announces his plan to retire to the countryside as a shepherd, but his housekeeper urges him to stay at home. Soon after, he retires to his bed with a deathly illness, and later awakes from a dream, having fully become Alonso Quixano once more. Sancho tries to restore his faith and his interest in Dulcinea, but Quixano only renounces his previous ambition and apologizes for the harm he has caused. He dictates his will, which includes a provision that his niece will be disinherited if she marries a man who reads books of chivalry. After Quixano dies, the author emphasizes that there are no more adventures to relate and that any further books about Don Quixote would be spurious. ===Other stories=== Don Quixote, Part One contains a number of stories which do not directly involve the two main characters, but which are narrated by some of the picaresque figures encountered by the Don and Sancho during their travels. The longest and best known of these is "El Curioso Impertinente" (The Ill-Advised Curiosity), found in Part One, Book Four. This story, read to a group of travelers at an inn, tells of a Florentine nobleman, Anselmo, who becomes obsessed with testing his wife's fidelity and talks his close friend Lothario into attempting to seduce her, with disastrous results for all. In Part Two, the author acknowledges the criticism of his digressions in Part One and promises to concentrate the narrative on the central characters (although at one point he laments that his narrative muse has been constrained in this manner). Nevertheless, "Part Two" contains several back narratives related by peripheral characters. Several abridged editions have been published which delete some or all of the extra tales in order to concentrate on the central narrative. ====The Ill-Advised Curiosity summary==== The story within a story relates that, for no particular reason, Anselmo decides to test the fidelity of his wife, Camilla, and asks his friend, Lothario, to seduce her. Thinking that to be madness, Lothario reluctantly agrees, and soon reports to Anselmo that Camilla is a faithful wife. Anselmo learns that Lothario has lied and attempted no seduction. He makes Lothario promise to try in earnest and leaves town to make this easier. Lothario tries and Camilla writes letters to her husband telling him of the attempts by Lothario and asking him to return. Anselmo makes no reply and does not return. Lothario then falls in love with Camilla, who eventually reciprocates; an affair between them ensues, but is not disclosed to Anselmo, and their affair continues after Anselmo returns. One day, Lothario sees a man leaving Camilla's house and jealously presumes she has taken another lover. He tells Anselmo that, at last, he has been successful and arranges a time and place for Anselmo to see the seduction. Before this rendezvous, however, Lothario learns that the man was the lover of Camilla's maid. He and Camilla then contrive to deceive Anselmo further: When Anselmo watches them, she refuses Lothario, protests her love for her husband, and stabs herself lightly in the breast. Anselmo is reassured of her fidelity. The affair restarts with Anselmo none the wiser. Later, the maid's lover is discovered by Anselmo. Fearing that Anselmo will kill her, the maid says she will tell Anselmo a secret the next day. Anselmo tells Camilla that this is to happen, and Camilla expects that her affair is to be revealed. Lothario and Camilla flee that night. The maid flees the next day. Anselmo searches for them in vain before learning from a stranger of his wife's affair. He starts to write the story, but dies of grief before he can finish. Lothario is killed in battle soon afterward and Camilla dies of grief. ==Style and interpretations== ===Use of language=== The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness. Character-naming in Don Quixote makes ample figural use of contradiction, inversion, and irony, such as the names Rocinante (a reversal) and Dulcinea (an allusion to illusion), and the word itself, possibly a pun on (jaw) but certainly (Catalan: thighs), a reference to a horse's rump. As a military term, the word quijote refers to cuisses, part of a full suit of plate armour protecting the thighs. The Spanish suffix -ote denotes the augmentative—for example, grande means large, but grandote means extra large, with grotesque connotations. Following this example, Quixote would suggest 'The Great Quijano', an oxymoronic play on words that makes much sense in light of the character's delusions of grandeur. Cervantes wrote his work in Early Modern Spanish, heavily borrowing from Old Spanish, the medieval form of the language. The language of Don Quixote, although still containing archaisms, is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the Poema de mio Cid, a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English is from Modern English. The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant. In Don Quixote, there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish. The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated. (English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English.) In Old Castilian, the letter x represented the sound written sh in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced . However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative sound (like the Scots or German ch), and today the Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" is . The original pronunciation is reflected in languages such as Asturian, Leonese, Galician, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Turkish and French, where it is pronounced with a "sh" or "ch" sound; the French opera Don Quichotte is one of the best-known modern examples of this pronunciation. Today, English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation of Quixote (Quijote), as , The traditional English rendering is preserved in the pronunciation of the adjectival form quixotic, i.e., , defined by Merriam-Webster as the foolishly impractical pursuit of ideals, typically marked by rash and lofty romanticism. ===Meaning=== Harold Bloom says Don Quixote is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying. Bloom says that the novel has an endless range of meanings, but that a recurring theme is the human need to withstand suffering. Edith Grossman, who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time. Grossman has stated:The question is that Quixote has multiple interpretations [...] and how do I deal with that in my translation. I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it [...] so when I first started reading the Quixote I thought it was the most tragic book in the world, and I would read it and weep [...] As I grew older [...] my skin grew thicker [...] and so when I was working on the translation I was actually sitting at my computer and laughing out loud. This is done [...] as Cervantes did it [...] by never letting the reader rest. You are never certain that you truly got it. Because as soon as you think you understand something, Cervantes introduces something that contradicts your premise. ===Themes=== The novel's structure is episodic in form. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as (Spanish) means "quick with inventiveness", marking the transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity. The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general. Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, veracity and even nationalism. In exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped lead literary practice beyond the narrow convention of the chivalric romance. He spoofs the chivalric romance through a straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero. The character of Don Quixote became so well known in its time that the word quixotic was quickly adopted by many languages. Characters such as Sancho Panza and Don Quixote's steed, Rocinante, are emblems of Western literary culture. The phrase "tilting at windmills" to describe an act of attacking imaginary enemies (or an act of extreme idealism), derives from an iconic scene in the book. It stands in a unique position between medieval romance and the modern novel. The former consists of disconnected stories featuring the same characters and settings with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character. The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters. In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment. By Part II, people know about him through "having read his adventures", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image. By his deathbed, he has regained his sanity, and is once more "Alonso Quixano the Good". ==Background== The cave of Medrano (also known as the casa de Medrano) in Argamasilla de Alba, which has been known since the beginning of the 17th century, and according to the tradition of Argamasilla de Alba, was the prison of Miguel de Cervantes and the place where he conceived and began to write his famous work "Don Quixote de la Mancha."
[ "tilting at windmills", "Yanguas", "New World", "Protestant reformation", "Macquarie Park, New South Wales", "Crown of Aragon", "French language", "Juan Huarte", "Modern English", "Project Gutenberg", "Rocinante", "List of Don Quixote characters", "Norman Mailer", "University of Málaga", "Maecenas", "Samuel Putnam", "Pierre Antoine Motteux", "Great books", "Villanueva de los Infantes, Ciudad Real", "Australian English", "Charles Jervas", "Salvador de Madariaga", "Cyrano de Bergerac (play)", "The History of Cardenio", "Alexandre Dumas", "Pyrenees", "Words Without Borders", "BBC News", "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote", "Richard Strauss", "The Golden Ass", "Italian language", "Modern Library", "Lists of 100 best books", "Orlando furioso", "John Stevens (translator)", "Antonio Ponce de Santa Cruz", "picaresque", "Edition (book)", "The Three Musketeers", "Internet Archive", "plate armour", "rump (animal)", "Sancho Panza", "Life on the Mississippi", "Poema de mio Cid", "Classical unities", "W. W. Norton", "Asturian language", "Amadís de Gaula", "majority", "Jorge Luis Borges", "Matteo Maria Boiardo", "Spanish Inquisition", "burlesque", "Arriero", "Alexander James Duffield", "John Milton", "Dulcibella", "Alonso Quixano", "Turkish language", "Don (honorific)", "Macquarie University", "Freud", "Habsburg Spain", "Amadis de Gaula", "Tirant lo Blanch", "Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda", "Parody", "comarca", "friar", "Leonese dialect", "El Toboso", "Lima", "Valencia", "Oxford University Press", "Seamus Heaney", "Merriam-Webster", "La Mancha", "Complutense University", "vigil", "Don Quichotte", "idiom", "Miguel de Cervantes", "es:Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica", "António José da Silva", "Quixotism", "Ivanhoe", "Carlos Fuentes", "metafiction", "Robert Smirke (painter)", "Norwegian Nobel Institute", "Feliciano de Silva", "Instituto Cervantes", "Sirmio", "Norton Critical Edition", "chivalry", "Campo de Montiel (Ciudad Real)", "La Havana", "reality principle", "metafictional", "J. M. Cohen", "archaisms", "King's College London", "Spanish chivalry", "Penguin Books", "Francisco de Robles", "Romance (heroic literature)", "Tobias Smollett", "Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs", "orthodoxy", "King James Version", "Scots language", "Walter Scott", "Doris Lessing", "Early Modern Spanish", "the pot calling the kettle black", "Coco (folklore)", "Catalan language", "Lothario", "Inca Empire", "Cuzco", "Salman Rushdie", "Tarragona", "Aragon", "Orlando innamorato", "Tordesillas", "chivalric romance", "episode", "Medrano", "Penguin Classics", "Galician language", "Monsignor Quixote", "John Ozell", "Moors", "Canon (clergy)", "Harold Bloom", "Brussels", "Basque people", "Hapsburg Spain", "Argamasilla de Alba", "Mary Smirke", "Walter Starkie", "John Ormsby (translator)", "Library of Congress", "The Guardian", "Old Spanish", "knight errant", "cuisses", "Man of La Mancha", "jousting", "Burton Raffel", "Novel", "John le Carré", "Mark Twain", "English language", "quixotism", "sound change", "Chivalry", "German language", "Western literature", "John Gibson Lockhart", "Astrid Lindgren", "Pedro Fernández de Castro y Andrade", "L'Histoire", "John D. Rutherford", "voiceless velar fricative", "Sierra Morena", "University of Valencia", "Alonso Quijano", "Lope de Vega", "Edith Grossman", "Santa Hermandad", "Novelas ejemplares", "John Phillips (author)", "Cide Hamete Benengeli", "Nadine Gordimer", "novel", "Milan Kundera", "List of best-selling books", "story within a story", "Courtly love", "Dulcinea del Toboso", "HowStuffWorks", "Thomas Shelton (translator)", "curate", "Mambrino", "Miguel Esteban", "Henry Edward Watts", "knight-errant", "Edmond Rostand", "spelling pronunciation", "H-Net", "List of works influenced by Don Quixote", "Ben Haneman", "Florence", "Portuguese language", "List of literary works by number of translations", "Barcelona", "State Library of New South Wales", "Hidalgo (nobility)", "galley slave", "Belianís de Grecia", "Pablo Picasso", "The New York Times", "Wole Soyinka", "Dulcinea", "wineskin", "The Conversation (website)", "Galician horse", "Graham Greene", "Toledo, Spain", "John Irving", "es:Thomas Albert Lathrop", "Harvard Gazette", "Middle English", "Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library" ]
8,239
Dylan
Dylan may refer to: ==Arts and entertainment== Bob Dylan (born 1941), American singer and songwriter Dylan (1973 album), a 1973 album by Bob Dylan Dylan (2007 album), a 2007 compilation album by Bob Dylan Dylan (musician), professional name of English singer-songwriter Natasha Woods Dylan (play), a 1964 play by Sidney Michael about Dylan Thomas ==Technology and engineering== Dylan (programming language), a language with Lisp-like semantics and ALGOL-like syntax Dylan, a RAID storage system by Quantel Honda Dylan, a high-end 125cc Honda scooter in Vietnam ==Other uses== Dylan (name), a given name of Welsh origin and a family name (including a list of persons with the name) Dylan Thomas (1914–1953), Welsh poet Dylan ail Don, a sea-god in Welsh mythology
[ "Quantel", "Dylan Thomas", "Bob Dylan", "Dilyn", "Dylan (musician)", "Dylan (play)", "List of Honda motorcycles", "WP:MOSDAB", "Dylan (1973 album)", "Dylan ail Don", "Dillon (disambiguation)", "Dylan (2007 album)", "Dilyn (drug)", "Dilan (disambiguation)", "Dylan (programming language)", "Dylan (name)" ]
8,240
Dada
Dada () or Dadaism was an anti-establishment art movement that developed in 1915 in the context of the Great War and the earlier anti-art movement. Early centers for dadaism included Zürich and Berlin. Within a few years, the movement had spread to New York City and a variety of artistic centers in Europe and Asia. Within the umbrella of the movement, people used a wide variety of artistic forms to protest the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalism and modern war. To develop their protest, artists tended to make use of nonsense, irrationality, and an anti-bourgeois sensibility. The art of the movement began primarily as performance art, but eventually spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, and sculpture. Dadaist artists expressed their discontent toward violence, war, and nationalism and maintained political affinities with radical politics on the left-wing and far-left politics. The movement had no shared artistic style, although most artists had shown interest in the machine aesthetic. There is no consensus on the origin of the movement's name; a common story is that the artist Richard Huelsenbeck slid a paper knife randomly into a dictionary, where it landed on "dada", a French term for a hobby horse. Others note it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness and absurdity that appealed to the group. Still others speculate it might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning (or no meaning at all) in any language, reflecting the movement's internationalism. The roots of Dada lie in pre-war avant-garde. The term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works that challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movement's detachment from the constraints of reality and convention. The work of French poets, Italian Futurists, and German Expressionists would influence Dada's rejection of the correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi (1896) by Alfred Jarry and the ballet Parade (1916–17) by Erik Satie would be characterized as proto-Dadaist works. The Dada movement's principles were first collected in Hugo Ball's Dada Manifesto in 1916. Ball is seen as the founder of the Dada movement. The Dadaist movement included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art and literary journals. Passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media. Key figures in the movement included Jean Arp, Johannes Baader, Hugo Ball, Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, George Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, John Heartfield, Emmy Hennings, Hannah Höch, Richard Huelsenbeck, Francis Picabia, Man Ray, Hans Richter, Kurt Schwitters, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Tristan Tzara, and Beatrice Wood, among others. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, and groups including Surrealism, nouveau réalisme, pop art, and Fluxus. ==Overview== Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond with the outbreak of World War I. For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests, which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war, and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war. Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. They had seen (or participated in) Cubist exhibitions held at Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona (1912), Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin (1912), the Armory Show in New York (1913), SVU Mánes in Prague (1914), several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at Moderne Kunstkring, Amsterdam (between 1911 and 1915). Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists. Dada subsequently combined these approaches. Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason' and 'logic' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality. As Hugo Ball expressed it, "For us, art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in." A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that "Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man." Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a "reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide". Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path... [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege." ==History== Dada emerged from a period of artistic and literary movements like Futurism, Cubism and Expressionism; centered mainly in Italy, France and Germany respectively, in those years. However, unlike the earlier movements Dada was able to establish a broad base of support, giving rise to a movement that was international in scope. Its adherents were based in cities all over the world including New York, Zürich, Berlin, Paris and others. There were regional differences like an emphasis on literature in Zürich and political protest in Berlin. Prominent Dadaists published manifestos, but the movement was loosely organized and there was no central hierarchy. On 14 July 1916, Ball originated the seminal Dada Manifesto. Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto, considered important Dada reading, which was published in 1918. Tzara's manifesto articulated the concept of "Dadaist disgust"—the contradiction implicit in avant-garde works between the criticism and affirmation of modernist reality. In the Dadaist perspective modern art and culture are considered a type of fetishization where the objects of consumption (including organized systems of thought like philosophy and morality) are chosen, much like a preference for cake or cherries, to fill a void. The shock and scandal the movement inflamed was deliberate; Dadaist magazines were banned and their exhibits closed. Some of the artists even faced imprisonment. These provocations were part of the entertainment but, over time, audiences' expectations eventually outpaced the movement's capacity to deliver. As the artists' well-known "sarcastic laugh" started to come from the audience, the provocations of Dadaists began to lose their impact. Dada was an active movement during years of political turmoil from 1916 when European countries were actively engaged in World War I, the conclusion of which, in 1918, set the stage for a new political order. ===Zürich=== There is some disagreement about where Dada originated. The movement is commonly accepted by most art historians and those who lived during this period to have identified with the Cabaret Voltaire (housed inside the Holländische Meierei bar in Zürich) co-founded by poet and cabaret singer Emmy Hennings and Hugo Ball. Some sources propose a Romanian origin, arguing that Dada was an offshoot of a vibrant artistic tradition that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists, including Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Arthur Segal settled in Zürich. Before World War I, similar art had already existed in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities; it is likely that Dada's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco. The name Cabaret Voltaire was a reference to the French philosopher Voltaire, whose novel Candide mocked the religious and philosophical dogmas of the day. Opening night was attended by Ball, Tzara, Jean Arp, and Janco. These artists along with others like Sophie Taeuber, Richard Huelsenbeck and Hans Richter started putting on performances at the Cabaret Voltaire and using art to express their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. Having left Germany and Romania during World War I, the artists arrived in politically neutral Switzerland. They used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time. They used shock art, provocation, and "vaudevillian excess" to subvert the conventions they believed had caused the Great War. The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society that was so apathetic it would wage war against itself rather than challenge the status quo: Ball said that Janco's mask and costume designs, inspired by Romanian folk art, made "the horror of our time, the paralyzing background of events" visible. After the cabaret closed down, Dada activities moved on to a new gallery, and Hugo Ball left for Bern. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf. Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris. Other artists, such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault, created "literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada". After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. Others, such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber, would remain in Zürich into the 1920s. ===Berlin=== "Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers, of mounting, thundering hunger, where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust, and men's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence... Fear was in everybody's bones" – Richard Hülsenbeck Raoul Hausmann, who helped establish Dada in Berlin, published his manifesto Synthethic Cino of Painting in 1918 where he attacked Expressionism and the art critics who promoted it. Dada is envisioned in contrast to art forms, such as Expressionism, that appeal to viewers' emotional states: "the exploitation of so-called echoes of the soul". In Hausmann's conception of Dada, new techniques of creating art would open doors to explore new artistic impulses. Fragmented use of real world stimuli allowed an expression of reality that was radically different from other forms of art: The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups. Their activity and art were more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities. The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists. Conversely, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically driven, less political nature. According to Hans Richter, a Dadaist who was in Berlin yet "aloof from active participation in Berlin Dada", several distinguishing characteristics of the Dada movement there included: "its political element and its technical discoveries in painting and literature"; "inexhaustible energy"; "mental freedom which included the abolition of everything"; and "members intoxicated with their own power in a way that had no relation to the real world", who would "turn their rebelliousness even against each other". In February 1918, while the Great War was approaching its climax, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. Following the October Revolution in Russia, by then out of the war, Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies. Grosz, together with John Heartfield, Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period. Johannes Baader, the uninhibited Oberdada, was the "crowbar" of the Berlin movement's direct action according to Hans Richter and is credited with creating the first giant collages, according to Raoul Hausmann. After the war, the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair, 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920. As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada (Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Huelsenbeck and Heartfield), the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix, Francis Picabia, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Rudolf Schlichter, Johannes Baargeld and others. The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada, Der Dada, Everyman His Own Football, and Dada Almanach. They also established a political party, the Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution. ===Cologne=== In Cologne, Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments. Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress. The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped. ===New York=== Like Zürich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War. Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American Beatrice Wood, who had been studying in France, soon joined them, along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. Arthur Cravan, fleeing conscription in France, was also in New York for a time. Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz's gallery, 291, and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg. The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities Dada, but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man, Rongwrong, and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on "The Importance of Being 'Dada'". During this time Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as a bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain, a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize, Gordon's gin, voted it "the most influential work of modern art". As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial. Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: "One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture." The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993. Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924. By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation. ===Paris=== The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, Clément Pansaers, and other French writers, critics and artists. Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called Parade. First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's Le Sacre du printemps had done almost five years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with. Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of Dada, Le Cannibale, and Littérature featured Dada in several editions.) The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, Explicatif bearing the word Tabu. In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism. Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his "ironic tragedy" Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924. ===Netherlands=== In the Netherlands, the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters. Van Doesburg and (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled What is Dada?), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano. Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl, although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano (1922–23). Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman, who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, The Next Call (1923–6). Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands. These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich, and Paul Citroen. ===Georgia=== Though Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves Le Degré 41", or "Le Degré Quarante et Un" (English, "The 41st Degree") (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the Celsius temperature of a high fever [equal to 105.8 Fahrenheit]) organized along Dadaist lines. The most important figure in this group was Iliazd (Ilia Zdanevich), whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists. After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events. For example, when Tristan Tzara was banned from holding seminars in Théâtre Michel in 1923, Iliazd booked the venue on his behalf for the performance, "The Bearded Heart Soirée", and designed the flyer. ===Yugoslavia=== In Yugoslavia, alongside the new art movement Zenitism, there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922, run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov, Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski. Aleksić used the term "Yougo-Dada" and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara. ===Italy=== The Dada movement in Italy, based in Mantua, was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art. It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome, featuring paintings, quotations from Tristan Tzara, and original epigrams such as "True Dada is against Dada". One member of this group was Julius Evola, who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism, as well as a right-wing philosopher. ===Japan=== A prominent Dada group in Japan was Mavo. The group was founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama and Yanase Masamu; they were later joined by Tatsuo Okada. Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji, Eisuke Yoshiyuki, Shinkichi Takahashi and Katué Kitasono. In Tsuburaya Productions's Ultra Series, an alien named Dada was inspired by the Dadaism movement, with said character first appearing in episode 28 of the 1966 tokusatsu series, Ultraman, its design by character artist Toru Narita. Dada's design is primarily monochromatic, and features numerous sharp lines and alternating black and white stripes, in reference to the movement and, in particular, to chessboard and Go patterns. On May 19, 2016, in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo, the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher. Butoh, the Japanese dance-form originating in 1959, can be considered to have direct connections to the spirit of the Dada movement, as Tatsumi Hijikata, one of Butoh's founders, "was influenced early in his career by Dadaism". ===Russia=== Dada in itself was relatively unknown in Russia; however, avant-garde art was widespread due to the Bolsheviks' revolutionary agenda. The , a literary group sharing Dadaist ideals For more information on Dadaism's influence upon Russian avant-garde art, see the book Russian Dada 1914–1924. Notable mentions other than the artists below include: Suzanne Duchamp, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, Emmy Hennings, Beatrice Wood, Clara Tice, and Ella Bergmann-Michel. ===Hannah Höch=== Hannah Höch of Berlin is considered to be the only female Dadaist in Berlin at the time of the movement. During this time, she was in a relationship with Raoul Hausmann who also was a Dada artist. She channeled the same anti-war and anti-government (Weimar Republic) in her works but brought out a feminist lens on the themes. With her works primarily of collage and photomontage, she often used precise placement or detailed titles to callout the misogynistic ways she and other women were treated. In literary arts, Dadaists focused on poetry, particularly the so-called sound poetry invented by Hugo Ball. Dadaist poems attacked traditional conceptions of poetry, including structure, order, as well as the interplay of sound and the meaning of language. For Dadaists, the existing system by which information is articulated robs language of its dignity. The dismantling of language and poetic conventions are Dadaist attempts to restore language to its purest and most innocent form: "With these sound poem, we wanted to dispense with a language which journalism had made desolate and impossible." Simultaneous poems (or poèmes simultanés) were recited by a group of speakers who, collectively, produced a chaotic and confusing set of voices. These poems are considered manifestations of modernity including advertising, technology, and conflict. Unlike movements such as Expressionism, Dadaism did not take a negative view of modernity and the urban life. The chaotic urban and futuristic world is considered natural terrain that opens up new ideas for life and art. ==Music== Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts; its influence reached into sound and music. These movements exerted a pervasive influence on 20th-century music, especially on mid-century avant-garde composers based in New York—among them Edgard Varèse, Stefan Wolpe, John Cage, and Morton Feldman. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems, while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920. Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff, Hans Heusser and Alberto Savinio all wrote Dada music, while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings. Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career. By the dawn of the Second World War, many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States. Some (Otto Freundlich, Walter Serner) died in death camps under Adolf Hitler, who actively persecuted the kind of "degenerate art" that he considered Dada to represent. The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature. Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements, including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society. Upon breaking up in July 2012, anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement. At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire, Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment. Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and James Joyce as characters. French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek Lénine Dada (1989). The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002, by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists, led by Mark Divo. The group included Jan Thieler, Ingo Giezendanner, Aiana Calugar, Lennie Lee, and Dan Jones. After their eviction, the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada. The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum. Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society. In 1967, a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris. In 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings, including interviews with artists such as Tzara, Picabia, Schwitters, Arp, and Huelsenbeck, and musical repertoire including Satie, Ribemont-Dessaignes, Picabia, and Nelly van Doesburg. Musician Frank Zappa was a self-proclaimed Dadaist after learning of the movement:In the early days, I didn't even know what to call the stuff my life was made of. You can imagine my delight when I discovered that someone in a distant land had the same idea—AND a nice, short name for it.David Bowie adapted William S. Burroughs' cut-up technique for writing lyrics and Kurt Cobain also admittedly used this method for many of his Nirvana lyrics, including In Bloom. ==Art techniques developed== Dadaism also blurred the line between literary and visual arts: Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism. ===Collage=== The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items, but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers, etc. to portray aspects of life, rather than representing objects viewed as still life. They also invented the "chance collage" technique, involving dropping torn scraps of paper onto a larger sheet and then pasting the pieces wherever they landed. ===Cut-up technique=== Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves, Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto: TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM Take a newspaper. Take some scissors. Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem. Cut out the article. Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag. Shake gently. Next take out each cutting one after the other. Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag. The poem will resemble you. And there you are – an infinitely original author of charming sensibility, even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd. ===Photomontage=== The Dadaists – the "monteurs" (mechanics) – used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media. A variation on the collage technique, photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press. In Cologne, Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war. Although the Berlin photomontages were assembled, like engines, the (non)relationships among the disparate elements were more rhetorical than real. ===Assemblage=== The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage – the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless (relative to the war) pieces of work including war objects and trash. Objects were nailed, screwed or fastened together in different fashions. Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall. ===Readymades=== Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art, which he called "readymades". He would add signatures and titles to some, converting them into artwork that he called "readymade aided" or "rectified readymades". Duchamp wrote: "One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the 'readymade.' That sentence, instead of describing the object like a title, was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal. Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations, would be called 'readymade aided. One such example of Duchamp's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back, signed "R. Mutt", titled Fountain, and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year, though it was not displayed. Many young artists in America embraced the theories and ideas espoused by Duchamp. Robert Rauschenberg in particular was very influenced by Dadaism and tended to use found objects in his collages as a means of dissolving the boundary between high and low culture. ==Artists== Dragan Aleksić (1901–1958), Yugoslavia Louis Aragon (1897–1982), France Jean Arp (1886–1966), Germany, France Sophie Taeuber-Arp (1889–1943) Switzerland, France Johannes Baader (1875–1955) Germany Hugo Ball (1886–1927), Germany, Switzerland André Breton (1896–1966), France John Covert (1882–1960), US Jean Crotti (1878–1958), France Otto Dix (1891–1969), Germany Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931) Netherlands Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968), France Suzanne Duchamp (1889–1963), France Paul Éluard (1895–1952), France Max Ernst (1891–1976), Germany, US Julius Evola (1898–1974), Italy George Grosz (1893–1959), Germany, France, US Raoul Hausmann (1886–1971), Germany John Heartfield (1891–1968), Germany, USSR, Czechoslovakia, UK Hannah Höch (1889–1978), Germany Richard Huelsenbeck (1892–1974), Germany Georges Hugnet (1906–1974), France Marcel Janco (1895–1984), Romania, Israel Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven (1874–1927), Germany, US Clément Pansaers (1885–1922), Belgium Francis Picabia (1879–1953), France Man Ray (1890–1976), France, US Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes (1884–1974), France Hans Richter, Germany, Switzerland Juliette Roche Gleizes (1884–1980), France Kurt Schwitters (1887–1948), Germany Walter Serner (1889–1942), Austria Philippe Soupault (1897–1990), France Tristan Tzara (1896–1963), Romania, France Beatrice Wood (1893–1998), US Mümtaz Zeki Taşkın (1915–2013), Turkey Ercüment Behzat Lav (1903–1984), Turkey
[ "The Blind Man", "nationalist", "postmodernism", "Art intervention", "Shinkichi Takahashi", "cordwainer", "Ultraman (1966 TV series)", "Atlas Press", "Cacophony Society", "Pushkinskaya Square", "modernism", "List of Dadaists", "Neo-Dada", "Randomness", "collage", "antinomianism", "logic", "In Bloom", "André Breton", "anarchist", "Dutch literature", "Johannes Theodor Baargeld", "Fluxus", "First World War", "Ingo Giezendanner", "Bolshevik", "The Real Frank Zappa Book", "Marsden Hartley", "photomontage", "Russian Empire", "Tatsuo Okada", "Sound poetry", "Tom Stoppard", "Pierre Pinoncelli", "Ercüment Behzat Lav", "Readymades of Marcel Duchamp", "Groningen", "assemblage (art)", "BBC News", "Julius Evola", "anti-war", "Situationist International", "Centre Pompidou", "Katué Kitasono", "radical politics", "visual arts", "October Revolution", "291 (art gallery)", "art theory", "Richard Huelsenbeck", "Toru Narita", "Louis Aragon", "John Covert (painter)", "Happening", "Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen", "Alfred Jarry", "Walter and Louise Arensberg", "Le Sacre du printemps", "Clara Tice", "Johannes Baader", "cut-up technique", "occultism", "social realism", "Futurism", "Tzara", "Walter Serner", "Tristan Tzara", "Juliette Roche", "Tsuburaya Productions", "Les Six", "left-wing", "bourgeois", "Moderne Kunstkring", "Cocteau", "Marcel Janco", "Texas Studies in Literature and Language", "shock art", "Zenitism", "Hugo Ball", "Eucharist", "Dawn Adès", "Yanase Masamu", "Eisuke Yoshiyuki", "randomness", "H. N. Werkman", "Emmy Hennings", "irrationality", "vaudeville", "reason", "Ubu Roi", "Beatrice Wood", "World War I", "391 (magazine)", "Der Sturm", "Voltaire", "Handkerchief of Clouds", "capitalist", "Marcel Duchamp", "The Gas Heart", "Erik Satie", "Raoul Hausmann", "cabaret", "First International Dada Fair", "dogma", "African music", "paradox", "Theo van Doesburg", "graphic design", "machine aesthetic", "s:The Importance of Being Dada", "anti-bourgeois", "literary journals", "Mantua", "culture jamming", "Armory Show", "Paul Dermée", "Rudolf Schlichter", "National Gallery of Art", "Cologne", "Ballets Russes", "postmodern art", "Mümtaz Zeki Taşkın", "paper knife", "Fountain (Duchamp)", "University of Iowa", "G. K. Hall & Co.", "Marc Dachy", "Vladimir Mayakovsky", "far-left politics", "Museum of Modern Art", "Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven", "Khan Academy", "Rongwrong", "Wieland Herzfelde", "avant-garde", "anti-poetry", "nouveau réalisme", "Russian avant-garde", "Leumund Cult", "Georges Hugnet", "Galeries Dalmau", "s:Dada Manifesto (1916, Hugo Ball)", "Candide", "Jedermann sein eigner Fussball", "Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution", "Transgressive art", "Iliazd", "Ein Hod", "art", "Découvertes Gallimard", "Dadaglobe", "Jean Arp", "literature", "Mavo", "Sophie Taeuber", "Jack of Diamonds (artists)", "Surrealism", "nonsense", "Great War", "Dada Manifesto", "direct action", "art manifesto", "K. Schippers", "Go (game)", "fetishization", "Weimar Republic", "Adolf Hitler", "abstract art", "Entartete Kunst", "Butoh", "Corecore", "Arthur Segal (painter)", "ironic", "Clément Pansaers", "Mark Divo", "aestheticism", "LTM Recordings", "Max Ernst", "Picasso", "Francis Picabia", "Tbilisi", "George Grosz", "anti-art", "Cut-up technique", "art movement", "tragedy", "Hans Arp", "Kingdom of Yugoslavia", "Otto Freundlich", "Hanne Bergius", "modernist", "Turner Prize", "aesthetics", "Celine Arnauld", "Paul Éluard", "Guillaume Apollinaire", "Incoherents", "Berlin State Museums", "American Art News", "Arthur Cravan", "Alberto Savinio", "Ultra Series", "Ella Bergmann-Michel", "modernity", "Max Jacob", "Tverskoy Boulevard", "chessboard", "capitalism", "James Joyce", "Jean Crotti", "Suzanne Duchamp", "University of Michigan Museum of Art", "downtown music", "pop art", "Paul Eluard", "degenerate art", "Chumbawamba", "Jun Tsuji", "Expressionism", "Erwin Schulhoff", "Second World War", "Georgia (country)", "sound poetry", "Tatsumi Hijikata", "Drachten", "Cubism", "Destruction Was My Beatrice", "artistic style", "Hannah Höch", "Otto Dix", "Society of Independent Artists", "De Stijl", "Lenin", "nihilism", "Travesties", "Kurt Schwitters", "Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes", "Grove Art Online", "Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)", "Alfred Stieglitz", "Dragan Aleksić", "Épater la bourgeoisie", "John Heartfield", "Internationalism (linguistics)", "tabula rasa", "tokusatsu", "Lennie Lee", "Vilmos Huszár", "Rudolf von Laban", "retrospective", "Hobby horse (toy)", "Frank Zappa", "Parade (ballet)", "theatre", "wikt:technique", "subconscious", "Philippe Soupault", "Mánes Union of Fine Arts", "Hans Richter (artist)", "New York Dada", "Paul Citroen", "poetry", "Tomoyoshi Murayama", "Sophie Taeuber-Arp", "colonialist", "Man Ray", "Salon des Indépendants" ]
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Debian
Debian GNU/Linux (), or simply Debian, is a free and open source Linux distribution, developed by the Debian Project, which was established by Ian Murdock in August 1993. Debian is one of the oldest operating systems based on the Linux kernel, and is the basis of many other Linux distributions. As of September 2023, Debian is the second-oldest Linux distribution still in active development: only Slackware is older. The project is coordinated over the Internet by a team of volunteers guided by the Debian Project Leader and three foundational documents: the Debian Social Contract, the Debian Constitution, and the Debian Free Software Guidelines. In general, Debian has been developed openly and distributed freely according to some of the principles of the GNU Project and Free Software. Because of this, the Free Software Foundation sponsored the project from November 1994 to November 1995. However, Debian is no longer endorsed by GNU and the FSF because of the distribution's long-term practice of hosting non-free software repositories and, since 2022, its inclusion of non-free firmware in its installation media by default. === Founding (1993–1998) === First announced on August 16, 1993, Debian was founded by Ian Murdock, who initially called the system "the Debian Linux Release". The word "Debian" was formed as a portmanteau of the first names of himself and his then-girlfriend (later ex-wife) Debra Lynn. Before Debian's release, the Softlanding Linux System (SLS) had been a popular Linux distribution and the basis for Slackware. Murdock was motivated to launch a new distribution by what he saw as poor maintenance and the prevalence of bugs in SLS. Debian 0.01, released on September 15, 1993, was the first of several internal releases. Version 0.90 was the first public release, The release included the Debian Linux Manifesto, outlining Murdock's view for the new operating system. In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained "openly in the spirit of Linux and GNU." The Debian project released the 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995. During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation for one year. Ian Murdock delegated the base system, the core packages of Debian, to Bruce Perens, while Murdock focused on the management of the growing project. By that time and thanks to Ian Jackson, the dpkg package manager was already an essential part of Debian. In 1996, Bruce Perens assumed the project leadership. Perens was a controversial leader, regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian. He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month-long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines. After the FSF withdrew their sponsorship in the midst of the free software vs. open source debate, Perens initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization Software in the Public Interest instead of seeking renewed involvement with the FSF. By the time Debian 1.2 was released, the project had grown to nearly two hundred volunteers. Ian Jackson became the project leader in 1998. Debian 2.0 introduced the second official port, m68k. On December 2, the first Debian Constitution was ratified. The package manager front-end APT was deployed with Debian 2.1. Corel Linux and Stormix's Storm Linux, were started in 1999. In late 2000, the project reorganized the archive with new package "pools" and created the Testing trunk, made up of packages considered stable, to reduce the freeze for the next release. In May 2001, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to base its Linux development on Debian. In July 2002, the project released version 3.0, code-named Woody, the first release to include cryptographic software, a free-licensed KDE and internationalization. During these last release cycles, the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases. Some events disturbed the project while the Sarge release was in preparation, as Debian servers were attacked by fire and hackers. One of the most memorable was the Vancouver prospectus. After a meeting held in Vancouver, release manager Steve Langasek announced a plan to reduce the number of supported ports to four in order to shorten future release cycles. There was a large reaction because the proposal looked more like a decision and because such a drop would damage Debian's aim to be "the universal operating system". The first version of the Debian-based Ubuntu distribution, named "4.10 Warty Warthog", was released on October 20, 2004. Because it was distributed as a free download, it became one of the most popular and successful operating systems with more than "40 million users" according to Canonical Ltd. However, Murdock was critical of the differences between Ubuntu packages and Debian, stating that it led to incompatibilities. ===Sarge and later releases (2005–present)=== The 3.1 Sarge release was made in June 2005. This release updated 73% of the software and included over 9,000 new packages. A new installer with a modular design, Debian-Installer, allowed installations with RAID, XFS and LVM support, improved hardware detection, made installations easier for novice users, and was translated into almost forty languages. An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively. The efforts of Skolelinux, Debian-Med and Debian-Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational or had a medical affiliation, and of packages made for people with disabilities. In 2006, as a result of a much-publicized dispute, Mozilla software was rebranded in Debian. The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark. Two reasons that Debian had modified the Firefox software were to replace non-free artwork and to provide security patches. Consequently, Debian contained a fork of Firefox named Iceweasel and one of Thunderbird named Icedove. In February 2016, it was announced that Mozilla and Debian had reached an agreement and Iceweasel would revert to the name Firefox; a similar agreement was anticipated for Icedove/Thunderbird. A fund-raising experiment, Dunc-Tank, was created to solve the release cycle problem and release managers were paid to work full-time; in response, unpaid developers slowed down their work and the release was delayed. Debian 4.0 (Etch) was released in April 2007, featuring the x86-64 port and a graphical installer. The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer, a developer who died in a car crash. In July 2009, the policy of time-based development freezes on a two-year cycle was announced. Time-based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian's policy of feature-based releases, and to reduce overall freeze time. In September 2010, the backports service became official, providing more recent versions of some software for the stable release. Debian 8 (Jessie) was released in April 2015, using systemd as the new init system. Debian 9 (Stretch) was released in June 2017, with nftables as a replacement for iptables, support for Flatpak apps, and MariaDB as the replacement for MySQL. Debian 10 (Buster) was released in July 2019, adding support for Secure Boot and enabling AppArmor by default. Debian 11 (Bullseye) was released in August 2021, enabling persistency in the system journal, adding support for driverless scanning, and containing kernel-level support for exFAT filesystems. Debian 12 (Bookworm) was released on June 10, 2023, including various improvements and features, increasing the supported Linux Kernel to version 6.1, and leveraging new "Emerald" artwork. Debian 12 also was the first version under a revised Debian Social Contract that includes non-free firmware in its installation media by default, if and when the installer detects that it is needed for installed hardware to function, such as with Wi-Fi cards. Debian 14 has been announced to have the code name Forky. Debian is under continuous development and new packages are uploaded to unstable every day. Debian used to be released as a very large set of CDs for each architecture, but with the release of Debian 9 (Stretch) in 2017, many of the images have been dropped from the archive but remain buildable via jigdo. Throughout Debian's lifetime, both the Debian distribution and its website have won various awards from different organizations, including Server Distribution of the Year 2011, The best Linux distro of 2011, and a Best of the Net award for October 1998. On December 2, 2015, Microsoft announced that they would offer Debian GNU/Linux as an endorsed distribution on the Azure cloud platform. Microsoft has also added a user environment to their Windows 10 desktop operating system called Windows Subsystem for Linux that offers a Debian subset. == Features == Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 51,000 packages. Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded and installed from the Debian repositories. Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer. === Kernels === Several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port. For example, the i386 port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs, and for x86-64 PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware lacking source code, although such firmware is available in non-free packages and alternative installation media. === Desktop environments === Debian offers CD and DVD images specifically built for Xfce, GNOME, KDE, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, and LXQt. MATE support was added in 2014, and Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker and others are available. The default desktop environment of version 7 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME 3 did not fit on the first CD of the set. The default for the version 8 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, and back to GNOME in September 2014. === Localization === Several parts of Debian are translated into languages other than American English, including package descriptions, configuration messages, documentation and the website. The level of software localization depends on the language, ranging from the highly supported German and French to the barely translated Creek and Samoan. The Debian 10 installer is available in 76 languages. === Multimedia support === Multimedia support has been problematic in Debian regarding codecs threatened by possible patent infringements, lacking source code, or under too restrictive licenses. Even though packages with problems related to their distribution could go into the non-free area, software such as libdvdcss is not hosted at Debian . A notable third party repository exists, formerly named Debian-multimedia.org, providing software not present in Debian such as Windows codecs, libdvdcss and the Adobe Flash Player. Even though this repository is maintained by Christian Marillat, a Debian developer, it is not part of the project and is not hosted on a Debian server. The repository provides packages already included in Debian, interfering with the official maintenance. Eventually, project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the "Debian" name. Marillat chose the latter and renamed the repository to deb-multimedia.org. The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project. == Distribution == Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo. Physical discs can also be bought from retailers. The full sets are made up of several discs (the amd64 port consists of 13 DVDs or 84 CDs), but only the first disc is required for installation, as the installer can retrieve software not contained in the first disc image from online repositories. Debian offers different network installation methods. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet. Another option is to boot the installer from the network. The default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy. This conflicts with distros (e.g., Fedora Linux), where grub version 2 is named grub2. The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Plasma, Xfce, LXDE, and LXQt and from special disc 1 CDs. Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments. These Debian Live images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer. A full install of Debian to the computer's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment. Personalized images can be built with the live-build tool for discs, USB drives and for network booting purposes. Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive (Live USB). == Packages == Package management operations can be performed with different tools available on Debian, from the lowest level command dpkg to graphical front-ends like Synaptic. The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the apt toolset. dpkg provides the low-level infrastructure for package management. The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system. The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories. The command can work with local .deb package files, and information from the dpkg database. === APT tools === An Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) allows a Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories. APT tools share dependency information and cached packages. GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command, but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies. Other graphical front-ends for APT include Software Center, Synaptic and Apper. GNOME Software is a graphical front-end for PackageKit, which itself can work on top of various software packaging systems. === Repositories === The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) define the distinctive meaning of the word "free" as in "free and open-source software". Packages that comply with these guidelines, usually under the GNU General Public License, Modified BSD License or Artistic License, are included inside the main area; otherwise, they are included inside the non-free and contrib areas. These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media, but they can be adopted manually. such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software, and legally questionable packages. an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman. The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non-free section has persisted, but the last time it came to a vote in 2004, the majority decided to keep it. === Cross-distribution package managers === The most popular optional Linux cross-distribution package manager are graphical (front-ends) package managers. They are available within the official Debian Repository but are not installed by default. They are widely popular with both Debian users and Debian software developers who are interested in installing the most recent versions of application or using the cross-distribution package manager built-in sandbox environment. While at the same time remaining in control of the security. Four most popular cross-distribution package managers, sorted in alphabetical order: AppImage Linux distribution-agnostic binary software deployment Flatpak software code is owned and maintained by the not for profit Flatpak Team, with an open source LGPL-2.1-or-later license. Homebrew software code is owned and maintained by its original author Max Howell, with an open source BSD 2-Clause License. Snap software code is owned and maintained by the for profit Canonical Group Limited, with an open source GNU General Public License, version 3.0. == Branches == Three branches of Debian (also called releases, distributions or suites) are regularly maintained: Stable is the current release and targets stable and well-tested software needs. Stable is made by freezing Testing for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed; then the resulting system is released as stable. It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated. Stables CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website. Other branches in Debian: Oldstable is the prior stable release. === Numbering scheme === Stable and oldstable get minor updates, called point releases; , the stable release is version 11.7, released on , and the oldstable release is version 10.10. The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4.0 was to include the letter r (for revision) after the main version number and then the number of the point release; for example, the latest point release of version 4.0 is 4.0r9. This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs. From Debian 5.0, the numbering scheme of point releases was changed, conforming to the GNU version numbering standard; the first point release of Debian 5.0 was 5.0.1 instead of 5.0r1. The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update, which was version 7.1. The r scheme is no longer in use, but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs. == Branding == Debian has two logos. The official logo (also known as open use logo) contains the well-known Debian swirl and best represents the visual identity of the Debian Project. A separate logo also exists for use by the Debian Project and its members only. in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi-official logo that had been used. The winner of the contest received an @Debian.org email address, and a set of Debian 2.1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice. Initially, the swirl was magic smoke arising from an also included bottle of an Arabian-style genie presented in black profile, but shortly after was reduced to the red smoke swirl for situations where space or multiple colours were not an option, and before long the bottle version effectively was superseded. There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke that made computers work. One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear, the chosen character for the first named Debian release, has a swirl in his chin. Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one. Buzz Lightyear's swirl is a more likely candidate as the codenames for Debian are names of Toy Story characters. The former Debian project leader Bruce Perens used to work for Pixar and is credited as a studio tools engineer on Toy Story 2 (1999). == Hardware == Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets. Debian's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components: The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table. It is possible to install Debian with 170 MB of RAM for x86-64; Similarly, disk space requirements, which depend on the packages to be installed, can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed. It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems. However, the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended, as desktop environments are more resource intensive. Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment. amd64: x86-64 architecture with 64-bit userland and supporting 32-bit software arm64: ARMv8-A architecture armel: Little-endian ARM architecture (ARMv4T instruction set) on various embedded systems (embedded application binary interface (EABI)), although support has ended after Buster armhf: ARM hard-float architecture (ARMv7 instruction set) requiring hardware with a floating-point unit i386: IA-32 architecture with 32-bit userland, compatible with x86-64 machines s390x: z/Architecture with 64-bit userland, intended to replace s390 Unofficial ports are available as part of the unstable distribution: m68k: Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh and various embedded VME systems powerpc: 32-bit PowerPC ppc64: PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64-bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX sh4: Hitachi SuperH architecture sparc64: Sun SPARC architecture with 64-bit userland x32: x32 ABI userland for x86-64 Debian supports a variety of ARM-based NAS devices. The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4.0 and 5.0, and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6.0. Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro, GLAN Tank, Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations. There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices, but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches. Nevertheless, there are packages for resource-limited systems. There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points. Debian is known to run on set-top boxes. Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor, which is used in electronic point of service solutions. Debian may be customized to run on cash machines. BeagleBoard, a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer (made by Texas Instruments) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board's flash. Roqos Core, manufactured by Roqos, is a x86-64 based IPS firewall router running Debian Linux. == Organization == Debian's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes. The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents: The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs. Debian developers are organized in a web of trust. There are about one thousand active Debian developers, but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer. The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages and other tasks, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users. Internet Relay Chat is also used for communication among developers Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader. and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects. A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers. The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks. Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus. By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions. Project leadership is distributed occasionally. Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader, but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes. Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2IC), that shared some powers of the leader. Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself. One important role in Debian's leadership is that of a release manager. The release team sets goals for the next release, supervises the processes and decides when to release. The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers. Release assistants were introduced in 2003. === Developers === The Debian Project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers. These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the project's principles, and technical competence. This process has become much harder throughout the years. Debian developers join the project for many reasons. Some that have been cited include: Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian To improve the support for their favorite technology They are involved with a Debian derivative A desire to contribute back to the free-software community To make their Debian maintenance work easier Debian developers may resign their positions at any time or, when deemed necessary, they can be expelled. == Development == Flowchart of the life cycle of a Debian package Each software package has a maintainer that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non-developer maintainers. The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases, and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian. Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy, even to fix non-Debian specific bugs, although coordination with upstream developers is advised. The upload must be signed using OpenPGP-compatible software. Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor. Initially, an accepted package is only available in the unstable branch. It has been in unstable for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes. It does not have "release-critical" bugs, except for the ones already present in Testing. Release-critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release. There are no outdated versions in unstable for any release ports. The migration does not break any packages in Testing. Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time. The migration is not blocked by a freeze. Thus, a release-critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing, because the updated library must meet the requirements too. From the branch viewpoint, the migration process happens twice per day, rendering Testing in perpetual beta. A version of a package can belong to more than one branch, usually testing and unstable. It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of oldstable, stable, testing and unstable at the same time. Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package "pool" mentioned above. === Release cycle === A new stable branch of Debian gets released approximately every 2 years. It will receive official support for about 3 years with update for major security or usability fixes. Point releases will be available every several months as determined by Stable Release Managers (SRM). Debian also launched its Long Term Support (LTS) project since Debian 6 (Debian Squeeze). For each Debian release, it will receive two years of extra security updates provided by LTS Team after its End Of Life (EOL). However, no point releases will be made. Now each Debian release can receive 5 years of security support in total. === Security === The Debian project handles security through public disclosure. Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary, are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public. There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs; Steve Kemp, who started the project, retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014. The stable branch is supported by the Debian security team; oldstable is supported for one year. Although Squeeze is not officially supported, Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long-term support (LTS) until February 2016, five years after the initial release, but only for the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms. Testing is supported by the testing security team, but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as stable. Unstables security is left for the package maintainers. AppArmor support is available and enabled by default since Buster. Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper, and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection, unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD, but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags. In May 2008, a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack, since only 32,767 different keys were generated. The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings. The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates. === Value === The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5.0 Lenny (323 million lines of code) has been estimated to be about , using one method based on the COCOMO model. , Black Duck Open Hub estimated that the current codebase (74 million lines of code) would cost about to develop, using a different method based on the same model. == Institutional users == Debian is used by several institutions, such as many universities, NGOs and other non-profit organizations (including Wikimedia Foundation), and commercial companies. It has even been used in space, in laptops on board the International Space Station. == Forks and derivatives == A large number of forks and derivatives have been built upon Debian over the years. Among the more notable are Ubuntu, developed by Canonical Ltd. and first released in 2004, which has surpassed Debian in popularity with desktop users; Knoppix, first released in the year 2000 and one of the first distributions optimized to boot from external storage; and Devuan, which gained attention in 2014 when it forked in disagreement over Debian's adoption of the systemd software suite, and has been mirroring Debian releases since 2017. The Linux Mint Debian Edition (LMDE) uses Debian Stable as the software source base since 2014. === Derivatives and flavors === Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions, and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase. , DistroWatch lists 121 active Debian derivatives. The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian. Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out-of-the-box for users with particular skills and interests. For example, Debian Jr. is made for children, while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists. The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends. ====Debian GNU/Hurd==== Debian GNU/Hurd is a flavor based on the Hurd kernel (which, in turn, runs on the GNU Mach microkernel), instead of the Linux kernel. Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development since 1998, and made a formal release in May 2013, with 78% of the software packaged for Debian GNU/Linux ported to the GNU Hurd. Hurd is not yet an official Debian release, and is maintained and developed as an unofficial port. Debian GNU/Hurd is distributed as an installer CD (running the official Debian installer) or ready-to-run virtual disk image (Live CD, Live USB). The CD uses the IA-32 architecture, making it compatible with IA-32 and x86-64 PCs. The current version of Debian GNU/Hurd is 2023, published in June 2023. ====Debian GNU/kFreeBSD==== Debian GNU/kFreeBSD is a discontinued Debian flavor. It used the FreeBSD kernel and GNU userland. The majority of software in Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was built from the same sources as Debian, with some kernel packages from FreeBSD. The k in kFreeBSD is an abbreviation for kernel, which refers to the FreeBSD kernel. Before discontinuing the project, Debian maintained i386 and amd64 ports. The last version of Debian kFreeBSD was Debian 8 (Jessie) RC3. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was created in 2002. It was included in Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) as a technology preview, and in Debian 7 (Wheezy) as an official port. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was discontinued as an officially supported platform as of Debian 8. Debian developers cited OSS, pf, jails, NDIS, and ZFS as reasons for being interested in the FreeBSD kernel. It has not been officially updated since Debian 8. However, starting in July 2019, the operating system continued to be maintained unofficially. As of July 2023, the development of Debian GNU/kFreeBSD has officially terminated due to the lack of interest and developers.
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(computer)", "Scud (dog)", "Enlightenment (window manager)", "graphical user interface", "Loongson", "Tom's Hardware", "OpenBSD", "booting", "Armbian", "Linux distribution", "Fork (software development)", "Devuan", "mipsel", "technology preview", "BSD licenses", "exFAT", "Vancouver", "BeagleBoard", "Ubuntu", "s390x", "Softpedia", "Position-independent code", "network-attached storage", "Ian Jackson (computer programmer)", "Alioth (Debian)", "Pixar", "International Space Station", "GIMP", "List of Toy Story characters", "open-source hardware", "Optical disc image", "Brian Krebs", "POWER8", "Internationalization and localization", "ppc64el", "List of open-source mobile phones", "Fedora Linux", "GNOME Evolution", "Comparison of mobile operating systems", "Corel Linux", "AppImage", "Adobe Flash Player", "dpkg", "free and open-source software", "BSD 2-Clause License", "Debian GNU/Hurd", "free-software community", "Windows Subsystem for Linux", "Linux Mint", "OpenPGP", "ZDNet", "floppy disk", "PC World", "Fluxbox", "Flatpak", "Mebibyte", "Martin Michlmayr", "Launchpad (website)", "Comparison of Linux distributions", "Snap (software)", "microkernel", "MIT Technology Review", "Software repository", "MIPS architecture", "deb (file format)", "GNOME Software", "Web mirror", "Graphical user interface", "Trunk (software)", "RISC-V", "armhf", "Microsoft", "window manager", "command line", "PA-RISC", "ZFS", "arm64", "social contract", "endianness", "GNU Core Utilities", "workstation", "SheevaPlug", "tar (computing)", "IA-32", "Stormix", "app store", "jigdo", "GNU", "Toy Story (franchise)", "desktop environment", "LXQt", "Live USB", "Coupling (computer programming)", "IBM PC compatible", "Openbox", "Muscogee language", "perpetual beta", "Internet Relay Chat", "software repository", "text-based user interface", "Bleeding edge technology", "gigabyte", "codebase", "Linux.com", "Debian–Mozilla trademark dispute", "Ubuntu Software Center", "x86-64", "Debian version history", "List of Debian project leaders", "Evince", "systemd", "Linux Gazette", "ibiblio", "CNET", "Command-line interface", "GNU Mach", "Mozilla Thunderbird", "real-time computing", "Proprietary software", "Motorola 68000 family", "Wikimedia Foundation", "Physical Address Extension", "Ars Technica", "University of California, San Diego", "Orion (system-on-a-chip)", "live CD", "Debian Social Contract", "backporting", "network booting", "KDE Plasma 5", "wireless access point", "nonprofit organization", "The Open Source Definition", "Schulze method", "DistroWatch", "POWER7", "Atari ST", "Linux Magazine", "O'Reilly Media", "Windows API", "Branching (version control)", "The Debian Project", "The Register", "application binary interface", "Ppc64", "VLC media player", "Open-source software", "Collaborative software development model", "GNU Compiler Collection", "magic smoke", "BusyBox", "GNU Lesser General Public License", "Debian Science", "Software in the Public Interest", "LinuxQuestions.org", "Ian Murdock", "server (computing)", "PF (firewall)", "Dyson (operating system)", "Open Hub", "Xfce", "FreeBSD", "Debian-Installer", "Secure Boot", "PowerPC", "Motorola 68000 series", "web of trust", "Bruce Perens", "Artistic License", "Buzz Lightyear", "LXDE", "German language", "Hybrid disc", "PackageKit", "Softlanding Linux System", "Richard Stallman", "z/Architecture", "Homebrew (package manager)", "Debian GNU/kFreeBSD", "software bug", "Synaptic (software)", "metadata", "firmware", "AltiVec", "x32 ABI", "Debian-Med", "List of Linux distributions", "MATE (software)", "Asus Eee PC", "The Mining Company", "Amiga", "Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures", "Paging", "GNU Hurd", "Service Management Facility", "BitTorrent", "Window Maker", "Debian Free Software Guidelines", "Slackware", "illumos", "Software bug", "Full disclosure (computer security)", "KDE", "Proprietary firmware", "Buffalo network-attached storage series", "Kernel (operating system)", "DEC Alpha", "floating-point unit", "University of Alberta School of Business", "Firefox", "K3b", "Samoan language", "portmanteau", "Public-key cryptography", "system on a chip", "GNU Project", "operating system", "XFS", "COCOMO", "Executable and Linkable Format", "buffer overflow protection", "ISO image", "Linux Journal", "Canonical (company)", "Knoppix", "i386", "Apper", "proprietary software", "Free Software Foundation", "DebConf", "digital signature", "Monolithic kernel", "ARM architecture", "Package (package management system)", "random number generator attack", "User space", "Backporting", "Network Driver Interface Specification", "SPARC", "Point of sale", "init", "Free and open-source software", "Debian Pure Blend", "Mobian", "eWeek", "Canonical Group", "mailing list", "Intel Itanium" ]
8,243
Doonesbury
Doonesbury is a comic strip by American cartoonist Garry Trudeau that chronicles the adventures and lives of an array of characters of various ages, professions, and backgrounds, from the President of the United States to the title character, Michael Doonesbury, who has progressed over the decades from a college student to a youthful senior citizen. Created in "the throes of '60s and '70s counterculture", and frequently political in nature, Doonesbury features characters representing a range of affiliations, but the cartoon is noted for a liberal viewpoint. The name "Doonesbury" is a combination of the word doone (American prep school slang for someone who is clueless, inattentive, or careless) and the surname of Charles Pillsbury, Trudeau's roommate at Yale University. Doonesbury is written and penciled by Garry Trudeau, then inked and lettered by an assistant, Don Carlton, then Todd Pound. Sunday strips are colored by George Corsillo. Doonesbury was a daily strip through most of its existence, but since February 2014 it has run repeat strips Monday through Saturday, and new strips on Sunday. ==History== Doonesbury began as a continuation of Bull Tales, which appeared in the Yale University student newspaper, the Yale Daily News, from 1968 to 1970. It focused on local campus events at Yale. Doonesbury proper debuted as a daily strip in twenty-eight newspapers on October 26, 1970 (it being the first strip from Universal Press Syndicate). A Sunday strip began on March 21, 1971. Many of the early strips were reprints of the Bull Tales cartoons, with some changes to the drawings and plots. B. D.'s helmet changed from having a "Y" (for Yale) to a star (for the fictional Walden College). Mike and B. D. started Doonesbury as roommates; they were not roommates in Bull Tales. Doonesbury became known for its social and political commentary. By the 2010s, it was syndicated in approximately 1,400 newspapers worldwide. In May 1975, Doonesbury became the first daily comic strip to win a Pulitzer Prize, taking the award for Editorial Cartooning. ===1983–1984 hiatus=== Trudeau took a 22-month hiatus, from January 2, 1983, to September 30, 1984. Before the break in the strip, the characters were eternal college students, living in a commune together near Walden College, which was modeled after Trudeau's alma mater, Yale. During the break, Trudeau helped create a Broadway musical of the strip, showing the graduation of the main characters. The Broadway adaptation opened at the Biltmore Theatre on November 21, 1983, and played 104 performances. Elizabeth Swados composed the music for Trudeau's book and lyrics. ===After the hiatus=== The strip resumed some time after the events in the musical, with further changes having taken place after the end of the musical's plot. Mike, Mark, Zonker, B.D., and Boopsie were all now graduates; B.D. and Boopsie were living in Malibu, California, where B.D. was a third-string quarterback for the Los Angeles Rams, and Boopsie was making a living from walk-on and cameo roles. Mark was living in Washington, D.C., working for National Public Radio. Michael and J.J. had gotten married, and Mike had dropped out of business school to start work in an advertising agency in New York City. Zonker, still not ready for the "real world", was living with Mike and J.J. until he was accepted as a medical student at his Uncle Duke's "Baby Doc College" in Haiti. Prior to the hiatus, the strip's characters had aged only slightly. But when Trudeau returned to Doonesbury, the characters began to age in something close to real time, as in Gasoline Alley and For Better or for Worse, Since then, the main characters' ages and career developments have tracked those of standard media portrayals of baby boomers, with jobs in advertising, law enforcement, and the dot-com boom. Current events are mirrored through the original characters, their offspring (the "second generation"), and occasional new characters. Garry Trudeau received the National Cartoonist Society Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their Reuben Award for 1995 for his work on the strip. === Alpha House and hiatuses: 2013 === Doonesbury syndicate, Universal Uclick, announced on May 29, 2013, that the comic strip would go on hiatus from June 10 to Labor Day of that year while Garry Trudeau worked on his streaming video comedy Alpha House, which was picked up by Amazon Studios. "Doonesbury Flashbacks" were offered during those weeks, but due to the unusually long hiatus, some newspapers opted to run different comic strips instead. Sunday strips returned as scheduled, but the daily strip's hiatus was extended until November 2013. After Alpha House was renewed for a second season in February 2014, Trudeau announced that he would now produce only Sunday strips for the foreseeable future. Since March 3, 2014, the strip has offered reruns starting from the very beginning of its history as opposed to the recent ones that re-run when Trudeau is on vacation. Alpha House was cancelled in 2016, but Trudeau did not return to drawing Monday-to-Saturday strips, and continued his Sunday-only schedule. In a 2018 interview with Rolling Stone, Trudeau said that while Donald Trump appears in only a limited number of strips, "for the last two years, he's been subtext in almost all of them." === TV special === In 1977, Trudeau wrote a script for a 26-minute animated special, A Doonesbury Special, which was produced and directed by Trudeau along with John Hubley (who died during the storyboarding stage) and Faith Hubley. The special was first broadcast by NBC on November 27, 1977. It won a Special Jury Award at the Cannes International Film Festival for best short film, and received an Oscar nomination (for best animated short film), both in 1978. In its 2003 series "John Kerry: A Candidate in the Making" on the 2004 presidential race, The Boston Globe reprinted and discussed 1971 Doonesbury cartoons of the young Kerry's Vietnam War protest speeches. ==Characters== Doonesbury has a large group of recurring characters, with 24 currently listed at the strip's website. There, it notes that "readers new to Doonesbury sometimes experience a temporary bout of character shock", as the sheer number of characters (and the historical connections among them) can be overwhelming. The main characters are a group who attended the fictional Walden College during the strip's first 12 years, and moved into a commune together in April 1972. Most of the other characters first appeared as family members, friends, or other acquaintances. The original Walden Commune residents were Mike Doonesbury, Zonker Harris, Mark Slackmeyer, Nichole, Bernie, and DiDi. In September 1972, Joanie Caucus joined the comic, meeting Mike and Mark in Colorado and eventually moving into the commune. They were later joined by B.D. and his girlfriend (later wife) Boopsie, upon B.D.'s return from Vietnam. Nichole, DiDi, and Bernie were mostly phased out in subsequent years, and Zonker's Uncle Duke was introduced as the most prominent character outside the Walden group, and the main link to many secondary characters. The Walden students graduated in 1983, after which the strip began to progress in something closer to real time. Their spouses and developing families became more important after this: Joanie's daughter J.J. Caucus married Mike and they had a daughter, Alex Doonesbury. They divorced, Mike married Kim Rosenthal, a Vietnamese refugee (who had appeared in the strip as a baby adopted by a Jewish family just after the fall of Saigon; see Operation Babylift), and J.J. married Zeke Brenner, her former boyfriend and Uncle Duke's former groundskeeper. Joanie married Rick Redfern, and they had a son, Jeff. Uncle Duke and Roland Hedley have also appeared often, frequently in more topical settings unconnected to the main characters. In more recent years the second generation has taken prominence as they have grown to college age: Jeff Redfern, Alex Doonesbury, Zonker's nephew Zipper Harris, and Uncle Duke's son Earl. ==Controversial strips and groundbreaking moments== Doonesbury has covered numerous political and social issues, some of which were pioneering and others that drew criticism: ===1970s=== A November 1972 Sunday strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the protagonist being awarded "his weight in fine, uncut Turkish hashish" raised an uproar. During the Watergate scandal, a strip showed Mark on the radio with a "Watergate profile" of John Mitchell, declaring him "Guilty! Guilty, guilty, guilty!!" A number of newspapers removed the strip and one, The Washington Post, ran an editorial criticizing the cartoon. Following Richard Nixon's death in 1994, the strip was rerun with all the instances of the word "guilty" crossed out and replaced with "flawed". In June 1973, the military newspaper Stars and Stripes dropped Doonesbury for being too political. The strip was quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by military readers. September 1973: The Lincoln Journal became the first newspaper to move Doonesbury to its editorial page. In February 1976, a storyline included the character Andy Lippincott saying that he was gay. Dozens of papers opted not to publish the storyline, with Miami Herald editor Larry Jinks saying, "We just decided we weren't ready for homosexuality in a comic strip." In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed, marking the first time any nationally run comic strip portrayed premarital sex in this fashion. The strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers, although some newspapers opted to simply repeat the opening frame of that day's strip. In June 1978, a strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean lobbyists, to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office. ===1980s=== In 1985, a series of Doonesbury strips helped to repeal a 60-year-old discriminatory law in Palm Springs, in Orange County in Florida. In June 1985, a strip featuring Aniello Dellacroce and Frank Sinatra together, which referred to Dellacroce as an "alleged human" who has been charged with murder led to several papers dropping the strip and a statement from Sinatra. In December 1988, the Winston-Salem Journal dropped a Sunday strip featuring the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (in which a prospective executive cannot deny the link between smoking and cancer without bursting out laughing) because "it would be personally offensive to its employees." It was the first time the strip had been pulled in deference to a corporation. In June 1989, several days' comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, because the humor of the strips was considered in bad taste in light of the violent crackdown on protesters in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Trudeau himself asked for the recall, despite an interview published with Universal Press Syndicate Editorial Director Lee Salem in the May 28, 1989, San Jose Mercury News, in which Salem stated his hopes the strips could still be used. ===1990s=== In November 1991, a series of strips appeared to give credibility to a real-life prison inmate who falsely stated that former Vice President Dan Quayle had connections with drug dealers. The strip sequence was dropped by some two dozen newspapers, in part because the allegations had been investigated and dispelled previously. Six years later, the reporter who broke the Quayle story, some weeks after the Doonesbury cartoons, later published a book saying he no longer believed the story had been true. In November 1993, a storyline dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times, The Orange County Register, and The San Diego Union-Tribune. In June 1994, the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe by John Boswell. A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the Bloomington, Illinois, Pantagraph refused to run the entire series. In March 1995, John McCain denounced Trudeau on the floor of the Senate: "Suffice it to say that I hold Trudeau in utter contempt." This was in response to a strip about Bob Dole's strategy of exploiting his war record during his presidential campaign. The quotation was used on the cover of Trudeau's book Doonesbury Nation. McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to The Long Road Home, Trudeau's collection of comic strips dealing with character B.D.'s leg amputation during the second Iraq war. In February 1998, a strip dealing with Bill Clinton's sex scandal was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers because it included the phrases "oral sex" and "semen-streaked dress". ===2000s=== In November 2000, a strip was not run in some newspapers when Duke said of presidential candidate George W. Bush: "He's got a history of alcohol abuse and cocaine." In September 2001, a strip perpetuated the Internet hoax that claimed George W. Bush had the lowest IQ of any president in the last 50 years, half that of Bill Clinton. When caught repeating the hoax, Trudeau apologized "with a trademark barb – he said he deeply apologized for unsettling anyone who thought the president quite intelligent." In 2003, a cartoon that publicized the recent medical research suggesting a connection between masturbation and a reduced risk of prostate cancer, with one character alluding to the practice as "self-dating", was not run in many papers; pre-publication sources indicated that as many as half of the 700 papers to which it was syndicated were planning not to run the strip. In February 2004, Trudeau used his strip to make the apparently genuine offer of $10,000 (to the USO in the winner's name) for anyone who could personally confirm that George W. Bush was actually present during any part of his service in the National Guard. Reuters and CNN reported by the end of that week that despite 1,300 responses, no credible evidence had been offered. An FAQ posted on the Doonesbury site in September of that year noted that the submissions, while "surreally entertaining", had failed to provide a single definitive corroborator, adding that Trudeau had donated the $10,000 to the USO anyway. April 2004: On April 21, after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw B.D.'s head without some sort of helmet. In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the Iraq War. Two days later, on April 23, after awakening and discovering his situation, B.D. exclaims "SON OF A BITCH!!!" The single strip was removed from many papers—including The Boston Globe—although in others, such as Newsday, the offending word was replaced by a line. The Dallas Morning News ran the cartoon uncensored, with a footnote that the editor believed profanity was appropriate, given the subject matter. An image of B.D. with an amputated leg also appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone that summer (issue 954). In June 2005, Trudeau published The Long Road Home, a book devoted to B.D.'s recovery from his loss of a leg in Iraq. Although Trudeau opposed the Iraq War, the foreword was written by Senator John McCain, a supporter of the war. McCain was impressed by Trudeau's desire to highlight the struggle of seriously wounded veterans, and his desire to assist them. Proceeds from the book, and its sequel The War Within benefited Fisher House. July 2005: Several newspapers declined to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser Karl Rove as "Turd Blossom", a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove. In September 2005 when The Guardian relaunched in a smaller format, Doonesbury was dropped for reasons of space. After a flood of protests, the strip was reinstated with an omnibus covering the issues missed and a full apology. The strips scheduled to run from October 31 to November 5, 2005, and a Sunday strip scheduled for November 13 about the nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court were withdrawn after her nomination was withdrawn. The strips have been posted on the official website, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate. Trudeau sought input from readers as to where Alex Doonesbury should attend college in a May 15, 2006, straw poll at Doonesbury.com. Voters chose among MIT, Rensselaer, and Cornell. Students from Rensselaer and then MIT hacked the system, which was designed to limit each computer to one vote. In the end, voters logged 175,000 votes, with MIT grabbing 48% of the total. The Doonesbury Town Hall FAQ stated that given that the rules of the poll had not ruled out such methods, "the will, chutzpah, and bodacious craft of the voting public will be respected", declaring that Alex will be attending MIT. Before the 2008 presidential election, Trudeau sent out strips to run in the days after the election in which Barack Obama was portrayed as the winner. Newspapers were also provided with old strips as an alternative. In response, McCain spokesman Tucker Bounds said, "We hope the strip proves to be as predictive as it is consistently lame." In 2014, the site at doonesbury.com moved under washingtonpost.com, and now it redirects to the latter. ==Criticism== When the strip became a success with its often seemingly static imagery where the essential action is entirely in the dialogue, veteran cartoonist Al Capp grudgingly admitted: “Anybody who can draw bad pictures of the White House four times in a row and succeed knows something I don’t. His style defies all measurement.” Charles M. Schulz of Peanuts called Trudeau "unprofessional" for taking a long sabbatical. (See also, similar comments by Schulz about sabbaticals taken by Bill Watterson.) Nor was the return of the strip itself greeted with universal acclaim; in 1985, Saturday Review listed Trudeau as one of the country's "Most Overrated People in American Arts and Letters", commenting that the "most publicized return since MacArthur's has produced a strip that is predictable, mean-spirited, and not as funny as before." Doonesbury has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years. A 1984 series of strips showing Vice President George H. W. Bush placing his manhood in a blind trust—in parody of Bush's use of that financial instrument to fend off concerns that his governmental decisions would be influenced by his investment holdings—brought the politician to complain, "Doonesbury carrying water for the opposition. Trudeau is coming out of deep left field." Some conservatives have intensely criticized Doonesbury. Several examples are cited in the Milestones section of the strip's website. The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication. For example, when Lacey Davenport's husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits called the strip blasphemous. The sequence of Dick Davenport's final bird-watching and fatal heart attack was run in November 1986. Liberal politicians skewered by Trudeau in the strip have also complained, including Democrats such as former U.S. House Speaker Tip O'Neill and California Governor Jerry Brown. Strips about post-World War II American wars have also generated controversy, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars. After many letter-writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics. In 2005, Continental Features refused to continue printing the Sunday Doonesbury, causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed. Of the 38, only one newspaper, The Anniston Star in Anniston, Alabama, continued to carry the Sunday Doonesbury, though of necessity in black and white. Some newspapers have dealt with the criticism by moving the strip from the comics page to the editorial page, because many people believe that a politically based comic strip like Doonesbury does not belong in a traditionally child-friendly comics section. The Lincoln Journal started the trend in 1973. In some papers (such as the Tulsa World and Orlando Sentinel) Doonesbury appears on the opinions page alongside Mallard Fillmore, a politically conservative comic strip. ==Awards and honors== In 1975, the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored. The Editorial Cartoonists' Society subsequently passed a resolution condemning the Pulitzer Committee. (After being assured that the award was irrevocable, Trudeau supported the resolution.) Doonesbury was also a Nominated Pulitzer Finalist in 1990, 2004, and 2005. In 1977, the short film A Doonesbury Special won the Grand Jury Prize from the Cannes Film Festival. It was nominated for the Palme d'Or for "Best Short Film". It was also nominated for an Academy Award. Trudeau received Certificates of Achievement from the US Army 4th Battalion 67th Armor Regiment and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War. The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection Welcome to Club Scud! Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1995. Trudeau was awarded the US Army's Commander's Award for Public Service in 2006 for his series of strips about B.D.'s recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq. In 2008, Trudeau received the Mental Health Research Advocacy Award from the Yale School of Medicine for his depiction of the mental-health issues facing soldiers upon returning home from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. In 2020, Trudeau was inducted into the New York State Writers Hall of Fame.
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Dice
A die (: dice, sometimes also used as ) is a small, throwable object with marked sides that can rest in multiple positions. Dice are used for generating random values, commonly as part of tabletop games, including dice games, board games, role-playing games, and games of chance. A traditional die is a cube with each of its six faces marked with a different number of dots (pips) from one to six. When thrown or rolled, the die comes to rest showing a random integer from one to six on its upper surface, with each value being equally likely. Dice may also have polyhedral or irregular shapes, may have faces marked with numerals or symbols instead of pips and may have their numbers carved out from the material of the dice instead of marked on it. Loaded dice are specifically designed or modified to favor some results over others for cheating or entertainment. ==History== Dice have been used since before recorded history, and their origin is uncertain. It is hypothesized that dice developed from the practice of fortune-telling with the talus of hoofed animals, colloquially known as knucklebones. The Ancient Egyptian game of senet (played before 3000 BCE and up to the 2nd century CE) was played with flat two-sided throwsticks which indicated the number of squares a player could move, and thus functioned as a form of dice. Perhaps the oldest known dice were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800 and 2500 BCE. Bone dice from Skara Brae, Scotland have been dated to 3100–2400 BCE. Excavations from graves at Mohenjo-daro, an Indus Valley civilization settlement, unearthed terracotta dice dating to 2500–1900 BCE, including at least one die whose opposite sides all add up to seven, as in modern dice. Games involving dice are mentioned in the ancient Indian Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Mahabharata and the Buddhist games list. Knucklebones was a game of skill played in ancient Greece; a derivative form had the four sides of bones receive different values like modern dice. Although gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as aleam ludere ("to play at dice"). There were two sizes of Roman dice. Tali were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides. Tesserae were smaller dice with sides numbered from one to six. Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century CE and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BCE. The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), and coincides with the technological transition from rolls of manuscripts to block printed books. In Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku. There are two types of sugoroku. Ban-sugoroku is similar to backgammon and dates to the Heian period (794–1185 CE), while e-sugoroku is a racing game. File:Knuck dice Steatite 37x27x21 mm.JPG|Knucklebones die, made of soapstone File:Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) with faces inscribed with Greek letters MET 10.130.1158 001.jpg|Twenty-sided serpentinite die from Ptolemaic Egypt File:Roman dice IMG 4367.JPG|Roman die File:9BFE00 -roman lead die (FindID 103936).jpg|Composite image of all sides of a Roman die, found in Leicestershire, England File:Wall painting - scenes around the pub - Pompeii (VI 14 35-36) - Napoli MAN 111482 - 04.jpg|Roman wall painting showing two dice-players, Pompeii, 1st century File:historical dice.jpg|A collection of historical dice from various regions of Asia File:Chinese dice from Late Yuan Dynasty to early Qing Dynasty.jpg|Chinese dice from Late Yuan Dynasty to early Qing Dynasty in Jiangyin Museum, China. ==Use== Dice are thrown onto a surface either from the hand or from a container designed for this (such as a cup, tray, or tower). The face (or corner, in cases such as tetrahedral dice, or edge, for odd-numbered long dice) of the die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw. The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics (although luck is often credited for the results of a roll). A die roll is made random by uncertainty in minor factors such as tiny movements in the thrower's hand; they are thus a crude form of hardware random number generator. One typical contemporary dice game is craps, where two dice are thrown simultaneously and wagers are made on the total value of the two dice. Dice are frequently used to introduce randomness into board games, where they are often used to decide the distance through which a piece will move along the board (as in backgammon and Monopoly). Thrown or simulated dice are sometimes used to generate specific probability distributions, which are fundamental to probability theory. For example, rolling a single six-sided die yields a uniform distribution, where each number from 1 to 6 has an equal chance of appearing. However, when rolling two dice and summing the results, the probability distribution shifts, as some sums (like 7) become more likely than others (like 2 or 12). These distributions can model real-world scenarios or mathematical constructs, making dice a practical tool for teaching and exploring concepts in probability theory. ==Construction== ===Arrangement=== Common dice are small cubes, most often across, whose faces are numbered from one to six, usually by patterns of round dots called pips. (While the use of Arabic numerals is occasionally seen, such dice are less common.) Opposite sides of a modern die traditionally add up to seven, requiring the 1, 2, and 3 faces to share a vertex. The faces of a die may be placed clockwise or counterclockwise about this vertex. If the 1, 2, and 3 faces run counterclockwise, the die is called "right-handed". If those faces run clockwise, the die is called "left-handed". Western dice are normally right-handed, and Chinese dice are normally left-handed. The pips on standard six-sided dice are arranged in specific patterns as shown. Asian style dice bear similar patterns to Western ones, but the pips are closer to the center of the face; in addition, the pips are differently sized on Asian style dice, and the pips are colored red on the 1 and 4 sides. Red fours may be of Indian origin. File:Die Faces.svg|Typical facets showing the more compact pip arrangement of an Asian-style die (top) vs. a Western-style die (bottom) ===Manufacturing=== In general, dice are classified as either precision or non-precision. Precision dice (also known as perfect or gambling house dice) are used in casinos, while non-precision dice (also known as drugstore or candystore dice) are sold with social and board games. These types are easily distinguished with visual and tactile differences; precision dice generally are larger, translucent, and have flush markings, sharp corners and edges, while non-precision dice generally are smaller, opaque, and have recessed markings, rounded corners and edges. The coloring for numbering is achieved by submerging the die entirely in paint, which is allowed to dry. The die is then polished via a tumble finishing process similar to rock polishing. The abrasive agent scrapes off all of the paint except for the indents of the numbering. A finer abrasive is then used to polish the die. This process also produces the smoother, rounded edges on the dice. Precision dice are generally made from bars of extruded cellulose acetate, sawed to the proper length to ensure that each face is as square as practical, generally with edges in length, with pips drilled deep and filled with opaque paint or epoxy which matches the density of cellulose, ensuring the dice remain balanced. The dice are buffed and polished to a gloss or sand finish after the pips are set, and the edges usually are left sharp, also called square or razor edge, although beveled or rounded edges, if performed evenly and consistently for each edge, are acceptable. Local regulations and the intended game may affect the allowable dimensions and tolerances; for example, New Jersey specifies the maximum size of a die is on a side, except for the dice used in pai gow, which range from on a side. Precision backgammon dice are made the same way and also feature pips flush with the surface of each face; they tend to be slightly smaller and have rounded corners and edges, to allow better movement inside the dice cup and stop forceful rolls from damaging the playing surface. ===Etymology and terms=== The word die comes from Old French dé; from Latin datum "something which is given or played". While the terms ace, deuce, trey, cater, cinque and sice are generally obsolete, with the names of the numbers preferred, they are still used by some professional gamblers to designate different sides of the dice. Ace is from the Latin as, meaning "a unit"; the others are 2 to 6 in Old French. When rolling two dice, certain combinations have slang names. The term snake eyes is a roll of one pip on each die. The Online Etymology Dictionary traces use of the term as far back as 1919. The US term boxcars, also known as midnight, is a roll of six pips on each die. The pair of six pips resembles a pair of boxcars on a freight train. Many rolls have names in the game of craps. ===Unicode representation=== Using Unicode characters, the faces can be shown in text using the range U+2680 to U+2685 or using decimal &#9856; to &#9861;, and the emoji using U+1F3B2 or &#127922; from the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block. == Loaded dice == A loaded, weighted, cheat, or crooked die is one that has been tampered with so that it will land with a specific side facing upwards more often or less often than a fair die would. There are several methods for making loaded dice, including rounded faces, off-square faces, and weights. Casinos and gambling halls frequently use transparent cellulose acetate dice, as tampering is easier to detect than with opaque dice. ==Variants== ===Polyhedral dice=== Various shapes such as two-sided or four-sided dice are documented in archaeological findings; for example, from Ancient Egypt and the Middle East. While the cubical six-sided die became the most common type in many parts of the world, other shapes were always known, like 20-sided dice in Ptolemaic and Roman times. The modern tradition of using sets of polyhedral dice started around the end of the 1960s when non-cubical dice became popular among players of wargames, and since have been employed extensively in role-playing games and trading card games. Dice using both the numerals 6 and 9, which are reciprocally symmetric through rotation, typically distinguish them with a dot or underline. Some twenty-sided dice have a different arrangement used for the purpose of keeping track of an integer that counts down, such as health points. These spindown dice are arranged such that adjacent integers appear on adjacent faces, allowing the user to easily find the next lower number. They are commonly used with collectible card games. ====Common variations==== Dice are often sold in sets, matching in color, of six different shapes. Five of the dice are shaped like the Platonic solids, whose faces are regular polygons. Aside from the cube, the other four Platonic solids have 4, 8, 12, and 20 faces, allowing for those number ranges to be generated. The only other common non-cubical die is the 10-sided die, a pentagonal trapezohedron die, whose faces are ten kites, each with two different edge lengths, three different angles, and two different kinds of vertices. Unlike other common dice, a four-sided (tetrahedral) die does not have a side that faces upward when it is at rest on a surface, so it must be read in a different way. On some four-sided dice, each face features multiple numbers, with the same number printed near each vertex on all sides. In this case, the number around the vertex pointing up is used. Alternatively, the numbers on a tetrahedral die can be placed at the middle of the edges, in which case the numbers around the base are used. Normally, the faces on a die will be placed so opposite faces will add up to one more than the number of faces. (This is not possible with 4-sided dice and dice with an odd number of faces.) Some dice, such as those with 10 sides, are usually numbered sequentially beginning with 0, in which case the opposite faces will add to one less than the number of faces. Using these dice in various ways, games can closely approximate a variety of probability distributions. The percentile dice system is used to produce a uniform distribution of random percentages, and summing the values of multiple dice will produce approximations to normal distributions. ====Rarer variations==== "Uniform fair dice" are dice where all faces have an equal probability of outcome due to the symmetry of the die as it is face-transitive. In addition to the Platonic solids, these theoretically include: Catalan solids, the duals of the 13 Archimedean solids: 12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides Trapezohedra, the duals of the infinite set of antiprisms, with kite faces: any even number not divisible by 4 (so that a face will face up), starting from 6 Bipyramids, the duals of the infinite set of prisms, with triangle faces: any multiple of 4 (so that a face will face up), starting from 8 Disphenoids, an infinite set of tetrahedra made from congruent non-regular triangles: 4 sides. This is a less symmetric tetrahedron than the Platonic tetrahedron but still sufficiently symmetrical to be face-transitive. Similarly, pyritohedra and tetartoids are less symmetrical but still face-transitive dodecahedra: 12 sides. Two other types of polyhedra are technically not face-transitive but are still fair dice due to symmetry: antiprisms: the basis of barrel dice prisms: the basis of long dice and teetotums Long dice and teetotums can, in principle, be made with any number of faces, including odd numbers. Long dice are based on the infinite set of prisms. All the rectangular faces are mutually face-transitive, so they are equally probable. The two ends of the prism may be rounded or capped with a pyramid, designed so that the die cannot rest on those faces. 4-sided long dice are easier to roll than tetrahedra and are used in the traditional board games dayakattai and daldøs. ===Non-numeric dice=== The faces of most dice are labelled using sequences of whole numbers, usually starting at one, expressed with either pips or digits. However, there are some applications that require results other than numbers. Examples include letters for Boggle, directions for Warhammer, Fudge dice, playing card symbols for poker dice, and instructions for sexual acts using sex dice. ===Alternatively-numbered dice=== Dice may have numbers that do not form a counting sequence starting at one. One variation on the standard die is known as the "average" die. These are six-sided dice with sides numbered 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, which have the same arithmetic mean as a standard die (3.5 for a single die, 7 for a pair of dice), but have a narrower range of possible values (2 through 5 for one, 4 through 10 for a pair). They are used in some table-top wargames, where a narrower range of numbers is required. Dice can be used for divination and using dice for such a purpose is called cleromancy. A pair of common dice is usual, though other forms of polyhedra can be used. Tibetan Buddhists sometimes use this method of divination. It is highly likely that the Pythagoreans used the Platonic solids as dice. They referred to such dice as "the dice of the gods" and they sought to understand the universe through an understanding of geometry in polyhedra. Polyhedral dice are commonly used in role-playing games. The fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) is largely credited with popularizing dice in such games. Some games use only one type, like Exalted which uses only ten-sided dice. Others use numerous types for different game purposes, such as D&D, which makes use of all common polyhedral dice. Dice are usually used to determine the outcome of events. Games typically determine results either as a total on one or more dice above or below a fixed number, or a certain number of rolls above a certain number on one or more dice. Due to circumstances or character skill, the initial roll may have a number added to or subtracted from the final result, or have the player roll extra or fewer dice. To keep track of rolls easily, dice notation is frequently used. Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination; the first die represents the planets, the Sun, the Moon, and the nodes of the Moon, the second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses. A specialized icosahedron die provides the answers of the Magic 8 Ball, conventionally used to provide answers to yes-or-no questions. Dice can be used to generate random numbers for use in passwords and cryptography applications. The Electronic Frontier Foundation describes a method by which dice can be used to generate passphrases. Diceware is a method recommended for generating secure but memorable passphrases, by repeatedly rolling five dice and picking the corresponding word from a pre-generated list. ===Notation=== In many gaming contexts, especially tabletop role-playing games, shorthand notations are used to differentiate between different types of dice. The most commonly-used notation, considered the standard, is written as . In this expression, is the number of sides on on dice and is the number of rolls; if there is only one roll, the is omitted. As an illustration, the d20 (twenty-sided dice) is to Dungeons & Dragons what the d6 (six-sided dice) is to many board games. Monopoly uses 2d6 rolls (the total value of two six-sided dice) to determine player movement. The notation also allows for adding or subtracting a constant amount c to the roll. When an amount is added, the notation is . For example, "3d6+4" instructs the player to roll three six-sided dice, calculate the total, and add four to it. When an amount is to be subtracted, the notation is . Thus, "3d6−4" instructs the player to subtract four from the total value of three six-sided dice. The notation is also sometimes used, with the modifier "L" (or less commonly "H") representing the lowest amount (or highest amount) of each roll combined. For instance, 4d6−L instructs the player to sum up the total of four six-sided dice and subtract the lowest value. If the result of a modified dice roll is negative, it is often taken to be zero or one; for instance, when the dice roll determines the amount of damage to a creature. ===Role-playing dice sets and percentile dice=== A role-playing dice set typically comprises seven dice: one each of d4, d6, d8, d12 and d20, and two d10s, one labeled from 0 to 9 and the other labeled in tens from 00 to 90. These last two, taken together, are called percentile dice. In standard dice notation, a roll of percentile dice can be expressed as "d100", although "d%" is also seen. A d100 roll is typically performed like a 2d10 roll, using both decahedral dice together. Adding the numbers shown gives a random number from 0 to 99 – although 0+00 is typically read as 100, for consistency with other dice notation. The zocchihedron was invented as an alternative to percentile dice. Unlike percentile dice, the zocchihedron is a true d100 die, though no single die of 100 sides can be as consistently fair.
[ "zocchihedron", "cellulose acetate", "soapstone", "long dice", "Unicode", "dice notation", "Libro de los juegos", "ace", "Axis & Allies", "wikt:dé", "prism (geometry)", "equilateral triangle", "Heptadecagon", "Indus Valley civilization", "Randomness", "board game", "Online Etymology Dictionary", "Pentakis dodecahedron", "Leicestershire", "poker dice", "Binary lot", "ancient Greece", "cricket", "Pentagonal hexecontahedron", "House (astrology)", "divination", "Disphenoid", "scalene triangle", "Abrasion (mechanical)", "Spherical cap", "cryptography", "probability distribution", "rhombus", "luck", "tumble finishing", "Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs", "Jiangyin", "square pyramid", "Octagonal bipyramid", "arithmetic mean", "pencil cricket", "barrel dice", "regular icosahedron", "Long dice", "Boggle", "polyhedron", "Dice Masters", "Sicherman dice", "Ptolemaic Kingdom", "Statistical randomness", "serial number", "Catalan solid", "senet", "four-sided die", "Octahedron", "truncated icosahedron", "density", "Knucklebones", "Dominoes", "Disdyakis triacontahedron", "Four-sided dice", "sex dice", "wikt:datum", "cuboctahedron", "daldøs", "classical mechanics", "Astrological sign", "hardware random number generator", "Truncated octahedron", "Persi Diaconis", "regular polygon", "Fudge (role-playing game system)", "kite (geometry)", "password", "Skara Brae", "Monopoly (game)", "coin flip", "sugoroku", "serpentinite", "Pompeii", "vertex (geometry)", "Cylinder (geometry)", "boxcar", "integer", "Platonic solids", "Mahabharata", "Disdyakis dodecahedron", "regular dodecahedron", "Triakis octahedron", "backgammon", "Pentagonal icositetrahedron", "Atharvaveda", "Rigveda", "collectible card game", "Möbius strip", "List of games that Buddha would not play", "long die", "Outline of ancient India", "rhombicuboctahedron", "Discrete uniform distribution", "Arabic numerals", "intransitive dice", "clockwise and counterclockwise", "Parity (mathematics)", "Exalted", "clockwise", "rock polishing", "Castles of Burgundy", "Culture of ancient Rome", "cheating", "tabletop game", "woodblock printing", "antiprism", "Seven-sided backgammon", "Deltoidal hexecontahedron", "role-playing game", "Game of chance", "orbital node", "Oxford English Dictionary", "cube", "Trapezohedron", "sphere", "triangular prism", "Triakis icosahedron", "Bipyramid", "Electronic Frontier Foundation", "List of dice games", "Race game", "material", "Tang dynasty", "passphrase", "Old French", "wargame", "isohedral figure", "Latin", "Warhammer (game)", "Mo (divination)", "Dungeons & Dragons", "number", "practical joke", "probability theory", "Ten-sided die", "Prism (geometry)", "Rhombic triacontahedron", "playing card", "Poly(methyl methacrylate)", "tetartoid", "Pythagoreans", "Common Era", "game of skill", "Archimedean solid", "normal distribution", "Platonic solid", "Rhombic dodecahedron", "dual polyhedron", "pip (counting)", "Zocchihedron", "teetotum", "Talus bone", "Iran", "Mohenjo-daro", "Dice notation", "Ancient Egypt", "chess variants", "Tetrakis hexahedron", "terracotta", "knucklebones", "Magic 8 Ball", "Tetrahedron", "Diceware", "Heptagonal trapezohedron", "cleromancy", "Cube", "Triangular prism", "Deltoidal icositetrahedron", "Burnt City", "injection molding", "Reiner Knizia", "pai gow", "pentagonal trapezohedron", "dayakattai", "Dice tower", "Alfonso X of Castile", "Pentagonal prism", "Pyritohedron", "Pentagonal trapezohedron", "Craps", "Quarriors", "Kite (geometry)", "Heian period", "craps" ]
8,246
Dumpster diving
Dumpster diving (also totting, skipping, skip diving or skip salvage) is salvaging from large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers for unwanted items discarded by their owners but deemed useful to the picker. It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps. Different terms are used to refer to different forms of this activity. For picking materials from the curbside trash collection, expressions such as curb shopping, trash picking or street scavenging are sometimes used. In the UK, if someone is primarily seeking recyclable metal, they are scrapping, and if they are picking the leftover food from farming left in the fields, they are gleaning. People dumpster dive for items such as clothing, furniture, food, and similar items in good working condition. Some people do this out of necessity due to poverty; == Etymology == The term "dumpster diving" emerged in the 1980s, combining "diving" with "dumpster", a large commercial trash bin. The term "Dumpster" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937. "Dumpster" became genericized by the 1970s. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "dumpster diving" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb "dumpster-dive" appearing a few years later. Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, In Australia, garbage picking is called "skip dipping." Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud. The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash. A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected. Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods, Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items. Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research. Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life. Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries. Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages. Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters. Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash. This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around. Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving. === Dumpster diving with criminal intentions (Garbage theft) === The unauthorized taking of materials from a dumpster or other waste disposal container is commonly referred to as "garbage theft". Dumpster diving is a different idiom. Due to the typical low value of the stolen goods, garbage theft is not typically recognized as a serious crime, with laws against it frequently focusing on combating identity theft instead. Depending on the state or nation's rules surrounding low-level crime, garbage theft may be considered a form of petty theft and subject to a penalty that often entails a brief period of incarceration, a modest fine, or both. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014. Identity theft has historically been carried out through garbage theft, with thieves utilizing bank and credit card statements discovered in trash to assume the identity of a victim or access their credit. Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as "shoplisting." Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington, found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin. == Legal status == Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. ==== Canada ==== In Ontario, Canada, the Trespass to Property Act—legislation dating back to the British North America Act 1867 Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals. ==== United Kingdom ==== Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice. ==== Germany ==== In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as "containern", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended. ==== United States ==== In the United States, the fourth amendment protects against certain searches by the government without a warrant. The 1988 California v. Greenwood case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials, and that therefore the police did not require a warrant to search through trash. There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse. In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages. == Items == Dumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries. Food. In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations. In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather. In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods. Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished. Books and periodicals. As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage. Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale. Irregular or damaged goods. Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory. Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable. For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being reused or resold. Returned items. Manufacturers often find it cheaper to routinely discard items returned as defective under warranty instead of repairing them, although a device is often repairable or usable as a source of spare parts to repair other, similar discarded devices. School supplies. At the end of each school year many perfectly useful supplies like pencils, pens, notebooks and art supplies are thrown away. Electronic waste. Some consumer electronics are dumped because of their rapid depreciation, obsolescence, cost to repair, or expense to upgrade. Owners of functional computers may find it easier to dump them rather than donate because many nonprofit organizations and schools are unable, or unwilling, to work with used equipment. Occasionally, vendors dispose of unsaleable, non-defective new merchandise as landfill. The Atari video game burial in Alamogordo, New Mexico, after the video game crash of 1983 is a well-known example; a 2014 excavation recovered about 1300 games for curation as museum exhibits or auction. Clothing. While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing. There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time. Metal. Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards. The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum. Wood. Called urban lumberjacking, to salvage wood either for home heating, or home construction projects. Empty cans and bottles. Several countries, particularly in Northern Europe have enforced a system in which empty cans and bottles can be returned to stores for money. Usually the amount received per can/bottle is relatively low, so many simply discard them in dumpsters. Personal Information: cyber attackers may engage in dumpster diving to gather sensitive data, including IP addresses, bank account details, and Social Security numbers, by sifting through discarded mail or retrieving items disposed of in bins. Moreover, perpetrators may endeavor to broaden their contact databases by resorting to dumpster diving at corporate premises, aiming to obtain access to confidential and sensitive data, including phone lists or records. === Other sources === Residential buildings. Clothing, furniture, appliances, and other housewares may be found at residential buildings. College dormitories. Items may be found at colleges with dormitories at the end of the semester when students throw away many items such as furniture, clothes and electronics. == Notable instances == In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest. The Castle Infinity videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash. In October 2013, in North London, three men were arrested and charged under the 1824 Vagrancy Act when they were caught taking discarded food: tomatoes, mushrooms, cheese and cakes from bins behind an Iceland supermarket. The charges were dropped on 29 January 2014 after much public criticism as well as a request by Iceland's chief executive, Malcolm Walker. In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed. == In popular culture == === Books === Author John Hoffman wrote two books based on his own dumpster-diving exploits: The Art and Science of Dumpster Diving (1993; ) and Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course: How to Turn Other People's Trash into Money, Publicity, and Power (2002; ), and was featured in the documentary DVD The Ultimate Dive, which was directed by Suzanne Girot and described by the Internet Movie Database as a "Tongue-in-cheek how-to film on the art and science of dumpster diving." In 2001, dumpster diving was popularized in the book Evasion, published by CrimethInc. In Kim Stanley Robinson's science fiction novel Fifty Degrees Below (2005), the character Frank Vanderwal joins, for a time, a group of freegans (referred to as "fregans" in the novel) who frequently prepare feasts culled from dumpsters; kind-hearted restaurateurs aid them by setting aside foods which have not been touched by the public. Jeff Ferrell, Professor of Sociology at Texas Christian University, is the author of Empire of Scrounge: Inside the Urban Underground of Dumpster Diving, Trash Picking, and Street Scavenging (2005; ). Cory Doctorow integrated garbage picking characters into the plots of his novels Someone Comes to Town, Someone Leaves Town and Pirate Cinema. David Boarder Gilles' A Mass Conspiracy to Feed People: Food Not Bombs and the World-class Waste of Global Cities (2021) is an ethnography of this global movement of grassroots soup kitchens that recover wasted grocery surpluses and redistribute them to those in need. === Television programs === British television shows have featured home renovations and decoration using salvaged materials. Changing Rooms (1996–2004) is one such show, broadcast on BBC One. TLC's Extreme Cheapskates and Extreme Couponing featured people who regularly dumpster dive to avoid spending money on different items—in the case of the latter, unwanted newspapers and newspaper inserts containing coupons were the subject of dumpster diving. === Films === Surfing the Waste: A Musical Documentary About Dumpster Diving, a film by Paul Aflalo, Sandra Lombardi and Tomoe Yoshihara, with music composed by Alden Penner and Nic Boshart. Dumpster Wars: Reno's Trash Politics (2008) I Love Trash (2007), a 30-minute documentary by David Brown and Greg Mann. OCLC's WorldCat provided a synopsis: "I Love Trash is a documentary about the art of dumpster diving. Starting with an empty apartment, only the clothes they were wearing and a flashlight, David and Greg find everything they might otherwise buy, in trash cans and dumpsters. All their food, clothes, electronics, art materials and entertainment, all out of the trash." Accolades: Skyfest Film and Script Festival, (won 2nd place for Documentary Films); and Lake Michigan Film Competition, (won 3rd place for Documentary films). The 2010 documentary film Dive!, a short documentary written and directed by Jeremy Seifert, investigates dumpster diving in the Los Angeles area. Dive! premiered in October 2009 at the Gig Harbor Film Festival, where it won the Audience Choice Award. It has gone on to win awards at many other film festivals, including Best Documentary at the DC Independent Film Festival and Best Film at the Dutch Environmental Film Festival. Spoils: Extraordinary Harvest. A short film/mystery film and documentary by Alex Mallis. (2012) Accolades: Official Selection, New Orleans Film Festival. Official Selection, Independent Film Festival of Boston. Official Selection, DOC NYC. The Leftovers: A Documentary about People Who Eat Trash (2008), a 28-minute Swedish documentary by Michael Cavanagh and Kerstin Übelacker. Mykel Bently, Paul Hood, Krystal Trickey, Nick Gill, and Sofia Arborelius (the latter two were exchange students) joined for this dumpster diver adventure. From Dumpster To Dinner Plate (2011), an award-winning New Zealand short documentary directed by Vanessa Hudson. "As the cost of food reaches record highs an underground movement of dumpster divers is rapidly gaining momentum fuelled by consumers who are forced to find creative ways to feed themselves."
[ "Reno Gazette-Journal", "sociology", "Cory Doctorow", "civil litigation", "Hunter-gatherer", "Fred Meyer", "metal", "Container deposit legislation", "Alfonso de Bourbon", "IP address", "Police", "Paladin Press", "gleaning", "La Jolla", "return fraud", "rag and bone man", "TLC (TV network)", "Electronic waste", "restaurateur", "factory", "criminal procedure", "Salvage archaeology", "Supreme Court of the United States", "CrimethInc.", "American English", "Texas Christian University", "assemblage (art)", "Salvage data", "junk man", "Pirate Cinema (novel)", "shoplifting", "office", "Food waste", "archeology", "Internet Movie Database", "video game crash of 1983", "planned obsolescence", "Rite Aid", "Bellingham, Washington", "generic trademark", "short film", "Vancouver", "Prince Edward Island", "common law", "department store", "Environmentalism", "Delhaize Group", "ThinkProgress", "Castle Infinity", "British North America Act 1867", "Alamogordo, New Mexico", "Iceland (supermarket)", "Theft Act 1968", "Supermarket", "The Home Depot", "post-consumer waste", "Reuse", "telephone", "Pagpag", "identity theft", "Biological hazard", "Saskatchewan", "consumer electronics", "Benjamin Pell", "Zabaleen", "shelf life", "United Kingdom", "The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company", "recycling", "Someone Comes to Town, Someone Leaves Town", "trespassing", "Karung guni", "expectation of privacy", "Dive! (film)", "curbside trash collection", "Health & Safety Executive", "St. Petersburg Times", "Ontario", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "Curb mining", "Social Security number", "Salvage (disambiguation)", "Jerry Schneider", "Fifty Degrees Below", "Evasion (book)", "found objects", "Extreme Cheapskates", "nn:Søppelsanking", "The Guardian", "Zabbaleen", "garbology", "smartphones", "Food rescue", "Rag and bone man", "ecological footprint", "London", "server (computing)", "Extreme Couponing", "British English", "Office", "Madison, Wisconsin", "Dump digging", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Trespass to Property Act (Ontario)", "mystery film", "Skip (container)", "Central London", "trash bin", "Atari video game burial", "DC Independent Film Festival", "Kim Stanley Robinson", "Alden Penner", "Public liability", "Deposit-refund system", "instruction manual", "Vagrancy Act 1824", "New Orleans Film Festival", "Minnesota", "Recycling", "Independent Film Festival of Boston", "Compost", "dumpster", "Walmart", "Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act", "waste picker", "scrapping", "OCLC", "Scotland", "Freeganism", "Information diving", "WorldCat", "DOC NYC", "skip (container)", "Student exchange program", "wikt:salvage", "Changing Rooms (TV show)", "BBC One", "poverty", "landfill", "Sweden", "wired (magazine)", "privacy violation", "Cinema of Sweden", "Search and seizure", "karung guni", "California v. Greenwood", "evidence (law)" ]
8,247
Digital synthesizer
A digital synthesizer is a synthesizer that uses digital signal processing (DSP) techniques to make musical sounds, in contrast to older analog synthesizers, which produce music using analog electronics, and samplers, which play back digital recordings of acoustic, electric, or electronic instruments. Some digital synthesizers emulate analog synthesizers, while others include sampling capability in addition to digital synthesis. == History == The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with computers, as part of academic research into sound generation. In 1957, the first programming language for computer music, MUSIC, was developed by Max Mathews on an IBM 704 at Bell Labs in 1957. It generates digital audio waveforms through direct synthesis. , EMS MUSYS 3 system was developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing) and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio. The system ran on two mini-computers, Digital Equipment PDP-8's. These had a pair of fast D/A and A/D converters, 12,000 (12k) bytes of core memory (RAM), backed up by a hard drive of 32k and by tape storage (DecTape). The earliest digital sampling was done on that system during 1971–1972 for Harrison Birtwistle's "Chronometer" released in 1975. In 1972–1974, Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer was developed by Dartmouth College Professors Jon Appleton and Frederick J. Hooven, in association with NED co-founders Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron W. Jones. In 1977, Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer was developed by Hal Ales at Bell Labs. In 1977, New England Digital (NED) released the Synclavier, the first commercial synthesizer to use purely digital sound generation and also the world's first commercial FM synthesizer. Early commercial digital synthesizers used simple hard-wired digital circuitry to implement techniques such as additive synthesis and FM synthesis. Two other early commercial digital synthesizers were the Fairlight CMI, introduced in 1979, and the New England Digital Synclavier II, introduced in 1979 as an upgrade to the original Synclavier. while the Synclavier originally used FM synthesis technology licensed from Yamaha, before adding the world's first 16-bit, real-time hard drive streaming sampler later in 1982. === In Japan === In 1973, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the patent for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation, though it would take several years before Yamaha were to release their FM digital synthesizers. In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name "Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha", evolving Chowning's early work on FM synthesis technology. Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974. the Casio VL-1 was the first low budget digital synthesizer, selling for $69.95. Introduced in 1983, the Yamaha DX7 was the breakthrough digital synthesizer to have a major impact, both innovative and affordable, and thus spelling the decline of analog synthesizers. It used FM synthesis and, although it was incapable of the sampling synthesis of the Fairlight CMI, its price was around $2,000, putting it within range of a much larger number of musicians. The DX-7 was also known for its "key scaling" method to avoid distortion and for its recognizably bright tonality that was partly due to its high sampling rate of 57 kHz. It became indispensable to many music artists of the 1980s, and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time. of built-in digital effects (reverb., chorus, equalizer). Roland called this Linear Arithmetic (LA) synthesis. This instrument is responsible for some of the very recognisable preset synthesizer sounds of the late 1980s, such as the Pizzagogo sound used on Enya's "Orinoco Flow." It gradually became feasible to include high quality samples of existing instruments as opposed to synthesizing them. In 1988, Korg introduced the last of the hugely popular trio of digital synthesizers of the 1980s after the DX7 and D50, the M1. This heralded both the increasing popularisation of digital sample-based synthesis, and the rise of 'workstation' synthesizers. After this time, many popular modern digital synthesizers have been described as not being full synthesizers in the most precise sense, as they play back samples stored in their memory. However, they still include options to shape the sounds through use of envelopes, LFOs, filters and effects such as reverb. The Yamaha Motif and Roland Fantom series of keyboards are typical examples of this type, described as 'ROMplers'; at the same time, they are also examples of "workstation" synthesizers. As the cost of processing power and memory fell, new types of synthesizers emerged, offering a variety of novel sound synthesis options. The Korg Oasys was one such example, packaging multiple digital synthesizers into a single unit. == Analog vs. digital == An analog synthesizer creates sound using electronic circuitry, such as voltage-controlled oscillators and voltage-controlled filters. In contrast, a digital synthesizer generates a stream of numbers, often using some form of digital signal processor, which are then converted to sound using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). A digital synthesizer is in essence a computer with (often) a piano or organ keyboard and an LCD as a user interface. Because computer technology is rapidly advancing, it is often possible to offer more features in a digital synthesizer than in an analog synthesizer at a given price. However, both technologies have their own merit. Some forms of synthesis, such as, for instance, sampling and additive synthesis are not feasible in analog synthesizers, while on the other hand, many musicians prefer the character of analog synthesizers over their digital equivalent. == Usage == The new wave era of the 1980s first brought the digital synthesizer to the public ear. Bands like Talking Heads and Duran Duran used the digitally made sounds on some of their most popular albums. Other more pop-inspired bands like Hall & Oates began incorporating the digital synthesizer into their sound in the 1980s. Through breakthroughs in technology in the 1990s many modern synthesizers use DSP. == Digital synthesis == Working in more or less the same way, every digital synthesizer appears similar to a computer. At a steady sample rate, digital synthesis produces a stream of numbers. Sound from speakers is then produced by a conversion to analog form. Direct digital synthesis is the typical architecture for digital synthesizers. Through signal generation, voice and instrument-level processing, a signal flow is created and controlled either by MIDI capabilities or voice and instrument-level controls.
[ "analog modeling synthesizer", "Cornwall", "PDP-8", "Stanford University", "Jon Appleton", "Low-frequency oscillation", "Synclavier", "MIT Press", "Harrison Birtwistle", "core memory", "Direct digital synthesis", "Casio VL-1", "Latency (engineering)", "electronic instruments", "MUSIC-N", "New wave music", "Peter Zinovieff", "voltage-controlled oscillator", "pop music", "additive synthesis", "programming language", "wavetable synthesis", "Nord Lead", "physical modeling", "Korg", "synthesizer", "Concordia University", "digital signal processor", "Oxford University Press", "Enya", "Electronic Music Studios", "digital signal processing", "voltage-controlled filter", "computer music", "Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer", "music workstation", "Analog-to-digital", "Roland D-50", "Dartmouth College", "Yamaha DX7", "New England Digital", "sampling (music)", "Duran Duran", "E-mu Systems", "John Chowning", "FM synthesis", "Digital signal processing", "LCD", "Computer Music Journal", "Talking Heads", "Random-access memory", "Music sequencer", "frequency modulation", "Bell Labs", "Orinoco Flow", "Yamaha Corporation", "Cambridge University Press", "Radio New Zealand", "Access Virus", "analog synthesizers", "Max Mathews", "Hall & Oates", "frequency modulation synthesis", "Korg Oasys", "Envelope (music)", "IBM 704", "Sampler (musical instrument)", "computer", "Software synthesizer", "Roland Corporation", "digital-to-analog converter", "sound card", "Fairlight CMI", "Taylor & Francis", "analog synthesizer", "digital recording", "analog electronics", "Korg M1", "musical instrument", "E-mu Emulator", "sampling rate", "Digital-to-analog converter" ]
8,249
Definition of music
A definition of music endeavors to give an accurate and concise explanation of music's basic attributes or essential nature and it involves a process of defining what is meant by the term music. Many authorities have suggested definitions, but defining music turns out to be more difficult than might first be imagined, and there is ongoing debate. A number of explanations start with the notion of music as organized sound, but they also highlight that this is perhaps too broad a definition and cite examples of organized sound that are not defined as music, such as human speech and sounds found in both natural and industrial environments . The problem of defining music is further complicated by the influence of culture in music cognition. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines music as "the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion". However, some music genres, such as noise music and musique concrète, challenge these ideas by using sounds not widely considered as musical, beautiful or harmonious, like randomly produced electronic distortion, feedback, static, cacophony, and sounds produced using compositional processes which utilize indeterminacy. An often-cited example of the dilemma in defining music is the work 4′33″ (1952) by the American composer John Cage (1912–1992). The written score has three movements and directs the performer(s) to appear on stage, indicate by gesture or other means when the piece begins, then make no sound throughout the duration of the piece, marking sections and the end by gesture. The audience hears only whatever ambient sounds may occur in the room. Some argue that 4′33″ is not music because, among other reasons, it contains no sounds that are conventionally considered "musical" and the composer and performer(s) exert no control over the organization of the sounds heard. Others argue it is music because the conventional definitions of musical sounds are unnecessarily and arbitrarily limited, and control over the organization of the sounds is achieved by the composer and performer(s) through their gestures that divide what is heard into specific sections and a comprehensible form. ==Concepts of music== Because of differing fundamental concepts of music, the languages of many cultures do not contain a word that can be accurately translated as "music" as that word is generally understood by Western cultures. Inuit and most North American Indian languages do not have a general term for music. Among the Aztecs, the ancient Mexican theory of rhetoric, poetry, dance, and instrumental music used the Nahuatl term In xochitl-in kwikatl to refer to a complex mix of music and other poetic verbal and non-verbal elements, and reserved the word Kwikakayotl (or cuicacayotl) only for the sung expressions. There is no term for music in Nigerian languages Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Birom, Hausa, Idoma, Eggon or Jarawa. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Western culture typically means by the term music.() The Mapuche of Argentina do not have a word for music, but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (kantun), European and non-Mapuche music (kantun winka), ceremonial songs (öl), and tayil. While some languages in West Africa have no term for music, some West African languages accept the general concepts of music.() Musiqi is the Persian word for the science and art of music, muzik being the sound and performance of music,() though some things European-influenced listeners would include, such as Quran chanting, are excluded. ==Music vs. noise== Ben Watson points out that Ludwig van Beethoven's Große Fuge (1825) "sounded like noise" to his audience at the time. Indeed, Beethoven's publishers persuaded him to remove it from its original setting as the last movement of a string quartet. He did so, replacing it with a sparkling Allegro. They subsequently published it separately. Musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous, explaining that "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be". ==Definitions== ===Organized sound=== An often-cited definition of music is that it is "organized sound", a term originally coined by modernist composer Edgard Varèse in reference to his own musical aesthetic. Varèse's concept of music as "organized sound" fits into his vision of "sound as living matter" and of "musical space as open rather than bounded". He conceived the elements of his music in terms of "sound-masses", likening their organization to the natural phenomenon of crystallization. Varèse thought that "to stubbornly conditioned ears, anything new in music has always been called noise", and he posed the question, "what is music but organized noises?" The fifteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states that "while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit." A human organizing element is often felt to be implicit in music (sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as "musical", but perhaps less often as "music"). The composer R. Murray states that the sound of classical music "has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities—and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality." However, in the view of semiologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both". (See "music as social construct" below.) ====Language==== Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method, comparable to mathematics. ===Musical universals=== Most definitions of music include a reference to sound and a list of universals of music can be generated by stating the elements (or aspects) of sound: pitch, timbre, loudness, duration, spatial location and texture.). However, in terms more specifically relating to music: following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category. As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition. This is primarily because other cultures have different understandings in relation to the sounds that English-language writers refer to as music. ===Social construct=== Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: "the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity" (Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, online edition). ===Subjective experience=== This approach to the definition focuses not on the construction but on the experience of music. An extreme statement of the position has been articulated by the Italian composer Luciano Berio: "Music is everything that one listens to with the intention of listening to music". This approach permits the boundary between music and noise to change over time as the conventions of musical interpretation evolve within a culture, to be different in different cultures at any given moment, and to vary from person to person according to their experience and proclivities. It is further consistent with the subjective reality that even what would commonly be considered music is experienced as non-music if the mind is concentrating on other matters and thus not perceiving the sound's essence as music. ==Specific definitions== ===Clifton=== In his 1983 book, Music as Heard, which sets out from the phenomenological position of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, and Ricœur, Thomas Clifton defines music as "an ordered arrangement of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative ... This definition distinguishes music, as an end in itself, from compositional technique, and from sounds as purely physical objects." More precisely, "music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body—that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism". It is therefore "a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object". Clifton accordingly differentiates music from non-music on the basis of the human behavior involved, rather than on either the nature of compositional technique or of sounds as purely physical objects. Consequently, the distinction becomes a question of what is meant by musical behavior: "a musically behaving person is one whose very being is absorbed in the significance of the sounds being experienced." However, "It is not altogether accurate to say that this person is listening to the sounds. First, the person is doing more than listening: he is perceiving, interpreting, judging, and feeling. Second, the preposition 'to' puts too much stress on the sounds as such. Thus, the musically behaving person experiences musical significance by means of, or through, the sounds". In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from non-music: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and non-music are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement. "It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word ordered in this definition of music". This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since "it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering. Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise non-introspective musical analysis. But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion". Clifton's task, then, is to describe musical experience and the objects of this experience which, together, are called "phenomena", and the activity of describing phenomena is called "phenomenology". It is important to stress that this definition of music says nothing about aesthetic standards. Music is not a fact or a thing in the world, but a meaning constituted by human beings. ... To talk about such experience in a meaningful way demands several things. First, we have to be willing to let the composition speak to us, to let it reveal its own order and significance. ... Second, we have to be willing to question our assumptions about the nature and role of musical materials. ... Last, and perhaps most important, we have to be ready to admit that describing a meaningful experience is itself meaningful. ===Nattiez=== "Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture", according to Jean Molino. It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be". Given the above demonstration that "there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical", an organization of definitions and elements is necessary. Nattiez (1990, 17) describes definitions according to a tripartite semiological scheme similar to the following: There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic: " By 'poietic' I understand describing the link among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the result of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment. Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape." "By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies". The neutral level is that of the physical "trace", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or "social" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below). Table describing types of definitions of music: Because of this range of definitions, the study of music comes in a wide variety of forms. There is the study of sound and vibration or acoustics, the cognitive study of music, the study of music theory and performance practice or music theory and ethnomusicology and the study of the reception and history of music, generally called musicology. ===Xenakis=== Composer Iannis Xenakis in "Towards a Metamusic" (chapter 7 of Formalized Music) defined music in the following way: It is a sort of comportment necessary for whoever thinks it and makes it. It is an individual pleroma, a realization. It is a fixing in sound of imagined virtualities (cosmological, philosophical, ..., arguments) It is normative, that is, unconsciously it is a model for being or for doing by sympathetic drive. It is catalytic: its mere presence permits internal psychic or mental transformations in the same way as the crystal ball of the hypnotist. It is the gratuitous play of a child. It is a mystical (but atheistic) asceticism. Consequently, expressions of sadness, joy, love and dramatic situations are only very limited particular instances.
[ "Eleanor Rosch", "Iannis Xenakis", "Nettl, Bruno", "Noise (radio)", "Industrial society", "Idoma language", "Natural environment", "Paul Ricœur", "culture", "duration (music)", "Aztecs", "timbre", "Sound art", "ethnomusicology", "Große Fuge", "Igbo language", "Cognitive Psychology (journal)", "Mexico", "Stanley Sadie", "Presentationism", "entertainment", "relativism", "4′33″", "Argentina", "Pitch (music)", "Robert Craft", "Southwest Review", "Hausa language", "North American Indian", "Miguel Leon-Portilla", "Berom language", "Efik language", "The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians", "R. Murray Schafer", "noise (environmental)", "era", "Nahuatl", "Palgrave Macmillan", "music theory", "Edgard Varèse", "culture in music cognition", "Tiv language", "Jarawa language (Nigeria)", "Maurice Merleau-Ponty", "Michael Kennedy (music critic)", "Distortion (music)", "This Is Your Brain on Music", "Phonaesthetics", "musique concrète", "seeing pink elephants", "art", "noise music", "Ludwig Wittgenstein", "total social fact", "Quran", "wikt:tripartite", "Concise Oxford English Dictionary", "Texture (music)", "Luciano Berio", "Eggon language", "oscillation", "Persian language", "Edmund Husserl", "Jean Molino", "The Musical Quarterly", "crystallization", "Kyle Gann", "speech", "modernist", "music", "Audio feedback", "Subject (philosophy)", "Phenomenology (philosophy)", "Perspectives of New Music", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Mapuche", "Ben Watson (music writer)", "definition", "Noise in music", "Jean-Jacques Nattiez", "acoustics", "Chou Wen-chung", "Inuit", "John Tyrrell (musicologist)", "Indeterminacy (music)", "Zoomusicology", "Denotation", "loudness", "Richard Kostelanetz", "pleroma", "John Cage", "Yoruba language", "musicology", "Journal of the American Musicological Society" ]
8,253
Dayton, Ohio
Dayton () is a city in Montgomery County, Ohio, United States, and its county seat. As of the 2020 census, the city proper had a population of 137,644, making it the sixth-most populous city in Ohio. It anchors the state's fourth-largest metropolitan area, the Dayton metropolitan area, which had 814,049 residents. Dayton is located within Ohio's Miami Valley region, north of Cincinnati and west-southwest of Columbus. Dayton was founded in 1796 along the Great Miami River and named after Jonathan Dayton, a Founding Father who owned a significant amount of land in the area. It later developed an industrialized economy and was home to the Dayton Project, a branch of the larger Manhattan Project, to develop polonium triggers used in early atomic bombs. With the decline of heavy manufacturing in the late 20th century, Dayton's businesses have diversified into a service economy. Ohio's borders are within of roughly 60 percent of the country's population and manufacturing infrastructure, making Dayton a logistics hub. The city is home to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, a significant contributor to research and development in the industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering fields. Along with defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton area's economy. Significant institutions in Dayton include the Air Force Institute of Technology, Carillon Historical Park, Dayton Art Institute, Dayton Performing Arts Alliance, National Museum of the United States Air Force, and University of Dayton. ==History== Dayton was founded on April 1, 1796, by 12 settlers known as the Thompson Party. They traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans. Among the Thompson Party was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valley's history. Two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later. The oldest surviving building is Newcom Tavern, which was used for various purposes, including housing Dayton's first church, which is still in existence. In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, the first overland connection between Cincinnati and Dayton, opening the "Mad River Country" to settlement. Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the village of Dayton was incorporated in 1805 and chartered as a city in 1841. The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U.S. Constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area. In 1827, construction on the Dayton–Cincinnati canal began, which provided a better way to transport goods from Dayton to Cincinnati and contributed significantly to Dayton's economic growth during the 1800s. NCR also helped develop the US Navy Bombe, a code-breaking machine that helped crack the Enigma machine cipher during World War II. Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s. According to the National Park Service, citing information from the U.S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U.S. city in 1890 and ranked fifth in the nation as early as 1870. The Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton. The city was also home to James Ritty's Incorruptible Cashier, the first mechanical cash register, and Arthur E. Morgan's hydraulic jump, a flood prevention mechanism that helped pioneer hydraulic engineering. Paul Laurence Dunbar, an African-American poet and novelist, penned his most famous works in the late 19th century and became an integral part of the city's history. ===Birthplace of aviation=== Powered aviation began in Dayton. Orville and Wilbur Wright were the first to construct and demonstrate powered flight. Although the first flight was in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, their Wright Flyer was built in and returned to Dayton for improvements and further flights at Huffman Field, a cow pasture northeast of Dayton, near the current Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. When the government tried to move development to Langley Field in southern Virginia, six Dayton businessmen including Edward A. Deeds, formed the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company in Moraine and established a flying field. Deeds also opened a field to the north in the flood plain of the Great Miami River between the confluences of that river, the Stillwater River, and the Mad River (near downtown Dayton). Later named McCook Field for Alexander McDowell McCook, an American Civil War general, this became the Army Signal Corps' primary aviation research and training location. Wilbur Wright also purchased land near Huffman prairie to continue their research. During World War I, the Army purchased 40 acres adjacent to Huffman Prairie for the Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot. As airplanes developed more capability, they needed more runway space than McCook could offer, and a new location was sought. The Patterson family formed the Dayton Air Service Committee, Inc which held a campaign that raised $425,000 in two days and purchased northeast of Dayton, including Wilbur Wright Field and the Huffman Prairie Flying Field. Wright Field was "formally dedicated" on October 12, 1927. After World War II, Wright Field and the adjacent Patterson Field, Dayton Army Air Field, and Clinton Army Air Field were merged as the Headquarters, Air Force Technical Base. On January 13, 1948, the facility was renamed Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. ===Great Dayton Flood=== A catastrophic flood in March 1913, known as the Great Dayton Flood, led to the creation of the Miami Conservancy District, a series of dams as well as hydraulic pumps installed around Dayton, in 1914. ===Contribution in World War Two=== Like other cities across the country, Dayton was heavily involved in the war effort during World War II. Several locations around the city hosted the Dayton Project, a branch of the larger Manhattan Project, to develop polonium triggers used in early atomic bombs. The war efforts led to a manufacturing boom throughout the city, including high-demand for housing and other services. At one point, emergency housing was put into place due to a housing shortage in the region, much of which is still in use today. Alan Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. He visited the National Cash Register (NCR) company in Dayton in December 1942. He was able to show that it was not necessary to build 336 Bombes, so the initial order was scaled down to 96 machines to decipher German Enigma-machine-encrypted secret messages during World War II. ===Post-war Dayton=== Between the 1940s and the 1970s, the city saw significant growth in suburban areas from population migration. Veterans were returning from military service in large numbers seeking industrial and manufacturing jobs, a part of the local industry that was expanding rapidly. Advancements in architecture also contributed to the suburban boom. New, modernized shopping centers and the Interstate Highway System allowed workers to commute greater distances and families to live further from the downtown area. More than 127,000 homes were built in Montgomery County during the 1950s. During this time, the city was the site of several race riots, including one in 1955 following the murder of Emmett Till, the 1966 Dayton race riot, two in 1967 (following a speech by civil rights activist H. Rap Brown and another following the police killing of an African American man), and one in 1968 as part of the nationwide King assassination riots. Since the 1980s, however, Dayton's population has declined, mainly due to the loss of manufacturing jobs and decentralization of metropolitan areas, as well as the national housing crisis that began in 2008. While much of the state has suffered for similar reasons, the impact on Dayton has been greater than most. Dayton had the third-greatest percentage loss of population in the state since the 1980s, behind Cleveland and Youngstown. ===Peace accords=== In 1995, the Dayton Agreement, a peace accord between the parties to the hostilities of the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the former Yugoslavia, was negotiated at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Fairborn, Ohio, from November 1 to 21. The agreement formally ended the conflict in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on December 14, 1995. Richard Holbrooke wrote about these events in his memoirs: There was also a real Dayton out there, a charming Ohio city, famous as the birthplace of the Wright brothers. Its citizens energized us from the outset. Unlike the population of, say, New York City, Geneva or Washington, which would scarcely notice another conference, Daytonians were proud to be part of history. Large signs at the commercial airport hailed Dayton as the "temporary center of international peace." The local newspapers and television stations covered the story from every angle, drawing the people deeper into the proceedings. When we ventured into a restaurant or a shopping center downtown, people crowded around, saying that they were praying for us. Warren Christopher was given at least one standing ovation in a restaurant. Families on the airbase placed "candles of peace" in their front windows, and people gathered in peace vigils outside the base. One day they formed a "peace chain," although it was not large enough to surround the sprawling eight-thousand-acre base. Ohio's famous ethnic diversity was on display. ===2000s initiatives=== Downtown expansion that began in the 2000s has helped revitalize the city and encourage growth. Day Air Ballpark, home of the Dayton Dragons, was built in 2000. The highly successful minor league baseball team has been an integral part of Dayton's culture. In 2001, the city's public park system, Five Rivers MetroParks, built RiverScape MetroPark, an outdoor entertainment venue that attracts more than 400,000 visitors each year. A new performance arts theater, the Schuster Center, opened in 2003. A large health network in the region, Premier Health Partners, expanded its Miami Valley Hospital with a 12-story tower addition. In 2010, the Downtown Dayton Partnership, in cooperation with the City of Dayton and community leaders, introduced the Greater Downtown Dayton Plan. It focuses on job creation and retention, infrastructure improvements, housing, recreation, and collaboration. The plan is to be implemented through the year 2020. ===Nicknames=== Dayton is known as the "Gem City". The nickname's origin is uncertain, but several theories exist. In the early 19th century, a well-known racehorse named Gem hailed from Dayton. In 1845, an article published in the Cincinnati Daily Chronicle by an author known as T stated: In the late 1840s, Major William D. Bickham of the Dayton Journal began a campaign to nickname Dayton the "Gem City." The name was adopted by the city's Board of Trade several years later. Dayton also plays a role in a nickname given to the state of Ohio, "Birthplace of Aviation." Dayton is the hometown of the Wright brothers, aviation pioneers who are credited with inventing and building the first practical airplane in history. After their first manned flights in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, which they had chosen due to its ideal weather and climate conditions, the Wrights returned to Dayton and continued testing at nearby Huffman Prairie. Additionally, Dayton is colloquially referred to as "Little Detroit". This nickname comes from Dayton's prominence as a Midwestern manufacturing center. ==Geography== According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. ===Climate=== Dayton's climate features warm, muggy summers and cold, dry winters, and is classified as a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa). Unless otherwise noted, all normal figures quoted within the text below are from the official climatology station, Dayton International Airport, at an elevation of about to the north of downtown Dayton, which lies within the valley of the Miami River; thus temperatures there are typically cooler than in downtown. At the airport, monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July. The highest temperature ever recorded in Dayton was on July 22, 1901, and the coldest was on February 13 during the Great Blizzard of 1899. On average, there are 14 days of + highs and 4.5 nights of sub- lows annually. Snow is moderate, with a normal seasonal accumulation of ,{{efn|This is far less than the snowbelt regions of northeast Ohio due to distance from the Great Lakes and slightly less than the generally warmer Columbus. Several streets were closed, including portions of I-75 and North Dixie Drive in Northridge. 64,000 residents lost power and much of the region's water supply was cut off. ===Ecology=== The Dayton Audubon Society is the National Audubon Society's local chapter. The Dayton chapter manages local activities contributing to the annual, hemisphere-wide Christmas Bird Count. The Chapter began participation in the National Count in 1924. The local Count was initially coordinated by Ben Blincoe, who was succeeded by Jim Hill in 1970. In the mid-1960s, the freezing of Lake Erie and associated marshlands led species of waterfowl to appear in the Dayton-area, where surface waters remained unfrozen. Nine varieties of birds have been observed every year in the Dayton area: downy woodpecker, Carolina chickadee, tufted titmouse, brown creeper, northern cardinal, dark-eyed junco, American tree sparrow, song sparrow and American crow. === Cityscape === ==== Architecture ==== Unlike many Midwestern cities its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two or three full lanes in each direction) that improved access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning; streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. Also, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths. A courthouse building was built in downtown Dayton in 1888 to supplement Dayton's original Neoclassical courthouse, which still stands. This second, "new" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park. The Old Court House has been a favored political campaign stop. On September 17, 1859, Abraham Lincoln delivered an address on its steps. Eight other presidents have visited the courthouse, either as presidents or during presidential campaigns: Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. The Dayton Arcade, which opened on March 3, 1904, was built in the hopes of replacing open-air markets throughout the city. Throughout the decades, the Arcade has gone through many transformations but has retained its charm. Some of its main features include a Flemish facade at the Third Street entrance, a glass dome above the Arcade rotunda, and a chateau roof line above the Third Street facade. The Dayton Arcade is currently under renovations with no official completion date set. In 2009, the CareSource Management Group finished construction of a $55 million corporate headquarters in downtown Dayton. The , 10-story building was downtown's first new office tower in more than a decade. Dayton's two tallest buildings are the Kettering Tower at and the KeyBank Tower at . Kettering Tower was originally Winters Tower, the headquarters of Winters Bank. The building was renamed after Virginia Kettering when Winters was merged into Bank One. KeyBank Tower was known as the MeadWestvaco Tower before KeyBank gained naming rights to the building in 2008. Ted Rall said in 2015 that over the last five decades Dayton has been demolishing some of its architecturally significant buildings to reduce the city's rental vacancy rate and thus increase the occupancy rate. ==== Neighborhoods ==== Dayton's ten historic neighborhoods—Oregon District, Wright Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Kenilworth, St. Anne's Hill, and South Park—feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, Jacobethan, Tudor Revival, English Gothic, Chateauesque, Craftsman, Queen Anne, Georgian Revival, Colonial Revival, Renaissance Revival Architecture, Shingle Style Architecture, Prairie, Mission Revival, Eastlake/Italianate, American Foursquare, and Federal styles. Downtown Dayton is also a large area that encompasses several neighborhoods itself and has seen a recent uplift and revival. ==== Suburbs ==== Dayton's suburbs with a population of 10,000 or more include Beavercreek, Centerville, Clayton, Englewood, Fairborn, Harrison Township, Huber Heights, Kettering, Miami Township, Miamisburg, Oakwood, Riverside, Springboro, Trotwood, Vandalia, Washington Township, West Carrollton, and Xenia. In the federal government's National Urban Policy and New Community Development Act of 1970, funding was provided for thirteen "new towns" or planned cities throughout the country. One location was set to become a suburb of Dayton and was known variously as Brookwood or Newfields. The goal was to have an entirely new suburb that would eventually house about 35,000 residents. The new town was to be located between Trotwood and Brookville, and modeled on the ideas of Ian McHarg. The project was abandoned in 1978 and most of the land became Sycamore State Park. == Demographics == {{US Census population |1810= 383 |1820= 1000 |1830= 2950 |1840= 6067 |1850= 10977 |1860= 20081 |1870= 30473 |1880= 38678 |1890= 61220 |1900= 85333 |1910= 116577 |1920= 152559 |1930= 200982 |1940= 210718 |1950= 243872 |1960= 262332 |1970= 243601 |1980= 193536 |1990= 182044 |2000= 166179 |2010= 141759 |2020= 137644 |estyear= 2023 |estimate= 135512 |estref= The city's most populous ethnic group, white, declined from 78.1% in 1960 to 51.7% by 2010. ===2020 census=== As of the census of 2020, there were 137,644 people living in the city, for a population density of 2,466.47 people per square mile (952.31/km2). There were 68,899 housing units. The racial makeup of the city (including Hispanics in the racial counts) was 47.6% White, 40.7% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.3% from some other race, and 6.6% from two or more races. Separately, 5.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 63,308 households, out of which 22.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.5% were married couples living together, 30.9% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 38.2% had a female householder with no spouse present. 47.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.95, and the average family size was 2.83. there were 141,759 people, 58,404 households, and 31,064 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 74,065 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 51.7% White, 42.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 1.3% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 3.0% of the population. There were 58,404 households, of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.9% were married couples living together, 21.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.8% were non-families. 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 3.03. The median age in the city was 34.4 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64, and 11.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.7% male and 51.3% female. === Crime === Dayton's crime declined between 2003 and 2008 in key categories according to FBI Uniform Crime Reports and Dayton Police Department data. In 2009, crime continued to fall in the city of Dayton. Crime in the categories of forcible rape, aggravated assault, property crime, motor vehicle theft, robbery, burglary, theft and arson all showed declines for 2009. Overall, crime in Dayton dropped 40% over the previous year. The Dayton Police Department reported a total of 39 murders in 2016, which marked a 39.3% increase in homicides from 2015. John Dillinger, a bank robber during the early 1930s, was captured and arrested by Dayton city police while visiting his girlfriend at a high-class boarding house in downtown Dayton. On August 4, 2019, a mass shooting took place in Dayton. Ten people were killed, including the perpetrator, and twenty-seven were injured. ==Economy== Dayton's economy is relatively diversified and vital to the overall economy of the state of Ohio. In 2008 and 2009, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the #1 medium-sized metropolitan area in the U.S. for economic development. Dayton is also among the top 100 metropolitan areas in both exports and export-related jobs, ranked 16 and 14 respectively by the Brookings Institution. The 2010 report placed the value of exports at $4.7 billion and the number of export-related jobs at 44,133. The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area ranks 4th in Ohio's Gross Domestic Product with a 2008 industry total of $33.78 billion. Additionally, Dayton ranks third among 11 major metropolitan areas in Ohio for exports to foreign countries. The Dayton Development Coalition is attempting to leverage the region's large water capacity, estimated to be 1.5 trillion gallons of renewable water aquifers, to attract new businesses. Moody's Investment Services revised Dayton's bond rating from A1 to the stronger rating of Aa2 as part of its global recalibration process. Standard & Poor's upgraded Dayton's rating from A+ to AA− in the summer of 2009. Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Dayton in 2010 as one of the best places in the U.S. for college graduates looking for a job. Companies such as Reynolds and Reynolds, Stratacache, CareSource, DP&L (soon AES inc), LexisNexis, Kettering Health Network, Premier Health Partners, and Standard Register have their headquarters in Dayton. It is also the former home of the Speedwell Motor Car Company, MeadWestvaco (formerly known as the Mead Paper Company), and NCR. NCR was headquartered in Dayton for over 125 years and was a major innovator in computer technology. ===Research and development=== The Dayton region gave birth to aviation and is known for its high concentration of aerospace and aviation technology. In 2009, Governor Ted Strickland designated Dayton as Ohio's aerospace innovation hub, the state's first such technology hub. Two major United States research and development organizations have leveraged Dayton's historical leadership in aviation and maintain their headquarters in the area: The National Air and Space Intelligence Center (NASIC) and the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). Both have their headquarters at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. Several research organizations support NASIC, AFRL, and the Dayton community. The Advanced Technical Intelligence Center is a confederation of government, academic, and industry partners. The University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI) is led by the University of Dayton. The Cognitive Technologies Division (CTD) of Applied Research Associates, Inc., which carries out human-centered research and design, is headquartered in the Dayton suburb of Fairborn. The city of Dayton has started Tech Town, a development project to attract technology-based firms and revitalize the downtown area. Tech Town is home to the world's first RFID business incubator. The University of Dayton–led Institute for Development & Commercialization of Sensor Technologies (IDCAST) at TechTown is a center for remote sensing and sensing technology. It is one of Dayton's technology business incubators housed in The Entrepreneurs Center building. ===Healthcare=== The Kettering Health Network and Premier Health Partners have a major role on the Dayton area's economy. Hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. The most notable hospitals are Miami Valley Hospital and Kettering Medical Center. The Dayton region has several key institutes and centers for health care. The Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton focuses on the science and development of human tissue regeneration. The National Center for Medical Readiness (NCMR) is also in the Dayton area. The center includes Calamityville, which is a disaster training facility. Over five years, Calamityville is estimated to have a regional economic impact of $374 million. Also, the Neurological Institute at Miami Valley Hospital is an institute focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and research of neurological disorders. ===Top employers=== According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city proper are: ==Arts and culture== ===Fine arts=== The Dayton Region ranked within the top 10% in the nation in arts and culture. In a 2012 readers' poll by American Style magazine, Dayton ranked #2 in the country among mid-size cities as an arts destination, ranking higher than larger cities such as Atlanta, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. Dayton is the home of the Dayton Art Institute. The Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center in downtown Dayton is a world-class performing arts center and the home venue of the Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra, Dayton Opera, and the Dayton Ballet. In addition to philharmonic and opera performances, the Schuster Center hosts concerts, lectures, and traveling Broadway shows, and is a popular spot for weddings and other events. The historic Victoria Theatre in downtown Dayton hosts concerts, traveling Broadway shows, ballet, a summertime classic film series, and more. The Loft Theatre, also downtown, is the home of the Human Race Theatre Company. The Dayton Playhouse, in West Dayton, is the site of numerous plays and theatrical productions. Between 1957 and 1995, the Kenley Players presented live theater productions in Dayton. In 2013, John Kenley was inducted into the Dayton Theatre Hall of Fame. Dayton is also home to the Winter Guard International world finals, hosting finals for winter guard, indoor percussion, and indoor winds. Dayton is the home to several ballet companies including: The Dayton Ballet, one of the oldest professional dance companies in the United States. The Dayton Ballet runs the Dayton Ballet School, the oldest dance school in Dayton and one of the oldest in the country. It is the only ballet school in the Miami Valley associated with a professional dance company. The Dayton Contemporary Dance Company (established in 1968), which hosts the largest repertory of African-American-based contemporary dance in the world. The company travels nationally and internationally and has been recognized by critics worldwide. Front Street, the largest artists' collective in Dayton, is housed in three industrial buildings on East Second Street. ===Entertainment=== The Vectren Dayton Air Show is an annual air show that takes place at the Dayton International Airport. The Vectren Dayton Airshow is one of the largest air shows in the United States. The Dayton area is served by Five Rivers MetroParks, encompassing over 23 facilities for year-round recreation, education, and conservation. In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, the MetroParks maintains over of paved, multi-use scenic trails that connect Montgomery County with Greene, Miami, Warren, and Butler counties. Dayton was home to a thriving funk music scene from the 1970s to the early 1980s, that included bands such as Ohio Players, Roger Troutman & Zapp, Lakeside, Sun, Dayton, Heatwave, and Slave. Dayton was also the birthplace to several influential indie and punk bands such as The Breeders, Guided by Voices, and Brainiac. From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the National Folk Festival. Since then, the annual Cityfolk Festival has continued to bring folk, ethnic, and world music and arts to Dayton. The Five Rivers MetroParks also owns and operates the PNC Second Street Market near downtown Dayton. The Dayton area hosts several arenas and venues. South of Dayton in Kettering is the Fraze Pavilion, whose notable performances have included the Backstreet Boys, Boston, and Steve Miller Band. South of downtown, on the banks of the Great Miami River, is the University of Dayton Arena, home venue for the University of Dayton Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts. It also hosts the Winter Guard International championships, at which hundreds of percussion and color guard ensembles from around the world compete. In addition, the Dayton Amateur Radio Association hosts the annual Dayton Hamvention, North America's largest hamfest, at the Greene County Fairgrounds in nearby Xenia. The Nutter Center, which is just east of Dayton in the suburb of Fairborn, is the home arena for athletics of Wright State University and the former Dayton Bombers hockey team. This venue is used for many concerts, community events, and various national traveling shows and performances. The Oregon District is a historic residential and commercial district in southeast downtown Dayton. The district is populated with art galleries, specialty shops, pubs, nightclubs, and coffee houses. The city of Dayton is also host to yearly festivals, such as the Dayton Celtic Festival, the Dayton Blues Festival, Dayton Music Fest, Urban Nights, Women in Jazz, the African American and Cultural Festival, the Dayton Reggae Fest, and the Dayton Hispanic Heritage Festival. ===Cuisine=== The city's fine dining restaurants include The Pine Club, a nationally known steakhouse. Dayton is home to a variety of pizza chains that have become woven into local culture, the most notable of which are Cassano's and Marion's Piazza, both of which produce Dayton-style pizza, which has a thin, crisp, salty crust dusted on the bottom with cornmeal and topped with a thin layer of thick unsweetened sauce. Cheese and other topping ingredients are heavily distributed and spread edge-to-edge with no outer rim of crust, and the finished pizza is cut into bite-size squares. Notable Dayton-based restaurant chains include Hot Head Burritos. In addition to restaurants, the city is also home to Esther Price Candies, a candy and chocolate company, and Mike-sells, the oldest potato chip company in the United States. The city began developing a reputation for its number of breweries and craft beer venues by the late 2010s. ===Religion=== Many major religions are represented in Dayton. Christianity is represented in Dayton by dozens of denominations and their respective churches. Notable Dayton churches include the First Lutheran Church, Sacred Heart Church, and Ginghamsburg Church. Dayton's Muslim community is largely represented by the Islamic Society of Greater Dayton (ISGD), a Muslim community that includes a mosque on Josie Street. Dayton is also home to the United Theological Seminary, one of 13 seminaries affiliated with the United Methodist Church. Judaism is represented by Temple Israel. Hinduism is represented by the Hindu Temple of Dayton. Old North Dayton also has a number of Catholic churches built by immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Germany. ===Tourism=== Tourism also accounts for one out of every 14 private sector jobs in the county. Tourism in the Dayton region is led by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the largest and oldest military aviation museum in the world. The museum draws over 1.3 million visitors per year and is one of the most-visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum houses the National Aviation Hall of Fame. Other museums also play significant roles in the tourism and economy of the Dayton area. The Dayton Art Institute, a museum of fine arts, owns collections containing more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years of art and archaeological history. The Dayton Art Institute was rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for children. The Boonshoft Museum of Discovery is a children's museum of science with numerous exhibits, one of which includes an indoor zoo with nearly 100 different animals. There are also some notable historical museums in the region. The Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, operated by the National Park Service, commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar. The Wright brothers' famous Wright Flyer III aircraft is housed in a museum at Carillon Historical Park. Dayton is also home to America's Packard Museum, which contains many restored historical Packard vehicles. SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park, a partially reconstructed 12th-century prehistoric American Indian village, is on the south end of Dayton; it is organized around a central plaza dominated by wood posts forming an astronomical calendar. The park includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley. ==Parks and recreation== Dayton was named National Geographic's outdoor adventure capital of the Midwest in 2019 due in large part to the metropolitan area's revitalized Five Rivers MetroPark, extensive bicycle and jogging trail system, urban green spaces, lakes and camping areas. In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, Five Rivers MetroParks hosts 340 miles of paved trails, the largest network of paved off-street trails in the United States. In 2010, the city of Troy was named "bike friendly" by the League of American Bicyclists, which gave the city the organization's bronze designation. The honorable mention made Dayton one of two cities in Ohio to receive the award, the other being Columbus, and one of 15 cities nationwide. The Dayton Dragons 815 consecutive sellouts surpassed the NBA's Portland Trail Blazers for the longest sellout streak across all professional sports in the U.S. The University of Dayton and Wright State University both host NCAA basketball. The University of Dayton Arena has hosted more games in the NCAA men's basketball tournament over its history than any other venue. UD Arena is also the site of the First Round games of the NCAA Tournament. In 2012, eight teams competed for the final four spots in the NCAA basketball tournament. Wright State University's NCAA men's basketball is the Wright State Raiders and the University of Dayton's NCAA men's basketball team is the Dayton Flyers. The Dayton Gems were a minor league ice hockey team in the International Hockey League from 1964 to 1977, 1979 to 1980, and most recently 2009 to 2012. The Dayton Bombers were an ECHL ice hockey team from 1991 to 2009. They most recently played the North Division of the ECHL's American Conference. In June 2009, it was announced the Bombers would turn in their membership back to the league. Despite the folding of the Bombers, hockey remained in Dayton as the Dayton Gems of the International Hockey League were formed in the fall of 2009 at Hara Arena. The Gems folded after the 2011–12 season. Shortly after the Gems folded, it was announced a new team, the Dayton Demonz, would begin play in 2012 in the Federal Hockey League (FHL). The Demonz folded in 2015 and were immediately replaced by the Dayton Demolition, also in the FHL. However, the Demolition would cease operations after only one season when Hara Arena decided to close due to financial difficulties. Dayton hosted the first American Professional Football Association game (precursor to the NFL). The game was played at Triangle Park between the Dayton Triangles and the Columbus Panhandles on October 3, 1920, and is considered one of the first professional football games ever played. Football teams in the Dayton area include the Dayton Flyers and the Dayton Sharks. The Dayton region is also known for the many golf courses and clubs that it hosts. The Miami Valley Golf Club, Moraine Country Club, NCR Country Club, and the Pipestone Golf Course are some of the more notable courses. Also, several PGA Championships have been held at area golf courses. The Miami Valley Golf Club hosted the 1957 PGA Championship, the Moraine Country Club hosted the 1945 PGA Championship, and the NCR Country club hosted the 1969 PGA Championship. Additionally, NCR CC hosted the 1986 U.S. Women's Open, the 2005 U.S. Senior Open, the 2013 State Team Championships and most recently the 2022 Senior Women's Open. Other notable courses include the Yankee Trace Golf Club, the Beavercreek Golf Club, Dayton Meadowbrook Country Club, Sycamore Creek Country Club, Heatherwoode Golf Club, Community Golf Course, and Kitty Hawk Golf Course. The city of Dayton is the home to the Dayton Area Rugby Club which hosts their home games at the Dayton Rugby Grounds. As of 2018, the club fields two men's and one women's side for Rugby Union and several Rugby Sevens sides. The club also hosts the annual Gem City 7's tournament. ==Government== The Dayton City Commission is composed of the mayor and four city commissioners. Each city commission member is elected at-large on a non-partisan basis for four-year, overlapping terms. All policy items are decided by the city commission, which is empowered by the City Charter to pass ordinances and resolutions, adopt regulations, and appoint the city manager. The city manager is responsible for budgeting and implementing policies and initiatives. Dayton was the first large American city to adopt the city manager (Henry Matson Waite) form of municipal government, in 1913. ==Education== ===Public schools=== Dayton Public Schools operates 34 schools that serve 16,855 students, including: Belmont High Meadowdale High Paul Laurence Dunbar High Ponitz Career Technology Center Stivers School for the Arts Thurgood Marshall High ===Private schools=== The city of Dayton has more than 35 private schools within the city, including: Archbishop Alter High School Carroll High School Chaminade Julienne Catholic High School Dayton Christian School Dominion Academy of Dayton The Miami Valley School Spring Valley Academy ===Charter schools=== Dayton has 33 charter schools. Three of the top five charter schools named in 2011 are K–8 schools managed by National Heritage Academies. Notable charter schools include: Dayton Early College Academy Emerson Academy North Dayton School of Discovery Pathway School of Discovery Richard Allen Schools ===Colleges and universities=== The Dayton area was ranked tenth for higher education among metropolitan areas in the United States by Forbes in 2009. The city is home to two major universities. The University of Dayton is a private, Catholic institution founded in 1850 by the Marianist order. It has the only American Bar Association (ABA)-approved law school in the Dayton area. The University of Dayton is Ohio's largest private university and is also home to the University of Dayton Research Institute, which ranks third in the nation for sponsored materials research, and the Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton, which focuses on human tissue regeneration. The public Wright State University became a state university in 1967. Wright State University established the National Center for Medical Readiness, a national training program for disaster preparedness and relief. Wright State's Boonshoft School of Medicine is the Dayton area's only medical school and is a leader in biomedical research. Dayton is also home to Sinclair Community College, the largest community college at a single location in Ohio and one of the nation's largest community colleges. Sinclair is acclaimed as one of the country's best community colleges. Sinclair was founded as the YMCA college in 1887. Other schools just outside Dayton that shape the educational landscape are Antioch College and Antioch University, both in Yellow Springs, Central State University in Wilberforce, Kettering College of Medical Arts and School of Advertising Art in Kettering, DeVry University in Beavercreek, Cedarville University, Clark State Community College and Wittenberg University in Springfield. The Air Force Institute of Technology, which was founded in 1919 and serves as a graduate school for the United States Air Force, is at the nearby Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. ===Institutions=== Boonshoft School of Medicine Dayton Art Institute Ohio Institute of Photography and Technology School of Advertising Art Wright State University ==Media== ===Print=== Dayton is served in print by The Dayton Daily News, the city's sole remaining daily newspaper. The Dayton Daily News is owned by Cox Enterprises. The Dayton region's main business newspaper is the Dayton Business Journal. The Dayton City Paper, a community paper focused on music, art, and independent thought ceased operation in 2018. The Dayton Weekly News has been published since 1993, providing news and information to Dayton's African-American community. There are numerous magazines produced in and for the Dayton region. The Dayton Magazine provides insight into arts, food, and events. Focus on Business is published by the Chamber of Commerce to provide awareness of companies and initiatives affecting the regional economy ===Television=== Nielsen Media Research ranked the 11-county Dayton television market as the No. 62 market in the United States. The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including: WDTN, channel 2 – NBC, operated by Nexstar Media Group; WHIO-TV, channel 7 – CBS, operated by Cox Media Group; WPTD, channel 16 – PBS, operated by ThinkTV, which also operates WPTO, assigned to Oxford; WKEF, channel 22 – ABC/Fox, operated by Sinclair Broadcasting; WBDT, channel 26 – The CW, operated by Vaughan Media (a shell corporation of Nexstar), assigned to Springfield; WKOI-TV, channel 43 – Ion Television, assigned to Richmond, Indiana; and WRGT-TV, channel 45 – My Network TV, operated under a local marketing agreement by Sinclair Broadcasting. The nationally syndicated morning talk show The Daily Buzz originated from WBDT, the former ACME Communications property in Miamisburg, before moving to its current home in Florida. ===Radio=== Dayton is also served by 42 AM and FM radio stations directly, and numerous other stations are heard from elsewhere in southwest Ohio, which serve outlying suburbs and adjoining counties. ==Transportation== ===Public transit=== The Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority (RTA) operates public bus routes in the Dayton metro area. In addition to routes covered by traditional diesel-powered buses, RTA has several electric trolley bus routes. The Dayton trolleybus system is the second longest-running of the four remaining trolleybus systems in the U.S., having entered service in 1933. It is the present manifestation of an electric transit service that has operated continuously in Dayton since 1888. Dayton operates a Greyhound Station which provides inter-city bus transportation to and from Dayton. The hub is in the Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority North-West hub in Trotwood. ===Airports=== Dayton International Airport lies in a northern exclave of the city and offers service to 21 markets through 10 airlines. In 2008, it served 2.9 million passengers. The Dayton International Airport is also a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, United States Postal Service, and major commercial freight carriers. The Dayton area also has several regional airports. The Dayton–Wright Brothers Airport is a general aviation airport owned by the City of Dayton south of the central business district of Dayton on Springboro Pike in Miami Township. It serves as the reliever airport for Dayton International Airport. The airport primarily serves corporate and personal aircraft users. The Dahio Trotwood Airport, also known as Dayton-New Lebanon Airport, is a privately owned, public-use airport west of the central business district of Dayton. The Moraine Airpark is a privately owned, public-use airport southwest of the city of Dayton. ===Major highways=== The Dayton region is primarily served by three interstates: Interstate 75 runs north to south through the city of Dayton and many of Dayton's north and south suburbs, including Kettering and Centerville south of Dayton and Vandalia, Tipp City, and Troy north of Dayton. Interstate 70 is a major east–west interstate that runs through many of Dayton's east and west suburbs, including Huber Heights, Butler Township, Englewood, and Brookville, and intersects with I-75 in Vandalia, Ohio, just north of the city. This intersection of I-70 and I-75 is also known as "Freedom Veterans Crossroads", which was officially named by the U.S. Department of Transportation in 2004. I-70 is the major route to the airport. Interstate 675 is a partial interstate ring on the southeastern and eastern suburbs of Dayton. It runs northeast to south and connects to I-70 to the northeast and I-75 to the south. Other major routes for the region include: US 35 is a major limited access east–west highway that bisects the city. It is most widely used between Drexel and Xenia. Route 40 is a major east–west highway that runs parallel to (and 2 miles north of) I-70 State Route 4 is a freeway that is most heavily traveled between I-75 and I-70. State Route 444 is north–south state highway. Its southern terminus is at its interchange with Route 4, and its northern terminus is at Interstate 675. This limited-access road serves Dayton and Fairborn and is a significant route to access points serving Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. From 2010 through 2017, the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) performed a $533 million construction project to modify, reconstruct and widen I-75 through downtown Dayton, from Edwin C Moses Blvd. to Stanley Avenue. ===Rail=== Dayton hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals. Two Class I railroads, CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway, operate switching yards in the city. Formerly the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, New York Central Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad, and afterward, Amtrak made long-distance passenger train stops at Dayton Union Station on S. Sixth Street. The last train leaving there was the National Limited in October 1979. ==Sister cities== Dayton's sister cities are: Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Augsburg, Germany Holon, Israel Monrovia, Liberia Ōiso, Japan Rushmoor, England ==Notable people==
[ "Thomas J. Frericks Center", "Huffman Field", "Kettering, Ohio", "Kettering Tower", "Ohio Players", "Stratacache", "private university", "Standard & Poor's", "Interstate 75", "Washington, D.C.", "United States Air Force", "U.S. Department of Transportation", "Rugby union", "Monrovia", "Cincinnati", "Midwestern United States", "Sinclair Broadcasting", "MeadWestvaco", "Wittenberg University", "Andrew Johnson", "List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas", "Columbus, Ohio", "Slave (band)", "Indigenous people of the Americas", "dance company", "New York Central Railroad", "police killing", "International Hockey League (2007-)", "Great Lakes", "Moraine Airpark", "Holon", "Federal architecture", "Dayton Union Station", "northeast Ohio", "cornmeal", "Dayton Flyers", "Geneva", "inventor", "Dunbar High School (Ohio)", "National Audubon Society", "Hindu Temple of Dayton", "WKEF", "Pipestone Golf Course", "NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship", "Nischwitz Stadium", "Carroll High School (Dayton, Ohio)", "Newcom Tavern", "List of people from Dayton, Ohio", "Dayton Ballet School", "Ted Rall", "Woerner Field", "NCAA Division I", "RFID", "West Carrollton, Ohio", "pirogue", "Wilberforce, Ohio", "Liberia", "Chaminade Julienne Catholic High School", "Dayton metropolitan area", "Washington Township, Montgomery County, Ohio", "Pacific Islander Americans", "Wright-Patterson Air Force Base", "USL League Two", "American Broadcasting Company", "Uniform Crime Reports", "Neoclassical architecture", "Cox Media Group", "shell corporation", "bank robber", "Brookings Institution", "Day Air Ballpark", "Wright brothers", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Sports Illustrated", "Division (sport)", "Nutter Center", "WRGT-TV", "Prairie School", "minor league baseball", "Ponitz Career Technology Center", "metropolitan area", "reliever airport", "ZIP Code", "Kettering Health Network", "Portland Trail Blazers", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration", "National Cash Register", "Manhattan Project", "NOAA", "Hara Arena", "charter school", "Pennsylvania Railroad", "Sinclair Community College", "Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority", "Federal Hockey League", "Dayton Project", "John Kenley", "Dayton Business Journal", "Air Force Research Laboratory", "Sun (R&B band)", "Cincinnati Enquirer", "song sparrow", "National Center for Medical Readiness", "Jonathan Dayton", "Dayton Ballet", "Dayton Dragons", "James Garfield", "pizzeria", "McCook Field", "Clark State Community College", "nightclubs", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "2019 Dayton shooting", "northern cardinal", "East Coast Hockey League", "Ion Television", "Native Americans in the United States", "Dayton Sharks", "Ginghamsburg Church", "United States Constitution", "List of planned cities", "city proper", "United States Australian Football League", "biomedical research", "Sacred Heart Church (Dayton, Ohio)", "Henry Matson Waite (engineer)", "John F. Kennedy", "festivals", "AM broadcasting", "tufted titmouse", "Guided by Voices", "Winter Guard International", "Fairborn, Ohio", "List of counties in Ohio", "1945 PGA Championship", "Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center", "South Park Historic District (Dayton, Ohio)", "Antioch University", "Roman Catholic Church", "arts", "Speedwell Motor Car Company", "Ohio Institute of Photography and Technology", "Yellow Springs, Ohio", "hydraulic engineering", "Delco Electronics", "Dayton Demonz", "Richard Holbrooke", "UPS Airlines", "Vectren Dayton Air Show", "Enigma machine", "National Air and Space Intelligence Center", "The Pine Club", "county seat", "North Dayton School of Discovery", "U.S. News & World Report", "Wright-Dunbar, Dayton, Ohio", "University of Dayton Arena", "Mead Paper Company", "Roger Troutman", "Westminster Presbyterian Church (Dayton)", "Vandalia, Ohio", "Geographic Names Information System", "Sister city", "Midwest League", "Class I railroads", "Miami Valley Hospital", "Israel", "service economy", "Zapp (band)", "Ted Strickland", "Sarajevo", "Richmond, Indiana", "coffee houses", "hamfest", "United States housing bubble", "WDTN", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Ōiso", "Wright State Raiders", "WBDT", "Kettering Medical Center", "Ian McHarg", "Beavercreek, Ohio", "Moraine Country Club", "Women's Flat Track Derby Association", "Yugoslav wars", "WHIO-TV", "2020 United States census", "Miami Conservancy District", "Microsoft", "Webster Station, Dayton, Ohio", "brown creeper", "Air Force Institute of Technology", "Dayton Convention Center", "Greyhound Lines", "Vaughan Media", "healthcare", "U.S. Route 40", "Muslim", "Wright State University", "Dayton Gems (2009–)", "Dayton Demolition", "Ohio", "Eastern Daylight Time", "Daniel C. Cooper", "Centerville, Ohio", "Bombes", "Area codes 937 and 326", "Dayton Area Rugby Club", "United States Postal Service", "Tornado outbreak sequence of May 2019", "Wright Flyer III", "American crow", "Jeffrey J. Mims Jr.", "Multiracial Americans", "Dayton Triangles", "Augsburg", "Dayton Bombers", "CareSource", "funk", "North American Numbering Plan", "Huber Heights, Ohio", "Packard", "FedEx Express", "Trolleybus", "Oakwood, Montgomery County, Ohio", "Miami Valley", "Lakeside (band)", "Rugby sevens", "USS Dayton", "2019 Dayton tornado", "Old North Dayton, Dayton, Ohio", "National Limited (Amtrak)", "LexisNexis", "American Revolutionary War", "Virginia Kettering", "Standard Register", "List of mayors of Dayton, Ohio", "Carolina chickadee", "Premier Health Partners", "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans", "Indoor percussion ensemble", "Miami Valley Golf Club", "Antioch College", "Paul Laurence Dunbar", "Dayton-style pizza", "Boston (band)", "Oregon District, Dayton, Ohio", "KeyBank", "Cedarville University", "Troy, Ohio", "List of cities in Ohio", "Ronald Reagan", "Georgian Revival architecture", "University of Dayton Research Institute", "Gerald Ford", "American Foursquare", "Dayton Performing Arts Alliance", "Dayton Daily News", "Hot Head Burritos", "National Football League", "NBC", "Japan", "Gem City Roller Derby", "King assassination riots", "University of Dayton", "Dayton Veterans Affairs Medical Center", "PNC Second Street Market", "The Daily Buzz", "Hospital", "Richard Nixon", "Meadowdale High School (Ohio)", "logistics", "CBS", "Köppen climate classification", "Amtrak", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "KeyBank Tower", "Dayton Public Schools, Montgomery County, Ohio", "List of protected areas of Ohio", "community paper", "NCR Corporation", "Boonshoft Museum of Discovery", "Spring Valley Academy", "United Methodist Church", "WPTD", "Nielsen Media Research", "Eastern Standard Time Zone", "H. Rap Brown", "Boonshoft School of Medicine", "City", "Oregon District", "airplane", "WKOI-TV", "1966 Dayton race riot", "Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra", "polonium", "Dayton Contemporary Dance Company", "canal", "The Journal Herald", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "Dayton Outpatient Center Stadium", "Huffman, Dayton, Ohio", "children's museum", "Public Broadcasting Service", "Springboro, Ohio", "Archbishop Alter High School", "Interstate 70", "Interstate 675 (Ohio)", "U.S. state", "The CW", "limited-access road", "Grafton Hill, Dayton, Ohio", "Race and ethnicity in the United States census", "My Network TV", "McPherson Town, Dayton, Ohio", "St. Anne's Hill, Dayton, Ohio", "Downtown Dayton", "School of Advertising Art", "U.S. Patent Office", "John Dillinger", "Dayton Agreement", "Tech Town (Dayton)", "Dayton Opera", "Belmont High School (Ohio)", "Arthur Ernest Morgan", "Heatwave (band)", "England", "Mission Revival Style architecture", "Forbes", "Dayton (band)", "Backstreet Boys", "Mike-sells", "Emerson Academy", "community college", "Queen Anne style architecture in the United States", "Dayton Public Schools", "Dayton Hamvention", "Englewood, Ohio", "1957 PGA Championship", "Dayton Air Show", "Union (American Civil War)", "Richard Allen Schools", "humid continental climate", "Charles F. Kettering", "dark-eyed junco", "Miami Township, Montgomery County, Ohio", "Arts and Crafts movement", "Harrison Township, Montgomery County, Ohio", "Schuster Center", "Great Dayton Flood", "zoo", "Bicycle-friendly", "NCR Voyix", "James Ritty", "media market", "Tornado", "US Navy Bombe", "Warren Christopher", "rental vacancy rate", "Pathway School of Discovery", "Ohio State Route 741", "Welcome Stadium", "US 35", "Five Rivers MetroParks", "American Bar Association", "John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)", "state highway", "List of United States urban areas", "American tree sparrow", "Kenilworth District, Dayton, Ohio", "Springfield, Ohio", "Reynolds and Reynolds", "Bank One", "Victoria Theatre (Dayton, Ohio)", "Dominion Academy of Dayton", "International Hockey League (1945–2001)", "Ohio State Route 4", "Fraze Pavilion", "Alaska Native", "craft beer", "ice hockey", "CSX", "Trolleybuses in Dayton", "Plain Dealer", "Alan Turing", "pubs", "winter guard", "Dayton Dutch Lions", "Kitty Hawk, North Carolina", "NCR Country Club", "Gothic Revival architecture", "Columbus Panhandles", "business incubator", "aerospace", "DeVry University", "research and development", "Dayton View, Dayton, Ohio", "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Dayton Children's Hospital", "Abraham Lincoln", "National Urban Policy and New Community Development Act of 1970", "art galleries", "League of American Bicyclists", "Alumni Field (Wright State)", "Emmett Till", "FM broadcasting", "Minor League Baseball", "racehorse", "Islamic Society of Greater Dayton", "Riverside, Ohio", "The Breeders", "Cassano's", "Dayton International Airport", "Dayton Flyers men's basketball", "Dayton Christian School", "concert", "Langley Air Force Base", "downy woodpecker", "Christmas Bird Count", "Enhanced Fujita scale", "Great Blizzard of 1899", "ACME Communications", "Colonial Revival architecture", "Chateauesque", "Trotwood, Ohio", "Ervin J. Nutter Center", "Cincinnati Reds", "Federal Information Processing Standard", "National Folk Festival (USA)", "Dayton Early College Academy", "Montgomery County, Ohio", "Thurgood Marshall High School (Dayton, Ohio)", "National Aviation Hall of Fame", "Germany", "Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton", "Nexstar Media Group", "Italianate", "Wilbur Wright", "Cox Enterprises", "Drexel, Ohio", "Orville Wright", "Ohio State Route 444", "Bombe", "Dayton Art Institute", "Miamisburg, Ohio", "Clayton, Ohio", "Oxford, Ohio", "brewery", "Politics of Dayton, Ohio", "Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park", "air show", "Baltimore and Ohio Railroad", "patent", "Brainiac (band)", "cash register", "Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Kenley Players", "List of U.S. cities with large Black populations", "Huffman Prairie", "Society of Mary (Marianists)", "Site Selection", "National Museum of the United States Air Force", "Marion's Piazza", "Dahio Trotwood Airport", "dance school", "Advanced Technical Intelligence Center", "Great Miami River", "Stivers School for the Arts", "Dayton Arcade", "Xenia, Ohio", "America's Packard Museum", "philharmonic", "Carillon Historical Park", "astronautics", "World War II", "Rushmoor", "wedding", "specialty shops", "Ohio Department of Transportation", "NCAA", "Barstool Sports", "Marriage", "National Park Service", "Tudorbethan architecture", "Jacobethan", "Esther Price Candies", "WPTO", "United Theological Seminary", "poverty line", "The Miami Valley School", "First Lutheran Church (Dayton, Ohio)", "Temple Israel (Dayton, Ohio)", "Mad River Road", "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites", "American Community Survey", "Deeds Carillon", "The Dayton Daily News", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "National Heritage Academies", "Bill Clinton", "Dayton–Wright Brothers Airport", "Norfolk Southern Railway", "Interstate Highway System", "Judaism", "Midwest Rugby Football Union", "law school", "Asian Americans", "Steve Miller Band", "Diesel engine", "DPL Inc.", "aeronautics", "SunWatch Indian Village", "Central State University", "United States Census Bureau", "boarding house", "renewable", "1969 PGA Championship", "ThinkTV", "The Cincinnati Enquirer", "Kettering College of Medical Arts" ]
8,254
Diode
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance). It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. It has an exponential current–voltage characteristic. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of asymmetric electrical conduction across the contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconducting materials such as gallium arsenide and germanium are also used. The obsolete thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from the cathode to the plate. Among many uses, diodes are found in rectifiers to convert alternating current (AC) power to direct current (DC), demodulation in radio receivers, and can even be used for logic or as temperature sensors. A common variant of a diode is a light-emitting diode, which is used as electric lighting and status indicators on electronic devices. == Main functions == === Unidirectional current flow === The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Its hydraulic analogy is a check valve. This unidirectional behavior can convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. As rectifiers, diodes can be used for such tasks as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. === Threshold voltage === A diode's behavior is often simplified as having a forward threshold voltage or turn-on voltage or cut-in voltage, above which there is significant current and below which there is almost no current, which depends on a diode's composition: This voltage may loosely be referred to simply as the diode's forward voltage drop or just voltage drop, since a consequence of the steepness of the exponential is that a diode's voltage drop will not significantly exceed the threshold voltage under normal forward bias operating conditions. Datasheets typically quote a typical or maximum forward voltage (VF) for a specified current and temperature (e.g. 20 mA and 25 °C for LEDs), so the user has a guarantee about when a certain amount of current will kick in. At higher currents, the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. For instance, a drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for silicon power diodes. (See also: ) However, a semiconductor diode's exponential current–voltage characteristic is really more gradual than this simple on–off action. Although an exponential function may appear to have a definite "knee" around this threshold when viewed on a linear scale, the knee is an illusion that depends on the scale of y-axis representing current. In a semi-log plot (using a logarithmic scale for current and a linear scale for voltage), the diode's exponential curve instead appears more like a straight line. Since a diode's forward-voltage drop varies only a little with the current, and is more so a function of temperature, this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a somewhat imprecise voltage reference. === Reverse breakdown === A diode's high resistance to current flowing in the reverse direction suddenly drops to a low resistance when the reverse voltage across the diode reaches a value called the breakdown voltage. This effect is used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes) or to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes). === Other functions === A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture. Until the 1950s, vacuum diodes were used more frequently in radios because the early point-contact semiconductor diodes were less stable. In addition, most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for amplification that could easily have the thermionic diodes included in the tube (for example the 12SQ7 double diode triode), and vacuum-tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers were capable of handling some high-voltage/high-current rectification tasks better than the semiconductor diodes (such as selenium rectifiers) that were available at that time. In 1873, Frederick Guthrie observed that a grounded, white-hot metal ball brought in close proximity to an electroscope would discharge a positively charged electroscope, but not a negatively charged electroscope. In 1880, Thomas Edison observed unidirectional current between heated and unheated elements in a bulb, later called Edison effect, and was granted a patent on application of the phenomenon for use in a DC voltmeter. About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used as a radio detector. Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the Fleming valve, in Britain on 16 November 1904 (followed by in November 1905). Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used in almost all electronics such as radios, televisions, sound systems, and instrumentation. They slowly lost market share beginning in the late 1940s due to selenium rectifier technology and then to semiconductor diodes during the 1960s. Today they are still used in a few high power applications where their ability to withstand transient voltages and their robustness gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices, and in musical instrument and audiophile applications. In 1874, German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" across a contact between a metal and a mineral. Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894. The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and received a patent for it on 20 November 1906. Other experimenters tried a variety of other minerals as detectors. Semiconductor principles were unknown to the developers of these early rectifiers. During the 1930s understanding of physics advanced and in the mid-1930s researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized the potential of the crystal detector for application in microwave technology. Researchers at Bell Labs, Western Electric, MIT, Purdue and in the UK intensively developed point-contact diodes (crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes) during World War II for application in radar. During the early 1950s, junction diodes were developed. ==Etymology== At the time of their invention, asymmetrical conduction devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919, the year tetrodes were invented, William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from the Greek roots di (from δί), meaning 'two', and ode (from οδός), meaning 'path'. The word diode however was already in use, as were triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode, as terms of multiplex telegraphy. Although all diodes rectify, "rectifier" usually applies to diodes used for power supply, to differentiate them from diodes intended for small signal circuits. ==Vacuum tube diodes== A thermionic diode is a vacuum tube consisting of a sealed, evacuated glass or metal envelope containing two electrodes: a cathode and a plate. The cathode is either indirectly heated or directly heated. If indirect heating is employed, a heater is included in the envelope. In operation, the cathode is heated to red heat, around . A directly heated cathode is made of tungsten wire and is heated by a current passed through it from an external voltage source. An indirectly heated cathode is heated by infrared radiation from a nearby heater that is formed of Nichrome wire and supplied with current provided by an external voltage source. The operating temperature of the cathode causes it to release electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission. The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline earth metals, such as barium and strontium oxides. These have a low work function, meaning that they more readily emit electrons than would the uncoated cathode. The plate, not being heated, does not emit electrons; but is able to absorb them. The alternating voltage to be rectified is applied between the cathode and the plate. When the plate voltage is positive with respect to the cathode, the plate electrostatically attracts the electrons from the cathode, so a current of electrons flows through the tube from cathode to plate. When the plate voltage is negative with respect to the cathode, no electrons are emitted by the plate, so no current can pass from the plate to the cathode. ==Semiconductor diodes== ===Point-contact diodes=== Point-contact diodes were developed starting in the 1930s, out of the early crystal detector technology, and are now generally used in the 3 to 30 gigahertz range. Point-contact diodes use a small diameter metal wire in contact with a semiconductor crystal, and are of either non-welded contact type or welded contact type. Non-welded contact construction utilizes the Schottky barrier principle. The metal side is the pointed end of a small diameter wire that is in contact with the semiconductor crystal. In the welded contact type, a small P region is formed in the otherwise N-type crystal around the metal point during manufacture by momentarily passing a relatively large current through the device. Point contact diodes generally exhibit lower capacitance, higher forward resistance and greater reverse leakage than junction diodes. ===Junction diodes=== ====p–n junction diode==== A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occurs from the n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction when the potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve. ====Schottky diode==== Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction rather than a p–n junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed. ===Current–voltage characteristic=== A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic. The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone. ====Reverse bias==== If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode). ====Forward bias==== However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction) that increases exponentially with voltage. ====Operating regions==== A diode's current–voltage characteristic can be approximated by four operating regions. From lower to higher bias voltages, these are: Breakdown: At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage (PIV), a process called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p–n junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p–n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power they can withstand in the clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forwarding conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. Reverse biased: For a bias between breakdown and 0 V, the reverse current is very small and asymptotically approaches -Is. For a normal P–N rectifier diode, the reverse current through the device is in the micro-ampere (μA) range. However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more). There is also a tiny surface leakage current caused by electrons simply going around the diode as though it were an imperfect insulator. Forward biased: The current–voltage curve is exponential, approximating the Shockley diode equation. When plotted using a linear current scale, a smooth "knee" appears, but no clear threshold voltage is visible on a semi-log graph. Leveling off: At larger forward currents the current–voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for power diodes and can be modeled by a Shockley ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor. ===Shockley diode equation=== The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after the bipolar junction transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley) models the exponential current–voltage (I–V) relationship of diodes in moderate forward or reverse bias. The article Shockley diode equation provides details. ===Small-signal behavior=== At forward voltages less than the saturation voltage, the voltage versus current characteristic curve of most diodes is not a straight line. The current can be approximated by I = I_\text{S} e^{V_\text{D}/(n V_\text{T})} as explained in the Shockley diode equation article. In detector and mixer applications, the current can be estimated by a Taylor's series. The odd terms can be omitted because they produce frequency components that are outside the pass band of the mixer or detector. Even terms beyond the second derivative usually need not be included because they are small compared to the second order term. A certain amount of "reverse recovery time" r (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse recovery charge r from the diode. During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction. This might give rise to a large current in the reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such a reverse current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be in the storage-phase. In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the losses that are incurred by this non-ideal diode effect. However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) the effect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is also negligible for Schottky diodes. The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for the generation of extremely short pulses. ===Types of semiconductor diode=== Normal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or germanium. Before the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used. Their low efficiency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the peak inverse voltage rating for application in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than the later silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes. Avalanche diodes These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on the way through the channel. The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. Constant-current diodes These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes. Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes These are point-contact diodes. Gunn diodes These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or combinations of three LEDs of a different color. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator. Laser diodes When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication. Thermal diodes This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature because of their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductors, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behavior of charge carriers in N and P-type semiconductor to move heat. Photodiodes All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light-blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices. PIN diodes A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors. Schottky diodes Schottky diodes are constructed from metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors. Super barrier diodes Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode. Gold-doped diodes As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps the fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at higher signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes). A typical example is the 1N914. Snap-off or step recovery diodes The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers. Stabistors or forward reference diodes The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics. These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature. Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS) These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage. Tunnel diodes or Esaki diodes These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Because of the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments. Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft. Varicap or varactor diodes These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly on to the frequency. They also enabled tunable oscillators in the early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator. Zener diodes These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes. This effect called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. The term Zener diodes is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speaking, Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that value. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). ===Graphic symbols=== The symbol used to represent a particular type of diode in a circuit diagram conveys the general electrical function to the reader. There are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor. The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e. in the direction of conventional current flow. File:Diode symbol.svg|Diode File:LED symbol.svg|Light-emitting diode (LED) File:Photodiode symbol.svg|Photodiode File:Schottky diode symbol.svg|Schottky diode File:Transient voltage suppression diode symbol.svg|Transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS) File:Tunnel diode symbol.svg|Tunnel diode File:Varicap symbol.svg|Varicap File:Zener diode symbol.svg|Zener diode File:Diode pinout en fr.svg|Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol. The thin bar depicts the cathode. ===Numbering and coding schemes=== There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard: ====EIA/JEDEC==== The standardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes have a 1-prefix designation (e.g., 1N4003). Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rectifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power rectifier). ====JIS==== The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with "1S". ====Pro Electron==== The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component (A = germanium and B = silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes, A = low-power/signal, B = variable capacitance, X = multiplier, Y = rectifier and Z = voltage reference); for example: AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g., AA119) BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching diode) BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g., BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode) BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode) Other common numbering/coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include: GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9)this is a very old coding system OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47)a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company ==Related devices== Rectifier Transistor Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) TRIAC DIAC Varistor In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the optical isolator, also known as an optical diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction. It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component. ==Applications== ===Radio demodulation=== The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the crystal detector article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves via audio speaker. In microwave and millimeter wave technology, beginning in the 1930s, researchers improved and miniaturized the crystal detector. Point contact diodes (crystal diodes) and Schottky diodes are used in radar, microwave and millimeter wave detectors. and CY7 cryogenic temperature sensor. ===Current steering=== Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that the current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Likewise, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally, both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy-duty split-charge diode is used to prevent the higher-charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is not running. Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The problem with matrix circuits is that, when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backward through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause "ghost" notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid-state pinball machines. ===Waveform clipper=== Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage. ===Clamper=== A diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive and negative values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive or the negative peaks occur at a prescribed level. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level. ===Computing exponentials and logarithms=== The diode's exponential current–voltage relationship is exploited to evaluate exponentiation and its inverse function the logarithm using analog voltage signals (see ). ===Oscillator=== It is possible to modify a regular semiconductor diode like 1N4148 to give it a negative differential resistance by injection of calibrated current pulses ,the diode being reversely biased  near its avalanche zone .After this treatment the diode associated with an L/C circuit can oscillate , the frequency set by the L/C circuit .The maximum frequency depends on the diode used .With a 1N4148 oscillation can go up to 100 Mhz (see https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384043395_Another_way_to_create_negative_differential_resistance_Author) ==Abbreviations== Diodes are usually referred to as D for diode on PCBs. Sometimes the abbreviation CR for crystal rectifier is used.
[ "Boltzmann constant", "electric current", "p–n junction", "Purdue", "power electronics", "Electron hole", "JEDEC", "Datasheets", "McGraw-Hill", "inverse function", "varactor diode", "dopant", "transducer", "double diode triode", "Zener diode", "Keyboard (computing)", "depletion region", "electrical conductance", "Step recovery diode", "Transient (oscillation)", "1N4148 signal diode", "printed circuit board", "Lambda diode", "wireless telegraphy", "triode", "ultraviolet", "hexode", "Crystallinity", "William Shockley", "Electric potential", "switched-mode power supply", "opto-isolator", "electronic keyboards", "motor controller", "JFET", "Electronic Industries Alliance", "Lr-diode", "semiconductor", "Saturation current", "Gold", "conventional current", "doping (semiconductor)", "telegraphy", "avalanche diode", "n-type semiconductor", "PIN diode", "radio signal", "Varicap", "Mullard–Philips tube designation", "flyback diode", "avalanche breakdown", "diode–transistor logic", "pulse", "Thermionic emission", "slew rate", "exponentiation", "JIS semiconductor designation", "Diode modelling", "thermionic emission", "MIT", "gamma ray", "quasi Fermi level", "voltage-controlled oscillator", "step recovery diode", "Conceptual model", "solid state (electronics)", "demodulation", "Frederick Guthrie (scientist)", "Electrical resistance and conductance", "germanium", "power supply", "Loudspeaker", "Hot cathode", "hydraulic analogy", "silicon", "semi-log plot", "charge-coupled device", "gallium arsenide", "transistors", "thermoelectric cooling", "Photodiode", "Fleming valve", "bipolar junction transistor", "amplitude", "Direct bandgap", "plate electrode", "Jagadish Chandra Bose", "Pro Electron", "alternating current", "photodiode", "Diode logic", "volt", "electron–hole pair", "square-law detector", "scintillator", "Peltier–Seebeck effect", "direct current", "microwave", "thyristor", "kelvin", "electrical generator", "detector (radio)", "Clamper (electronics)", "Plate electrode", "electron volt", "cosmic ray", "Noise generator", "mineral", "vacuum-tube", "Leo Esaki", "amplitude modulation", "Cockcroft-Walton generator", "electric lighting", "current–voltage characteristic", "Shockley diode equation", "light-emitting diode", "1N58xx schottky diodes", "modulation", "alkaline earth metal", "optical communication", "energy", "Transorb", "crystal detector", "12SQ7", "Time-division multiplexing", "liquid nitrogen", "photometry (optics)", "circuit diagram", "John Ambrose Fleming", "Ferdinand Braun", "Lead (electronics)", "optical cavity", "Semiconductor device", "Karl Ferdinand Braun", "logical conjunction", "relay", "Avalanche diode", "keyboard matrix circuit", "depletion width", "electron", "Knee of a curve", "selenium", "photon", "TRIAC", "check valve", "knee of a curve", "Battery (electricity)", "Boolean Logic", "work function", "electrostatically", "p–n diode", "power semiconductor device", "voltage reference", "Zener breakdown", "Semiconductor detector", "IMPATT diode", "alternator (auto)", "Electron", "William Henry Eccles", "Thyristor", "Crystal", "breakdown voltage", "logical disjunction", "Gunn diode", "wavelength", "Substrate (semiconductor)", "voltage multiplier", "anode", "electronic oscillator", "voltage spike", "logic gate", "Rectifier", "musical keyboard", "barium", "logarithm", "semiconductor materials", "Exponential function", "fast diode", "oscillation", "radio receiver", "negative resistance", "photodetector", "logarithmic scale", "Bell Labs", "frequency-locked loop", "Light-emitting diode", "Detector (radio)", "electronics", "Marconi Company", "platinum", "Schottky diode", "Infrared", "strontium", "Frequency mixer", "electronic filter", "H-bridge", "p-type semiconductor", "selenium rectifier", "optical storage", "1N400x general-purpose diodes", "tunnel diode", "electrode", "radio", "Transistor", "temperature", "MOSFET", "temperature sensor", "Walter H. Schottky", "IGBT", "Transient voltage suppression diode", "quantum tunneling", "oxide", "rectifier", "insulator (electricity)", "laser", "phase-locked loop", "Stabistor", "red heat", "vacuum tube", "hot cathode", "Laser diode", "cuprous oxide", "capacitors", "Functional completeness", "rectification (electricity)", "stepper motor", "Gallium arsenide", "infrared", "Anode", "One-way traffic", "charge carrier", "Active rectification", "integrated circuits", "optical isolator", "Greenleaf Whittier Pickard", "particle detector", "Diode-connected transistor", "metal–semiconductor junction", "radio frequency", "voltmeter", "UK", "Terminal (electronics)", "Transient-voltage-suppression diode", "Thermal diode", "pentode", "Commutator (electric)", "Inverter (logic gate)", "Western Electric", "peak inverse voltage", "electronic component", "Current–voltage characteristic", "Faraday rotator", "Varistor", "silicon bandgap temperature sensor", "Mullard", "pinball machine", "Crystalline silicon", "majority carrier", "DIAC", "tetrode", "solar cell", "Small-signal model", "CMOS", "Greek and Latin roots", "Signal (electrical engineering)", "Constant-current diode", "Nichrome", "Tunnel diode", "Flame rectification", "noise", "cathode", "uninterruptible power supply" ]
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Drexel University
Drexel University is a private research university with its main campus in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Drexel's undergraduate school was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a financier and philanthropist. Founded as Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry, it was renamed Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, before assuming its current name in 1970. , more than 24,000 students were enrolled in over 70 undergraduate programs and more than 100 master's, doctoral, and professional programs at the university. ==History== ===19th century=== Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry by Anthony J. Drexel, a Philadelphia financier and philanthropist. The original mission of the institution was to provide educational opportunities in the "practical arts and sciences" for women and men of all backgrounds. Drexel can now trace its roots to 1812 as in 2011 Drexel took over the management of what is now named Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University which Academy was formed in the winter of 1812. In April 1817, the legislature of Commonwealth of Pennsylvania incorporated the organization under the name "Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia". ===20th century=== In 1936, the institution was renamed as the Drexel Institute of Technology. It eventually gained university status and was finally named Drexel University in 1970. ===21st century=== In 2002, Drexel University acquired and assumed management of the former Medical College of Pennsylvania (MCP) Hahnemann University, creating the Drexel University College of Medicine. In 2006, the university established the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, and in 2011 the School of Law achieved full accreditation by the American Bar Association. Constantine Papadakis died of pneumonia in April 2009 while still employed as the university's president. His successor, John Anderson Fry, was previously the president of Franklin & Marshall College and executive vice president of the University of Pennsylvania. Under Fry's leadership, Drexel has continued its expansion, including the July 2011 acquisition of The Academy of Natural Sciences. In 2024, Drexel has acquired Salus University which has multiple programs in health related fields. Fry announced his resignation in July 2024 to become President of Temple University upon the death of acting President JoAnne Epps. Denis O'Brien is appointed as interim president until Fry's successor, Antonio Merlo, assumes the presidency on July 1, 2025. ==Academics== ===Schools and colleges=== ====College of Arts and Sciences==== The College of Arts and Sciences was formed in 1990 when Drexel merged the two existing College of Sciences and College of Humanities together. ====Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts and Design==== The College of Media Arts and Design "fosters the study, exploration and management of the arts: media, design, the performing and visual". The college offers 18 undergraduate programs and nine graduate programs, in modern art and design fields that range from architecture, graphic design and dance to fashion design and television management. Its wide range of programs has helped the college earn full accreditation from the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, the National Architectural Accrediting Board, and the Council for Interior Design Accreditation. ====Bennett S. LeBow College of Business==== The Bennett S. LeBow College of Business history dates to the founding in 1891 of the Drexel Institute, that later became Drexel University, and of its Business Department in 1896. Today LeBow offers thirteen undergraduate majors, eight graduate programs, and two doctoral programs; 22 percent of Drexel University's undergraduate students are enrolled in a LeBow College of Business program. The LeBow College of Business has been ranked as the 38th best private business school in the nation. Its online MBA program is ranked 14th in the world by the Financial Times; the publication also ranks the undergraduate business program at LeBow as 19th in the United States. The part-time MBA program ranks 1st in academic quality in the 2015 edition of Business Insider's rankings. Undergraduate and graduate entrepreneurship programs are ranked 19th in the country by the Princeton Review. ====School of Economics==== Economics programs at the LeBow College of Business are housed within the School of Economics. In addition to the undergraduate program in economics, the school is home to an M.S. in Economics program as well as a PhD program in economics. Faculty members in the School of Economics have been published in the American Economic Review, RAND Journal of Economics, and Review of Economics and Statistics. The school has been ranked among the best in the world for its extensive research into matters of international trade. ====College of Engineering==== Drexel's College of Engineering is one of its oldest and largest academic colleges and served as the original focus of the career-oriented school upon its founding in 1891. The College of Engineering is home to several notable alumni, including two astronauts; financier Bennett S. LeBow, for whom the university's College of Business is named; and Paul Baran, inventor of the packet-switched network. Today, Drexel University's College of Engineering, which is home to 19 percent of the undergraduate student body, is known for creating the world's first engineering degree in appropriate technology. The college is also one of only 17 U.S. universities to offer a bachelor's degree in architectural engineering, and only one of five private institutions to do so. =====Drexel Engineering Curriculum (tDEC)===== The engineering curriculum used by the school was originally called E4 (Enhanced Educational Experience for Engineers) which was established in 1986 and funded in part by the Engineering Directorate of the National Science Foundation. In 1988, the program evolved into tDEC (the Drexel Engineering Curriculum) ====College of Medicine==== The Drexel University College of Medicine was added to the colleges and schools of the university in 2002, having been formed upon the acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University. In addition to its M.D. program, the College of Medicine offers more than 40 graduate programs in its Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional Studies. =====Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional Studies===== The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional studies offers both Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degree programs in fields like biochemistry, biotechnology, clinical research, and forensic science. The school also serves as the center for biomedical research at Drexel University. ====School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems==== Founded in 1961 as the United States' first Biomedical Engineering and Science Institute, the School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems focuses on the emerging field of biomedical science at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels. Primary research areas within the school include bioinformatics, biomechanics, biomaterials, neuroengineering, and cardiovascular engineering. ====College of Nursing and Health Professions==== Formed in 2002 along with the College of Medicine, Drexel's College of Nursing and Health Professions offers more than 25 programs to undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of nursing, nutrition, health sciences, health services, and radiologic technology. The college's research into matters of nutrition and rehabilitation have garnered approximately $2.9 million in external research funding on an annual basis. The physician assistant program at Drexel's College of Nursing and Health Professions is ranked in the top 15 such programs in the United States; its anesthesia programs and physical therapy programs are, respectively, ranked as top-50 programs nationwide. ====Pennoni Honors College==== The Pennoni Honors College, named for Drexel alumnus and trustee Dr. C.R. "Chuck" Pennoni '63, '66, Hon. '92, and his wife Annette, recognizes and promotes excellence among Drexel students. Students admitted to the Honors College live together and take many of the same classes; the college provides these students with access to unique cultural and social activities and a unique guest speaker series. Students are also involved in the university's Honors Student Advisory Committee and have the opportunity to take part in Drexel's "Alternative Spring Break", an international study tour held each spring. ====Thomas R. Kline School of Law==== Upon its founding in 2006, the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, originally known as the Earle Mack School of Law, was the first law school founded in Philadelphia in more than three decades. The School of Law offers L.L.M. and Master of Legal Studies degrees, in addition to the flagship Juris Doctor program, and uniquely offers cooperative education as part of its curriculum across all programs. In 2015, Bloomberg Business ranked the Kline School of Law as the second most underrated law school in the United States. ====School of Education==== One of the oldest schools within Drexel University, the modern School of Education dates back to the 1891 founding of the school. Originally, the Department of Education offered teacher training to women as one of its original, career-focused degree programs. Today, the School of Education offers a coeducational approach to teacher training at the elementary and secondary levels for undergraduates. Other undergraduate programs include those focused on the intersection between learning and technology, teacher certification for non-education majors, and a minor in education for students with an interest in instruction. Graduate degrees offered by the School of Education include those in administration and leadership, special education, higher education, mathematics education, international education, and educational creativity and innovation. Doctoral degrees are offered in educational leadership and learning technologies. ====Dornsife School of Public Health==== The School of Public Health states that its mission is to "provide education, conduct research, and partner with communities and organizations to improve the health of populations". To that end, the school offers both a B.S. and a minor in public health for undergraduate students as well as several options for students pursuing graduate and doctoral degrees in the field. At the graduate level, the Dornsife School offers both a Master of Public Health and an Executive Master of Public Health, as well as an M.S. in biostatistics and an M.S. in epidemiology. Two Doctor of Public Health degrees are also offered, as is a Doctor of Philosophy in epidemiology. The school's graduate and doctoral students are heavily invested in the research activities of the Dornsife School of Public Health, which has helped the school attract annual funding for its four research centers. ====Center for Hospitality and Sport Management==== The Center for Hospitality and Sport Management was formed in 2013, in an effort to house and consolidate academic programs in hospitality, tourism management, the culinary arts, and sport management. Academic programs combine the unique skills required of the sports and hospitality industries with the principles and curriculum espoused by the management programs within Drexel's LeBow College of Business. ====Charles D. Close School of Entrepreneurship==== Focusing specifically on the skills required to successfully start and launch a business, The Charles D. Close School of Entrepreneurship is the first and only freestanding school of entrepreneurship in the United States. Undergraduate students take part in a B.A. program in entrepreneurship and innovation, while graduate students a combined Master of Science degree in biomedicine and entrepreneurship. Minors in entrepreneurship are also offered to undergraduate students. =====Laurence A. Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship===== Housed within the Close School is the Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship. The institute serves as an incubator for Drexel student startups, providing resources and mentorships to students and some post-graduates who are starting their own business while enrolled in one of the Close School's degree programs or academic minors. ===Online education=== Drexel University launched its first Internet-based education program, a master's degree in Library & Information Science, in 1996. In 2001, Drexel created its wholly owned, for-profit online education subsidiary, Drexel e-Learning, Inc., better known as Drexel University Online. It was announced in October 2013 that Drexel University Online would no longer be a for-profit venture, but rather become an internal division within the university to better serve its online student population. Although headquartered in Philadelphia, Drexel announced a new Washington, D.C., location in December 2012 to serve as both an academic and outreach center, catering to the online student population. Drexel University Online founded the National Distance Learning Week, in conjunction with the United States Distance Learning Association, in 2007. In September 2010, Drexel University Online received the Sloan-C award for institution-wide excellence in online education indicating that it had exceptional programs of "demonstrably high quality" at the regional and national levels and across disciplines. Drexel University Online won the 2008 United States Distance Learning Association's Best Practices Awards for Distance Learning Programming. In 2007, the online education subsidiary had a revenue of $40 million. In March 2013, Drexel Online had more than 7,000 unique students from all 50 states and more than 20 countries pursuing a bachelor's, master's, or certificate. , Drexel University Online offers more than 100 fully accredited master's degrees, bachelor's degrees and certificate programs. ===Cooperative education program=== Drexel's longstanding cooperative education, or "co-op" program is one of the largest and oldest in the United States. Drexel has a fully internet-based job database, where students can submit résumés and request interviews with any of the thousands of companies that offer positions. Students also have the option of obtaining a co-op via independent search. A student graduating from Drexel's 5-year degree program typically has a total of 18 months of co-op with up to three different companies. The majority of co-ops are paid, averaging $18,720 per 6-month period, however this figure changes with major. About one third of Drexel graduates are offered full-time positions by their co-op employers right after graduation. ===Research activity=== Drexel is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". The university was ranked 51st in the 2018 edition of the "Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents" list released by the National Academy of Inventors and the Intellectual Property Owners Association. ===Rankings=== {|class="wikitable floatright" style="width: 22em;" |+USNWR departmental rankings The Wall Street Journal ranked Drexel 54th among 400 institutions in the United States. In its 2018 rankings, Times Higher Education World University Rankings and The Wall Street Journal ranked Drexel 74th among national universities and 351st-400th among international universities. In its 2018 rankings, Forbes ranked Drexel 24th among STEM universities. In 2025, it also ranked Drexel 146th among 500 national universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, 107th among research universities, 82nd among private universities, and 64th among universities in the Northeast. In 2024, Washington Monthly ranked Drexel 143rd among 438 national universities in the U.S. based on Drexel's contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service. In 2016, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the undergraduate business program 78th in the country. In 2014, Business Insider ranked Drexel's graduate business school 19th in the country for networking. ==Campuses== Drexel University's programs are divided across three Philadelphia-area campuses: the University City Campus, the Center City Campus and the Queen Lane College of Medicine Campus. ===University City Main Campus=== The University City Main Campus of Drexel University is located just west of the Schuylkill River in the University City district of Philadelphia. It is Drexel's largest and oldest campus; the campus contains the university's administrative offices and serves as the main academic center for students. The northern, residential portion of the main campus is located in the Powelton Village section of West Philadelphia. The two prominent performing stages at Drexel University are the Mandell Theater and the Main Auditorium. The Main Auditorium dates back to the founding of Drexel and construction of its main hall. It features over 1000 seats, and a pipe organ installed in 1928. The organ was purchased by Saturday Evening Post publisher Cyrus H. K. Curtis after he had donated a similar organ, the Curtis Organ, to nearby University of Pennsylvania and it was suggested that he do the same for Drexel. The 424-seat Mandell Theater was built in 1973 and features a more performance-oriented stage, including a full fly system, modern stage lighting facilities, stadium seating, and accommodations for wheelchairs. It is used for the semiannual spring musical, as well as various plays and many events. ===Queen Lane Campus=== The Queen Lane Campus was purchased by Drexel University as part of its acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University. It is located in the East Falls neighborhood of northwest Philadelphia and is primarily utilized by first- and second-year medical students, and researchers. A free shuttle is available, connecting the Queen Lane Campus to the Center City Hahnemann and University City Main campuses. === Center City Campus === The Center City Campus is in the middle of Philadelphia, straddling the Vine Street Expressway between Broad and 15th Streets. Shuttle service is offered between the Center City Campus and both the University City and Queen Lane campuses of the university. ===Academy of Natural Sciences=== In 2011, The Academy of Natural Sciences entered into an agreement to become a subsidiary of Drexel University. Founded in 1812, the Academy of Natural Sciences is America's oldest natural history museum and is a world leader in biodiversity and environmental research. ===Drexel University Sacramento=== On January 5, 2009, Drexel University opened the Center for Graduate Studies in Sacramento, California. Eventually renamed Drexel University Sacramento upon the addition of an undergraduate program in business administration, the campus also offered an Ed.D. program in Educational Leadership and Management and master's degree programs in Business Administration, Finance, Higher Education, Human Resource Development, Public Health, and Interdepartmental Medical Science. On March 5, 2015, Drexel University announced the closure of the Sacramento campus, with an 18-month "phase out" period designed to allow current students to complete their degrees. ==Student life== ===Graduate Students Association=== The Graduate Student Association "advocates the interests and addresses concerns of graduate students at Drexel; strives to enhance graduate student life at the University in all aspects, from academic to campus security; and provides a formal means of communication between graduate students and the University community". === Jewish life on campus === Drexel has an approximate Jewish population of 5% and has both a Chabad House and a Hillel. Both provide services to Jewish and non-Jewish students at Drexel. Due to an increase in the number of Orthodox Jewish students, the Hillel offers hot kosher food Monday through Thursday. There is also an eruv which is jointly managed by Jewish students from Drexel and the University of Pennsylvania. === Television === DUTV is Drexel's Philadelphia cable television station. The student operated station is part of the Paul F. Harron Studios at Drexel University. The purpose of DUTV is to provide "the people of Philadelphia with quality educational television, and providing Drexel students the opportunity to gain experience in television management and production". The Programing includes an eclectic variety of shows from a bi-monthly news show, DNews, to old films, talk shows dealing with important current issues and music appreciation shows. Over 75 percent of DUTV's programming is student produced. General Column Writing (2000), and third place in Sports Column Writing (2001). In December 2019 The Triangle announced the creation of their podcasting division, "Tri-Pod,", which debuted on January 10, 2020. Tri-Pod had two podcasts, "Last Call". and "Mark and Jair Explain Sports". The school yearbook was first published in 1911 and named the Lexerd in 1913. Prior to the publishing of a campus-wide yearbook in 1911 The Hanseatic and The Eccentric were both published in 1896 as class books. ===Housing=== Drexel requires all non-commuting first- and second-year students to live in one of its ten residence halls or in "university approved housing". Second-year students have the option of living in a residence hall designated for upperclassmen, or "university approved housing". The residence halls for upperclassmen are North and Caneris Halls. North Hall operates under the For Students By Students Residential Experience Engagement Model, developed by the Residential Living Office. There are many apartments that are university approved that second-year students can choose to live in. Three of the largest apartment buildings that fit this description are Chestnut Square, University Crossings, and The Summit, all owned by American Campus Communities. Many other students live in smaller apartment buildings or individual townhouse-style apartments in Powelton Village. A second-year student can choose one of the already listed university approved housing options or petition the university to add a new property to the approved list. ===Student organizations=== Drexel University recognizes over 250 student organizations in the following categories: Academic Club Sports Community Service/Social Action Cultural Fraternity & Sorority Life General Interest Honorary Media Performing and Fine Arts Political Spiritual & Religious ===Fraternities and sororities=== Approximately 12 percent of Drexel's undergraduate population are members of a social fraternities and sororities. There are currently fourteen Interfraternity Council (IFC) chapters, seven Panhellenic Council (PHC) chapters and thirteen Multi-cultural Greek Council (MGC) chapters. Alpha Pi Lambda was established at Drexel in 1935. ==Athletics== Drexel's school mascot is a dragon known as "Mario the Magnificent", named in honor of alumnus and Board of Trustees member Mario V. Mascioli after he attended every Drexel basketball for over 20 years. The Dragon has been the mascot of the school since around the mid-1920s; the first written reference to the Dragons occurred in 1928, when the football team was called "The Dragons in The Triangle". Before becoming known as the Dragons, the athletic teams had been known by such names as the Blue & Gold, the Engineers, and the Drexelites. They do not currently field a varsity football team. In addition to its NCAA Division I teams, Drexel University is home to 33 active club teams including men's ice hockey, lacrosse, water polo, squash, triathlon, and cycling. Other club teams include soccer, baseball, rugby, field hockey, and roller hockey. The club teams operate under the direction of the Club Sports Council and the Recreational Sports Office. ==Alumni== File:Paul_Baran.jpg|Paul Baran, engineer, inventor of packet switching File:Malik Rose cropped.jpg|Malik Rose, former NBA player File:The Gong Show Chuck Barris 1976.jpg|Chuck Barris, game show host File:Jessie Willcox Smith, photograph estimate 1880-1910.jpg|Jessie Willcox Smith, illustrator File:Christopher Ferguson in 2018.jpg|Christopher Ferguson, retired NASA astronaut File: Lex Fridman teaching at MIT in 2018.png|Lex Fridman, computer scientist and podcaster File: Tom Fulp (cropped).jpg|Tom Fulp, programmer and creator of Newgrounds Since its founding the university has graduated over 100,000 alumni. Certificate-earning alumni such as artist Violet Oakley and illustrator Frank Schoonover reflect the early emphasis on art as part of the university's curriculum. With World War II, the university's technical programs swelled, and as a result Drexel graduated alumni such as Paul Baran, one of the founding fathers of the Internet and one of the inventors of the packet switching network, and Norman Joseph Woodland, the inventor of barcode technology. In addition to its emphasis on technology Drexel has graduated several notable athletes such as National Basketball Association (NBA) basketball players Michael Anderson, Damion Lee, and Malik Rose, and several notable business people such as Raj Gupta, former president and Chief executive officer (CEO) of Rohm and Haas, and Kenneth C. Dahlberg, former CEO of Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC). Alassane Dramane Ouattara President of the Republic of Ivory Coast. In 2018, Tirthak Saha -a 2016 graduate of the ECE school - was named to the Forbes 30 Under 30 list for achievements in the energy field. In 1991, the university's centennial anniversary, Drexel created an association called the Drexel 100, for alumni who have demonstrated excellence work, philanthropy, or public service. After the creation of the association 100 alumni were inducted in 1992 and since then the induction process has been on a biennial basis. In 2006 164 total alumni had been inducted into the association. ==Awards== Drexel University created the annual $100,000 Anthony J. Drexel Exceptional Achievement Award to recognize a faculty member from a U.S. institution whose work transforms both research and the society it serves. The first recipient was bioengineer James J. Collins of Boston University (now at MIT) and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. In 2004, in conjunction with BAYADA Home Health Care, Drexel University's College of Nursing and Health Professions created the BAYADA Award for Technological Innovation in Nursing Education and Practice. The award honors nursing educators and practicing nurses whose innovation leads to improved patient care or improved nursing education.
[ "Saturday Evening Post", "Pennsylvania", "Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania", "Academy of Natural Sciences", "Tom Fulp", "BAYADA Home Health Care", "The Princeton Review", "Thomas R. Kline School of Law", "Malik Rose", "Drexel University Queen Lane Campus", "private university", "The Triangle (newspaper)", "Private university", "Internship", "Washington, D.C.", "Drexel University College of Nursing and Health Professions", "Violet Oakley", "fly system", "Society of Professional Journalists", "City 6", "Powelton Village, Philadelphia", "biomaterials", "National Pacemaker Awards", "Rohm and Haas", "U.S. News & World Report", "Sacramento, California", "Coastal Athletic Association", "JoAnne A. Epps", "University City, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania", "bioinformatics", "Appropriate Technology", "philanthropist", "National Panhellenic Conference", "Association of Independent Technological Universities", "National Science Foundation", "Kenneth C. Dahlberg", "Colonial Athletic Association", "North American Interfraternity Conference", "Drexel University School of Public Health", "National Academy of Inventors", "Philadelphia", "Damion Lee", "Moses J. Ezekiel", "Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse", "Goodwin College of Professional Studies", "Drexel Dragons", "The Academy of Natural Sciences", "Malvern, Pennsylvania", "National Collegiate Athletic Association", "Lex Fridman", "Intellectual Property Owners Association", "Newgrounds", "Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University", "Chuck Barris", "Forbes 30 Under 30", "University City, Philadelphia", "Temple University", "Times Higher Education World University Rankings", "Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association", "List of research universities in the United States", "Paul Baran", "University of Pennsylvania", "MSNBC", "Curtis Organ", "Anthony Joseph Drexel", "National Association of Schools of Art and Design", "Drexel University Main Campus", "Drexel University College of Computing and Informatics", "internet", "John Anderson Fry", "Forbes", "NCAA Division I FCS", "research university", "eruv", "financier", "National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities", "Rajiv L. Gupta", "Salus University", "James Collins (bioengineer)", "Michael Anderson (basketball)", "The RAND Journal of Economics", "National Architectural Accrediting Board", "Jessie Willcox Smith", "Christopher Ferguson", "Bennett S. LeBow", "The Wall Street Journal", "Schuylkill River", "Constantine Papadakis", "neuroengineering", "Antonio Merlo", "Market Street (Philadelphia)", "Middle States Commission on Higher Education", "biomechanics", "kosher", "World War II", "Powelton Village", "Cyrus H. K. Curtis", "American Bar Association", "Washington Monthly", "Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education", "Chief executive officer", "barcode", "Pennoni Honors College", "Drexel University College of Medicine", "Bloomberg Business News", "American Campus Communities", "Alpha Pi Lambda", "Intercollegiate Rowing Association", "National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program", "Franklin & Marshall College", "NASA", "cable television", "The American Economic Review", "Frank Schoonover", "Drexel University College of Engineering", "Business Insider", "pipe organ", "Financial Times", "packet switching", "Science Applications International Corporation", "Anthony J. Drexel", "National Basketball Association", "The Review of Economics and Statistics", "dragon", "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Norman Joseph Woodland", "Cardiovascular medicine" ]
8,258
Daedalus
In Greek mythology, Daedalus (, ; Greek: Δαίδαλος; Latin: Daedalus; Etruscan: Taitale) was a skillful architect and craftsman, seen as a symbol of wisdom, knowledge and power. He is the father of Icarus, the uncle of Perdix, and possibly also the father of Iapyx. Among his most famous creations are the wooden cow for Pasiphaë, the Labyrinth for King Minos of Crete which imprisoned the Minotaur, and wings that he and his son Icarus used to attempt to escape Crete. It was during this escape that Icarus did not heed his father's warnings and flew too close to the sun; the wax holding his wings together melted and Icarus fell to his death. ==Epigraphic evidence== The name Daidalos seems to be attested in Linear B, a writing system used to record Mycenaean Greek. The name appears in the form da-da-re-jo-de, possibly referring to a sanctuary. ==Family== Daedalus's parentage was supplied as a later addition, with various authors attributing different parents to him. His father is claimed to be either Eupalamus, Metion, or Palamaon. Similarly, his mother was either Alcippe, Iphinoe, Phrasmede or Merope, daughter of King Erechtheus. Daedalus had two sons: Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew named either Talos, Calos, or Perdix. The Athenians rewrote the Cretan-born Daedalus as an Athenian himself, the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus who only fled to Crete after killing his nephew. == Inventor, architect, artist == A mythical craftsman named Daedalus is first mentioned in roughly 1400 BC on the Knossian Linear B tablets. He is later mentioned by Homer as the creator of a dancing floor for Ariadne, similar to that which Hephaestus placed on the Shield of Achilles. It is clear that this Daedalus was not an original character of Homer's. Rather, Homer was referencing mythology that his audience was already familiar with. Daedalus is not mentioned again in literature until the fifth century BC, but he is widely praised as an inventor, artist, and architect, though classical sources disagree on which inventions exactly are attributable to him. In Pliny's Natural History (7.198) he is credited with inventing carpentry, including tools like the axe, saw, glue, and more. Supposedly, he first invented masts and sails for ships for the navy of King Minos. He is also said to have carved statues so spirited they appeared to be living and moving. Pausanias, in traveling around Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see xoana) that impressed him. In fact, so many other statues and artworks are attributed to Daedalus by Pausanias and various other sources that likely many of them were never made by him. In his Socratic dialogue with Meno, Plato cites Daedalus's handiwork as a metaphor for genuine understanding of truth, as opposed to belief that coincidentally happens to be true. Socrates argues that while truth, like one of Daedalus's "moving" statues, is inherently valuable, their animacy would mean they are worthless if the owner cannot shackle them in place to stop them from wandering off. Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to many Greek craftsmen and many Greek contraptions and inventions that represented dextrous skill. A specific sort of early Greek sculptures are named Daedalic sculpture in his honor. In Boeotia there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned and an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire. It was carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called daedala. Some sources claim that the daedala did not receive their name from Daedalus, but the opposite. Pausanias claims that Daedalus was not the name given to the inventor at birth, but that he was named so later after the daedala. Some of the functions of Daedalus overlapped with those of Aristaeus (Aristaeos), another famous Greek inventor god. But Aristaeos mostly concerned himself with the rural and agricultural arts. == Mythology == === Nephew === Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts as an apprentice. His nephew is named variously as Perdix, Talos, or Calos, although some sources say that Perdix was the name of Daedalus' sister. The nephew showed striking evidence of ingenuity. Finding the spine of a fish on the seashore, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he attempted to murder him by throwing him down from the Acropolis in Athens. Athena saved his nephew and turned him into a partridge. Tried and convicted for this murder attempt, Daedalus left Athens and fled to Crete. ===The Labyrinth=== Daedalus created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur was kept. Poseidon had given a white bull to King Minos to use it as a sacrifice. Instead, the king kept the bull for himself and sacrificed another. As revenge, Poseidon, with the help of Aphrodite, made King Minos's wife, Pasiphaë, lust for the bull. Pasiphaë asked Daedalus to help her. Daedalus built a hollow, wooden cow, covered in real cow hide for Pasiphaë, so she could mate with the bull. As a result, Pasiphaë gave birth to the Minotaur, a creature with the body of a man, but the head and tail of a bull. King Minos ordered the Minotaur to be imprisoned and guarded in the Labyrinth built by Daedalus for that purpose. In the story of the Labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way back out with the help of Ariadne's thread. It is Daedalus himself who gives Ariadne the clue as to how to escape the labyrinth. Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numerous winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. ===Icarus=== The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus' wings is a late one by Ovid in his Metamorphoses.After Theseus and Ariadne eloped together, Daedalus and his son Icarus were imprisoned by King Minos in the labyrinth that he had built. He could not leave Crete by sea, as King Minos kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land routes as well, Daedalus set to work to make wings for himself and his son Icarus. Using bird feathers of various sizes, thread, and beeswax, he shaped them to resemble a bird's wings. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the beeswax that held his feathers together, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers and make them heavy and he would fall. After Daedalus and Icarus had passed Samos, Delos, and Lebynthos, Icarus disobeyed his father and began to soar upward toward the sun. Without any warning, the sun melted the beeswax (which held the feathers together). Icarus was flapping his "wings". But he realized he had no feathers left and was flapping his featherless arms. And he plunged into the sea and drowned. Seeing Icarus' wings floating, Daedalus wept, cursed his art, and after finding Icarus's body on an island shore buried him there. Then he named the island Icaria in the memory of his child. The southeast end of the Aegean Sea where Icarus fell into the water was also called "Mare Icarium" or the Icarian Sea. In a twist of fate, a partridge, presumably the nephew Daedalus murdered, mocked Daedalus as he buried his son. The fall and death of Icarus is seemingly portrayed as punishment for Daedalus's murder of his nephew. === The shell riddle === After burying Icarus, Daedalus traveled to Camicus in Sicily, where he stayed as a guest under the protection of King Cocalus. There Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings as an offering to the god. In an invention of Virgil (Aeneid VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily. Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When he reached Camicus, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, accepted the shell and gave it to Daedalus. Daedalus tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through. With the riddle solved, Minos realized that Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and insisted he be handed over. Cocalus agreed to do so, but convinced Minos to take a bath first. In the bath, Cocalus' daughters killed Minos, possibly by pouring boiling water over his body. In some versions, it is Cocalus that kills Minos in the bath. Other variants say that Daedalus himself poured the boiling water, or that he had built the pipes that could supply hot water to the bath and this was used to instead pour boiling water on him. === Death === At least two locations are associated with the death of Daedalus. One version of the story says he retired to the Cretan colony of Telmessos, ruled by Minos's estranged brother Sarpedon, and while wandering outside the city, he was bitten by a snake and died. A town on this site, Daidala, is said to be named after him, and is mentioned in Roman sources. Another version of the story places his death on a small island in the Nile river, where he was later worshipped. Yet another version has him dying after being bitten by a water snake in Lycia (western Asia Minor). The anecdotes are literary and late. However, in the founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in the 680s BC on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani. == Later depictions in art and literature == Daedalus and the myths associated with him are often depicted in paintings, sculptures, and more by later artists. The myth about his flight and the fall of Icarus is especially popular in depictions. A few noteworthy pieces are included below. File:DEDAL ZA JASNA (Small).JPG|Small bronze sculpture of Daedalus, 3rd century BC; found on Plaoshnik, North Macedonia File:Pompeya Villa Imperiale 08.jpg|Daedalus and Icarus, fresco in Pompeii, 1st century AD File:Dedalo e Pasifae.JPG|Daedalus and Pasiphaë, fresco in Pompeii, 1st century AD File:PBrueghelElderIcarus.jpg|Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (detail) by Peter Brueghel the Elder, ca. 1558. File:Fall of Icarus Blondel decoration Louvre INV2624.jpg|The Fall of Icarus by Merry-Josoph Blondel (1819) (Louvre) File:Lord Frederick Leighton FLL006.jpg|Daedalus and Icarus, by Frederick Leighton, c. 1869 File:Daedalus und Ikarus MK1888.png|Daedalus constructs wings for his son, Icarus, after a Roman relief in the Villa Albani, Rome (Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888) File:Dædalus and Icarus.gif|Dædalus and Icarus by H.A.Guerber (1896) There are also a number of adaptations of the myth of Daedalus and Icarus in modern literature and film, including a poem by Edward Field.
[ "Athens", "Pausanias (geographer)", "Xoanon", "Acropolis of Athens", "Zeugma, Commagene", "Boeotia", "Daedala", "Sophocles", "Perdix (mythology)", "Republic (Plato)", "Nile", "Thomas Bulfinch", "Meno", "Cumae", "Metamorphoses (poem)", "Plaoshnik", "Loeb Classical Library", "Maurus Servius Honoratus", "Merope (Greek myth)", "Aristaeus", "Greek language", "Plato", "Theseus", "cult image", "Aphrodite", "Republic (dialogue)", "John Tzetzes", "Erechtheus", "Palamaon", "Ion (dialogue)", "Perdix", "Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)", "Linear B", "Bulfinch's Mythology", "Athenian", "Suda", "cult figure", "Minotaur", "Alcippe (mythology)", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Lebynthos", "Pompeii", "William Smith (lexicographer)", "Virgil", "Alcippe (Greek mythology)", "North Macedonia", "Fabulae", "Telmessos", "Apollo (god)", "Poseidon", "Herbert James Draper", "Iapyx", "Sicily", "Stephanus of Byzantium", "Crete", "Labyrinth", "Etruscan language", "Iphinoe (mythology)", "Diodorus Siculus", "Pliny's Natural History", "Aeneid", "Icaria", "Roman mosaic", "Mycenaean Greek", "Peter Brueghel the Elder", "Frederic Leighton, 1st Baron Leighton", "E. P. Dutton", "Pasiphaë", "Villa Albani", "Sicani", "Plutarch", "truth", "Landscape with the Fall of Icarus", "Socrates", "Minos", "Athena", "Metiadusa", "Meyers Konversationslexikon", "Carl Kerényi", "Delos", "eponym", "House of the Vettii", "Ovid", "Metamorphoses", "Asia Minor", "Samos", "Lycia", "belief", "Oedipus at Colonus", "Meno (general)", "Icarus", "Metion", "Edward Field (poet)", "Eupalamus", "Zeugma Mosaic Museum", "J. B. S. Haldane", "Greeks", "Latin language", "Talos (inventor)", "Gela", "Greek mythology", "Socratic dialogue", "Phrasmede", "Ariadne", "Hephaestus", "Charles Henry Oldfather" ]
8,259
Deception Pass
Deception Pass (; ) is a strait separating Whidbey Island from Fidalgo Island, in the northwest part of the U.S. state of Washington. It connects Skagit Bay, part of Puget Sound, with the Strait of Juan de Fuca. A pair of bridges known collectively as Deception Pass Bridge cross Deception Pass. The bridges were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. ==History== The Deception Pass area has been home to various Coast Salish tribes for thousands of years. The first Europeans to see Deception Pass were members of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper on the Princesa Real. The Spanish gave it the name Boca de Flon. A group of sailors led by Joseph Whidbey, part of the Vancouver Expedition, found and mapped Deception Pass on June 7, 1792. George Vancouver gave it the name "Deception" because it had misled him into thinking Whidbey Island was a peninsula. The "deception" was heightened due to Whidbey's failure to find the strait at first. In May 1792, Vancouver was anchored near the southern end of Whidbey Island. He sent Joseph Whidbey to explore the waters east of Whidbey Island, now known as Saratoga Passage, using small boats. Whidbey reached the northern end of Saratoga Passage and explored eastward into Skagit Bay, which is shallow and difficult to navigate. He returned south to rejoin Vancouver without having found Deception Pass. It appeared that Skagit Bay was a dead-end and that Whidbey Island and Fidalgo Island were a long peninsula attached to the mainland. In June, the expedition sailed north along the west coast of Whidbey Island. Vancouver sent Joseph Whidbey to explore inlets leading to the east. The first inlet turned out to be a "very narrow and intricate channel, which...abounded with rocks above and beneath the surface of the water". In the waters of Deception Pass, just east of the present-day Deception Pass Bridge, is a small island known as Ben Ure Island. The island became infamous for its activity of human smuggling of migrant Chinese people for local labor. Ben Ure and his partner Lawrence "Pirate" Kelly were quite profitable at their human smuggling business and played hide-and-seek with the United States Customs Department for years. Ure's own operation at Deception Pass in the late 1880s consisted of Ure and his Native-American wife. Local tradition has it that his wife would camp on the nearby Strawberry Island (which was visible from the open sea) and signal him with a fire on the island's summit to alert him to whether or not it was safe to attempt to bring the human cargo he illegally transported ashore. For transport, Ure would tie the people up in burlap bags so that if customs agents approached he could toss the bagged people overboard. The tidal currents carried the entrapped drowned migrants' bodies to San Juan Island to the north and west of the pass; many ended up in Dead Man's Bay. Between 1910 and 1914, a prison rock quarry was operated on the Fidalgo Island side of the pass. Nearby barracks housed some 40 prisoners, members of an honors program out of Walla Walla State Penitentiary and the prison population was made up of several types of prisoners, including those convicted of murder. Guards stood watch at the quarry as prisoners cut the rock into gravel and loaded it onto barges at the base of the cliff atop the pass's waters. The quarried rock was then barged to the Seattle waterfront. The camp was dismantled in 1924 and although abandoned as a quarry, the remains of the camp can still be found. The location is hazardous; over the years there have been several fatal accidents when visitors have ventured onto the steep cliffs. A ferry was established by 1916 to connect Whidbey and Fidalgo Islands. It was discontinued after July 31, 1935, when the Deception Pass Bridge opened, connecting Whidbey Island to the tiny Pass Island, and Pass Island to Fidalgo. ==Currents== Deception Pass is a dramatic seascape where the tidal flow and whirlpools beneath the twin bridges connecting Fidalgo Island to Whidbey Island move quickly. During ebb and flood tide current speed reaches about , flowing in opposite directions between ebb and flood. This swift current can lead to standing waves, large whirlpools, and roiling eddies visible from the twin bridges' pedestrian walkways or from the trail leading below the larger south bridge from the parking lot on the Whidbey Island side. Boats can be seen waiting on either side of the pass for the current to stop or change direction before going through. Thrill-seeking kayakers go there during large tide changes to surf the standing waves and brave the class 2 and 3 rapid conditions. ==Scuba diving== Diving Deception Pass is dangerous and only for the most competent and prepared divers. There are a few times each year that the tides are right for a drift dive from the cove, under the bridge, and back to the cove as the tide changes. These must be planned well in advance by divers who know how to read currents and are aware of the dangerous conditions. However, because of the large tidal exchange, Deception Pass hosts some of the most spectacular colors and life in the Pacific Northwest. The walls and bottom are covered in colorful invertebrates, lingcod, greenlings, and barnacles everywhere. ==State park== Deception Pass is surrounded by Deception Pass State Park, one of the most visited Washington state parks with over two million annual visitors. Seattle shoegaze act The Sight Below filmed the 2008 video for their track "Further Away" at Deception Pass, with Deception Island's scenic imagery prominently featured. Seattle grunge band Mudhoney named a song on their 1993 EP Five Dollar Bob's Mock Cooter Stew "Deception Pass." Seattle progressive rock band Queensrÿche filmed scenes of their video "Anybody Listening" near Deception Pass and Deception Island.
[ "Deception Pass ferry", "Fidalgo Island", "Mudhoney", "Princess Royal (1778 sloop)", "George Vancouver", "greenling", "Puget Sound", "strait", "Deception Pass Bridge", "Juan Carrasco (explorer)", "Skagit Bay", "Passage to Juneau", "U.S. state", "Strait of Juan de Fuca", "San Juan Island", "Washington (state)", "National Register of Historic Places", "shoegazing", "The Sight Below", "Queensrÿche", "Europe", "Civilian Conservation Corps", "Bowman Bay (Washington)", "Whidbey Island", "Jonathan Raban", "Manuel Quimper", "Vancouver Expedition", "HistoryLink", "Pacific Northwest Trail", "Tide", "Strawberry Island (Deception Pass, Washington)", "lingcod", "horror movie", "Half-Life 2", "Saratoga Passage", "Joseph Whidbey", "Five Dollar Bob's Mock Cooter Stew", "grunge", "Coast Salish", "The Killing (U.S. TV series)", "Kiket Island", "The Ring (2002 film)", "progressive rock", "Samish dialect", "Human trafficking" ]
8,262
Dominoes
Dominoes is a family of tile-based games played with gaming pieces. Each domino is a rectangular tile, usually with a line dividing its face into two square ends. Each end is marked with a number of spots (also called pips or dots) or is blank. The backs of the tiles in a set are indistinguishable, either blank or having some common design. The gaming pieces make up a domino set, sometimes called a deck or pack. The traditional European domino set consists of 28 tiles, also known as pieces, bones, rocks, stones, men, cards or just dominoes, featuring all combinations of spot counts between zero and six. A domino set is a generic gaming device, similar to playing cards or dice, in that a variety of games can be played with a set. Another form of entertainment using domino pieces is the practice of domino toppling. The earliest mention of dominoes is from Song dynasty China found in the text Former Events in Wulin by Zhou Mi (1232–1298). Modern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two. European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe. The name "domino" is probably derived from the resemblance to a kind of carnival costume worn during the Venetian Carnival, often consisting of a black-hooded robe and a white mask. Despite the coinage of the word "polyomino" as a generalization, there is no connection between the word "domino" and the number 2 in any language. The most commonly played domino games are Domino Whist, Matador, and Muggins (All Fives). Other popular forms include Texas 42, Chicken Foot, Concentration, Double Fives, and Mexican Train. ==Construction and composition of domino sets== European-style dominoes are traditionally made of bone, silver lip ocean pearl oyster shell (mother of pearl), ivory, or a dark hardwood such as ebony, with contrasting black or white pips (inlaid or painted). Some sets feature the top half thickness in MOP, ivory, or bone, with the lower half in ebony. Alternatively, domino sets have been made from many different natural materials: stone (e.g., marble, granite or soapstone); other woods (e.g., ash, oak, redwood, and cedar); metals (e.g., brass or pewter); ceramic clay, or even frosted glass or crystal. These sets have a more novel look, and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial; also, such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials. Modern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials, such as ABS or polystyrene plastics, or Bakelite and other phenolic resins; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look. Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value (one-spots might have black pips while two-spots might be green, three red, etc.) to facilitate finding matching ends. Occasionally, one may find a domino set made of card stock like that for playing cards. Such sets are lightweight, compact, and inexpensive, and like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze. Sometimes, the tiles have a metal pin (called a spinner or pivot) in the middle. The traditional domino set contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots, and is known as a double-six set because the highest-value piece has six pips on each end (the "double six"). The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six-sided dice, but because blank ends having no spots are used, seven faces are possible, allowing 28 unique pieces in a double-six set. However, this is a relatively small number, especially when playing with more than four people, so many domino sets are "extended" by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots, which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces. Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three; so the common extended sets are double-nine (55 tiles), double-12 (91 tiles), double-15 (136 tiles), and double-18 (190 tiles), which is the maximum in practice. As the set becomes larger, identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes more difficult, so some large domino sets use more readable Arabic numerals instead of pips. ==History== === Chinese dominoes === In China, early "domino" tiles were functionally identical to playing cards. An identifiable version of Chinese dominoes developed in the 12th or 13th century. The oldest written mention of domino tiles in China dates to the 13th century and comes from Hangzhou where pupai (gambling plaques or tiles) and dice are listed as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song (r. 1162–1189). The traditional 32-piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus having no blank faces, differs from the 28-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century, although Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century. Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six-sided dice (2d6). One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die. Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the tiles into two suits: military and civil. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones. === Dominoes in Europe and North America === Modern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two. European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe. The way by which this word became the name of the game of domino remains unclear. The earliest game rules in Europe describe a simple block game for two or four players. Later French rules add the variant of Domino à la Pêche ("Fishing Domino"), an early draw game as well as a three-hand game with a pool. From France, the game was introduced to England by the late 1700s, purportedly brought in by French prisoners-of-war. The early forms of the game in England were the Block Game and Draw Game. The rules for these games were reprinted, largely unchanged, for over half a century. In 1863, a new game variously described as All Fives, Fives or Cribbage Dominoes appeared for the first time in both English and American sources; this was the first scoring game and it borrowed the counting and scoring features of cribbage, but 5 domino spots instead of 15 card points became the basic scoring unit, worth 1 game point. The game was played to 31 and employed a cribbage board to keep score. In 1864, The American Hoyle describes three new variants: Muggins, Bergen and Rounce; alongside the Block Dominoes and Draw Dominoes. In Muggins, the cribbage board was dropped, 5 spots scored 5 points, and game was now 200 for two players and 150 for three or four. Despite the name, there was no 'muggins rule' as in cribbage to challenge a player who fails to declare his scoring combinations. This omission was rectified in the 1868 edition of The Modern Pocket Hoyle, but reprints of both rule sets continued to be produced in parallel for around twenty years before the version with the muggins rule prevailed. From around 1871, however, the names of All Fives and Muggins, became conflated and many publications issued rules for 'Muggins or All Fives' or 'Muggins or Fives' without making any distinction between the two. This confusion continues to the present day with some publications equating the names and others describing All Fives as a separate game. In 1889, dominoes was described as having spread worldwide, "but nowhere is it more popular than in the cafés of France and Belgium. From the outset, the European game was different from the Chinese one. European domino sets contain neither the military-civilian suit distinctions of Chinese dominoes nor the duplicates that went with them. Moreover, according to Michael Dummett, in the Chinese games it is only the identity of the tile that matters; there is no concept of matching. Instead, the basic set of 28 unique tiles contains seven additional pieces, six of them representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank, and the seventh domino representing the blank-blank (0–0) combination. Subsequently 45-piece (double eight) sets appeared in Austria and, in recent times, 55-piece (double nine) and 91-piece (double twelve) sets have been produced. All the early games are still played today alongside games that have sprung up in the last 60 years such as Five Up, Mexican Train and Chicken Foot, the last two taking advantage of the larger domino sets available. Some modern descriptions of All Fives are quite different from the original, having lost much of their cribbage character and incorporating a single spinner, making it identical, or closely related, to Sniff. Most published rule sets for Muggins include the rule that gives the game its name, but some modern publications omit it even though the muggins rule has been described as the unique feature of this game. Dominoes is now played internationally. It is recognized as an "ingrained cultural activity within the Caribbean" but is also popular with the Windrush generation (who have Caribbean heritage) in the UK. In the U.S. state of Alabama, although rarely prosecuted, it was illegal to play dominoes on Sunday within the state until the relevant section of the Alabama Criminal Code was repealed, effective April 21, 2015. ==Tiles and suits== Dominoes (also known as bones, cards, men, pieces or tiles), are normally twice as long as they are wide, which makes it easier to re-stack pieces after use. A domino usually features a line in the middle to divide it visually into two squares, called ends. The value of either side is the number of spots or pips. In the most common variant (double-six), the values range from six pips down to none or blank. The sum of the two values, i.e. the total number of pips, may be referred to as the rank or weight of a tile; a tile may be described as "heavier" than a "lighter" one that has fewer (or no) pips. Tiles are generally named after their two values. For instance, the following are descriptions of the tile bearing the values two and five: Deuce-five Five-deuce 2–5 5–2 A tile that has the same pips-value on each end is called a double or doublet, and is typically referred to as double-zero , double-one , and so on. \frac{(n+1)(n+2)}{2} which is also the (n+1)th triangular number, as in the following table. This formula can be simplified a little bit when n is made equal to the total number of doubles in the domino set: \frac{(n)(n+1)}{2} The total number of pips in a double-n set is found by: \frac{n(n+1)(n+2)}{2} i.e. the number of tiles multiplied by the maximum pip-count (n) e.g. a 6-6 set has (7 × 8) / 2 = 56/2 = 28 tiles, the average number of pips per tile is 6 (range is from 0 to 12), giving a total pip count of 6 × 28 = 168 == Rules == The most popular type of play are layout games, which fall into two main categories, blocking games and scoring games. Most domino games are blocking games, where the objective is to empty one's hand while blocking the opponents’. In the end, a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players' hands. In scoring games, the scoring is different and happens mostly during game play, making it the principal objective. The draw game is often referred to as simply "dominoes". Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams. In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number. In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners. In the common U.S. variant known as Fives players score by making the open ends a multiple of five. In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of "5s-and-3s" is used. The game is normally played in pairs (two against two) and is played as a series of "ends". In each "end", the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end tiles is divisible by five or three. One point is scored for each time five or three can be divided into the sum of the two tiles, i.e. four at one end and five at the other makes nine, which is divisible by three three times, resulting in three points. Double five at one end and five at the other makes 15, which is divisible by three five times (five points) and divisible by five three times (three points) for a total of eight points. An "end" stops when one of the players is out, i.e., has played all of their tiles. In the event no player is able to empty their hand, then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be out and scores one point. A game consists of any number of ends with points scored in the ends accumulating towards a total. The game ends when one of the pair's total score exceeds a set number of points. A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board. 5s-and-3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles. ===Card games using domino sets=== Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, games of a very different character are also played with dominoes, such as solitaire or trick-taking games. Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards. A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double-six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12. A popular domino game in Texas is 42. The game is similar to the card game spades. It is played with four players paired into teams. Each player draws seven tiles, and the tiles are played into tricks. Each trick counts as one point, and any domino with a multiple of five dots counts toward the total of the hand. These 35 points of "five count" and seven tricks equals 42 points, hence the name. ==Competitive play== Dominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker. Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world. Some organizations organize international competitions. Examples include the Anglo Caribbean Dominoes League (ACDL) in the UK which includes over 40 clubs including the Brixton Immortals. ==Dominoes in Unicode== Since April 2008, the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double-six domino tiles. While a complete domino set has only 28 tiles, the Unicode set has "reversed" versions of the 21 tiles with different numbers on each end, a "back" image, and everything duplicated as horizontal and vertical orientations, for a total of 100 glyphs. Few fonts are known to support these glyphs. ==Historical domino competitions== Col. Henry T. Titus vs. Capt. Clark Rice for the naming of Titusville, Florida.
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8,263
Dissociation constant
In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a dissociation constant (KD) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate (dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions. The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant. In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant. For a general reaction: A_\mathit{x} B_\mathit{y} <=> \mathit{x} A{} + \mathit{y} B in which a complex \ce{A}_x \ce{B}_y breaks down into x A subunits and y B subunits, the dissociation constant is defined as K_\mathrm{D} = \frac{[\ce A]^x [\ce B]^y}{[\ce A_x \ce B_y]} where [A], [B], and [Ax By] are the equilibrium concentrations of A, B, and the complex Ax By, respectively. One reason for the popularity of the dissociation constant in biochemistry and pharmacology is that in the frequently encountered case where x = y = 1, KD has a simple physical interpretation: when [A] = KD, then [B] = [AB] or, equivalently, \tfrac {[\ce{AB}]} This chemical equilibrium is also the ratio of the on-rate (kforward or ka) and off-rate (kback or kd) constants. Two antibodies can have the same affinity, but one may have both a high on- and off-rate constant, while the other may have both a low on- and off-rate constant. K_A = \frac{k_\text{forward}}{k_\text{back}} = \frac{\mbox{on-rate}}{\mbox{off-rate}} == Acid–base reactions == For the deprotonation of acids, K is known as Ka, the acid dissociation constant. Strong acids, such as sulfuric or phosphoric acid, have large dissociation constants; weak acids, such as acetic acid, have small dissociation constants. The symbol Ka, used for the acid dissociation constant, can lead to confusion with the association constant, and it may be necessary to see the reaction or the equilibrium expression to know which is meant. Acid dissociation constants are sometimes expressed by pKa, which is defined by \text{p}K_\text{a} = -\log_{10}{K_\mathrm{a}} This \mathrm{p}K notation is seen in other contexts as well; it is mainly used for covalent dissociations (i.e., reactions in which chemical bonds are made or broken) since such dissociation constants can vary greatly. A molecule can have several acid dissociation constants. In this regard, that is depending on the number of the protons they can give up, we define monoprotic, diprotic and triprotic acids. The first (e.g., acetic acid or ammonium) have only one dissociable group, the second (e.g., carbonic acid, bicarbonate, glycine) have two dissociable groups and the third (e.g., phosphoric acid) have three dissociable groups. In the case of multiple pK values they are designated by indices: pK1, pK2, pK3 and so on. For amino acids, the pK1 constant refers to its carboxyl (–COOH) group, pK2 refers to its amino (–NH2) group and the pK3 is the pK value of its side chain. \begin{align} \ce{H3 B} &\ce & K_1 &= \ce{[H+] . [H2 B^-] \over [H3 B]} & \mathrm{p}K_1 &= -\log K_1 \\ \ce{H2 B^-} &\ce} & K_2 &= \ce{[H+] . [H B ^{2-}] \over [H2 B^-]} & \mathrm{p}K_2 &= -\log K_2 \\ \ce{H B^{-2}} &\ce} & K_3 &= \ce{[H+] . [B^{3-}] \over [H B^{2-}]} & \mathrm{p}K_3 &= -\log K_3 \end{align} ==Dissociation constant of water== The dissociation constant of water is denoted Kw: K_\mathrm{w} = [\ce{H}^+] [\ce{OH}^-] The concentration of water, [H2O], is omitted by convention, which means that the value of Kw differs from the value of Keq that would be computed using that concentration. The value of Kw varies with temperature, as shown in the table below. This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as pH.
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8,267
Dimensional analysis
In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric current) and units of measurement (such as metres and grams) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed. The term dimensional analysis is also used to refer to conversion of units from one dimensional unit to another, which can be used to evaluate scientific formulae. Commensurable physical quantities are of the same kind and have the same dimension, and can be directly compared to each other, even if they are expressed in differing units of measurement; e.g., metres and feet, grams and pounds, seconds and years. Incommensurable physical quantities are of different kinds and have different dimensions, and can not be directly compared to each other, no matter what units they are expressed in, e.g. metres and grams, seconds and grams, metres and seconds. For example, asking whether a gram is larger than an hour is meaningless. Any physically meaningful equation, or inequality, must have the same dimensions on its left and right sides, a property known as dimensional homogeneity. Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis, serving as a plausibility check on derived equations and computations. It also serves as a guide and constraint in deriving equations that may describe a physical system in the absence of a more rigorous derivation. The concept of physical dimension or quantity dimension, and of dimensional analysis, was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822. == Formulation == The Buckingham π theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of dimensionless parameters, where m is the rank of the dimensional matrix. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables. A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization, which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system or physical constants of nature. Mathematically, the dimension of the quantity is given by \operatorname{dim}Q = \mathsf{T}^a\mathsf{L}^b\mathsf{M}^c\mathsf{I}^d\mathsf{\Theta}^e\mathsf{N}^f\mathsf{J}^g where , , , , , , are the dimensional exponents. Other physical quantities could be defined as the base quantities, as long as they form a basis – for instance, one could replace the dimension (I) of electric current of the SI basis with a dimension (Q) of electric charge, since . A quantity that has only (with all other exponents zero) is known as a geometric quantity. A quantity that has only both and is known as a kinematic quantity. A quantity that has only all of , , and is known as a dynamic quantity. A quantity that has all exponents null is said to have dimension one. although this does not invalidate the usefulness of dimensional analysis. === Simple cases === As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed is \operatorname{dim}v = \frac{\text{length}}{\text{time}} = \frac{\mathsf{L}}{\mathsf{T}} = \mathsf{T}^{-1}\mathsf{L} . The dimension of the physical quantity acceleration is \operatorname{dim}a = \frac{\text{speed}}{\text{time}} = \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-1}\mathsf{L}}{\mathsf{T}} = \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L} . The dimension of the physical quantity force is \operatorname{dim}F = \text{mass} \times \text{acceleration} = \mathsf{M} \times \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L} = \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\mathsf{M} . The dimension of the physical quantity pressure is \operatorname{dim}P = \frac{\text{force}}{\text{area}} = \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\mathsf{M}}{\mathsf{L}^2} = \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}^{-1}\mathsf{M} . The dimension of the physical quantity energy is \operatorname{dim}E = \text{force} \times \text{displacement} = \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\mathsf{M} \times \mathsf{L} = \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M} . The dimension of the physical quantity power is \operatorname{dim}P = \frac{\text{energy}}{\text{time}} = \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M}}{\mathsf{T}} = \mathsf{T}^{-3}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M} . The dimension of the physical quantity electric charge is \operatorname{dim}Q = \text{current} \times \text{time} = \mathsf{T}\mathsf{I} . The dimension of the physical quantity voltage is \operatorname{dim}V = \frac{\text{power}}{\text{current}} = \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-3}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M}}{\mathsf{I}} = \mathsf{T^{-3}}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M} \mathsf{I}^{-1} . The dimension of the physical quantity capacitance is \operatorname{dim}C = \frac{\text{electric charge}}{\text{electric potential difference}} = \frac {\mathsf{T}\mathsf{I}}{\mathsf{T}^{-3}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M}\mathsf{I}^{-1}} = \mathsf{T^4}\mathsf{L^{-2}}\mathsf{M^{-1}}\mathsf{I^2} . === Rayleigh's method === In dimensional analysis, Rayleigh's method is a conceptual tool used in physics, chemistry, and engineering. It expresses a functional relationship of some variables in the form of an exponential equation. It was named after Lord Rayleigh. The method involves the following steps: Gather all the independent variables that are likely to influence the dependent variable. If is a variable that depends upon independent variables , , , ..., , then the functional equation can be written as . Write the above equation in the form , where is a dimensionless constant and , , , ..., are arbitrary exponents. Express each of the quantities in the equation in some base units in which the solution is required. By using dimensional homogeneity, obtain a set of simultaneous equations involving the exponents , , , ..., . Solve these equations to obtain the values of the exponents , , , ..., . Substitute the values of exponents in the main equation, and form the non-dimensional parameters by grouping the variables with like exponents. As a drawback, Rayleigh's method does not provide any information regarding number of dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis. == Concrete numbers and base units == Many parameters and measurements in the physical sciences and engineering are expressed as a concrete number—a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional unit. Often a quantity is expressed in terms of several other quantities; for example, speed is a combination of length and time, e.g. 60 kilometres per hour or 1.4 kilometres per second. Compound relations with "per" are expressed with division, e.g. 60 km/h. Other relations can involve multiplication (often shown with a centered dot or juxtaposition), powers (like m2 for square metres), or combinations thereof. A set of base units for a system of measurement is a conventionally chosen set of units, none of which can be expressed as a combination of the others and in terms of which all the remaining units of the system can be expressed. For example, units for length and time are normally chosen as base units. Units for volume, however, can be factored into the base units of length (m3), thus they are considered derived or compound units. Sometimes the names of units obscure the fact that they are derived units. For example, a newton (N) is a unit of force, which may be expressed as the product of mass (with unit kg) and acceleration (with unit m⋅s−2). The newton is defined as . === Percentages, derivatives and integrals === Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions. In other words, the % sign can be read as "hundredths", since . Taking a derivative with respect to a quantity divides the dimension by the dimension of the variable that is differentiated with respect to. Thus: position () has the dimension L (length); derivative of position with respect to time (, velocity) has dimension T−1L—length from position, time due to the gradient; the second derivative (, acceleration) has dimension . Likewise, taking an integral adds the dimension of the variable one is integrating with respect to, but in the numerator. force has the dimension (mass multiplied by acceleration); the integral of force with respect to the distance () the object has travelled (, work) has dimension . In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has a unit (say, widgets or dollars), while a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has a unit of the form of this unit divided by one of time (say, dollars/year). In some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions. For example, debt-to-GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total debt outstanding (dimension of currency) divided by annual GDP (dimension of currency)—but one may argue that, in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of currency/time (dollars/year, for instance) and thus debt-to-GDP should have the unit year, which indicates that debt-to-GDP is the number of years needed for a constant GDP to pay the debt, if all GDP is spent on the debt and the debt is otherwise unchanged. == Dimensional homogeneity (commensurability) == The most basic rule of dimensional analysis is that of dimensional homogeneity. However, the dimensions form an abelian group under multiplication, so: For example, it makes no sense to ask whether 1 hour is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, as these have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometre. However, it makes sense to ask whether 1 mile is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, being the same dimension of physical quantity even though the units are different. On the other hand, if an object travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and conclude that the object's average speed was 50 km/h. The rule implies that in a physically meaningful expression only quantities of the same dimension can be added, subtracted, or compared. For example, if , and denote, respectively, the mass of some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the dimensionally homogeneous expression is meaningful, but the heterogeneous expression is meaningless. However, is fine. Thus, dimensional analysis may be used as a sanity check of physical equations: the two sides of any equation must be commensurable or have the same dimensions. Even when two physical quantities have identical dimensions, it may nevertheless be meaningless to compare or add them. For example, although torque and energy share the dimension , they are fundamentally different physical quantities. To compare, add, or subtract quantities with the same dimensions but expressed in different units, the standard procedure is first to convert them all to the same unit. For example, to compare 32 metres with 35 yards, use to convert 35 yards to 32.004 m. A related principle is that any physical law that accurately describes the real world must be independent of the units used to measure the physical variables. For example, Newton's laws of motion must hold true whether distance is measured in miles or kilometres. This principle gives rise to the form that a conversion factor between two units that measure the same dimension must take multiplication by a simple constant. It also ensures equivalence; for example, if two buildings are the same height in feet, then they must be the same height in metres. == Conversion factor == In dimensional analysis, a ratio which converts one unit of measure into another without changing the quantity is called a conversion factor. For example, kPa and bar are both units of pressure, and . The rules of algebra allow both sides of an equation to be divided by the same expression, so this is equivalent to . Since any quantity can be multiplied by 1 without changing it, the expression "" can be used to convert from bars to kPa by multiplying it with the quantity to be converted, including the unit. For example, because , and bar/bar cancels out, so . == Applications == Dimensional analysis is most often used in physics and chemistry – and in the mathematics thereof – but finds some applications outside of those fields as well. === Mathematics === A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an -ball (the solid ball in n dimensions), or the area of its surface, the -sphere: being an -dimensional figure, the volume scales as , while the surface area, being -dimensional, scales as . Thus the volume of the -ball in terms of the radius is , for some constant . Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone. === Finance, economics, and accounting === In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly referred to in terms of the distinction between stocks and flows. More generally, dimensional analysis is used in interpreting various financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios. For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (unit: year), and can be interpreted as "years of earnings to earn the price paid". In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has the unit year (debt has a unit of currency, GDP has a unit of currency/year). Velocity of money has a unit of 1/years (GDP/money supply has a unit of currency/year over currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year. Annual continuously compounded interest rates and simple interest rates are often expressed as a percentage (adimensional quantity) while time is expressed as an adimensional quantity consisting of the number of years. However, if the time includes year as the unit of measure, the dimension of the rate is 1/year. Of course, there is nothing special (apart from the usual convention) about using year as a unit of time: any other time unit can be used. Furthermore, if rate and time include their units of measure, the use of different units for each is not problematic. In contrast, rate and time need to refer to a common period if they are adimensional. (Note that effective interest rates can only be defined as adimensional quantities.) In financial analysis, bond duration can be defined as , where is the value of a bond (or portfolio), is the continuously compounded interest rate and is a derivative. From the previous point, the dimension of is 1/time. Therefore, the dimension of duration is time (usually expressed in years) because is in the "denominator" of the derivative. === Fluid mechanics === In fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is performed to obtain dimensionless pi terms or groups. According to the principles of dimensional analysis, any prototype can be described by a series of these terms or groups that describe the behaviour of the system. Using suitable pi terms or groups, it is possible to develop a similar set of pi terms for a model that has the same dimensional relationships. In other words, pi terms provide a shortcut to developing a model representing a certain prototype. Common dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics include: Reynolds number (), generally important in all types of fluid problems: \mathrm{Re} = \frac{\rho\,ud}{\mu}. Froude number (), modeling flow with a free surface: \mathrm{Fr} = \frac{u}{\sqrt{g\,L}}. Euler number (), used in problems in which pressure is of interest: \mathrm{Eu} = \frac{\Delta p}{\rho u^2}. Mach number (), important in high speed flows where the velocity approaches or exceeds the local speed of sound: \mathrm{Ma} = \frac{u}{c}, where is the local speed of sound. == History == The origins of dimensional analysis have been disputed by historians. The first written application of dimensional analysis has been credited to François Daviet, a student of Joseph-Louis Lagrange, in a 1799 article at the Turin Academy of Science. In the second edition of 1833, Poisson explicitly introduces the term dimension instead of the Daviet homogeneity. In 1822, the important Napoleonic scientist Joseph Fourier made the first credited important contributions based on the idea that physical laws like Newton's second law| should be independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables. James Clerk Maxwell played a major role in establishing modern use of dimensional analysis by distinguishing mass, length, and time as fundamental units, while referring to other units as derived. Although Maxwell defined length, time and mass to be "the three fundamental units", he also noted that gravitational mass can be derived from length and time by assuming a form of Newton's law of universal gravitation in which the gravitational constant is taken as unity, thereby defining . By assuming a form of Coulomb's law in which the Coulomb constant ke is taken as unity, Maxwell then determined that the dimensions of an electrostatic unit of charge were , which, after substituting his equation for mass, results in charge having the same dimensions as mass, viz. . Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize. It was used for the first time in this way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue. Rayleigh first published the technique in his 1877 book The Theory of Sound. The original meaning of the word dimension, in Fourier's Theorie de la Chaleur, was the numerical value of the exponents of the base units. For example, acceleration was considered to have the dimension 1 with respect to the unit of length, and the dimension −2 with respect to the unit of time. This was slightly changed by Maxwell, who said the dimensions of acceleration are T−2L, instead of just the exponents. == Examples == === A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator === What is the period of oscillation of a mass attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant suspended in gravity of strength ? That period is the solution for of some dimensionless equation in the variables , , , and . The four quantities have the following dimensions: [T]; [M]; [M/T2]; and [L/T2]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, , and putting for some dimensionless constant gives the dimensionless equation sought. The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables; here the term "group" means "collection" rather than mathematical group. They are often called dimensionless numbers as well. The variable does not occur in the group. It is easy to see that it is impossible to form a dimensionless product of powers that combines with , , and , because is the only quantity that involves the dimension L. This implies that in this problem the is irrelevant. Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the irrelevance of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of : it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: , for some dimensionless constant (equal to \sqrt{C} from the original dimensionless equation). When faced with a case where dimensional analysis rejects a variable (, here) that one intuitively expects to belong in a physical description of the situation, another possibility is that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, but that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here. When dimensional analysis yields only one dimensionless group, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be "complete" – although it still may involve unknown dimensionless constants, such as . === A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire === Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length (L) vibrating with an amplitude (L). The wire has a linear density (M/L) and is under tension (LM/T2), and we want to know the energy (L2M/T2) in the wire. Let and be two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, given by \begin{align} \pi_1 &= \frac{E}{As} \\ \pi_2 &= \frac{\ell}{A}. \end{align} The linear density of the wire is not involved. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation F\left(\frac{E}{As}, \frac{\ell}{A}\right) = 0 , where is some unknown function, or, equivalently as E = As f\left(\frac{\ell}{A}\right) , where is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: the energy is proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function . But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension. Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to , and so infer that . The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident. The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex. Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood. In such cases, the answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by dimensional analysis. === A third example: demand versus capacity for a rotating disc === Consider the case of a thin, solid, parallel-sided rotating disc of axial thickness (L) and radius (L). The disc has a density (M/L3), rotates at an angular velocity (T−1) and this leads to a stress (T−2L−1M) in the material. There is a theoretical linear elastic solution, given by Lame, to this problem when the disc is thin relative to its radius, the faces of the disc are free to move axially, and the plane stress constitutive relations can be assumed to be valid. As the disc becomes thicker relative to the radius then the plane stress solution breaks down. If the disc is restrained axially on its free faces then a state of plane strain will occur. However, if this is not the case then the state of stress may only be determined though consideration of three-dimensional elasticity and there is no known theoretical solution for this case. An engineer might, therefore, be interested in establishing a relationship between the five variables. Dimensional analysis for this case leads to the following () non-dimensional groups: demand/capacity = thickness/radius or aspect ratio = Through the use of numerical experiments using, for example, the finite element method, the nature of the relationship between the two non-dimensional groups can be obtained as shown in the figure. As this problem only involves two non-dimensional groups, the complete picture is provided in a single plot and this can be used as a design/assessment chart for rotating discs. == Properties == === Mathematical properties === The dimensions that can be formed from a given collection of basic physical dimensions, such as T, L, and M, form an abelian group: The identity is written as 1; , and the inverse of L is 1/L or L−1. L raised to any integer power is a member of the group, having an inverse of L or 1/L. The operation of the group is multiplication, having the usual rules for handling exponents (). Physically, 1/L can be interpreted as reciprocal length, and 1/T as reciprocal time (see reciprocal second). An abelian group is equivalent to a module over the integers, with the dimensional symbol corresponding to the tuple . When physical measured quantities (be they like-dimensioned or unlike-dimensioned) are multiplied or divided by one other, their dimensional units are likewise multiplied or divided; this corresponds to addition or subtraction in the module. When measurable quantities are raised to an integer power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this corresponds to scalar multiplication in the module. A basis for such a module of dimensional symbols is called a set of base quantities, and all other vectors are called derived units. As in any module, one may choose different bases, which yields different systems of units (e.g., choosing whether the unit for charge is derived from the unit for current, or vice versa). The group identity, the dimension of dimensionless quantities, corresponds to the origin in this module, . In certain cases, one can define fractional dimensions, specifically by formally defining fractional powers of one-dimensional vector spaces, like . However, it is not possible to take arbitrary fractional powers of units, due to representation-theoretic obstructions. One can work with vector spaces with given dimensions without needing to use units (corresponding to coordinate systems of the vector spaces). For example, given dimensions and , one has the vector spaces and , and can define as the tensor product. Similarly, the dual space can be interpreted as having "negative" dimensions. This corresponds to the fact that under the natural pairing between a vector space and its dual, the dimensions cancel, leaving a dimensionless scalar. The set of units of the physical quantities involved in a problem correspond to a set of vectors (or a matrix). The nullity describes some number (e.g., ) of ways in which these vectors can be combined to produce a zero vector. These correspond to producing (from the measurements) a number of dimensionless quantities, . (In fact these ways completely span the null subspace of another different space, of powers of the measurements.) Every possible way of multiplying (and exponentiating) together the measured quantities to produce something with the same unit as some derived quantity can be expressed in the general form X = \prod_{i=1}^m (\pi_i)^{k_i}\,. Consequently, every possible commensurate equation for the physics of the system can be rewritten in the form f(\pi_1,\pi_2, ..., \pi_m)=0\,. Knowing this restriction can be a powerful tool for obtaining new insight into the system. === Mechanics === The dimension of physical quantities of interest in mechanics can be expressed in terms of base dimensions T, L, and M – these form a 3-dimensional vector space. This is not the only valid choice of base dimensions, but it is the one most commonly used. For example, one might choose force, length and mass as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis. The choice of the base set of dimensions is thus a convention, with the benefit of increased utility and familiarity. The choice of base dimensions is not entirely arbitrary, because they must form a basis: they must span the space, and be linearly independent. For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form a basis that is equivalent to T, L, M: the former can be expressed as [F = LM/T2], L, M, while the latter can be expressed as [T = (LM/F)1/2], L, M. On the other hand, length, velocity and time (T, L, V) do not form a set of base dimensions for mechanics, for two reasons: There is no way to obtain mass – or anything derived from it, such as force – without introducing another base dimension (thus, they do not span the space). Velocity, being expressible in terms of length and time (), is redundant (the set is not linearly independent). === Other fields of physics and chemistry === Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of T, L, M and Q, where Q represents the dimension of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ. In chemistry, the amount of substance (the number of molecules divided by the Avogadro constant, ≈ ) is also defined as a base dimension, N. In the interaction of relativistic plasma with strong laser pulses, a dimensionless relativistic similarity parameter, connected with the symmetry properties of the collisionless Vlasov equation, is constructed from the plasma-, electron- and critical-densities in addition to the electromagnetic vector potential. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are common and necessary features. === Polynomials and transcendental functions === Bridgman's theorem restricts the type of function that can be used to define a physical quantity from general (dimensionally compounded) quantities to only products of powers of the quantities, unless some of the independent quantities are algebraically combined to yield dimensionless groups, whose functions are grouped together in the dimensionless numeric multiplying factor. This excludes polynomials of more than one term or transcendental functions not of that form. Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. (Note: this requirement is somewhat relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned quantities are dimensionless.) While most mathematical identities about dimensionless numbers translate in a straightforward manner to dimensional quantities, care must be taken with logarithms of ratios: the identity , where the logarithm is taken in any base, holds for dimensionless numbers and , but it does not hold if and are dimensional, because in this case the left-hand side is well-defined but the right-hand side is not. Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials () of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate polynomials of mixed degree with dimensionless coefficients on dimensional quantities: for , the expression makes sense (as an area), while for , the expression does not make sense. However, polynomials of mixed degree can make sense if the coefficients are suitably chosen physical quantities that are not dimensionless. For example, \tfrac{1}{2} \cdot (\mathrm{-9.8~m/s^2}) \cdot t^2 + (\mathrm{500~m/s}) \cdot t. This is the height to which an object rises in time  if the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 and the initial upward speed is 500 . It is not necessary for to be in seconds. For example, suppose  = 0.01 minutes. Then the first term would be \begin{align} &\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot (\mathrm{-9.8~m/s^2}) \cdot (\mathrm{0.01~min})^2 \\[10pt] ={} &\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot -9.8 \cdot \left(0.01^2\right) (\mathrm{min/s})^2 \cdot \mathrm{m} \\[10pt] ={} &\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot -9.8 \cdot \left(0.01^2\right) \cdot 60^2 \cdot \mathrm{m}. \end{align} === Combining units and numerical values === The value of a dimensional physical quantity is written as the product of a unit [] within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical value or numerical factor, . Z = n \times [Z] = n [Z] When like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, it is convenient to express them in the same unit so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, in concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units. For example, 1 metre added to 1 foot is a length, but one cannot derive that length by simply adding 1 and 1. A conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is needed: \mathrm{1\,ft} = \mathrm{0.3048\,m} is identical to 1 = \frac{\mathrm{0.3048\,m}}{\mathrm{1\,ft}}. The factor 0.3048 m/ft is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes nothing. Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to the same unit so that their numerical values can be added or subtracted. Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units. === Quantity equations === A quantity equation, also sometimes called a complete equation, is an equation that remains valid independently of the unit of measurement used when expressing the physical quantities. == Dimensionless concepts == === Constants === The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the in the spring problems discussed above, come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics and often arise from integrating some differential equation. Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity. This observation can allow one to sometimes make "back of the envelope" calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc. === Formalisms === Paradoxically, dimensional analysis can be a useful tool even if all the parameters in the underlying theory are dimensionless, e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and critical phenomena. Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way. As we approach the critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the so-called correlation length, ) becomes larger and larger. Now, the correlation length is the relevant length scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmise on "dimensional grounds" that the non-analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be , where is the dimension of the lattice. It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael J. Duff, that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other. The three independent dimensionful constants: Speed of light|, Planck constant|, and Gravitational constant|, in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other. Just as in the case of critical properties of lattice models, one can recover the results of dimensional analysis in the appropriate scaling limit; e.g., dimensional analysis in mechanics can be derived by reinserting the constants , , and (but we can now consider them to be dimensionless) and demanding that a nonsingular relation between quantities exists in the limit , and . In problems involving a gravitational field the latter limit should be taken such that the field stays finite. == Dimensional equivalences == Following are tables of commonly occurring expressions in physics, related to the dimensions of energy, momentum, and force. === SI units === == Programming languages == Dimensional correctness as part of type checking has been studied since 1977. Implementations for Ada and C++ were described in 1985 and 1988. Kennedy's 1996 thesis describes an implementation in Standard ML, and later in F#. There are implementations for Haskell, OCaml, and Rust, Python, and a code checker for Fortran. Griffioen's 2019 thesis extended Kennedy's Hindley–Milner type system to support Hart's matrices. McBride and Nordvall-Forsberg show how to use dependent types to extend type systems for units of measure. Mathematica 13.2 has a function for transformations with quantities named NondimensionalizationTransform that applies a nondimensionalization transform to an equation. Mathematica also has a function to find the dimensions of a unit such as 1 J named UnitDimensions. Mathematica also has a function that will find dimensionally equivalent combinations of a subset of physical quantities named DimensionalCombations. Mathematica can also factor out certain dimension with UnitDimensions by specifying an argument to the function UnityDimensions. For example, you can use UnityDimensions to factor out angles. == Geometry: position vs. displacement == === Affine quantities === Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly describe all quantities as mathematical vectors. In mathematics scalars are considered a special case of vectors; vectors can be added to or subtracted from other vectors, and, inter alia, multiplied or divided by scalars. If a vector is used to define a position, this assumes an implicit point of reference: an origin. While this is useful and often perfectly adequate, allowing many important errors to be caught, it can fail to model certain aspects of physics. A more rigorous approach requires distinguishing between position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or absolute temperature versus temperature change). Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them. Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable: adding two displacements should yield a new displacement (walking ten paces then twenty paces gets you thirty paces forward), adding a displacement to a position should yield a new position (walking one block down the street from an intersection gets you to the next intersection), subtracting two positions should yield a displacement, but one may not add two positions. This illustrates the subtle distinction between affine quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as position) and vector quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement). Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space acts on an affine space), yielding a new affine quantity. Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding relative quantities which are vectors, and these relative differences may then be added to each other or to an affine quantity. Properly then, positions have dimension of affine length, while displacements have dimension of vector length. To assign a number to an affine unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a point of reference, while to assign a number to a vector unit only requires a unit of measurement. Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by vectorial quantities while others tend to require affine representation, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis. This distinction is particularly important in the case of temperature, for which the numeric value of absolute zero is not the origin 0 in some scales. For absolute zero, −273.15 °C ≘ 0 K = 0 °R ≘ −459.67 °F, where the symbol ≘ means corresponds to, since although these values on the respective temperature scales correspond, they represent distinct quantities in the same way that the distances from distinct starting points to the same end point are distinct quantities, and cannot in general be equated. For temperature differences, 1 K = 1 °C ≠ 1 °F = 1 °R. (Here °R refers to the Rankine scale, not the Réaumur scale). Unit conversion for temperature differences is simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 °F / 1 K (although the ratio is not a constant value). But because some of these scales have origins that do not correspond to absolute zero, conversion from one temperature scale to another requires accounting for that. As a result, simple dimensional analysis can lead to errors if it is ambiguous whether 1 K means the absolute temperature equal to −272.15 °C, or the temperature difference equal to 1 °C. === Orientation and frame of reference === Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (In 1 dimension, this issue is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in multi-dimensional Euclidean space, one also needs a bearing: they need to be compared to a frame of reference. This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis. === Huntley's extensions === Huntley has pointed out that a dimensional analysis can become more powerful by discovering new independent dimensions in the quantities under consideration, thus increasing the rank m of the dimensional matrix. He introduced two approaches: The magnitudes of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally independent. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length dimension L, we may have Lx represent dimension in the x-direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent. Mass as a measure of the quantity of matter is to be considered dimensionally independent from mass as a measure of inertia. ==== Directed dimensions ==== As an example of the usefulness of the first approach, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannonball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component v_\text{y} and a horizontal velocity component , assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then , the distance travelled, with dimension L, , , both dimensioned as T−1L, and the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension T−2L. With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range may be written: R \propto v_\text{x}^a\,v_\text{y}^b\,g^c . Or dimensionally \mathsf{L} = \left(\mathsf{T}^{-1}\mathsf{L}\right)^{a+b} \left(\mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\right)^c from which we may deduce that a + b + c = 1 and , which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental dimensions T and L, and four parameters, with one equation. However, if we use directed length dimensions, then v_\mathrm{x} will be dimensioned as T−1L, v_\mathrm{y} as T−1L, as L and as T−2L. The dimensional equation becomes: \mathsf{L}_\mathrm{x} = \left({\mathsf{T}^{-1}}{\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{x}}\right)^a \left({\mathsf{T}^{-1}}{\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{y}}\right)^b \left({\mathsf{T}^{-2}}{\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{y}}\right)^c and we may solve completely as , and . The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions is apparent. Huntley's concept of directed length dimensions however has some serious limitations: It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product, nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables. It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, L, L, L, symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of "symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries? Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's directed length dimensions to real problems. ==== Quantity of matter ==== In Huntley's second approach, he holds that it is sometimes useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of the quantity of matter. Quantity of matter is defined by Huntley as a quantity only to inertial mass, while not implicating inertial properties. No further restrictions are added to its definition. For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass, we may choose as the relevant variables: There are three fundamental variables, so the above five equations will yield two independent dimensionless variables: \pi_1 = \frac{\dot{m}}{\eta r} \pi_2 = \frac{p_\mathrm{x}\rho r^5}{\dot{m}^2} If we distinguish between inertial mass with dimension M_\text{i} and quantity of matter with dimension M_\text{m}, then mass flow rate and density will use quantity of matter as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written: C = \frac{p_\mathrm{x}\rho r^4}{\eta \dot{m}} where now only is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to \pi/8 by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law. Huntley's recognition of quantity of matter as an independent quantity dimension is evidently successful in the problems where it is applicable, but his definition of quantity of matter is open to interpretation, as it lacks specificity beyond the two requirements he postulated for it. For a given substance, the SI dimension amount of substance, with unit mole, does satisfy Huntley's two requirements as a measure of quantity of matter, and could be used as a quantity of matter in any problem of dimensional analysis where Huntley's concept is applicable. === Siano's extension: orientational analysis === Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless quantities (although the wisdom of this is contested ) . As an example, consider again the projectile problem in which a point mass is launched from the origin at a speed and angle above the x-axis, with the force of gravity directed along the negative y-axis. It is desired to find the range , at which point the mass returns to the x-axis. Conventional analysis will yield the dimensionless variable , but offers no insight into the relationship between and . Siano has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using orientational symbols to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 10. Thus, Huntley's L becomes L1 with L specifying the dimension of length, and specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that , the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results: The orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or "Viergruppe"). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem". Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has the orientation of . For angles, consider an angle that lies in the z-plane. Form a right triangle in the z-plane with being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation and the side opposite has an orientation . Since (using to indicate orientational equivalence) we conclude that an angle in the xy-plane must have an orientation , which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that has orientation while has orientation 10. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form , where and are real scalars. An expression such as \sin(\theta+\pi/2)=\cos(\theta) is not dimensionally inconsistent since it is a special case of the sum of angles formula and should properly be written: \sin\left(a\,1_\text{z} + b\,1_\text{z}\right) = \sin\left(a\,1_\text{z}) \cos(b\,1_\text{z}\right) + \sin\left(b\,1_\text{z}) \cos(a\,1_\text{z}\right), which for a = \theta and b = \pi/2 yields . Siano distinguishes between geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e. the orientation of a phase angle is . The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach, one solves the dimensional equation as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral, putting it into normal form. The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols. The solution is then more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often, the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd. As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, , being in the xy-plane will thus have dimension and the range of the projectile will be of the form: R = g^a\,v^b\,\theta^c\text{ which means }\mathsf{L}\,1_\mathrm{x} \sim \left(\frac{\mathsf{L}\,1_\text{y}}{\mathsf{T}^2}\right)^a \left(\frac{\mathsf{L}}{\mathsf{T}}\right)^b\,1_\mathsf{z}^c.\, Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield and , and orientational homogeneity requires that . In other words, that must be an odd integer. In fact, the required function of theta will be which is a series consisting of odd powers of . It is seen that the Taylor series of and are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like and are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical. Siano's orientational analysis is compatible with the conventional conception of angular quantities as being dimensionless, and within orientational analysis, the radian may still be considered a dimensionless unit. The orientational analysis of a quantity equation is carried out separately from the ordinary dimensional analysis, yielding information that supplements the dimensional analysis.
[ "electric current", "physical quantity", "physics", "Fermi estimate", "torque", "Linear span", "parallelogram law", "Simeon Poisson", "Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis", "Poiseuille's law", "velocity", "dependent variable", "Natural units", "Basis (linear algebra)", "moment of inertia", "basis (linear algebra)", "simultaneous equations", "natural pairing", "Reynolds number", "multiplication", "financial ratios", "magnetic field", "gravitational constant", "Work (physics)", "relativistic plasma", "Fortran", "distance", "Poynting vector", "Tension (physics)", "identity element", "reciprocal second", "Power (mathematics)", "Haskell", "cross product", "debt-to-GDP ratio", "Similitude", "back of the envelope", "Angle", "Formal proof", "Juxtaposition", "Dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics", "independent variable", "Scalar (physics)", "OCaml", "action (physics)", "Brady Haran", "magnetic vector potential", "electric field", "representation theory", "chemistry", "concrete number", "monomials", "Equation solving", "linearly independent", "force", "Harmonic oscillator", "kinematic", "conversion of units", "Hindley–Milner type system", "speed", "Rankine scale", "computation", "mechanics", "electric charge", "permeability (electromagnetism)", "root mean square velocity", "radian", "variable (mathematics)", "Internet Archive", "characteristic units", "Origin (mathematics)", "Mole (unit)", "acceleration", "Poiseuille's Law", "Joseph Fourier", "N-sphere", "affine space", "ampere", "amplitude", "physical constant", "density", "bond duration", "Froude number", "displacement (vector)", "Avogadro constant", "voltage", "Turin", "inhomogeneous polynomial", "exponentiating", "non-dimensional", "exponential equation", "units of measurement", "system", "fluid mechanics", "F Sharp (programming language)", "engineering", "Michael Duff (physicist)", "System of measurement", "functional relationship", "length", "origin (mathematics)", "thermodynamics", "energy", "vector space", "Rust (programming language)", "quantities", "functional equation", "trajectory", "Group (mathematics)", "Taylor series", "Vlasov equation", "science", "Edwin Bidwell Wilson", "equation", "sanity check", "1", "geometric", "Newton's second law", "Canonical form", "Geometric algebra", "Velocity of money", "relativistic similarity parameter", "electric dipole moment", "Quantity calculus", "Kernel (linear algebra)", "base quantities", "Mach number", "mass", "Exterior algebra", "dimensionless constant", "Klein four-group", "P/E ratio", "gravity", "unit of measurement", "Coulomb constant", "Unit of measurement", "reciprocal length", "Power (physics)", "dimensionless quantities", "absolute zero", "Gravitational constant", "displacement (geometry)", "conversion factor", "finite element method", "change of basis", "Group action (mathematics)", "phase velocity", "University of Nottingham", "angular velocity", "abelian group", "logarithm", "time", "Exponential function", "tensor product", "n-sphere", "Réaumur scale", "dependent type", "power (mathematics)", "Division (mathematics)", "Base unit (measurement)", "intensity (physics)", "rational number", "conversion factors", "parameter", "Buckingham π theorem", "Taylor expansion", "volume", "Trigonometric function", "inequality (mathematics)", "Coulomb's law", "dimensionless", "Joseph-Louis Lagrange", "entropic force", "luminous intensity", "Euler number (physics)", "type checking", "Numerical-value equation", "absolute temperature", "Covariance and contravariance of vectors", "Huygens–Fresnel principle", "Kind of quantity", "dimensionless number", "system of measurement", "frame of reference", "amount of substance", "capacitance", "dynamics (mechanics)", "scalar multiplication", "physical quantities", "centered dot", "pressure", "Newton's law of universal gravitation", "electric potential", "Standard ML", "Lord Rayleigh", "rank of a matrix", "Newton's laws of motion", "James Clerk Maxwell", "stocks and flows", "linear density", "sans serif", "newton (unit)", "Speed of light", "nondimensionalization", "matrix (mathematics)", "transcendental function", "permittivity", "Planck constant", "power (physics)", "set (mathematics)", "roman type", "Combining like terms", "Stock and flow", "area", "Simultaneous equations", "François Daviet de Foncenex", "SI standard", "module (mathematics)", "Ising model", "angular momentum", "momentum" ]
8,270
December 25
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 36 – Forces of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, under the command of Wu Han, conquer the separatist Chengjia empire, reuniting China. 274 – A temple to Sol Invictus is dedicated in Rome by Emperor Aurelian. 333 – Roman Emperor Constantine the Great elevates his youngest son Constans to the rank of Caesar. 336 – First documentary sign of Christmas celebration in Rome. 350 – Vetranio meets Constantius II at Naissus (Serbia) and is forced to abdicate his imperial title. Constantius allows him to live as a private citizen on a state pension. 508 – Clovis I, king of the Franks, is baptized into the Catholic faith at Reims, by Saint Remigius. 597 – Augustine of Canterbury and his fellow-labourers baptise in Kent more than 10,000 Anglo-Saxons. 800 – The coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome. 820 – Eastern Emperor Leo V is murdered in a church of the Great Palace of Constantinople by followers of Michael II. 1000 – The foundation of the Kingdom of Hungary: Hungary is established as a Christian kingdom by Stephen I of Hungary. 1013 – Sweyn Forkbeard takes control of the Danelaw and is proclaimed king of England. 1025 – Coronation of Mieszko II Lambert as king of Poland. 1046 – Henry III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II. 1066 – William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy is crowned king of England, at Westminster Abbey, London. 1076 – Coronation of Bolesław II the Generous as king of Poland. 1100 – Baldwin of Boulogne is crowned the first King of Jerusalem in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. 1130 – Count Roger II of Sicily is crowned the first king of Sicily. 1261 – Eleven-year-old John IV Laskaris of the restored Eastern Roman Empire is deposed and blinded by orders of his co-ruler Michael VIII Palaiologos. 1492 – The carrack Santa María, commanded by Christopher Columbus, runs onto a reef off Haiti due to an improper watch. 1553 – Battle of Tucapel: Mapuche rebels under Lautaro defeat the Spanish conquistadors and executes the governor of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia. 1559 – Pope Pius IV is elected, four months after his predecessor's death. ===1601–1900=== 1724 – J. S. Bach leads the first performance of Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, in Leipzig, based on Luther's 1524 Christmas hymn. 1758 – Halley's Comet is sighted by Johann Georg Palitzsch, confirming Edmund Halley's prediction of its passage. This was the first passage of a comet predicted ahead of time. 1766 – Mapuches in Chile launch a series of surprise attacks against the Spanish starting the Mapuche uprising of 1766. 1776 – American Revolutionary War: General George Washington and the Continental Army cross the Delaware River at night to attack Hessian forces serving Great Britain at Trenton, New Jersey, the next day. 1793 – Northwest Indian War: General "Mad Anthony" Wayne and a 300 man detachment identify the site of St. Clair's 1791 defeat by the large number of unburied human remains at modern Fort Recovery, Ohio. 1809 – Dr. Ephraim McDowell performs the first ovariotomy, removing a 22-pound tumor. 1814 – Rev. Samuel Marsden holds the first Christian service on land in New Zealand at Rangihoua Bay. 1815 – The Handel and Haydn Society, oldest continually performing arts organization in the United States, gives its first performance. 1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy concludes after beginning the previous evening. 1831 – The Great Jamaican Slave Revolt begins; up to 20% of Jamaica's slaves mobilize in an ultimately unsuccessful fight for freedom. 1837 – Second Seminole War: American general Zachary Taylor leads 1,100 troops against the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee. 1868 – Pardons for ex-Confederates: United States President Andrew Johnson grants an unconditional pardon to all Confederate veterans. 1870 – Wagner's Siegfried Idyll is first performed. ===1901–present=== 1914 – World War I: A series of unofficial truces occur across the Western Front to celebrate Christmas. 1915 – The National Protection War breaks out against the Empire of China, as military leaders Cai E and Tang Jiyao proclaim the independence of Yunnan and begin a campaign to restore the Republic. 1927 – B. R. Ambedkar and his followers burn copies of the Manusmriti in Mahad, Maharashtra, to protest its treatment of Dalit people. 1932 – A magnitude 7.6 earthquake in Gansu, China kills 275 people. 1941 – Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, appointed commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet on December 17, arrives at Pearl Harbor. 1941 – World War II: Battle of Hong Kong ends, beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. 1941 – Admiral Émile Muselier seizes the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which become the first part of France to be liberated by the Free French Forces. 1946 – The first European self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is initiated within the Soviet Union's F-1 nuclear reactor. 1950 – The Stone of Scone, traditional coronation stone of British monarchs, is taken from Westminster Abbey by Scottish nationalist students. It later turns up in Scotland on April 11, 1951. 1951 – A bomb explodes at the home of Harry T. Moore and Harriette V. S. Moore, early leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, killing Harry instantly and fatally wounding Harriette. 1962 – The Soviet Union conducts its final above-ground nuclear weapon test, in anticipation of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. 1963 – Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Radio begins transmitting in Cyprus after Turkish Cypriots are forcibly excluded from Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation. 1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 performs the first successful Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver, sending the crew and spacecraft on a trajectory back to Earth from Lunar orbit. 1968 – Kilvenmani massacre: Forty-four Dalits (untouchables) are burnt to death in Kizhavenmani village, Tamil Nadu, a retaliation for a campaign for higher wages by Dalit laborers. 1976 – EgyptAir Flight 864, a Boeing 707-366C, crashes on approach to Don Mueang International Airport, killing 71 people. 1977 – Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin meets in Egypt with its president Anwar Sadat. 1986 – Iraqi Airways Flight 163, a Boeing 737-270C, is hijacked and crashes in Arar, Saudi Arabia, killing 63 people. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Deposed President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, are condemned to death and executed after a summary trial. 1991 – Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union (the union itself is dissolved the next day). Ukraine's referendum is finalized and Ukraine officially leaves the Soviet Union. 1996 – The body of American child beauty queen JonBenét Ramsey was found in her family's Boulder, Colorado, home. Her murder remains unsolved. 1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 310, a Yakovlev Yak-42, crashes near Bejuma, Carabobo State, Venezuela, killing 22 people. 2003 – UTA Flight 141, a Boeing 727-223, crashes at the Cotonou Airport in Benin, killing 141 people. 2003 – The ill-fated Beagle 2 probe, released from the Mars Express spacecraft on December 19, stops transmitting shortly before its scheduled landing. 2004 – The Cassini orbiter releases Huygens probe which successfully landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005. 2012 – An Antonov An-72 plane crashes close to the city of Shymkent, killing 27 people. 2012 – Air Bagan Flight 011, a Fokker 100, crashes on approach to Heho Airport in Heho, Myanmar, killing two people. 2016 – A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 carrying members of the Alexandrov Ensemble crashes into the Black Sea shortly after takeoff, killing all 92 people on board. 2019 – Twenty people are killed and thousands are left homeless by Typhoon Phanfone in the Philippines. 2020 – An explosion in Nashville, Tennessee, occurs, leaving three civilians in the hospital. 2021 – The James Webb Space Telescope is launched. 2024 – Azerbaijan Airlines Flight 8243 crashes in Aktau, Kazakhstan, killing 38 of its occupants. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1250 – John IV Laskaris, Byzantine emperor (d. 1305) 1281 – Alice de Lacy, 4th Countess of Lincoln (d. 1348) 1400 – John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1487) 1424 – Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (d. 1445) 1461 – Christina of Saxony, Queen consort of Denmark (d. 1521) 1490 – Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562) 1493 – Antoinette de Bourbon, French noblewoman (d. 1583) 1505 – Christine of Saxony, German noblewoman (d. 1549) 1564 – Johannes Buxtorf, German Calvinist theologian (d. 1629) 1583 – Orlando Gibbons, English organist and composer (d. 1625) 1584 – Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain (d. 1611) ===1601–1900=== 1601 – Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1675) 1628 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (d. 1707) 1642 – Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (d. 1727) 1652 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician, anatomist, and scholar (d. 1713) 1665 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish-English poet and songwriter (d. 1746) 1674 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish minister and theologian (d. 1712) 1686 – Giovanni Battista Somis, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1763) 1700 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1758) 1711 – Jean-Joseph de Mondonville, French violinist and composer (d. 1772) 1716 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (d. 1774) 1717 – Pope Pius VI (d. 1799) 1728 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (d. 1804) 1730 – Filippo Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (d. 1816) 1745 – Chevalier de Saint-Georges, Caribbean-French violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1799) 1757 – Benjamin Pierce, American general and politician, 17th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1839) 1766 – Christmas Evans, Welsh Nonconformist preacher (d. 1838) 1771 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and poet (d. 1855) 1776 – Sydney, Lady Morgan, Irish author and poet (d. 1859) 1810 – L. L. Langstroth, American apiarist, clergyman and teacher (d. 1895) 1821 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founder of the American Red Cross (d. 1912) 1825 – Stephen F. Chadwick, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Oregon (d. 1895) 1829 – Patrick Gilmore, Irish-American composer and bandleader (d. 1892) 1856 – Pud Galvin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1902) 1861 – Francis Henry Buzzacott, American hunter, explorer and army scout famous for writing Buzzacott's Masterpiece (d. 1947) 1861 – Madan Mohan Malaviya, Indian educator, lawyer, and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (d. 1946) 1865 – Evangeline Booth, English 4th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1950) 1869 – Charles Finger, English-American journalist and author (d. 1941) 1872 – Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 1965) 1873 – Otto Frederick Hunziker, Swiss-American agriculturalist and educator (d. 1959) 1874 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano and actress (d. 1944) 1875 – Francis Aveling, Canadian psychologist and priest (d. 1941) 1875 – Theodor Innitzer, Austrian cardinal (d. 1955) 1876 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Pakistan (d. 1948) 1876 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959) 1878 – Louis Chevrolet, American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Chevrolet (d. 1941) 1878 – Noël, Countess of Rothes, British philanthropist, social leader and heroine of Titanic disaster (d. 1956) 1878 – Joseph M. Schenck, Russian-American film producer (d. 1961) 1883 – Hugo Bergmann, Czech-Israeli philosopher and academic (d. 1975) 1883 – Hana Meisel, Belarusian-Israeli agronomist and politician (d. 1972) 1884 – Samuel Berger, American boxer (d. 1925) 1884 – Evelyn Nesbit, American model and actress (d. 1967) 1886 – Malak Hifni Nasif, Egyptian poet and activist (d. 1918) 1886 – Kid Ory, American trombonist and bandleader (d. 1973) 1887 – Conrad Hilton, American entrepreneur (d. 1979) 1889 – Lila Bell Wallace, American publisher and philanthropist, co-founded Reader's Digest (d. 1984) 1890 – Noel Odell, English geologist and mountaineer (d. 1987) 1891 – Kenneth Anderson, Indian-English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1959) 1891 – Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (d. 1980) 1899 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester (d. 2004) 1902 – William Bell, American tuba player and educator (d. 1971) 1902 – Barton MacLane, American actor, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1969) 1903 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1981) 1904 – Gerhard Herzberg, German-Canadian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1904 – Philip Vera Cruz, Filipino-American labor leader and farmworker (d. 1994) 1906 – Lew Grade, Baron Grade, Ukrainian-English film producer (d. 1998) 1906 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988) 1907 – Cab Calloway, American singer-songwriter and bandleader (d. 1994) 1907 – Mike Mazurki, Ukrainian-American wrestler and actor (d. 1990) 1907 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (d. 1988) 1908 – Quentin Crisp, English author and illustrator (d. 1999) 1908 – Ernest L. Massad, American general (d. 1993) 1908 – Jo-Jo Moore, American baseball player (d. 2001) 1909 – Zora Arkus-Duntov, Belgian-American engineer (d. 1996) 1911 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (d. 2010) 1913 – Candy Candido, American singer, bass player, and voice actor (d. 1999) 1913 – Tony Martin, American singer (d. 2012) 1914 – James Fletcher Jnr, New Zealand businessman (d. 2007) 1914 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (d. 1970) 1915 – Pete Rugolo, Italian-American composer and producer (d. 2011) 1916 – Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (d. 2012) 1917 – Arseny Mironov, Russian scientist, engineer, pilot, oldest active researcher in aircraft aerodynamics and flight testing (d. 2019) 1917 – Lincoln Verduga Loor, Ecuadorian journalist and politician (d. 2009) 1918 – Anwar Sadat, Egyptian lieutenant and politician, 3rd President of Egypt, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981) 1919 – Naushad Ali, Indian composer and director (d. 2006) 1919 – Paul David, Canadian cardiologist and politician, founded the Montreal Heart Institute (d. 1999) 1919 – Noele Gordon, English actress (d. 1985) 1921 – Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah, Indian-Pakistani journalist and author (d. 2000) 1921 – Steve Otto, Polish-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989) 1922 – William Demby, American author (d. 2013) 1923 – René Girard, French-American historian, philosopher, and critic (d. 2015) 1923 – Louis Lane, American conductor and educator (d. 2016) 1924 – Rod Serling, American screenwriter and producer, created The Twilight Zone (d. 1975) 1924 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian poet and politician, 10th Prime Minister of India (d. 2018) 1925 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (d. 1998) 1925 – Ned Garver, American baseball player (d. 2017) 1925 – Sam Pollock, Canadian businessman (d. 2007) 1926 – Enrique Jorrín, Cuban violinist and composer (d. 1987) 1927 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (d. 1975) 1927 – Ram Narayan, Indian sarangi player (d. 2024) 1928 – Irish McCalla, American actress and model (d. 2002) 1928 – Dick Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1929 – Christine M. Jones, American educator and politician (d. 2013) 1929 – China Machado, Chinese-born Portuguese-American fashion model, editor and television producer (d. 2016) 1929 – Chris Kenner, American singer and songwriter (d. 1976) 1930 – Emmanuel Agassi, Iranian-American boxer and coach (d. 2021) 1930 – Armenak Alachachian, Armenian basketball player and coach (d. 2017) 1930 – Mary Rose Tuitt, Montserrat politician (d. 2005) 1932 – Mabel King, American actress and singer (d. 1999) 1933 – Basil Heatley, English runner (d. 2019) 1935 – Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sudanese politician, Prime Minister of Sudan (d. 2020) 1935 – Stephen Barnett, American scholar and academic (d. 2009) 1935 – Jeanne Hopkins Lucas, American educator and politician (d. 2007) 1936 – Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 1936 – Ismail Merchant, Indian-English director and producer (d. 2005) 1937 – Maung Aye, Burmese military officer 1937 – O'Kelly Isley Jr., American R&B/soul singer-songwriter (d. 1986) 1938 – Duane Armstrong, American painter 1938 – Noel Picard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017) 1939 – Ghulam Ahmad Bilour, Pakistani businessman and politician 1939 – Bob James, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1939 – Akong Rinpoche, Tibetan-Chinese spiritual leader (d. 2013) 1940 – Hilary Spurling, English journalist and author 1941 – Kenneth Calman, Scottish physician and academic 1942 – Françoise Dürr, French tennis player and coach 1942 – Barbara Follett, English politician 1942 – Barry Goldberg, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2025) 1942 – Enrique Morente, Spanish singer-songwriter (d. 2010) 1943 – Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior, Brazilian race car driver and businessman (d. 2024) 1943 – Ravish Malhotra, Indian pilot and military officer 1943 – Eve Pollard, English journalist and author 1943 – Hanna Schygulla, German actress 1943 – Jacqui McShee, English singer 1944 – Kenny Everett, British comedian and broadcaster (d. 1995) 1944 – Jairzinho, Brazilian footballer 1944 – Sam Strahan, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019) 1945 – Rick Berman, American screenwriter and producer 1945 – Mike Pringle, Zambian-Scottish lawyer and politician 1945 – Noel Redding, English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2003) 1945 – Ken Stabler, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015) 1946 – Jimmy Buffett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (d. 2023) 1950 – Peter Boardman, English mountaineer and author (d. 1982) 1950 – Karl Rove, American political strategist and activist 1952 – Tolossa Kotu, Ethiopian runner and coach 1952 – CCH Pounder, Guyanese-American actress 1952 – Desireless, French singer and songwriter 1953 – Kaarlo Maaninka, Finnish runner 1954 – Annie Lennox, Scottish singer-songwriter and pianist 1958 – Cheryl Chase, American voice actress and singer 1958 – Rickey Henderson, American baseball player and coach (d. 2024) 1965 – Ed Davey, English politician, Leader of the Liberal Democrats 1965 – Dmitri Mironov, Russian ice hockey player 1965 – David Rath, Czech physician and politician 1966 – Toshi Arai, Japanese race car driver 1967 – Andreas Haitzer, Austrian politician 1967 – Jason Thirsk, American bass player (d. 1996) 1968 – Helena Christensen, Danish model and actress 1968 – Jim Dowd, American ice hockey player 1969 – Nicolas Godin, French musician 1969 – Noel Goldthorpe, Australian rugby league player 1969 – Frederick Onyancha, Kenyan runner 1970 – Emmanuel Amunike, Nigerian footballer and manager 1970 – Rodney Dent, American basketball player 1971 – Dido, English singer-songwriter 1971 – Noel Hogan, Irish musician and songwriter 1971 – Justin Trudeau, Canadian educator and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Canada 1972 – Qu Yunxia, Chinese runner 1973 – Robbie Elliott, English footballer and coach 1973 – Chris Harris, American wrestler 1973 – Daisuke Miura, Japanese baseball player and coach 1973 – Alexandre Trudeau, Canadian journalist and director 1975 – Hideki Okajima, Japanese baseball player 1975 – Choi Sung-yong, South Korean footballer and manager 1975 – Marcus Trescothick, English cricketer 1976 – Tuomas Holopainen, Finnish keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1976 – Atko Väikmeri, Estonian footballer 1976 – Armin van Buuren, Dutch DJ and record producer 1977 – Ali Tandoğan, Turkish footballer 1977 – Israel Vázquez, Mexican boxer (d. 2024) 1978 – Simon Jones, Welsh cricketer 1978 – Joel Porter, Australian footballer and manager 1978 – Jeremy Strong, American actor 1979 – Ferman Akgül, Turkish singer-songwriter 1979 – Laurent Bonnart, French footballer 1979 – Robert Huff, English race car driver 1979 – Hyun Young-min, South Korean footballer 1980 – Laura Sadler, English actress (d. 2003) 1980 – Marcus Trufant, American football player 1981 – Trenesha Biggers, American wrestler and model 1981 – Camille Herron, American ultramarathon runner 1981 – Christian Holst, Danish-Faroese footballer 1981 – Willy Taveras, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Shawn Andrews, American football player 1982 – Rob Edwards, Welsh footballer 1982 – Ethan Kath, Canadian keyboard player, songwriter and producer 1982 – Chris Rene, American singer-songwriter and producer 1984 – Chris Cahill, Samoan footballer 1984 – Alastair Cook, English cricketer 1984 – Jessica Origliasso, Australian singer, actress, and fashion designer 1984 – Lisa Origliasso, Australian singer, actress, and fashion designer 1984 – Chris Richard, American basketball player 1985 – Martin Mathathi, Kenyan runner 1985 – Rusev, Bulgarian-American professional wrestler 1985 – Perdita Weeks, Welsh actress 1987 – Ceyhun Gülselam, Turkish footballer 1987 – Demaryius Thomas, American football player (d. 2021) 1988 – Eric Gordon, American basketball player 1988 – Lukas Hinds-Johnson, German rugby player 1988 – Joãozinho, Brazilian footballer 1991 – Avu-chan, Japanese musician, songwriter, actor, model and producer 1992 – Mitakeumi Hisashi, Japanese sumo wrestler 1993 – Emi Takei, Japanese actress, fashion model and singer 1996 – Emiliano Buendía, Argentine footballer 1999 – Adut Akech, South Sudanese-Australian fashion model 2000 – Wilfried Singo, Ivorian footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 304 – Saint Anastasia 795 – Pope Adrian I 820 – Emperor Leo V 936 – Zhang Jingda, general of Later Tang 940 – Makan ibn Kaki, Iranian general 1147 – Guy II, Count of Ponthieu (b. ) 1156 – Peter the Venerable, French abbot and saint (b. 1092) 1156 – Sverker the Elder, king of Sweden 1294 – Mestwin II, Duke of Pomerania 1395 – Elisabeth, Countess of Neuchâtel, Swiss ruler 1406 – Henry III of Castile (b. 1379) 1505 – George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1454) 1553 – Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish explorer and politician, 1st Royal Governor of Chile (b. 1500) ===1601–1900=== 1634 – Lettice Knollys, English noblewoman (b. 1543) 1635 – Samuel de Champlain, French soldier, geographer, and explorer (b. 1567) 1676 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Nottinghamshire (b. 1592) 1676 – Matthew Hale, English lawyer and jurist, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales (b. 1609) 1683 – Kara Mustafa Pasha, Ottoman general and politician, 111th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1634) 1708 – Jørgen Thormøhlen, German-Norwegian merchant (b. c.1640) 1730 – Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine, Scottish peer and general (b. 1676) 1758 – James Hervey, English priest and author (b. 1714) 1784 – Yosa Buson, Japanese poet and painter (b. 1716) 1796 – Velu Nachiyar, Queen of Sivagangai (b. 1730) 1824 – Barbara von Krüdener, German mystic and author (b. 1764) 1824 – William Lawless, Irish revolutionary, later French Army general (b. 1772) 1868 – Linus Yale, Jr., American engineer and businessman (b. 1821) 1875 – Young Tom Morris, Scottish golfer (b. 1851) 1880 – Fridolin Anderwert, Swiss lawyer and politician, President of the Swiss National Council (b. 1828) ===1901–present=== 1916 – Albert Chmielowski, Polish saint, founded the Albertine Brothers (b. 1845) 1921 – Vladimir Korolenko, Russian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1853) 1925 – Karl Abraham, German psychoanalyst and author (b. 1877) 1926 – Emperor Taishō of Japan (b. 1879) 1928 – Miles Burke, American boxer (b. 1885) 1930 – Jakob Mändmets, Estonian journalist and author (b. 1871) 1933 – Francesc Macià, Catalan colonel and politician, 122nd President of Catalonia (b. 1859) 1935 – Paul Bourget, French author and critic (b. 1852) 1938 – Karel Čapek, Czech author and playwright (b. 1890) 1940 – Agnes Ayres, American actress (b. 1898) 1941 – Richard S. Aldrich, American lawyer and politician (b. 1884) 1944 – George Steer, South African-English journalist and author (b. 1909) 1946 – W. C. Fields, American actor, comedian, juggler, and screenwriter (b. 1880) 1947 – Gaspar G. Bacon, American lawyer and politician, 51st Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1886) 1949 – Leon Schlesinger, American animator and producer, founded Warner Bros. Cartoons (b. 1884) 1950 – Neil Francis Hawkins, English politician (b. 1903) 1952 – Margrethe Mather, American photographer (b. 1886) 1953 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (b. 1865) 1953 – William Haselden, British cartoonist (b. 1872) 1956 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (b. 1878) 1957 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, founded Pathé Records (b. 1863) 1961 – Owen Brewster, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 54th Governor of Maine (b. 1888) 1961 – Otto Loewi, German-American pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1873) 1963 – Tristan Tzara, Romanian-French poet, playwright, painter, and critic (b. 1896) 1970 – Michael Peto, Hungarian-English photographer and journalist (b. 1908) 1973 – İsmet İnönü, Turkish general and politician, 2nd President of Turkey (b. 1884) 1973 – Gabriel Voisin, French pilot and engineer (b. 1880) 1975 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher, founded Éditions Gallimard (b. 1881) 1975 – Gunnar Kangro, Estonian mathematician and author (b. 1913) 1977 – Charlie Chaplin, English actor and director (b. 1889) 1979 – Joan Blondell, American actress and singer (b. 1906) 1979 – Jordi Bonet, Canadian painter and sculptor (b. 1932) 1980 – Fred Emney, English actor and comedian (b. 1900) 1983 – Joan Miró, Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1893) 1988 – Shōhei Ōoka, Japanese author and critic (b. 1909) 1988 – Edward Pelham-Clinton, 10th Duke of Newcastle, English entomologist and lepidopterist (b. 1920) 1989 – Benny Binion, American poker player and businessman (b. 1904) 1989 – Elena Ceaușescu, Romanian politician, First Lady of Romania (b. 1916) 1989 – Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian general and politician, 1st President of Romania (b. 1918) 1989 – Betty Garde, American actress (b. 1905) 1989 – Frederick F. Houser, American judge and politician, 34th Lieutenant Governor of California (b. 1905) 1989 – Billy Martin, American baseball player and manager (b. 1928) 1989 – Robert Pirosh, American director and screenwriter (b. 1910) 1991 – Wilbur Snyder, American football player and wrestler (b. 1929) 1992 – Monica Dickens, British-American nurse and author (b. 1915) 1993 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist and academic (b. 1899) 1994 – Zail Singh, Indian politician, 7th President of India (b. 1916) 1995 – Emmanuel Levinas, Lithuanian-French philosopher and academic (b. 1906) 1995 – Dean Martin, American singer and actor (b. 1917) 1995 – Chang Kee-ryo, Korean surgeon (b. 1914) 1996 – Bill Hewitt, Canadian sportscaster (b. 1928) 1997 – Anatoli Boukreev, Kazakh mountaineer and explorer (b. 1958) 1997 – Denver Pyle, American actor (b. 1920) 1998 – John Pulman, English snooker player (b. 1923) 2000 – Neil Hawke, Australian cricketer and footballer (b. 1939) 2000 – Willard Van Orman Quine, American philosopher and academic (b. 1908) 2001 – Alfred A. Tomatis, French otolaryngologist and academic (b. 1920) 2003 – Nicholas Mavroules, American politician (b. 1929) 2004 – Gennadi Strekalov, Russian engineer and astronaut (b. 1940) 2005 – Derek Bailey, English guitarist (b. 1930) 2005 – Robert Barbers, Filipino police officer, lawyer, and politician, 15th Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (b. 1944) 2005 – Birgit Nilsson, Swedish operatic soprano (b. 1918) 2005 – Joseph Pararajasingham, Sri Lankan journalist, businessman, and politician (b. 1934) 2006 – James Brown, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933) 2007 – Des Barrick, English cricketer (b. 1927) 2007 – Jim Beauchamp, American baseball player and coach (b. 1939) 2008 – Eartha Kitt, American singer and actress (b. 1927) 2009 – Vic Chesnutt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1964) 2010 – Carlos Andrés Pérez, Venezuelan politician, 66th President of Venezuela (b. 1922) 2011 – Giorgio Bocca, Italian journalist (b. 1920) 2011 – Jim Sherwood, American saxophonist (b. 1942) 2011 – Simms Taback, American author and illustrator (b. 1932) 2012 – Erico Aumentado, Filipino journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1940) 2012 – Halfdan Hegtun, Norwegian radio host and politician (b. 1918) 2012 – Joe Krivak, American football player and coach (b. 1935) 2012 – Turki bin Sultan, Saudi Arabian politician (b. 1959) 2012 – Şerafettin Elçi, Turkish lawyer, politician, government minister (b. 1938) 2013 – Anthony J. Bryant, American historian and author (b. 1961) 2013 – David R. Harris, English geographer, anthropologist, archaeologist and academic (b. 1930) 2013 – Wayne Harrison, English footballer (b. 1967) 2013 – Mike Hegan, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1942) 2013 – Lola Lange, Canadian rural feminist and appointee to the Royal Commission on the Status of Women (b. 1922) 2013 – Mel Mathay, Filipino politician, 8th Mayor of Quezon City (b. 1932) 2014 – Ricardo Porro, Cuban-French architect (b. 1925) 2014 – Geoff Pullar, English cricketer (b. 1935) 2014 – David Ryall, English actor (b. 1935) 2015 – George Clayton Johnson, American author and screenwriter (b. 1929) 2015 – Dorothy M. Murdock, American author and historian (b. 1961) 2016 – Valery Khalilov, Russian military musician and composer (b. 1952) 2016 – George Michael, British singer and songwriter (b. 1963) 2016 – Vera Rubin, American astronomer (b. 1928) 2017 – D. Herbert Lipson, American magazine publisher (Philadelphia, Boston) (b. 1929) 2018 – Sulagitti Narasamma, Indian midwife (b. 1920) 2019 – Ari Behn, Norwegian writer (b. 1972) 2020 – K. C. Jones, American basketball player and coach (b. 1932) 2021 – Wayne Thiebaud, American artist (b. 1920) 2022 – Fabián O'Neill, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1973) 2023 – Jim Breaks, British wrestler (b. 1940) 2024 – Britt Allcroft, English writer (b. 1943) 2024 – Bill Bergey, American football player (b. 1945) 2024 – Jax Dane, American professional wrestler (b. 1976) 2024 – M. T. Vasudevan Nair, Indian author and screenwriter (b. 1933) 2024 – Osamu Suzuki, Japanese businessman (b. 1930) ==Holidays and observances== Children's Day (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo) Christian feast day: Anastasia of Sirmium (Catholic Church) Stephen (Armenian Apostolic Church) December 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Christmas Day, Christian festival commemorating the birth of Jesus. (Internationally observed) Tulsi Pujan Diwas (India) Constitution Day (Taiwan) Good Governance Day (India) Quaid-e-Azam's Day (Pakistan) Takanakuy (Chumbivilcas Province, Peru)
[ "George Washington", "Harry T. Moore", "1940", "Willard Van Orman Quine", "1921", "Don Mueang International Airport", "1886", "Shane MacGowan", "John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley", "1982", "Bill Hewitt (sportscaster)", "Stephen Barnett", "Stephen F. Chadwick", "Shawn Andrews", "Leon Schlesinger", "The Plain Dealer", "Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales", "Rob Edwards (footballer, born 1982)", "Stone of Scone", "Removal of the Stone of Scone in 1950", "1899", "Gary McAllister", "Billy Martin", "Eggnog Riot", "Andrew Johnson", "Simone Bittencourt de Oliveira", "Great Palace of Constantinople", "Observance of Christmas by country", "Merry Clayton", "D. Herbert Lipson", "Handel and Haydn Society", "American Red Cross", "General of The Salvation Army", "Azerbaijan Airlines Flight 8243", "Nicolas Godin", "800", "336", "Clovis I", "Alastair Cook", "Duke of Normandy", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Jeanne Hopkins Lucas", "Christmas truce", "Elisabeth, Countess of Neuchâtel", "conquistador", "Alannah Myles", "2015", "1924", "1829", "Annie Lennox", "Fokker 100", "Glenn McCarthy", "Philadelphia (magazine)", "1826", "Joan Blondell", "Calendar of saints", "St. Clair's defeat", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "Sol Invictus", "Trans-Earth injection", "Francis Dunnery", "Augustine of Canterbury", "Evelyn Nesbit", "Titan (moon)", "Mac Powell", "Saturn", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Willy Taveras", "Benny Binion", "Turkish Cypriots", "Johann Adam Hiller", "Murder of Harry and Harriette Moore", "Noel Odell", "2020", "Pete Rugolo", "1564", "1872", "Lunar orbit", "Rusev (wrestler)", "Zachary Taylor", "Tolossa Kotu", "Jason Thirsk", "Robert Walser", "George Clayton Johnson", "Japanese occupation of Hong Kong", "Acharya S", "Demaryius Thomas", "Bob James (musician)", "1928", "1915", "1981", "Lettice Knollys", "350", "National Protection War", "1962 Soviet nuclear tests", "Aktau", "Jo-Jo Moore", "2008", "Reims", "Kenny Everett", "Carlos Andrés Pérez", "List of Presidents of the National Council of Switzerland", "1946", "Lady Grizel Baillie", "Ken Stabler", "1887", "1950", "Ghulam Ahmad Bilour", "Henry III of Castile", "Bach Digital", "Sydney, Lady Morgan", "Anatoli Boukreev", "Daisuke Miura", "Rangihoua Bay", "Constantinople", "1979", "Joãozinho (footballer, born 1988)", "Konstantin Kinchev", "Velu Nachiyar", "Israel Vázquez", "First Lady of Romania", "Giovanni Battista Somis", "sarangi", "1994", "Jamaica", "James Webb Space Telescope", "1906", "1972", "2016", "1916", "Jimmy Buffett", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Emmanuel Levinas", "Constitution Day (Taiwan)", "Second Seminole War", "Iraqi Airways Flight 163", "1766", "1025", "Atko Väikmeri", "London", "1943", "Wilbur Snyder", "Pierre Victor Auger", "1954", "Anthony Wayne", "Ferman Akgül", "Saint Stephen", "Pope Pius VI", "Mieszko II Lambert", "1717", "Associated Press", "Boston (magazine)", "British Monarch", "1147", "Barbara Mandrell", "David R. Harris (geographer)", "Christian Holst", "Charlemagne", "Roger II of Sicily", "Trenesha Biggers", "Cai E", "Michael II", "Sam Pollock", "Gaston Gallimard", "Clara Barton", "Nicholas Mavroules", "Cassini Orbiter", "Jørgen Thormøhlen", "1683", "Guy II of Ponthieu", "1977", "Dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Barbara von Krüdener", "Republic of Congo", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "John Pulman", "Kenneth Calman", "Leader of the Liberal Democrats", "Zhang Jingda", "Richard S. Aldrich", "Trenton, New Jersey", "Monica Dickens", "Antiochos Evangelatos", "1711", "Bejuma", "Continental Army", "1261", "1922", "Atal Bihari Vajpayee", "Cyprus", "Rick Berman", "The New York Times", "Marcus Trescothick", "Boeing 737", "Buzzacott's Masterpiece", "Ancient Rome", "Maung Aye", "David Rath", "Tuomas Holopainen", "Sadiq al-Mahdi", "Saint Remigius", "1992", "2013", "Romanian Revolution", "reef", "1066", "Ian Bostridge", "David Ryall", "Malak Hifni Nasif", "1953", "Bob Stanley (musician)", "1933", "Choi Sung-yong", "Naushad Ali", "Wu Han (Han dynasty)", "Danelaw", "1716", "1825", "1665", "Benin", "1932", "Governor of Oregon", "1951", "Noel Picard", "Good Governance Day", "Irish McCalla", "1935", "Madan Mohan Malaviya", "Kingdom of Hungary", "1970", "İsmet İnönü", "George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River", "2009", "George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent", "2021", "1883", "Coronation of William I", "1985", "2010", "2012 Kazakhstan Antonov An-72 crash", "Mestwin II, Duke of Pomerania", "Pope Clement II", "Beagle 2", "Los Angeles Times", "René Girard", "Anglo-Saxons", "1870", "795", "Vetranio", "Soviet Union", "Robert Pirosh", "K. C. Jones", "Isaac Newton", "1634", "1771", "Leipzig", "Zail Singh", "1652", "1961", "1926", "1966", "Toshi Arai", "Austrian Parliament", "Eric Gordon", "Duane Armstrong", "Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior", "Lieutenant Governor of California", "King of Jerusalem", "World War I", "2023", "Governor of New Hampshire", "Pud Galvin", "1938", "Osamu Suzuki (businessman)", "Robert Barbers", "1999", "Nativity of Jesus", "1925", "Frederick F. Houser", "2019", "Chile", "Mars Express", "O'Kelly Isley Jr.", "Jairzinho", "Niš", "1978", "Lila Bell Wallace", "Ali Tandoğan", "1869", "Albert Chmielowski", "Jeremy Strong (actor)", "Barbara Follett (politician)", "Pedro de Valdivia", "Wilfried Singo", "Mike Pringle (politician)", "President of Romania", "Akong Rinpoche", "1965", "Pope Pius IV", "1987", "Killing of JonBenét Ramsey", "Emmanuel Agassi", "Dean Martin", "1814", "Enrique Jorrín", "Kingdom of Kent", "Nobel Peace Prize", "1919", "Chumbivilcas Province", "1700", "Byzantine Empire", "1939", "Manny Trillo", "Oscar Lewis", "Joseph M. Schenck", "Scottish nationalism", "Albertine Brothers", "Chester W. Nimitz", "Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor", "2001", "Huygens (spacecraft)", "1250", "Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau", "Hanna Schygulla", "Chang Kee-ryo", "List of heads of government of Sudan", "George Steer", "Chengjia", "Chevalier de Saint-Georges", "1993", "Otto Loewi", "1583", "List of Ottoman Grand Viziers", "ESPN", "1824", "President of Turkey", "Ram Narayan", "Takanakuy", "1815", "Perdita Weeks", "Karel Čapek", "Halley's Comet", "Michael Peto", "Ed Davey", "Mitakeumi Hisashi", "Christmas Evans", "2003", "Arianespace", "Armenak Alachachian", "Christmas", "1976", "Emi Takei", "Patrick Gilmore", "China Machado", "John IV Laskaris", "Dmitri Mironov", "Jakob Mändmets", "2018", "William Bell (tuba player)", "2012", "Peter the Venerable", "Dido (singer)", "Chris Cahill", "Jessica Origliasso", "1730", "1461", "Muhammad Ali Jinnah", "William Demby", "Francesco Marinoni", "Heho", "1796", "Gabriel Voisin", "Children's Day", "Leo V the Armenian", "Enrique Morente", "American Revolutionary War", "Mahad", "1989", "Haiti", "Giorgio Bocca", "2000", "1927", "Karl Rove", "1967", "Samuel de Champlain", "Tang Jiyao", "Ravish Malhotra", "Lisa Origliasso", "EgyptAir Flight 864", "Civil Rights Movement", "NASA", "Chris Rene", "Joan Miró", "Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy", "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91", "Pardons for ex-Confederates", "1904", "UTA Flight 141", "1971", "1952", "Helena Christensen", "Armin van Buuren", "Warner Bros. Cartoons", "M. T. Vasudevan Nair", "1628", "Carabobo State", "Editorial Universitaria", "Joseph Pararajasingham", "Ceyhun Gülselam", "1984", "Battle of Lake Okeechobee", "Caesar (title)", "aircraft", "Louise Bourgeois", "William the Conqueror", "1424", "Earth", "Orlando Gibbons", "Constans", "Benjamin Pierce (governor)", "1907", "Mary Rose Tuitt", "1584", "Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer)", "1923", "1937", "Myanmar", "Steve Otto", "1406", "1913", "Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile", "1996", "AD 1000", "1635", "1963", "Kara Mustafa Pasha", "Noel Redding", "1880", "1975", "Avu-chan", "Christina of Saxony", "United States Pacific Fleet", "1686", "Battle of Hong Kong", "Prime Minister of Canada", "Lautaro", "1958", "Rod Serling", "Şerafettin Elçi", "Holy Roman Emperor", "Michael VIII Palaiologos", "Chevrolet", "Filippo Mazzei", "Jacqui McShee", "Alexandrov Ensemble", "President of India", "1941", "1674", "Sweyn Forkbeard", "Store norske leksikon", "Ethan Kath", "Noël, Countess of Rothes", "1908", "President of Egypt", "aerodynamics", "Governor-General of Pakistan", "1728", "Samuel Marsden", "Siegfried Idyll", "F-1 (nuclear reactor)", "Robert Huff", "James Hervey", "Émile Muselier", "Laura Sadler", "1949", "Alfred A. Tomatis", "Fabián O'Neill", "1809", "1969", "Tristan Tzara", "1962", "Ricardo Porro", "Cab Calloway", "Yunnan", "1889", "Lola Lange", "Legion of the United States", "Bolesław II the Generous", "Antonov An-72", "Chris Richard (basketball)", "Kazakhstan", "Thomas Halyburton", "Martin Mathathi", "Neil Francis Hawkins", "820", "2007", "Ahmed Ben Bella", "1758", "Antoinette de Bourbon", "Serbia", "nuclear chain reaction", "1891", "Íngrid Betancourt", "Christopher Columbus", "1559 papal conclave", "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "James Fletcher Jnr", "Adut Akech", "1676", "Jim Sherwood", "597", "L. L. Langstroth", "1957", "Ephraim McDowell", "flight test", "AllMusic", "1757", "Zora Arkus-Duntov", "Ismail Merchant", "1505", "Anthony J. Bryant", "Mayor of Quezon City", "Sverker I of Sweden", "December 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Noel Goldthorpe", "Lord Lieutenant of Nottinghamshire", "Johann Georg Palitzsch", "Bayrak", "All Media Guide", "Air Bagan Flight 011", "Prime Minister of India", "Trial of Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu", "William Lawless", "Premier League", "508", "Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah", "Desireless", "Ramdas Athawale", "Governor of Maine", "Noele Gordon", "1876", "1156", "Fridolin Anderwert", "Charles Pathé", "Later Tang", "Patsy Donovan", "2004", "Robbie Elliott", "Simon Jones (cricketer)", "Gaspar G. Bacon", "Louis Chevrolet", "Philip Vera Cruz", "Fort Recovery, Ohio", "Noel Hogan", "2022", "1929", "Charlie Chaplin", "Britt Allcroft", "Constantius II", "Manusmriti", "Joel Santana", "Lukas Hinds-Johnson", "Aurelian", "Arseny Mironov", "Kaarlo Maaninka", "Basil Heatley", "Chris Kamara", "Miles Burke", "936", "Paul David (cardiologist)", "Chris Kenner", "Humphrey Bogart", "Helena Rubinstein", "1130", "CCH Pounder", "Battle of Tucapel", "Wayne Thiebaud", "1995", "Shōhei Ōoka", "1395", "Matthew Hale (jurist)", "1294", "Pathé Records", "Camille Herron", "Kid Ory", "Apollo program", "Mike Hegan", "Battle of Trenton", "Hideki Okajima", "Eastern Han", "Constantine the Great", "1991 Ukrainian independence referendum", "1884", "Watch system", "1942", "1903", "December 19", "Vladimir Korolenko", "Cubana de Aviación Flight 310", "Erico Aumentado", "1492", "1642", "Central African Republic", "1875", "1909", "Edmund Halley", "Quentin Crisp", "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ", "1601", "Saint Pierre and Miquelon", "1932 Changma earthquake", "1873", "Agnes Ayres", "Mel Mathay", "Otto Frederick Hunziker", "Mansoor Akhtar", "Francis Henry Buzzacott", "Baldwin I of Jerusalem", "Gabon", "Conrad Hilton", "2006", "Church of the Nativity", "Yakovlev Yak-42", "Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation", "Young Tom Morris", "Charles Finger", "1865", "Catholicism", "Warren Robinett", "The Twilight Zone", "Franks", "1998", "Jordi Bonet", "Betty Garde", "Derek Bailey (guitarist)", "1917", "Northwest Indian War", "Dick Miller", "Tulsi Pujan Diwas", "Joel Porter", "Sulagitti Narasamma", "Mabel King", "Catholic Church", "Owen Brewster", "Mapuche uprising of 1766", "1493", "Nawaz Sharif", "1878", "Makan ibn Kaki", "1890", "1983", "Denver Pyle", "1776", "Turki bin Sultan", "1986", "1281", "Kizhavenmani", "1745", "Dorothy Wordsworth", "Shamrock Hotel", "1400", "Simms Taback", "Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar", "Mike Mazurki", "2024", "1076", "Ariane flight VA256", "AD 36", "Nellie Fox", "UPI", "Shymkent", "United States Military Academy", "Philippines", "Sam Strahan", "Chris Harris (wrestler)", "Neil Hawke", "Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France", "Quaid-e-Azam's Day", "Cotonou Airport", "Francesc Macià", "Qu Yunxia", "Cameroon", "Dalit", "Fred Emney", "Secretary of the Interior and Local Government", "Lina Cavalieri", "Paul Bourget", "Joe Krivak", "Emmanuel Amunike", "Alice de Lacy, 4th Countess of Lincoln", "President of the Indian National Congress", "Hana Meisel", "Marcus Trufant", "Harriette Moore", "Santa María (ship)", "Theodor Innitzer", "Johann Jakob Reiske", "1810", "Jax Dane", "2005", "Vera Rubin", "Kingdom of England", "Halfdan Hegtun", "Boeing 707", "940", "1901", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Baptism", "1956", "Evangeline Booth", "Hyun Young-min", "Vic Chesnutt", "274", "William Haselden", "1821", "Barry Goldberg", "April 11", "Emperor Leo V", "President of Catalonia", "Hessian (soldier)", "Governor of Gibraltar", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Baptist War", "1991", "Pope Adrian I", "Temple of the Sun (Rome)", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "1930", "Armenian Apostolic Church", "Françoise Dürr", "Anastasia of Sirmium", "2014", "Frederick Onyancha", "1968", "1793", "Lincoln Verduga Loor", "Typhoon Phanfone (2019)", "Valery Khalilov", "Christine of Saxony", "Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine", "President of the Soviet Union", "Reader's Digest", "304", "1902", "Jim Breaks", "Stephen I of Hungary", "Candy Candido", "Royal Governor of Chile", "1831", "Seminole", "Carlos Castaneda", "Ernst Ruska", "Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha", "Westminster Abbey", "1724", "Peter Boardman", "Éditions Gallimard", "1936", "1973", "Jim Beauchamp", "1708", "Maharashtra", "Alexandre Trudeau", "Chad", "Sissy Spacek", "Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester", "Andreas Haitzer", "Geoff Pullar", "Jean-Joseph de Mondonville", "Elena Ceaușescu", "Laurent Bonnart", "Margrethe Mather", "Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain", "Edward Pelham-Clinton, 10th Duke of Newcastle", "Colonial Chile", "Clarrie Grimmett", "Hilary Spurling", "1944", "1784", "1997", "1046", "Arar, Saudi Arabia", "Tupolev Tu-154", "Tony Martin (American singer)", "Barton MacLane", "Gunnar Kangro", "Equatorial Guinea", "List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan", "Ari Behn", "Noël Coypel", "Gerhard Herzberg", "Gennadi Strekalov", "Ned Garver", "1868", "1837", "Cheryl Chase (actress)", "Bethlehem", "Confederate States Army", "Variety (magazine)", "Jim Dowd (ice hockey)", "Neoplasm", "James Brown", "pardon", "Boeing 727", "1559", "1918", "1861", "Christine M. Jones", "Apollo 8", "Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus", "1911", "Rodney Dent", "ovariotomy", "Karl Abraham", "W. C. Fields", "Western Front (World War I)", "Kay Hymowitz", "1553", "Yosa Buson", "World War II", "Heho Airport", "Aviation Safety Network", "Louis Lane", "Samuel Berger (boxer)", "Kilvenmani massacre", "1948", "Francis Aveling", "1856", "President of Algeria", "Anwar Sadat", "Free French Forces", "Empire of China (1915–1916)", "Des Barrick", "Emperor Guangwu", "1013", "Emperor Taishō", "Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts", "George Michael", "Eve Pollard", "1490", "Archibald Pitcairne", "Johannes Buxtorf", "William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle", "Montreal Heart Institute", "1945", "Mapuche", "Lew Grade, Baron Grade", "Rickey Henderson", "Birgit Nilsson", "Bill Bergey", "2017", "Justin Trudeau", "Black Sea", "1980", "1988", "List of Presidents of Venezuela", "2016 Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 crash", "Michael P. Anderson", "1874", "2020 Nashville bombing", "Menachem Begin", "Ministry of Defence (Russia)", "Kingdom of Sicily", "Ernest L. Massad", "333", "1100", "carrack", "2011", "Church of the Virgin of the Pharos", "Eartha Kitt", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "1959", "Wagner", "1914", "Linus Yale, Jr.", "Royal Commission on the Status of Women", "Nicolae Ceaușescu", "Hugo Bergmann", "Wayne Harrison (footballer, born 1967)", "Emiliano Buendía" ]
8,271
Digital television
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of television signals using digital encoding, in contrast to the earlier analog television technology which used analog signals. At the time of its development it was considered an innovative advancement and represented the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Modern digital television is transmitted in high-definition television (HDTV) with greater resolution than analog TV. It typically uses a widescreen aspect ratio (commonly 16:9) in contrast to the narrower format (4:3) of analog TV. It makes more economical use of scarce radio spectrum space; it can transmit up to seven channels in the same bandwidth as a single analog channel, and provides many new features that analog television cannot. A transition from analog to digital broadcasting began around 2000. Different digital television broadcasting standards have been adopted in different parts of the world; below are the more widely used standards: Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) uses coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation and supports hierarchical transmission. This standard has been adopted in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia, for a total of approximately 60 countries. Advanced Television System Committee (ATSC) standard uses eight-level vestigial sideband (8VSB) for terrestrial broadcasting. This standard has been adopted by 9 countries: the United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Bahamas, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Suriname. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting (ISDB) is a system designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers and also portable or mobile receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving. It supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has been adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, which has been adopted in most of South America as well as Botswana and Angola. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast (DTMB) adopts time-domain synchronous (TDS) OFDM technology with a pseudo-random signal frame to serve as the guard interval (GI) of the OFDM block and the training symbol. The DTMB standard has been adopted in China, including Hong Kong and Macau. Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) is a digital radio transmission technology developed in South Korea as part of the national information technology project for sending multimedia such as TV, radio and datacasting to mobile devices such as mobile phones, laptops and GPS navigation systems. == History == === Background === Digital television's roots are tied to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video, requiring around for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, A digital TV broadcast service was proposed in 1986 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an "Integrated Network System" service. However, it was not possible to practically implement such a digital TV service until the adoption of motion-compensated DCT video compression formats such as MPEG made it possible in the early 1990s. An American company, General Instrument, also demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal in 1990. This led to the FCC being persuaded to delay its decision on an advanced television (ATV) standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. When it became evident that a digital standard might be achieved in March 1990, the FCC took several important actions. First, the Commission declared that the new TV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being simulcast on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements. Digital cable broadcasts were tested and launched in the US in 1996 by TCI and Time Warner. The first digital terrestrial platform was launched in November 1998 as ONdigital in the UK, using the DVB-T standard. == Technical information == === Formats and bandwidth === Digital television supports many different picture formats defined by the broadcast television systems which are a combination of size and aspect ratio (width to height ratio). With digital terrestrial television (DTT) broadcasting, the range of formats can be broadly divided into two categories: high-definition television (HDTV) for the transmission of high-definition video and standard-definition television (SDTV). These terms by themselves are not very precise and many subtle intermediate cases exist. One of several different HDTV formats that can be transmitted over DTV is: pixels in progressive scan mode (abbreviated 720p) or pixels in interlaced video mode (1080i). Each of these uses a 16:9 aspect ratio. HDTV cannot be transmitted over analog television channels because of channel capacity issues. SDTV, by comparison, may use one of several different formats taking the form of various aspect ratios depending on the technology used in the country of broadcast. NTSC can deliver a resolution in 4:3 and in 16:9, while PAL can give in 4:3 and in 16:9. However, broadcasters may choose to reduce these resolutions to reduce bit rate (e.g., many DVB-T channels in the UK use a horizontal resolution of 544 or 704 pixels per line). Each commercial broadcasting terrestrial television DTV channel in North America is allocated enough bandwidth to broadcast up to 19 megabits per second. However, the broadcaster does not need to use this entire bandwidth for just one broadcast channel. Instead, the broadcast can use Program and System Information Protocol and subdivide across several video subchannels (a.k.a. feeds) of varying quality and compression rates, including non-video datacasting services. A broadcaster may opt to use a standard-definition (SDTV) digital signal instead of an HDTV signal, because current convention allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or "multiplex") to be subdivided into multiple digital subchannels, (similar to what most FM radio stations offer with HD Radio), providing multiple feeds of entirely different television programming on the same channel. This ability to provide either a single HDTV feed or multiple lower-resolution feeds is often referred to as distributing one's bit budget or multicasting. This can sometimes be arranged automatically, using a statistical multiplexer. With some implementations, image resolution may be less directly limited by bandwidth; for example in DVB-T, broadcasters can choose from several different modulation schemes, giving them the option to reduce the transmission bit rate and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers. === Reception === There are several different ways to receive digital television. One of the oldest means of receiving DTV (and TV in general) is from terrestrial transmitters using an antenna (known as an aerial in some countries). This delivery method is known as digital terrestrial television (DTT). With DTT, viewers are limited to channels that have a terrestrial transmitter within range of their antenna. Other delivery methods include digital cable and digital satellite. In some countries where transmissions of TV signals are normally achieved by microwaves, digital multichannel multipoint distribution service is used. Other standards, such as digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) and digital video broadcasting - handheld (DVB-H), have been devised to allow handheld devices such as mobile phones to receive TV signals. Another way is Internet Protocol television (IPTV), which is the delivery of TV over a computer network. Finally, an alternative way is to receive digital TV signals via the open Internet (Internet television), whether from a central streaming service or a P2P (peer-to-peer) system. Some signals are protected by encryption and backed up with the force of law under the WIPO Copyright Treaty and national legislation implementing it, such as the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Access to encrypted channels can be controlled by a removable card, for example via the Common Interface or CableCard. === Protection parameters === Digital television signals must not interfere with each other and they must also coexist with analog television until it is phased out. The following table gives allowable signal-to-noise and signal-to-interference ratios for various interference scenarios. This table is a crucial regulatory tool for controlling the placement and power levels of stations. Digital TV is more tolerant of interference than analog TV. === Interaction === People can interact with a DTV system in various ways. One can, for example, browse the electronic program guide. Modern DTV systems sometimes use a return path providing feedback from the end user to the broadcaster. This is possible over cable TV or through an Internet connection but is not possible with a standard antenna alone. Some of these systems support video on demand using a communication channel localized to a neighborhood rather than a city (terrestrial) or an even larger area (satellite). === 1seg === 1seg (1-segment) is a special form of ISDB. Each channel is further divided into 13 segments. Twelve are allocated for HDTV and the other for narrow-band receivers such as mobile televisions and cell phones. == Comparison to analog == DTV has several advantages over analog television, the most significant being that digital channels take up less bandwidth and the bandwidth allocations are flexible depending on the level of compression and resolution of the transmitted image. This means that digital broadcasters can provide more digital channels in the same space, provide high-definition television service, or provide other non-television services such as multimedia or interactivity. DTV also permits special services such as multiplexing (more than one program on the same channel), electronic program guides and additional languages (spoken or subtitled). The sale of non-television services may provide an additional revenue source to broadcasters. Digital and analog signals react to interference differently. For example, common problems with analog television include ghosting of images, noise from weak signals and other problems that degrade the quality of the image and sound, although the program material may still be watchable. With digital television, because of the cliff effect, reception of the digital signal must be very nearly complete; otherwise, neither audio nor video will be usable. Analog TV began with monophonic sound and later developed multichannel television sound with two independent audio signal channels. DTV allows up to 5 audio signal channels plus a subwoofer bass channel, producing broadcasts similar in quality to movie theaters and DVDs. Digital TV signals require less transmission power than analog TV signals to be broadcast and received satisfactorily. === Compression artifacts, picture quality monitoring and allocated bandwidth === DTV images have some picture defects that are not present on analog television or motion picture cinema, because of present-day limitations of bit rate and compression algorithms such as MPEG-2. This defect is sometimes referred to as mosquito noise. Because of the way the human visual system works, defects in an image that are localized to particular features of the image or that come and go are more perceptible than defects that are uniform and constant. However, the DTV system is designed to take advantage of other limitations of the human visual system to help mask these flaws, e.g., by allowing more compression artifacts during fast motion where the eye cannot track and resolve them as easily and, conversely, minimizing artifacts in still backgrounds that, because time allows, may be closely examined in a scene. Broadcast, cable, satellite and Internet DTV operators control the picture quality of television signal encoders using sophisticated, neuroscience-based algorithms, such as the structural similarity index measure (SSIM) video quality measurement tool. Another tool called visual information fidelity (VIF), is used in the Netflix VMAF video quality monitoring system. Quantising effects can create contours—rather than smooth gradations—on areas with small graduations in amplitude. Typically, a very flat scene, such as a cloudless sky, will exhibit visible steps across its expanse, often appearing as concentric circles or ellipses. This is known as color banding. Similar effects can be seen in very dark scenes, where true black backgrounds are overlaid by dark gray areas. These transitions may be smooth, or may show a scattering effect as the digital processing dithers and is unable to consistently allocate a value of either absolute black or the next step up the greyscale. === Effects of poor reception === Changes in signal reception from factors such as degrading antenna connections or changing weather conditions may gradually reduce the quality of analog TV. The nature of digital TV results in a perfectly decodable video initially, until the receiving equipment starts picking up interference that overpowers the desired signal or if the signal is too weak to decode. Some equipment will show a garbled picture with significant damage, while other devices may go directly from perfectly decodable video to no video at all or lock up. This phenomenon is known as the digital cliff effect. Block errors may occur when transmission is done with compressed images. A block error in a single frame often results in black boxes in several subsequent frames, making viewing difficult. For remote locations, distant channels that, as analog signals, were previously usable in a snowy and degraded state may, as digital signals, be perfectly decodable or may become completely unavailable. The use of higher frequencies add to these problems, especially in cases where a clear line-of-sight from the receiving antenna to the transmitter is not available because usually higher frequency signals can't pass through obstacles as easily. === Effect on old analog technology === Television sets with only analog tuners cannot decode digital transmissions. When analog broadcasting over the air ceases, users of sets with analog-only tuners may use other sources of programming (e.g., cable, recorded media) or may purchase set-top converter boxes to tune in the digital signals. In the United States, a government-sponsored coupon was available to offset the cost of an external converter box. The digital television transition began around the late 1990s and has been completed on a country-by-country basis in most parts of the world. === Disappearance of TV-audio receivers === Prior to the conversion to digital TV, analog television broadcast audio for TV channels on a separate FM carrier signal from the video signal. This FM audio signal could be heard using standard radios equipped with the appropriate tuning circuits. However, after the digital television transition, no portable radio manufacturer has yet developed an alternative method for portable radios to play just the audio signal of digital TV channels; DTV radio is not the same thing. === Environmental issues === The adoption of a broadcast standard incompatible with existing analog receivers has created the problem of large numbers of analog receivers being discarded. One superintendent of public works was quoted in 2009 saying; "some of the studies I’ve read in the trade magazines say up to a quarter of American households could be throwing a TV out in the next two years following the regulation change." In Michigan in 2009, one recycler estimated that as many as one household in four would dispose of or recycle a TV set in the following year. The digital television transition, migration to high-definition television receivers and the replacement of CRTs with flat screens are all factors in the increasing number of discarded analog CRT-based television receivers. In 2009, an estimated 99 million analog TV receivers were sitting unused in homes in the US alone and, while some obsolete receivers are being retrofitted with converters, many more are simply dumped in landfills where they represent a source of toxic metals such as lead as well as lesser amounts of materials such as barium, cadmium and chromium.
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8,274
Declaration of Arbroath
The Declaration of Arbroath (; ; ) is the name usually given to a letter, dated 6 April 1320 at Arbroath, written by Scottish barons and addressed to Pope John XXII. It constituted King Robert I's response to his excommunication for disobeying the pope's demand in 1317 for a truce in the First War of Scottish Independence. The letter asserted the antiquity of the independence of the Kingdom of Scotland, denouncing English attempts to subjugate it. In the 1680s, the Latin text was printed for the first time and translated into English in the wake of the Glorious Revolution, after which time it was sometimes described as a declaration of independence. In reply, the Declaration was composed and signed and, in response, the papacy rescinded King Robert Bruce's excommunication and thereafter addressed him using his royal title. Edward I, the "Hammer of Scots", died in 1307; his son and successor Edward II did not renew his father's campaigns in Scotland. It has also been argued that the Declaration was not a statement of popular sovereignty (and that its signatories would have had no such concept) but a statement of royal propaganda supporting Bruce's faction. A justification had to be given for the rejection of King John Balliol in whose name William Wallace and Andrew de Moray had rebelled in 1297. The reason given in the Declaration is that Bruce was able to defend Scotland from English aggression whereas King John could not. Whatever the true motive, the idea of a contract between King and people was advanced to the Pope as a justification for Bruce's coronation whilst John de Balliol, who had abdicated the Scottish throne, still lived as a Papal prisoner. There is also recent scholarship that suggests that the Declaration was substantially derived from the 1317 Irish Remonstrance, also sent in protest of English actions. There are substantial similarities in content between the 1317 Irish Remonstrance and the Declaration of Arbroath, produced three years later. It is also clear that the drafters of the Declaration of Arbroath would have access to the 1317 Irish Remonstrance, it having been circulated to Scotland in addition to the Pope. It has been suggested therefore that the 1317 Remonstrance was a "prototype" for the Declaration of Arbroath, suggesting Irish-Scottish cooperation in attempts to protest against English interference. ==Text== For the full text in Latin and a translation in English, See Declaration of Arbroath on WikiSource. ==Signatories== There are 39 names—eight earls and thirty-one barons—at the start of the document, all of whom may have had their seals appended, probably over the space of some time, possibly weeks, with nobles sending in their seals to be used. The folded foot of the document shows that at least eleven additional barons and freeholders (who were not noble) who were not listed on the head were associated with the letter. On the extant copy of the Declaration there are only 19 seals, and of those 19 people only 12 are named within the document. It is thought likely that at least 11 more seals than the original 39 might have been appended. The Declaration was then taken to the papal court at Avignon by Sir Adam Gordon, Sir Odard de Maubuisson, and Bishop Kininmund who was not yet a bishop and probably included for his scholarship. The Pope heeded the arguments contained in the Declaration, influenced by the offer of support from the Scots for his long-desired crusade if they no longer had to fear English invasion. He exhorted Edward II in a letter to make peace with the Scots. However, it did not lead to his recognising Robert as King of Scots, and the following year was again persuaded by the English to take their side and issued six bulls to that effect. Eight years later, on 1 March 1328, the new English king, Edward III, signed a peace treaty between Scotland and England, the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. In this treaty, which was in effect until 1333, Edward renounced all English claims to Scotland. In October 1328, the interdict on Scotland, and the excommunication of its king, were removed by the Pope. ==Manuscript== The original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost. The only existing manuscript copy of the Declaration survives among Scotland's state papers, measuring 540mm wide by 675mm long (including the seals), it is held by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh, a part of the National Records of Scotland. The most widely known English language translation was made by Sir James Fergusson, formerly Keeper of the Records of Scotland, from text that he reconstructed using this extant copy and early copies of the original draft. G. W. S. Barrow has shown that one passage in particular, often quoted from the Fergusson translation, was carefully written using different parts of The Conspiracy of Catiline by the Roman author, Sallust (86–35 BC) as the direct source: ==List of signatories== Listed below are the signatories of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320. The letter itself is written in Latin. It uses the Latin versions of the signatories' titles, and in some cases, the spelling of names has changed over the years. This list generally uses the titles of the signatories' Wikipedia biographies. Duncan, Earl of Fife (changed sides in 1332) Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray (nephew and supporter of King Robert although briefly fought for the English after being captured by them, Guardian of the Realm after Robert the Bruce's death) Patrick Dunbar, Earl of March (or Earl of Dunbar) (changed sides several times) Malise, Earl of Strathearn (King Robert loyalist) Malcolm, Earl of Lennox (King Robert loyalist) William, Earl of Ross (earlier betrayed King Robert's female relatives to the English) Magnús Jónsson, Earl of Orkney William de Moravia, Earl of Sutherland Walter, High Steward of Scotland (King Robert loyalist) William de Soules, Lord of Liddesdale and Butler of Scotland (later imprisoned for plotting against the King) Sir James Douglas, Lord of Douglas (one of King Robert's leading loyalists) Roger de Mowbray, Lord of Barnbougle and Dalmeny (later imprisoned for plotting against King Robert) David, Lord of Brechin (later executed for plotting against King Robert) David de Graham of Kincardine Ingram de Umfraville (fought on the English side at Bannockburn but then changed sides to support King Robert) John de Menteith, guardian of the earldom of Menteith (earlier betrayed William Wallace to the English) Alexander Fraser of Touchfraser and Cowie Gilbert de la Hay, Constable of Scotland (King Robert loyalist) Robert Keith, Marischal of Scotland (King Robert loyalist) Henry St Clair of Rosslyn John de Graham, Lord of Dalkeith, Abercorn & Eskdale David Lindsay of Crawford William Oliphant, Lord of Aberdalgie and Dupplin (briefly fought for the English) Patrick de Graham of Lovat John de Fenton, Lord of Baikie and Beaufort William de Abernethy of Saltoun David Wemyss of Wemyss William Mushet Fergus of Ardrossan Eustace Maxwell of Caerlaverock William Ramsay William de Monte Alto, Lord of Ferne Alan Murray Donald Campbell John Cameron Reginald le Chen, Lord of Inverugie and Duffus Alexander Seton Andrew de Leslie Alexander Straiton In addition, the names of the following do not appear in the document's text, but their names are written on seal tags and their seals are present: Alexander de Lamberton (became a supporter of Edward Balliol after the Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332) Edward Keith (subsequently Marischal of Scotland; d. 1346) Arthur Campbell (Bruce loyalist) Thomas de Menzies (Bruce loyalist) John de Inchmartin (became a supporter of Edward Balliol after the Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332; d. after 1334) John Duraunt Thomas de Morham == Legacy == In 1998 former majority leader Trent Lott succeeded in instituting an annual "National Tartan Day" on 6 April by resolution of the United States Senate. US Senate Resolution 155 of 10 November 1997 states that "the Declaration of Arbroath, the Scottish Declaration of Independence, was signed on April 6, 1320 and the American Declaration of Independence was modeled [sic] on that inspirational document". However this claim is generally unsupported by historians. In 2016 the Declaration of Arbroath was placed on the UK Memory of the World Register, part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme. 2020 was the 700th anniversary of the Declaration of Arbroath's composition; an Arbroath 2020 festival was arranged but postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh planned to display the document to the public for the first time in fifteen years.
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8,276
Digital data
Digital data, in information theory and information systems, is information represented as a string of discrete symbols, each of which can take on one of only a finite number of values from some alphabet, such as letters or digits. An example is a text document, which consists of a string of alphanumeric characters. The most common form of digital data in modern information systems is binary data, which is represented by a string of binary digits (bits) each of which can have one of two values, either 0 or 1. Digital data can be contrasted with analog data, which is represented by a value from a continuous range of real numbers. Analog data is transmitted by an analog signal, which not only takes on continuous values but can vary continuously with time, a continuous real-valued function of time. An example is the air pressure variation in a sound wave. The word digital comes from the same source as the words digit and digitus (the Latin word for finger), as fingers are often used for counting. Mathematician George Stibitz of Bell Telephone Laboratories used the word digital in reference to the fast electric pulses emitted by a device designed to aim and fire anti-aircraft guns in 1942. The term is most commonly used in computing and electronics, especially where real-world information is converted to binary numeric form as in digital audio and digital photography. == Symbol to digital conversion == Since symbols (for example, alphanumeric characters) are not continuous, representing symbols digitally is rather simpler than conversion of continuous or analog information to digital. Instead of sampling and quantization as in analog-to-digital conversion, such techniques as polling and encoding are used. A symbol input device usually consists of a group of switches that are polled at regular intervals to see which switches are switched. Data will be lost if, within a single polling interval, two switches are pressed, or a switch is pressed, released, and pressed again. This polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main CPU. When a new symbol has been entered, the device typically sends an interrupt, in a specialized format, so that the CPU can read it. For devices with only a few switches (such as the buttons on a joystick), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word. This is useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control). But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word. Devices with many switches (such as a computer keyboard) usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix, with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines. When a switch is pressed, it connects the corresponding x and y lines together. Polling (often called scanning in this case) is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal, thus which keys are pressed. When the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state, it sends a signal to the CPU indicating the scan code of the key and its new state. The symbol is then encoded or converted into a number based on the status of modifier keys and the desired character encoding. A custom encoding can be used for a specific application with no loss of data. However, using a standard encoding such as ASCII is problematic if a symbol such as 'ß' needs to be converted but is not in the standard. It is estimated that in the year 1986, less than 1% of the world's technological capacity to store information was digital and in 2007 it was already 94%. The year 2002 is assumed to be the year when humankind was able to store more information in digital than in analog format (the "beginning of the digital age"). == Properties of digital information == All digital information possesses common properties that distinguish it from analog data with respect to communications: Synchronization: Since digital information is conveyed by the sequence in which symbols are ordered, all digital schemes have some method for determining the beginning of a sequence. In written or spoken human languages, synchronization is typically provided by pauses (spaces), capitalization, and punctuation. Machine communications typically use special synchronization sequences. Language: All digital communications require a formal language, which in this context consists of all the information that the sender and receiver of the digital communication must both possess, in advance, for the communication to be successful. Languages are generally arbitrary and specify the meaning to be assigned to particular symbol sequences, the allowed range of values, methods to be used for synchronization, etc. Errors: Disturbances (noise) in analog communications invariably introduce some, generally small deviation or error between the intended and actual communication. Disturbances in digital communication only result in errors when the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturbing the sequence of symbols. It is generally possible to have near-error-free digital communication. Further, techniques such as check codes may be used to detect errors and correct them through redundancy or re-transmission. Errors in digital communications can take the form of substitution errors, in which a symbol is replaced by another symbol, or insertion/deletion errors, in which an extra incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message. Uncorrected errors in digital communications have an unpredictable and generally large impact on the information content of the communication. Copying: Because of the inevitable presence of noise, making many successive copies of an analog communication is infeasible because each generation increases the noise. Because digital communications are generally error-free, copies of copies can be made indefinitely. Granularity: The digital representation of a continuously variable analog value typically involves a selection of the number of symbols to be assigned to that value. The number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the resulting datum. The difference between the actual analog value and the digital representation is known as quantization error. For example, if the actual temperature is 23.234456544453 degrees, but only two digits (23) are assigned to this parameter in a particular digital representation, the quantizing error is 0.234456544453. This property of digital communication is known as granularity. Compressible: According to Miller, "Uncompressed digital data is very large, and in its raw form, it would actually produce a larger signal (therefore be more difficult to transfer) than analog data. However, digital data can be compressed. Compression reduces the amount of bandwidth space needed to send information. Data can be compressed, sent, and then decompressed at the site of consumption. This makes it possible to send much more information and results in, for example, digital television signals offering more room on the airwave spectrum for more television channels." == Historical digital systems == Even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary or electronic. DNA genetic code is a naturally occurring form of digital data storage. Written text (due to the limited character set and the use of discrete symbols – the alphabet in most cases) The abacus was created sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC, it later became a form of calculation frequency. Nowadays it can be used as a very advanced, yet basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers. Beads only have meaning in discrete up and down states, not in analog in-between states. A beacon is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off). In particular, smoke signals are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal, where an analog "carrier" (smoke) is modulated with a blanket to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information. Morse code uses six digital states—dot, dash, intra-character gap (between each dot or dash), short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and long gap (between sentences)—to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light, for example using an electrical telegraph or a flashing light. The Braille uses a six-bit code rendered as dot patterns. Flag semaphore uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages to the receiver watching them some distance away. International maritime signal flags have distinctive markings that represent letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other. More recently invented, a modem modulates an analog "carrier" signal (such as sound) to encode binary electrical digital information, as a series of binary digital sound pulses. A slightly earlier, surprisingly reliable version of the same concept was to bundle a sequence of audio digital "signal" and "no signal" information (i.e. "sound" and "silence") on magnetic cassette tape for use with early home computers.
[ "Character encoding", "information systems", "MIT Press", "Digital video", "Binary numeral system", "electrical telegraph", "analog signal", "modulated", "information theory", "Digital divide", "Flag semaphore", "home computer", "Digital physics", "Character (computing)", "binary digit", "continuous variable", "digital photography", "Digital electronics", "DNA", "data transmission", "Analog-to-digital converter", "analog-to-digital conversion", "alphanumeric", "Granularity", "Data remanence", "quantization error", "digital television", "Central processing unit", "interrupt", "quantization (signal processing)", "Digital infinity", "compact audio cassette", "beacon", "Barker code", "text document", "computer keyboard", "polling (computer science)", "Computer data storage", "Digital art", "International maritime signal flags", "data in transit", "Discrete mathematics", "digital signal", "punctuation", "formal language", "modem", "pausa", "sampling (signal processing)", "digital age", "Digital control", "Digital recording", "Bell Labs", "data at rest", "abacus", "real number", "sound wave", "Digital architecture", "electronics", "alphabet (formal languages)", "genetic code", "binary data", "real-valued function", "Internet forum", "Code", "Comparison of analog and digital recording", "Latin", "Braille", "data compression", "Science (journal)", "capitalization", "Binary number", "alphanumeric character", "joystick", "noise (signal processing)", "Digital native", "Error detection and correction", "ASCII", "Digital Revolution", "computing", "character encoding", "Morse code", "Data (computer science)", "digit (anatomy)", "data in use", "digital audio", "synchronization sequence", "CIA Triad", "George Stibitz", "Digital-to-analog converter", "smoke signal" ]
8,278
Deduction
Deduction may refer to: == Philosophy == Deductive reasoning, the mental process of drawing inferences in which the truth of their premises ensures the truth of their conclusion Natural deduction, a class of proof systems based on simple and self-evident rules of inference that aim to closely mirror how reasoning actually occurs == Taxation == Tax deduction, variable tax dollars subtracted from gross income Itemized deduction, eligible expense that individual taxpayers in the United States can report on their Federal income tax returns Standard deduction, dollar amount that non-itemizers may subtract from their income == Other uses == English modals of deduction, English modal verbs to state how sure somebody is about something. Deduction (food stamps), used in the United States to calculate a household's monthly food stamp benefit goods
[ "Itemized deduction", "Standard deduction", "Induction (disambiguation)", "Natural deduction", "Tax deduction", "English modals of deduction", "Deduction (food stamps)", "Deductive reasoning" ]
8,280
Demon
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in folklore, mythology, religion, and literature; these beliefs are reflected in media including comics, fiction, film, television, and video games. Belief in demons probably goes back to the Paleolithic age, stemming from humanity's fear of the unknown, the strange and the horrific. In ancient Near Eastern religions and in the Abrahamic religions, including early Judaism and ancient-medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity that may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism. Large portions of Jewish demonology, a key influence on Christianity and Islam, originated from a later form of Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Persian era. Demons may or may not be considered to be devils: minions of the Devil. As lesser spirits doing the Devil's work, they have additional duties— causing humans to have sinful thoughts and tempting humans to commit sinful actions. The original Ancient Greek word ' () did not carry negative connotations, as it denotes a spirit or divine power. The Greek conception of a ' notably appears in the philosophical works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates. In Christianity, morally ambivalent were replaced by demons, forces of evil only striving for corruption. Such demons are not the Greek intermediary spirits, but hostile entities, already known in Iranian beliefs. In Western esotericism and Renaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation of Greco-Roman magic, Jewish Aggadah, and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be conjured and controlled. Belief in demons remains an important part of many modern religions and occult traditions. Demons are still feared largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures. In contemporary Western esoteric traditions, demons may be used as metaphors for inner psychological processes ("inner demons"). == Etymology == The Ancient Greek word (') denotes a spirit or divine power, much like the Latin ' or '. most likely came from the Greek verb ' ( or ). The Greek conception of a notably appears in the philosophical works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates. The original Greek word does not carry the negative connotation initially understood by implementation of the Koine (daimonion), such as shedu from Chaldean mythology. The demons of Mesopotamia were generally hostile spirits of lesser power than a deity. According to the Babylonian creation epic Enūma Eliš, both gods and demons are the children of Tiamat, the goddess of primordial chaos. The demons were engendered by Tiamat as an act of revenge in reaction to the gods slaying her primordial partner Abzu. Some demons were evil spirits of those who died in misery, while other demons were nature demons causing harm by carrying plagues, nightmares, causing headaches, and storms. Many demonic beings were home to the underworld, sometimes referred to as "offspring of arali". These demons ascend from the underworld and terrorize mortals. One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known as galla; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. Like many other Mesopotamian demons galla could also fulfill a protective role. In a hymn from King Gudea of Lagash ( 2144 – 2124 BCE), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the great galla of Girsu". === Ancient Zoroastrianism === The Zoroastrian concept of demons (Daeva, later ) had strong influence on the Abrahamic religions, especially Christianity and Islam. By elevating Ahura Mazda to the one supreme God, the founder Zoroaster relegated the daevas to demons. Emphasizing free-will, Zoroaster taught that demons became evil by their own volition in rejecting truth over falsehood. The battle between the hosts of deities against evil demons ( and ) are described in the Bundahishn. Humankind lives in a world between the good powers of God (Ahura Mazda) and the Devil (Ahriman) and suffers corruption through defection of humankind. Therefore, Zorastrianism proposes a threefold nature for humans: divine, animalistic, and demonic. As such, humans are obligated to keep fighting the demonic traits. === Apocalyptic period and early Christianity === The concept of demons as servants of the Devil entered the Christian tradition via Post-exilic Judaism. Inspired by Zoroastrian dualistic cosmology, the non-Jewish deities were demonized, as evident from intertestamental writings. The apocalyptic literature then builds the foundation for the authors of the Gospels in first-century Palestine. In antiquity, belief in demonic agents of misfortune were widespread. The early Christian community took it for granted that people outside the Judeo-Christian community were worshipping demons. Conversion to Christianity meant renunciation of the demons by the bearers of the Holy Spirit. By the end of the sixth century, the Mediterranean Christian society widely considered themselves to be unequivocally Christian, with an exception to Jews, the last record of worshipping another pre-Christian deity being in 570s. === Medieval Christian Europe === Magical rites, charms, and beliefs in spiritual entities were prominent in pre-Christian Europe. While the Church officially declared such beliefs as false, the persistance of such beliefs among the wider populations led Christian monks to assimilate Christian with non-Christian rites. To sanction the invocation of non-Christian supernatural powers, Christian missionaries, such as John Cassian in the fifth century, Many pagan nature spirits like dwarfs and elves thus became seen as demons, servants of the supreme Devil. A difference was made between monsters and demons. The monsters, regarded as distorted humans, probably without souls, were created so that people might be grateful to God that they did not suffer in such a state; they ranked above demons in existence and still claimed a small degree of beauty and goodness as they had not turned away from God. In Medieval Christianity, demons and spirits were generally considered to be fallen angels. Morally ambivalent nature spirits, such as fairies from Irish and Scandinavian folktales were often explained as angels who remained neutral during the war of heaven. They became spirits of the place they fell into when banished to earth. === Islamic culture in the Middle Ages === In Islamic culture, demons () share many anthropomorphic attributes with the Arabian jinn. Like the jinn from Islamic traditions, they can enter sexual relationships with humans and sire offspring. Within context of the Islamic belief system, demons are considered to be yet another creature of God, rather than independent parts of the world, as evident from Abu Ali Bal'ami's interpretation of Tarikh al-Tabari Demons are believed to be vanquished by sacred symbols. The content of the symbol depends on the prevailing religion of the culture. Among Turks, the basmalah ("invocation of the name of Allah") is used to ward off demons, while among Armenians, the symbol of the cross is utilized. Demons are believed to be mostly active at night and a bad smell in the air or sudden change in temperature would announce their presence. It is generally accepted that demons can be subjugated as they are said to be enslaved by legendary heroes (Solomon in the Quran and Jamshid in Persian legends). Due to their reluctant nature, even enslaved, they do always the opposite of what has been commanded. Such demons frequently appear throughout literature as personification of human vices. The protagonist must overcome their own animalistic nature, the demons, in order to heed his rational inclination and achieve salvation. === European occultism and Renaissance magic === Under influence of Islamic philosophy, Medieval occult traditions and Renaissance magic, demons are often seen as beneficial and useful, lacking an inherent negative connotation. In fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Renaissance magic, the terms demon and devil have two different, although not exclusive, meanings. The term demons refers to a cluster of supernatural beings, such as daimons, spirits, and devils, affecting the mind. He asserted that these beings are spirit-like and thus not human, but they have bodies and flesh and are thus, not angels. He suggested that these beings are structured similar to human societies, intelligent beings who eat and drink yet invisible to most humans. Their views were rejected by demonologists and religious orthodoxy and labelled as "atheistic". They denied that spirits could have an autonomeous existence and that they are demons with the sole purpose of deceiving and harming people. A variety of spirits or the assumption that demons might be morally ambivalent is encouraged by necromancy. Here, a necromancer supposedly converses with the spirits of the dead. A ceremonial magician usually consults a grimoire, which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them. Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give instructions for the invocation of deity, a process called theurgy. The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known as goetia, a word derived from the Greek word , which originally denoted diviners, magicians, healers, and seers. === Age of Enlightenment=== In the 16th to early 17th centuries, the idea – inherited from Renaissance magic and occultism – that demonic forces could be conjured and controlled may have paved the way for the development of modern sciences. In Hermetic- and Kabbalist philosophy, demons could be subjugated and shaped the idea that humans can control their social environment and their surrounding natural forces. The Age of Enlightenment conceptualizes humans as autonomous individuals, mostly independent from external invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate. While in the pre-modern period, spirits and demons were assigned to various natural phenomena, the rationalistic school of thought, increasingly rejected the attribution of demons to unknown causes. Many considered demons to be non-existent and alleged visions of demons and ghosts were explained as results of superstition. By that local religious customs were also oppressed in favor of nationwide (religious) ideas or deities. Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States. In religious beliefs, applying such theories of evil, matter (Greek: ) becomes a sphere of demonic activity and transforms matter into the devilish principle par excellence. === Gnosticism === Gnosticism largely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially on Platonism. In accordance with Platonism, they regarded the idea as good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil. The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with an Archon (demonic ruler). Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in the Apocryphon of John in which they are said to have helped to construct the physical Adam and in Pistis Sophia which states they are ruled over by Hekate and punish corrupt souls. === Mandaeism === In Mandaeism, the World of Darkness (), also referred to as Sheol, is the underworld located below Tibil (Earth). It is ruled by its king Ur (Leviathan) and its queen Ruha, mother of the seven planets and twelve constellations. The great dark Ocean of Sup (or Suf) lies in the World of Darkness. The great dividing river of Hitfun, analogous to the river Styx in Greek mythology, separates the World of Darkness from the World of Light. Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, (vampire), (hobgoblin), (ghost), (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits. founded in the third century AD by the Parthian prophet Mani (), in the Sasanian Empire. One of its key concepts is the doctrine of Two Principles and Three Moments. Accordingly, the world could be described as resulting from a past moment, in which two principles (good and evil) were separate, a contemporary moment in which both principles are mixed due to an assault of the world of darkness on the realm of light, and a future moment when both principles are distinct forever. Thus, evil and demons played a significant role within Manichaean teachings. There are numberless designations for various groups of demonic entities in Manichaean cosmology. The general term used for the beings of the world of darkness is div. In The Book of Giants, one of the canonical seven treatises also known from Jewish intertestamental literature, the Grigori () beget giant half-demon offspring with human woman. In the Middle Persian version of the Book of Giants they are referred to as , while in the Coptic Kephalaia as . the giant offspring became the ancient tyrannic rulers over mankind, until overthrown by the angels of punishment. Nonetheless, these demons are still active in the microcosm, such as Āz and Āwarzōg. The (singular , ) are mentioned once in Leviticus 17:7, These entities appear in a scriptural context of animal or child sacrifice to non-existent false gods. witnessed such a performance in the presence of the Emperor Vespasian and ascribed its origin to King Solomon. In mythology, there were few defences against Babylonian demons. The mythical mace Sharur had the power to slay demons such as Asag, a legendary gallu or edimmu of hideous strength. === Talmudic tradition and Midrashim === In the Jerusalem Talmud, notions of ' ( or ) are almost unknown or occur only very rarely, whereas in the Babylonian Talmud there are many references to ' and magical incantations. The existence of ' in general was not questioned by most of the Babylonian Talmudists. As a consequence of the rise of influence of the Babylonian Talmud over that of the Jerusalem Talmud, late rabbis, in general, took as fact the existence of ', nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality. However, rationalists like Maimonides and Saadia Gaon and others explicitly denied their existence, and completely rejected concepts of demons, evil spirits, negative spiritual influences, attaching and possessing spirits. They thought the essential teaching about shedim and similar spirits is, that they should not be an object of worship, not a reality to be acknowledged or feared. Their point of view eventually became mainstream Jewish understanding. Aggadic tales from the Persian tradition describe the , the mazziḳim ("harmers"), and the ruḥin ("spirits"). There were also lilin ("night spirits"), ṭelane ("shade", or "evening spirits"), ṭiharire ("midday spirits"), and ẓafrire ("morning spirits"), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake". === Kabbalah === In Kabbalah, demons are regarded as a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qlippoth). After they are created, they assume an existence on their own. Demons would attach themselves to the sinner and start to multiply as an act of self-preservation. Medieval Kabbalists characterize such demons as punishing angels of destruction. They are subject to the divine will, and do not act independently. Other demonic entities, such as the , might be considered benevolent. The Zohar classifies them as those who are like humans and submit to the Torah, and those who have no fear of God and are like animals. === Second Temple Judaism === The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from the Watchers or Nephilim, who are first mentioned in Genesis 6 and are the focus of 1 Enoch Chapters 1–16, and also in Jubilees 10. The Nephilim were seen as the source of the sin and evil on Earth because they are referenced in Genesis 6:4 before the story of the Flood. In Genesis 6:5, God sees evil in the hearts of men. Ethiopic Enoch refers to Genesis 6:4–5, and provides further description of the story connecting the Nephilim to the corruption of humans. According to the Book of Enoch, sin originates when angels descend from heaven and fornicate with women, birthing giants. The Book of Enoch shows that these fallen angels can lead humans to sin through direct interaction or through providing forbidden knowledge. Most scholars understand the text, that demons originate from the evil spirits of the deceased giants, cursed by God to wander the Earth. Dale Martin disagrees with this interpretation, arguing that the ghosts of the Nephilim are distinct. The evil spirits would make the people sacrifice to the demons, but they were not demons themselves. The spirits are stated in Enoch to "corrupt, fall, be excited, and fall upon the earth, and cause sorrow". == Christianity == According to Christian theology, demons are fallen angels. They are believed to have been created as good angels who then turned evil by joining Lucifer in his rebellion against God. This mythology is not shared by Judaism or found as such in the New Testament. Augustine of Hippo (5th century) established the position, that demons are spirits (angels) who turn away from God, for Western demonology and for the Catholic Church. === Old Testament === The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent. Though there are evil spirits sent by YHWH, they can hardly be called demons, since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity. Some old English Bible translations such as King James Version do not have the word demon in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'. As adversaries of Jesus, demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; causes of misery, suffering, and death. Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits who must be sacrificed for the appeasement of a deity. Possession also shows no trace of positivity, contrary to some pagan depictions of spirit possession. They are explicitly said to be ruled by the Devil or Beelzebub. Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted. Many early Christians, like Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Lactantius assumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings. Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons. Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies. === Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books === Demons are included in biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (). In the Book of Jubilees, which is considered canonical only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, this same event is told slightly differently: "All the powers of [the demon] Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt. And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them." (Jubilees 49:2–4) In the Genesis flood narrative, the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (). In Jubilees, the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" (Jubilees 17:16). The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence of Mastema. In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees, Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, "an even more demonic act than that of Satan in Job". In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with tempting mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9). These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits. In the Testament of Solomon, written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demon Asmodeus explains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother. Another demon describes himself as having died in the "massacre in the age of giants". Beelzeboul, the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel, not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods. === Christian demonology === Since Early Christianity, demonology has developed from a simple acceptance of demons to a complex study that has grown from the original ideas taken from Jewish demonology and Christian scriptures. Christian demonology is studied in depth within the Roman Catholic Church, although many other Christian churches affirm and discuss the existence of demons. Building upon the few references to in the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers of apocrypha from the second century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture. While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent, Origen argued against Celsus that daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons. According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God. Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground. Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants. These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth. However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world. Origen sums them up as fallen angels and thus equal to demons. Many ascetics, like Origen and Anthony the Great, described demons as psychological powers, tempting to evil, in contrast to benevolent angels advising good. According to Life of Anthony, written in Greek around 360 by Athanasius of Alexandria, most of the time, the demons were expressed as an internal struggle, inclinations, and temptations. But after Anthony successfully resisted the demons, they would appear in human form to tempt and threaten him even more intensely. Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite described evil as "defiancy" and does not give evil an ontological existence. He explains demons are deficient creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence. Their dangerous nature results not from the power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the "void" and the unreal, away from God. Michael Psellos proposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell. The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their "imaginative action" () to produce illusions in the mind. The lowest demons, on the other hand, are almost mindless, gross, and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans. These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims. They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles. The demons are divided into: Leliouria: The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon Aeria: Demons of the air below the moon Chthonia: Inhabiting the land Hyraia/Enalia: Dwelling in the water Bypochtbonia: They live beneath the earth Misophaes: The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hell Invocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out. However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels. The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology. The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many exorcisms each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others. At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposed demonic hierarchies. In recent times, scholars doubted that independent demons exist, and rather considers them, aking to Jewish satan, to be servants of God. According to S. N. Chiu, God is shown sending a demon against Saul in 1 Samuel 16 and 18 in order to punish him for the failure to follow God's instructions, showing God as having the power to use demons for his own purposes, putting the demon under his divine authority. According to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, demons, despite being typically associated with evil, are often shown to be under divine control, and not acting of their own devices. == Islam == In Islamic beliefs, demons are roughly of two types: Jinn and devils ( or ). The jinn derive from pre-Islamic Arabian beliefs, although their exact origin is unclear. The presence of jinn in pre-Islamic Arabian beliefs is not only testified by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic literature in the seventh century. The (devils or satans) on the other hand, appear in stories bearing similarities with Judeo-Christian tradition. Although virtually absent in the Quran, Muslims generally hold the belief that jinn can possess people. In the tradition of Ash'ari, it has been considered to be part of the doctrines () of the "people of the Sunnah" (). For most theologians, (Ashʿaris as well as Muʿtazilis), and in contrast to philosophers, both demons (jinn and devils) and angels are material. All sentient beings are said to be created out from a physical substance: angels from light, jinn from fire and air, devils from fire, and humans from earth. The Quran emphasizes similarities between humans and jinn. The Quranic phrase () puts the jinn to the same position as humans and whereby also rejecting kinship with God. While the jinn are morally ambivalent, the represent malevolent forces akin to the devils of the Judeo-Christian tradition, Muslim writers on astrology identified the planetary spirits known from ancient Greek cosmology, with seven demon-kings, often invoked for the preparation of Magic squares. According to the Book of Wonders each day of the week is assigned to one of the (higher spirits) and (lower spirits). == Dharmic religions == === Hinduism === Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's karma. Souls (Atman) of the dead are adjudged by the Yama and are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn. According to Hindu cosmology, othing is either purely evil or good, and even demonic beings could eventually abandon their demonic nature. Humans that have committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often mischief mongers, spirits for a length of time before being reborn. Many kinds of such spirits (Vetalas and Pishachas) are recognized in the later Hindu texts. Even celestial beings are subject to change. The identification of with demons stems from the description of as "formerly gods" (). In the Veda, gods (deva) and demi-gods or titans (asura) are not yet differentiated beings and both share the upper world. Rather than denoting a separate class of being, the asuras are characterized by being great leaders, often warriors. , in the earliest hymns of the Rigveda, originally meant any supernatural spirit, either good or bad. Since the of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the of the Early Iranian languages, the word , representing a category of celestial beings, is a cognate with Old Persian Ahura. Ancient Hinduism tells that Devas (also called suras) and Asuras are half-brothers, sons of the same father Kashyapa; although some of the Devas, such as Varuna, are also called Asuras. Later, during Puranic age, Asura and Rakshasa came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings. Daitya (lit. sons of the mother Diti), Danava (lit. sons of the mother "Danu"), Maya Danava, Rakshasa (lit. from "harm to be guarded against"), and are sometimes translated into English as . It is only by the time of the Brahmanas that the asuras are said to inhabit the underworld and are progressively, despite originally distinct beings, assimilated to the rakshasas. The gods are said to have claimed heaven for themselves and tricked the asuras, ending on earth. During the Vedic period, gods aid humans against demons. By that, gods secure their own place in heaven, using humans as tools to defeat their cosmic enemies. The rakshasas are often portrayed as vile creatures associated with greed and magical abilities, unleashed through rites considered inappropriate by the Brahmins. However, the asuras retain some of their previous features, and function often as individual leaders of the rakshasas. The asuras also mostly dwell in the heavenly worlds, while the Earth is plagued by lower demonic beings such as rakshasas, bhutas, pretas, and pishachas. The pretas are ghosts, who could not go to the afterlife yet. The Pishachas, likewise, are spirits of the dead, but associated with eating human-flesh. With increase in asceticism during the post-Vedic period, withdrawal of sacrificial rituals was considered a threat to the gods. However, all demonic appearances are only temporary. === Buddhism === Buddhism classifies sentient beings into six types: Deva, Asura, human, animal, ghost, hell-being. When Buddhism spread, it accommodated itself with indigenous popular ideas about demons. The Pali Sutras represent the unenlightened people as "possessed" by the demons of "desire" and "craving". Tasmanian mythology in particular has many beings translated as "devils"; these include malicious spirits like Rageowrapper as well as spirits summoned in magic. Tasmanian Aboriginal people would describe these entities as "devils" and related that these spiritual beings as walking alongside Aboriginal people "carrying a torch but could not be seen". === Ancient Egypt === The exact definition of demon in Egyptology posed a major problem for modern scholarship, since the borders between a deity and a demon are sometimes blurred and the ancient Egyptian language lacks a term for the modern English demon. Both deities and demons can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans. By that, they share some resemblance to the Greek . However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink. haunted China from the very earliest periods and persisted throughout the late imperial era. In the Xia dynasty, nine bronze cauldrons with their forms were cast to help the common people to identify and to avoid them. Classical texts in the Zhou and Warring-States period distinguish between the demons of mountains and forests (the seductive Chimei ), demons of trees and rocks (a necrophagous fever-demon, the Wangliang ), who caused disease and miscarriage) and fever demons born from water (Wangxiang , a child-like being with red eyes). These demons were said to be born of aberrant qi (breath or energy), known to accost and kill travellers, and held responsible for sickness. People also feared the Muling (also muzhong ) – demons forming over time in trees of immense age, capable of inflicting disease and killing human passers-by and birds flying overhead. Examples include the penghou (), a demon associated with camphor trees in mountain forests, and which takes the form of a human-headed dog, and in the southern provinces, the banana-leaf spirits. From the Tang dynasty onwards, belief in shapeshifting foxes, tigers and wolves, amongst other creatures, also featured in Chinese folk belief, partly due to the existence of outlawed fox-spirit cults. Fox demons () are described as cunning and lustful, capable of clairvoyance, and of inflicting disease and poisoning at will. They are sometimes seen as beings requiring worship to be appeased or placated. Tiger demons () and wolf demons () are ravening beings roaming large territories for prey, taking the form of humans to conveniently insert themselves into communities and settlements. Tiger demons are described as being enslave the souls of humans they have killed, turning them into minions. In the superstitious climate of the previous centuries, people mistaken as tigers and wolves in human disguise were often put to death or starved in their cells by magistrates. Fish () and snake demons () are said to have attempted to assault Confucius. Even insects are capable of being demonic. In one tale, the sighting of a centipede demon () in the form of an old woman without eyes is said to have led to the sickness and death of an entire household. One notable demon not in the above categories includes the Heisheng or Heiqi ( or ), a kind of roving vapour demon that inflicts damage to persons and property wherever it roams, sometimes killing where it goes. Another are undefined Poltergeists, sometimes afflicting monasteries, causing serious nuisances, and unable to be exorcised. ==== Disambiguation ==== The terms Yao (), Mo (), Gui (), Guai () and Xie () are their various two-character combinations often used to refer to these creatures, but of these terms, only Mo () denotes demons in the religious sense. China has two classes of beings that might be regarded as demons, and which are generally translated as such: Yao () – a kind of uncanny supernatural creature, usually with the power to shapeshift, to poison or to cause disease, and to bewilder or enthrall. They are associated with sorcery or sorcery-like powers. They are not always evil in the sense that Western demons or the Chinese () are but are represented as having malevolent tendencies and as creatures of ill-omen. They are often invoked as an explanation for strange events, bizarre occurrences, mysterious diseases and horrible accidents. They resemble the unseelie fae of Celtic legend and folklore in their powers and predisposition - and are sometimes translated as or rather than . Mo () Some scholars, like ibn Sina, rejected the reality of jinn altogether. Al-Jāḥiẓ and al-Masʿūdī, explained jinn and demons as merely psychological phenomena. In his Kitāb al-Hayawān, al-Jāḥiẓ states that jinn and demons are the product of loneliness. Such a state induces people to mind-games, causing . Al-Masʿūdī is similarly critical regarding the reality of demons. He states that alleged demonic encounters are the result of fear and "wrong thinking". Alleged encounters are then told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems. When they grow up, they remember such stories in a state of fear or loneliness. This encourages their imaginations, resulting in another alleged demonic encounter. Sigmund Freud developed this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have died recently shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons." M. Scott Peck, an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject, People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil and Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption. Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients. In People of the Lie he provides identifying characteristics of an evil person, whom he classified as having a character disorder. In Glimpses of the Devil Peck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested in exorcism in order to debunk the myth of possession by evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known to psychology or psychiatry. Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil and that possessed people are not actually evil; rather, they are doing battle with the forces of evil. Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial Malachi Martin, a Roman Catholic priest and a former Jesuit, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator.
[ "apocrypha", "Solomon in Islam", "Leiden", "spirit possession", "Washington, D.C.", "Hebrew Bible", "Jewish demonology", "Stephen L Harris", "hobgoblin", "Ocean of Sup", "ghost", "Hellenistic religion", "Pistis Sophia", "Eugène Delacroix", "Süleymanname", "Muʿtazila", "Abraham ibn Ezra", "religion", "Kabbalah", "Clement of Alexandria", "Roman Catholic", "Tanakh", "Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite", "Prahlada", "Leviticus 17", "Tiamat", "lilin", "Testament of Solomon", "ascetic", "Justin Martyr", "God in Islam", "mythology", "se'irim", "Eastern Orthodox", "Platonism", "Malachi Martin", "Mani (prophet)", "satan", "Zorastrianism", "Daeva", "epilepsy", "Lucifer", "penghou", "Ahriman", "Zohar", "jackals", "Enūma Eliš", "German folklore", "Brahmana", "Jesus Christ", "Abrahamic religion", "Rationalism", "Seven treatises of Manichaeism", "Human cannibalism", "exorcisms", "Achaemenid Empire", "Jinn", "Qlippoth", "King Solomon", "Erinyes", "Bunyip", "Yama", "Magic (supernatural)", "fallen angel", "Sunnism", "Jesus", "Saadia Gaon", "Jahmi", "Conversion to Christianity", "occult", "Gospel of Judas", "lithograph", "Tarikh al-Tabari", "William of Conches", "Hitfun", "Jamshid", "Western esotericism", "Archon (Gnosticism)", "Socrates", "Christian mythology", "Sheol", "Vespasian", "Essenes", "Sannyasa", "Apocryphon of John", "exorcism", "Chinvat Bridge", "Hecate", "Josephus", "Abzu", "Mayasura", "Asura (Hinduism)", "Sasanian Empire", "necromancy", "List of occult terms", "Louvre", "History of Judaism", "Deva (Hinduism)", "Roman Catholic Church", "monster", "wechuge", "genius loci", "Jerusalem Talmud", "Assyria", "Atman (Hinduism)", "Kur", "Mediterranean", "Cult image", "Paganism", "Zoroaster", "Robert Kirk (folklorist)", "Gnosticism", "Ophites", "Anthony the Great", "Ra", "Book of Jubilees", "Acheri", "underworld", "child sacrifice", "occultism", "Koine Greek", "ibn Sina", "Mesopotamia", "Bible", "Classification of demons", "Hieronymus Bosch", "World of Darkness (Mandaeism)", "Protestantism", "Elf", "Parthian Empire", "Coptic language", "personhood", "Celsus", "Boston", "gallu", "Chi (mythology)", "List of theological demons", "Byzantine Empire", "false god", "Shayatin", "Paleolithic", "Styx", "Christianity", "Holy Spirit", "Babylonian religion", "Diti", "God in Christianity", "Abu Ali Bal'ami", "Dwarf (folklore)", "Prince of darkness (Manichaeism)", "Abrahamic religions", "Jesus the Splendour", "Conjuration (summoning)", "Oodgeroo Noonuccal", "film", "Spirit (supernatural entity)", "fortune-telling", "Asag", "Magic square", "World of Light", "Islamic philosophy", "Genesis flood narrative", "Adam", "Ethiopian Orthodox Church", "free-will", "Zulfiqar", "Aggadah", "basmalah", "Chaldea", "Rakshasa", "Palestine", "Willis Barnstone", "shedim", "Veda", "Tibil", "ancient Semitic religions", "Asmodeus", "Algonquian peoples", "Greek mythology", "numen", "Suleiman the Magnificent", "Genesis 6", "Vetala", "angel", "Lagash", "Maimonides", "Jahiz", "Middle Ages", "folklore", "Origen", "Angels in Judaism", "Book of Wonders", "Augustine of Hippo", "Kenoma", "Septuaginta", "Nikrai", "Sharur (mythological weapon)", "comics", "Waswas", "fairy", "Pishacha", "Spiritual warfare", "Good and evil", "Gudea", "demonic possession", "Wangliang", "Athabaskan", "Nephilim", "M. Scott Peck", "Brill Publishers", "Mazzikin", "Ars Goetia", "1 Enoch", "Rabbi", "Ptolemaic Kingdom", "Folk devil", "Book of Genesis", "apocalyptic literature", "Div (demon)", "Manichaeism", "Early Christianity", "Roman Empire", "Book of Enoch", "Nirvana", "Zoroastrianism", "Ash'ari", "List of fictional demons", "psychology", "National Gallery of Art", "popular culture", "Michael Psellos", "Roman period", "Athanasius of Alexandria", "qi", "Egyptology", "Troll", "Septuagint", "Mandaeism", "Dumuzid", "theurgy", "Osiris", "Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt", "King James Version", "Danu (Hinduism)", "Shekhinah", "Wouter Hanegraaff", "Protestant", "Mastema", "Quran", "Microcosm–macrocosm analogy", "Age of Enlightenment", "Daitya", "Goblin", "hyena", "asura", "Fairy", "Kitāb al-Hayawān", "Judas Iscariot", "Greco-Roman magic", "capitalism", "Lactantius", "Mazdaism", "Bhoota (ghost)", "seven planets", "Puranic", "ostrich", "the Devil", "Saṃsāra", "Neoplatonism", "Buddhism", "Ruha", "Intertestamental period", "Jesuit", "Asmodai", "Unclean spirit", "Prayer to Saint Michael", "Modern era", "grimoire", "daimōn", "exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac", "Catholic Church", "American Dream", "Renaissance magic", "ifrit", "War in Heaven", "Media (communication)", "Islam", "Chaos (cosmogony)", "shedu", "Kashyapa", "Irenaeus", "Totem and Taboo:Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics", "catalepsy", "Ur (Mandaeism)", "lilith", "Kephalaia", "Pali Sutras", "Post-exilic", "Satan", "karma", "Demonic possession", "Danava (Hinduism)", "Watcher (angel)", "Christian demonology", "Plato", "wendigo", "Beelzebub", "Animal sacrifice", "Ibn al-Jawzi", "Genius (mythology)", "Vibhishana", "goetia", "Babylonian Talmud", "John Cassian", "Pazuzu", "pseudepigrapha", "Aboriginal Australian", "New Testament", "supernatural", "video games", "Egyptian language", "Wilhelm Wundt", "Mas'udi", "Rootwork", "Ahura Mazda", "Varuna", "Gallu", "divine inspiration", "Destroying angel (Bible)", "vampire", "Judeo-Christian", "Leviathan", "Yaoguai", "Spirit possession", "Divination", "literature", "The Book of Giants", "Girsu", "Rigveda", "television series", "Dale Martin (scholar)", "Theology", "Marvin Meyer", "Sigmund Freud", "edimmu", "fiction", "Late Antiquity", "psychiatry", "jinn", "Latin", "Oracle", "A Greek–English Lexicon", "Empusa", "Religions of the ancient Near East", "nephilim", "Shambhala Publications", "Hungry ghost", "intertestamental literature", "Bundahishn", "Judaism", "Ancient Greek language", "asrestar", "Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia", "Aboriginal Tasmanians", "Paracelsus", "Free will", "Talmudist", "Mace (bludgeon)", "zodiac", "Wittenberg", "Francisco Goya", "demonic hierarchy", "Two Principles and Three Moments", "Daimonion (Socrates)", "sinful", "Dumuzid the Shepherd", "Buddha" ]
8,286
Domino effect
A domino effect is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a series of similar or related events, a form of chain reaction. The term is an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a linked sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively short. The term can be used literally (about a series of actual collisions) or metaphorically (about causal linkages within systems such as global finance or politics). The literal, mechanical domino effect is exploited in Rube Goldberg machines. In chemistry, the principle applies to a domino reaction, in which one chemical reaction sets up the conditions necessary for a subsequent one that soon follows. In the realm of process safety, a domino-effect accident is an initial undesirable event triggering additional ones in related equipment or facilities, leading to a total incident effect more severe than the primary accident alone. The metaphorical usage implies that an outcome is inevitable or highly likely (as it has already started to happen) – a form of slippery slope argument. When this outcome is actually unlikely (the argument is fallacious), it has also been called the domino fallacy.
[ "process safety", "Rube Goldberg machine", "Cambridge University Press", "domino fallacy", "chain reaction", "WP:SEEALSO", "slippery slope", "Fallacy", "Wadsworth Publishing", "domino reaction", "Domino effect accident", "Domino toppling" ]
8,293
Diffusion pump
Diffusion pumps use a high speed jet of vapor to direct gas molecules in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust. They were the first type of high vacuum pumps operating in the regime of free molecular flow, where the movement of the gas molecules can be better understood as diffusion than by conventional fluid dynamics. Invented in 1915 by Wolfgang Gaede, he named it a diffusion pump since his design was based on the finding that gas cannot diffuse against the vapor stream, but will be carried with it to the exhaust. However, the principle of operation might be more precisely described as gas-jet pump, since diffusion also plays a role in other types of high vacuum pumps. In modern textbooks, the diffusion pump is categorized as a momentum transfer pump. The diffusion pump is widely used in both industrial and research applications. Most modern diffusion pumps use silicone oil or polyphenyl ethers as the working fluid. ==History== In the late 19th century, most vacuums were created using a Sprengel pump, which had the advantage of being very simple to operate, and capable of achieving quite good vacuum given enough time. Compared to later pumps, however, the pumping speed was very slow and the vapor pressure of the liquid mercury limited the ultimate vacuum. Following his invention of the molecular pump, Wolfgang Gaede invented the diffusion pump in 1915, and originally used elemental mercury as the working fluid. After its invention, the design was quickly commercialized by Leybold. It was then improved by Irving Langmuir and W. Crawford. Cecil Reginald Burch discovered the possibility of using silicone oil in 1928. ==Oil diffusion pumps== An oil diffusion pump is used to achieve higher vacuum (lower pressure) than is possible by use of positive displacement pumps alone. Although its use has been mainly associated within the high-vacuum range, down to , diffusion pumps today can produce pressures approaching when properly used with modern fluids and accessories. The features that make the diffusion pump attractive for high and ultra-high vacuum use are its high pumping speed for all gases and low cost per unit pumping speed when compared with other types of pump used in the same vacuum range. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around . The oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil of low vapor pressure. The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly. Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles. Within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar to supersonic and molecular. Often, several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action. The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow, water lines or a water-filled jacket. As the vapor jet hits the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, the working fluid condenses and is recovered and directed back to the boiler. The pumped gases continue flowing to the base of the pump at increased pressure, flowing out through the diffusion pump outlet, where they are compressed to ambient pressure by the secondary mechanical forepump and exhausted. Unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressure ranges of . They are driven only by convection and thus have a very low energy efficiency. One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber. This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Due to backstreaming, oil diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment, but mercury diffusion pumps may be in the case of ultra high vacuum chambers used for metal deposition. Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping speed. The oil of a diffusion pump cannot be exposed to the atmosphere when hot. If this occurs, the oil will oxidise and has to be replaced. If a fire occurs, the smoke and residue may contaminate other parts of the system. ===Oil types=== The least expensive diffusion pump oils are based on hydrocarbons which have been purified by double-distillation. Compared with the other fluids, they have higher vapor pressure, so are usually limited to a pressure of . They are also the most likely to burn or explode if exposed to oxidizers. The most common silicone oils used in diffusion pumps are trisiloxanes, which contain the chemical group Si-O-Si-O-Si, to which various phenyl groups or methyl groups are attached. These are available as the so-called 702 and 703 blends, which were formerly manufactured by Dow Corning. These can be further separated into 704 and 705 oils, which are made up of the isomers of tetraphenyl tetramethyl trisiloxane and pentaphenyl trimethyl trisiloxane respectively. For pumping reactive species, usually a polyphenyl ether based oil is used. These oils are the most chemical and heat resistant type of diffusion pump oil. ==Steam ejectors== The steam ejector is a popular form of pump for vacuum distillation and freeze-drying. A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber. Steam ejectors can have single or multiple stages, with and without condensers in between the stages. While both steam ejectors and diffusion pumps use jets of vapor to entrain gas, they work on fundamentally different principles - steam ejectors rely on viscous flow and mixing to pump gas, whereas diffusion pumps use molecular diffusion. This has several consequences. In diffusion pumps, the inlet pressure can be much lower than the static pressure of jet, whereas in steam ejectors the two pressures are about the same. Also, diffusion pumps are capable of much higher compression ratios, and cannot discharge directly to atmosphere.
[ "vacuum pump", "free molecular flow", "distillation", "Positive displacement vacuum pump", "silicone oil", "trisiloxane", "Wolfgang Gaede", "cold trap", "hydrocarbon", "polyphenyl ether", "Cecil Reginald Burch", "Mercury (element)", "laminar flow", "Nature (journal)", "Leybold GmbH", "fluid dynamics", "vapor pressure", "Holweck pump", "phenyl group", "Aspirator (pump)", "turbomolecular pump", "Sprengel pump", "convection", "Baffle (heat transfer)", "Irving Langmuir", "Annalen der Physik", "diffusion", "Dow Corning", "molecule", "cryopump", "Condenser (steam turbine)", "freeze-drying", "Turbomolecular pump", "Manhattan Project", "methyl group", "Vacuum pump", "Proc. Phys. Soc.", "mass spectrometer", "supersonic" ]
8,299
Domenico Alberti
Domenico Alberti (c. 1710 – 14 October 1746 (according to other sources: 1740 and studied music with Antonio Lotti. He wrote operas, songs, and sonatas for keyboard instruments, for which he is best known today. His sonatas frequently employ arpeggiated accompaniment in the left hand in one of several patterns that are now collectively known as Alberti bass. Alberti was one of the earliest composers to use those patterns, but was not the first or only one. The most well-known of these patterns consists of regular broken chords, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again, with the pattern repeated. Today, Alberti is regarded as a minor composer, and his works are played or recorded only irregularly. However, the Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and it became an important element in much keyboard music of the classical music era. An example of Alberti bass (Mozart's Piano Sonata, K 545): In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer, and often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord. In 1736, he served as a page for Pietro Andrea Cappello, the Venetian ambassador to Spain. While at the Spanish court, the famous castrato singer Farinelli heard him sing. Farinelli was said to have been impressed, although Alberti was an amateur. Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed. It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived. They all have two movements, each in binary form. It is probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age of seven, were modeled on Alberti's work.
[ "Ambassador (diplomacy)", "castrato", "arpeggio", "chord (music)", "classical music era", "Venice", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Piano Sonata, K. 545 (Mozart)", "Farinelli", "accompaniment", "harpsichord", "Alberti bass", "binary form", "Antonio Lotti", "sonata (music)", "violin sonata" ]
8,300
Doris Day
Doris Day (born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff; April 3, 1922 – May 13, 2019) was an American actress and singer. She began her career as a big band singer in 1937, achieving commercial success in 1945 with two No. 1 recordings, "Sentimental Journey" and "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time" with Les Brown and His Band of Renown. She left Brown to embark on a solo career and recorded more than 650 songs from 1947 to 1967. Day was one of the leading Hollywood film stars of the 1950s and 1960s. Her film career began with Romance on the High Seas (1948). She starred in films of many genres, including musicals, comedies, dramas and thrillers. She played the title role in Calamity Jane (1953) and starred in Alfred Hitchcock's The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) with James Stewart. She co-starred with Rock Hudson in three successful comedies, Pillow Talk (1959), for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, Lover Come Back (1961) and Send Me No Flowers (1964). She also worked with James Garner on both Move Over, Darling (1963) and The Thrill of It All (1963) and starred alongside Clark Gable, Cary Grant, James Cagney, David Niven, Ginger Rogers, Jack Lemmon, Frank Sinatra, Kirk Douglas, Lauren Bacall, and Rod Taylor in various films. After ending her film career in 1968, she starred in her own television sitcom The Doris Day Show (1968–1973). In 1989, Day was awarded the Golden Globe and the Cecil B. DeMille Award for Lifetime Achievement in Motion Pictures. In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 2008, she received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award as well as a Legend Award from the Society of Singers. In 2011, she was awarded the Los Angeles Film Critics Association's Career Achievement Award. In 2011, Day released her 29th studio album, My Heart, which contained new material and became a UK Top 10 album. , she was one of eight recording artists to have been the top box-office earner in the United States four times. ==Early life== Day was born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff the daughter of German-American parents Alma Sophia (née Welz; 1895–1976) and William Joseph Kappelhoff (1892–1967). She was named after actress Doris Kenyon. Her mother was a homemaker, and her father was a music teacher and choirmaster. Her paternal grandfather Franz Joseph Wilhelm Kappelhoff immigrated to the United States in 1875 and settled within the large German community in Cincinnati. For most of her life, Day stated that she was born in 1924, but on the occasion of her 95th birthday, the Associated Press found her birth certificate that showed a 1922 year of birth. She developed an early interest in dance, and in the mid-1930s formed a dance duo with Jerry Doherty that performed in nationwide competitions. She had signed a contract with a casting company to be a dancer and she was preparing to move to Los Angeles to pursue this opportunity. Family friends that lived just north of Cincinnati, in Hamilton, Ohio planned a going away party for her but tragedy struck on her way to the party. On October 13, 1937, while Day was riding with friends, their car collided with a freight train, and she broke her right leg, curtailing her prospects as a professional dancer. ==Career== ===Early career (1938–1947)=== While recovering from her car accident, Day sang along with the radio and discovered her singing talent. She later said: "During this long, boring period, I used to while away a lot of time listening to the radio, sometimes singing along with the likes of Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller. But the one radio voice I listened to above others belonged to Ella Fitzgerald. There was a quality to her voice that fascinated me, and I'd sing along with her, trying to catch the subtle ways she shaded her voice, the casual yet clean way she sang the words." Day's mother Alma arranged for Doris to receive singing lessons from Grace Raine. After three lessons, Raine told Alma that Day had "tremendous potential" and gave her three lessons per week for the price of one. Years later, Day said that Raine had a greater effect on her singing style and career than had anyone else. During the eight months when she was receiving singing lessons, Day secured her first professional jobs as a vocalist on the WLW radio program Carlin's Carnival and in a local restaurant, Charlie Yee's Shanghai Inn. During her radio performances, she first caught the attention of Barney Rapp, who was seeking a female vocalist and asked her to audition for the job. According to Rapp, he had auditioned about 200 other singers. In 1939, Rapp suggested the stage name Doris Day because the Kappelhoff surname was too long for marquees and he admired her rendition of the song "Day After Day". After working with Rapp, Day worked with bandleaders Jimmy James, Bob Crosby and Les Brown. In 1941, Day appeared as a singer in three Soundies with the Les Brown band. While working with Brown, Day recorded her first hit recording, "Sentimental Journey", released in early 1945. It soon became an anthem for World War II servicemen. The song continues to be associated with Day, and she rerecorded it on several occasions, including a version for her 1971 television special. During 1945–46, Day (as vocalist with the Les Brown Band) had six other top ten hits on the Billboard chart: "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time", Tain't Me", "Till the End of Time", "You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)", "The Whole World Is Singing My Song" and "I Got the Sun in the Mornin. Les Brown said, "As a singer Doris belongs in the company of Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra." ===Early film career (1948–1954)=== While singing with the Les Brown band and for nearly two years on Bob Hope's weekly radio program, She was shocked to receive the offer and admitted to Curtiz that she was a singer without acting experience but he appreciated her honesty and felt that "her freckles made her look like the All-American Girl." The film provided her with a No. 2 hit recording as a soloist, "It's Magic", which occurred two months after her first No. 1 hit "Love Somebody", a duet with Buddy Clark. Day recorded "Someone Like You" before the film My Dream Is Yours (1949), which featured the song. In 1950, she collaborated as a singer with the polka musician Frankie Yankovic, and the U.S. servicemen in Korea voted her their favorite star. Day continued to appear in light musicals such as On Moonlight Bay (1951), By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1953) and Tea For Two (1950) for Warner Bros. Her most commercially successful film for Warner Bros. was I'll See You in My Dreams (1951), a musical biography of lyricist Gus Kahn that broke box-office records of 20 years. It was Day's fourth film directed by Curtiz. She appeared as the title character in the comedic western-themed musical Calamity Jane (1953). A song from the film, "Secret Love", won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became Day's fourth No. 1 hit single in the United States. Between 1950 and 1953, the albums from six of her film musicals charted in the Top 10, including three that reached No. 1. After filming Lucky Me (1954) with Bob Cummings and Young at Heart (1955) with Frank Sinatra, Day elected to not renew her contract with Warner Brothers. During this period, Day also had her own radio program, The Doris Day Show. It was broadcast on CBS in 1952–1953. ===Breakthrough (1955–1958)=== Primarily recognized as a musical-comedy actress, Day began to accept more dramatic roles in order to broaden her range. Her dramatic star turn as singer Ruth Etting in Love Me or Leave Me (1955), with top billing above James Cagney, received critical and commercial success, becoming Day's greatest film success to that point. Cagney said that she had "the ability to project the simple, direct statement of a simple, direct idea without cluttering it," comparing her performance to that of Laurette Taylor in the Broadway production The Glass Menagerie (1945). Day felt that it was her best film performance. The film's producer Joe Pasternak said, "I was stunned that Doris did not get an Oscar nomination." The film's soundtrack album became a No. 1 hit. Day starred in Alfred Hitchcock's suspense film The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film) opposite James Stewart. She sang two songs in the film, "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)", which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and "We'll Love Again". The film was Day's 10th to reach the top 10 at the box office. She played the title role in the film noir thriller Julie (1956) with Louis Jourdan. After three successive dramatic films, Day returned to her musical/comedic roots in The Pajama Game (1957) with John Raitt, based on the Broadway play of the same name. She appeared in the Paramount comedy Teacher's Pet (1958) alongside Clark Gable and Gig Young. She costarred with Richard Widmark and Gig Young in the romantic comedy film The Tunnel of Love (1958) and with Jack Lemmon in It Happened to Jane (1959). Billboard annual nationwide poll of disc jockeys had ranked Day as the No. 1 female vocalist nine times in ten years (1949 through 1958), but her success and popularity as a singer was now being overshadowed by her box-office appeal. ===Box-office success (1959–1968)=== In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies beginning with Pillow Talk (1959), costarring Rock Hudson, who became a lifelong friend, and Tony Randall. Day received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress, her only career Oscar nomination. Day, Hudson and Randall appeared in two more films together, Lover Come Back (1961) and Send Me No Flowers (1964). Along with David Niven and Janis Paige, Day starred in Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960) and with Cary Grant in the comedy That Touch of Mink (1962). During 1960 and the 1962-1964 period, she ranked No. 1 at the box office, the second woman to be No. 1 four times, an accomplishment equaled by no other actress except Shirley Temple. She set a record that has yet to be matched by receiving seven consecutive Laurel Awards as the top female box-office star. Day teamed with James Garner starting with The Thrill of It All, followed by Move Over, Darling (both 1963). The film's theme song "Move Over Darling", cowritten by her son, reached No. 8 in the UK. Between these comedic film appearances, Day costarred with Rex Harrison in the thriller Midnight Lace (1960), an update of the stage thriller Gaslight. Day's next film Do Not Disturb (1965) was popular with audiences, but her popularity soon waned. By the late 1960s, in the period of the emerging sexual revolution, some critics and comics dubbed Day "The World's Oldest Virgin," and she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the top ten with the hit film The Glass Bottom Boat (1966). Among the roles that she declined was that of Mrs. Robinson in The Graduate, a role that eventually went to Anne Bancroft. In her memoirs, Day said that she had rejected the part on moral grounds, finding the script "vulgar and offensive." Day starred in the Western film The Ballad of Josie in 1967. That same year, Day recorded The Love Album, although it was not released until 1994. In 1968, she starred in the comedy film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out? about the Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965. Her final feature, the comedy With Six You Get Eggroll, was released in 1968. From 1959 to 1970, Day received nine Laurel Award nominations (and won four times) for best female performance in eight comedies and one drama. From 1959 through 1969, she received six Golden Globe nominations for best female performance in three comedies, one drama (Midnight Lace), one musical (Jumbo) and her television series. ===Bankruptcy and television career=== After her third husband Martin Melcher died on April 20, 1968, Day was shocked to discover that Melcher and his business partner and advisor Jerome Bernard Rosenthal had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt. Rosenthal had been her attorney since 1949 when he had represented her in her uncontested divorce action against her second husband, saxophonist George W. Weidler. Day filed suit against Rosenthal in February 1969 and won a successful decision in 1974, but she did not receive compensation until a settlement was reached in 1979. Day also learned to her displeasure that Melcher had committed her to a television series that became The Doris Day Show. Day hated the idea of performing on television but felt obligated to forge ahead with the series. and featured a rerecorded version of "Que Sera, Sera" as its theme song. Day persevered with the show, needing to work to repay her debts, but only after CBS ceded creative control to her and her son. The show enjoyed a successful five-year run, although it may be best remembered for its abrupt season-to-season changes in casting and premise. thumb|Day with [[John Denver on the TV special Doris Day Today(CBS, February 19, 1975) and Doris Day Today (1975), and she was a guest on various shows in the 1970s. In the 1985–86 season, Day hosted her own television talk show, Doris Day's Best Friends, on the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN). The network canceled the show after 26 episodes despite the worldwide publicity that it had received. One episode featured Rock Hudson, who was showing the first public symptoms of AIDS, including severe weight loss and fatigue. He died from the disease later that year. Day later said, "He was very sick. But I just brushed that off and I came out and put my arms around him and said, 'Am I glad to see you'." ===1980s and 1990s=== In October 1985, the Supreme Court of California rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment awarded to Day in her suit against him for legal malpractice and upheld the conclusions of a trial court and an appeals court that Rosenthal had acted improperly. In April 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment. In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30 million lawsuit against lawyers who he claimed had cheated him out of millions of dollars in real-estate investments. He named Day as a codefendant, describing her as an "unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained." Rosenthal claimed that much of the money that Day had lost was the result of the unwise advice of other attorneys who had suggested that she sell three hotels at a loss, as well as some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio. He claimed that he had made the investments under a long-term plan and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value. Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million. Terry Melcher stated that his father's premature death saved Day from financial ruin. It was not known whether Martin Melcher had himself been duped by Rosenthal, and Day stated publicly that she believed him to be innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing, stating that he "simply trusted the wrong person." According to author David Kaufman, Day's former costar Louis Jourdan maintained that Day disliked her husband, but Day's public statements regarding Melcher appear to contradict that assertion. Day was scheduled to present, along with Patrick Swayze and Marvin Hamlisch, the award for Best Original Score Oscar at the 61st Academy Awards in March 1989, but she suffered a deep leg cut from a sprinkler and was unable to attend. Day was inducted into the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame in 1981 and received the Cecil B. DeMille Award for career achievement in 1989. In 1994, Day's Greatest Hits album entered the British charts. ===2000s=== Day participated in celebrations of her birthday with an annual Doris Day music marathon. She declined tribute offers from the American Film Institute and the Kennedy Center Honors because they both require that recipients attend in person. In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush for her achievements in the entertainment industry and for her work on behalf of animals. President Bush stated:{{blockquote|text=In the years since, she has kept her fans and shown the breadth of her talent in television and the movies. She starred on screen with leading men from Jimmy Stewart to Ronald Reagan, from Rock Hudson to James Garner. It was a good day for America when Doris Marianne von Kappelhoff (sic) of Evanston, Ohio decided to become an entertainer. It was a good day for our fellow creatures when she gave her good heart to the cause of animal welfare. Doris Day is one of the greats, and America will always love its sweetheart. According to The Hollywood Reporter, the academy had offered her the honorary Oscar multiple times, but she declined as she saw the film industry as a part of her past life. Day received a Grammy for Lifetime Achievement in Music in 2008, albeit again in absentia. Day received Grammy Hall of Fame Awards in 1998, 1999 and 2012 for her recordings of "Sentimental Journey", "Secret Love" and "Que Sera, Sera", respectively. She was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2007, and in 2010 received the first Legend Award presented by the Society of Singers. The album is a compilation of previously unreleased recordings produced by Day's son Terry Melcher. Tracks include the 1970s Joe Cocker hit "You Are So Beautiful", the Beach Boys' "Disney Girls" and jazz standards such as "My Buddy", which Day originally sang in the film I'll See You in My Dreams (1951). In the U.S., the album reached No. 12 on Amazon's bestseller list and helped raise funds for the Doris Day Animal League. Day became the oldest artist to score a UK Top 10 with an album featuring new material. In January 2012, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association presented Day with a Lifetime Achievement Award. In April 2014, Day made an unexpected public appearance to attend the annual Doris Day Animal Foundation benefit. Clint Eastwood offered Day a role in a film that he was planning to direct in 2015, but she eventually declined. Day granted ABC a telephone interview on her birthday in 2016 that was accompanied by photos of her life and career. ==Activism== During the filming of The Man Who Knew Too Much, Day observed the mistreatment of animals in a marketplace scene and was inspired to act against animal abuse. She was so appalled at the conditions with which the animals used in filming were kept that she refused to work unless they received sufficient food and proper care. The production company erected feeding stations for the animals and fed them every day before Day would agree to return to work. In 1971, she cofounded Actors and Others for Animals and appeared in a series of newspaper advertisements denouncing the wearing of fur along with Mary Tyler Moore, Angie Dickinson and Jayne Meadows. In 1978, Day founded the Doris Day Pet Foundation, now the Doris Day Animal Foundation (DDAF). An independent nonprofit 501(c)(3) grant-giving public charity, DDAF funds other nonprofit causes that promote animal welfare. To complement the Doris Day Animal Foundation, Day formed the Doris Day Animal League (DDAL) in 1987, a national nonprofit citizens' lobbying organization on behalf of animals. Day actively lobbied the United States Congress in support of legislation designed to safeguard animal welfare on a number of occasions, and in 1995 she originated the annual World Spay Day. The DDAL merged into the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) in 2006. The Doris Day Horse Rescue and Adoption Center, which helps abused and neglected horses, opened in 2011 in Murchison, Texas on the grounds of an animal sanctuary started by Day's late friend, author Cleveland Amory. Day contributed $250,000 toward the founding of the center. A posthumous auction of 1,100 of Day's possessions in April 2020 generated $3 million for the Doris Day Animal Foundation. Day actively engaged in HIV/AIDS awareness for many years. Her commitment was primarily focused on raising awareness and fundraising for HIV/AIDS research. She co-organized several fundraising events for HIV/AIDS-related charities and provided financial contributions to research and support programs for individuals affected by the disease. In 2011, the Canadian magazine Gay Globe paid tribute to Day by featuring her on the cover of their #79 edition. ==Personal life== Day's only child was music producer and songwriter Terry Melcher, who had a hit in the 1960s with "Hey Little Cobra" under the name the Rip Chords before becoming a successful producer whose acts included the Byrds, Paul Revere & the Raiders and the Beach Boys. In the late 1960s, Melcher became acquainted with Charles Manson and nearly signed him to a record deal. In August 1969, the Tate murders, orchestrated by Manson, were committed at the Benedict Canyon house that Melcher had formerly occupied. Melcher died of melanoma in November 2004. From the 1980s, Day owned a hotel in Carmel-by-the-Sea called the Cypress Inn, an early pet–friendly hotel that was featured in Architectural Digest in 1999. ===Marriages=== Day was married four times. From April 1941 to February 1943, she was married to trombonist Al Jorden (1917–1967), whom she met in Barney Rapp's band. Jorden was violent, had schizophrenia, and died by suicide years after their divorce. When Day became pregnant and refused to have an abortion, he beat her in an attempt to force a miscarriage. Their son was born Terrence Paul Jorden in 1942, and he adopted the surname of Melcher when he was adopted by Day's third husband. Her second marriage was to George William Weidler (1926–1989), a saxophonist and brother of actress Virginia Weidler, from March 30, 1946, to May 31, 1949. Day married American film producer Martin Melcher (1915–1968), who produced many of her films, on April 3, 1951, her 29th birthday, and the marriage lasted until he died in April 1968. As Day and Melcher were both Christian Scientists, she refused to visit a doctor for some time after experiencing symptoms that might have suggested cancer. Following Melcher's death, Day separated from the Church of Christ, Scientist and grew close to charismatic Protestants such as Kathryn Kuhlman, although she never lost interest in Christian Science teaching and practice. Day's fourth marriage was to Barry Comden (1935–2009) from April 14, 1976, until April 2, 1982. He was the maître d'hôtel at one of Day's favorite restaurants. He knew of her great love of dogs and endeared himself to her by giving her a bag of meat scraps and bones as she left the restaurant. He later complained that Day cared more for her "animal friends" than for him. She was a lifelong Republican. In a rare interview with The Hollywood Reporter on April 4, 2019, the day after her 97th birthday, Day talked about her work on the Doris Day Animal Foundation, founded in 1978. Asked to name the favorite of her films, she answered with Calamity Jane: "I was such a tomboy growing up, and she was such a fun character to play. Of course, the music was wonderful, too—'Secret Love,' especially, is such a beautiful song." To commemorate her birthday, Day's fans gathered in late March each year for a three-day party in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California. The event was also a fundraiser for her animal foundation. During the 2019 event, there was a special screening of her film Pillow Talk (1959) to celebrate its 60th anniversary. Speaking about the film, Day stated that she "had such fun working with my pal, Rock. We laughed our way through three films we made together and remained great friends. I miss him." As requested by Day, the foundation announced that there would be no funeral services, grave marker or other public memorials. ==Filmography== === Notable films === Romance on the High Seas (1948) Calamity Jane (1953) Love Me or Leave Me (1955) The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) Pillow Talk (1959) The Thrill of It All (1963) Send Me No Flowers (1964) The Glass Bottom Boat (1966) ==Discography== ===Studio albums=== You're My Thrill (1949) Young Man with a Horn (1950) Tea for Two (1950) Lullaby of Broadway (1951) On Moonlight Bay (1951) I'll See You in My Dreams (1951) By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1953) Calamity Jane (1953) Young at Heart (1954) Love Me or Leave Me (1955) Day Dreams (1955) Day by Day (1956) The Pajama Game (1957) Day by Night (1957) Hooray for Hollywood (1958) Cuttin' Capers (1959) What Every Girl Should Know (1960) Show Time (1960) Listen to Day (1960) Bright and Shiny (1961) I Have Dreamed (1961) Duet (1962) You'll Never Walk Alone (1962) Billy Rose's Jumbo (1962) Annie Get Your Gun (1963) Love Him (1963) The Doris Day Christmas Album (1964) With a Smile and a Song (1964) Latin for Lovers (1965) Doris Day's Sentimental Journey (1965) The Love Album (recorded 1967; released in 1994) My Heart (with eight previously unissued tracks recorded in 1985; released in 2011)
[ "The Republic (Columbus, Indiana)", "Hooray for Hollywood (album)", "Strictly Ballroom", "You're My Thrill (Doris Day album)", "Mary Tyler Moore", "Alfred Hitchcock", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "Irish Independent", "Robert Cummings", "Gus Kahn", "Bob Crosby", "Doris Day's Sentimental Journey", "Soundies", "Grammy Awards", "Marvin Hamlisch", "Supreme Court of California", "CBS", "David Bret", "The Glass Bottom Boat", "My Heart (Doris Day album)", "Cincinnati", "Calamity Jane (album)", "Kentucky", "Hit Parade Hall of Fame", "The Pajama Game", "conducting", "The Doris Day Show", "Day by Day (Doris Day album)", "Buddy Clark", "Lullaby of Broadway (album)", "My Dream Is Yours", "Maiden and married names", "George W. Bush", "Rod Taylor", "Anne Bancroft", "BBC News", "Republican Party (United States)", "Gig Young", "Rex Harrison", "Day Dreams (Doris Day album)", "Kathryn Kuhlman", "Pillow Talk (film)", "John Raitt", "The Pajama Game (album)", "Society of Singers", "Warner Bros.", "big band", "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette", "Doris Day Animal League", "Latin for Lovers", "I'll See You in My Dreams (1951 album)", "Billboard (magazine)", "the Beach Boys", "Academy Award for Best Actress", "Tommy Dorsey", "The Tennessean", "Church of Christ, Scientist", "Carmel-by-the-Sea, California", "The Ballad of Josie", "Barney Rapp", "Cinema of the United States", "It's Magic", "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)", "Terry Melcher", "La Ribera Hotel", "Pet–friendly hotels", "Tea for Two (album)", "Duet (Doris Day and André Previn album)", "The Graduate", "Richard Widmark", "That Touch of Mink", "George William Weidler", "Teacher's Pet (1958 film)", "melanoma", "Clark Gable", "Please Don't Eat the Daisies (film)", "Annie Get Your Gun (Doris Day and Robert Goulet album)", "The Tunnel of Love", "Carmel Valley, California", "sexual revolution", "Beverly Hills", "List of awards and nominations received by Doris Day", "United States Congress", "By the Light of the Silvery Moon (film)", "The Daily Telegraph", "The Love Album (Doris Day album)", "Slovenian-style polka", "Louis Jourdan", "Sentimental Journey (song)", "501(c)(3) organization", "Midnight Lace", "World Spay Day", "James Stewart", "CNN", "Day by Night", "Love Me or Leave Me (film)", "Les Brown (bandleader)", "Laurel Awards", "Till the End of Time (Buddy Kaye and Ted Mossman song)", "The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)", "Cleveland Amory", "Young at Heart (1955 film)", "Romance on the High Seas", "What Every Girl Should Know (album)", "Bob Hope", "The Thrill of It All (film)", "Do Not Disturb (1965 film)", "German Americans", "White House", "George W. Weidler", "Los Angeles Film Critics Association", "Janis Paige", "animal welfare", "The Pajama Game (film)", "Duke Ellington", "Cary Grant", "Embraceable You", "Patrick Swayze", "Tony Randall", "Cuttin' Capers (album)", "David Niven", "Homemaking", "Tea for Two (film)", "Disney Girls (1957)", "Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles", "Show Time (Doris Day album)", "Bright and Shiny", "Rock Hudson", "On Moonlight Bay (album)", "Ruth Etting", "Doris Kenyon", "Virginia Weidler", "Shirley Temple", "Ohio", "Hey Little Cobra", "maître d'hôtel", "pneumonia", "Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?", "You Are So Beautiful", "The American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures", "James Garner", "Julie (1956 film)", "HIV/AIDS", "The Hollywood Reporter", "I'll See You in My Dreams (1951 film)", "Pillow Talk", "Lucky Me (film)", "Marquee (sign)", "the Byrds", "Architectural Digest", "Los Angeles Film Critics Association's Career Achievement Award", "It Happened to Jane", "Jack Lemmon", "Billy Rose's Jumbo (soundtrack)", "Clint Eastwood", "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time", "Gaslight (play)", "With Six You Get Eggroll", "You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)", "Vanity Fair (magazine)", "Tate–LaBianca murders", "I Have Dreamed (Doris Day album)", "Paramount Pictures", "The Recording Academy", "The Guardian", "Gainesville Sun", "MOS:ROLEBIO", "White House Office of the Press Secretary", "With a Smile and a Song (album)", "Calamity Jane (film)", "Liz Smith (journalist)", "Murchison, Texas", "Ancestry.com", "World War II", "freckle", "Glenn Miller", "Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps", "On Moonlight Bay (film)", "The Glass Menagerie", "Joe Pasternak", "Lover Come Back (1961 film)", "Associated Press", "Love Me or Leave Me (Doris Day album)", "61st Academy Awards", "American Film Institute", "By the Light of the Silvery Moon (album)", "Move Over Darling (song)", "WLW", "Jule Styne", "Rex Reed", "Billboard charts", "Christian Science", "the Rip Chords", "Jayne Meadows", "Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965", "Starlift", "Golden Globe", "You'll Never Walk Alone (Doris Day album)", "The Doris Day Christmas Album", "Michael Curtiz", "James Cagney", "The Washington Post", "Pittsburgh Press", "Frankie Yankovic", "Martin Melcher", "Academy Award for Best Original Song", "Golden Globes", "Humane Society of the United States", "Kirk Douglas", "Golden Globe Award", "Christian Broadcasting Network", "Amazon (company)", "Paul Revere & the Raiders", "Send Me No Flowers", "Sammy Cahn", "Love Somebody (1947 song)", "Cecil B. DeMille Award", "My Buddy (song)", "Young Man with a Horn (soundtrack)", "Secret Love (Doris Day song)", "Move Over, Darling", "Ginger Rogers", "Ella Fitzgerald", "Listen to Day", "The New York Times", "Laurette Taylor", "Young at Heart (Doris Day and Frank Sinatra album)", "The Doris Day Show (radio program)", "The Lima News", "Kennedy Center Honors", "legal malpractice", "Brooklyn Eagle", "Angie Dickinson", "At the Movies (Australian TV series)", "Charles Manson", "Benny Goodman", "Academy Honorary Award", "Lauren Bacall", "I Got the Sun in the Mornin'", "Joe Cocker", "Frank Sinatra" ]
8,301
Distillation
This packing material can either be random or dumped packing ( wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor–liquid equilibrium, the vapor–liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both these factors affect packing performance. Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references. Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI). ===Multi-effect distillation=== The goal of multi-effect distillation is to increase the energy efficiency of the process, for use in desalination, or in some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure water. The number of effects is inversely proportional to the kW·h/m3 of water recovered figure and refers to the volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared with single-effect distillation. One effect is roughly 636 kW·h/m3: Multi-stage flash distillation can achieve more than 20 effects with thermal energy input, as mentioned in the article. Vapor compression evaporation – Commercial large-scale units can achieve around 72 effects with electrical energy input, according to manufacturers. There are many other types of multi-effect distillation processes, including one referred to as simply multi-effect distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed. ==In food processing== ===Beverages=== Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors. ==Gallery== File:Retort-in-operation-early-chemistry.png|Chemistry in its beginnings used retorts as laboratory equipment exclusively for distillation processes. File:Distillation of dry and oxygen-free toluene.jpg| A simple set-up to distill dry and oxygen-free toluene. File:Vacuum Column.png|Diagram of an industrial-scale vacuum distillation column as commonly used in oil refineries File:Rotavapor.jpg|A rotary evaporator is able to distill solvents more quickly at lower temperatures through the use of a vacuum. File:Semi-microscale distillation.jpg|Distillation using semi-microscale apparatus. The jointless design eliminates the need to fit pieces together. The pear-shaped flask allows the last drop of residue to be removed, compared with a similarly sized round-bottom flask. The small holdup volume prevents losses. A "pig" is used to channel the various distillates into three receiving flasks. If necessary the distillation can be carried out under vacuum using the vacuum adapter at the pig.
[ "condensation", "propane", "Robert Jacobus Forbes", "Fenske equation", "valve", "Ernest Thiele", "sulfuric acid", "Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus", "Pliny the Elder", "Freeport, Texas", "Dixon rings", "Cracking (chemistry)", "cachaça", "Taxila", "Category:Distillation", "Multi-stage flash distillation", "vapor pressure", "reflux", "American-style lager", "salt", "Yuan dynasty", "Polytetrafluoroethylene", "mean free path", "boiling points", "Theoretical plate", "water security", "benzene", "Microdistillery", "Low-temperature distillation", "nitrogen", "petroleum", "propylene", "thermolysis", "Hieronymus Brunschwig", "Alexander of Aphrodisias", "Aristotle", "Seventy Books", "Avicenna", "semiconductor", "drying tube", "Babylonia", "separation process", "laboratory equipment", "Rang Mahal, Sri Ganganagar", "Catalytic distillation", "industrial gas", "Taddeo Alderotti", "chemical engineering", "chemistry", "Extractive distillation", "air sensitive", "ideal solution", "Elsevier", "water of crystallization", "Brill Publishers", "Air separation", "Alexandria, Egypt", "computer simulation", "natural gas processing", "Pervaporation", "John Marshall (archaeologist)", "Internet Archive", "vacuum pump", "Jin dynasty (1115–1234)", "bubbler", "Ethanol", "silicone oil", "Miscibility", "silicon", "Fractional distillation", "Seneca the Younger", "Flash evaporation", "mixture", "aroma", "solvent", "Mesopotamia", "magnetic stirrer", "food processing", "air separation", "Dean-Stark apparatus", "Freeze distillation", "rotary evaporation", "Al-Zahrawi", "plate column", "Al-Tasrif", "Jabir ibn Hayyan", "partial pressure", "ice wine", "Artificial membrane", "membrane pump", "structured packing", "normal boiling point", "steady state", "Al-Kindi", "cryogenic", "Fermentation in food processing", "methanol", "boiling", "wine", "Pearson Education", "round-bottom flask", "Spinning band distillation", "India", "chlorosilane", "Hard vacuum", "Chemical synthesis", "liquid nitrogen", "whiskey", "Laboratory glassware", "ethylene glycol", "Recrystallization (chemistry)", "potassium carbonate", "Google Books", "Molecular sieve", "cognac (drink)", "Oil refinery", "Sublimation (chemistry)", "Condenser (heat transfer)", "chemical reaction", "Alchemy", "free molecular flow", "still", "alembic", "reactive distillation", "relative volatility", "herbal distillate", "Gerard of Cremona", "column still", "Bar (unit)", "Alcohol (drug)", "Vigreux column", "gas", "boiling point", "redox", "Condenser (laboratory)", "oxygen", "hydrocarbon", "unit operation", "equilibrium stage", "Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world", "Volatility (chemistry)", "mother liquor", "Irish whiskey", "Al-Farabi", "sugar", "Hebei", "batch distillation", "wood", "desiccant", "Carbohydrate", "Byzantine Egypt", "mass transfer", "Atmospheric distillation of crude oil", "pyrolysis", "Shaikhan Dheri", "atmospheric pressure", "ethyl acetate", "crude oil", "Marcelin Berthelot", "Byzantine Greek", "vodka", "Frank Raymond Allchin", "Zosimus of Panopolis", "Rum-runner", "liquor", "Ernest Solvay", "pot still", "hydrochloric acid", "Vapor–liquid equilibrium", "Liebig condenser", "destructive distillation", "evaporation", "retort", "vacuum distillation", "ethylbenzene", "Separation of chemicals", "Irfan Habib", "alchemy", "Applejack (beverage)", "Perkin triangle", "Eastern Han", "Packed bed", "ammonia", "Desalination", "Dry distillation", "Crude oil stabilisation", "heating element", "torr", "petrochemical", "John French (doctor)", "Dalton's law", "Southern Song dynasty", "rum", "O-Xylene", "fluid", "Condensation", "vapor–liquid equilibrium", "Abu Bakr al-Razi", "Vapor compression evaporation", "Common Era", "Scotch whisky", "fractionating column", "vaporization", "skin care", "vacuum", "The Green Tree Distillery", "Azeotrope", "Molecular distillation", "Random column packing", "IUPAC", "Akkadian language", "Kugelrohr apparatus", "simulation", "mole fraction", "essential oil", "essential oils", "azeotrope", "archetype", "phase (matter)", "computational chemistry", "decomposition temperature", "theoretical plate", "ethanol", "ultrapure water", "Roger Bacon", "Aeneas Coffey", "aromatherapy", "Fragrance extraction", "Gandhara", "chemical plant", "spinning band distillation", "toluene", "McCabe–Thiele method", "fuel", "Efficient energy use", "raw material", "ground glass joint", "continuous distillation", "Raschig ring", "Indian subcontinent", "argon", "oil refinery", "aspirator (pump)", "Roman Egypt", "BCE", "rotary evaporator", "Clyssus", "lime (material)", "hotplate", "Chemical engineer", "liquid oxygen", "Charsadda", "fractional distillation", "tequila", "freezing", "styrene", "Raoult's law", "Pakistan", "m-xylene" ]
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David Hilbert
David Hilbert (; ; 23 January 1862 – 14 February 1943) was a German mathematician and philosopher of mathematics and one of the most influential mathematicians of his time. Hilbert discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas including invariant theory, the calculus of variations, commutative algebra, algebraic number theory, the foundations of geometry, spectral theory of operators and its application to integral equations, mathematical physics, and the foundations of mathematics (particularly proof theory). He adopted and defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers. In 1900, he presented a collection of problems that set a course for mathematical research of the 20th century. Hilbert and his students contributed to establishing rigor and developed important tools used in modern mathematical physics. He was a cofounder of proof theory and mathematical logic. ==Life== ===Early life and education=== Hilbert, the first of two children and only son of Otto, a county judge, and Maria Therese Hilbert (née Erdtmann), the daughter of a merchant, was born in the Province of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia, either in Königsberg (according to Hilbert's own statement) or in Wehlau (known since 1946 as Znamensk) near Königsberg where his father worked at the time of his birth. His paternal grandfather was David Hilbert, a judge and Geheimrat. His mother Maria had an interest in philosophy, astronomy and prime numbers, while his father Otto taught him Prussian virtues. After his father became a city judge, the family moved to Königsberg. David's sister, Elise, was born when he was six. He began his schooling aged eight, two years later than the usual starting age. In late 1872, Hilbert entered the Friedrichskolleg Gymnasium (Collegium fridericianum, the same school that Immanuel Kant had attended 140 years before); but, after an unhappy period, he transferred to (late 1879) and graduated from (early 1880) the more science-oriented Wilhelm Gymnasium. Upon graduation, in autumn 1880, Hilbert enrolled at the University of Königsberg, the "Albertina". In early 1882, Hermann Minkowski (two years younger than Hilbert and also a native of Königsberg but had gone to Berlin for three semesters), returned to Königsberg and entered the university. Hilbert developed a lifelong friendship with the shy, gifted Minkowski. ===Career=== In 1884, Adolf Hurwitz arrived from Göttingen as an Extraordinarius (i.e., an associate professor). An intense and fruitful scientific exchange among the three began, and Minkowski and Hilbert especially would exercise a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers. Hilbert obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under Ferdinand von Lindemann, He remained there for the rest of his life. ===Göttingen school=== Among Hilbert's students were Hermann Weyl, chess champion Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel. John von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church. Among his 69 Ph.D. students in Göttingen were many who later became famous mathematicians, including (with date of thesis): Otto Blumenthal (1898), Felix Bernstein (1901), Hermann Weyl (1908), Richard Courant (1910), Erich Hecke (1910), Hugo Steinhaus (1911), and Wilhelm Ackermann (1925). Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time. He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1907. ===Personal life=== In 1892, Hilbert married Käthe Jerosch (1864–1945), who was the daughter of a Königsberg merchant, "an outspoken young lady with an independence of mind that matched [Hilbert's]." While at Königsberg, they had their one child, Franz Hilbert (1893–1969). Franz suffered throughout his life from mental illness, and after he was admitted into a psychiatric clinic, Hilbert said, "From now on, I must consider myself as not having a son." His attitude toward Franz brought Käthe considerable sorrow. Hilbert considered the mathematician Hermann Minkowski to be his "best and truest friend". Hilbert was baptized and raised a Calvinist in the Prussian Evangelical Church. He later left the Church and became an agnostic. He also argued that mathematical truth was independent of the existence of God or other a priori assumptions. When Galileo Galilei was criticized for failing to stand up for his convictions on the Heliocentric theory, Hilbert objected: "But [Galileo] was not an idiot. Only an idiot could believe that scientific truth needs martyrdom; that may be necessary in religion, but scientific results prove themselves in due time." ===Later years=== Like Albert Einstein, Hilbert had closest contacts with the Berlin Group whose leading founders had studied under Hilbert in Göttingen (Kurt Grelling, Hans Reichenbach and Walter Dubislav). Around 1925, Hilbert developed pernicious anemia, a then-untreatable vitamin deficiency whose primary symptom is exhaustion; his assistant Eugene Wigner described him as subject to "enormous fatigue" and how he "seemed quite old," and that even after eventually being diagnosed and treated, he "was hardly a scientist after 1925, and certainly not a Hilbert." Hilbert was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1932. Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen in 1933. Those forced out included Hermann Weyl (who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930), Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau. One who had to leave Germany, Paul Bernays, had collaborated with Hilbert in mathematical logic, and co-authored with him the important book Grundlagen der Mathematik (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert–Ackermann book Principles of Mathematical Logic from 1928. Hermann Weyl's successor was Helmut Hasse. About a year later, Hilbert attended a banquet and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust. Rust asked whether "the Mathematical Institute really suffered so much because of the departure of the Jews." Hilbert replied, "Suffered? It doesn't exist any longer, does it?" ===Death=== By the time Hilbert died in 1943, the Nazis had nearly completely restaffed the university, as many of the former faculty had either been Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics, among them Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist and also a native of Königsberg. News of his death only became known to the wider world several months after he died. The epitaph on his tombstone in Göttingen consists of the famous lines he spoke at the conclusion of his retirement address to the Society of German Scientists and Physicians on 8 September 1930. The words were given in response to the Latin maxim: "Ignoramus et ignorabimus" or "We do not know and we shall not know": The day before Hilbert pronounced these phrases at the 1930 annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, Kurt Gödel—in a round table discussion during the Conference on Epistemology held jointly with the Society meetings—tentatively announced the first expression of his incompleteness theorem. Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that even elementary axiomatic systems such as Peano arithmetic are either self-contradicting or contain logical propositions that are impossible to prove or disprove within that system. ==Contributions to mathematics and physics== ===Solving Gordan's Problem=== Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in 1888 of his famous finiteness theorem. Twenty years earlier, Paul Gordan had demonstrated the theorem of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. Attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved. To solve what had become known in some circles as Gordan's Problem, Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated Hilbert's basis theorem, showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of quantics in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not a constructive proof—it did not display "an object"—but rather, it was an existence proof and relied on use of the law of excluded middle in an infinite extension. Hilbert sent his results to the Mathematische Annalen. Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the Mathematische Annalen, could not appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficiently comprehensive. His comment was: Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein, Hilbert extended his method in a second article, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the Annalen. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying: Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say: For all his successes, the nature of his proof created more trouble than Hilbert could have imagined. Although Kronecker had conceded, Hilbert would later respond to others' similar criticisms that "many different constructions are subsumed under one fundamental idea"—in other words (to quote Reid): "Through a proof of existence, Hilbert had been able to obtain a construction"; "the proof" (i.e. the symbols on the page) was "the object". Indeed, Hilbert would lose his "gifted pupil" Weyl to intuitionism—"Hilbert was disturbed by his former student's fascination with the ideas of Brouwer, which aroused in Hilbert the memory of Kronecker". Brouwer the intuitionist in particular opposed the use of the Law of Excluded Middle over infinite sets (as Hilbert had used it). Hilbert responded: === Nullstellensatz === In the subject of algebra, a field is called algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over it has a root in it. Under this condition, Hilbert gave a criterion for when a collection of polynomials (p_\lambda)_{\lambda \in \Lambda} of n variables has a common root: This is the case if and only if there do not exist polynomials q_1, \ldots, q_k and indices \lambda_1, \ldots, \lambda_k such that 1 = \sum_{j=1}^k p_{\lambda_j}(\vec x) q_j(\vec x). This result is known as the Hilbert root theorem, or "Hilberts Nullstellensatz" in German. He also proved that the correspondence between vanishing ideals and their vanishing sets is bijective between affine varieties and radical ideals in \C[x_1, \ldots, x_n]. === Curve === In 1890, Giuseppe Peano had published an article in the Mathematische Annalen describing the historically first space-filling curve. In response, Hilbert designed his own construction of such a curve, which is now called Hilbert curve. Approximations to this curve are constructed iteratively according to the replacement rules in the first picture of this section. The curve itself is then the pointwise limit. ===Axiomatization of geometry=== The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (tr.: Foundations of Geometry) published by Hilbert in 1899 proposes a formal set, called Hilbert's axioms, substituting for the traditional axioms of Euclid. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. It is difficult to specify the axioms used by Hilbert without referring to the publication history of the Grundlagen since Hilbert changed and modified them several times. The original monograph was quickly followed by a French translation, in which Hilbert added V.2, the Completeness Axiom. An English translation, authorized by Hilbert, was made by E.J. Townsend and copyrighted in 1902. This translation incorporated the changes made in the French translation and so is considered to be a translation of the 2nd edition. Hilbert continued to make changes in the text and several editions appeared in German. The 7th edition was the last to appear in Hilbert's lifetime. New editions followed the 7th, but the main text was essentially not revised. Hilbert's approach signaled the shift to the modern axiomatic method. In this, Hilbert was anticipated by Moritz Pasch's work from 1882. Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths. Geometry may treat things, about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts. The elements, such as point, line, plane, and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert is reported to have said to Schoenflies and Kötter, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects. It is their defined relationships that are discussed. Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and lines, points and planes, and lines and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points (line segments), and congruence of angles. The axioms unify both the plane geometry and solid geometry of Euclid in a single system. ===23 problems=== Hilbert put forth a highly influential list consisting of 23 unsolved problems at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900. This is generally reckoned as the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician. After reworking the foundations of classical geometry, Hilbert could have extrapolated to the rest of mathematics. His approach differed from the later "foundationalist" Russell–Whitehead or "encyclopedist" Nicolas Bourbaki, and from his contemporary Giuseppe Peano. The mathematical community as a whole could engage in problems of which he had identified as crucial aspects of important areas of mathematics. The problem set was launched as a talk, "The Problems of Mathematics", presented during the course of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians, held in Paris. The introduction of the speech that Hilbert gave said: He presented fewer than half the problems at the Congress, which were published in the acts of the Congress. In a subsequent publication, he extended the panorama, and arrived at the formulation of the now-canonical 23 Problems of Hilbert (see also Hilbert's twenty-fourth problem). The full text is important, since the exegesis of the questions still can be a matter of debate when it is asked how many have been solved. Some of these were solved within a short time. Others have been discussed throughout the 20th century, with a few now taken to be unsuitably open-ended to come to closure. Some continue to remain challenges. The following are the headers for Hilbert's 23 problems as they appeared in the 1902 translation in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 1. Cantor's problem of the cardinal number of the continuum. 2. The compatibility of the arithmetical axioms. 3. The equality of the volumes of two tetrahedra of equal bases and equal altitudes. 4. Problem of the straight line as the shortest distance between two points. 5. Lie's concept of a continuous group of transformations without the assumption of the differentiability of the functions defining the group. 6. Mathematical treatment of the axioms of physics. 7. Irrationality and transcendence of certain numbers. 8. Problems of prime numbers (The "Riemann Hypothesis"). 9. Proof of the most general law of reciprocity in any number field. 10. Determination of the solvability of a Diophantine equation. 11. Quadratic forms with any algebraic numerical coefficients 12. Extensions of Kronecker's theorem on Abelian fields to any algebraic realm of rationality 13. Impossibility of the solution of the general equation of 7th degree by means of functions of only two arguments. 14. Proof of the finiteness of certain complete systems of functions. 15. Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus. 16. Problem of the topology of algebraic curves and surfaces. 17. Expression of definite forms by squares. 18. Building up of space from congruent polyhedra. 19. Are the solutions of regular problems in the calculus of variations always necessarily analytic? 20. The general problem of boundary values (Boundary value problems in PDE's). 21. Proof of the existence of linear differential equations having a prescribed monodromy group. 22. Uniformization of analytic relations by means of automorphic functions. 23. Further development of the methods of the calculus of variations. ===Formalism=== In an account that had become standard by the mid-century, Hilbert's problem set was also a kind of manifesto that opened the way for the development of the formalist school, one of three major schools of mathematics of the 20th century. According to the formalist, mathematics is manipulation of symbols according to agreed upon formal rules. It is therefore an autonomous activity of thought. ====Program==== In 1920, Hilbert proposed a research project in metamathematics that became known as Hilbert's program. He wanted mathematics to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation. He believed that in principle this could be done by showing that: all of mathematics follows from a correctly chosen finite system of axioms; and that some such axiom system is provably consistent through some means such as the epsilon calculus. He seems to have had both technical and philosophical reasons for formulating this proposal. It affirmed his dislike of what had become known as the ignorabimus, still an active issue in his time in German thought, and traced back in that formulation to Emil du Bois-Reymond. This program is still recognizable in the most popular philosophy of mathematics, where it is usually called formalism. For example, the Bourbaki group adopted a watered-down and selective version of it as adequate to the requirements of their twin projects of (a) writing encyclopedic foundational works, and (b) supporting the axiomatic method as a research tool. This approach has been successful and influential in relation with Hilbert's work in algebra and functional analysis, but has failed to engage in the same way with his interests in physics and logic. Hilbert wrote in 1919: Hilbert published his views on the foundations of mathematics in the 2-volume work, Grundlagen der Mathematik. ====Gödel's work==== Hilbert and the mathematicians who worked with him in his enterprise were committed to the project. His attempt to support axiomatized mathematics with definitive principles, which could banish theoretical uncertainties, ended in failure. Gödel demonstrated that any consistent formal system that is sufficiently powerful to express basic arithmetic cannot prove its own completeness using only its own axioms and rules of inference. In 1931, his incompleteness theorem showed that Hilbert's grand plan was impossible as stated. The second point cannot in any reasonable way be combined with the first point, as long as the axiom system is genuinely finitary. Nevertheless, the subsequent achievements of proof theory at the very least clarified consistency as it relates to theories of central concern to mathematicians. Hilbert's work had started logic on this course of clarification; the need to understand Gödel's work then led to the development of recursion theory and then mathematical logic as an autonomous discipline in the 1930s. The basis for later theoretical computer science, in the work of Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, also grew directly out of this "debate". ===Functional analysis=== Around 1909, Hilbert dedicated himself to the study of differential and integral equations; his work had direct consequences for important parts of modern functional analysis. In order to carry out these studies, Hilbert introduced the concept of an infinite dimensional Euclidean space, later called Hilbert space. His work in this part of analysis provided the basis for important contributions to the mathematics of physics in the next two decades, though from an unanticipated direction. Later on, Stefan Banach amplified the concept, defining Banach spaces. Hilbert spaces are an important class of objects in the area of functional analysis, particularly of the spectral theory of self-adjoint linear operators, that grew up around it during the 20th century. ===Physics=== Until 1912, Hilbert was almost exclusively a pure mathematician. When planning a visit from Bonn, where he was immersed in studying physics, his fellow mathematician and friend Hermann Minkowski joked he had to spend 10 days in quarantine before being able to visit Hilbert. In fact, Minkowski seems responsible for most of Hilbert's physics investigations prior to 1912, including their joint seminar on the subject in 1905. In 1912, three years after his friend's death, Hilbert turned his focus to the subject almost exclusively. He arranged to have a "physics tutor" for himself. He started studying kinetic gas theory and moved on to elementary radiation theory and the molecular theory of matter. Even after the war started in 1914, he continued seminars and classes where the works of Albert Einstein and others were followed closely. By 1907, Einstein had framed the fundamentals of the theory of gravity, but then struggled for nearly 8 years to put the theory into its final form. By early summer 1915, Hilbert's interest in physics had focused on general relativity, and he invited Einstein to Göttingen to deliver a week of lectures on the subject. Einstein received an enthusiastic reception at Göttingen. Over the summer, Einstein learned that Hilbert was also working on the field equations and redoubled his own efforts. During November 1915, Einstein published several papers culminating in The Field Equations of Gravitation (see Einstein field equations). Nearly simultaneously, Hilbert published "The Foundations of Physics", an axiomatic derivation of the field equations (see Einstein–Hilbert action). Hilbert fully credited Einstein as the originator of the theory and no public priority dispute concerning the field equations ever arose between the two men during their lives. See more at priority. Additionally, Hilbert's work anticipated and assisted several advances in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. His work was a key aspect of Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann's work on the mathematical equivalence of Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and Erwin Schrödinger's wave equation, and his namesake Hilbert space plays an important part in quantum theory. In 1926, von Neumann showed that, if quantum states were understood as vectors in Hilbert space, they would correspond with both Schrödinger's wave function theory and Heisenberg's matrices. Throughout this immersion in physics, Hilbert worked on putting rigor into the mathematics of physics. While highly dependent on higher mathematics, physicists tended to be "sloppy" with it. To a pure mathematician like Hilbert, this was both ugly and difficult to understand. As he began to understand physics and how physicists were using mathematics, he developed a coherent mathematical theory for what he found – most importantly in the area of integral equations. When his colleague Richard Courant wrote the now classic Methoden der mathematischen Physik (Methods of Mathematical Physics) including some of Hilbert's ideas, he added Hilbert's name as author even though Hilbert had not directly contributed to the writing. Hilbert said "Physics is too hard for physicists", implying that the necessary mathematics was generally beyond them; the Courant–Hilbert book made it easier for them. ===Number theory=== Hilbert unified the field of algebraic number theory with his 1897 treatise Zahlbericht (literally "report on numbers"). He also resolved a significant number-theory problem formulated by Waring in 1770. As with the finiteness theorem, he used an existence proof that shows there must be solutions for the problem rather than providing a mechanism to produce the answers. He then had little more to publish on the subject; but the emergence of Hilbert modular forms in the dissertation of a student means his name is further attached to a major area. He made a series of conjectures on class field theory. The concepts were highly influential, and his own contribution lives on in the names of the Hilbert class field and of the Hilbert symbol of local class field theory. Results were mostly proved by 1930, after work by Teiji Takagi. Hilbert did not work in the central areas of analytic number theory, but his name has become known for the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture, for reasons that are anecdotal. Ernst Hellinger, a student of Hilbert, once told André Weil that Hilbert had announced in his seminar in the early 1900s that he expected the proof of the Riemann Hypothesis would be a consequence of Fredholm's work on integral equations with a symmetric kernel. ==Works== His collected works (Gesammelte Abhandlungen) have been published several times. The original versions of his papers contained "many technical errors of varying degree"; when the collection was first published, the errors were corrected and it was found that this could be done without major changes in the statements of the theorems, with one exception—a claimed proof of the continuum hypothesis. The errors were nonetheless so numerous and significant that it took Olga Taussky-Todd three years to make the corrections.
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B. Mathews", "Pieter Zeeman", "Nature (journal)", "mathematical logic", "Hans Hahn (mathematician)", "Euclidean geometry", "Klara Löbenstein", "Werner Heisenberg", "Hilbert–Mumford criterion", "Hugo Steinhaus", "Lobachevsky Prize", "Foreign Member of the Royal Society", "Walter Dubislav", "Algebraically closed field", "Peano arithmetic", "Hilbert–Schmidt operator", "Grundlagen der Geometrie", "PhD", "Nicolas Bourbaki", "Hilbert metric", "mathematical physics", "constructive proof", "Notices of the AMS", "Erwin Schrödinger", "Piergiorgio Odifreddi", "University of Königsberg", "senior lecturer", "Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences", "Earle Raymond Hedrick", "Direct method in the calculus of variations", "Ivor Grattan-Guinness", "Schrödinger equation", "Einstein–Hilbert action", "Hilbert spectrum", "Hilbert C*-module", "invariant theory", "theorem", "Friedrichskolleg", "solid geometry", "Euclidean space", "Hilbert symbol", "Hermann Minkowski", "Line (geometry)", "Riemann hypothesis", "Hilbert–Smith conjecture", "Haskell Curry", "Weyl", "Mathematics", "Jeremy Gray", "non-Euclidean geometry", "Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast", "Bernhard Rust", "angle", "Max Dehn", "Einstein field equations", "Hilbert's axioms", "Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society", "Gallica", "Teiji Takagi", "Olga Taussky-Todd", "Richard Courant", "Ferdinand von Lindemann", "commutative algebra", "Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer", "Arnold Sommerfeld", "law of excluded middle", "Bourbaki group", "Spherical harmonics", "Margarete Kahn", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Hellmuth Kneser", "Jews", "Affine variety", "philosophy", "Bernays", "Robert König", "Alfréd Haar", "Erich Hecke", "Grundlagen der Mathematik", "gravity", "algebra", "Banach spaces", "Hilbert's theorem (differential geometry)", "philosophy of mathematics", "chess", "Hilbert transform", "Schoenflies", "Georg Cantor", "mathematician", "Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary", "ignorabimus", "class field theory", "Wilhelm Ackermann", "Heliocentric theory", "Epsilon calculus", "Otto Blumenthal", "Ludwig Föppl", "Constructivism (mathematics)", "Robert Lee Moore", "University of Göttingen", "algebraic form", "Moritz Pasch", "Gymnasium (school)", "Emanuel Lasker", "Paul Gordan", "Werner Boy", "Hans Reichenbach", "Professor", "Rudolf Fueter", "André Weil", "agnostic", "Mathematische Annalen", "Hilbert–Pólya conjecture", "Galileo Galilei", "foundations of mathematics", "Pierre de Fermat", "Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service", "plane (geometry)", "Hilbert's syzygy theorem", "Göttingen University", "prime number", "Ernst Kötter", "Hilbert ring", "Ernst Zermelo", "Hilbert system", "Edmund Landau", "Hilbert's arithmetic of ends", "radical ideal", "Gresham College", "Methoden der mathematischen Physik", "Province of Prussia", "Principles of Mathematical Logic", "Heinrich Behmann", "Gödel's incompleteness theorems", "Gian-Carlo Rota", "Wehlau", "line segment", "integral equations", "elementary proof", "Ignoramus et ignorabimus", "radiation", "axiomatic method", "Georg August University of Göttingen", "Alan Turing", "Anne Bosworth", "Kurt Schütte", "Calvinist", "John von Neumann", "recursion theory", "Hilbert modular form", "algebraic number theory", "integral equation", "Paul Bernays", "Hermann Weyl", "pure mathematician", "Hilbert's program", "Paris", "Hilbert–Poincaré series", "Oliver Dimon Kellogg", "Alonzo Church", "calculus of variations", "field (algebra)", "Christian Goldbach", "point (geometry)", "Georges Giraud", "Max Born", "Carl Gustav Hempel", "Kurt Gödel", "Gabriel Sudan", "intuitionist", "Foundations of geometry", "spectral theory", "Gödel's incompleteness theorem", "metamathematics", "Hilbert class field" ]
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Down syndrome
{{Infobox medical condition | name = Down syndrome | image = Boy with Down Syndrome.JPG | alt = Eight year old boy with Down syndrome | caption = An eight-year-old boy displaying characteristic facial features of Down syndrome | field = Medical genetics, pediatrics | synonyms = Down's syndrome, Down's, trisomy 21 | symptoms = Delayed development, characteristic physical features, mild to moderate intellectual disability | diagnosis = Prenatal screening, genetic testing It is usually associated with developmental delays, mild to moderate intellectual disability, and characteristic physical features. The parents of the affected individual are usually genetically normal. The incidence of the syndrome increases with the age of the mother, from less than 0.1% for 20-year-old mothers to 3% for those of age 45. Usually, babies get 23 chromosomes from each parent for a total of 46, whereas in Down syndrome, a third 21st chromosome is attached. The extra chromosome is provided at conception as the egg and sperm combine. In 1–2% of cases, the additional chromosome is added in the embryo stage and only impacts some of the cells in the body; this is known as Mosaic Down syndrome. Down syndrome can be identified during pregnancy by prenatal screening, followed by diagnostic testing, or after birth by direct observation and genetic testing. Since the introduction of screening, Down syndrome pregnancies are often aborted (rates varying from 50 to 85% depending on maternal age, gestational age, and maternal race/ethnicity). There is no cure for Down syndrome. Education and proper care have been shown to provide better quality of life. Some children with Down syndrome are educated in typical school classes, while others require more specialized education. In adulthood, about 20% in the United States do some paid work, with many requiring a sheltered work environment. Caretaker support in financial and legal matters is often needed. Regular screening for health issues common in Down syndrome is recommended throughout the person's life. Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality, occurring in about 1 in 1,000 babies born worldwide, The syndrome is named after British physician John Langdon Down, who dedicated his medical practice to the cause. Some aspects were described earlier by French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol in 1838 and French physician Édouard Séguin in 1844. The genetic cause was discovered in 1959. As adults, their mental abilities are typically similar to those of an 8- or 9-year-old. They can have poor immune function |Abnormal teeth | 60% |- |Stunted growth | 90% |Slanted eyes | 60% |Shortened hands | 60% |Obstructive sleep apnea | 60% | 75% |} ===Physical=== People with Down syndrome may have these physical characteristics: a small chin, epicanthic folds, low muscle tone, a flat nasal bridge, and a protruding tongue. A protruding tongue is caused by low tone and weak facial muscles, and often corrected with myofunctional exercises. Some characteristic airway features can lead to obstructive sleep apnea in around half of those with Down syndrome. Atlantoaxial instability may cause myelopathy due to cervical spinal cord compression later in life, this often manifests as new onset weakness, problems with coordination, bowel or bladder incontinence, and gait dysfunction. Serial imaging cannot reliably predict future cervical cord compression, but changes can be seen on neurological exam. The condition is surgically corrected with spine surgery. Individuals with Down syndrome are at increased risk for obesity as they age due to hypothyroidism, other medical issues and lifestyle. Growth charts have been developed specifically for children with Down syndrome. Walking is acquired in 50% of children after 24 months. Most individuals with Down syndrome have mild (IQ: 50–69) or moderate (IQ: 35–50) intellectual disability with some cases having severe (IQ: 20–35) difficulties. Those with mosaic Down syndrome typically have IQ scores 10–30 points higher than that. As they age, the gap tends to widen between people with Down syndrome and their same-age peers. Commonly, individuals with Down syndrome have better language understanding than ability to speak. 10–45% of those with Down syndrome have either a stutter or rapid and irregular speech, making it difficult to understand them. After reaching 30 years of age, some may lose their ability to speak. While people with Down syndrome are generally happy, symptoms of depression and anxiety may develop in early adulthood. In those who reach 60 years of age, 50–70% have the disease. It primarily appears in teenagers and younger adults. ===Senses=== Hearing and vision disorders occur in more than half of people with Down syndrome. especially in the Western World. Dot-like opacities in the cortex of the lens (cerulean cataract) are present in up to 50% of people with Down syndrome, but may be followed without treatment if they are not visually significant. In Down syndrome, the presence of epicanthal folds may give the false impression of strabismus, referred to as pseudostrabismus. Nasolacrimal duct obstruction, which causes tearing (epiphora), is more frequently bilateral and multifactorial than in children without Down syndrome. causing visual blurring or distortion. Keratoconus first presents in the teen years and progresses into the thirties. Down syndrome is a strong risk factor for developing keratoconus, and onset may be occur at a younger age than in those without Down syndrome. and may be present at birth. Ear infections often begin in the first year of life and are partly due to poor eustachian tube function. Excessive ear wax can also cause hearing loss due to obstruction of the outer ear canal. Age-related hearing loss of the sensorineural type occurs at a much earlier age and affects 10–70% of people with Down syndrome. Some of the genetic contributions to pulmonary hypertension in individuals with Down Syndrome are abnormal lung development, endothelial dysfunction, and proinflammatory genes. People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of hardening of the arteries. the risk of testicular cancer and certain blood cancers, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL) is increased while the risk of other non-blood cancers is decreased. ==== Blood cancers ==== Leukemia is 10 to 15 times more common in children with Down syndrome. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Down syndrome accounts for 1–3% of all childhood cases of ALL. It occurs most often in those older than nine years or having a white blood cell count greater than 50,000 per microliter and is rare in those younger than one year old. ALL in Down syndrome tends to have poorer outcomes than other cases of ALL in people without Down syndrome. In short, the likelihood of developing acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is higher in children with Down syndrome compared to those without Down syndrome. Myeloid leukemia typically precedes Down syndrome and is accompanied by a condition known as transient abnormal myelopoiesis (TAM), which generally disrupts the differentiation of megakaryocytes and erythrocytes. In Down syndrome, AMKL is typically preceded by transient myeloproliferative disease (TMD), a disorder of blood cell production in which non-cancerous megakaryoblasts with a mutation in the GATA1 gene rapidly divide during the later period of pregnancy. GATA1 mutations combined with trisomy 21 contribute to a predisposition to TAM. In about 10% of cases, TMD progresses to AMKL during the three months to five years following its resolution. ==== Non-blood cancers ==== People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of all major solid cancers, including those of lung, breast, and cervix, with the lowest relative rates occurring in those aged 50 years or older. One exception is testicular germ cell cancer which occurs at a higher rate in Down syndrome. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is also more common. Other congenital problems can include duodenal atresia, imperforate anus and gastroesophageal reflux disease. While plaque and poor oral hygiene are contributing factors, the severity of these periodontal diseases cannot be explained solely by external factors. The weakened immune system also contributes to increased incidence of yeast infections in the mouth (from Candida albicans). less effective oral hygiene habits, and higher plaque indexes. Higher rates of tooth wear and bruxism are also common. ===Fertility=== Males with Down syndrome usually do not father children, while females have lower rates of fertility relative to those who are unaffected. Without assisted reproductive technologies, around half of the children of someone with Down syndrome will also have the syndrome. and there is no scientific research which shows that environmental factors or the parents' activities contribute to Down syndrome. The only factor that has been linked to the increased chance of having a baby with Down syndrome is advanced parental age. This is mostly associated with advanced maternal age but about 10 per cent of cases are associated with advanced paternal age. Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of the genes on chromosome 21, rather than the usual two. The parents of the affected individual are typically genetically normal. In 1–2.5% of cases, some of the cells in the body are normal and others have trisomy 21, known as mosaic Down syndrome. The other common mechanisms that can give rise to Down syndrome include: a Robertsonian translocation, isochromosome, or ring chromosome. These contain additional material from chromosome 21 and occur in about 2.5% of cases. ===Trisomy 21=== Down syndrome (also known by the karyotype 47,XX,+21 for females and 47,XY,+21 for males) is mostly caused by a failure of the 21st chromosome to separate during egg or sperm development, known as nondisjunction. === Mosaic Down syndrome === Mosaic Down syndrome is diagnosed when there is a mixture of two types of cells: some cells have three copies of chromosome 21 but some cells have the typical two copies of chromosome 21. Children with mosaic Down syndrome may have the same features as other children with Down syndrome. However, they may have fewer characteristics of the condition due to the presence of some (or many) cells with a typical number of chromosomes. ===Translocation Down syndrome=== The extra chromosome 21 material may also occur due to a Robertsonian translocation in 2–4% of cases. This may be a new mutation or previously present in one of the parents. This results in a 15% chance of having a child with Down syndrome when the mother is affected and a less than 5% probability if the father is affected. ==Mechanism== The extra genetic material present in Down syndrome results in overexpression of a portion of the 310 genes located on chromosome 21. with this area including genes for the amyloid precursor protein, superoxide dismutase, and likely the ETS2 proto oncogene. Other research, however, has not confirmed these findings. The dementia that occurs in Down syndrome is due to an excess of amyloid beta peptide produced in the brain and is similar to Alzheimer's disease, which also involves amyloid beta build-up. Senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are present in nearly all by 35 years of age, though dementia may not be present. ==Diagnosis== ===Screening before birth=== Guidelines recommend screening for Down syndrome to be offered to all pregnant women, regardless of age. A number of tests are used, with varying levels of accuracy. They are typically used in combination to increase the detection rate. The presence or absence of many markers is more accurate. T21.JPG|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome showing a large bladder Nuchal edema in Down Syndrome Dr. W. Moroder.jpg|Enlarged NT and absent nasal bone in a fetus at 11 weeks with Down syndrome ====Blood tests==== Several blood markers can be measured to predict the chances of Down syndrome during the first or second trimester. Testing of the mother's blood for fetal DNA is being studied and appears promising in the first trimester. The International Society for Prenatal Diagnosis considers it a reasonable screening option for those women whose pregnancies are at a high likelihood of trisomy 21. ====Combinations==== ====Efficacy==== For combinations of ultrasonography and non-genetic blood tests, screening in both the first and second trimesters is better than just screening in the first trimester. If Down syndrome occurs in one in 500 pregnancies with a 90% detection rate and the test used has a 5% false-positive rate, of 28 women who test positive on screening, only one will have a fetus with Down syndrome confirmed. If the screening test has a 2% false-positive rate, this means of 11 women who test positive on screening, only one will have a fetus with Down syndrome. The risk of limb problems may be increased in the offspring if chorionic villus sampling is performed before 10 weeks.]] The risk from the procedure is greater the earlier it is performed, thus amniocentesis is not recommended before 15 weeks gestational age and chorionic villus sampling before 10 weeks gestational age. In the United States, the termination rate after diagnosis is around 75%, ===After birth=== A diagnosis can often be suspected based on the child's physical appearance at birth. Education and proper care can provide a positive quality of life.!! Adults Behavioral issues and mental illness are typically managed with counseling or medications. In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 requires public schools generally to allow attendance by students with Down syndrome. Individuals with Down syndrome may learn better visually. Drawing may help with language, speech, and reading skills. Children with Down syndrome still often have difficulty with sentence structure and grammar, as well as developing the ability to speak clearly. Several types of early intervention can help with cognitive development. Efforts to develop motor skills include physical therapy, speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy. Physical therapy focuses specifically on motor development and teaching children to interact with their environment. Speech and language therapy can help prepare for later language. Lastly, occupational therapy can help with skills needed for later independence. ===Other=== Tympanostomy tubes are often needed Tonsillectomy is also often done to help with sleep apnea and throat infections. donepezil, rivastigmine, or galantamine. ==Prognosis== Between 5–15% of children with Down syndrome in Sweden attend regular school. Many learn to read and write and some are able to do paid work. In Sweden, however, less than 1% have regular jobs. Many are able to live semi-independently, Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk of early death than the general population. to 25 years in the 1980s, The National Down Syndrome Society provides information regarding raising a child with Down syndrome. ==Epidemiology== Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality in humans. More children are born with Down syndrome in countries where abortion is not allowed and in countries where pregnancy more commonly occurs at a later age. and 1.1 per 1,000 live births in Norway are affected. The number of pregnancies with Down syndrome is more than two times greater with many spontaneously aborting. ==History== English physician John Langdon Down first described Down syndrome in 1862, recognizing it as a distinct type of mental disability, and again in a more widely published report in 1866. Édouard Séguin described it as separate from cretinism in 1844. By the 20th century, Down syndrome had become the most recognizable form of mental disability. Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with those of Blumenbach's Mongoloid race, John Langdon Down used the term "mongoloid". He felt that the existence of Down syndrome confirmed that all peoples were genetically related. In the 1950s with discovery of the underlying cause as being related to chromosomes, concerns about the race-based nature of the name increased. In 1961, a group of nineteen scientists suggested that "mongolism" had "misleading connotations" and had become "an embarrassing term". While this terminology continued to be used until the late twentieth century, it is now considered unacceptable and is no longer in common use. In antiquity, many infants with disabilities were either killed or abandoned. Researchers believe that a number of historical pieces of art portray Down syndrome, including pottery from the pre-Columbian Tumaco-La Tolita culture in present-day Colombia and Ecuador, and the 16th-century painting The Adoration of the Christ Child. In the 20th century, many individuals with Down syndrome were institutionalized, few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most people died in infancy or early adulthood. With the rise of the eugenics movement, 33 of the then 48 U.S. states and several countries began programs of forced sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. Action T4 in Nazi Germany saw the systematic murder of people with Down syndrome made public policy. With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. and in 2014 the Scientific Council of the French Federation of Human Genetics unanimously awarded its Grand Prize to his colleague Marthe Gautier for her role in this discovery. The discovery took place in the laboratory of Raymond Turpin at the Hôpital Trousseau in Paris, France. Jérôme Lejeune and Marthe Gautier were both his students. As a result of this discovery, the condition became known as trisomy 21. Even before the discovery of its cause, the presence of the syndrome in all races, its association with older maternal age, and its rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Medical texts had assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors that had not been identified. Other theories had focused on injuries sustained during birth. ==Society and culture== ===Name=== Down syndrome is named after John Langdon Down. He was the first person to provide an accurate description of the syndrome. His research that was published in 1866 earned him the recognition as the Father of the syndrome. While others had previously recognized components of the condition, John Langdon Down described the syndrome as a distinct, unique medical condition. However, both the possessive and nonpossessive forms remain in use by the general population. The term "trisomy 21" is also commonly used. ===Ethics=== Obstetricians routinely offer antenatal screenings for various conditions, including Down syndrome. When results from testing become available, it is considered an ethical requirement to share the results with the patient. Some bioethicists deem it reasonable for parents to select a child who would have the highest well-being. One criticism of this reasoning is that it often values those with disabilities less. Some parents argue that Down syndrome should not be prevented or cured and that eliminating Down syndrome amounts to genocide. The disability rights movement does not have a position on screening, Some in the United States who are anti-abortion support abortion if the fetus is disabled, while others do not. Of a group of 40 mothers in the United States who have had one child with Down syndrome, half agreed to screening in the next pregnancy. Women may face disapproval whether they choose abortion or not. Some of those against screening refer to it as a form of eugenics. These were organizations advocating for the inclusion of people with Down syndrome into the general school system and for a greater understanding of the condition among the general population, Kobato Kai founded in Japan in 1964, and the National Down Syndrome Society founded in 1979 in the United States. The first World Down Syndrome Day was held on 21 March 2006. The day and month were chosen to correspond with 21 and trisomy, respectively. It was recognized by the United Nations General Assembly in 2011. The project began when International Down syndrome swimmer Filipe Santos broke the world record in the 50m butterfly event, but was unable to compete at the Paralympic Games. ===Paralympic Swimming=== International Paralympic Committee Para-swimming classification codes are based upon single impairment only, whereas Down syndrome individuals have both physical and intellectual impairments. Although Down syndrome swimmers are able to compete in the Paralympic Swimming S14 intellectual impairment category (provided they score low in IQ tests), they are often outmatched by the superior physicality of their opponents. At present there is no designated Paralympic category for swimmers with Down syndrome, meaning they have to compete as intellectually disadvantaged athletes. This disregards their physical disabilities. A number of advocacy groups globally have been lobbying for the inclusion of a distinct classification category for Down syndrome swimmers within the IPC Classification Codes framework. Despite ongoing advocacy, the issue remains unresolved, and swimmers with Down syndrome continue to face challenges in accessing appropriate classification pathways. ==Research== Efforts are underway to determine how the extra chromosome 21 material causes Down syndrome, as currently this is unknown, Two efforts being studied are the use stem cells and gene therapy. Other methods being studied include the use of antioxidants, gamma secretase inhibition, adrenergic agonists, and memantine. Research is often carried out on an animal model, the Ts65Dn mouse. ==Other hominids== Down syndrome may also occur in hominids other than humans. In great apes chromosome 22 corresponds to the human chromosome 21 and thus trisomy 22 causes Down syndrome in apes. The condition was observed in a common chimpanzee in 1969 and a Bornean orangutan in 1979, but neither lived very long. The common chimpanzee Kanako (born around 1993, in Japan) has become the longest-lived known example of this condition. Kanako has some of the same symptoms that are common in human Down syndrome. It is unknown how common this condition is in chimps, but it is plausible it could be roughly as common as Down syndrome is in humans. Fossilized remains of a Neanderthal aged approximately 6 at death were described in 2024. The child, nicknamed Tina, suffered from a malformation of the inner ear that only occurs in people with Down syndrome, and would have caused hearing loss and disabling vertigo. The fact that a Neanderthal with such a condition survived to such an age was taken as evidence of compassion and extra-maternal care among Neanderthals. ==In popular culture== ===Individuals=== Jamie Brewer is an American actress and model. She is best known for her roles in the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. In its first season, Murder House, she portrayed Adelaide "Addie" Langdon; in the third season, Coven, she portrayed Nan, an enigmatic and clairvoyant witch; in the fourth season Freak Show, she portrayed Chester Creb's vision of his doll, Marjorie; in the seventh season Cult, she portrayed Hedda, a member of the 'SCUM' crew, led by feminist Valerie Solanas; and she also returned to her role as Nan in the eighth season, Apocalypse. In February 2015, Brewer became the first woman with Down syndrome to walk the red carpet at New York Fashion Week, for designer Carrie Hammer. Sofía Jirau is a Puerto Rican model with Down syndrome, working with designers and media outlets such as Vogue Mexico, People, and Hola!. In February 2020, Jirau made her debut at New York Fashion Week. Then in February 2022, she became the first-ever model with Down Syndrome to be hired by the American retail company Victoria's Secret. She walked the LA Fashion Week runway in 2022. Jirau launched a campaign in 2021 called Sin Límites or No Limits "which seeks to make visible the challenges facing the Down syndrome community, demonstrate our ability to achieve our goals, and raise awareness about the condition throughout the world." He was awarded the Jimmy V Award for Perseverance at the 2021 ESPY Awards. Nikic continues to run races around the world, using his platform to promote his 1% Better message and bring awareness to the endless possibilities for people with Down syndrome. Grace Strobel is an American model and the first person with Down Syndrome to represent an American skin-care brand. She first joined Obagi in 2020, and continues to be an Ambassador for the brand as of 2022. She walked the runway representing Tommy Hilfiger for Runway of Dreams New York Fashion Week 2020 and Atlantic City Fashion Week. Strobel has been featured in Forbes, on The Today Show, Good Morning America, by Rihanna's Fenty Beauty, Lady Gaga's Kindness Channel, and many more. ===Television and film=== Life Goes On is an American drama television series that aired on ABC from September 12, 1989, to May 23, 1993. The show centers on the Thatcher family living in suburban Chicago: Drew, his wife Libby, and their children Paige, Rebecca and Charles. Charles, called Corky on the show and portrayed by Chris Burke, was the first major character on a television series with Down syndrome. Burke's revolutionary role conveyed a realistic portrayal of people with Down syndrome and changed the way audiences viewed people with disabilities. Struck by Lightning, an Australian film by Jerzy Domaradzki and starring Garry McDonald, is a comedy-drama depicting the efforts by a newly appointed physical education teacher to introduce soccer to a specialized school for youths with Down syndrome. Champions (2023) is a film starring four main actors with Down syndrome: Madison Tevlin, Kevin Iannucci, Matthew Von Der Ahe and James Day Keith. It is an American sports comedy film directed by Bobby Farrelly in his solo directorial debut, from a screenplay written by Mark Rizzo. The film stars Woody Harrelson as a temperamental minor-league basketball coach who after an arrest must coach a team of players with intellectual disabilities as community service; Kaitlin Olson, Ernie Hudson, and Cheech Marin also star. Born This Way is an American reality television series produced by Bunim/Murray Productions featuring seven adults with Down syndrome with work hard to achieve goals and overcome obstacles. The show received a Television Academy Honor in 2016. The Peanut Butter Falcon is a 2019 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Tyler Nilson and Michael Schwartz, in their directorial film debut, and starring Zack Gottsagen, Shia LaBeouf, Dakota Johnson and John Hawkes. The plot follows a young man with Down syndrome who escapes from an assisted living facility, in order to follow his dream of being a wrestler, and befriends a wayward fisherman on the run. As the two men form a rapid bond, a social worker attempts to track them. ===Music=== The Devo song "Mongoloid" is about someone with Down syndrome. The Amateur Transplants song "Your Baby" is about a fetus with Down syndrome. ===Toys=== In 2023, Mattel released a Barbie doll with characteristics of a person having Down syndrome as a way to promote diversity.
[ "congenital heart defect", "eugenics", "Ernie Hudson", "GATA1", "Translocation Down syndrome", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "inhibin", "inclusive education", "memantine", "obstructive sleep apnea", "cluttering", "hearing aids", "National Institutes of Health", "Down syndrome regression disorder", "Babbling", "Celiac disease", "Senile plaques", "nasal bridge", "nasolacrimal duct obstruction", "2021 ESPY Awards", "Constipation", "Grace Strobel", "chromosomal abnormality", "Disability rights", "Tonsillectomy", "baby teeth", "Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol", "Hypothyroidism", "Earwax", "Victoria's Secret", "Tommy Hilfiger (company)", "microliter", "Kathryn McGee", "Haematopoiesis", "International Paralympic Committee", "atlantoaxial joint", "Cataract", "bruxism", "spermatogenesis", "New York Fashion Week", "Special education", "antibody", "Gestational age (obstetrics)", "colon (anatomy)", "clairvoyant", "endothelial dysfunction", "Good Morning America", "duodenal atresia", "Leukemia", "epilepsy", "FX (TV channel)", "immune system", "Epicanthic fold", "galantamine", "Neanderthal", "Accommodation reflex", "World Down Syndrome Day", "Sports film", "Keratoconus", "Jérôme Lejeune", "American Broadcasting Company", "reality television", "Fenty Beauty", "keratoconus", "early childhood intervention", "crossbite", "Umbilical hernia", "nondisjunction", "Barbie", "quality of life", "stem cells", "subclavian artery", "American Horror Story: Cult", "ventriculomegaly", "great apes", "Amateur Transplants", "ventricular septal defect", "acute megakaryoblastic leukemia", "Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis", "Judy Fryd", "thyroid gland", "tooth loss", "Iceland", "meiosis", "atrial septal defect", "iris (anatomy)", "nuchal translucency", "Jamie Brewer", "human monoclonal antibodies", "Paralympic Games", "alkaline", "thyroid disease", "National Down Syndrome Society", "malocclusion", "Lens (anatomy)", "Chromosomal translocation", "polysomnography", "Assisted living", "Colombia", "megakaryoblast", "cretinism", "Garry McDonald", "Myeloid leukemia", "mouse models of Down syndrome", "transient myeloproliferative disease", "Screening (medicine)", "Taurodontism", "Lens (vertebrate anatomy)", "Paternal age effect", "epileptic seizures", "Valerie Solanas", "leukemia", "Duke University Press", "amyloid precursor protein", "developmental milestones", "Atlantic City Fashion Week", "otitis media", "Born This Way (TV series)", "autism spectrum", "venipuncture", "witch", "S14 (classification)", "tetralogy of Fallot", "gene", "hominidae", "chromosome 21", "American Horror Story: Apocalypse", "superoxide dismutase", "p-arm", "Congenital heart disease", "catatonia", "amyloid beta", "gingivitis", "neurofibrillary tangle", "karyotype", "gastroesophageal reflux disease", "pinna (anatomy)", "tooth decay", "National Health Service", "acute lymphoblastic leukemia", "rivastigmine", "Devo", "Periodontal pathology", "Speech-Language Pathology", "cornea", "nuchal fold thickness", "germ cell", "social work", "Mitral valve", "prenatal screening", "Marthe Gautier", "common chimpanzee", "Bornean orangutan", "sign language", "American Horror Story: Freak Show", "testicular cancer", "respiratory syncytial virus", "chorionic villus sampling", "Los Angeles Fashion Week", "Abortion", "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "Characteristics of syndromic ASD conditions", "Mosaic (genetics)", "American Horror Story", "obesity", "ataxia", "enamel hypocalcification", "mouth breathing", "imperforate anus", "gene therapy", "developed world", "donepezil", "Little Sisters Disciples of the Lamb", "Cell-free fetal DNA", "Dakota Johnson", "vertigo", "Heart valve", "acute myeloid leukemia", "Puerto Ricans", "neuropsychiatric", "Quad screen", "vaccination", "comedy-drama", "Candida albicans", "Cheech Marin", "Infant", "myelopathy", "Individuals with Disabilities Education Act", "anti-abortion", "Obstructive sleep apnea", "echocardiogram", "Regression (medicine)", "gamma secretase inhibition", "Alzheimer's disease", "Madison Tevlin", "Brachycephaly", "Denmark", "Bunim/Murray Productions", "Prenatal screening", "Television in the United States", "Mongoloid", "Rihanna", "Nazi Germany", "pharyngitis", "Jimmy V Award", "Western world", "pregnancies", "anxiety (mood)", "patent ductus arteriosus", "Para swimming", "Sofía Jirau", "cleft lip and palate", "autoimmune hypothyroidism", "List of directorial debuts", "α-fetoprotein", "U.S. state", "pregnancy-associated plasma protein A", "Hallux", "oral hygiene", "short stature", "child development", "megakaryocyte", "atherosclerosis", "NBA G League", "Iris (anatomy)", "American Horror Story: Murder House", "Strabismus", "intellectual disability", "Mosaic Down syndrome", "blepharitis", "Chromosome 14 (human)", "Forbes", "Édouard Séguin", "List of syndromes", "Champions (2023 film)", "ultrasound", "History of psychiatric institutions", "palpebral fissure", "Protestant", "Chicago metropolitan area", "q arm", "gastrointestinal problem", "genetic testing", "Hypotonia", "cataract", "Augmentative and alternative communication", "Ironman Triathlon", "preimplantation genetic diagnosis", "American Horror Story: Coven", "otitis media with effusion", "Menopause", "Mongoloid (song)", "congenital", "white blood cell count", "fertilization", "The Peanut Butter Falcon", "Candidiasis", "Brushfield spots", "Robertsonian translocation", "Medical genetics", "pulmonary hypertension", "John Langdon Down", "amblyopia", "congenital hypothyroidism", "Germ cell tumor", "Fitness to Practice", "Action T4", "peptide", "thyroxine", "miscarriage", "glaucoma", "Growth chart", "Nan (American Horror Story)", "Chris Nikic", "strabismus", "Depression (mood)", "saliva", "nystagmus", "Maternal age effect", "lymphocytes", "continuous positive airway pressure", "infantile spasms", "mosaic (genetics)", "Single transverse palmar crease", "advanced maternal age", "Sensorineural hearing loss", "Clinodactyly", "microgenia", "amniocentesis", "Today (American TV program)", "Refractive error", "pre-Columbian", "Prenatal ultrasound", "Bobby Farrelly", "Graves' disease", "genetically", "prevalence", "BBC News", "Struck by Lightning (1990 film)", "adrenergic agonist", "Hirschsprung's disease", "thyroid stimulating hormone", "chromosome 2", "pseudostrabismus", "Epiphora (medicine)", "eustachian tube", "Adelaide Langdon", "Zack Gottsagen", "Transient myeloproliferative disease", "cancer", "ear canal", "Woody Harrelson", "John Hawkes (actor)", "tumor suppressor gene", "Mongolian idiocy", "platelet", "Mongolian People's Republic", "electrocardiogram", "congenital disorders", "fertility", "Chris Burke (actor)", "high school", "ring chromosome", "Raymond Turpin", "palate", "Undescended testicles", "antioxidant", "eugenics movement", "congenital heart disease", "United Nations General Assembly", "Jerzy Domaradzki", "Dental plaque", "Roman Catholics", "Shia LaBeouf", "immunodeficiency", "epigenetic clock", "Macroglossia", "isochromosome", "screening (medicine)", "Mattel", "Advanced maternal age", "Kaitlin Olson", "Mencap", "Neuron", "Epicanthic folds", "World Health Organization", "pediatrics", "trisomy", "stutter", "mental illness", "megacystis", "World War II", "genetic disorder", "Type 1 diabetes mellitus", "oncogene", "Para-swimming classification", "Life Goes On (TV series)", "ETS2", "Comedy film", "gestation", "MicroRNA", "animal model", "Ecuador", "Ireland", "epicanthic fold", "Poulnabrone dolmen", "Tympanostomy tube", "post-secondary education" ]
8,305
Dyslexia
{{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Reading disorder | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | image_size = | caption = Difficulties in processing letters and words | types = Surface dyslexia | field = Neurology, pediatrics | symptoms = Trouble reading Different people are affected to different degrees. Often these difficulties are first noticed at school. The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn. People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers. Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn. Treatments targeting vision are not effective. Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world. It affects 3–7% of the population; however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms. While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals. It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally. ==Classification== Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches. Pure alexia, also known as agnosic alexia or pure word blindness, is one form of alexia which makes up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. ==Signs and symptoms== In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness. These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia. They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of k, a, and t in cat) or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness. Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia. People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding. ===Associated conditions=== Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified. These associated disabilities include: Dysgraphia: A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling. Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together. Approximately 15% and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia. This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia. Developmental coordination disorder: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control and kinesthetic coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with short-term memory and organization. == Causes == Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881. For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells. ===Neuroanatomy=== Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the middle and ventral temporal cortex. with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading. The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading. The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies. ===Genetics=== Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia. The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures. Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15. ===Gene–environment interaction=== The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability, which estimates the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes, has been intensely studied using twin studies. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education and teaching quality have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments. However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized. ====Language==== The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it. English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes. Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia. ==Pathophysiology== For most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia. ===Dual route theory=== The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud. One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure. The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word. This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together. ==Diagnosis== Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling. Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness, inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing), and verbal working memory deficits. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific"). Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence. Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding". Phonological awareness enables one to identify, discriminate, remember (working memory), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words. ===Assessment=== The following can be done to assess for dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist. Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying the initial sounds in words). Do not rely on tests exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests. Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach, which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach." ====Assessment tests==== There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia. If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder. Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists. General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified. Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well. Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training. ==Screening== Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test. In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly. When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check used by United Kingdom schools during Year one. In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning. ==Management== Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write. There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder. Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension. For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone. Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure. Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading. Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts. ==Prognosis== Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age. The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family. ==Epidemiology== The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males. Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings. The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography. ==History== Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart. He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance. Over time, the consensus has changed from an intelligence-based model to an age-based model for dyslexia . ==Society and culture== As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder. If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation. Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families. Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia. The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections. However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages. The outward expression of individuals with reading disability, and regular poor readers, is the same in some respects.
[ "Staffordshire", "Emotional problems", "Dyscalculia", "hearing problems", "typing", "Rhyme", "letter-spacing", "Speech delay", "phonemic awareness", "Learning to read", "attention deficit hyperactivity disorder", "Orthography", "Stuttgart", "language center", "DYX1C1", "Warwickshire", "Speech–language pathology", "Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire", "corpus callosum", "stroke", "Neuroimaging", "developmental language disorder", "kinesthetic", "phoneme", "British Medical Journal", "Selection bias", "National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke", "Surface dyslexia", "chromosome 6", "language processing in the brain", "lexicon", "Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities", "Signs and symptoms", "neurodevelopmental disorder", "spelling", "twin studies", "Times New Roman", "Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales", "Chinese character", "dyscalculia", "Screen for child anxiety related disorders", "cerebellum", "Alexia (condition)", "Arial", "cerebral cortex", "Spelling", "graphemes", "OpenDyslexic", "Oswald Berkhan", "Reading (process)", "Iowa Tests of Educational Development", "dysgraphia", "Auditory processing disorder", "Genetics", "Brodmann area 20", "wikt:ectopia", "phonological awareness", "gene expression", "Seaford, East Sussex", "working memory", "writing system", "dementia", "phonemes", "vision problem", "Developmental coordination disorder", "phonemic orthographies", "Autonomic nervous system", "orthographic depth", "reading (process)", "KIAA0319", "Occupational therapy", "sequencing", "learn", "traumatic brain injury", "positron emission tomography", "blood vessel", "epigenetic", "mwod:dyslexia", "inferior frontal gyrus", "Latin alphabet", "Response to Intervention", "Logograph", "short-term memory", "syllable", "European languages", "Knot tying", "pediatrics", "Wide Range Achievement Test", "Dyslexie", "genetics", "auditory memory", "List of people with dyslexia", "Neurology", "Gene–environment interaction", "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder", "dyslexia intervention", "Reading education", "Rudolf Berlin", "ophthalmologist", "Subvocalization", "fMRI", "chromosome 15", "functional magnetic resonance imaging", "handwriting", "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children", "writing", "Dysgraphia", "logographic cues", "International Dyslexia Association", "microgyrus", "learning disability", "Orton-Gillingham", "Chinese characters", "inferior parietal lobule", "fluency", "alphabetic writing system", "w:Year One (education)", "Histone", "methylation", "morpheme", "grapheme", "mirror writing", "motor control", "fetal", "automaticity", "DCDC2", "Screening (medicine)", "eye–hand coordination", "Lateralization of brain function", "intelligence", "Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale" ]
8,308
Delft
Delft () is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. It is located between Rotterdam, to the southeast, and The Hague, to the northwest. Together with them, it is a part of both the Rotterdam–The Hague metropolitan area and the Randstad. Delft is a popular tourist destination in the Netherlands, famous for its historical connections with the reigning House of Orange-Nassau, for its blue pottery, for being home to the painter Jan Vermeer, and for hosting Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). Historically, Delft played a highly influential role in the Dutch Golden Age. In terms of science and technology, thanks to the pioneering contributions of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Martinus Beijerinck, Delft can be considered to be the birthplace of microbiology. ==History== ===Early history=== The city of Delft came into being beside a canal, the 'Delf', which comes from the word delven, meaning to delve or dig, and this led to the name Delft. At the elevated place where this 'Delf' crossed the creek wall of the silted up river Gantel, a Count established his manor, probably around 1075. Partly because of this, Delft became an important market town, the evidence for which can be seen in the size of its central market square. Having been a rural village in the early Middle Ages, Delft developed into a city, and on 15 April 1246, Count Willem II granted Delft its city charter. Trade and industry flourished. In 1389 the Delfshavensche Schie canal was dug through to the river Maas, where the port of Delfshaven was built, connecting Delft to the sea. Until the 17th century, Delft was one of the major cities of the then county (and later province) of Holland. In 1400, for example, the city had 6,500 inhabitants, making it the third largest city after Dordrecht (8,000) and Haarlem (7,000). In 1560, Amsterdam, with 28,000 inhabitants, had become the largest city, followed by Delft, Leiden and Haarlem, which each had around 14,000 inhabitants. In 1536, a large part of the city was destroyed by the great fire of Delft. The town's association with the House of Orange started when William of Orange (Willem van Oranje), nicknamed William the Silent (Willem de Zwijger), took up residence in 1572 in the former Saint-Agatha convent (subsequently called the Prinsenhof). At the time he was the leader of growing national Dutch resistance against Spanish occupation, known as the Eighty Years' War. By then Delft was one of the leading cities of Holland and was equipped with the necessary city walls to serve as a headquarters. In October 1573, an attack by Spanish forces was repelled in the Battle of Delft. After the Act of Abjuration was proclaimed in 1581, Delft became the de facto capital of the newly independent Netherlands, as the seat of the Prince of Orange. When William was shot dead on 10 July 1584 by Balthazar Gerards in the hall of the Prinsenhof (now the Prinsenhof Museum), the family's traditional burial place in Breda was still in the hands of the Spanish. Therefore, he was buried in the Delft Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day. Around this time, Delft also occupied a prominent position in the field of printing. A number of Italian glazed earthenware makers settled in the city and introduced a new style. The tapestry industry also flourished when famous manufacturer François Spierincx moved to the city. In the 17th century, Delft experienced a new heyday, thanks to the presence of an office of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) (opened in 1602) and the manufacture of Delft Blue china. A number of notable artists based themselves in the city, including Leonard Bramer, Carel Fabritius, Pieter de Hoogh, Gerard Houckgeest, Emanuel de Witte, Jan Steen, and Johannes Vermeer. Reinier de Graaf and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek received international attention for their scientific research. ===Explosion=== The Delft Explosion, also known in history as the Delft Thunderclap, occurred on 12 October 1654 when a gunpowder store exploded, destroying much of the city. More than a hundred were killed and thousands were injured. About of gunpowder were stored in barrels in a magazine in a former Clarist convent in the Doelenkwartier district, where the Paardenmarkt is now located. Cornelis Soetens, the keeper of the magazine, opened the store to check a sample of the powder and a huge explosion followed. Fortunately, many citizens were away, visiting a market in Schiedam or a fair in The Hague. Today, the explosion is primarily remembered for killing Rembrandt's most promising pupil, Carel Fabritius, and destroying nearly all his works. Delft artist Egbert van der Poel painted several pictures of Delft showing the devastation. The gunpowder store (Dutch: Kruithuis) was subsequently re-housed, a 'cannonball's distance away', outside the city, in a new building designed by architect Pieter Post. ==Sights== The city centre retains a large number of monumental buildings, while in many streets there are canals of which the banks are connected by typical bridges, altogether making this city a notable tourist destination. Historical buildings and other sights of interest include: Oude Kerk (Old Church), constructed between 1246 and 1350. Buried here: Piet Hein, Johannes Vermeer, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), constructed between 1381 and 1496. It contains the Dutch royal family's burial vault which, between funerals, is sealed with a cover stone. A statue of Hugo Grotius created by in 1886, located on the Markt near the Nieuwe Kerk. The Prinsenhof (Princes' Court), now a museum. Another windmill that formerly stood in Delft, Het Fortuyn, was dismantled in 1917 and re-erected at the Netherlands Open Air Museum, Arnhem, Gelderland in 1920. Royal Delft also known as De Porceleyne Fles, is a great place which showcases Delft ware. Science Center attracts kids as well as adults. File:Delft stadhuis.jpg|Delft City Hall File:Delft poorte.jpg|Eastern Gate (Oostpoort) File:Delft Oude Kerk 002.jpg|The Old Church tower File:Oude Langendijk Delft.jpg|Oude Langendijk ==Culture== Delft is well known for the Delft pottery ceramic products The painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675) was born in Delft. Vermeer used Delft streets and home interiors as the subject or background in his paintings. Its demolition started in December 2009, making way for the new railway tunnel in Delft. The occupants of the building, as well as the name 'Bacinol', moved to another building in the city. The name Bacinol relates to Dutch penicillin research during WWII. ==Education== Delft University of Technology (TU Delft) is one of four universities of technology in the Netherlands. It was founded as an academy for civil engineering in 1842 by King William II. As of 2022, well over 27,000 students are enrolled. The UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, providing postgraduate education for people from developing countries, draws on the strong tradition in water management and hydraulic engineering of the Delft university. The Hague University of Applied Sciences has a building on the Delft University of Technology campus. It opened in 2009 and offers several bachelor's degrees for the Faculty of Technology, Innovation & Society. Inholland University of Applied Sciences also has a building on the Delft University of Technology campus. Several bachelor's degrees for the Agri, Food & Life Sciences faculty and the Engineering, Design and Computing faculty are being taught at the Delft campus. ==Economy== In the local economic field, essential elements are: education; (amongst others Delft University of Technology) ( 21.651 students and 4.939 full-time employees), scientific research; (amongst others "TNO" Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research), Stichting Deltares, Nederlands Normalisatie-Instituut, UNESCO-IHE Institute for water education, Technopolis Innovation Park; tourism; (about one million registered visitors a year), industry; (DSM Gist Services BV, (Delftware) earthenware production by De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles, Exact Software Nederland BV, TOPdesk, Ampelmann) retail; (IKEA (Inter IKEA Systems B.V., owner and worldwide franchisor of the IKEA Concept, is based in Delft), Makro, Eneco Energy NV). ==Nature and recreation== East of Delft lies a relatively large nature and recreation area called the "Delftse Hout" ("Delft Wood"). Through the forest lie bike, horse-riding and footpaths. It also includes a vast lake (suitable for swimming and windsurfing), narrow beaches, a restaurant, and community gardens, plus camping ground and other recreational and sports facilities. (There is also a facility for renting bikes from the station.) Inside the city, apart from a central park, there are several smaller town parks, including "Nieuwe Plantage", "Agnetapark", "Kalverbos". There is also the Botanical Garden of the TU and an arboretum in Delftse Hout. ==Notable people== Delft is the birthplace of: === Dutch Golden Age === Jacob Willemsz Delff the Elder, (ca. 1550–1601), portrait painter Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt (1567–1641), painter Willem van der Vliet (c. 1584–1642), painter Adriaen van de Venne (1589–1662), painter Adriaen Cornelisz van Linschoten (1590–1677), painter Daniël Mijtens (ca. 1590–1647/48), portrait painter Leonaert Bramer (1596–1674), painter of genre, religious, and history paintings Pieter Jansz van Asch (1603–ca. 1678), painter Evert van Aelst (1602–1657), still life painter Hendrick Cornelisz. van Vliet (ca. 1611–1675), painter of church interiors Harmen Steenwijck (ca. 1612–ca. 1656), painter of still lifes and fruit Jacob Willemsz Delff the Younger (1619–1661), portrait painter David Beck (1621–1656), portrait painter Egbert van der Poel (1621–1664), genre and landscape painter Daniel Vosmaer (1622–1666), painter Willem van Aelst (1627–1683), artist of still-lifes Hendrick van der Burgh (1627–after 1664), genre painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), painter of domestic interior scenes Ary de Milde (1634–1708), ceramist === Public thinking and service === Christian van Adrichem (1533–1585), Catholic priest and theological writer Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn (1556–1623), one of the first Dutchmen in Japan Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian and jurist who laid the foundations for international law Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel from 1625 to 1647 Philippus Baldaeus (1632–1671), minister in Jaffna Diederik Durven (1676–1740), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1729 to 1732 Abraham van der Weijden (1743–1773), ship's captain, initiated of Freemasonry in South Africa Gerrit Paape (1752–1803), painter of earthenware and stoneware, poet, journalist, novelist, judge, columnist and finally a ministerial civil servant Aegidius van Braam (1758–1822), naval vice-admiral Agneta Matthes (1847–1909), entrepreneur, manufactured yeast using the cooperative movement and housed workers at Agnetapark Henk Zeevalking (1922–2005), politician and jurist Piet Bukman (born 1934), politician and diplomat Klaas de Vries (born 1943), politician and jurist Atzo Nicolaï (born 1960), politician Marja van Bijsterveldt (born 1961), politician, Mayor of Delft since 2016 Alexander Pechtold (born 1965), politician and art historian === Science and business === Adolphus Vorstius (1597–1663), physician and botanist Martin van den Hove (1605–1639), astronomer and mathematician Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), father of microbiology and developer of the microscope Nicolaas Kruik (1678–1754), land surveyor, cartographer, astronomer, weatherman and eponym of the Museum De Cruquius Bernard Romans (ca. 1720-ca. 1783), land surveyor, artist, naturalist, and author Martin van Marum (1750–1837), physician, inventor, scientist and teacher Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda (1788–1867), biologist and geologist Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836), prehistorian, geologist and pioneer in paleontology Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), microbiologist, discovered viruses, lived and worked in Delft Guillaume Daniel Delprat CBE (1856–1937), metallurgist, mining engineer and businessman Frederik H. Kreuger (1928–2015), high-voltage scientist, academic and inventor Marjo van der Knaap (born 1958), professor of pediatric neurology, white matter researcher Antoni Folkers (born 1960), architect, humanist Peter Schrijver (born 1963), historical linguist Ionica Smeets (born 1979), mathematician, science journalist, TV presenter and academic Boyan Slat (born 1994), inventor and entrepreneur, CEO of The Ocean Cleanup === Art === Suzanne Manet (1829–1906), pianist, wife and model of painter Édouard Manet Betsy Perk (1833–1906), author of novels and plays, pioneer of the Dutch women's movement Ton Lutz (1919–2009) and Pieter Lutz (1927–2009), brothers and actors Bram Bogart (1921–2012), expressionist painter of the COBRA group Cor Dam (born 1935), sculptor, painter, illustrator and ceramist Kader Abdolah (born 1954), poet and columnist Michèle Van de Roer (born 1956), artist, designer, photographer and engraver Mariska Hulscher (born 1964), TV presenter Emma Kirchner (1830 - 1909), first woman photographer in Delft area Wessel van Diepen (born 1966), radio host, music producer and former TV presenter Rob Das (born 1969), film and TV actor, director and writer Jan-Willem van Ewijk (born 1970), film director, actor and screenwriter Ricky Koole (born 1972) a Dutch singer and film actress Vincent de Moor (born 1973), trance musician and remixer Roel van Velzen (born 1978), singer Marly van der Velden (born 1988), actress and fashion designer Rose Schmits (born c. 1988), potter and trans activist === Sport === Jan Thomée (1886–1954), footballer, team bronze medallist at the 1908 Summer Olympics Henri van Schaik (1899–1991), horse rider, team silver medallist in the 1936 Summer Olympics Tinus Osendarp (1916–2002), sprint runner, twice bronze medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics Stien Kaiser (born 1938), speed skater, twice bronze medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics and gold and silver medallist in the 1972 Winter Olympics Pieter van der Kruk (born 1941), heavyweight weightlifter and shot putter, competed at the 1968 Summer Olympics Jan Timman (born 1951), chess grandmaster, raised in Delft Ria Stalman (born 1951), discus thrower and shot putter, gold medallist in the discus at the 1984 Summer Olympics Frank Leistra (born 1960), field hockey goalkeeper, team bronze medallist at the 1988 Summer Olympics Ken Monkou (born 1964), football player with 356 club caps Eeke van Nes (born 1969), rower, team bronze medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics and team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics Thamar Henneken (born 1979), freestyle swimmer, team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics Ard van Peppen (born 1985), footballer with over 350 club caps Sytske de Groot (born 1986), rower, team bronze medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics Aaron Meijers (born 1987), footballer with almost 400 club caps Michaëlla Krajicek (born 1989), tennis player Arantxa Rus (born 1990), tennis player Kelly Vollebregt (born 1995), handball player Victoria Pelova (born 1999), football player Tijmen van der Helm (born 2004), racing driver ==Miscellaneous== Nuna is a series of crewed solar-powered vehicles, built by students at the Delft University of Technology, that won the World solar challenge in Australia seven times in the last nine competitions (in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2015 and 2017). The so-called "Superbus" project aims to develop high-speed coaches capable of speeds of up to together with the supporting infrastructure including special highway lanes constructed separately next to the nation's highways; this project was led by Dutch astronaut professor Wubbo Ockels of the Delft University of Technology. Members of both Delft Student Rowing Clubs Proteus-Eretes and Laga have won many international trophies, including Olympic medals, in the past. Formula Student Team Delft is a student racing team that has won the Formula Student competition format in Germany three times in a row, their workplace is located along the shie. The Human Power Team Delft & Amsterdam, a team consisting mainly of students from the Delft University of Technology, has won The World Human Powered Speed Challenge (WHPSC) four times. This is an international contest for recumbents in the US state of Nevada, the aim of which is to break speed records. They set the world record of 133.78 kilometres an hour (83.13 mph) in 2013. ==International relations== ===Twin towns === Delft is twinned with: ==Transport== Delft railway station; (As of February 2015, located in a new building.) Delft Campus railway station Trains stopping at these stations connect Delft with, among others, the nearby cities of Rotterdam and The Hague, as often as every five minutes, for most of the day. There are several bus routes from Delft to similar destinations. Trams frequently travel between Delft and The Hague and Leidschendam. The whole city center and adjacent areas are a paid on-street parking area. In 2018, with the day parking fee of 29.5 Euro, it was the most expensive on-street parking area in the Netherlands, with the city centers of Deventer and Dordrecht being second and third, respectively.
[ "Netherlands Open Air Museum", "UNESCO-IHE", "Marly van der Velden", "Delft School (painting)", "4TU", "hydraulic engineering", "Laura J. Snyder", "Nuna", "microscope", "Hendrick van der Burgh", "Municipalities of the Netherlands", "Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn", "William II of Holland", "Prinsenhof", "Bram Bogart", "Jacob Willemsz Delff", "Tram", "Diederik Durven", "Agneta Matthes", "Piet Pieterszoon Hein", "Marja van Bijsterveldt", "Haarlem", "Hendrick Cornelisz. van Vliet", "Sytske de Groot", "Aaron Meijers", "Atzo Nicolaï", "COBRA (avant-garde movement)", "Michèle Van de Roer", "Thamar Henneken", "Rose Schmits", "Freemasonry in South Africa", "prince of Orange", "Pieter de Hoogh", "Exact Holding", "Kelly Vollebregt", "Marjo van der Knaap", "Randstad", "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek", "Martinus Beijerinck", "Magazine (artillery)", "microbiology", "Vermeer's Hat", "Oude Kerk (Delft)", "Hugo Grotius", "De Roos", "ceramic", "Jacob Willemsz Delff the Younger", "trance music", "Emma Kirchner", "Bernard Romans", "1968 Winter Olympics", "canal", "Battle of Delft (1573)", "Nieuwe Kerk, Delft", "Balthazar Gerards", "Johannes Vermeer", "still-life", "Dutch East India Company", "paleontology", "World solar challenge", "tower mill", "Leidschendam", "The Ocean Cleanup", "Wubbo Ockels", "Jingdezhen", "Adolf Mayer", "Barrel (storage)", "De Delftse Pauw", "gunpowder", "Castrop-Rauxel", "Piet Bukman", "Adolphus Vorstius", "Vermeer Centre", "recumbent bicycle", "Technopolis Innovation Park Delft", "Proteus-Eretes", "Emanuel de Witte", "The Hague", "Antoni Folkers", "Delft Campus railway station", "History of the cooperative movement", "Ricky Koole", "Pieter Jansz van Asch", "Pijnacker-Nootdorp", "Manor house", "Christian Democratic Appeal", "Eeke van Nes", "Édouard Manet", "Michaëlla Krajicek", "Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt", "Deventer", "William II of the Netherlands", "Daniël Mijtens", "Betsy Perk", "Sebastiaan Bowier", "Vincent de Moor", "Kampioen", "stadtholder", "1984 Summer Olympics", "City Hall (Delft)", "Prince of Orange", "De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles", "Telephone numbers in the Netherlands", "Pieter van der Kruk", "Twin towns and sister cities", "Radio Netherlands", "city wall", "Egbert van der Poel", "still life", "Museum De Cruquius", "Technical University of Delft", "Trams in The Hague", "1968 Summer Olympics", "House of Orange-Nassau", "Leonaert Bramer", "Nicolaes Maes", "Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research", "white matter", "de facto", "Nicolaas Kruik", "Ton Lutz", "Act of Abjuration", "1972 Winter Olympics", "Peter Schrijver", "Ria Stalman", "Abraham van der Weijden", "Order of Poor Ladies", "Wageningen University", "Ard van Peppen", "Burgemeester", "Frederik H. Kreuger", "Aegidius van Braam", "Klaas de Vries (Labour Party)", "Alexander Pechtold", "William the Silent", "Capital city", "Carel Fabritius", "National Gallery, London", "Kader Abdolah", "Timothy Brook", "House of Orange", "Pieter de Hooch", "Jaffna", "Postal codes in the Netherlands", "Leonard Bramer", "Jan-Willem van Ewijk", "Guild of Saint Luke", "Evert van Aelst", "DSM (company)", "Agnetapark", "Provinces of the Netherlands", "arboretum", "Estelí", "China", "Inholland University of Applied Sciences", "RandstadRail", "Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies", "Jan Steen", "Rijswijk", "City rights in the Netherlands", "Dordrecht", "IKEA", "Water board (Netherlands)", "Martin van den Hove", "Stien Kaiser", "Seat of local government", "Tijmen van der Helm", "2000 Summer Olympics", "Philippe-Charles Schmerling", "Boyan Slat", "contagium vivum fluidum", "Arnhem", "Eastern Gate (Delft)", "Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda", "Martin van Marum", "Central European Time", "virus", "Mariska Hulscher", "Jan Timman", "Bicycle-friendly", "Gallery Terra Delft", "burial vault (tomb)", "Breda (Netherlands)", "Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange", "1996 Summer Olympics", "Christian van Adrichem", "Adapazarı", "County of Holland", "Guillaume Daniel Delprat", "Aarau", "tobacco mosaic disease", "convent", "Pieter Post", "Frank Leistra", "Midden-Delfland", "Henri van Schaik", "Delft railway station", "Philippus Baldaeus", "Henk Zeevalking", "Nieuwe Maas", "Order of the British Empire", "Cor Dam", "Rob Das", "1908 Summer Olympics", "2012 Summer Olympics", "Suzanne Manet", "Tuzla", "List of films set in Delft", "Dutch Golden Age painting", "Gerard Houckgeest", "List of cities in the Netherlands by province", "The Hague University of Applied Sciences", "Jan Thomée", "Daniel Vosmaer", "Kingston upon Thames", "Gelderland", "Arantxa Rus", "Harmen Steenwijck", "Museum Het Prinsenhof", "Superbus (transport)", "Freiberg", "Ionica Smeets", "Wessel van Diepen", "Pieter Lutz", "Ken Monkou", "vice-admiral", "Rotterdam", "1936 Summer Olympics", "Victoria Pelova", "Municipal council (Netherlands)", "Axel Rüger", "VanVelzen", "Central European Summer Time", "Walter Liedtke", "Eighty Years' War", "Adriaen Cornelisz van Linschoten", "Botanical Garden", "Schiedam", "Pretoria", "Royal Dutch Touring Club", "Delft University of Technology", "David Beck", "Delftware", "Tanthof", "Rotterdam–The Hague metropolitan area", "Ary de Milde", "Rembrandt", "Het Fortuyn, Delft", "Willem van der Vliet", "Adriaen van de Venne", "1988 Summer Olympics", "water management", "Oude Kerk, Delft", "Willem van Aelst", "Tinus Osendarp", "Gemeenlandshuis", "South Holland", "Anthony van Leeuwenhoek", "porcelain", "Gerrit Paape", "Dutch Golden Age", "international law", "Delfshaven", "Reinier de Graaf" ]
8,309
Duesberg hypothesis
The Duesberg hypothesis is the claim that AIDS is not caused by HIV, but instead that AIDS is caused by noninfectious factors such as recreational and pharmaceutical drug use and that HIV is merely a harmless passenger virus. The most prominent supporters of the hypothesis are Duesberg himself, biochemist and vitamin proponent David Rasnick, and journalist Celia Farber. The scientific community generally contends that Duesberg's arguments in favor of the hypothesis are the result of cherry-picking predominantly outdated scientific data and selectively ignoring evidence that demonstrates HIV's role in causing AIDS. ==Role of legal and illegal drug use== Duesberg argues that there is a statistical correlation between trends in recreational drug use and trends in AIDS cases. He argues that the epidemic of AIDS cases in the 1980s corresponds to a supposed epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe during the same time frame. These claims are not supported by epidemiologic data. The average yearly increase in opioid-related deaths from 1990 to 2002 was nearly three times the yearly increase from 1979 to 1990, with the greatest increase in 2000–2002, yet AIDS cases and deaths fell dramatically during the mid-to-late-1990s. Duesberg's claim that recreational drug use, rather than HIV, was the cause of AIDS has been specifically examined and found to be false. Cohort studies have found that only HIV-positive drug users develop opportunistic infections; HIV-negative drug users do not develop such infections, indicating that HIV rather than drug use is the cause of AIDS. Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) in gay men. However, this argument has been described as an example of the fallacy of a statistical confounding effect; it is now known that a herpesvirus, potentiated by HIV, is responsible for AIDS-associated KS. Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine (AZT) can cause AIDS. Duesberg's claim that antiviral medication causes AIDS is regarded as disproven within the scientific community. Placebo-controlled studies have found that AZT as a single agent produces modest and short-lived improvements in survival and delays the development of opportunistic infections; it certainly did not cause AIDS, which develops in both treated and untreated study patients. With the subsequent development of protease inhibitors and highly active antiretroviral therapy, numerous studies have documented the fact that anti-HIV drugs prevent the development of AIDS and substantially prolong survival, further disproving the claim that these drugs "cause" AIDS. Similarly, the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)—which between them observed more than 8,000 Americans—demonstrated that "the presence of HIV infection is the only factor that is strongly and consistently associated with the conditions that define AIDS." A 2008 study found that recreational drug use (including cannabis, cocaine, poppers, and amphetamines) had no effect on CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, providing further evidence against a role of recreational drugs as a cause of AIDS. ==Current AIDS definitions== Duesberg argued in 1989 that a significant number of AIDS victims had died without proof of HIV infection. However, with the use of modern culture techniques and polymerase chain reaction testing, HIV can be demonstrated in virtually all patients with AIDS. ==AIDS in Africa== According to the Duesberg hypothesis, AIDS is not found in Africa. What Duesberg calls "the myth of an African AIDS epidemic," among people" exists for several reasons, including: The need, according to Duesberg, of the CDC, the WHO, and other health organizations to justify their existences, resulting in their "manufacturing contagious plagues out of noninfectious medical conditions." Media sensationalism, with stories that "helped shape the Western impression of an AIDS problem out of control," resulting in high levels of funding. Confusion or incompetence on the part of African doctors: "Many common Third World diseases are confused with AIDS even if they are not part of its official definition." Duesberg states that African AIDS cases are "a collection of long-established, indigenous diseases, such as chronic fevers, weight loss, alias "slim disease," diarrhea, and tuberculosis" that result from malnutrition and poor sanitation. African AIDS cases, though, have increased in the last three decades as HIV's prevalence has increased but as malnutrition percentages and poor sanitation have declined in many African regions. In addition, while HIV and AIDS are more prevalent in urban than in rural settings in Africa, malnutrition and poor sanitation are found more commonly in rural than in urban settings. According to Duesberg, common diseases are easily misdiagnosed as AIDS in Africa because "the diagnosis of African AIDS is arbitrary" and does not include HIV testing. One of the reasons for using more HIV tests despite their expense is that, rather than overestimating AIDS as Duesberg suggests, the Bangui definition alone excluded nearly half of African AIDS patients." Duesberg notes that diseases associated with AIDS differ between African and Western populations, concluding that the causes of immunodeficiency must be different. Tuberculosis is much more commonly diagnosed among AIDS patients in Africa than in Western countries, while PCP conforms to the opposite pattern. Tuberculosis, though, had higher prevalence in Africa than in the West before the spread of HIV. In Africa and the United States, HIV has spurred a similar percentage increase in tuberculosis cases. PCP may be underestimated in Africa: since machinery "required for accurate testing is relatively rare in many resource-poor areas, including large parts of Africa, PCP is likely to be underdiagnosed in Africa. Consistent with this hypothesis, studies that report the highest rates of PCP in Africa are those that use the most advanced diagnostic methods" Duesberg also claims that Kaposi's sarcoma is "exclusively diagnosed in male homosexual risk groups using nitrite inhalants and other psychoactive drugs as aphrodisiacs", and is found in heterosexuals in the United States as well. Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Duesberg writes on his website that "There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals." However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed. In addition, AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults. South African president Thabo Mbeki accepted Duesberg's hypothesis and, through the mid-2000s, rejected offers of medical assistance to fight HIV infection, a policy of inaction that cost over 300,000 lives. ==Duesberg claims that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive== Duesberg argues that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive: they do not kill cells and they do not cause cancer, he maintains. Duesberg writes, "retroviruses do not kill cells because they depend on viable cells for the replication of their RNA from viral DNA integrated into cellular DNA." Duesberg also rejects the involvement of retroviruses and other viruses in cancer. To him, virus-associated cancers are "freak accidents of nature" that do not warrant research programs such as the war on cancer. Duesberg rejects a role in cancer for numerous viruses, including leukemia viruses, Epstein–Barr virus, human papilloma virus, hepatitis B, feline leukemia virus, and human T-lymphotropic virus. Duesberg claims that the supposedly innocuous nature of all retroviruses is supported by what he considers to be their normal mode of proliferation: infection from mother to child in utero. Duesberg does not suggest that HIV is an endogenous retrovirus, a virus integrated into the germline and genetically heritable: {{Blockquote|...[a mother] provides her child with a nine-month continuous exposure to her blood and therefore has at least a 50 percent chance of passing HIV to the baby. HIV fulfills Koch's postulates, which are one set of criteria for demonstrating a causal relationship between a microbe and a disease. (Subsequently, additional data further demonstrated the fulfillment of Koch's postulates.) the AIDS epidemic in Thailand cited by Duesberg as confirmation of his hypothesis is in fact evidence of the role of HIV in AIDS. According to researchers who conducted large-scale studies of AZT, the drug does not cause AIDS. Furthermore, researchers acknowledged that recreational drugs do cause immune abnormalities, though not the type of immunodeficiency seen in AIDS. ===Effectiveness of antiretroviral medication=== The vast majority of people with AIDS have never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of AZT (zidovudine) in 1987, and people in developing countries today where very few individuals have access to these medications. The NIAID reports that ===Opponents claim that nearly all HIV-positive people will develop AIDS=== Duesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV-positive people have not yet developed AIDS; HIV/AIDS scientists note that many drug-free HIV-positive people have developed AIDS, and that, in the absence of medical treatment or rare genetic factors postulated to delay disease progression, it is very likely that nearly all HIV-positive people will eventually develop AIDS. Scientists also note that HIV-negative drug users do not suffer from immune system collapse.
[ "cherry picking (fallacy)", "AIDS epidemic", "confounding", "AIDS", "polymerase chain reaction", "prospective study", "HIV/AIDS in Africa", "Pneumocystis pneumonia", "Women's Interagency HIV Study", "hepatitis B", "cannabis (drug)", "HIV", "CD4", "Science (journal)", "National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases", "Homosexuality", "human T-lymphotropic virus", "biochemist", "seropositive", "cancer", "Bangui", "Nature (journal)", "Celia Farber", "human papilloma virus", "endogenous retrovirus", "opportunistic infection", "retroviruses", "Peter Duesberg", "Koch's postulates", "David Rasnick", "HIV/AIDS denialism", "Kaposi sarcoma", "scientific community", "highly active antiretroviral therapy", "nitrite inhalant", "National Institutes of Health", "feline leukemia virus", "war on cancer", "epidemiology", "malnutrition", "viral load", "mortality rate", "World Health Organization", "fallacy", "Inventing the AIDS Virus", "Tuberculosis", "opioid", "amphetamines", "recreational drug", "Thabo Mbeki", "Centers for Disease Control", "correlation", "Kaposi's sarcoma", "scientific consensus", "Epstein–Barr virus", "Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study", "Protease inhibitor (pharmacology)", "cocaine", "sexual promiscuity", "University of California, Berkeley", "poppers", "AIDS epidemic in Thailand", "zidovudine", "CD8", "sensationalism", "hemophiliac", "Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus", "leukemia", "germline" ]
8,310
DSL (disambiguation)
DSL or digital subscriber line is a family of technologies that provide digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network. DSL may also refer to: Damn Small Linux, a very small Linux distribution Danish Sign Language Data Security Law of the People's Republic of China Definitive software library Design Science License, a copyleft license for intellectual property Diagnostic Systems Laboratories, a company now part of Beckman-Coulter Dictionary of the Scots Language Doctor of Strategic Leadership Discovering Sky at the Longest wavelength, a lunar orbit array mission for low frequency radio astronomy, see Hongmeng Project Domain-specific language, a specialized computer language Digital subscriber line, a device used to connect a computer or router to a telephone line Dominican Summer League of baseball DSL, a musical artist signed to Ed Banger Records Deutsche Schule Lagos, or the German School Lagos "Don't Say Love", a 2023 song by Leigh-Anne Digital Site License
[ "Data Security Law of the People's Republic of China", "Definitive software library", "Design Science License", "German School Lagos", "Digital subscriber line", "Leigh-Anne Pinnock", "Don't Say Love", "Diagnostic Systems Laboratories", "Hongmeng Project", "Domain-specific language", "DSL", "Danish Sign Language", "Dominican Summer League", "Damn Small Linux", "Dictionary of the Scots Language", "Ed Banger Records" ]
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Dinosaur
Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago (mya), although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is a subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201.3 mya and their dominance continued throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The fossil record shows that birds are feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic epoch, and are the only dinosaur lineage known to have survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 mya. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs—birds—and the extinct non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds. Dinosaurs are varied from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over 11,000 living species, are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates. Using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 900 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species (birds) and fossil remains. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized as dinosaurs, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold-blooded. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous. Evidence suggests that all dinosaurs were egg-laying, and that nest-building was a trait shared by many dinosaurs, both avian and non-avian. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines. While the dinosaurs' modern-day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs (non-avian and avian) were large-bodied—the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of and heights of and were the largest land animals of all time. The misconception that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is based in part on preservation bias, as large, sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized. Many dinosaurs were quite small, some measuring about in length. The first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, with the name "dinosaur" (meaning "terrible lizard") being coined by Sir Richard Owen in 1842 to refer to these "great fossil lizards". Since then, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums worldwide, and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of popular culture. The large sizes of some dinosaurs, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured their regular appearance in best-selling books and films, such as the Jurassic Park franchise. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media. ==Definition== Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of Triceratops and modern birds (Neornithes), and all its descendants. Birds belong to the dinosaur subgroup Maniraptora, which are coelurosaurs, which are theropods, which are saurischians. ===General description=== Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as archosaurs with hind limbs held erect beneath the body. compared to the number of modern-day birds (avian dinosaurs) at 10,806 species. Extinct dinosaurs, as well as modern birds, include genera that are herbivorous and others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some evolved into quadrupeds, and others, such as Anchisaurus and Iguanodon, could walk as easily on two or four legs. Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor. Although the best-known genera are remarkable for their large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size. Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by the Early Jurassic epoch at latest. Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as Microraptor) could fly or at least glide, and others, such as spinosaurids, had semiaquatic habits. ===Early dinosaur research=== Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England. Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a Megalosaurus, He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species. He therefore concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a Titan or another type of giant featured in legends. Edward Lhuyd, a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, published Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur. In it he described and named a sauropod tooth, "Rutellum impicatum", The term is derived . ===Discoveries in North America=== In 1858, William Parker Foulke discovered the first known American dinosaur, in marl pits in the small town of Haddonfield, New Jersey. (Although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned.) The creature was named Hadrosaurus foulkii. It was an extremely important find: Hadrosaurus was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found (the first was in 1834, in Maidstone, England), and it was clearly a bipedal creature. This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of interests in dinosaurs in the United States, known as dinosaur mania. Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the Bone Wars. This fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods: for example, their diggers often used dynamite to unearth bones. Modern paleontologists would find such methods crude and unacceptable, since blasting easily destroys fossil and stratigraphic evidence. Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast: Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, while Marsh's is at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University. At the end of the 1960s, however, the field of dinosaur research experienced a surge in activity that remains ongoing. Several seminal studies led to this activity. First, John Ostrom discovered the bird-like dromaeosaurid theropod Deinonychus and described it in 1969. Its anatomy indicated that it was an active predator that was likely warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs. New revelations were supported by an increase in dinosaur discoveries. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexplored regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China. Across theropods, sauropodomorphs, and ornithischians, the number of named genera began to increase exponentially in the 1990s. These new localities also led to improvements in overall specimen quality, with new species being increasingly named not on scrappy fossils but on more complete skeletons, sometimes from multiple individuals. Better specimens also led to new species being invalidated less frequently. Asian localities have produced the most complete theropod specimens, while North American localities have produced the most complete sauropodomorph specimens. Reference books summarizing the state of dinosaur research, such as David B. Weishampel and colleagues' The Dinosauria, made knowledge more accessible and spurred further interest in dinosaur research. The release of the first and second editions of The Dinosauria in 1990 and 2004, and of a review paper by Paul Sereno in 1998, were accompanied by increases in the number of published phylogenetic trees for dinosaurs. ===Soft tissue and molecular preservation=== Dinosaur fossils are not limited to bones, but also include imprints or mineralized remains of skin coverings, organs, and other tissues. Of these, skin coverings based on keratin proteins are most easily preserved because of their cross-linked, hydrophobic molecular structure. Fossils of keratin-based skin coverings or bony skin coverings are known from most major groups of dinosaurs. Dinosaur fossils with scaly skin impressions have been found since the 19th century. Samuel Beckles discovered a sauropod forelimb with preserved skin in 1852 that was incorrectly attributed to a crocodile; it was correctly attributed by Marsh in 1888 and subject to further study by Reginald Hooley in 1917. Owen and Hooley subsequently described skin impressions of Hypsilophodon and Iguanodon in 1885 and 1917. Since then, scale impressions have been most frequently found among hadrosaurids, where the impressions are known from nearly the entire body across multiple specimens. Starting from the 1990s, major discoveries of exceptionally preserved fossils in deposits known as conservation Lagerstätten contributed to research on dinosaur soft tissues. Chiefly among these were the rocks that produced the Jehol (Early Cretaceous) and Yanliao (Mid-to-Late Jurassic) biotas of northeastern China, from which hundreds of dinosaur specimens bearing impressions of feather-like structures (both closely related to birds and otherwise, see ) have been described by Xing Xu and colleagues. In living reptiles and mammals, pigment-storing cellular structures known as melanosomes are partially responsible for producing colouration. Both chemical traces of melanin and characteristically shaped melanosomes have been reported from feathers and scales of Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs, including both theropods and ornithischians. This has enabled multiple full-body reconstructions of dinosaur colouration, such as for Sinosauropteryx and Psittacosaurus by Jakob Vinther and colleagues, and similar techniques have also been extended to dinosaur fossils from other localities. (However, some researchers have also suggested that fossilized melanosomes represent bacterial remains.) Stomach contents in some Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs closely related to birds have also provided indirect indications of diet and digestive system anatomy (e.g., crops). More concrete evidence of internal anatomy has been reported in Scipionyx from the Pietraroja Plattenkalk of Italy. It preserves portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe. However, in 2005, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a femur of Tyrannosaurus preserved soft, flexible tissue within, including blood vessels, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers) that had retained their microscopic structure. Later, in 2009, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a Brachylophosaurus femur preserved similar microstructures, and immunohistochemical techniques (based on antibody binding) demonstrated the presence of proteins such as collagen, elastin, and laminin. Both specimens yielded collagen protein sequences that were viable for molecular phylogenetic analyses, which grouped them with birds as would be expected. The extraction of fragmentary DNA has also been reported for both of these fossils, along with a specimen of Hypacrosaurus. In 2015, Sergio Bertazzo and colleagues reported the preservation of collagen fibres and red blood cells in eight Cretaceous dinosaur specimens that did not show any signs of exceptional preservation, indicating that soft tissue may be preserved more commonly than previously thought. Suggestions that these structures represent bacterial biofilms have been rejected, but cross-contamination remains a possibility that is difficult to detect. ==Evolutionary history== ===Origins and early evolution=== Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the Middle to Late Triassic epochs, roughly 20 million years after the devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species approximately 252 million years ago. The Ischigualasto Formation (radiometrically dated at 231–230 million years old) has produced the early saurischian Eoraptor, originally considered a member of the Herrerasauridae but now considered to be an early sauropodomorph, along with the herrerasaurids Herrerasaurus and Sanjuansaurus, and the sauropodomorphs Chromogisaurus, Eodromaeus, and Panphagia. Eoraptor likely resemblance to the common ancestor of all dinosaurs suggests that the first dinosaurs would have been small, bipedal predators.) has produced the herrerasaurids Gnathovorax and Staurikosaurus, along with the sauropodomorphs Bagualosaurus, Buriolestes, Guaibasaurus, Macrocollum, Nhandumirim, Pampadromaeus, Saturnalia, and Unaysaurus. The Carnian-aged Chañares Formation of Argentina preserves primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as Lagosuchus and Lagerpeton in Argentina, making it another important site for understanding dinosaur evolution. These ornithodirans support the model of early dinosaurs as small, bipedal predators. Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as the Anisian epoch of the Triassic, approximately 243 million years ago, which is the age of Nyasasaurus from the Manda Formation of Tanzania. However, its known fossils are too fragmentary to identify it as a dinosaur or only a close relative. The referral of the Manda Formation to the Anisian is also uncertain. Regardless, dinosaurs existed alongside non-dinosaurian ornithodirans for a period of time, with estimates ranging from 5–10 million years to 21 million years. Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of basal archosauromorphs, including the protorosaurs, became extinct. This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 201 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, phytosaurs, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early –mid Norian and late Norian or earliest Rhaetian stages, respectively, and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain. These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and turtles. ===Evolution and paleobiogeography=== Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic followed changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores. Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals, and ratites are still fairly successful as midsized herbivores; eogruiids similarly lasted from the Eocene to Pliocene, becoming extinct only very recently after over 20 million years of co-existence with many mammal groups. ==Classification== Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side. By contrast, ornithischians—"bird-hipped", from the Greek ornitheios (ὀρνίθειος) meaning "of a bird" and ischion (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores. Despite the terms "bird hip" (Ornithischia) and "lizard hip" (Saurischia), birds are not part of Ornithischia. Birds instead belong to Saurischia, the "lizard-hipped" dinosaurs—birds evolved from earlier dinosaurs with "lizard hips". Further details and other hypotheses of classification may be found on individual articles. Dinosauria †Ornithischia ("bird-hipped"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores) †Saphornithischia ("true" ornithischians) †Heterodontosauridae (small herbivores/omnivores with prominent canine-like teeth) †Genasauria ("cheeked lizards") †Thyreophora (armored dinosaurs; bipeds and quadrupeds) †Eurypoda (heavy, quadrupedal thyreophorans) †Stegosauria (spikes and plates as primary armor) †Huayangosauridae (small stegosaurs with flank osteoderms and tail clubs) †Stegosauridae (large stegosaurs) †Ankylosauria (scutes as primary armor) †Parankylosauria (small, southern ankylosaurs with macuahuitl-like tails) †Nodosauridae (mostly spiky, club-less ankylosaurs) †Ankylosauridae (characterized by flat scutes) †Ankylosaurinae (club-tailed ankylosaurids) †Neornithischia ("new ornithischians") †Pyrodontia ("fire teeth") †Thescelosauridae ("wondrous lizards") †Orodrominae (burrowers) †Thescelosaurinae (large thescelosaurids) †Cerapoda ("horned feet") †Marginocephalia (characterized by a cranial growth) †Pachycephalosauria (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls) †Ceratopsia (bipeds and quadrupeds; many had neck frills and horns) †Chaoyangsauridae (small, frill-less basal ceratopsians) †Neoceratopsia ("new ceratopsians") †Leptoceratopsidae (little to no frills, hornless, with robust jaws) †Protoceratopsidae (basal ceratopsians with small frills and stubby horns) †Ceratopsoidea (large-horned ceratopsians) †Ceratopsidae (large, elaborately ornamented ceratopsians) †Chasmosaurinae (ceratopsids with enlarged brow horns) †Centrosaurinae (ceratopsids mostly characterized by frill and nasal ornamentation) †Nasutoceratopsini (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal cavities) †Centrosaurini (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal horns) †Pachyrhinosaurini (mostly had nasal bosses instead of horns) †Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth) †Hypsilophodontidae (small European neornithischians) †Iguanodontia ("iguana teeth"; advanced ornithopods) †Rhabdodontomorpha (with distinctive dentition) †Tenontosauridae (North American rhabdodontomorphs; bipeds and quadrupeds) †Rhabdodontidae (European rhabdodontomorphs) †Euiguanodontia ("true iguanodonts") †Elasmaria (mostly southern ornithopods with mineralized plates along the ribs; may be thescelosaurids) †Dryomorpha (Dryosaurus and more advanced ornithopods) †Dryosauridae (mid-sized, small headed) †Ankylopollexia (early members mid-sized, stocky) †Styracosterna ("spiked sterna") †Hadrosauriformes (ancestrally had a thumb spike; large quadrupedal herbivores, with teeth merged into dental batteries) †Hadrosauromorpha (hadrosaurids and their closest relatives) †Hadrosauridae ("duck-billed dinosaurs"; often with crests) †Saurolophinae (hadrosaurids with solid, small, no crests) †Brachylophosaurini (short-crested) †Kritosaurini (enlarged, solid nasal crests) †Saurolophini (small, spike-like crests) †Edmontosaurini (flat-headed saurolophines) †Lambeosaurinae (hadrosaurids often with hollow crests) †Aralosaurini (solid-crested) †Tsintaosaurini (vertical, tube-like crests) †Parasaurolophini (long, backwards-arcing crests) †Lambeosaurini (usually rounded crests) Saurischia †Herrerasauridae (early bipedal carnivores) †Sauropodomorpha (herbivores with small heads, long necks, and long tails) †Unaysauridae (primitive, strictly bipedal "prosauropods") †Plateosauria (diverse; bipeds and quadrupeds) †Massopoda ("heavy feet") †Massospondylidae (long-necked, primitive sauropodomorphs) †Riojasauridae (large, primitive sauropodomorphs) †Sauropodiformes (heavy, bipeds and quadrupeds) †Sauropoda (very large and heavy; quadrupedal) †Lessemsauridae (gigantic yet lacking several weight-saving adaptations) †Gravisauria ("heavy lizards") †Eusauropoda ("true sauropods") †Turiasauria (often large, widespread sauropods) †Neosauropoda ("new sauropods"; columnar limbs) †Diplodocoidea (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like) †Rebbachisauridae (short-necked, low-browsing diplodocoids often with high backs) †Flagellicaudata (whip-tailed) †Dicraeosauridae (small, short-necked diplodocoids with enlarged cervical and dorsal vertebrae) †Diplodocidae (extremely long-necked) †Apatosaurinae (robust cervical vertebrae) †Diplodocinae (long, thin necks) †Macronaria (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth) †Titanosauriformes ("titan lizard forms") †Brachiosauridae (long-necked, long-armed macronarians) †Somphospondyli ("porous vertebrae") †Euhelopodidae (stocky, mostly Asian) †Diamantinasauria (horse-like skulls; restricted to the Southern Hemisphere; may be titanosaurs) †Titanosauria (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the Late Cretaceous of southern continents) Theropoda (carnivorous) Neotheropoda ("new theropods") †Coelophysoidea (early theropods; includes Coelophysis and close relatives) †"Dilophosaur-grade neotheropods" (larger kink-snouted dinosaurs) Averostra ("bird snouts") †Ceratosauria (generally elaborately horned carnivores that existed from the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods, originally included Coelophysoidea) †Ceratosauridae (ceratosaurs with large teeth) †Abelisauroidea (ceratosaurs exemplified by reduced arms and hands) †Abelisauridae (large abelisauroids with short arms and oftentimes elaborate facial ornamentation) †Noasauridae (diverse, generally light theropods; may include several obscure taxa) †Elaphrosaurinae (bird-like; omnivorous as juveniles but herbivorous as adults) †Noasaurinae (small carnivores) Tetanurae (stiff-tailed dinosaurs) †Megalosauroidea (early group of large carnivores) †Piatnitzkysauridae (small basal megalosauroids endemic to the Americas) †Megalosauridae (large megalosauroids with powerful arms and hands) †Spinosauridae (crocodile-like, semiaquatic carnivores) Avetheropoda ("bird theropods") †Carnosauria (large meat-eating dinosaurs; megalosauroids sometimes included) †Metriacanthosauridae (primitive Asian allosauroids) †Allosauridae (Allosaurus and its very closest relatives) †Carcharodontosauridae (robust allosauroids; includes some of the largest purely terrestrial carnivores) Coelurosauria (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches) †Megaraptora? (theropods with large hand claws; potentially tyrannosauroids or neovenatorids) †"Nexus of basal coelurosaurs" (used by Tweet to denote well-known taxa with unstable positions at the base of Coelurosauria) Tyrannoraptora ("tyrant thieves") †Tyrannosauroidea (mostly large, primitive coelurosaurs) †Proceratosauridae (tyrannosauroids with head crests) †Tyrannosauridae (Tyrannosaurus and close relatives) Maniraptoriformes (bird-like dinosaurs) †Ornithomimosauria (small-headed, mostly toothless, omnivorous or possible herbivores) †Ornithomimidae (very ostrich-like dinosaurs) Maniraptora (dinosaurs with pennaceous feathers) †Alvarezsauroidea (small hunters with reduced forelimbs) †Alvarezsauridae (insectivores with only one enlarged digit) †Therizinosauria (tall, long-necked theropods; omnivores and herbivores) †Therizinosauroidea (larger therizinosaurs) †Therizinosauridae (sloth-like herbivores, often with enlarged claws) †Oviraptorosauria (omnivorous, beaked dinosaurs) †Caudipteridae (bird-like, basal oviraptorosaurs) †Caenagnathoidea (cassowary-like oviraptorosaurs) †Caenagnathidae (toothless oviraptorosaurs known from North America and Asia) †Oviraptoridae (characterized by two bony projections at the back of the mouth; exclusive to Asia) Paraves (avialans and their closest relatives) †Scansoriopterygidae (small tree-climbing theropods with membranous wings) †Deinonychosauria (toe-clawed dinosaurs; may not form a natural group) †Archaeopterygidae (small, winged theropods or primitive birds) †Troodontidae (omnivores; enlarged brain cavities) †Dromaeosauridae ("raptors") †Microraptoria (characterized by large wings on both the arms and legs; may have been capable of powered flight) †Eudromaeosauria (hunters with greatly enlarged sickle claws) †Unenlagiidae (piscivores; may be dromaeosaurids) †Halszkaraptorinae (duck-like; potentially semiaquatic) †Unenlagiinae (long-snouted) Avialae (modern birds and extinct relatives) ===Timeline of major groups=== Timeline of major dinosaur groups per . ImageSize = width:1000px height:auto barincrement:15px PlotArea = left:10px bottom:50px top:10px right:10px Period = from:-251 till:0 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:-250 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:-251 TimeAxis = orientation:hor AlignBars = justify Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:1 Colors = legends id:CAR value:claret id:ANK value:rgb(0.4,0.3,0.196) id:HER value:teal id:HAD value:green id:OMN value:blue id:black value:black id:white value:white id:mesozoic value:rgb(0.54,0.54,0.258) id:triassic value:rgb(0.51,0.17,0.57) id:earlytriassic value:rgb(0.6,0.22,0.61) id:middletriassic value:rgb(0.73,0.53,0.71) id:latetriassic value:rgb(0.78,0.65,0.8) id:jurassic value:rgb(0.2,0.7,0.79) id:earlyjurassic value:rgb(0,0.69,0.89) id:middlejurassic value:rgb(0.52,0.81,0.91) id:latejurassic value:rgb(0.74,0.89,0.97) id:cretaceous value:rgb(0.5,0.78,0.31) id:earlycretaceous value:rgb(0.63,0.78,0.65) id:latecretaceous value:rgb(0.74,0.82,0.37) id:cenozoic value:rgb(0.54,0.54,0.258) id:paleogene value:rgb(0.99,0.6,0.32) id:paleocene value:rgb(0.99,0.65,0.37) id:eocene value:rgb(0.99,0.71,0.42) id:oligocene value:rgb(0.99,0.75,0.48) id:neogene value:rgb(0.999999,0.9,0.1) id:miocene value:rgb(0.999999,0.999999,0) id:pliocene value:rgb(0.97,0.98,0.68) id:quaternary value:rgb(0.98,0.98,0.5) id:pleistocene value:rgb(0.999999,0.95,0.68) id:holocene value:rgb(0.999,0.95,0.88) id:her value:red Legend:Herrerasauria id:pur value:purple Legend:Sauropodomorpha id:ther value:orange Legend:Theropoda id:orn value:green Legend:Ornithischia Legend = columns:1 left:100 top:20 columnwidth:100 BarData= bar:eratop bar:space bar:periodtop bar:space bar:NAM1 bar:NAM2 bar:NAM3 bar:NAM4 bar:NAM5 bar:NAM6 bar:NAM7 bar:NAM8 bar:NAM9 bar:NAM10 bar:NAM11 bar:NAM12 bar:NAM13 bar:NAM14 bar:NAM15 bar:NAM16 bar:NAM17 bar:NAM18 bar:NAM19 bar:NAM20 bar:NAM21 bar:NAM22 bar:NAM23 bar:NAM24 bar:NAM25 bar:NAM26 bar:NAM27 bar:NAM28 bar:NAM29 bar:NAM30 bar:space bar:period bar:space bar:era PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(2,-5) bar:periodtop from: -251 till: -245 color:earlytriassic text:Ear. from: -245 till: -228 color:middletriassic text:Middle from: -228 till: -199.6 color:latetriassic text:Late from: -199.6 till: -175.6 color:earlyjurassic text:Early from: -175.6 till: -161.2 color:middlejurassic text:Middle from: -161.2 till: -145.5 color:latejurassic text:Late from: -145.5 till: -99.6 color:earlycretaceous text:Early from: -99.6 till: -65.5 color:latecretaceous text:Late from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text:Paleo. from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text:Eocene from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:Oligo. from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text:Mio. from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text:Pl. from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text:Pl. from: -0.0117 till: 0 color:holocene text:H. bar:eratop from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neogene from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q. PlotData= align:left fontsize:M mark:(line,white) width:5 anchor:till shift:(5,-4) color:her bar:NAM1 from:-233.23 till:-210 text:Herrerasauridae color:pur bar:NAM2 from:-231.4 till:-208 text:Guaibasauridae color:pur bar:NAM3 from:-225 till:-190 text:Plateosauridae color:pur bar:NAM4 from:-228 till:-213 text:Riojasauridae color:pur bar:NAM5 from:-227 till:-176 text:Massospondylidae color:pur bar:NAM6 from:-183 till:-175 text:Vulcanodontidae color:pur bar:NAM7 from:-168 till:-125 text:Turiasauria color:pur bar:NAM8 from:-175 till:-150 text:Cetiosauridae color:pur bar:NAM9 from:-174 till:-93 text:Diplodocoidea color:pur bar:NAM10 from:-157 till:-93 text:Brachiosauridae color:pur bar:NAM11 from:-140 till:-66 text:Titanosauria color:ther bar:NAM12 from:-221 till:-183 text:Coelophysoidea color:ther bar:NAM13 from:-199.3 till:-66 text:Ceratosauria color:ther bar:NAM14 from:-170 till:-85 text:Megalosauroidea color:ther bar:NAM15 from:-175.6 till:-88 text:Carnosauria color:ther bar:NAM16 from:-130 till:-66 text:Megaraptora color:ther bar:NAM17 from:-166 till:-66 text:Tyrannosauroidea color:ther bar:NAM18 from:-151.5 till:-108 text:Compsognathidae color:ther bar:NAM19 from:-140 till:-66 text:Ornithomimosauria color:ther bar:NAM20 from:-160 till:-66 text:Alvarezsauria color:ther bar:NAM21 from:-139 till:-66 text:Therizinosauria color:ther bar:NAM22 from:-130 till:-66 text:Oviraptorosauria color:ther bar:NAM23 from:-167 till:-66 text:Deinonychosauria color:ther bar:NAM24 from:-155 till:0 shift:(-45,5) text:Avialae color:orn bar:NAM25 from:-200 till:-140 text:Heterodontosauridae color:orn bar:NAM26 from:-169 till:-100 text:Stegosauria color:orn bar:NAM27 from:-170.3 till:-66 text:Ankylosauria color:orn bar:NAM28 from:-92 till:-66 text:Pachycephalosauria color:orn bar:NAM29 from:-161 till:-66 text:Ceratopsia color:orn bar:NAM30 from:-164 till:-66 text:Ornithopoda PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(2,-5) bar:period from: -251 till: -245 color:earlytriassic text:Ear. from: -245 till: -228 color:middletriassic text:Middle from: -228 till: -199.6 color:latetriassic text:Late from: -199.6 till: -175.6 color:earlyjurassic text:Early from: -175.6 till: -161.2 color:middlejurassic text:Middle from: -161.2 till: -145.5 color:latejurassic text:Late from: -145.5 till: -99.6 color:earlycretaceous text:Early from: -99.6 till: -65.5 color:latecretaceous text:Late from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text:Paleo. from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text:Eocene from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:Oligo. from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text:Mio. from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text:Pl. from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text:Pl. from: -0.0117 till: 0 color:holocene text:H. bar:era from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neogene from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q. ==Paleobiology== Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, feces, trackways, gastroliths, feathers, impressions of skin, internal organs and other soft tissues. Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior. ===Size=== Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Cretaceous. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments. The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is Giraffatitan brancai (previously classified as a species of Brachiosaurus). Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912. Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin; and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between and  kilograms ( and  lb). The longest complete dinosaur is the long Diplodocus, which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1907. The longest dinosaur known from good fossil material is Patagotitan: the skeleton mount in the American Museum of Natural History in New York is long. The Museo Municipal Carmen Funes in Plaza Huincul, Argentina, has an Argentinosaurus reconstructed skeleton mount that is long. There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed and reached lengths of ; some of the longest were the long Diplodocus hallorum Another contender of this title includes Bruhathkayosaurus, a controversial taxon that was recently confirmed to exist after archived photos were uncovered. Bruhathkayosaurus was a titanosaur and would have most likely weighed more than even Marrapunisaurus. Recent size estimates in 2023 have placed this sauropod reaching lengths of up to long and a colossal weight range of around , if these upper estimates up true, Bruhathkayosaurus would have rivaled the blue whale and Perucetus colossus as one of the largest animals to have ever existed. The largest carnivorous dinosaur was Spinosaurus, reaching a length of and weighing . The largest individuals may have weighed as much as . The smallest dinosaur known is the bee hummingbird, with a length of only and mass of around . The smallest known non-avialan dinosaurs were about the size of pigeons and were those theropods most closely related to birds. While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as Microraptor Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as Troodon, exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid. When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod Tenontosaurus. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs. An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph Massospondylus was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs. Both Tyrannosaurus and Troodon had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults. Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's cloacal vent exterior was described for Psittacosaurus, demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs. ===Physiology=== Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs. An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed mesothermy by some. Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles. After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until Robert T. Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the dinosaur renaissance. From the 1960s forward, Armand de Ricqlès suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present. This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing growth curves and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles. (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of polar dinosaurs, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates. In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow. would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting tidal volume and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels. would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes. Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed gigantothermy. Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from Anchiornis. The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of Stegosaurus was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles. Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups, and theropods, However, researchers do not agree regarding whether these structures share a common origin between lineages (i.e., they are homologous), If the former is the case, filaments may have been common in the ornithodiran lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves. The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy in general; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin, If feather-like structures were indeed widely present among non-avian dinosaurs, the lack of abundant fossil evidence for them may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record. ===Skeleton=== Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, wrist (semi-lunate carpal), arm and pectoral girdle, furcula (wishbone), and breast bone. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link. ===Soft anatomy=== Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O'Connor. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. "What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds", O'Connor said. In 2008, scientists described Aerosteon riocoloradensis, the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. CT scanning of Aerosteon's fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal's body cavity. The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds. Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths. became extinct in a mass extinction event, called the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event, at the end of the Cretaceous period. Above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, which has been dated to 66.038 ± 0.025 million years ago, fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing Cenozoic. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial impact event in the Yucatán Peninsula, along with flood basalt volcanism in India. However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research. Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, ammonites (nautilus-like mollusks), rudists (reef-building bivalves), and various groups of marine plankton. The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction; the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to eating seeds for survival. ===Pre-extinction diversity=== Just before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078. It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction. Rock formations from the Maastrichtian epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding Campanian epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity. However, these comparisons did not account either for varying preservation potential between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation. another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction, but this analysis has been rebutted. Since then, different approaches based on statistics and mathematical models have variously supported either a sudden extinction or a gradual decline. End-Cretaceous trends in diversity may have varied between dinosaur lineages: it has been suggested that sauropods were not in decline, while ornithischians and theropods were in decline. ===Impact event=== The bolide impact hypothesis, first brought to wide attention in 1980 by Walter Alvarez, Luis Alvarez, and colleagues, attributes the K-Pg extinction event to a bolide (extraterrestrial projectile) impact. Alvarez and colleagues proposed that a sudden increase in iridium levels, recorded around the world in rock deposits at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, was direct evidence of the impact. The actual impact site remained elusive until a crater measuring wide was discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula of southeastern Mexico, and was publicized in a 1991 paper by Alan Hildebrand and colleagues. Now, the bulk of the evidence suggests that a bolide wide impacted the Yucatán Peninsula 66 million years ago, forming this crater Within hours, the Chicxulub impact would have created immediate effects such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and a global firestorm that likely killed unsheltered animals and started wildfires. However, it would also have had longer-term consequences for the environment. Within days, sulfate aerosols released from rocks at the impact site would have contributed to acid rain and ocean acidification. (This role was ascribed to sulfate aerosols until experiments demonstrated otherwise.) The cessation of photosynthesis would have led to the collapse of food webs depending on leafy plants, which included all dinosaurs save for grain-eating birds. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide would have been released by this volcanic activity, resulting in climate change through temperature perturbations of roughly but possibly as high as . Like the Chicxulub impact, the eruptions may also have released sulfate aerosols, which would have caused acid rain and global cooling. However, due to large error margins in the dating of the eruptions, the role of the Deccan Traps in the K-Pg extinction remains unclear. even after the crater's discovery, the impact was still thought to only have had a regional, not global, effect on the extinction event. In response, Luis Alvarez rejected volcanic activity as an explanation for the iridium layer and the extinction as a whole. Since then, however, most researchers have adopted a more moderate position, which identifies the Chicxulub impact as the primary progenitor of the extinction while also recognizing that the Deccan Traps may also have played a role. Walter Alvarez himself has acknowledged that the Deccan Traps and other ecological factors may have contributed to the extinctions in addition to the Chicxulub impact. Combined with mathematical modelling of the seismic waves that would have been generated by the impact, this has led to the suggestion that the Chicxulub impact may have triggered these eruptions by increasing the permeability of the mantle plume underlying the Deccan Traps. Whether the Deccan Traps were a major cause of the extinction, on par with the Chicxulub impact, remains uncertain. Proponents consider the climatic impact of the sulfur dioxide released to have been on par with the Chicxulub impact, and also note the role of flood basalt volcanism in other mass extinctions like the Permian-Triassic extinction event. They consider the Chicxulub impact to have worsened the ongoing climate change caused by the eruptions. Meanwhile, detractors point out the sudden nature of the extinction and that other pulses in Deccan Traps activity of comparable magnitude did not appear to have caused extinctions. They also contend that the causes of different mass extinctions should be assessed separately. In 2020, Alfio Chiarenza and colleagues suggested that the Deccan Traps may even have had the opposite effect: they suggested that the long-term warming caused by its carbon dioxide emissions may have dampened the impact winter from the Chicxulub impact. The age estimates have also been considered unreliable. ==Cultural depictions== By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured the popular imagination and become an enduring part of human culture. The entry of the word "dinosaur" into the common vernacular reflects the animals' cultural importance: in English, "dinosaur" is commonly used to describe anything that is impractically large, obsolete, or bound for extinction.
[ "Ornithopoda", "physics", "Guaibasauridae", "Atlas (anatomy)", "Megalosauroidea", "hummingbird", "Triceratops", "American Museum of Natural History", "Carnian pluvial episode", "Sinornithomimus", "Middle Jurassic", "Washington, D.C.", "Edmontosaurus", "Jurassic Park", "Alvarezsauria", "lagerstätten", "taxonomy (biology)", "Brachiosaurus", "seed predation", "Late Jurassic", "Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano", "ZooKeys", "oviduct", "evolutionary biology", "Macronaria", "Neotheropoda", "Bethesda, Maryland", "homology (biology)", "Diamantinasauria", "Stage (stratigraphy)", "Pyrodontia", "Ankylosauridae", "creationism", "Eocene", "Genasauria", "Archaeopteryx", "Cultural depictions of dinosaurs", "Citipati", "Therizinosauria", "nest", "Axis (anatomy)", "Plateosauridae", "mosasaur", "Hylaeosaurus", "Traditional Chinese medicine", "Early Cretaceous", "clavipectoral triangle", "Jefferson, North Carolina", "Academic Press", "chemistry", "Africa", "David B. Norman", "Evolution of mammals", "Scientific American", "taphonomy", "Sternum", "Hadrosauridae", "ceratosauria", "kidney", "Chang Qu", "Bagualosaurus", "Cambridge", "Apatosaurinae", "New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science", "John Ostrom", "Late Triassic", "Pittsburgh", "carbon dioxide", "Velociraptor", "Massopoda", "The American Naturalist", "sacrum", "Thecodontia", "French Academy of Sciences", "Dale Russell", "Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics", "Biology Letters", "Titanosauria", "Phylogenetics", "egg-laying", "Adaptive radiation", "cynodont", "antibody", "Lower Maleri Formation", "Ankylosauria", "Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey", "Paraves", "Bradbury and Evans", "taxon", "Yucatán Peninsula", "Harmondsworth", "National museums of Canada", "neornithischia", "vertebrate", "Megalosaurus", "Protorosauria", "Eodromaeus", "Gastornis", "Somphospondyli", "Lambeosaurinae", "Carrier's constraint", "St. Martin's Press", "dinosaur colouration", "Pachycephalosauria", "Permian-Triassic extinction event", "choristodera", "Diplodocinae", "Euiguanodontia", "tyrannosauridae", "Oviraptoridae", "Bernissart", "Paleocene", "Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County", "uricotelic", "acoustic resonance", "Shantungosaurus", "cheek", "Euornithes", "sulfur dioxide", "extinct", "Dromaeosauridae", "ichthyosaur", "Diplodocus", "Fourth trochanter", "Rhaetian", "Parasaurolophini", "Maniraptoriformes", "Chichester", "wikt:δεινός", "Avialae", "emperor penguin", "carnivorous", "Protoceratopsidae", "National Museum of Natural History and Science, Lisbon", "Johns Hopkins University Press", "Upper Maleri Formation", "pteridophyte", "Nhandumirim", "Juravenator", "Jurassic Park (film)", "Xu Xing (paleontologist)", "Flocking (behavior)", "Dryosauridae", "Abelisauridae", "Therizinosauridae", "sonic boom", "Reptilia", "vernacular", "China", "Avetheropoda", "cladistics", "Broodiness", "Jacques Gauthier", "Natural History Museum, London", "Robert T. Bakker", "Carnian", "paraphyletic", "Jin dynasty (266–420)", "ornithosuchidae", "Era", "aerosol", "Neogene", "Sinornithoides", "San Diego", "London", "Tenontosauridae", "gizzard", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B", "Unenlagiidae", "Pinacosaurus", "The Auk", "pelvis", "Unaysaurus", "Proceratosauridae", "Coelophysoidea", "feces", "Geological Society of America Bulletin", "Tetanurae", "Elasmaria", "Gorgosaurus", "Pampadromaeus", "The Economist", "reptile", "Thescelosaurinae", "Turiasauria", "Dryomorpha", "Habitat (ecology)", "Neontology", "Euhelopus", "The Journal of Experimental Biology", "Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History", "Holocene", "Gobi Desert", "Avon Books", "giant", "Megaraptora", "Robert Scott (philologist)", "Theropoda", "Common descent", "Chipping Norton", "Ornithoscelida", "Psittacosaurus", "lizard", "Australia", "Late Cretaceous", "whip", "omnivore", "Guaibasaurus", "Chicxulub crater", "Bloomington, Indiana", "Heterodontosauridae", "Edmontosaurini", "Middle Triassic", "Aerosteon", "Yale University", "American Journal of Science", "Sauropodiformes", "William Parker Foulke", "American bison", "deposition (geology)", "order of magnitude", "Paul Sereno", "Scotland", "intra-specific combat", "Abrams Books", "Allosauroidea", "iguanodontia", "Malden, Massachusetts", "rauisuchia", "Evans Brothers Ltd", "ecological niche", "clavicle", "bathornithids", "The New York Times", "Neosauropoda", "Public Library of Science", "Nyasasaurus", "Cornwell, Oxfordshire", "Journal of Systematic Palaeontology", "Random House", "Ridge, New York", "Apatosaurus", "Cerapoda", "Julian Messner", "Dinosaur renaissance", "Larry Martin", "reef", "hesperornithine", "Princeton University Press", "Reginald Hooley", "Rhabdodontidae", "Hadrosauriformes", "Crystal Palace Park", "oviraptorosauria", "Journey to the Center of the Earth", "Pietraroja Plattenkalk", "Orodrominae", "Robert McNeill Alexander", "Pachyrhinosaurini", "calcium", "neck frill", "Charles R. Knight", "semiaquatic", "Dromaeosaurus", "John Murray (publishing house)", "Maiasaura", "San Francisco", "air sac", "Alfred A. Knopf", "cross-link", "arboreal", "Panphagia", "Pangaea", "tooth", "Charadrius", "scientific journal", "metabolism", "Saphornithischia", "Ornithopod", "Therizinosaurus", "turtle", "Centrosaurinae", "tibia", "diapsid", "Lagerpeton", "New York City", "Anchiornis", "Lambeosaurini", "Bird migration", "sauropodomorpha", "HarperCollins", "computer simulation", "iguana", "Nasutoceratopsini", "biology", "Diplodocidae", "ornithomimosauria", "pterosaur", "Paleobiology (journal)", "Isaac Newton", "epoch", "melanosome", "State Oceanic Administration", "Richard Owen", "amniote", "Noasaurinae", "paleontology", "Charadriiformes", "motion picture", "ilium (bone)", "skull", "mantle plume", "Early Jurassic", "Caudipteridae", "genera", "Hypacrosaurus", "Allosaurus", "pigeon", "hydrophobe", "Ornithomimosauria", "Canadian Science Publishing", "Lagosuchus", "Rio de Janeiro", "Indiana University Press", "phylogenetic nomenclature", "Eudromaeosauria", "dynamite", "iridium", "Epipophyses", "food web", "Bible", "Ornithomimidae", "Palaeontology (journal)", "Chromogisaurus", "Austroraptor", "morphology (biology)", "osteon", "Anchiornis huxleyi", "predation", "Winsor McCay", "Simon & Schuster", "wikt:σαῦρος", "Sanjuansaurus", "Ancient Greek", "Amsterdam", "Yanliao Biota", "hadrosaurid", "macuahuitl", "Utahraptor", "Therizinosauroidea", "Alvarezsauroidea", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Scansoriopterygidae", "South Polar region of the Cretaceous", "Polish Academy of Sciences", "Journal of Natural History", "archosaur", "Tsintaosaurini", "Avemetatarsalia", "Oligocene", "keratin", "Armour (anatomy)", "pseudosuchians", "Patagotitan", "Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences", "arytenoid cartilage", "William Sarjeant", "Chronicles of Huayang", "Plesiosauria", "Wyoming", "Somerville, Massachusetts", "Compsognathus", "non-fiction", "flowering plant", "Science Bulletin", "Pisanosaurus", "extinction", "Sinosauropteryx", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", "Infratemporal fenestra", "feathered dinosaur", "Jack Horner (paleontologist)", "Ischigualasto Formation", "Early Triassic", "Jurassic", "Skull", "Biochemical Journal", "Ankylosaurinae", "Mode (statistics)", "Rhabdodontomorpha", "class (biology)", "phytosaur", "Common murre", "Piatnitzkysauridae", "canine tooth", "Othniel Charles Marsh", "Current Zoology", "CT scan", "Shoulder girdle", "Mbiresaurus", "Daemonosaurus", "Caenagnathoidea", "aetosaur", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "acetabulum", "Tyrannoraptora", "ocean acidification", "Edmontosaurus annectens", "fossorial", "Historical Biology", "Ottawa", "Noasauridae", "Thecospondylus", "film", "Evolutionary history of life", "collagen", "Earth-Science Reviews", "rudist", "Staurikosaurus", "Megalosauridae", "preservation bias", "ammonia", "List of informally named dinosaurs", "Perseus Project", "Sterling Nesbitt", "Donald F. Glut", "Museo Carmen Funes", "ankylosauridae", "Science (journal)", "Flagellicaudata", "Cenozoic", "Cannibalism (zoology)", "Animal communication", "Luis Walter Alvarez", "Eurypoda", "Physical Review Letters", "Radius (bone)", "Maniraptora", "Pebbly Arkose Formation", "Gnathovorax", "Ectotherm", "bee hummingbird", "Lisbon", "skeletal", "Mark Norell", "ecological", "Crystal Palace dinosaurs", "antorbital fenestra", "Cretaceous", "crocodilia", "Brachylophosaurini", "Microraptor", "Tendaguru Formation", "Geological period", "Plateosaurus", "Taxonomy (biology)", "Taylor & Francis", "Terrestrial locomotion", "megapodes", "Supersaurus", "cathemeral", "Deinocheirus", "Cnemial crest", "mihirung", "Unaysauridae", "rhabdodontidae", "Ceratosauria", "Neoceratopsia", "Norian", "oviraptoridae", "North America", "Robert Plot", "Plaza Huincul", "Tufts University", "Saurolophinae", "crocodylomorpha", "oxygen-18", "Vulcanodontidae", "Archosauromorpha", "Charles Darwin", "uric acid", "Michael Crichton", "Ann Arbor, Michigan", "British association for the advancement of science", "William Buckland", "herd", "Permian–Triassic extinction event", "Gondwana Research", "extinction event", "Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France", "interclavicle", "Dryosaurus", "American Museum Novitates", "Deinonychosauria", "ossification", "Stegosauria", "Dicraeosauridae", "Agnosphytis", "ectotherm", "American alligator", "Maraapunisaurus", "Walter Alvarez", "New Haven, Connecticut", "Protoceratops", "Europe", "therapsid", "Luis Rey", "Triassic", "Edward Lhuyd", "Agilisaurus", "Cambridge Philosophical Society", "Alwalkeria", "spine (zoology)", "vertebra", "Baltimore", "Medford, Massachusetts", "Tenontosaurus", "scute", "Styracosterna", "D. Appleton & Company", "seismic wave", "impact winter", "Silesauridae", "Oxford University Museum of Natural History", "Journal of Experimental Zoology", "nocturnal", "Sofia", "Mexico", "Milton Park", "University of California Press", "Spinosaurus", "Ornithischia", "advertising", "Sauropsida", "Beijing", "Natural history museum", "Journal of Morphology", "Buriolestes", "transitional fossil", "BBC", "Hadrosauromorpha", "List of dinosaur genera", "Neornithischia", "Unenlagiinae", "Pinophyta", "Aralosaurini", "Chicken", "Dinosaur tooth", "dromaeosauridae", "Argentina", "preservation potential", "Titan (mythology)", "Oxfordshire", "climate change", "Carnegie Museum of Natural History", "Nature Communications", "Brachiosauridae", "growth curve (biology)", "Eusauropoda", "Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie", "Abelisauroidea", "Santa Maria Formation", "Evolution of birds", "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology", "Chilesaurus", "United States", "Gravisauria", "National Museum of Brazil", "Teresa Maryańska", "flood basalt", "Tyrannosaurus", "Linnaean taxonomy", "coelophysoidea", "Class (biology)", "immunohistochemistry", "Allosauridae", "Greenhouse gases", "carcharodontosauridae", "American Society of Naturalists", "Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology", "Anchiceratops", "red blood cell", "Thomas R. Holtz Jr.", "Bone (journal)", "Geranoididae", "Camptosaurus", "sulfate", "Coelophysis", "Royal Society", "Springer Science+Business Media", "abelisauridae", "snake", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America", "Geology (journal)", "bipedal", "Rutellum", "Jehol Biota", "Ankylopollexia", "acid rain", "Wannanosaurus", "Soot", "Geological Society of America", "Macrocollum", "Alvarezsauridae", "endotherm", "Pterosaur", "Matt Lamanna", "molecular phylogenetics", "territory (animal)", "nodosauridae", "rebbachisauridae", "Berkeley, California", "Massospondylus", "quadrupedal", "Gerhard Heilmann", "Jaklapallisaurus", "Massospondylidae", "The Dinosaur Heresies", "San Juan Basin", "troodontidae", "Edward Drinker Cope", "synapsid", "Pleistocene", "Organ (anatomy)", "William Morrow and Company", "Witney", "Precociality", "King Kong (1933 film)", "Chasmosaurinae", "Society of Vertebrate Paleontology", "California Academy of Sciences", "Isle of Skye", "evolution", "Chinese dragon", "Rinchen Barsbold", "Anisian", "Vegavis", "Herrerasauria", "Chicago", "Tyrannosauridae", "Miocene", "Gondwana", "Diplodocoidea", "ratite", "Samuel Beckles", "Stegosauridae", "Camarasaurus", "E. P. Dutton", "Queen Victoria", "Geologists' Association", "E. Schweizerbart", "furcula", "Averostra", "Kritosaurini", "Mesozoic", "scapula", "Saturnalia tupiniquim", "Jurassic Park (novel)", "Poikilotherm", "Dimetrodon", "Mary Ann Mantell", "larynx", "nautilus", "Centrosaurini", "Charles Dickens", "Gymnosperm", "most recent common ancestor", "cloaca", "feather", "spinosauridae", "Geological Society of London", "Eoraptor", "Henry Liddell", "Oryctodromeus", "Hugh Torrens", "marl", "Microraptoria", "South America", "crop (anatomy)", "The Condor (journal)", "Kenneth Carpenter", "million years ago", "Manda Formation", "Marginocephalia", "Geology Today", "Chañares Formation", "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory", "Herrerasaurus", "The Dinosauria", "Nigersaurus", "Acta Palaeontologica Polonica", "Regents of the University of Michigan", "springbok", "Dinosaur diet and feeding", "Gideon Mantell", "Inner Mongolia", "urea", "Sichuan", "Pubis (bone)", "Halszkaraptorinae", "Hoboken, New Jersey", "Albert, Prince Consort", "Fossil trackway", "soft tissue", "Earth science", "ammonotelic", "Rhynchocephalia", "Natural History Museum, Berlin", "Troodon", "Thescelosauridae", "Chasmosaurus", "Siena", "Maidstone", "bird", "Iguanodontia", "Titanosauriformes", "Brachylophosaurus", "cloacal vent", "Annual Reviews (publisher)", "caudofemoralis", "photosynthesis", "Fowl", "PLOS ONE", "National Geographic News", "Leptoceratopsidae", "Arthur Conan Doyle", "Bird", "Oviraptorosauria", "impact event", "Aves", "Media (communication)", "fibula", "Spencer G. Lucas", "clade", "Warsaw", "Princeton, New Jersey", "Iguanodon", "femur", "McFarland & Company", "reworked fossil", "brachiosauridae", "Stuttgart", "Tyrannosauroidea", "Quaternary", "Armand de Ricqlès", "mammal", "Microceratus", "Mary Higby Schweitzer", "Journal of Evolutionary Biology", "BBC News", "Morrison Formation", "Calcaneus", "herbivorous", "Boulder, Colorado", "National Museum of Natural History", "Mei long", "Blackwell Publishing", "Paleogene", "Paraceratherium", "Sauropodomorpha", "histology", "Alan Feduccia", "Plateosauria", "Spinosauridae", "Corte Madera, California", "convergent evolution", "Haddonfield, New Jersey", "Bleak House", "Elsevier", "Yale University Press", "Bone Wars", "biofilm", "diplodocid", "Pensoft Publishers", "David B. Weishampel", "European Society for Evolutionary Biology", "Ceratosauridae", "Geological Society of Glasgow", "Megapnosaurus", "Shocked quartz", "Carcharodontosaurus", "Keel (bird anatomy)", "National Academy of Sciences", "bolide", "Elaphrosaurinae", "Belgium", "Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences", "precociality", "Pellet (ornithology)", "Lessemsauridae", "University of California Museum of Paleontology", "Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary", "Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology", "Deccan Traps", "Carnosauria", "house sparrow", "Pliocene", "megapode", "List of films featuring dinosaurs", "Bone marrow", "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event", "Nature (journal)", "Jules Verne", "Argentinosaurus", "ischium", "Thyreophora", "Rebbachisauridae", "phylogenetic tree", "Carcharodontosauridae", "largest organisms", "American Physical Society", "Huayangosauridae", "Coelurosauria", "marginocephalia", "Scientific theory", "ceratopsia", "Lists of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units", "Parankylosauria", "Alvarez hypothesis", "Nature Research", "stegosauria", "Dyrosauridae", "Saurolophini", "cricoid cartilage", "Mollusca", "Society for the Study of Evolution", "H. F. & G. Witherby", "Campanian", "Archaeopterygidae", "Amniote", "mesotherm", "India", "Deinonychus", "Arquivos do Museu Nacional", "Sauroposeidon", "sinkhole", "Majungasaurus", "New Mexico", "Wiley (publisher)", "sclerotic ring", "Alan R. Hildebrand", "Hadrosaurus", "elastin", "Penguin Books", "abelisaur", "bivalvia", "Gubbio", "radiometric dating", "PeerJ", "Euhelopodidae", "Metriacanthosauridae", "Canadian Journal of Zoology", "species", "Hypsilophodontidae", "gigantothermy", "Godzilla (1954 film)", "Evolution (journal)", "literature", "Hypsilophodon", "biota (ecology)", "blood vessel", "Syrinx (bird anatomy)", "Lagerstätte", "Palo Alto, California", "paleontologists", "crocodilian", "Scipionyx", "Saurischia", "Evolutionary radiation", "Cretaceous Research", "tidal volume", "pachycephalosauria", "Mamenchisaurus", "University of Oxford", "enantiornithine", "gazetteer", "Asia", "Victorian era", "blue whale", "Oxford", "anatomical terms of location", "Sauropoda", "Company (law)", "superorder", "biomechanics", "rhynchosaur", "Berlin", "Ceratopsidae", "melanin", "Amphicoelias fragillimus", "Vertebra", "Wiley-Blackwell", "World War II", "Chaoyangsauridae", "fiction", "Cetiosauridae", "University of California", "thermal radiation", "Chindesaurus", "ammonoidea", "sebecosuchia", "pack hunter", "American Ornithological Society", "Synapomorphy and apomorphy", "Giraffatitan", "Triassic–Jurassic extinction event", "ankylosauria", "dicynodont", "Bruhathkayosaurus", "Styracosaurus", "Madagascar", "Oviraptor", "Albuquerque, New Mexico", "Journal of the Geological Society", "The Lost World (Doyle novel)", "List of bird genera", "A Greek–English Lexicon", "bone", "Anchisaurus", "Basal (phylogenetics)", "Thomas Henry Huxley", "titanosauria", "Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.", "Diurnality", "humerus", "Gertie the Dinosaur", "Peabody Museum of Natural History", "The Science of Nature", "Nodosauridae", "carpal", "Kevin Padian", "Caenagnathidae", "List of birds", "Riojasauridae", "gastrolith", "Talus bone", "Stegosaurus", "Ceratopsoidea", "Giganotosaurus", "laminin", "Eogruidae", "Smok (archosaur)", "On the Origin of Species", "Nambalia", "Paleontological Society", "wrist", "Tawa hallae", "Corythosaurus", "Ashmolean Museum", "Journal of Anatomy", "Michael Benton", "Herrerasauridae", "fossil", "Maastrichtian", "Zhenyuanlong", "Troodontidae", "hypsilophodont", "Compsognathidae", "Perucetus colossus", "terror bird", "Federal University of Rio de Janeiro", "Ceratopsia" ]
8,315
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is the property of materials that are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force. In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material. The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of vacuum, μ0. In most materials, diamagnetism is a weak effect which can be detected only by sensitive laboratory instruments, but a superconductor acts as a strong diamagnet because it entirely expels any magnetic field from its interior (the Meissner effect). Diamagnetism was first discovered when Anton Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth was repelled by magnetic fields. In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way) to an applied magnetic field. On a suggestion by William Whewell, Faraday first referred to the phenomenon as diamagnetic (the prefix dia- meaning through or across), then later changed it to diamagnetism. A simple rule of thumb is used in chemistry to determine whether a particle (atom, ion, or molecule) is paramagnetic or diamagnetic: If all electrons in the particle are paired, then the substance made of this particle is diamagnetic; If it has unpaired electrons, then the substance is paramagnetic. == Materials == Diamagnetism is a property of all materials, and always makes a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, other forms of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism) are so much stronger such that, when different forms of magnetism are present in a material, the diamagnetic contribution is usually negligible. Substances where the diamagnetic behaviour is the strongest effect are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as non-magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants (named after ). Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as . This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is . The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, , although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Because χv is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value. In rare cases, the diamagnetic contribution can be stronger than paramagnetic contribution. This is the case for gold, which has a magnetic susceptibility less than 0 (and is thus by definition a diamagnetic material), but when measured carefully with X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, has an extremely weak paramagnetic contribution that is overcome by a stronger diamagnetic contribution. === Superconductors === Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets (), because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect. == Demonstrations == === Curving water surfaces === If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by a reflection in its surface. === Levitation === Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities, such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment) and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment). These are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnets (which induce a negative moment) are attracted to field minima, and there can be a field minimum in free space. A thin slice of pyrolytic graphite, which is an unusually strongly diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from rare earth permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective and relatively convenient demonstration of diamagnetism. The Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, has conducted experiments where water and other substances were successfully levitated. Most spectacularly, a live frog (see figure) was levitated. In September 2009, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California announced it had successfully levitated mice using a superconducting magnet, an important step forward since mice are closer biologically to humans than frogs. JPL said it hopes to perform experiments regarding the effects of microgravity on bone and muscle mass. Recent experiments studying the growth of protein crystals have led to a technique using powerful magnets to allow growth in ways that counteract Earth's gravity. A simple homemade device for demonstration can be constructed out of bismuth plates and a few permanent magnets that levitate a permanent magnet. == Theory == The electrons in a material generally settle in orbitals, with effectively zero resistance and act like current loops. Thus it might be imagined that diamagnetism effects in general would be common, since any applied magnetic field would generate currents in these loops that would oppose the change, in a similar way to superconductors, which are essentially perfect diamagnets. However, since the electrons are rigidly held in orbitals by the charge of the protons and are further constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle, many materials exhibit diamagnetism, but typically respond very little to the applied field. The Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem proves that there cannot be any diamagnetism or paramagnetism in a purely classical system. However, the classical theory of Langevin for diamagnetism gives the same prediction as the quantum theory. The classical theory is given below. === Langevin diamagnetism === Paul Langevin's theory of diamagnetism (1905) applies to materials containing atoms with closed shells (see dielectrics). A field with intensity , applied to an electron with charge and mass , gives rise to Larmor precession with frequency . The number of revolutions per unit time is, so the current for an atom with electrons is (in SI units) \chi = \frac{\mu_0 n \mu}{B} = -\frac{\mu_0e^2 Zn }{6 m}\langle r^2\rangle. In atoms, Langevin susceptibility is of the same order of magnitude as Van Vleck paramagnetic susceptibility. === In metals === The Langevin theory is not the full picture for metals because there are also non-localized electrons. The theory that describes diamagnetism in a free electron gas is called Landau diamagnetism, named after Lev Landau, and instead considers the weak counteracting field that forms when the electrons' trajectories are curved due to the Lorentz force. Landau diamagnetism, however, should be contrasted with Pauli paramagnetism, an effect associated with the polarization of delocalized electrons' spins. For the bulk case of a 3D system and low magnetic fields, the (volume) diamagnetic susceptibility can be calculated using Landau quantization, which in SI units is \chi = -\mu_0\frac{e^2}{12\pi^2 m\hbar}\sqrt{2mE_{\rm F}}, where E_{\rm F} is the Fermi energy. This is equivalent to -\mu_0\mu_{\rm B}^2 g(E_{\rm F})/3, exactly -1/3 times Pauli paramagnetic susceptibility, where \mu_{\rm B}=e\hbar/2m is the Bohr magneton and g(E) is the density of states (number of states per energy per volume). This formula takes into account the spin degeneracy of the carriers (spin-1/2 electrons). In doped semiconductors the ratio between Landau and Pauli susceptibilities may change due to the effective mass of the charge carriers differing from the electron mass in vacuum, increasing the diamagnetic contribution. The formula presented here only applies for the bulk; in confined systems like quantum dots, the description is altered due to quantum confinement. Additionally, for strong magnetic fields, the susceptibility of delocalized electrons oscillates as a function of the field strength, a phenomenon known as the De Haas–Van Alphen effect, also first described theoretically by Landau.
[ "Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem", "dielectrics", "Rare-earth magnet", "Water (properties)", "Paramagnetism", "Mercury (element)", "ferromagnetic", "magnetic field", "Permeability (electromagnetism)", "Pauli exclusion principle", "ferromagnetism", "Superdiamagnetism", "doping (semiconductor)", "X-ray magnetic circular dichroism", "Netherlands", "Paul Langevin", "electrons", "Lead", "Bohr magneton", "supermagnet", "quantum dot", "quantum mechanical", "superconducting magnet", "Vacuum permeability", "Magnetic levitation", "New Scientist", "induced magnetic field", "Fermi gas", "magnetic susceptibility", "tesla (unit)", "Advances in Space Research", "Lev Landau", "Neon", "Radboud University Nijmegen", "magnetic moment", "Larmor precession", "pyrolytic carbon", "Copper", "William Whewell", "electron", "Michael Faraday", "Meissner effect", "Landau quantization", "Bitter solenoid", "magnetic dipole", "Properties of water", "Van Vleck paramagnetism", "metals", "density of states", "mercury (element)", "Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "neodymium magnet", "wood", "Moses effect", "Effective mass (solid-state physics)", "superconductivity", "copper", "Potential well", "Bismuth", "Graphite", "SI units", "Pascal's constants", "Magnetochemistry", "Fermi energy", "gold", "Pyrolytic carbon", "Introduction to Solid State Physics", "De Haas–Van Alphen effect", "Anton Brugmans", "Silver", "rule of thumb", "pyrolytic graphite", "Diamond", "paramagnetism", "Earnshaw's theorem", "Antiferromagnetism", "paramagnetic", "core electrons", "superconductor", "Lorentz force", "John Wiley & Sons", "bismuth", "independent and identically distributed" ]
8,317
Duke of Marlborough (title)
Duke of Marlborough (pronounced ) is a title in the Peerage of England. It was created by Queen Anne in 1702 for John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722), the noted military leader. The queen and the nation also gave him what became Blenheim Palace, unique as a national monument and family home. In historical texts, unqualified use of the title typically refers to the 1st Duke. The name of the dukedom refers to Marlborough in Wiltshire. The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from its creation in 1626 until its extinction with the death of the 4th earl in 1679. The title was recreated 10 years later for John Churchill (in 1689). ==History of the dukedom== Churchill had been made Lord Churchill of Eyemouth (1682) in the Peerage of Scotland, and Baron Churchill of Sandridge (1685) and Earl of Marlborough (1689) in the Peerage of England. Shortly after her accession to the throne in 1702, Queen Anne made Churchill the first Duke of Marlborough and granted him the subsidiary title Marquess of Blandford. In 1678, Churchill married Sarah Jennings (1660–1744), a courtier and influential favourite of the queen. They had seven children, of whom four daughters married into some of the most important families in Great Britain; one daughter and one son died in infancy. He was pre-deceased by his son, John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford, in 1703; so, to prevent the extinction of the titles, a special Act of Parliament was passed. When the 1st Duke of Marlborough died in 1722 his title as Lord Churchill of Eyemouth in the Peerage of Scotland became extinct and the Marlborough titles passed, according to the Act, to his eldest daughter Henrietta (1681–1733), the 2nd Duchess of Marlborough. She was married to Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin and had a son who predeceased her. When Henrietta died in 1733, the Marlborough titles passed to her nephew Charles Spencer (1706–1758), the third son of her late sister Anne (1683–1716), who had married the 3rd Earl of Sunderland in 1699. After his older brother's death in 1729, Charles Spencer had already inherited the Spencer family estates and the titles of Earl of Sunderland (1643) and Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (1603), all in the Peerage of England. Upon his maternal aunt Henrietta's death in 1733, Charles Spencer succeeded to the Marlborough family estates and titles and became the 3rd Duke. When he died in 1758, his titles passed to his eldest son George (1739–1817), who was succeeded by his eldest son George, the 5th Duke (1766–1840). In 1815, Francis Spencer (the younger son of the 4th Duke) was created Baron Churchill in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. In 1902, his grandson, the 3rd Baron Churchill, was created Viscount Churchill. In 1817, the 5th Duke obtained permission to assume and bear the surname of Churchill in addition to his surname of Spencer, to perpetuate the name of his illustrious great-great-grandfather. At the same time, he received Royal Licence to quarter the coat of arms of Churchill with his paternal arms of Spencer. The double-barrelled surname of "Spencer-Churchill" has been used by family members since 1817, although some members have preferred to style themselves simply as "Churchill". The 7th Duke was the paternal grandfather of British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, who was born at Blenheim Palace on 30 November 1874. The 11th Duke, John Spencer-Churchill, died in 2014, having assumed the title in 1972. The 12th and present Duke is Charles James Spencer-Churchill. ==Family seat== The family seat is Blenheim Palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire. After his leadership in the victory against the French in the Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704, the 1st Duke was honoured by Queen Anne granting him the royal manor of Woodstock, and building him a house at her expense to be called Blenheim. Construction started in 1705 and the house was completed in 1722, the year of the 1st Duke's death. Blenheim Palace has since remained in the Churchill and Spencer-Churchill family. With the exception of the 10th Duke and his first wife, the dukes and duchesses of Marlborough are buried in Blenheim Palace's chapel. Most other members of the Spencer-Churchill family are interred in St. Martin's parish churchyard at Bladon, a short distance from the palace. ==Other titles of the Dukes== ===Subsidiary titles=== The Duke holds subsidiary titles: Marquess of Blandford (created in 1702 for John Churchill), Earl of Sunderland (created in 1643 for the Spencer family), Earl of Marlborough (created in 1689 for John Churchill), Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (created in 1603 for the Spencer family), and Baron Churchill of Sandridge (created in 1685 for John Churchill), all in the Peerage of England. The title Marquess of Blandford is used as the courtesy title for the Duke's eldest son and heir. The Duke's eldest son's eldest son can use the courtesy title Earl of Sunderland, and the duke's eldest son's eldest son's eldest son (not necessarily the eldest great-grandson) the title Lord Spencer of Wormleighton (not to be confused with Earl Spencer). The title of Earl of Marlborough, created for John Churchill in 1689, had previously been created for James Ley, in 1626, becoming extinct in 1679. ===Foreign titles=== The 1st Duke was honoured with land and titles in the Holy Roman Empire: Emperor Leopold I created him a Prince in 1704, and in 1705, his successor Emperor Joseph I gave him the principality of Mindelheim (once the lordship of the noted soldier Georg von Frundsberg). He was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in 1714 by the Treaty of Utrecht, which returned it to Bavaria. He tried to obtain Nellenburg in Austria in exchange, which at that time was only a county ('Landgrafschaft'), but this failed, partially because Austrian law did not allow for Nellenburg to be converted into a sovereign principality. The 1st Duke's princely title of Mindelheim became extinct either on the return of the land to Bavaria or on his death, as the Empire operated Salic Law, which prevented female succession. ==Coats of arms== ===Original arms of the Churchill family=== The original arms of Sir Winston Churchill (1620–1688), father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, were simple and in use by his own father in 1619. The shield was Sable a lion rampant Argent, debruised by a bendlet Gules. The addition of a canton of Saint George (see below) rendered the distinguishing mark of the bendlet unnecessary. The 1st Duke was also entitled to a coronet indicating his rank. Desdichado means without happiness or without joy, alluding to the first Duke's father, Winston, who was a royalist and faithful supporter of the king during the English Civil War but was not compensated for his losses after the restoration. Charles II knighted Winston Churchill and other Civil War royalists but did not compensate them for their wartime losses, thereby inducing Winston to adopt the motto. It is unusual for the motto of an Englishman of the era to be in Spanish rather than Latin, and it is not known why this is the case. ===Gallery of arms=== File:Churchill Original.svg|Original arms of the Churchill family File:Coat of arms of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough.svg|Arms of Sir Winston Churchill, the father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough File:Coat of arms of the John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (16xx-1722).svg|Arms of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, with quarterings representing his estates in Germany MarlboroughCoatOfArms.jpg|Simple arms of the Spencer Dukes of Marlborough before they changed their name to "Spencer-Churchill" and took the modern arms George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough Color.jpg|Arms of George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough Arms of Spencer-Churchill, Duke of Marlborough.svg|Shield of the Spencer-Churchill Dukes of Marlborough since 1817 File:Coat of Arms of Winston Churchill as a Gentleman.svg|Arms of Winston Churchill (or any Spencer-Churchill) as a gentleman Coat of Arms of Winston Churchill.svg|Arms of Sir Winston Churchill as a Knight of the Garter ===Achievement=== John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722) Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough (1681–1733) Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (1683–1716) Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough (1706–1758) George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817) George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough (1766–1840) George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough (1793–1857) John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (1822–1883) George Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough (1844–1892) Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough (1871–1934) John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough (1897–1972) John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough (1926–2014) James Spencer-Churchill, 12th Duke of Marlborough (born 1955) (1) George Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford () (2) Lord Caspar Spencer-Churchill () (3) Lord Edward Spencer-Churchill () Lord Charles Spencer-Churchill (1940–2016) (4) Rupert Spencer-Churchill () (5) Dominic Spencer-Churchill () (6) Ivor Spencer-Churchill () (7) Alexander Spencer-Churchill () (8) Jake Spencer-Churchill () Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill (1898–1956) male issue and descendants in remainder Lord Randolph Spencer-Churchill (1849–1895) Sir Winston Spencer-Churchill (1874–1965) Randolph Spencer-Churchill (1911–1968) Winston Spencer-Churchill (1940–2010) male issue and descendants in remainder Francis Spencer, 1st Baron Churchill (1779–1845) Barons Churchill Lord Charles Spencer (1740–1820) John Spencer (1767–1831) Frederick Spencer (1796–1831) Charles Spencer (1827–1898) Sir Charles Spencer (1869–1934) John Spencer (1907–1977) male issue and descendants in remainder Charles Spencer (1909–1963) male issue in remainder John Spencer (1708–1746) John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer (1734–1783) Earls Spencer Elizabeth Churchill, Countess of Bridgewater (1687–1714) Anne Villiers, Countess of Jersey (1705–1762) George Villiers, 4th Earl of Jersey (1735–1805) Earls of Jersey ==Family trees==
[ "Victor Spencer, 1st Viscount Churchill", "Captain-General", "Ash, Musbury", "male-preference primogeniture", "John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough", "surname", "John Spencer (British politician)", "Holy Roman Empire", "France", "fleurs-de-lys", "Sandridge", "John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford", "Saint George's Cross", "Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (1683-1716)", "Woodstock, Oxfordshire", "James Spencer-Churchill, 12th Duke of Marlborough", "Knight of the Garter", "Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland", "Bladon", "Mary Montagu, Duchess of Montagu (1689–1751)", "Earl of Marlborough", "Bernard Drake", "wyvern", "Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough", "knight", "John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough", "Princely hat", "Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill", "George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough", "Peerage of Scotland", "Prince of the Holy Roman Empire", "Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor", "motto", "heir apparent", "Winston Churchill (1940–2010)", "George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough", "Earl Spencer (title)", "St Martin's Church, Bladon", "Baron Spencer of Wormleighton", "Burke's Peerage", "Winston Churchill (1620–1688)", "Blenheim Palace", "Randolph Churchill", "Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (1683–1716)", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain", "Earl of Jersey", "coat of arms", "George Villiers, 4th Earl of Jersey", "Winston Churchill", "Blandford", "John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough", "English Civil War", "St George's cross", "British Prime Minister", "Great Britain", "Elizabeth Cavendish, Countess of Bridgewater", "Lord Charles Spencer", "coronet", "Spanish language", "Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough", "Mary Osborne, Duchess of Leeds", "Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough", "Bavaria", "Abeyance", "Harriet Pelham-Holles, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne", "Spencer family", "James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough", "Elizabeth Churchill, Countess of Bridgewater", "Courtesy titles in the United Kingdom", "Eyemouth", "Act of Parliament", "Isabella Montagu, Duchess of Manchester", "Anne Russell, Duchess of Bedford", "Lord Randolph Churchill", "Earl of Sunderland", "Coronet", "Mindelheim", "Baron Churchill (1815 creation)", "Peerage of England", "County of Nellenburg", "Wiltshire", "augmentation of honour", "Mary Montagu, Countess of Cardigan", "inescutcheon", "Winston Churchill (Cavalier)", "Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin", "George Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough", "Baron Churchill of Whichwood", "Wormleighton Manor", "Hereditary peer", "smallpox", "Marlborough, Wiltshire", "principality of Mindelheim", "Latin", "Wyvern", "gentleman", "James Ley, 3rd Earl of Marlborough", "Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor", "John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough", "Diana Russell, Duchess of Bedford", "William Godolphin, Marquess of Blandford", "George Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford", "Semi-Salic", "Francis Spencer, 1st Baron Churchill", "Earl Spencer (peerage)", "George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough", "Griffin", "Battle of Blenheim", "double-barrelled name", "Georg von Frundsberg", "Reichsadler", "Treaty of Utrecht", "Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough", "John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer", "John Churchill", "double-headed eagle" ]
8,322
December 17
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 497 BC – The first Saturnalia festival was celebrated in ancient Rome. 546 – Siege of Rome: The Ostrogoths under king Totila plunder the city, by bribing the Eastern Roman garrison. 920 – Romanos I Lekapenos is crowned co-emperor of the underage Constantine VII. 942 – Assassination of William I of Normandy. 1297 – King Kyawswa of Pagan is overthrown by the three Myinsaing brothers, marking the de facto end of the Pagan Kingdom. 1354 – Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut and Holy Roman Empress and her son William I, Duke of Bavaria, sign a peace treaty ending the Hook and Cod wars. 1398 – Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud's armies in Delhi are defeated by Timur. 1538 – Pope Paul III excommunicates Henry VIII of England. 1583 – Cologne War: Forces under Ernest of Bavaria defeat troops under Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg at the Siege of Godesberg. 1586 – Go-Yōzei becomes Emperor of Japan. ===1601–1900=== 1665 – The first account of a blood transfusion is published, in the form of a letter from physician Richard Lower to chemist Robert Boyle, in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 1718 – War of the Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain declares war on Spain. 1777 – American Revolution: France formally recognizes the United States. 1790 – The Aztec calendar stone is discovered at El Zócalo, Mexico City. 1807 – Napoleonic Wars: France issues the Milan Decree, which confirms the Continental System. 1812 – War of 1812: U.S. forces attack a Lenape village in the Battle of the Mississinewa. 1819 – Simón Bolívar declares the independence of Gran Colombia in Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar in Venezuela). 1835 – The second Great Fire of New York destroys of New York City's Financial District. 1837 – A fire in the Winter Palace of Saint Petersburg kills 30 guards. 1862 – American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant issues General Order No. 11, expelling Jews from parts of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky. 1865 – First performance of the Unfinished Symphony by Franz Schubert. 1892 – First issue of Vogue is published. 1896 – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's Schenley Park Casino, which was the first multi-purpose arena with the technology to create an artificial ice surface in North America, is destroyed in a fire. ===1901–present=== 1903 – The Wright brothers make the first controlled powered, heavier-than-air flight in the Wright Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. 1907 – Ugyen Wangchuck is crowned first King of Bhutan. 1918 – Darwin Rebellion: Up to 1,000 demonstrators march on Government House in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia. 1926 – Antanas Smetona assumes power in Lithuania as the 1926 coup d'état is successful. 1927 – Indian revolutionary Rajendra Lahiri is hanged in Gonda jail, Uttar Pradesh, India, two days before the scheduled date. 1928 – Indian revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru assassinate British police officer James Saunders in Lahore, Punjab, to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai at the hands of the police. The three were executed in 1931. 1933 – The first NFL Championship Game is played at Wrigley Field in Chicago between the New York Giants and Chicago Bears. The Bears won 23–21. 1935 – First flight of the Douglas DC-3. 1938 – Otto Hahn discovers the nuclear fission of the heavy element uranium, the scientific and technological basis of nuclear energy. 1939 – World War II: Battle of the River Plate: The Admiral Graf Spee is scuttled by Captain Hans Langsdorff outside Montevideo. 1943 – All Chinese are again permitted to become citizens of the United States upon the repeal of the Act of 1882 and the introduction of the Magnuson Act. 1944 – World War II: Battle of the Bulge: Malmedy massacre: American 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion POWs are shot by Waffen-SS Kampfgruppe Joachim Peiper. 1945 – Kurdistan flag day, the flag of Kurdistan was raised for the first time in Mahabad in eastern Kurdistan (Iran). 1947 – First flight of the Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber. 1948 – The Finnish Security Police is established to remove communist leadership from its predecessor, the State Police. 1950 – The F-86 Sabre's first mission over Korea. 1951 – The American Civil Rights Congress delivers "We Charge Genocide" to the United Nations. 1957 – The United States successfully launches the first Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile at Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1960 – Troops loyal to Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia crush the coup that began December 13, returning power to their leader upon his return from Brazil. Haile Selassie absolves his son of any guilt. 1960 – Munich C-131 crash: Twenty passengers and crew on board as well as 32 people on the ground are killed. 1961 – Niterói circus fire: Fire breaks out during a performance by the Gran Circus Norte-Americano in the city of Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, killing more than 500. 1967 – Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, disappears while swimming near Portsea, Victoria, and is presumed drowned. 1969 – Project Blue Book: The United States Air Force closes its study of UFOs. 1970 – Polish protests: In Gdynia, soldiers fire at workers emerging from trains, killing dozens. 1973 – Thirty passengers are killed in an attack by Palestinian terrorists on Rome's Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport. 1981 – American Brigadier General James L. Dozier is abducted by the Red Brigades in Verona, Italy. 1983 – Provisional IRA members detonate a car bomb at Harrods Department Store in London. Three police officers and three civilians are killed. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests continue in Timișoara, Romania, with rioters breaking into the Romanian Communist Party's District Committee building and attempting to set it on fire. 1989 – Fernando Collor de Mello defeats Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in the second round of the Brazilian presidential election, becoming the first democratically elected President in almost 30 years. 1989 – The Simpsons premieres on television with the episode "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire". 1997 – Peruvian internal conflict: Fourteen members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement provoke a hostage crisis by taking over the Japanese embassy in Lima. 1997 – Aerosvit Flight 241: A Yakovlev Yak-42 crashes into the Pierian Mountains near Thessaloniki Airport in Thessaloniki, Greece, killing all 70 people on board. 2002 – Second Congo War: The Congolese parties of the Inter Congolese Dialogue sign a peace accord which makes provision for transitional governance and legislative and presidential elections within two years. 2003 – The Soham murder trial ends at the Old Bailey in London, with Ian Huntley found guilty of two counts of murder. His girlfriend, Maxine Carr, is found guilty of perverting the course of justice. 2003 – SpaceShipOne, piloted by Brian Binnie, makes its first powered and first supersonic flight. 2003 – Sex work rights activists establish December 17 (or "D17") as International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers to memorialize victims of a serial killer who targeted prostitutes, and highlight State violence against sex workers by police and others. 2005 – Anti-World Trade Organization protesters riot in Wan Chai, Hong Kong. 2005 – Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates the throne as King of Bhutan. 2009 – sinks off the coast of Lebanon, resulting in the deaths of 44 people and over 28,000 animals. 2010 – Mohamed Bouazizi sets himself on fire. This act became the catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring. 2014 – The United States and Cuba re-establish diplomatic relations after severing them in 1961. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1239 – Kujō Yoritsugu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1256) 1267 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324) 1554 – Ernest of Bavaria, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 1612) 1556 – Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, poet in Mughal Empire (d. 1627) 1574 – Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna, Spanish nobleman and politician (d. 1624) ===1601–1900=== 1616 – Roger L'Estrange, English pamphleteer and author (d. 1704) 1619 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine (d. 1682) 1632 – Anthony Wood, English historian and author (d. 1695) 1685 – Thomas Tickell, English poet (d. 1740) 1699 – Charles-Louis Mion, French composer and educator (d. 1775) 1706 – Émilie du Châtelet, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1749) 1734 – Maria I of Portugal (d. 1816) 1749 – Domenico Cimarosa, Italian composer and educator (d. 1801) 1778 – Humphry Davy, English chemist and physicist (d. 1829) 1796 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (d. 1865) 1797 – Joseph Henry, American physicist and engineer (d. 1878) 1807 – John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet and activist (d. 1892) 1812 – Vilhelm Petersen, Danish painter (d. 1880) 1827 – Alexander Wassilko von Serecki, Austrian lawyer and politician (d. 1893) 1830 – Jules de Goncourt, French author and critic (d. 1870) 1835 – Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, Swiss-American ichthyologist and engineer (d. 1910) 1840 – Nozu Michitsura, Japanese field marshal (d. 1908) 1842 – Sophus Lie, Norwegian mathematician and academic (d. 1899) 1847 – Émile Faguet, French author and critic (d. 1916) 1853 – Pierre Paul Émile Roux, French physician and immunologist, co-founded the Pasteur Institute (d. 1933) 1858 – Eva Nansen, Norwegian mezzo-soprano singer and pioneer on women skiing (d. 1907) 1859 – Paul César Helleu, French painter and illustrator (d. 1927) 1866 – Kazys Grinius, Lithuanian physician and politician, third President of Lithuania (d. 1950) 1873 – Ford Madox Ford, English novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1939) 1874 – William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian economist and politician, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1950) 1881 – Aubrey Faulkner, South African-English cricketer and coach (d. 1930) 1884 – Alison Uttley, English children's book writer (d. 1976) 1887 – Josef Lada, Czech painter and illustrator (d. 1957) 1890 – Prince Joachim of Prussia (d. 1920) 1892 – Sam Barry, American basketball player and coach (d. 1950) 1893 – Charles C. Banks, English captain and pilot (d. 1971) 1893 – Erwin Piscator, German director and producer (d. 1966) 1894 – Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (d. 1979) 1894 – Patrick Flynn, Irish-American runner and soldier (d. 1969) 1894 – Wim Schermerhorn, Dutch cartographer, engineer, and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977) 1895 – Gerald Patterson, Australian tennis player (d. 1967) 1898 – Loren Murchison, American sprinter (d. 1979) 1900 – Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic, one of the first people to analyze a dynamical system with chaos (d. 1998) ===1901–present=== 1903 – Erskine Caldwell, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1987) 1903 – Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (d. 1978) 1904 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (d. 1999) 1905 – Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier and sniper (d. 2002) 1905 – Mohammad Hidayatullah, 11th Chief Justice of India, and politician, sixth Vice President of India (d. 1992) 1905 – Erico Verissimo, Brazilian author and translator (d. 1975) 1906 – Fernando Lopes-Graça, Portuguese composer and conductor (d. 1994) 1906 – Russell C. Newhouse, American pilot and engineer (d. 1998) 1908 – Willard Libby, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980) 1910 – Eknath Easwaran, Indian-American educator and author (d. 1999) 1910 – Sy Oliver, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (d. 1988) 1912 – Edward Short, Baron Glenamara, English captain and politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 2012) 1913 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 1967) 1914 – Mushtaq Ali, Indian cricketer (d. 2005) 1914 – Fernando Alonso, Cuban ballet dancer, co-founded the Cuban National Ballet (d. 2013) 1916 – Penelope Fitzgerald, English author and poet (d. 2000) 1917 – Kenneth Dike, Nigerian historian, author, and academic (d. 1983) 1920 – Kenneth E. Iverson, Canadian computer scientist, developed the APL programming language (d. 2004) 1921 – Lore Berger, German-Swiss author and translator (d. 1943) 1922 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and academic (d. 2005) 1923 – Jaroslav Pelikan, American historian and scholar (d. 2006) 1926 – Ray Jablonski, American baseball player (d. 1985) 1926 – John Hans Krebs, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1926 – Stephen Lewis, English actor, director, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2015) 1927 – Richard Long, American actor and director (d. 1974) 1927 – Edward Meneeley, American painter and sculptor (d. 2012) 1928 – Marilyn Beck, American journalist (d. 2014) 1928 – Eli Beeding, American captain and pilot (d. 2013) 1928 – Doyle Conner, American farmer and politician, seventh Florida Commissioner of Agriculture (d. 2012) 1929 – William Safire, American journalist and author (d. 2009) 1930 – Bob Guccione, American photographer and publisher, founded Penthouse (d. 2010) 1930 – Armin Mueller-Stahl, German actor and painter 1930 – Dorothy Rowe, Australian psychologist and author (d. 2019) 1931 – Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (d. 2011) 1931 – Dave Madden, Canadian-American actor (d. 2014) 1931 – James McGaugh, American neurobiologist and psychologist 1932 – John Bond, English footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1934 – Irving Petlin, American painter and academic (d. 2018) 1934 – Ray Wilson, English footballer and manager (d. 2018) 1935 – Brian Langford, English cricketer (d. 2013) 1935 – Cal Ripken Sr., American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1999) 1936 – Pope Francis 1943 – Ron Geesin, Scottish pianist and composer 1944 – Jack L. Chalker, American author and educator (d. 2005) 1944 – Carlo M. Croce, Italian-American oncologist and academic 1944 – Bernard Hill, English actor (d. 2024) 1946 – Simon Bates, English radio host 1946 – Eugene Levy, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter 1947 – Wes Studi, American actor and producer 1948 – Valery Belousov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) 1948 – Jim Bonfanti, American rock drummer 1959 – Bob Stinson, American songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995) 1961 – Mansoor al-Jamri, Bahraini journalist and author 1961 – Sara Dallin, English singer 1966 – Tracy Byrd, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Kristiina Ojuland, Estonian politician, 23rd Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1967 – Vincent Damphousse, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1967 – Gigi D'Agostino, Italian muscisian, singer and DJ. 1967 – Karsten Neitzel, German footballer and manager 1968 – Claudio Suárez, Mexican footballer 1968 – Paul Tracy, Canadian race car driver and sportscaster 1969 – Laurie Holden, American actress and model 1971 – Antoine Rigaudeau, French basketball player 1972 – John Abraham, Indian actor and producer 1972 – Iván Pedroso, Cuban long jumper and coach 1973 – Eddie Fisher, American drummer 1973 – Konstadinos Gatsioudis, Greek javelin thrower 1973 – Rian Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1973 – Paula Radcliffe, English runner 1973 – Hasan Vural, German-Turkish footballer 1974 – Charl Langeveldt, South African cricketer 1974 – Sarah Paulson, American actress 1977 – Samuel Påhlsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1977 – Katheryn Winnick, Canadian actress 1980 – Ryan Hunter-Reay, American race car driver 1980 – Alexandra Papageorgiou, Greek hammer thrower 1980 – Eli Pariser, American activist and author 1981 – Jerry Hsu, American skateboarder and photographer 1981 – Tim Wiese, German footballer 1982 – Josh Barfield, American baseball player 1982 – Lorenzo Cittadini, Italian rugby player 1982 – Craig Kielburger, Canadian activist and author 1982 – Stéphane Lasme, Gabonese basketball player 1983 – Gregory Campbell, Canadian ice hockey player and executive 1983 – Erik Christensen, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Mikky Ekko, American singer and songwriter 1985 – Łukasz Broź, Polish footballer 1985 – Craig Reid, English footballer 1986 – Emma Bell, American actress 1987 – Bo Guagua, Chinese businessman 1987 – Chelsea Manning, American soldier and intelligence analyst 1988 – Liisa Ehrberg, Estonian cyclist 1988 – Grethe Grünberg, Estonian ice dancer 1988 – Kris Joseph, Canadian basketball player 1988 – David Rudisha, Kenyan runner 1988 – Yann Sommer, Swiss footballer 1988 – Craig Sutherland, Scottish footballer 1989 – André Ayew, Ghanaian footballer 1989 – Taylor York, American musician 1992 – Joshua Ingram, Canadian drummer and percussionist 1993 – Kiersey Clemons, American actress 1994 – Lloyd Perrett, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Nat Wolff, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player and actor 1996 – Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, Russian figure skater 1997 – Naiktha Bains, British-Australian tennis player 1997 – Shoma Uno, Japanese figure skater 1998 – Jasmine Armfield, English actress 1998 – Martin Ødegaard, Norwegian footballer 1999 – Mirei Sasaki, Japanese singer, model, and actress 2000 – Wesley Fofana, French footballer 2002 – Castello Lukeba, French footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 779 – Sturm, abbot of Fulda 908 – al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i, Abbasid vizier 908 – Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz, Abbasid prince and poet, anti-caliph for one day 942 – William I, duke of Normandy 1187 – Pope Gregory VIII (b. 1100) 1195 – Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (b. 1150) 1273 – Rumi, Persian jurist, theologian, and poet (b. 1207) 1316 – Juan Fernández, bishop-elect of León 1419 – William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England 1471 – Infanta Isabel, Duchess of Burgundy (b. 1397) 1559 – Irene di Spilimbergo, Italian Renaissance poet and painter (b. 1538) 1562 – Eleonora di Toledo, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (b. 1522) ===1601–1900=== 1663 – Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (b. 1583) 1721 – Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1640) 1830 – Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan general and politician, second President of Venezuela (b. 1783) 1833 – Kaspar Hauser, German feral child (b. 1812?) 1847 – Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma (b. 1791) 1857 – Francis Beaufort, Irish hydrographer and officer in the Royal Navy (b. 1774) 1891 – José María Iglesias, Mexican politician and interim President (1876–1877) (b. 1823) ===1901–present=== 1904 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (b. 1848) 1907 – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-Scottish physicist and engineer (b. 1824) 1909 – Leopold II of Belgium (b. 1835) 1917 – Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, English physician and activist (b. 1836) 1927 – Rajendra Lahiri, Indian activist (b. 1892) 1928 – Frank Rinehart, American photographer (b. 1861) 1929 – Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa, Portuguese general and politician, tenth President of Portugal (b. 1863) 1930 – Peter Warlock, Welsh composer and critic (b. 1894) 1932 – Charles Winckler, Danish discus thrower, shot putter, and tug of war competitor (b. 1867) 1933 – 13th Dalai Lama (b. 1876) 1935 – Lizette Woodworth Reese, American poet (b. 1856) 1940 – Alicia Boole Stott, Anglo-Irish mathematician and academic (b. 1860) 1942 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English lieutenant and politician (b. 1895) 1947 – Christos Tsigiridis, Greek engineer (b. 1877) 1956 – Eddie Acuff, American actor (b. 1903) 1957 – Dorothy L. Sayers, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1893) 1962 – Thomas Mitchell, American actor (b. 1892) 1964 – Victor Francis Hess, Austrian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883) 1967 – Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1908) 1970 – Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian, author, and educator (b. 1896) 1978 – Don Ellis, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (b. 1934) 1981 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (b. 1903) 1982 – Homer S. Ferguson, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1889) 1986 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (b. 1925) 1987 – Bernardus Johannes Alfrink, Dutch cardinal (b. 1900) 1987 – Linda Wong, American porn actress (b. 1951) 1987 – Marguerite Yourcenar, Belgian-American author and poet (b. 1903) 1992 – Günther Anders, German journalist and philosopher (b. 1902) 1992 – Dana Andrews, American actor (b. 1909) 1999 – Rex Allen, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1920) 1999 – Grover Washington Jr., American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b. 1943) 1999 – C. Vann Woodward, American historian and academic (b. 1908) 2002 – K. W. Devanayagam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, tenth Sri Lankan Minister of Justice (b. 1910) 2003 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (b. 1921) 2004 – Tom Wesselmann, American painter and sculptor (b. 1931) 2005 – Jack Anderson, American journalist and author (b. 1922) 2005 – Marc Favreau, Canadian actor and poet (b. 1929) 2005 – Haljand Udam, Estonian orientalist and academic (b. 1936) 2006 – Larry Sherry, American baseball player and coach (b. 1935) 2008 – Sammy Baugh, American football player and coach (b. 1914) 2008 – Freddy Breck, German singer-songwriter, producer, and journalist (b. 1942) 2008 – Dave Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1955) 2008 – Gregoire, Congolese chimpanzee, oldest recorded (b. 1942) 2009 – Chris Henry, American football player (b. 1983) 2009 – Jennifer Jones, American actress (b. 1919) 2009 – Alaina Reed Hall, American actress (b. 1946) 2010 – Captain Beefheart, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941) 2010 – Walt Dropo, American basketball and baseball player (b. 1923) 2010 – Ralph Coates, English footballer (b. 1946) 2011 – Eva Ekvall, Venezuelan journalist and author, Miss Venezuela 2000 (b. 1983) 2011 – Kim Jong-il, North Korean commander and politician, second Supreme Leader of North Korea (b. 1941) 2012 – Richard Adams, Filipino-American activist (b. 1947) 2012 – James Gower, American priest and activist, co-founded the College of the Atlantic (b. 1922) 2012 – Daniel Inouye, American captain and politician (b. 1924) 2012 – Laurier LaPierre, Canadian historian, journalist, and politician (b. 1929) 2012 – Frank Pastore, American baseball player and radio host (b. 1957) 2013 – Fred Bruemmer, Latvian-Canadian photographer (b. 1929) 2013 – Ricardo María Carles Gordó, Spanish cardinal (b. 1926) 2013 – Richard Heffner, American historian and television host (b. 1925) 2013 – Tetsurō Kashibuchi, Japanese drummer, songwriter, and producer (b. 1950) 2013 – Janet Rowley, American geneticist and biologist (b. 1925) 2013 – Conny van Rietschoten, Dutch sailor (b. 1926) 2014 – Dieter Grau, German-American scientist and engineer (b. 1913) 2014 – Richard C. Hottelet, American journalist (b. 1917) 2014 – Oleh Lysheha, Ukrainian poet and playwright (b. 1949) 2014 – Lowell Steward, American captain (b. 1919) 2014 – Ivan Vekić, Croatian colonel, lawyer, and politician, Croatian Minister of the Interior (b. 1938) 2015 – Hal Brown, American baseball player and manager (b. 1924) 2015 – Osamu Hayaishi, American-Japanese biochemist and academic (b. 1920) 2015 – Michael Wyschogrod, German-American philosopher and theologian (b. 1928) 2016 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (b. 1922) 2016 – Henry Heimlich, American doctor (b. 1920) 2016 – Gordon Hunt, American voice director (b. 1929) 2020 – Jeremy Bulloch, English actor (b. 1945) 2020 – Allen Dines, American politician (b. 1921) 2023 – Ronaldo Valdez, Filipino actor (b. 1947) 2023 – James McCaffrey, American actor (b. 1958) 2024 – Igor Kirillov, Russian general (b. 1970) 2024 – Marisa Paredes, Spanish film actress (b. 1946) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Daniel the Prophet Josep Manyanet i Vives Lazarus of Bethany (local commemoration in Cuba) O Sapientia Olympias the Deaconess Wivina Sturm December 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Accession Day (Bahrain) International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers Kurdish Flag Day (Global Kurdish population) National Day (Bhutan) Pan American Aviation Day (United States) Wright Brothers Day, a United States federal observance by Presidential proclamation
[ "1940", "1921", "Douglas DC-3", "Ernie Hudson", "Charles C. Banks", "Richard C. Hottelet", "Chief Justice of India", "Alan Voorhees", "Marguerite Yourcenar", "Simón Bolívar", "1982", "John Greenleaf Whittier", "Ciudad Bolívar", "Irving Petlin", "Doyle Conner", "Myinsaing Kingdom", "Shannon Woodward", "Eddie Fisher (drummer)", "The Plain Dealer", "Wendy Hoyte", "Donovan Solano", "1718", "Gran Colombia", "Chicago Bears", "Bob Ojeda", "Günther Anders", "Tetsurō Kashibuchi", "Emperor of Japan", "Palestinian political violence", "Montevideo", "1699", "1833", "1910", "Duchy of Normandy", "Roger L'Estrange", "942", "Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Loren Murchison", "Paula Radcliffe", "Sammy Baugh", "Paul Cadmus", "Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act", "Jeff Grayer", "2015", "Bhagat Singh", "Naiktha Bains", "Jaroslav Pelikan", "Sam Barry", "Pittsburgh", "Maryna Arzamasova", "1819", "Antanas Smetona", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "Calendar of saints", "O antiphon", "Thomas Tickell", "National Hockey League", "World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2005", "Burt Baskin", "1964", "France in the American Revolutionary War", "Vincent Damphousse", "Alex Cintrón", "Sophus Lie", "National Day (Bhutan)", "1898", "Mansoor al-Jamri", "Brazilian presidential election, 1989", "2020", "Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement", "José María Iglesias", "Elizabeth Garrett Anderson", "Calvin Waller", "Linda Wong (pornographic actress)", "Lloyd Perrett", "Rajendra Lahiri", "1777", "285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion", "1881", "Baskin-Robbins", "Hook and Cod wars", "1928", "1981", "Nir Davidovich", "Great Fire of New York", "2008", "Sy Oliver", "Kim Jong-il", "Leopold II of Belgium", "Dorothy L. Sayers", "1946", "Mike Mills", "John Bond (footballer)", "Pasteur Institute", "1887", "1950", "Battle of the Mississinewa", "France–United States relations", "1239", "Wright brothers", "779", "Marisa Paredes", "Portsea, Victoria", "We Charge Genocide", "1840", "Peter Farrelly", "Carlo M. Croce", "1979", "1749", "Andrew Simpson (sailor)", "Stephen Lewis (actor)", "Peruvian internal conflict", "World Series Cricket", "Emperor Go-Yōzei", "1994", "Premier of Victoria", "Edward Short, Baron Glenamara", "André Ayew", "Takeo Spikes", "Lord President of the Council", "Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg", "1906", "1972", "Mary Cartwright", "State Police (Finland)", "1916", "Christos Tsigiridis", "2016", "Ken Hitchcock", "1943", "abbot", "Wright Brothers Day", "United Nations", "Totka Petrova", "1954", "Totila", "December 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Associated Press", "Oleh Lysheha", "Émilie du Châtelet", "Joe Wolf", "Humphry Davy", "Malmedy massacre", "flag of Kurdistan", "1586", "strategic bomber", "Self-immolation", "Vanessa Zima", "Lorenzo Cittadini", "Second Congo War", "John Hans Krebs", "Konstadinos Gatsioudis", "Lowell Steward", "Jennifer Jones", "1977", "Thessaloniki", "The Simpsons", "1734", "Joachim Peiper", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Guerschon Yabusele", "Wesley Fofana (footballer)", "Thomas Mitchell (actor)", "Ricardo María Carles Gordó", "920", "NPR", "Prime Minister of Australia", "Antiochos Evangelatos", "Lala Lajpat Rai", "1922", "Paul Rodgers", "John Abraham", "Mohammad Hidayatullah", "The New York Times", "1920", "908", "Continental System", "Brian Langford", "Marc Favreau", "1931", "Ray Jablonski", "James McGaugh", "1992", "Minister of Foreign Affairs (Estonia)", "Cuba–United States relations", "2013", "Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport", "Flag of Kurdistan", "Romanian Revolution", "Francis Beaufort", "William I, Duke of Bavaria", "Siege of Godesberg", "1953", "Jasmine Armfield", "Ryan Hunter-Reay", "Harold Holt", "1933", "Eddie Kendricks", "Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz", "Finnish Security and Intelligence Service", "Samuel Påhlsson", "Hasan Vural", "1790", "Neil Sanderson", "Cuban National Ballet", "1665", "North American F-86 Sabre", "tug of war", "Kentucky", "1932", "Claudio Suárez", "Susanthika Jayasinghe", "1951", "Maurice Peoples", "Laurence F. Johnson", "Art Neville", "New York Giants", "1935", "Kurdistan", "1970", "Patrick Flynn (athlete)", "Erico Verissimo", "Fulda monastery", "1316", "Sack of Rome (546)", "2009", "Laurier LaPierre", "Sean Patrick Thomas", "Kazys Grinius", "1985", "2010", "Henry VIII of England", "Jules de Goncourt", "1990", "Nick Dinsmore", "Wright Flyer", "Nozu Michitsura", "1961", "fire in the Winter Palace", "1926", "Ray Wilson (English footballer)", "1966", "Manila Standard", "Saint Petersburg", "2023", "Gerald Finnerman", "Willard Libby", "Kenneth E. Iverson", "List of heads of state of Nigeria", "546", "1938", "Domenico Cimarosa", "1933 NFL Championship Game", "Sergejus Jovaiša", "Thomas Chandler Haliburton", "1999", "Wes Studi", "13th Dalai Lama", "Government House, Darwin", "Niterói circus fire", "Michael Wyschogrod", "1830", "Bob Stinson", "1978", "1187", "Jordan Rankin", "Romanos I Lekapenos", "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire", "Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba", "Simo Häyhä", "Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut", "William I Longsword", "James L. Dozier", "1965", "William Safire", "Mohamed Bouazizi", "1960 Ethiopian coup attempt", "1987", "1858", "1892", "Communist Party of Finland", "Kristiina Ojuland", "1939", "Byzantine Empire", "Otto Graham", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", "Guillermo Cano Isaza", "Paul César Helleu", "Cal Ripken Sr.", "2002", "nuclear fission", "1827", "German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee", "Lithuania", "Pope Francis", "Alaina Reed Hall", "Boeing B-47 Stratojet", "Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna", "1993", "1583", "Eli Pariser", "Freddy Breck", "1574", "Homer S. Ferguson", "Richard Heffner", "C. Vann Woodward", "2003", "1976", "Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma", "1853", "2012", "Mick Quinn", "Kyawswa of Pagan", "David Mallet (director)", "Brian Binnie", "Penelope Fitzgerald", "Muhammadu Buhari", "1796", "Bob Guccione", "Dave Dee", "Napoleonic Wars", "Taylor York", "Rex Allen", "1989", "2000", "1927", "Ray Noble", "Penthouse (magazine)", "1967", "Lenape", "Richard Long (actor)", "Tunisian Revolution", "Lazarus of Bethany", "1663", "1960 Munich C-131 crash", "Alexander Emanuel Agassiz", "Janet Rowley", "President of Venezuela", "Miss Venezuela 2000", "Civil Rights Congress", "Frank Musil", "Joshua Ingram", "Craig Reid (footballer, born 1985)", "1971", "1904", "Osamu Hayaishi", "1894", "Pan American Aviation Day", "Suzy Batkovic", "1984", "Venezuela", "Tracy Byrd", "SpaceShipOne", "Galina Malchugina", "Milla Jovovich", "Aztec calendar stone", "Charles Winckler", "Alison Uttley", "1907", "List of Prime Ministers of the Netherlands", "National Basketball Association", "SM-65 Atlas", "1923", "Alexandra Papageorgiou", "1937", "Stan Mudenge", "1913", "Wivina (abbess)", "Disappearance of Harold Holt", "Tommy Steele", "1996", "1619", "Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu", "1195", "Dave Smith (pitcher, born 1955)", "President of Portugal", "Joel Brooks", "1975", "Anthony Wood (antiquary)", "Joseph Henry", "Chinese Exclusion Act", "Ugyen Wangchuck", "1893", "Prime Minister of Canada", "Yann Sommer", "1958", "Igor Kirillov (general)", "Pope Paul III", "1895", "Pat Hill", "Ronaldo Valdez", "Japanese embassy hostage crisis", "ancient Rome", "Nuclear power", "1941", "Eva Ekvall", "Store norske leksikon", "1778", "1616", "1908", "Charles-Louis Mion", "APL (programming language)", "Kerry Packer", "Thessaloniki Airport", "Verona", "Erwin Piscator", "Russell C. Newhouse", "Jack L. Chalker", "Simon Bates", "Bernardus Johannes Alfrink", "1949", "Dominic Lawson", "1562", "Paul Smith (footballer, born 1979)", "Grover Washington Jr.", "Hal Brown", "1969", "1842", "1934", "Don Ellis", "1962", "Shoma Uno", "1912", "President of Brazil", "1706", "Timur", "Paul Dobson (footballer)", "Conny van Rietschoten", "James Booker", "American Revolution", "Eugene Levy", "Brian Hayes (broadcaster)", "Dave Madden", "Josh Barfield", "College of the Atlantic", "497 BC", "1891", "Benjamin A. Gilman", "Jack Anderson (columnist)", "Harrods bombings", "1957", "Katheryn Winnick", "Waffen-SS", "Soham murders", "Pope Gregory VIII", "Marissa Ribisi", "Franz Schubert", "Saint Sturm", "Kenneth Dike", "Dana Andrews", "Tom Wesselmann", "U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission", "Harrods", "Rian Johnson", "Matt Murley", "Premier League", "Andrew Davies (footballer)", "Haron Keitany", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Zimbabwe)", "al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i", "Lore Berger", "chimpanzee", "Fernando Lopes-Graça", "December 13", "Gdynia", "War of the Quadruple Alliance", "Jacqueline Wilson", "Cologne War", "Bhutan", "SpaceShipOne flight 11P", "Romanian Communist Party", "2004", "National Air and Space Museum", "Frank Pastore", "K. W. Devanayagam", "Sarah Paulson", "Haile Selassie", "1859", "Captain Beefheart", "1929", "Eva Nansen", "Financial District, Manhattan", "Charl Langeveldt", "Bo Guagua", "1862", "Fernando Abad", "1297", "Paul Tracy", "Graham Rogers (actor)", "Chuck Liddell", "Josef Lada", "Chris Matthews", "1896", "Jim Bonfanti", "Chicago", "Ethiopia", "1538", "Marilyn Beck", "Donald Payne Jr.", "Luis Alfageme", "1995", "Castello Lukeba", "President of Lithuania", "Constantine VII", "Sukhdev Thapar", "Ministry of the Interior (Croatia)", "Erskine Caldwell", "Larry Sherry", "Major League Baseball", "Milan Decree", "General Order No. 11 (1862)", "Chris Henry (wide receiver)", "Kaspar Hauser", "1884", "Nat Wolff", "Presidential proclamation", "1942", "1903", "Maria I of Portugal", "Brad Davis (basketball)", "Julian Bennett (footballer)", "Daniel (biblical figure)", "Wim Schermerhorn", "Tennessee", "Prince Joachim of Prussia", "Aubrey Faulkner", "Eknath Easwaran", "Alicia Boole Stott", "1909", "Mirei Sasaki", "WNBA", "Fernando Alonso (dancer)", "1873", "Lizette Woodworth Reese", "Arnaud Clément", "Iván Pedroso", "Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough", "Edward Meneeley", "Cuba", "Gregoire (chimpanzee)", "Quinton de Kock", "Henry Heimlich", "Paul Butterfield", "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin", "2006", "Kitty Hawk, North Carolina", "Victor Francis Hess", "Kurdish population", "Yakovlev Yak-42", "American Civil War", "Alexander Wassilko von Serecki", "Unidentified flying object", "1632", "1900", "1865", "1905", "Hans Langsdorff", "Arab Spring", "1998", "Lahore", "1917", "1866", "David Rudisha", "Vilhelm Petersen (painter)", "Craig Sutherland", "1983", "William I of Normandy", "1890", "Atsedu Tsegay", "1986", "blood transfusion", "William Shiels", "Bill Pullman", "Discovery Channel", "Florida Commissioner of Agriculture", "Sébastien Ogier", "2024", "Ford Madox Ford", "UPI", "Cape Canaveral, Florida", "Lebanon", "Pierre Paul Émile Roux", "Eddie Acuff", "Łukasz Broź", "Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa", "Jüri Talvet", "Kiersey Clemons", "Northern Territory", "1973 Rome airport attacks and hijacking", "Project Blue Book", "Fred Bruemmer", "1812", "Karsten Neitzel", "Ulysses S. Grant", "Mahabad", "World Trade Organization", "Tatyana Kazankina", "1955", "Alan Khan", "Mikky Ekko", "2005", "War of 1812", "Battle of the River Plate", "Dieter Grau", "1956", "Valery Belousov", "Accession Day (Bahrain)", "Rocco Mediate", "Sotiris Kaiafas", "Darwin Rebellion", "1926 Lithuanian coup d'état", "1273", "Red Brigades", "Punjab region", "1991", "Irene di Spilimbergo", "Frank Rinehart", "1354", "1930", "Rumi", "Gigi D'Agostino", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "2014", "1968", "Vogue (magazine)", "1797", "Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley", "Martin Ødegaard", "Peter Snell", "The Denver Post", "Juan Fernández (bishop of León)", "Inna Lasovskaya", "Craig Kielburger", "1685", "Ralph Coates", "1970 Polish protests", "1973", "1936", "Gerald Patterson", "Tim Wiese", "Prince Rupert of the Rhine", "Emma Bell", "Richard Adams (activist)", "Chelsea Manning", "Patricia Kú Flores", "Timișoara", "Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva", "Dorothy Rowe", "Gordon Hunt (director)", "Jeremy Bulloch", "1847", "Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster", "Bundesliga", "feral child", "Emperor Go-Uda", "1944", "Peter Warlock", "Jews", "International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers", "Bernard Hill", "1997", "Frank Winterstein", "List of leaders of North Korea", "Minister of Justice (Sri Lanka)", "1267", "Prisoner of war", "Liisa Ehrberg", "Ernest of Bavaria", "Symphony No. 8 (Schubert)", "1398", "1837", "Ostrogoths", "Saturnalia", "Antoine Rigaudeau", "1419", "Eleonora di Toledo", "Kampfgruppe", "1918", "1559", "1835", "Mushtaq Ali", "Infanta Isabel, Duchess of Burgundy", "Éric Bédard", "Riteish Deshmukh", "World War II", "Aviation Safety Network", "Manny Pacquiao", "Olympias the Deaconess", "1960", "1948", "Arthur Fiedler", "James Gower", "Wrigley Field", "List of Vice Presidents of India", "Laurie Holden", "Elizaveta Tuktamysheva", "Nikki McCray-Penson", "Mississippi", "United States federal observances", "Daniel Inouye", "Craig Berube", "Niterói", "Patrick Müller (footballer)", "Émile Faguet", "1945", "Journal of Burma Research Society", "Shivaram Rajguru", "Grethe Grünberg", "1857", "arena", "María Elena Velasco", "Ivan Vekić (politician)", "1554", "Giovanni Ribisi", "Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana", "1980", "Eli Beeding", "1974", "Kujō Yoritsugu", "1988", "Walt Dropo", "Allen Dines", "Claire Forlani", "Battle of the Bulge", "1874", "Kris Joseph", "Jigme Singye Wangchuck", "Tughlaq dynasty", "James McCaffrey (actor)", "Schenley Park Casino", "John Kennedy Toole", "Kåre Valebrokk", "Jerry Hsu", "Josep Manyanet i Vives", "Oliver Waterman Larkin", "Gregory Campbell (ice hockey)", "Otto Hahn", "2011", "William Gascoigne", "Chase Utley", "1721", "Buddy Hield", "1959", "1471", "1914", "Ron Geesin", "Pierian Mountains", "Armin Mueller-Stahl", "Sara Dallin", "Stéphane Lasme", "Erik Christensen", "Pagan Kingdom", "Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut", "1556", "William Lyon Mackenzie King", "1807", "Haljand Udam", "Aerosvit Flight 241", "Fernando Collor de Mello" ]
8,324
Difference engine
A difference engine is an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. It was designed in the 1820s, and was created by Charles Babbage. The name difference engine is derived from the method of finite differences, a way to interpolate or tabulate functions by using a small set of polynomial co-efficients. Some of the most common mathematical functions used in engineering, science and navigation are built from logarithmic and trigonometric functions, which can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can compute many useful tables. == History == The notion of a mechanical calculator for mathematical functions can be traced back to the Antikythera mechanism of the 2nd century BC, while early modern examples are attributed to Pascal and Leibniz in the 17th century. In 1784 J. H. Müller, an engineer in the Hessian army, devised and built an adding machine and described the basic principles of a difference machine in a book published in 1786 (the first written reference to a difference machine is dated to 1784), but he was unable to obtain funding to progress with the idea. ===Charles Babbage's difference engines=== Charles Babbage began to construct a small difference engine in and had completed it by 1822 (Difference Engine 0). He announced his invention on 14 June 1822, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society, entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables". This machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle. The British government was interested, since producing tables was time-consuming and expensive and they hoped the difference engine would make the task more economical. In 1823, the British government gave Babbage £1700 to start work on the project. Although Babbage's design was feasible, the metalworking techniques of the era could not economically make parts in the precision and quantity required. Thus the implementation proved to be much more expensive and doubtful of success than the government's initial estimate. According to the 1830 design for Difference Engine No. 1, it would have about 25,000 parts, weigh 4 tons, and operate on 20-digit numbers by sixth-order differences. In 1832, Babbage and Joseph Clement produced a small working model (one-seventh of the plan), Lady Byron described seeing the working prototype in 1833: "We both went to see the thinking machine (or so it seems) last Monday. It raised several Nos. to the 2nd and 3rd powers, and extracted the root of a Quadratic equation." Lady Byron's daughter Ada Lovelace would later become fascinated with and work on creating the first computer program intended to solve Bernoulli's equation utilizing the difference engine. Work on the larger engine was suspended in 1833. By the time the government abandoned the project in 1842, Babbage had received and spent over £17,000 on development, which still fell short of achieving a working engine. The government valued only the machine's output (economically produced tables), not the development (at unpredictable cost) of the machine itself. Babbage refused to recognize that predicament. Babbage went on to design his much more general analytical engine, but later designed an improved "Difference Engine No. 2" design (31-digit numbers and seventh-order differences), === Scheutzian calculation engine === Inspired by Babbage's difference engine in 1834, the Swedish inventor Per Georg Scheutz built several experimental models. In 1837 his son Edward proposed to construct a working model in metal, and in 1840 finished the calculating part, capable of calculating series with 5-digit numbers and first-order differences, which was later extended to third-order (1842). In 1843, after adding the printing part, the model was completed. In 1851, funded by the government, construction of the larger and improved (15-digit numbers and fourth-order differences) machine began, and finished in 1853. The machine was demonstrated at the World's Fair in Paris, 1855 and then sold in 1856 to the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York. Delivered in 1857, it was the first printing calculator sold. It had the same basic construction as the previous one, weighing about . === Others === Martin Wiberg improved Scheutz's construction (, his machine has the same capacity as Scheutz's: 30-digit and sixth-order) but used his device only for producing and publishing printed tables (interest tables in 1860, and logarithmic tables in 1875). Alfred Deacon of London in produced a small difference engine (20-digit numbers and third-order differences). American George B. Grant started working on his calculating machine in 1869, unaware of the works of Babbage and Scheutz (Schentz). One year later (1870) he learned about difference engines and proceeded to design one himself, describing his construction in 1871. In 1874 the Boston Thursday Club raised a subscription for the construction of a large-scale model, which was built in 1876. It could be expanded to enhance precision and weighed about . Christel Hamann built one machine (16-digit numbers and second-order differences) in 1909 for the "Tables of Bauschinger and Peters" ("Logarithmic-Trigonometrical Tables with eight decimal places"), which was first published in Leipzig in 1910. It weighed about . Burroughs Corporation in about 1912 built a machine for the Nautical Almanac Office which was used as a difference engine of second-order. It was later replaced in 1929 by a Burroughs Class 11 (13-digit numbers and second-order differences, or 11-digit numbers and [at least up to] fifth-order differences). Alexander John Thompson about 1927 built integrating and differencing machine (13-digit numbers and fifth-order differences) for his table of logarithms "Logarithmetica britannica". This machine was composed of four modified Triumphator calculators. Leslie Comrie in 1928 described how to use the Brunsviga-Dupla calculating machine as a difference engine of second-order (15-digit numbers). This work led the Science Museum to construct a working calculating section of difference engine No. 2 from 1985 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing. This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth in 1991. In 2002, the printer which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed. The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design (possibly introduced as a protection in case the plans were stolen), which had to be corrected. The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with 19th-century technology, resolving a long-standing debate as to whether Babbage's design could have worked using Georgian-era engineering methods. The machine contains 8,000 parts and weighs about 5 tons. The printer's primary purpose is to produce stereotype plates for use in printing presses, which it does by pressing type into soft plaster to create a flong. Babbage intended that the Engine's results be conveyed directly to mass printing, having recognized that many errors in previous tables were not the result of human calculating mistakes but from slips in the manual typesetting process. It has since been transferred to Intellectual Ventures in Seattle where it is on display just outside the main lobby. == Operation == The difference engine consists of a number of columns, numbered from 1 to N. The machine is able to store one decimal number in each column. The machine can only add the value of a column n + 1 to column n to produce the new value of n. Column N can only store a constant, column 1 displays (and possibly prints) the value of the calculation on the current iteration. The engine is programmed by setting initial values to the columns. Column 1 is set to the value of the polynomial at the start of computation. Column 2 is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial at the same value of X. Each of the columns from 3 to N is set to a value derived from the (n-1) first and higher derivatives of the polynomial. === Timing === In the Babbage design, one iteration (i.e. one full set of addition and carry operations) happens for each rotation of the main shaft. Odd and even columns alternately perform an addition in one cycle. The sequence of operations for column n is thus: == Initial values == The initial values of columns can be calculated by first manually calculating N consecutive values of the function and by backtracking (i.e. calculating the required differences). Col 1_0 gets the value of the function at the start of computation f(0). Col 2_0 is the difference between f(1) and f(0)... If the function to be calculated is a polynomial function, expressed as f(x) = a_n x^n + a_{n-1} x^{n-1} + \cdots + a_2 x^2 + a_1 x + a_0 \, the initial values can be calculated directly from the constant coefficients a0, a1,a2, ..., an without calculating any data points. The initial values are thus: Col 1_0 = a0 Col 2_0 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ... + an Col 3_0 = 2a2 + 6a3 + 14a4 + 30a5 + ... Col 4_0 = 6a3 + 36a4 + 150a5 + ... Col 5_0 = 24a4 + 240a5 + ... Col 6_0 = 120a5 + ... ... === Use of derivatives === Many commonly used functions are analytic functions, which can be expressed as power series, for example as a Taylor series. The initial values can be calculated to any degree of accuracy; if done correctly the engine will give exact results for first N steps. After that, the engine will only give an approximation of the function. The Taylor series expresses the function as a sum obtained from its derivatives at one point. For many functions the higher derivatives are trivial to obtain; for instance, the sine function at 0 has values of 0 or \pm1 for all derivatives. Setting 0 as the start of computation we get the simplified Maclaurin series \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} \frac{f^{(n)}(0)}{n!}\ x^{n} The same method of calculating the initial values from the coefficients can be used as for polynomial functions. The polynomial constant coefficients will now have the value a_n \equiv \frac{f^{(n)}(0)}{n!} === Curve fitting === The problem with the methods described above is that errors will accumulate and the series will tend to diverge from the true function. A solution which guarantees a constant maximum error is to use curve fitting. A minimum of N values are calculated evenly spaced along the range of the desired calculations. Using a curve fitting technique like Gaussian reduction an N−1th degree polynomial interpolation of the function is found. With the optimized polynomial, the initial values can be calculated as above.
[ "mathematical function", "typesetting", "backtracking", "approximation", "polynomial interpolation", "National Museum of Science and Industry", "Newton polynomial", "Per Georg Scheutz", "sine", "mechanical calculator", "Johann Helfrich von Müller", "Len Shustek", "Antikythera mechanism", "trigonometric functions", "Gottfried Leibniz", "Julius Bauschinger", "Computer History Museum", "Dudley Observatory", "Pinwheel calculator", "Hessian (soldier)", "ad infinitum", "Mathematical table", "Nathan Myhrvold", "Gaussian reduction", "Burroughs Corporation", "Printer (computing)", "iteration", "Oxford University Press", "Albany, New York", "two's complement", "curve fitting", "Allan G. Bromley", "WP:SEEALSO", "Taylor series", "Martin Wiberg", "Maclaurin series", "Stereotype (printing)", "CNET News", "Astrophysics Data System", "Seattle", "1862 International Exhibition", "Intellectual Ventures", "George B. Grant", "Joseph Clement", "University of Sydney", "Lady Byron", "Odhner Arithmometer", "ton", "HM Nautical Almanac Office", "Charles Babbage", "Computer printer", "logarithm", "Doron Swade", "British government", "polynomial", "carry propagation", "Science Museum (London)", "Royal Astronomical Society", "derivative", "finite difference", "carry (arithmetic)", "flong", "Alexander John Thompson", "Method of complements", "polynomial function", "Blaise Pascal", "Australia", "finite differences", "analytical engine", "adding machine", "Christel Hamann", "Exposition Universelle (1855)", "divided differences", "Carry (arithmetic)", "power series", "J. H. Müller", "Leslie Comrie", "Mountain View, California", "South Kensington", "analytic function" ]