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8,326 |
Draupnir
|
In Norse mythology, Draupnir (Old Norse: , "the dripper") is a gold ring possessed by the god Odin with the ability to multiply itself: Every ninth night, eight new rings 'drip' from Draupnir, each one of the same size and weight as the original.
Draupnir was forged by the dwarven brothers Brokkr and Eitri (or Sindri). Brokkr and Eitri made this ring as one of a set of three gifts which included Mjöllnir and Gullinbursti. They made these gifts in accordance with a bet Loki made saying that Brokkr and Eitri could not make better gifts than the three made by the Sons of Ivaldi. In the end, Mjöllnir, Thor's hammer, won the contest for Brokkr and Eitri. Loki used a loophole to get out of the wager for his head (the wager was for Loki's head only, but he argued that, to remove his head, they would have to injure his neck, which was not in the bargain) and Brokkr punished him by sealing his lips shut with wire.
The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son Baldr:
The ring was subsequently retrieved by Hermóðr. It was offered as a gift by Freyr's servant Skírnir in the wooing of Gerðr, which is described in the poem Skírnismál.
|
[
"Baldr",
"Gullinbursti",
"Skírnir",
"Hermóðr",
"Sons of Ivaldi",
"Freyr",
"Old Norse",
"Orion Publishing Group",
"Norse mythology",
"Brokkr",
"Gylfaginning",
"Eitri",
"Gerðr",
"Loki",
"Odin",
"Mjöllnir",
"Rings in Germanic cultures",
"Norse dwarves",
"loophole",
"Sindri (mythology)",
"Thor",
"Skírnismál"
] |
8,327 |
Dromi
|
Dromi () is a Hebrew surname. Notable people with the surname include:
(1985–2015), Israeli journalist , publicist and TV presenter
Pnina Dromi, birth name of Pnina Gary Israeli actress and theatre director
Roberto José Dromi (1945–2024) Argentinian politician and lawyer
Shai Dromi, Israeli farmer who shot and killed a Bedouin intruder, an event that gave rise to the "Dromis' Law" of self-defense
, Israeli journalist and editor
|
[
"Shai Dromi",
"Roberto José Dromi",
"Pnina Gary"
] |
8,328 |
Divergence
|
In vector calculus, divergence is a vector operator that operates on a vector field, producing a scalar field giving the quantity of the vector field's source at each point. More technically, the divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal volume around a given point.
As an example, consider air as it is heated or cooled. The velocity of the air at each point defines a vector field. While air is heated in a region, it expands in all directions, and thus the velocity field points outward from that region. The divergence of the velocity field in that region would thus have a positive value. While the air is cooled and thus contracting, the divergence of the velocity has a negative value.
== Physical interpretation of divergence ==
In physical terms, the divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the vector field flux behaves like a source or a sink at a given point. It is a local measure of its "outgoingness" – the extent to which there are more of the field vectors exiting from an infinitesimal region of space than entering it. A point at which the flux is outgoing has positive divergence, and is often called a "source" of the field. A point at which the flux is directed inward has negative divergence, and is often called a "sink" of the field. The greater the flux of field through a small surface enclosing a given point, the greater the value of divergence at that point. A point at which there is zero flux through an enclosing surface has zero divergence.
The divergence of a vector field is often illustrated using the simple example of the velocity field of a fluid, a liquid or gas. A moving gas has a velocity, a speed and direction at each point, which can be represented by a vector, so the velocity of the gas forms a vector field. If a gas is heated, it will expand. This will cause a net motion of gas particles outward in all directions. Any closed surface in the gas will enclose gas which is expanding, so there will be an outward flux of gas through the surface. So the velocity field will have positive divergence everywhere. Similarly, if the gas is cooled, it will contract. There will be more room for gas particles in any volume, so the external pressure of the fluid will cause a net flow of gas volume inward through any closed surface. Therefore, the velocity field has negative divergence everywhere. In contrast, in a gas at a constant temperature and pressure, the net flux of gas out of any closed surface is zero. The gas may be moving, but the volume rate of gas flowing into any closed surface must equal the volume rate flowing out, so the net flux is zero. Thus the gas velocity has zero divergence everywhere. A field which has zero divergence everywhere is called solenoidal.
If the gas is heated only at one point or small region, or a small tube is introduced which supplies a source of additional gas at one point, the gas there will expand, pushing fluid particles around it outward in all directions. This will cause an outward velocity field throughout the gas, centered on the heated point. Any closed surface enclosing the heated point will have a flux of gas particles passing out of it, so there is positive divergence at that point. However any closed surface not enclosing the point will have a constant density of gas inside, so just as many fluid particles are entering as leaving the volume, thus the net flux out of the volume is zero. Therefore, the divergence at any other point is zero.
== Definition ==
The divergence of a vector field at a point is defined as the limit of the ratio of the surface integral of out of the closed surface of a volume enclosing to the volume of , as shrinks to zero
where is the volume of , is the boundary of , and \mathbf{\hat n} is the outward unit normal to that surface. It can be shown that the above limit always converges to the same value for any sequence of volumes that contain and approach zero volume. The result, , is a scalar function of .
Since this definition is coordinate-free, it shows that the divergence is the same in any coordinate system. However the above definition is not often used practically to calculate divergence; when the vector field is given in a coordinate system the coordinate definitions below are much simpler to use.
A vector field with zero divergence everywhere is called solenoidal – in which case any closed surface has no net flux across it.
== Definition in coordinates ==
===Cartesian coordinates===
In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field \mathbf{F} = F_x\mathbf{i} + F_y\mathbf{j} + F_z\mathbf{k} is defined as the scalar-valued function:
\operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F} = \left(\frac{\partial}{\partial x}, \frac{\partial}{\partial y}, \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \right) \cdot (F_x,F_y,F_z) = \frac{\partial F_x}{\partial x}+\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial y}+\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z}.
Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under rotations, as the physical interpretation suggests. This is because the trace of the Jacobian matrix of an -dimensional vector field in -dimensional space is invariant under any invertible linear transformation.
The common notation for the divergence is a convenient mnemonic, where the dot denotes an operation reminiscent of the dot product: take the components of the operator (see del), apply them to the corresponding components of , and sum the results. Because applying an operator is different from multiplying the components, this is considered an abuse of notation.
=== Cylindrical coordinates ===
For a vector expressed in local unit cylindrical coordinates as
\mathbf{F} = \mathbf{e}_r F_r + \mathbf{e}_\theta F_\theta + \mathbf{e}_z F_z,
where is the unit vector in direction , the divergence is
\operatorname{div} \mathbf F = \nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = \frac{1}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left(r F_r\right) + \frac1r \frac{\partial F_\theta}{\partial\theta} + \frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z}.
The use of local coordinates is vital for the validity of the expression. If we consider the position vector and the functions , , and , which assign the corresponding global cylindrical coordinate to a vector, in general and In particular, if we consider the identity function , we find that:
\theta(\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{x})) = \theta \neq F_{\theta}(\mathbf{x}) = 0.
=== Spherical coordinates ===
In spherical coordinates, with the angle with the axis and the rotation around the axis, and again written in local unit coordinates, the divergence is
\operatorname{div}\mathbf{F} = \nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = \frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left(r^2 F_r\right) + \frac{1}{r\sin\theta} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \left(\sin\theta\, F_\theta\right) + \frac{1}{r \sin\theta} \frac{\partial F_\varphi}{\partial \varphi}.
=== Tensor field ===
Let be continuously differentiable second-order tensor field defined as follows:
\mathbf{A} = \begin{bmatrix}
A_{11} & A_{12} & A_{13} \\
A_{21} & A_{22} & A_{23} \\
A_{31} & A_{32} & A_{33}
\end{bmatrix}
the divergence in cartesian coordinate system is a first-order tensor field and can be defined in two ways:
\operatorname{div} (\mathbf{A})
= \frac{\partial A_{ik}}{\partial x_k}~\mathbf{e}_i = A_{ik,k}~\mathbf{e}_i
= \begin{bmatrix}
\dfrac{\partial A_{11}}{\partial x_1} +\dfrac{\partial A_{12}}{\partial x_2} +\dfrac{\partial A_{13}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{21}}{\partial x_1} +\dfrac{\partial A_{22}}{\partial x_2} +\dfrac{\partial A_{23}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{31}}{\partial x_1} +\dfrac{\partial A_{32}}{\partial x_2} +\dfrac{\partial A_{33}}{\partial x_3}
\end{bmatrix}
and
\nabla \cdot \mathbf A = \frac{\partial A_{ki}}{\partial x_k} ~\mathbf{e}_i = A_{ki,k}~\mathbf{e}_i =
\begin{bmatrix}
\dfrac{\partial A_{11}}{\partial x_1} + \dfrac{\partial A_{21}}{\partial x_2} + \dfrac{\partial A_{31}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{12}}{\partial x_1} + \dfrac{\partial A_{22}}{\partial x_2} + \dfrac{\partial A_{32}}{\partial x_3} \\
\dfrac{\partial A_{13}}{\partial x_1} + \dfrac{\partial A_{23}}{\partial x_2} + \dfrac{\partial A_{33}}{\partial x_3} \\
\end{bmatrix}
We have
\operatorname{div} {\left(\mathbf{A}^\mathsf{T}\right)} = \nabla \cdot \mathbf A
If tensor is symmetric then Because of this, often in the literature the two definitions (and symbols and \nabla \cdot) are used interchangeably (especially in mechanics equations where tensor symmetry is assumed).
Expressions of \nabla\cdot\mathbf A in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given in the article del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
=== General coordinates ===
Using Einstein notation we can consider the divergence in general coordinates, which we write as , where is the number of dimensions of the domain. Here, the upper index refers to the number of the coordinate or component, so refers to the second component, and not the quantity squared. The index variable is used to refer to an arbitrary component, such as . The divergence can then be written via the Voss-Weyl formula, as:
\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}) = \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial {\left(\rho \, F^i\right)}}{\partial x^i},
where \rho is the local coefficient of the volume element and are the components of \mathbf{F} = F^i\mathbf{e}_i with respect to the local unnormalized covariant basis (sometimes written as The Einstein notation implies summation over , since it appears as both an upper and lower index.
The volume coefficient is a function of position which depends on the coordinate system. In Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates, using the same conventions as before, we have , and , respectively. The volume can also be expressed as \rho = \sqrt{\left|\det g_{ab}\right|}, where is the metric tensor. The determinant appears because it provides the appropriate invariant definition of the volume, given a set of vectors. Since the determinant is a scalar quantity which doesn't depend on the indices, these can be suppressed, writing The absolute value is taken in order to handle the general case where the determinant might be negative, such as in pseudo-Riemannian spaces. The reason for the square-root is a bit subtle: it effectively avoids double-counting as one goes from curved to Cartesian coordinates, and back. The volume (the determinant) can also be understood as the Jacobian of the transformation from Cartesian to curvilinear coordinates, which for gives
Some conventions expect all local basis elements to be normalized to unit length, as was done in the previous sections. If we write \hat{\mathbf{e}}_i for the normalized basis, and \hat{F}^i for the components of with respect to it, we have that
\mathbf{F} = F^i \mathbf{e}_i =
F^i \|{\mathbf{e}_i }\| \frac{\mathbf{e}_i}{\| \mathbf{e}_i \|} =
F^i \sqrt{g_{ii}} \, \hat{\mathbf{e}}_i =
\hat{F}^i \hat{\mathbf{e}}_i,
using one of the properties of the metric tensor. By dotting both sides of the last equality with the contravariant element ^i,}} we can conclude that F^i = \hat{F}^i / \sqrt{g_{ii}}. After substituting, the formula becomes:
\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}) = \frac 1{\rho} \frac{\partial \left(\frac{\rho}{\sqrt{g_{ii}}}\hat{F}^i\right)}{\partial x^i} =
\frac 1{\sqrt{\det g}} \frac{\partial \left(\sqrt{\frac{\det g}{g_{ii}}}\,\hat{F}^i\right)}{\partial x^i}.
See for further discussion.
== Properties ==
The following properties can all be derived from the ordinary differentiation rules of calculus. Most importantly, the divergence is a linear operator, i.e.,
\operatorname{div}(a\mathbf{F} + b\mathbf{G}) = a \operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} + b \operatorname{div} \mathbf{G}
for all vector fields and and all real numbers and .
There is a product rule of the following type: if is a scalar-valued function and is a vector field, then
\operatorname{div}(\varphi \mathbf{F}) = \operatorname{grad} \varphi \cdot \mathbf{F} + \varphi \operatorname{div} \mathbf{F},
or in more suggestive notation
\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F}) = (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} + \varphi (\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}).
Another product rule for the cross product of two vector fields and in three dimensions involves the curl and reads as follows:
\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G}) = \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{F} \cdot\mathbf{G} - \mathbf{F} \cdot \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{G},
or
\nabla\cdot(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G}) = (\nabla\times\mathbf{F})\cdot\mathbf{G} - \mathbf{F}\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{G}).
The Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the field's gradient:
\operatorname{div}(\operatorname{grad}\varphi) = \Delta\varphi.
The divergence of the curl of any vector field (in three dimensions) is equal to zero:
\nabla\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{F})=0.
If a vector field with zero divergence is defined on a ball in , then there exists some vector field on the ball with . For regions in more topologically complicated than this, the latter statement might be false (see Poincaré lemma). The degree of failure of the truth of the statement, measured by the homology of the chain complex
\{ \text{scalar fields on } U \} ~ \overset{\operatorname{grad}}{\rarr} ~ \{ \text{vector fields on } U \} ~ \overset{\operatorname{curl}}{\rarr} ~ \{ \text{vector fields on } U \} ~ \overset{\operatorname{div}}{\rarr} ~ \{ \text{scalar fields on } U \}
serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region . These are the beginnings and main motivations of de Rham cohomology.
== Decomposition theorem==
It can be shown that any stationary flux that is twice continuously differentiable in and vanishes sufficiently fast for can be decomposed uniquely into an irrotational part and a source-free part . Moreover, these parts are explicitly determined by the respective source densities (see above) and circulation densities (see the article Curl):
For the irrotational part one has
\mathbf E=-\nabla \Phi(\mathbf r),
with
\Phi (\mathbf{r})=\int_{\mathbb R^3}\,d^3\mathbf r'\;\frac{\operatorname{div} \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi\left|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'\right|}.
The source-free part, , can be similarly written: one only has to replace the scalar potential by a vector potential and the terms by , and the source density
by the circulation density .
This "decomposition theorem" is a by-product of the stationary case of electrodynamics. It is a special case of the more general Helmholtz decomposition, which works in dimensions greater than three as well.
==In arbitrary finite dimensions==
The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any finite number n of dimensions. If
\mathbf{F} = (F_1 , F_2 , \ldots F_n) ,
in a Euclidean coordinate system with coordinates , define
\operatorname{div} \mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F} = \frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x_1} + \frac{\partial F_2}{\partial x_2} + \cdots + \frac{\partial F_n}{\partial x_n}.
In the 1D case, reduces to a regular function, and the divergence reduces to the derivative.
For any , the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the "product rule"
\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F}) = (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} + \varphi (\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F})
for any scalar-valued function .
==Relation to the exterior derivative==
One can express the divergence as a particular case of the exterior derivative, which takes a 2-form to a 3-form in . Define the current two-form as
j = F_1 \, dy \wedge dz + F_2 \, dz \wedge dx + F_3 \, dx \wedge dy .
It measures the amount of "stuff" flowing through a surface per unit time in a "stuff fluid" of density moving with local velocity . Its exterior derivative is then given by
dj = \left(\frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x} +\frac{\partial F_2}{\partial y} +\frac{\partial F_3}{\partial z} \right) dx \wedge dy \wedge dz = (\nabla \cdot {\mathbf F}) \rho
where \wedge is the wedge product.
Thus, the divergence of the vector field can be expressed as:
\nabla \cdot {\mathbf F} = {\star} d{\star} \big({\mathbf F}^\flat \big) .
Here the superscript is one of the two musical isomorphisms, and is the Hodge star operator. When the divergence is written in this way, the operator {\star} d{\star} is referred to as the codifferential. Working with the current two-form and the exterior derivative is usually easier than working with the vector field and divergence, because unlike the divergence, the exterior derivative commutes with a change of (curvilinear) coordinate system.
==In curvilinear coordinates==
The appropriate expression is more complicated in curvilinear coordinates. The divergence of a vector field extends naturally to any differentiable manifold of dimension that has a volume form (or density) , e.g. a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold. Generalising the construction of a two-form for a vector field on , on such a manifold a vector field defines an -form obtained by contracting with . The divergence is then the function defined by
dj = (\operatorname{div} X) \mu .
The divergence can be defined in terms of the Lie derivative as
{\mathcal L}_X \mu = (\operatorname{div} X) \mu .
This means that the divergence measures the rate of expansion of a unit of volume (a volume element) as it flows with the vector field.
On a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the divergence with respect to the volume can be expressed in terms of the Levi-Civita connection :
\operatorname{div} X = \nabla \cdot X = {X^a}_{;a} ,
where the second expression is the contraction of the vector field valued 1-form with itself and the last expression is the traditional coordinate expression from Ricci calculus.
An equivalent expression without using a connection is
\operatorname{div}(X) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\left|\det g \right|}} \, \partial_a \left(\sqrt{\left|\det g \right|} \, X^a\right),
where is the metric and \partial_a denotes the partial derivative with respect to coordinate . The square-root of the (absolute value of the determinant of the) metric appears because the divergence must be written with the correct conception of the volume. In curvilinear coordinates, the basis vectors are no longer orthonormal; the determinant encodes the correct idea of volume in this case. It appears twice, here, once, so that the X^a can be transformed into "flat space" (where coordinates are actually orthonormal), and once again so that \partial_a is also transformed into "flat space", so that finally, the "ordinary" divergence can be written with the "ordinary" concept of volume in flat space (i.e. unit volume, i.e. one, i.e. not written down). The square-root appears in the denominator, because the derivative transforms in the opposite way (contravariantly) to the vector (which is covariant). This idea of getting to a "flat coordinate system" where local computations can be done in a conventional way is called a vielbein. A different way to see this is to note that the divergence is the codifferential in disguise. That is, the divergence corresponds to the expression \star d\star with d the differential and \star the Hodge star. The Hodge star, by its construction, causes the volume form to appear in all of the right places.
==The divergence of tensors==
Divergence can also be generalised to tensors. In Einstein notation, the divergence of a contravariant vector is given by
\nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = \nabla_\mu F^\mu ,
where denotes the covariant derivative. In this general setting, the correct formulation of the divergence is to recognize that it is a codifferential; the appropriate properties follow from there.
Equivalently, some authors define the divergence of a mixed tensor by using the musical isomorphism : if is a -tensor ( for the contravariant vector and for the covariant one), then we define the divergence of to be the -tensor
(\operatorname{div} T) (Y_1 , \ldots , Y_{q-1}) = {\operatorname{trace}} \Big(X \mapsto \sharp (\nabla T) (X , \cdot , Y_1 , \ldots , Y_{q-1}) \Big);
that is, we take the trace over the first two covariant indices of the covariant derivative.
The \sharp symbol refers to the musical isomorphism.
|
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"Cylindrical coordinate system",
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"Laplacian",
"covariant derivative",
"differential of a function",
"velocity",
"vector (mathematics and physics)",
"Einstein notation",
"electrodynamics",
"Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates",
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"density on a manifold",
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"exterior derivative",
"codifferential",
"differentiable manifold",
"Hermann Weyl",
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"mixed tensor",
"Lorentzian manifold",
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"Hodge star operator",
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"chain complex",
"determinant",
"solenoidal vector field",
"vector calculus"
] |
8,334 |
December 18
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
1118 – The city of Zaragoza is conquered by king Alfonso I of Aragon from the Almoravid.
1271 – Kublai Khan renames his empire "Yuan" (元 yuán), officially marking the start of the Yuan dynasty of Mongolia and China.
1499 – A rebellion breaks out in Alpujarras in response to the forced conversions of Muslims in Spain.
===1601–1900===
1622 – Portuguese forces score a military victory over the Kingdom of Kongo at the Battle of Mbumbi in present-day Angola.
1655 – The Whitehall Conference ends with the determination that there was no law preventing Jews from re-entering England after the Edict of Expulsion of 1290.
1777 – The United States celebrates its first Thanksgiving, marking the recent victory by the American rebels over British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga in October.
1787 – New Jersey becomes the third state to ratify the U.S. Constitution.
1793 – Surrender of the frigate La Lutine by French Royalists to Lord Samuel Hood; renamed , she later becomes a famous treasure wreck.
1833 – The national anthem of the Russian Empire, "God Save the Tsar!", is first performed.
1854 – The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada abolishes the seigneurial system.
1865 – US Secretary of State William Seward proclaims the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slavery throughout the United States.
1867 – A magnitude 7.0 earthquakes strikes off the coast of Taiwan, triggering a tsunami and killing at least 580 people.
1878 – The Al-Thani family become the rulers of the state of Qatar.
1892 – Premiere performance of The Nutcracker by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in Saint Petersburg, Russia.
1898 – Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat sets the first officially recognized land speed record of in a Jeantaud electric car.
===1901–present===
1916 – World War I: The Battle of Verdun ends when the second French offensive pushes the Germans back two or three kilometres, causing them to cease their attacks.
1917 – The resolution containing the language of the Eighteenth Amendment to enact Prohibition is passed by the United States Congress.
1932 – The Chicago Bears defeat the Portsmouth Spartans in the first NFL playoff game to win the NFL Championship.
1935 – The Lanka Sama Samaja Party is founded in Ceylon.
1939 – World War II: The Battle of the Heligoland Bight, the first major air battle of the war, takes place.
1944 – World War II: XX Bomber Command responds to the Japanese Operation Ichi-Go offensive by dropping five hundred tons of incendiary bombs on a supply base in Hankow, China.
1944 – The Supreme Court of the United States issued its decision in Korematsu v. United States supporting Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 which cleared the way for the incarceration of nearly all 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens, born and raised in the United States.
1957 – A violent F5 tornado wipes out the entire community of Sunfield, Illinois.
1958 – Project SCORE, the world's first communications satellite, is launched.
1966 – Saturn's moon Epimetheus is discovered by astronomer Richard Walker.
1972 – Vietnam War: President Richard Nixon announces that the United States will engage North Vietnam in Operation Linebacker II, a series of Christmas bombings, after peace talks collapsed with North Vietnam on the 13th.
1973 – Soviet Soyuz Programme: Soyuz 13, crewed by cosmonauts Valentin Lebedev and Pyotr Klimuk, is launched from Baikonur in the Soviet Union.
1977 – United Airlines Flight 2860 crashes near Kaysville, Utah, killing all three crew members on board.
1977 – SA de Transport Aérien Flight 730 crashes near Madeira Airport in Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, killing 36.
1981 – First flight of the Russian heavy strategic bomber Tu-160, the world's largest combat aircraft, largest supersonic aircraft and largest variable-sweep wing aircraft built.
1995 – A Lockheed L-188 Electra crashes in Jamba, Cuando Cubango, Angola, killing 141 people.
1999 – NASA launches into orbit the Terra platform carrying five Earth Observation instruments, including ASTER, CERES, MISR, MODIS and MOPITT.
2002 – California gubernatorial recall: Then Governor of California Gray Davis announces that the state would face a record budget deficit of $35 billion, roughly double the figure reported during his reelection campaign one month earlier.
2005 – The Chadian Civil War begins when rebel groups, allegedly backed by neighbouring Sudan, launch an attack in Adré.
2006 – The first of a series of floods strikes Malaysia. The death toll of all flooding is at least 118, with over 400,000 people displaced.
2006 – United Arab Emirates holds its first-ever elections.
2015 – Kellingley Colliery, the last deep coal mine in Great Britain, closes.
2017 – Amtrak Cascades passenger train 501, derailed near DuPont, Washington, a city in United States near Olympia, Washington killing six people, and injuring 70 others.
2018 – List of bolides: A meteor exploded over the Bering Sea with a force over 10 times greater than the atomic bomb that destroyed Hiroshima in 1945.
2019 – The United States House of Representatives impeaches Donald Trump for the first time.
2022 – Argentina win the 2022 FIFA World Cup final, defeating title holders France 4–2 on penalties following a 3–3 draw after extra time.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
1406 – Richard Olivier de Longueil, French Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal (d. 1470)
1481 – Sophie of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Saxony (d. 1503)
1499 – Sebald Heyden, German musicologist and theologian (d. 1561)
1505 – Philipp von Hutten, German explorer (d. 1546)
1507 – Ōuchi Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1551)
1552 – Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi, Moroccan writer, judge and mathematician (d. 1616)
1590 – William Louis, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (d. 1640)
===1601–1900===
1602 – Simonds d'Ewes, English historian and politician (d. 1650)
1610 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist and historian (d. 1688)
1620 – Heinrich Roth, German missionary and scholar (d. 1668)
1624 – John Hull, colonial American merchant and politician (d. 1683)
1626 – Christina, Queen of Sweden (d. 1689)
1660 – Countess Johanna Magdalene of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1715)
1661 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish physicist and inventor (d. 1751)
1662 – James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, Scottish colonel and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland (d. 1711)
1707 – Charles Wesley, English missionary and composer (d. 1788)
1725 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian and theologian (d. 1791)
1734 – Jean-Baptiste Rey, French conductor and composer (d. 1810)
1800 – James Watney, English brewer and businessman (d. 1884)
1824 – John Hall, English-New Zealand politician, 12th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1907)
1825 – Charles Griffin, American general (d. 1876)
1825 – John S. Harris, American surveyor and politician (d. 1906)
1825 – Mariano Ignacio Prado, Peruvian general, twice President of Peru (d. 1901)
1835 – Lyman Abbott, American minister, theologian, and author (d. 1922)
1847 – Augusta Holmès, French pianist and composer (d. 1903)
1849 – Henrietta Edwards, Canadian activist and author (d. 1931)
1856 – J. J. Thomson, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
1860 – Edward MacDowell, American pianist and composer (d. 1908)
1861 – Lionel Monckton, English composer and critic (d. 1924)
1863 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (d. 1914)
1867 – Foxhall P. Keene, American polo player and horse breeder (d. 1941)
1869 – Edward Willis Redfield, American painter and educator (d. 1965)
1870 – Saki, British short story writer (d. 1916)
1873 – Francis Burton Harrison, American general and politician, 6th Governor-General of the Philippines (d. 1957)
1875 – Matt McGrath, Irish-American hammer thrower (d. 1941)
1878 – Joseph Stalin, Georgian-Russian marshal and politician,General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1953)
1879 – Paul Klee, Swiss-German painter and educator (d. 1940)
1882 – Richard Maury, American-Argentinian engineer, designed the Salta–Antofagasta railway (d. 1950)
1884 – Emil Starkenstein, Czech pharmacologist, co-founded clinical pharmacology (d. 1942)
1886 – Ty Cobb, American baseball player and manager (d. 1961)
1887 – Bhikhari Thakur, Indian actor, singer, and playwright (d. 1971)
1888 – Gladys Cooper, English actress and singer (d. 1971)
1888 – Robert Moses, American urban planner (d. 1981)
1890 – Edwin Howard Armstrong, American engineer, invented FM radio (d. 1954)
1896 – Gerald Barry, English colonel and cricketer (d. 1977)
1897 – Fletcher Henderson, American pianist and composer (d. 1952)
1899 – Peter Wessel Zapffe, Norwegian philosopher and author (d. 1990)
===1901–present===
1904 – George Stevens, American director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1975)
1907 – Bill Holland, American race car driver (d. 1984)
1907 – Lawrence Lucie, American guitarist and educator (d. 2009)
1908 – Celia Johnson, English actress (d. 1982)
1908 – Paul Siple, American geographer and explorer (d. 1969)
1910 – Abe Burrows, American author, playwright, and director (d. 1985)
1910 – Eric Tindill, New Zealand rugby player, cricketer, and umpire (d. 2010)
1911 – Jules Dassin, American-Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
1912 – Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., American general and pilot (d. 2002)
1913 – Alfred Bester, American author and screenwriter (d. 1987)
1913 – Willy Brandt, German politician, 4th Chancellor of Germany, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)
1913 – Ray Meyer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2006)
1916 – Douglas Fraser, Scottish-American trade union leader and academic (d. 2008)
1916 – Betty Grable, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1973)
1917 – Ossie Davis, American actor and activist (d. 2005)
1931 – Bill Thompson, American television host (d. 2014)
1932 – Norm Provan, Australian rugby league player, coach, and businessman (d. 2021)
1932 – Roger Smith, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017)
1933 – Lonnie Brooks, American blues singer and guitarist (d. 2017)
1934 – Marc Rich, Belgian-American businessman, founded Glencore (d. 2013)
1934 – Boris Volynov, Russian colonel, engineer, and cosmonaut
1935 – Rosemary Leach, English actress (d. 2017)
1935 – Jacques Pépin, French-American chef and author
1939 – Michael Moorcock, English author and songwriter
1939 – Harold E. Varmus, American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
1940 – Ilario Castagner, Italian football manager (d. 2023)
1940 – John Cooper, English sprinter and hurdler (d. 1974)
1941 – Sam Andrew, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)
1941 – Wadada Leo Smith, American trumpet player and composer
1941 – Joan Wallach Scott, American historian, author, and academic
1942 – Lenore Blum, American mathematician and academic
1942 – Bobby Keyes, Australian rugby league player (d. 2022)
1943 – Bobby Keys, American saxophone player (d. 2014)
1943 – Keith Richards, English musician
1943 – Alan Rudolph, American director and screenwriter
1944 – Crispian Steele-Perkins, English trumpet player and educator
1945 – Jean Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
1946 – Steve Biko, South African activist, founded the Black Consciousness Movement (d. 1977)
1947 – Leonid Yuzefovich, Russian author and screenwriter
1948 – George T. Johnson, American basketball player
1948 – Bill Nelson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1948 – Mimmo Paladino, Italian sculptor and painter
1948 – Laurent Voulzy, French-English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1949 – David A. Johnston, American volcanologist and geologist (d. 1980)
1950 – Gillian Armstrong, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter
1950 – Randy Castillo, American drummer and songwriter (d. 2002)
1950 – Sarath Fonseka, Sri Lankan general and politician
1950 – Lizmark, Mexican wrestler (d. 2015)
1950 – Leonard Maltin, American historian, author, and critic
1952 – John Leventhal, American songwriter and producer
1953 – Kevin Beattie, English footballer (d. 2018)
1953 – Elliot Easton, American guitarist and singer
1954 – Willi Wülbeck, German runner
1955 – Vijay Mallya, Indian businessman and politician
1955 – Bogusław Mamiński, Polish runner
1956 – Ron White, American comedian
1972 – Anzhela Balakhonova, Ukrainian pole vaulter
1972 – Raymond Herrera, American drummer and songwriter
1972 – DJ Lethal, Latvian-American musician
1973 – Fatuma Roba, Ethiopian runner
1974 – Peter Boulware, American football player and politician
1974 – Knut Schreiner, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and producer
1975 – Randy Houser, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1975 – Sia, Australian singer-songwriter
1978 – Ali Curtis, American soccer player
1978 – Josh Dallas, American actor
1980 – Neil Fingleton, English actor and basketball player, one of the tallest 25 men in the world (d. 2017)
1980 – Benjamin Watson, American football player
1983 – Andy Fantuz, Canadian football player
1984 – Brian Boyle, American ice hockey player
1984 – Paul Harrison, English footballer
1984 – Giuliano Razzoli, Italian skier
1984 – Derrick Tribbett, American bass player and singer
1986 – Chris Carter, American baseball player
1986 – François Hamelin, Canadian speed skater
1986 – Usman Khawaja, Pakistani-Australian cricketer
1987 – Miki Ando, Japanese figure skater
1988 – Lizzie Deignan, English cyclist
1988 – Seth Doege, American football player
1988 – Brianne Theisen-Eaton, Canadian heptathlete
1988 – Imad Wasim, Pakistani cricketer
1989 – Ashley Benson, American actress and singer
1990 – Victor Hedman, Swedish ice hockey player
1990 – Sierra Kay, American singer-songwriter
1991 – Marcus Butler, English model and YouTuber
1992 – Ryan Crouser, American shot putter
1992 – Bridgit Mendler, American singer-songwriter and actress
1993 – Byron Buxton, American baseball player
1993 – Thomas Lam, Finnish footballer
1994 – Gerard Gumbau, Spanish footballer
1994 – Natália Kelly, American-Austrian singer
1995 – Barbora Krejčíková, Czech tennis player
1995 – Lim Na-young, South Korean singer and actress
1997 – Ronald Acuña Jr., Venezuelan baseball player
1997 – Alex DeBrincat, American ice hockey player
2000 – Jayden Daniels, American football player
2000 – Korapat Kirdpan, Thai actor and singer
2000 – Travon Walker, American football player
2001 – Billie Eilish, American singer
2001 – Jalen Johnson, American basketball player
2002 – Giuliano Simeone, Argentine footballer
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
919 – Lady Wu, wife of Qian Liu (b. 858)
933 – Yaonian Yanmujin, Chinese empress dowager
1075 – Edith of Wessex (b. 1025)
1133 – Hildebert, French poet and scholar (b. 1055)
1290 – Magnus III, king of Sweden (b. 1240)
1442 – Pierre Cauchon, French Catholic bishop (b. 1371)
1495 – Alfonso II of Naples (b. 1448)
1577 – Anna of Saxony, Princess consort of Orange (b. 1544)
===1601–1900===
1645 – Nur Jahan, empress consort of the Mughal Empire (b. 1577)
1651 – William Brabazon, 1st Earl of Meath, English lawyer and politician (b. 1580)
1692 – Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff, German scholar and politician (b. 1626)
1737 – Antonio Stradivari, Italian instrument maker (b. 1644)
1787 – Soame Jenyns, English poet and politician (b. 1704)
1799 – Jean-Étienne Montucla, French mathematician and historian (b. 1725)
1803 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, theologian, and poet (b. 1744)
1829 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, French soldier, biologist, and academic (b. 1744)
1843 – Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch, Scottish-English general and politician (b. 1748)
1848 – Bernard Bolzano, Bohemian priest and mathematician (b. 1781)
1864 – José Justo Corro, Mexican politician, President of Mexico (1836–1837) (b. 1794)
1869 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American pianist and composer (b. 1829)
1880 – Michel Chasles, French mathematician and academic (b. 1793)
1892 – Richard Owen, English biologist, anatomist, and paleontologist (b. 1804)
===1901–present===
1919 – John Alcock, English captain and pilot (b. 1892)
1922 – Sir Carl Meyer, 1st Baronet, German-English banker and businessman (b. 1851)
1925 – Hamo Thornycroft, English sculptor and academic (b. 1850)
1932 – Eduard Bernstein, German theorist and politician (b. 1850)
1936 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (b. 1857)
1939 – Ernest Lawson, Canadian-American painter (b. 1873)
1961 – Leo Reisman, American violinist and bandleader (b. 1897)
1969 – Charles Dvorak, American pole vaulter and coach (b. 1878)
1971 – Bobby Jones, American golfer and lawyer (b. 1902)
1971 – Diana Lynn, American actress (b. 1926)
1972 – Neilia Hunter Biden, first wife of Joe Biden (b. 1942)
1973 – Allamah Rasheed Turabi, Indian-Pakistani religious leader and philosopher (b. 1908)
1974 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1887)
1975 – Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ukrainian geneticist and biologist (b. 1900)
1977 – Michio Nishizawa, Japanese baseball player and manager (b. 1921)
1977 – Louis Untermeyer American poet, anthologist, critic (b. 1885)
1980 – Dobriša Cesarić, Croatian poet and translator (b. 1902)
1980 – Alexei Kosygin, Russian soldier and politician, 8th Premier of the Soviet Union (b. 1904)
1982 – Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German colonel and pilot (b. 1916)
1985 – Xuân Diệu, Vietnamese poet and author (b. 1916)
1987 – Conny Plank, German keyboard player and producer (b. 1940)
1988 – Niyazi Berkes, Turkish Cypriot-English sociologist and academic (b. 1908)
1990 – Anne Revere, American actress (b. 1903)
1990 – Paul Tortelier, French cellist and composer (b. 1914)
1990 – Joseph Zubin, Lithuanian-American psychologist and academic (b. 1900)
1991 – George Abecassis, English race car driver (b. 1913)
1992 – Mark Goodson, American game show producer, created Family Feud and The Price Is Right (b. 1915)
1993 – Helm Glöckler, German race car driver (b. 1909)
1993 – Sam Wanamaker, American-English actor, director, and producer (b. 1919)
1994 – Roger Apéry, Greek-French mathematician and academic (b. 1916)
1994 – Lilia Skala, Austrian-American actress (b. 1896)
1995 – Brian Brockless, English organist, composer, and conductor (b. 1926)
1995 – Ross Thomas, American author (b. 1926)
1995 – Konrad Zuse, German engineer, designed the Z3 computer (b. 1910)
1996 – Yulii Borisovich Khariton, Russian physicist and academic (b. 1904)
1996 – Irving Caesar, American composer (b. 1895)
1997 – Chris Farley, American comedian and actor (b. 1964)
1998 – Lev Dyomin, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1926)
1999 – Robert Bresson, French director and screenwriter (b. 1901)
2000 – Stan Fox, American race car driver (b. 1952)
2000 – Randolph Apperson Hearst, American businessman (b. 1915)
2000 – Kirsty MacColl, British singer-songwriter (b. 1959)
2001 – Gilbert Bécaud, French singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b. 1927)
2001 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (b. 1914)
2001 – Marcel Mule, French saxophonist and educator (b. 1901)
2002 – Necip Hablemitoğlu, Turkish historian and academic (b. 1954)
2002 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (b. 1934)
2002 – Wayne Owens, American lawyer and politician (b. 1937)
2002 – Lucy Grealy, Irish-American author (b. 1963)
2004 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (b. 1926)
2005 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and urban planner (b. 1922)
2006 – Joseph Barbera, American animator, director, and producer, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (b. 1911)
2006 – Ruth Bernhard, German-American photographer (b. 1905)
2006 – Shaukat Siddiqui, Pakistani author and activist (b. 1923)
2007 – Hans Billian, Polish-German actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1918)
2007 – Gerald Le Dain, Canadian lawyer and judge (b. 1924)
2007 – William Strauss, American author and playwright (b. 1947)
2007 – Alan Wagner, American businessman and critic (b. 1931)
2008 – Majel Barrett, American actress and producer (b. 1932)
2008 – Mark Felt, American FBI agent and informant (b. 1913)
2010 – Phil Cavarretta, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916)
2010 – Jacqueline de Romilly, French philologist, author, and scholar (b. 1913)
2010 – Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Economy and Finances (b. 1940)
2010 – James Pickles, English judge and journalist (b. 1925)
2011 – Václav Havel, Czech poet, playwright, and politician, 1st President of the Czech Republic (b. 1936)
2012 – Frank Macchiarola, American lawyer and academic (b. 1941)
2012 – Mustafa Ould Salek, Mauritanian colonel and politician, President of Mauritania (b. 1936)
2012 – Jim Whalen, American football player (b. 1943)
2012 – Anatoliy Zayaev, Ukrainian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1931)
2013 – Ken Hutcherson, American football player (b. 1952)
2013 – Graham Mackay, South African-English businessman (b. 1949)
2014 – Donald J. Albosta, American soldier and politician (b. 1925)
2014 – Gideon Ben-Yisrael, Israeli soldier and politician (b. 1923)
2014 – Larry Henley, American singer-songwriter (b. 1937)
2014 – Virna Lisi, Italian actress (b. 1936)
2014 – Mandy Rice-Davies, English model and actress (b. 1944)
2014 – Robert Simpson, American meteorologist and author (b. 1912)
2015 – Luc Brewaeys, Belgian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1959)
2015 – Helge Solum Larsen, Norwegian businessman and politician (b. 1969)
2016 – Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hungarian-American actress and socialite (b. 1917)
2017 – Kim Jong-hyun, South Korean singer (b. 1990)
2020 – Jerry Relph, American politician and member of the Minnesota Senate (b. 1944)
2021 – Sayaka Kanda, Japanese actress and singer (b. 1986)
2024 – Slim Dunlap, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951)
2024 – John Marsden, Australian writer (b. 1950)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Expectation of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Flannán
Gatianus of Tours
O Adonai
Sebastian (Eastern Orthodox Church)
Winibald
December 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
International Migrants Day
National Day (Qatar)
Republic Day (Niger)
UN Arabic Language Day (United Nations)
|
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"Phil Cavarretta",
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"Brian Brockless",
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"Gillian Armstrong",
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"Knut Schreiner",
"Qian Liu",
"1957",
"Boris Volynov",
"1505",
"Alison Plowden",
"Emil Starkenstein",
"The Price Is Right (U.S. game show)",
"Jacqueline de Romilly",
"Gene Shue",
"Douglas Fraser",
"John Burgoyne",
"Alfred Bester",
"Jalen Johnson",
"combat aircraft",
"Soyuz programme",
"1849",
"United Arab Emirates parliamentary election, 2006",
"Tupolev Tu-160",
"Francis Burton Harrison",
"Ossie Davis",
"Ross Thomas (author)",
"Governor-General of the Philippines",
"Betty Grable",
"Saki",
"Lawrence Wong",
"Amtrak Cascades",
"Soyuz 13",
"Ilario Castagner",
"Ryan Crouser",
"2004",
"Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer",
"Mille Petrozza",
"Diana Lynn",
"Niyazi Berkes",
"2022",
"1929",
"Louis Untermeyer",
"Johann Salomo Semler",
"Derrick Tribbett",
"Back Bay Books",
"Richard Olivier de Longueil",
"Sia",
"Bobby Keys",
"1932 NFL Playoff Game",
"Lim Na-young",
"Mongolia",
"Flannán",
"Valentin Lebedev",
"Lilia Skala",
"1896",
"Kim Jong-hyun",
"Chadian Civil War (2005–10)",
"Z3 (computer)",
"1995",
"Prime Minister of Singapore",
"Chris Carter (infielder)",
"1622",
"Sierra Kay",
"Dobriša Cesarić",
"1995 Trans Service Airlift Electra crash",
"Konrad Zuse",
"Charles Dvorak",
"National Centers for Environmental Information",
"Giannis Ploutarhos",
"933",
"Major League Baseball",
"Bhikhari Thakur",
"John Hull (merchant)",
"1884",
"1725",
"1942",
"United States Department of Commerce",
"Anatoliy Zayaev",
"Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501)",
"1875",
"Geordie Walker",
"1507",
"Malaysia",
"Leonard Maltin",
"Karl Dorrell",
"Bobby Jones (basketball, born 1951)",
"1873",
"land speed record",
"1602",
"Slim Dunlap",
"Saint Sebastian",
"Robert Simpson (meteorologist)",
"Jean-Baptiste Rey",
"Lalchand Rajput",
"Shawn Christian",
"1864",
"George Stevens",
"Eduard Bernstein",
"Heinrich Roth",
"2006",
"Ray Liotta",
"Giuliano Razzoli",
"FM radio",
"Harry Hooper",
"Miki Ando",
"José Justo Corro",
"1865",
"Sebald Heyden",
"Christopher Polhem",
"DreamWorks Pictures",
"1998",
"John Cooper (athlete)",
"Crispian Steele-Perkins",
"1917",
"Yulii Borisovich Khariton",
"1983",
"1878",
"1890",
"Battles of Saratoga",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ken Hutcherson",
"Bobby Keyes (rugby league)",
"Qatar",
"John Hall (New Zealand politician)",
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"1986",
"Christina Aguilera",
"Swedish House Mafia",
"Minnesota Senate",
"Sudan",
"2024",
"Helm Glöckler",
"SA de Transport Aérien Flight 730",
"Jean Pronovost",
"Stone Cold Steve Austin",
"UPI",
"Joan Wallach Scott",
"Yuan dynasty",
"Louis Moreau Gottschalk",
"MOPITT",
"BBC News",
"Victor Hedman",
"Stan Fox",
"La Liga",
"1897",
"Olympia, Washington",
"Lionel Monckton",
"XX Bomber Command",
"DMX",
"1955",
"Lenore Blum",
"Lizzie Deignan",
"Randy Castillo",
"Vijay Mallya",
"2005",
"Mimmo Paladino",
"Richard Maury",
"Kingdom of Kongo",
"1956",
"Sri Lanka",
"Wayne Owens",
"First impeachment of Donald Trump",
"Gatianus of Tours",
"Black Consciousness Movement",
"Portugal",
"1882",
"1991",
"John Alcock (RAF officer)",
"Angie Stone",
"Nobel Prize in Physics",
"1930",
"2014",
"1863",
"1957 Sunfield tornado",
"1793",
"Seigneurial system of New France",
"Ray Meyer",
"1968",
"Soame Jenyns",
"Majel Barrett",
"1620",
"Empress Dowager Yaonian Yanmujin",
"1645",
"Pierre Cauchon",
"Luc Brewaeys",
"1936",
"1973",
"Joel Hirschhorn",
"Edward Willis Redfield",
"Toine van Peperstraten",
"1847",
"Gideon Ben-Yisrael",
"Barkha Dutt",
"Santiago Cañizares",
"1944",
"Salta–Antofagasta railway",
"1997",
"Lockheed L-188 Electra",
"California",
"Battle of Adré",
"Peter Boulware",
"Korematsu v. United States",
"Willi Wülbeck",
"UN Arabic Language Day",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Baikonur",
"Jean-Étienne Montucla",
"Greg D'Angelo",
"1835",
"1861",
"1911",
"Pierre Nkurunziza",
"Helge Solum Larsen",
"George T. Johnson",
"Ruth Bernhard",
"World War II",
"Aviation Safety Network",
"Paul Tortelier",
"United Arab Emirates",
"Lonnie Brooks",
"1948",
"1960",
"1856",
"Hanna-Barbera",
"Bill Skowron",
"Mirza Tahir Ahmad",
"Ali Curtis",
"1662",
"Bogusław Mamiński",
"Randy Houser",
"1945",
"forced conversions of Muslims in Spain",
"2017",
"2017 Washington train derailment",
"Ronald Acuña Jr.",
"O Adonai",
"1980",
"1661",
"1974",
"1988",
"Sam Andrew",
"Governor General of Canada",
"United States dollar",
"1290",
"Alfonso II of Naples",
"Josh Dallas",
"1737",
"Charles Oakley",
"Lanka Sama Samaja Party",
"2011",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"1610",
"Jack Brooks (American politician)",
"Bobby Jones (golfer)",
"John Booth (motor racing)",
"Michael Moorcock",
"Jules Dassin",
"1118",
"1803"
] |
8,336 |
Decision problem
|
In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a decision problem is a computational problem that can be posed as a yes–no question based on the given input values. An example of a decision problem is deciding with the help of an algorithm whether a given natural number is prime. Another example is the problem, "given two numbers x and y, does x evenly divide y?"
A method for solving a decision problem, given in the form of an algorithm, is called a decision procedure for that problem. A decision procedure for the decision problem "given two numbers x and y, does x evenly divide y?" would give the steps for determining whether x evenly divides y. One such algorithm is long division. If the remainder is zero the answer is 'yes', otherwise it is 'no'. A decision problem which can be solved by an algorithm is called decidable.
Decision problems typically appear in mathematical questions of decidability, that is, the question of the existence of an effective method to determine the existence of some object or its membership in a set; some of the most important problems in mathematics are undecidable.
The field of computational complexity categorizes decidable decision problems by how difficult they are to solve. "Difficult", in this sense, is described in terms of the computational resources needed by the most efficient algorithm for a certain problem. The field of recursion theory, meanwhile, categorizes undecidable decision problems by Turing degree, which is a measure of the noncomputability inherent in any solution.
==Definition==
A decision problem is a yes-or-no question on an infinite set of inputs. It is traditional to define the decision problem as the set of possible inputs together with the set of inputs for which the answer is yes.
These inputs can be natural numbers, but can also be values of some other kind, like binary strings or strings over some other alphabet. The subset of strings for which the problem returns "yes" is a formal language, and often decision problems are defined as formal languages.
Using an encoding such as Gödel numbering, any string can be encoded as a natural number, via which a decision problem can be defined as a subset of the natural numbers. Therefore, the algorithm of a decision problem is to compute the characteristic function of a subset of the natural numbers.
==Examples==
A classic example of a decidable decision problem is the set of prime numbers. It is possible to effectively decide whether a given natural number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor. Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability.
== Decidability ==
A decision problem is decidable or effectively solvable if the set of inputs (or natural numbers) for which the answer is yes is a recursive set. A problem is partially decidable, semidecidable, solvable, or provable if the set of inputs (or natural numbers) for which the answer is yes is a recursively enumerable set. Problems that are not decidable are undecidable. For those it is not possible to create an algorithm, efficient or otherwise, that solves them.
The halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list of undecidable problems.
== Complete problems ==
Decision problems can be ordered according to many-one reducibility and related to feasible reductions such as polynomial-time reductions. A decision problem P is said to be complete for a set of decision problems S if P is a member of S and every problem in S can be reduced to P. Complete decision problems are used in computational complexity theory to characterize complexity classes of decision problems. For example, the Boolean satisfiability problem is complete for the class NP of decision problems under polynomial-time reducibility.
==Function problems==
Decision problems are closely related to function problems, which can have answers that are more complex than a simple 'yes' or 'no'. A corresponding function problem is "given two numbers x and y, what is x divided by y?".
A function problem consists of a partial function f; the informal "problem" is to compute the values of f on the inputs for which it is defined.
Every function problem can be turned into a decision problem; the decision problem is just the graph of the associated function. (The graph of a function f is the set of pairs (x,y) such that f(x) = y.) If this decision problem were effectively solvable then the function problem would be as well. This reduction does not respect computational complexity, however. For example, it is possible for the graph of a function to be decidable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of the pair (x,y)) when the function is not computable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of x alone). The function f(x) = 2x has this property.
Every decision problem can be converted into the function problem of computing the characteristic function of the set associated to the decision problem. If this function is computable then the associated decision problem is decidable. However, this reduction is more liberal than the standard reduction used in computational complexity (sometimes called polynomial-time many-one reduction); for example, the complexity of the characteristic functions of an NP-complete problem and its co-NP-complete complement is exactly the same even though the underlying decision problems may not be considered equivalent in some typical models of computation.
==Optimization problems==
Unlike decision problems, for which there is only one correct answer for each input, optimization problems are concerned with finding the best answer to a particular input. Optimization problems arise naturally in many applications, such as the traveling salesman problem and many questions in linear programming.
Function and optimization problems are often transformed into decision problems by considering the question of whether the output is equal to or less than or equal to a given value. This allows the complexity of the corresponding decision problem to be studied; and in many cases the original function or optimization problem can be solved by solving its corresponding decision problem. For example, in the traveling salesman problem, the optimization problem is to produce a tour with minimal weight. The associated decision problem is: for each N, to decide whether the graph has any tour with weight less than N. By repeatedly answering the decision problem, it is possible to find the minimal weight of a tour.
Because the theory of decision problems is very well developed, research in complexity theory has typically focused on decision problems. Optimization problems themselves are still of interest in computability theory, as well as in fields such as operations research.
|
[
"halting problem",
"algorithm",
"computability theory",
"computational problem",
"undecidable problem",
"partial function",
"Turing degree",
"Decidability (logic)",
"ALL (complexity)",
"computational complexity theory",
"computational resource",
"Indicator function",
"NP (complexity)",
"formal language",
"polynomial-time reduction",
"complexity class",
"long division",
"list of undecidable problems",
"function problem",
"recursively enumerable set",
"many-one reduction",
"Complement (complexity)",
"recursive set",
"indicator function",
"primality testing",
"effective method",
"co-NP-complete",
"Search problem",
"traveling salesman problem",
"recursion theory",
"decidability (logic)",
"yes–no question",
"Gödel numbering",
"NP-complete",
"string (computer science)",
"linear programming",
"complete problem",
"Prime number",
"Boolean satisfiability problem",
"logical theory",
"Counting problem (complexity)",
"polynomial time",
"Computational problem",
"infinite set",
"Alphabet (computer science)",
"operations research",
"Word problem (mathematics)"
] |
8,339 |
Domain Name System
|
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and distributed name service that provides a naming system for computers, services, and other resources on the Internet or other Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It associates various information with domain names (identification strings) assigned to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating authoritative name servers for each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority over subdomains of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault-tolerant service and was designed to avoid a single large central database. In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of the database service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the Internet protocol suite.
The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the IP address spaces. The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.
The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (SOA), IP addresses (A and AAAA), SMTP mail exchangers (MX), name servers (NS), pointers for reverse DNS lookups (PTR), and domain name aliases (CNAME). Although not intended to be a general-purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as DNSSEC records, or for human queries such as responsible person (RP) records. As a general-purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating unsolicited email (spam) by storing blocklists. The DNS database is conventionally stored in a structured text file, the zone file, but other database systems are common.
The Domain Name System originally used the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) as transport over IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments.
==Function==
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the hostname www.example.com within the domain name example.com translates to the addresses (IPv4) and (IPv6). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
An important and ubiquitous function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the URL is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can simultaneously receive different translations for the same domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet.
==History==
Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the ARPANET era. The Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) maintained a text file named HOSTS.TXT that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET. Elizabeth Feinler developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by Jon Postel at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.
Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI Network Information Center (NIC), directed by Feinler, via telephone during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a WHOIS directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would have the domain edu, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.
By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to Paul Mockapetris. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the University of Southern California.
The Internet Engineering Task Force published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983. These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.
In 1984, four UC Berkeley students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first Unix name server implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as BIND. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of DEC substantially revised the DNS implementation. Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, and Paul Vixie then took over BIND maintenance. Internet Systems Consortium was founded in 1994 by Rick Adams, Paul Vixie, and Carl Malamud, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.
In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional Request for Comments have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.
==Structure ==
===Domain name space===
The domain name space consists of a tree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or more resource records (RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.
The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone may consist of as many domains and subdomains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to class where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.
Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be delegated to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.
===Domain name syntax, internationalization===
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.
The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example, the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.
A label may contain zero to 63 characters, because the length is only allowed to take 6 bits. The null label of length zero is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation (or 254 with the trailing dot). but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special automatic updating mechanism in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.
Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.
An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed authoritative, by setting a protocol flag, called the "Authoritative Answer" (AA) bit in its responses.
==Operation==
===Address resolution mechanism===
Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.
For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (hints) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.
Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for "www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the org servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the fully qualified domain name "www.wikipedia.org".
This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice caching is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.
====Recursive and caching name server====
In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.
To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question.
Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.
The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.
Internet service providers typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.
===DNS resolvers===
The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and iterative. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods.
As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.
Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all. Negative caching, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the minimum field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.
===Reverse lookup===
A reverse DNS lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain arpa. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.
When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
===Client lookup===
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined above, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
====Broken resolvers====
Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.
Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.
Internet Explorer represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.
When Google Chrome detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.
===Other applications===
The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.
Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in virtual hosting, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate fault tolerance and load distribution to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.
DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance, mail transfer agents use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver e-mail: An MX record provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.
The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of block-listed email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.
For example:
The address is block-listed. It points to , which resolves to .
The address is not block-listed and points to . This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to .
E-mail servers can query blocklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the block list. Many such block lists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.
To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of root name servers exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via anycast addressing.
Dynamic DNS (DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile hot spots, or when the IP address changes administratively.
==DNS message format==
The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field (flags) controls the content of these four sections.
The header section consists of the following fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions, Number of answers, Number of authority resource records (RRs), and Number of additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries.
After the flags word, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.
===Question section===
The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:
The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.
==Resource records==
The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a list of DNS record types, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (time to live), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a resource record set (RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement round-robin ordering to achieve load balancing. In contrast, the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.
When sent over an Internet Protocol network, all records (answer, authority, and additional sections) use the common format specified in RFC 1035:
NAME is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.
TYPE is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the A record is used to translate from a domain name to an IPv4 address, the NS record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a DNS zone, and the MX record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.
RDATA is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).
The CLASS of a record is set to IN (for Internet) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes Chaos (CH) and Hesiod (HS) exist. Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.
In addition to resource records defined in a zone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (on the wire), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for EDNS (OPT).
===Wildcard records===
The domain name system supports wildcard DNS records which specify names that start with the asterisk label, *, e.g., *.example. DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone x.example specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of x.example use the mail exchanger (MX) a.x.example. The AAAA record for a.x.example is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain a.x.example, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.
x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
.a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
a.x.example. AAAA 2001:db8::1
The role of wildcard records was refined in , because the original definition in was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers. Use of DNS over UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length. In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly, zone transfers. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers. For larger responses, the server refers the client to TCP transport.
===DNS over TLS (DoT)===
DNS over TLS emerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853. specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.
===DNS over HTTPS (DoH)===
DNS over HTTPS was developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS. DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.
===DNS over QUIC (DoQ)===
RFC 9250, published in 2022 by the Internet Engineering Task Force, describes DNS over QUIC. It has "privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) [...], and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP". This method is not the same as DNS over HTTP/3.
===Oblivious DoH (ODoH) and predecessor Oblivious DNS (ODNS)===
Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at Princeton University and the University of Chicago as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH). ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer encryption in a single protocol.
===DNS over Tor===
DNS may be run over virtual private networks (VPNs) and tunneling protocols. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.
===DNSCrypt===
The DNSCrypt protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the IETF standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic, or UDP port 443. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by OpenDNS in December 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH. It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and Windows.
==Security issues==
Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the requirements for security measures to protect data integrity and user authentication.
Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is DNS cache poisoning, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.
DNS responses traditionally do not have a cryptographic signature, leading to many attack possibilities; the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses. DNSCurve has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such as TSIG, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.
Techniques such as forward-confirmed reverse DNS can also be used to help validate DNS results.
DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and exfiltrate data, since it is often seen as innocuous.
=== DNS spoofing ===
Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example, and are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen typeface. In many fonts the letter l and the numeral 1 look very similar or even identical. This problem, known as the IDN homograph attack, is acute in systems that support internationalized domain names, as many character codes in ISO 10646 may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in phishing.
=== DNSMessenger ===
DNSMessenger is a type of cyber attack technique that uses the DNS to communicate and control malware remotely without relying on conventional protocols that might raise red flags. The DNSMessenger attack is covert because DNS is primarily used for domain name resolution and is often not closely monitored by network security tools, making it an effective channel for attackers to exploit.
This technique involves the use of DNS TXT records to send commands to infected systems. Once malware has been surreptitiously installed on a victim's machine, it reaches out to a controlled domain to retrieve commands encoded in DNS text records. This form of malware communication is stealthy, as DNS requests are usually allowed through firewalls, and because DNS traffic is often seen as benign, these communications can bypass many network security defenses.
DNSMessenger attacks can enable a wide array of malicious activities, from data exfiltration to the delivery of additional payloads, all while remaining under the radar of traditional network security measures. Understanding and defending against such methods are crucial for maintaining robust cybersecurity.
==Privacy and tracking issues==
Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables network packet sniffing, DNS hijacking, DNS cache poisoning and man-in-the-middle attacks. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on captive portals and censorship.
User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of content delivery networks.
The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:
VPNs, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP,
Tor, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous .onion domains, hiding both name resolution and user traffic behind onion routing counter-surveillance,
Proxies and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level advertisement or pornography blocking.
Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or DNS over HTTPS, DNS over TLS and DNSCrypt, which do provide such protection
Solutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and Internet censorship. They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet.
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance, DENIC, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, most Generic top-level domain (gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called thick registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.
For top-level domains on COM and NET, a thin registry model is used. The domain registry (e.g., GoDaddy, BigRock and PDR, VeriSign, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the Public Interest Registry exclusively.
Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars. In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers.
|
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"SMTP",
"zone file",
"load balancing (computing)",
"Domain Name System blocklist",
"Domain Name System Security Extensions",
"Unicode",
"Alternative DNS root",
"MX record",
"name server",
"root name server",
"Generic top-level domain",
"IP address",
"circular dependency",
"hostname",
"unsolicited email",
"Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre",
".onion",
"Rick Adams (Internet pioneer)",
"Princeton University",
"e-mail address",
"namespace",
"bit",
"web browser",
"String (computer science)",
"Internet service providers",
"data integrity",
"DNS cache poisoning",
"DNSSEC",
"content delivery network",
"OpenDNS",
"American Registry for Internet Numbers",
"HTTPS",
"DNS zone transfer",
"Master/slave (technology)",
"time-to-live",
"University of Chicago",
"Carl Malamud",
"Netflix",
"cryptographic signature",
"iOS",
"University of California, Berkeley",
"BIND",
"URL",
"cloud service",
"virtual hosting",
"Time to live",
"IPv4 address",
"Split-horizon DNS",
"Internet protocol suite",
"Ad blocking",
"QUIC",
"Octet (computing)",
"Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol",
"ISO 10646",
"Top-level domain",
"Domain Information Groper",
"identification (information)",
"Internationalized domain name",
"DNS leak",
"SRI International",
"University of Southern California",
"Data exfiltration",
"top-level domain",
"hosts (file)",
"DNS over HTTPS",
"DENIC",
"Internet Protocol",
"client–server model",
"Negative cache",
"DNSCrypt",
"e-mail client",
"country code top-level domain",
"TSIG",
"reverse DNS lookup",
"example.com",
"Android (operating system)",
"Jon Postel",
"telephone",
".edu",
"VeriSign",
"Hierarchical namespace",
"domain name",
"Application layer",
"DNSCurve",
"list of DNS record types",
"Microsoft Corporation",
"Internet Systems Consortium",
"wildcard DNS record",
"DNS hijacking",
"domain name alias",
"Public recursive name server",
"internationalized domain name",
"ICANN",
"List of DNS record types",
"SOA record",
"Zone file",
"authoritative name server",
"Google Chrome",
"User Datagram Protocol",
"ARPANET",
"Client-side",
"Directi",
"subdomain",
"name service",
"Comparison of DNS server software",
"Internet Engineering Task Force",
"domain name registry",
"WHOIS",
"telephone directory",
"GoDaddy",
"top level domain",
"DNS zone",
"data communication",
"Transmission Control Protocol",
"Dynamic DNS",
"man-in-the-middle attack",
"IPv6",
"IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting",
"Registration Data Access Protocol",
"AXFR",
"typeface",
"onion routing",
"Internet censorship",
"Paul Mockapetris",
"mail exchanger",
"Country code top-level domain",
"round-robin DNS",
"Sniffing attack",
"Public Interest Registry",
"Decentralized object location and routing",
"Unix",
"DNS root zone",
"Hotspot (Wi-Fi)",
"Proxy server",
"tunneling protocol",
"IANA",
"The Guardian",
"List of managed DNS providers",
"address space",
"Information Sciences Institute",
".arpa",
"network protocol",
"Punycode",
"DNS resolver",
"virtual private network",
"Chaosnet",
"Tor (network)",
"Request for Comments",
"Apple Inc.",
"DNS management software",
"GitHub",
"ISP",
"AAAA record",
"Facebook",
"Elizabeth J. Feinler",
"ACM Queue",
"authentication",
"Domain hijacking",
"DHCP",
"resolv.conf",
"anycast",
"Internet Explorer",
"Digital Equipment Corporation",
"Domain name registry",
"forward-confirmed reverse DNS",
"communication protocol",
"concatenated",
"Paul Vixie",
"e-mail",
"HTTP/3",
"distributed database",
"Extension Mechanisms for DNS",
"home router",
"phishing",
"computer",
"ASCII",
"DNS spoofing",
"OpenNIC",
"InterNIC",
"Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers",
"Slashdot",
"fully qualified domain name",
"fault tolerance",
"captive portal",
"Database model",
"Multicast DNS",
"Name server",
"DNS over TLS",
"Internet Society",
"DNS Long-Lived Queries",
"Hesiod (name service)",
"mail transfer agent",
"IDN homograph attack",
"Michael J. Karels",
"fault-tolerant",
"VPN",
"Tree (data structure)",
"IPv4",
"Ubiquitous computing"
] |
8,340 |
David Letterman
|
David Michael Letterman (born April 12, 1947) is an American television host, comedian, writer, producer, and auto racing team owner. He hosted late-night television talk shows for 33 years, beginning with the February 1, 1982, debut of Late Night with David Letterman on NBC and ending with the May 20, 2015, broadcast of Late Show with David Letterman on CBS. In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of Late Night and Late Show, surpassing his friend and mentor Johnny Carson as the longest-serving late-night talk show host in American television history.
He is also a television and film producer. His company, Worldwide Pants, produced his shows as well as The Late Late Show and several primetime comedies, the most successful of which was the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond. Several late-night hosts have cited Letterman's influence, including Conan O'Brien, Jimmy Fallon, Seth Meyers (each of whom succeeded Letterman on Late Night), Stephen Colbert (his successor on The Late Show), Jimmy Kimmel, and Jon Stewart. Since 2018, he has hosted the Netflix series My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman.
== Early life and career ==
Letterman was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, on April 12, 1947, and he has two sisters, one older and one younger. His father, Harry Joseph Letterman (April 15, 1915 – February 13, 1973), was a florist. His mother, Dorothy Marie Letterman Mengering (née Hofert; July 18, 1921 – April 11, 2017), a church secretary for the Second Presbyterian Church of Indianapolis, was an occasional figure on Letterman's show, usually at holidays and birthdays.
Letterman grew up on the north side of Indianapolis, in the Broad Ripple area, about from the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. He enjoyed collecting model cars, including racers. In 2000, he told an interviewer for Esquire that, while growing up, he admired his father's ability to tell jokes and be the life of the party. Harry Joseph Letterman survived a heart attack at the age of 36 when David was a young boy. The fear of losing his father was constantly with Letterman as he grew up. The elder Letterman died of a second heart attack in 1973 at the age of 57.
Letterman attended his hometown's Broad Ripple High School and worked as a stock boy at the local Atlas Supermarket. According to the Ball State Daily News, he originally wanted to attend Indiana University, but his grades were not good enough, so he instead attended Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana. He is a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity, and graduated in 1969 from what was then the Department of Radio and Television. A self-described average student, Letterman later endowed a scholarship for what he called "C students" at Ball State. Though he registered for the draft and passed his physical after graduating from college, he was not drafted for service in Vietnam because he received a draft lottery number of 346 (out of 366).
Letterman began his broadcasting career as an announcer and newscaster at the college's student-run radio station—WBST—a 10-watt campus station that is now part of Indiana Public Radio. He was fired for treating classical music with irreverence.
He credits Paul Dixon, host of the Paul Dixon Show, a Cincinnati-based talk show also shown in Indianapolis while he was growing up, for inspiring his choice of career:
I was just out of college [in 1969], and I really didn't know what I wanted to do. And then all of a sudden I saw him doing it [on TV]. And I thought: That's really what I want to do!
=== Weatherman ===
Soon after graduating from Ball State in 1969, Letterman began his career as a radio talk show host on WNTS and on Indianapolis television station WLWI (which changed its call sign to WTHR in 1976) as an anchor and weatherman. He received some attention for his novel on-air delivery, which included congratulating a tropical storm for being upgraded to a hurricane, as well as for predicting hailstones "the size of canned hams".
Letterman also occasionally reported the weather and the day's very high and low temps for fictitious cities ("Eight inches of snow in Bingree and surrounding areas"). On another occasion, he riffed that the state border between Indiana and Ohio had been erased, when a satellite map accidentally omitted it, jokingly attributing it to dirty political dealings: "The higher-ups have removed the border between Indiana and Ohio, making it one giant state. Personally, I'm against it. I don't know what to do about it."
Letterman also starred in a local kiddie show, hosted a late-night TV show called "Freeze-Dried Movies" (a show in which he once acted out a scene from Godzilla (1954) using plastic dinosaurs), and hosted a talk show that aired early on Saturday mornings called Clover Power, in which he interviewed 4-H members about their projects.
In 1971, Letterman appeared as a pit road reporter for ABC Sports' tape-delayed coverage of the Indianapolis 500, which was his first nationally telecast appearance (WLWI was the local ABC affiliate at the time). He was initially introduced as Chris Economaki, but this was corrected at the end of the interview (Jim McKay announced his name as Dave Letterman). Letterman interviewed Mario Andretti, who had just crashed out of the race.
=== Move to Los Angeles ===
In 1975, encouraged by his then-wife Michelle and several of his Sigma Chi fraternity brothers, Letterman moved to Los Angeles, California, with the hope of becoming a comedy writer. He and Michelle packed their belongings in his pickup truck and headed west. As of 2012, he still owned the truck. In Los Angeles, he began performing comedy at The Comedy Store. Jimmie Walker saw him on stage; with an endorsement from George Miller, Letterman joined a group of comedians whom Walker hired to write jokes for his stand-up act, a group that at various times also included Jay Leno, Paul Mooney, Robert Schimmel, Richard Jeni, Louie Anderson, Elayne Boosler, Byron Allen, Jack Handey, and Steve Oedekerk.
By the summer of 1977, Letterman was a writer and regular on the six-week summer series The Starland Vocal Band Show, broadcast on CBS. He hosted a 1977 pilot for a game show called The Riddlers (which was never picked up), and co-starred in the Barry Levinson-produced comedy special Peeping Times, which aired in January 1978. Later that year, Letterman was a cast member on Mary Tyler Moore's variety show, Mary. He made a guest appearance on Mork & Mindy (as a parody of EST leader Werner Erhard) and appearances on game shows such as The $20,000 Pyramid, The Gong Show, Hollywood Squares, Password Plus, and Liar's Club, as well as the Canadian cooking show Celebrity Cooks (November 1977), talk shows such as 90 Minutes Live (February 24 and April 14, 1978), and The Mike Douglas Show (April 3, 1979 and February 7, 1980). He was also screen tested for the lead role in the 1980 film Airplane!, a role that eventually went to Robert Hays.
Letterman's brand of dry, sarcastic humor caught the attention of scouts for The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, and he was soon a regular guest on the show. He became a favorite of Carson and was a regular guest host for the show beginning in 1978. Letterman credits Carson as the person who influenced his career the most.
== NBC ==
=== Morning show ===
On June 23, 1980, Letterman was given his own morning comedy show on NBC, The David Letterman Show. It was originally 90 minutes long but was shortened to 60 minutes in August 1980. The show was a critical success, winning two Emmy Awards, but was a ratings disappointment and was canceled, the last show airing October 24, 1980.
=== Late Night with David Letterman ===
NBC kept Letterman on its payroll to try him in a different time slot. Late Night with David Letterman debuted February 1, 1982; the first guest was Bill Murray. Murray went on to become one of Letterman's most recurrent guests, guesting on his later CBS show's celebration of his 30th anniversary in late-night television, which aired January 31, 2012, and on the final CBS show, which aired May 20, 2015. The show ran Monday through Thursday nights at 12:30 a.m. Eastern Time, immediately following The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (a Friday night broadcast was added in June 1987). It was seen as edgy and unpredictable, and soon developed a cult following (particularly among college students). Letterman's reputation as an acerbic interviewer was borne out in verbal sparring matches with Cher (who even called him an "asshole" on the show), Shirley MacLaine, Charles Grodin, and Madonna. The show also featured comedy segments and running characters, in a style heavily influenced by the 1950s and 1960s programs of Steve Allen.
The show often featured quirky, genre-mocking regular features, including "Stupid Pet Tricks" (which had its origins on Letterman's morning show), Stupid Human Tricks, dropping various objects off the roof of a five-story building, demonstrations of unorthodox clothing (such as suits made of Alka-Seltzer, Velcro and suet), a recurring Top 10 list, the Monkey-Cam (and the Audience Cam), a facetious letter-answering segment, several "Film[s] by My Dog Bob" in which a camera was mounted on Letterman's own dog (often with comic results) and Small Town News, all of which moved with Letterman to CBS.
Other episodes included Letterman using a bullhorn to interrupt a live interview on The Today Show on August 19, 1985, announcing that he was the NBC News president Lawrence K. Grossman and that he was not wearing any pants; walking across the hall to Studio 6B, at the time the news studio for WNBC-TV, and interrupting Al Roker's weather segments during Live at Five; and staging "elevator races", complete with commentary by NBC Sports' Bob Costas. In one appearance, in 1982, Andy Kaufman (who was wearing a neck brace) appeared with professional wrestler Jerry Lawler, who slapped and knocked the comedian to the ground (Lawler and Kaufman's friend Bob Zmuda later revealed that the incident was staged).
== CBS ==
=== Late Show with David Letterman ===
In 1992, Johnny Carson retired, and many fans, and Carson himself, believed that Letterman would become the new host of The Tonight Show. When NBC instead gave the job to Jay Leno, Letterman departed NBC to host his own late-night show on CBS, opposite The Tonight Show at 11:30 p.m., called the Late Show with David Letterman. The new show debuted on August 30, 1993, and was taped at the historic Ed Sullivan Theater, where Ed Sullivan broadcast his eponymous variety series from 1948 to 1971. For Letterman's arrival, CBS spent $8 million in renovations. CBS also signed Letterman to a three-year, $14 million/year contract, doubling his Late Night salary.
But while the expectation was that Letterman would retain his unique style and sense of humor with the move, Late Show was not an exact replica of his old NBC program. The monologue was lengthened. Paul Shaffer and the World's Most Dangerous Band followed Letterman to CBS, but they added a brass section and were rebranded the CBS Orchestra (at Shaffer's request); a small band had been mandated by Carson while Letterman occupied the 12:30 slot. Additionally, because of intellectual property disagreements, Letterman was unable to import many of his Late Night segments verbatim, but he sidestepped this problem by simply renaming them (the "Top Ten List" became the "Late Show Top Ten", "Viewer Mail" became the "CBS Mailbag", etc.). Time magazine wrote, "Letterman's innovation ... gained power from its rigorous formalism"; as his biographer Jason Zinoman puts it, he was "a fascinatingly disgruntled eccentric trapped inside a more traditional talk show".
=== Popularity ===
The Late Show's main competitor was NBC's The Tonight Show, which Jay Leno hosted for 22 years from 1992 to 2014, except from June 1, 2009, to January 22, 2010, when Conan O'Brien hosted. In 1993 and 1994, the Late Show consistently gained higher ratings than The Tonight Show. But in 1995, ratings dipped and Leno's show consistently beat Letterman's in the ratings from the time that Hugh Grant came on Leno's show after Grant's arrest for soliciting a prostitute.
Leno typically attracted about five million nightly viewers between 1999 and 2009. The Late Show lost nearly half its audience during its competition with Leno, attracting 7.1 million viewers nightly in its 1993–94 season and about 3.8 million per night as of Leno's departure in 2009. In the final months of his first stint as host of The Tonight Show, Leno beat Letterman in the ratings by a 1.3 million-viewer margin (5.2 million to 3.9 million), and Nightline and the Late Show were virtually tied. Once O'Brien took over Tonight, Letterman closed the gap in the ratings. O'Brien initially drove the median age of Tonight Show viewers from 55 to 45, with most older viewers opting to watch the Late Show instead. After Leno returned to The Tonight Show, Leno regained his lead.
Letterman's shows have garnered both critical and industry praise, receiving 67 Emmy Award nominations, winning 12 times in his first 20 years in late night television. From 1993 to 2009, Letterman ranked higher than Leno in the annual Harris Poll of Nation's Favorite TV Personality 12 times. Leno was higher than Letterman on that poll three times during the same period, in 1998, 2007, and 2008.
=== Hosting the Academy Awards ===
On March 27, 1995, Letterman hosted the 67th Academy Awards ceremony. Critics blasted what they deemed his poor performance, noting that his irreverent style undermined the traditional importance and glamor of the event. In a joke about their unusual names (inspired by a celebrated comic essay in The New Yorker, "Yma Dream" by Thomas Meehan), he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey, and then both of them to Keanu Reeves: "Oprah...Uma. Uma...Oprah," "Have you kids met Keanu?" This and many of his other jokes fell flat.
Letterman recycled the apparent debacle into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he joked, "Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised." He lampooned his stint two years later, during Billy Crystal's opening Oscar skit, which also parodied the plane-crashing scenes from that year's chief nominated film, The English Patient.
For years afterward, Letterman recounted his hosting the Oscars, although the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences continued to hold Letterman in high regard and invited him to host the Oscars again. On September 7, 2010, he made an appearance on the premiere of the 14th season of The View, and confirmed that he had been considered for hosting again.
=== Heart surgery hiatus ===
On January 14, 2000, a routine checkup revealed that an artery in Letterman's heart was severely obstructed. He was rushed to New York Presbyterian Hospital for emergency quintuple bypass surgery. During the first weeks of his recovery, reruns of the Late Show were shown and introduced by friends of Letterman, including Norm Macdonald, Drew Barrymore, including Drs. O. Wayne Isom and Louis Aronne, who frequently appeared on the show.
For a number of episodes, Letterman continued to crack jokes about his bypass, including saying: "Bypass surgery: it's when doctors surgically create new blood flow to your heart. A bypass is what happened to me when I didn't get The Tonight Show! It's a whole different thing." In a later running gag, he lobbied Indiana to rename the freeway circling Indianapolis (I-465) "The David Letterman Bypass". He also featured a montage of faux news coverage of his bypass surgery, including a clip of Letterman's heart for sale on the Home Shopping Network. Letterman became friends with his doctors and nurses. In 2008, Rolling Stone wrote: He hosted a doctor and nurse who'd helped perform the emergency quintuple-bypass heart surgery that saved his life in 2000. "These are people who were complete strangers when they opened my chest," he says. "And now, eight years later, they're among my best friends." introducing them as "my favorite band, playing my favorite song."
In February 2003, Letterman again handed the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including Bill Cosby, Brad Garrett, Whoopi Goldberg, Elvis Costello, John McEnroe, Vince Vaughn, Will Ferrell, Bonnie Hunt, Luke Wilson, and bandleader Paul Shaffer) when he was diagnosed with a severe case of shingles. Later that year, Letterman made regular use of guest hosts—including Tom Arnold and Kelsey Grammer—for shows broadcast on Fridays. In March 2007, Adam Sandler, who had been scheduled to be the lead guest, served as a guest host while Letterman was ill with a stomach virus.
===Second signing with CBS ===
In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS neared expiration, ABC offered him the time slot for long-running news program Nightline with Ted Koppel. Letterman was interested, as he believed he could never match Leno's ratings at CBS due to Letterman's complaint of weaker lead-ins from CBS's late local news programs, but was reluctant to replace Koppel. He addressed his decision to re-sign on the air, stating that he was content at CBS and that he had great respect for Koppel.
On December 4, 2006, CBS revealed that Letterman signed a new contract to host Late Show with David Letterman through the fall of 2010. "I'm thrilled to be continuing on at CBS," said Letterman. "At my age you really don't want to have to learn a new commute." Letterman further joked about the subject by pulling up his right pants leg, revealing a tattoo, presumably temporary, of the ABC logo.
"Thirteen years ago, David Letterman put CBS late night on the map and in the process became one of the defining icons of our network," said Leslie Moonves, president and CEO of CBS Corporation. "His presence on our air is an ongoing source of pride, and the creativity and imagination that the Late Show puts forth every night is an ongoing display of the highest quality entertainment. We are truly honored that one of the most revered and talented entertainers of our time will continue to call CBS 'home.'"
According to a 2007 article in Forbes magazine, Letterman earned $40 million a year. A 2009 article in The New York Times, however, said his salary was estimated at $32 million. Worldwide Pants agreed to lower its fee for the show, though it had remained a "solid moneymaker for CBS" under the previous contract. In April 2012, CBS announced it had extended its contract with Letterman through 2014. His contract was subsequently extended to 2015.
=== Retirement from Late Show ===
During the taping of his show on April 3, 2014, Letterman announced that he had informed CBS president Leslie Moonves that he would retire from hosting Late Show by May 20, 2015. Later in his retirement Letterman occasionally stated, in jest, that he had been fired. It was announced soon after that comedian and political satirist Stephen Colbert would succeed Letterman. Letterman's last episode aired on May 20, 2015, and opened with a presidential sendoff featuring four of the five living American presidents, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, each mimicking the late president Gerald Ford's statement "Our long national nightmare is over." It also featured cameos from The Simpsons and Wheel of Fortune (the latter with a puzzle saying "Good riddance to David Letterman"), a Top Ten List of "things I wish I could have said to David Letterman" performed by regular guests including Alec Baldwin, Barbara Walters, Steve Martin, Jerry Seinfeld, Jim Carrey, Chris Rock, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Peyton Manning, Tina Fey, and Bill Murray, and closed with a montage of scenes from both his CBS and NBC series set to a live performance of "Everlong" by Foo Fighters.
The final episode of Late Show with David Letterman was watched by 13.76 million viewers in the United States with an audience share of 9.3/24, earning the show its highest ratings since following the 1994 Winter Olympics on February 25, 1994, and the show's highest demo numbers (4.1 in adults 25–54 and 3.1 in adults 18–49) since Oprah Winfrey's first Late Show appearance following the ending of her feud with Letterman on December 1, 2005. Bill Murray, who had been his first guest on Late Night, was his final guest on Late Show. In a rarity for a late-night show, it was also the highest-rated program on network television that night, beating out all prime-time shows. In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of Late Night and Late Show, He made a surprise appearance on stage in San Antonio, Texas when he was invited up for an extended segment during Steve Martin's and Martin Short's A Very Stupid Conversation show, saying "I retired, and...I have no regrets," Letterman told the crowd after walking on stage. "I was happy. I'll make actual friends. I was complacent. I was satisfied. I was content, and then a couple of days ago Donald Trump said he was running for president. I have made the biggest mistake of my life, ladies and gentlemen" and then delivering a Top Ten List roasting Trump's presidential campaign followed by an onstage conversation with Martin and Short. Cellphone recordings of the appearance were posted on YouTube by audience members and widely reported in the media.
In 2016, Letterman joined the climate change documentary show Years of Living Dangerously as one of its celebrity correspondents. In season two's premiere episode, Letterman traveled to India to investigate the country's efforts to expand its inadequate energy grid, power its booming economy, and bring electricity to 300 million citizens for the first time. He also interviewed Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and traveled to rural villages where power is a scarce luxury and explored the United States' role in India's energy future.
On April 7, 2017, Letterman gave the induction speech for the band Pearl Jam into the Rock & Roll Hall Of Fame at a ceremony held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York City. Also in 2017, Letterman and Alec Baldwin co-hosted The Essentials on Turner Classic Movies. Letterman and Baldwin introduced seven films for the series.
===Netflix===
In 2018, Letterman began hosting a six-episode monthly series of hour-long programs on Netflix consisting of long-form interviews and field segments. The show, My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman, premiered January 12, 2018 with Barack Obama as its first guest. The second season premiered on May 31, 2019. Season 3 premiered on October 21, 2020, and includes Kim Kardashian West, Robert Downey Jr., Dave Chappelle and Lizzo as guests. Season 4 premiered on May 20, 2022, with Billie Eilish as the first guest. In October 2022, Letterman traveled to Kyiv, Ukraine, to film a special standalone episode of My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman, interviewing Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy.
== Notable exchanges and incidents ==
=== NBC and Johnny Carson ===
In spite of Johnny Carson's clear intention to pass his title to Letterman, NBC selected Jay Leno to host The Tonight Show after Carson's departure. Letterman maintained a close relationship with Carson through his break with NBC. Three years after he left for CBS, HBO produced a made-for-television movie called The Late Shift, based on a book by The New York Times reporter Bill Carter, chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the Tonight Show hosting spot.
Carson later made a few cameo appearances as a guest on Letterman's show. Carson's final television appearance was on May 13, 1994, on a Late Show episode taped in Los Angeles, when he made a surprise appearance during a Top 10 list segment. In early 2005, it was revealed that Carson occasionally sent jokes to Letterman, who used them in his monologue; according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), Carson got "a big kick out of it." Letterman would do a characteristic Carson golf swing after delivering one of his jokes. In a tribute to Carson, all the opening monologue jokes during the first show after Carson's death were by Carson.
Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his "rightful successor". During the early years of the Late Shows run, Letterman occasionally used some of Carson's trademark bits, including "Carnac the Magnificent" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), "Stump the Band", and the "Week in Review".
=== Oprah Winfrey ===
Oprah Winfrey appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's Late Night on May 2, 1989. After that appearance, the two had a 16-year feud that arose, as Winfrey explained to Letterman after it had been resolved, as a result of the acerbic tone of their 1989 interview, of which she said that it "felt so uncomfortable to me that I didn't want to have that experience again". The feud apparently ended on December 2, 2005, when Winfrey appeared on CBS's Late Show with David Letterman in an event Letterman jokingly called "the Super Bowl of Love".
Winfrey and Letterman also appeared together in a Late Show promo aired during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLI in February 2007, with the two sitting next to each other on a couch watching the game. Since the game was played between the Indianapolis Colts and Chicago Bears, the Indianapolis-born Letterman wore a Peyton Manning jersey, while Winfrey, whose show was taped in Chicago, wore a Brian Urlacher jersey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
Three years later, during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLIV between the Colts and the New Orleans Saints, the two appeared again in a Late Show promo, this time with Winfrey sitting on a couch between Letterman and Leno. Letterman wore the retired 70 jersey of Art Donovan, a member of the Colts' Hall of Fame and a regular Letterman guest. The appearance was Letterman's idea: Leno flew to New York City on an NBC corporate jet, sneaking into the Ed Sullivan Theater during the Late Shows February 4 taping wearing a disguise and meeting Winfrey and Letterman at a living room set created in the theater's balcony, where they taped their promo.
Winfrey interviewed Letterman in January 2013 on Oprah's Next Chapter. They discussed their feud and Winfrey revealed that she had had a "terrible experience" while appearing on Letterman's show years earlier. Letterman could not recall the incident but apologized.
=== 2007–2008 writers' strike ===
Late Show went off air for eight weeks in 2007 during November and December because of the Writers Guild of America strike. Letterman's production company, Worldwide Pants, was the first company to make an individual agreement with the WGA, allowing his show to come back on the air on January 2, 2008. In his first episode back, he surprised the audience with a newly grown beard, which signified solidarity with the strike. His beard was shaved off during the show on January 7, 2008.
=== Palin joke ===
On June 8 and 9, 2009, Letterman told two sexually themed jokes about a daughter (never named) of Sarah Palin on his TV show. These included a joke that Palin's daughter had been "knocked up" by MLB player Alex Rodriguez. Palin was in New York City with her then 14-year-old daughter Willow, and none of her other children were at the game, but her 18-year-old daughter Bristol was the one who was pregnant. It was therefore unclear which daughter the joke referred to. On his June 10 show, Letterman responded to the controversy, saying the jokes were meant to be about Palin's 18-year-old daughter, Bristol, whose pregnancy as an unmarried teenager had caused some controversy during the United States presidential election of 2008. "These are not jokes made about [Palin's] 14-year-old daughter ... I would never, never make jokes about raping or having sex of any description with a 14-year-old girl." Rodriguez demanded an apology for implying that he was a child molester. Letterman never specifically apologized to Rodriguez.
=== Al-Qaeda death threat ===
On August 17, 2011, it was reported that an Islamist militant had posted a death threat against Letterman on a website frequented by Al-Qaeda supporters, calling on American Muslims to kill him for making a joke about the death of Ilyas Kashmiri, an Al-Qaeda leader who was killed in a June 2011 drone strike in Pakistan. In his August 22 show, Letterman joked about the threat, saying "State Department authorities are looking into this. They're not taking this lightly. They're looking into it. They're questioning, they're interrogating, there's an electronic trail—but everybody knows it's Leno."
==Appearances in other media==
Letterman appeared in the pilot episode of the short-lived 1986 series Coach Toast, and appears with a bag over his head as a guest on Bonnie Hunt's 1990s sitcom The Building. He appeared in The Simpsons as himself in a couch gag when the Simpsons find themselves (and the couch) in Late Night with David Letterman. He had a cameo in the feature film Cabin Boy, with Chris Elliott, who worked as a writer for Letterman. In this and other appearances, Letterman is listed in the credits as "Earl Hofert", the name of Letterman's maternal grandfather. He also appeared as himself in the Howard Stern biographical film Private Parts and the 1999 Andy Kaufman biopic Man on the Moon, in a few episodes of Garry Shandling's 1990s TV series The Larry Sanders Show, and in "The Abstinence", a 1996 episode of the sitcom Seinfeld.
Letterman provided vocals for the Warren Zevon song "Hit Somebody" from My Ride's Here, and provided the voice for Butt-head's father in the 1996 animated film Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, again credited as Earl Hofert.
Letterman was the focus of The Avengers on "Late Night with David Letterman", issue 239 (January 1984) of the Marvel comic book series The Avengers, in which the title characters (specifically Hawkeye, Wonder Man, Black Widow, Beast, and Black Panther) are guests on Late Night. A parody of Letterman named David Endochrine is gassed to death along with his bandleader, Paul, and their audience in Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns. In SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron, Letterman was parodied as "David Litterbin". Letterman appears in issues 13–14 and 18 of Harvey Pekar's autobiographical comic book American Splendor. Those issues show Pekar's accounts of appearances on Late Night.
In 2010, a documentary directed by Joke Fincioen and Biagio Messina, Dying to do Letterman, was released, featuring Steve Mazan, a standup comic, who has cancer and wants to appear on Letterman's show. The film won best documentary and jury awards at the Cinequest Film Festival. Mazan published a book of the same name (full title Dying to Do Letterman: Turning Someday into Today) about his own saga.
Letterman appeared as a guest on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight on May 29, 2012, when he was interviewed by Regis Philbin, the guest host and Letterman's longtime friend. Philbin again interviewed Letterman (and Shaffer) while guest-hosting CBS's The Late Late Show (between the tenures of Craig Ferguson and James Corden) on January 27, 2015. In June 2013, Letterman appeared in the second episode of season two of Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee. On November 5, 2013, he and Bruce McCall published a fiction satire book, This Land Was Made for You and Me (But Mostly Me), .
In Week 13 of the 2021 NFL season, Letterman joined Peyton and Eli Manning on their Manningcast feed of the Monday Night Football game between the New England Patriots and Buffalo Bills. Letterman mocked Bill Belichick after he was caught on camera wiping his nose with his shirt, and was in the middle of recalling being with Roger Goodell when Goodell was booed at the unveiling of Peyton Manning's statue in Indianapolis when ESPN suddenly cut to commercials.
On February 1, 2022, Letterman was the guest on Late Night with Seth Meyers, marking the 40th anniversary of the franchise's debut.
On November 20, 2023, Letterman returned to the Ed Sullivan theater on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert.
== Business ventures ==
Letterman started his production company, Worldwide Pants Incorporated, which produced his show and several others, in 1991. The company also produces feature films and documentaries and founded its own record label, Clear Entertainment. Worldwide Pants received significant attention in December 2007 after it was announced that it had independently negotiated its own contract with the Writers Guild of America, East, thus allowing Letterman, Craig Ferguson, and their writers to return to work, while the union continued its strike against production companies, networks, and studios with whom it had not yet reached agreements.
Letterman, Bobby Rahal, and Mike Lanigan of Mi-Jack Products co-own Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing, an auto racing team competing in the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship and NTT IndyCar series. The team has twice won the Indianapolis 500: in 2004 with driver Buddy Rice, and in 2020 with Takuma Sato.
The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming is a private foundation through which Letterman has donated millions of dollars to charities and other nonprofit organizations in Indiana and Montana, celebrity-affiliated organizations such as Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, Ball State University, the American Cancer Society, the Salvation Army, and Médecins Sans Frontières.
== Influences ==
Letterman's biggest influence and mentor was Johnny Carson. Letterman has denied this. and James Corden.
== Personal life ==
Letterman has tinnitus, a symptom of hearing loss. On the Late Show in 1996, he talked about his experience with tinnitus during an interview with William Shatner, who has severe tinnitus caused by an on-set explosion. Letterman has said that he was initially unable to pinpoint the noise inside his head and that he hears a constant ringing in his ears.
Letterman no longer drinks alcohol. On more than one occasion, he said that he had once been a "horrible alcoholic" and had begun drinking around the age of 11 or 13 and continued until 1981 when he was 34. He has said that in 1981, "I was drunk 80% of the time ... I loved it. I was one of those guys, I looked around, and everyone else had stopped drinking and I couldn't understand why." When he was shown drinking what appears to be alcohol on the Late Show, it was actually apple juice.
In 2015, Letterman said of his anxiety: "For years and years and years—30, 40 years—I was anxious and hypochondriacal and an alcoholic, and many, many other things that made me different from other people." He became calmer through a combination of Transcendental Meditation and low doses of medication. Letterman is a Presbyterian, a religious tradition he was originally brought up in by his mother, though he once said he was motivated by "Lutheran, Midwestern guilt".
In August 2021, Letterman was hospitalized in Providence, Rhode Island, after hitting his head on the sidewalk and falling unconscious. He favorably recalled the care he received at Rhode Island Hospital in a video released by the hospital's owner.
===Marriages, relationships, and family===
On July 2, 1968, Letterman married his college sweetheart, Michelle Cook, in Muncie, Indiana; they divorced in 1977. He also had a long-term cohabiting relationship with the former head writer and producer on Late Night, Merrill Markoe, from 1978 to 1988. Markoe created several Late Night staples, such as "Stupid Pet/Human Tricks". Time magazine wrote that theirs was the defining relationship of Letterman's career, with Markoe also acting as his writing partner. She "put the surrealism in Letterman's comedy."
Letterman and Regina Lasko started dating in February 1986, while he was still living with Markoe. Lasko gave birth to their son, Harry Joseph Letterman, on November 3, 2003. Harry is named after Letterman's father. In 2005, police discovered a plot to kidnap Letterman's son and demand a $5 million ransom. Kelly Frank, a house painter who had worked for Letterman, was charged in the conspiracy.
Letterman and Lasko wed on March 19, 2009, in a quiet courthouse civil ceremony in Choteau, Montana, where he had purchased a ranch in 1999. Letterman announced the marriage during the taping of his show of March 23, shortly after congratulating Bruce Willis on his marriage the week before. Letterman told the audience he nearly missed the ceremony because his truck became stuck in mud two miles from their house. The family resides in North Salem, New York, on a estate.
=== Friendship with Foo Fighters ===
Letterman has had a close relationship with the rock band Foo Fighters since its appearance on his first show upon his return from heart surgery. The band appeared many times on the Late Show, including a week-long stint in October 2014. While introducing the band's performance of "Miracle" on the October 17, 2014, show, Letterman told the story of how a souvenir video of himself and his four-year-old son learning to ski used the song as background music, unbeknownst to Letterman until he saw it. He said: "This is the second song of theirs that will always have great, great meaning for me for the rest of my life". This was the first time the band had heard this story. Worldwide Pants co-produced Dave Grohl's Sonic Highways TV series. "Letterman was the first person to get behind this project", Grohl said.
During Letterman's last show, on which Foo Fighters appeared, Letterman said that Foo Fighters had been in the middle of a South American tour that they canceled to play on his comeback episode.
=== Extortion attempt and revelation of affairs ===
On October 1, 2009, Letterman announced on his show that he had been the victim of a blackmail attempt by a person threatening to reveal his sexual relationships with several of his female employees—a fact Letterman immediately thereafter confirmed. He said that someone had left a package in his car with material he said he would write into a screenplay and a book if Letterman did not pay him $2 million. Letterman said that he contacted the Manhattan District Attorney's office and partook in a sting operation that involved the handover of a fake check to the extortionist.
Joe Halderman, a producer of the CBS news magazine television series 48 Hours, was arrested around noon (EST) on October 1, 2009, after trying to deposit the check. He was indicted by a Manhattan grand jury following testimony from Letterman and pleaded not guilty to a charge of attempted grand larceny on October 2, 2009. Halderman pleaded guilty in March 2010 and was sentenced to six months in prison, followed by probation and community service.
A central figure in the case and one of the women with whom Letterman had had a sexual relationship was his longtime personal assistant Stephanie Birkitt, who often appeared on the show. She had also worked for 48 Hours. Until a month before the revelations, she had shared a residence with Halderman, who allegedly had copied her personal diary and used it, along with private emails, in the blackmail package.
In the days following the initial announcement of the affairs and the arrest, several prominent women, including Kathie Lee Gifford, co-host of NBC's Today Show, and NBC news anchor Ann Curry, questioned whether Letterman's affairs with subordinates created an unfair working environment. A spokesman for Worldwide Pants said that the company's sexual harassment policy did not prohibit sexual relationships between managers and employees. According to business news reporter Eve Tahmincioglu, "CBS suppliers are supposed to follow the company's business conduct policies" and the CBS 2008 Business Conduct Statement states that "If a consenting romantic or sexual relationship between a supervisor and a direct or indirect subordinate should develop, CBS requires the supervisor to disclose this information to his or her Company's Human Resources Department".
On October 3, 2009, TMZ reported that a former CBS employee, Holly Hester, had had a yearlong secret affair with Letterman in the early 1990s while she was his intern and a student at New York University. On October 5, 2009, Letterman devoted a segment of his show to a public apology to his wife and staff. Three days later, Worldwide Pants announced that Birkitt had been placed on a "paid leave of absence" from the Late Show.
=== Stalking incidents ===
Beginning in May 1988, Letterman was stalked by Margaret Mary Ray, a woman with schizophrenia. She stole his Porsche, camped out on his tennis court, and repeatedly broke into his house. Her exploits drew national attention, with Letterman occasionally joking about her on his show, though he never named her. After she died by suicide at age 46 in October 1998, Letterman told The New York Times that he had great compassion for her. A spokesperson for Letterman said: "This is a sad ending to a confused life."
In 2005, a woman was able to obtain a restraining order from a New Mexico judge, prohibiting Letterman from contacting her. She claimed he had sent her coded messages via his television program, causing her bankruptcy and emotional distress. Law professor Eugene Volokh called the case "patently frivolous".
=== Interests ===
Letterman is a car enthusiast and owns an extensive collection. In 2012, it was reported that the collection consisted of ten Ferraris, eight Porsches, four Austin-Healeys, two Honda motorcycles, a Chevy pickup, and one car each from automakers Mercedes-Benz, Jaguar, MG, Volvo, Cadillac and Pontiac. He often drives two electric vehicles, a Tesla Model S and a Mercedes.
In his 2013 appearance on Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee, part of Jerry Seinfeld's conversation with Letterman was filmed in Letterman's 1995 Volvo 960 station wagon, which is powered by a 380-horsepower racing engine. Paul Newman had the car built for Letterman.
==Filmography==
=== Film ===
===Documentary feature films===
===Television===
==Awards, honors and legacy==
===David Letterman Communication and Media Building===
In 1996, Letterman was ranked 45th on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time. In 2002, The Late Show with David Letterman was ranked seventh on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.
On September 7, 2007, Letterman visited his alma mater, Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana, for the dedication of a communications facility named in his honor for his dedication to the university. The $21 million, David Letterman Communication and Media Building opened for the 2007 fall semester. Thousands of Ball State students, faculty, and local residents welcomed Letterman back to Indiana. Letterman's emotional speech touched on his struggles as a college student and his late father, and also included the "top ten good things about having your name on a building", finishing with "if reasonable people can put my name on a $21 million building, anything is possible." Over many years Letterman "has provided substantial assistance to [Ball State's] Department of Telecommunications, including an annual scholarship that bears his name."
At the same time, Indiana Governor Mitch Daniels gave Letterman a Sagamore of the Wabash award, which recognizes distinguished service to the state of Indiana.
Letterman was a recipient of the 2012 Kennedy Center Honors, where he was called "one of the most influential personalities in the history of television, entertaining an entire generation of late-night viewers with his unconventional wit and charm." On May 16, 2017, Letterman was named the next recipient of the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, the award granted annually by the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. He received the prize in a ceremony on October 22, 2017.
===The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming===
The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming (LFCG) was an American private foundation whose president and primary contributor was David Letterman. Its treasurer was Fred Nigro, who has appeared on Late Show with David Letterman, where he has been identified as Letterman's accountant. The foundation operated out of Nigro's Los Angeles offices. LFCG was founded in August 1993 as the DL Foundation. Since at least 2001, LFCG was known as the American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming, until it assumed its current name, in 2011.
According to LFCG's tax returns (Form 990-PF), made available by the Foundation Center, for the years from 2001 through 2011, LFCG donated a total of over $9.2 million to various foundations and other organizations.
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"Megan Mullally",
"Daily News (New York)",
"YouTube",
"New Orleans Saints",
"Indianapolis Motor Speedway",
"The Late Late Show (American talk show)",
"NBC News",
"Don Rickles",
"Charles Grodin",
"blackmail",
"draft lottery (1969)",
"Andy Kaufman",
"Margaret Mary Ray",
"TV Guide",
"Sigma Chi",
"Tom Arnold (actor)",
"2004 Indianapolis 500",
"Luke Wilson",
"hailstones",
"HBO",
"The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder",
"Cher",
"The Larry Sanders Show",
"Wonder Man",
"The Comedy Store (TV series)",
"Danny DeVito",
"Nathan Lane",
"pop culture",
"The Oprah Winfrey Show",
"Mark Twain Prize for American Humor",
"George H. W. Bush",
"Gerald Ford",
"Kennedy Center Honors",
"NBC",
"Takuma Sato",
"Peeping Times",
"Foundation Center",
"Vietnam War",
"Writers Guild of America, East",
"The View (talk show)",
"work (professional wrestling)",
"Carnac the Magnificent",
"Mary Tyler Moore",
"The $20,000 Pyramid",
"Jimmy Kimmel",
"CBS",
"Werner Erhard",
"Barack Obama",
"beard",
"Jim McKay",
"Gannett",
"Rolling Stone",
"Norm Macdonald: Nothing Special",
"Late Night with David Letterman",
"coronary artery bypass surgery",
"sting operation",
"Volodymyr Zelenskyy",
"Marvel Comics",
"Austin-Healey",
"John McEnroe",
"Worldwide Pants Incorporated",
"Bruce McCall",
"Bonnie (TV series)",
"Monday Night Football",
"The Dana Carvey Show",
"Richard Jeni",
"Billie Eilish",
"Donald Trump",
"Roger Goodell",
"Martin Short",
"TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time",
"TMZ",
"hypochondriac",
"Jonathan Winters",
"Bob Costas",
"Mario Andretti",
"Adam Sandler",
"Rock music",
"tropical storm",
"Ed Sullivan",
"Jim Carrey",
"Murphy Brown",
"Everlong",
"Dave Chappelle",
"Indiana Public Radio",
"Julia Louis-Dreyfus",
"2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike",
"Frank Miller",
"Sagamore of the Wabash",
"Favorite Deadly Sins",
"The Nanny",
"The David Letterman Show",
"Lutheran",
"Brad Garrett",
"Forbes",
"Joe Halderman",
"surreal humor",
"restraining order",
"Today (NBC program)",
"Merrill Markoe",
"Between Two Ferns: The Movie",
"My Ride's Here",
"Kathie Lee Gifford",
"Hollywood Squares",
"The English Patient (film)",
"The Comedy Store",
"Home Shopping Network",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Ed (TV series)",
"4-H",
"Esquire (magazine)",
"The Mike Douglas Show",
"Beavis and Butt-Head Do America",
"Steve Oedekerk",
"Hugh Grant",
"IndyCar",
"Al-Qaeda",
"Keanu Reeves",
"Observational comedy",
"Password Plus",
"Super Bowl",
"Narendra Modi",
"Pennsylvania State University",
"human behavior",
"Late Night with Seth Meyers",
"Password Plus and Super Password",
"The Comedy Awards",
"Robert Downey Jr.",
"Alec Baldwin",
"Bobby Rahal",
"Time (magazine)",
"Velcro",
"Madonna",
"Academic grading in the United States",
"George Miller (comedian)",
"sitcom",
"Starland Vocal Band",
"Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences",
"Sully (film)",
"The Ed Sullivan Show",
"Chris Rock",
"Years of Living Dangerously",
"conflict of interest",
"American Comedy Awards",
"World news",
"North Salem, New York",
"USA Today",
"Ann Curry",
"Madison Square Garden",
"Volvo",
"wikt:acerbic",
"David Zucker (filmmaker)",
"Jay Leno",
"black comedy",
"Charlie Rose (TV series)",
"Les Moonves",
"Montana",
"Médecins Sans Frontières",
"Elvis Costello",
"Bill Cosby",
"Leslie Moonves",
"The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming",
"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson",
"TV.com",
"Top Ten list (David Letterman)",
"Elayne Boosler",
"George W. Bush",
"Cabin Boy",
"Steve Allen",
"Shirley MacLaine",
"Transcendental Meditation",
"Seth Meyers",
"Netflix",
"Barry Levinson",
"Honda",
"Open All Night (TV series)",
"38th Primetime Emmy Awards",
"Paul Dixon Show",
"Stephanie Birkitt",
"WNBC-TV",
"Louis Aronne",
"Buffalo Bills",
"The Late Show with David Letterman",
"Bob Zmuda",
"rebranded",
"Mötley Crüe",
"Louie Anderson",
"Manhattan District Attorney",
"Grizzly Man",
"Jimmy Fallon",
"Bonnie Hunt",
"The Building (TV series)",
"Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways",
"grand larceny",
"frivolous lawsuit",
"Alex Rodriguez",
"Cadillac",
"Culture of the United States",
"Bachelor of Arts",
"India",
"Ball State University",
"Bill Murray",
"Slate (magazine)",
"Alka-Seltzer",
"Brian Urlacher",
"Beast (comics)",
"Worldwide Pants",
"New Mexico",
"Dave Grohl",
"The Mary Tyler Moore Hour",
"Black Panther (comics)",
"Mike Lanigan",
"Interstate 465",
"James Corden",
"The D'oh-cial Network",
"Drew Barrymore",
"Barbara Walters",
"Jon Stewart",
"Godzilla (1954 film)",
"Steve Mazan",
"Paul Newman",
"Will Ferrell",
"The Dark Knight Returns",
"Indianapolis",
"Social Security Death Index",
"Rock & Roll Hall Of Fame",
"Super Bowl XLI",
"Indiana University",
"Porsche",
"The Huffington Post",
"Foo Fighters",
"everyday life",
"WTHR",
"Mork & Mindy",
"Broad Ripple",
"Piers Morgan Tonight",
"2021 NFL season",
"Black Widow (Natasha Romanova)",
"Providence, Rhode Island",
"Kelsey Grammer",
"Dana Carvey",
"Paul Dixon (entertainer)",
"Timothy Treadwell",
"Arsenio Hall",
"Lawrence K. Grossman",
"Conan O'Brien",
"Robert Hays",
"Ted Koppel",
"Norm Macdonald",
"Ray Romano",
"Robin Williams",
"Sarah Jessica Parker",
"Stephen Colbert",
"Steven Seagal",
"John Oliver",
"Dorothy Mengering",
"Bill Clinton",
"Kim Kardashian West",
"Turner Classic Movies",
"Jerry Lawler",
"Byron Allen",
"Paul Shaffer",
"Choteau, Montana",
"Ernie Kovacs",
"Salvation Army",
"New York University",
"Eastern time zone",
"Jimmie Walker",
"Johnny Carson",
"Paul Mooney (comedian)",
"The Cincinnati Enquirer",
"WCRD"
] |
8,341 |
Delroy Lindo
|
Delroy George Lindo (born 18 November 1952) is an English–American actor. He is the recipient of such accolades as an NAACP Image Award, a Satellite Award, and nominations for a Drama Desk Award, a Helen Hayes Award, a Tony Award, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.
He moved with his mother to San Francisco when he was 16, after they had left London and lived in Canada for a few years. Here he completed his education and entered acting. Lindo has played prominent roles in four Spike Lee films: West Indian Archie in Malcolm X (1992), Woody Carmichael in Crooklyn (1994), Rodney Little in Clockers (1995), and Paul in Da 5 Bloods (2020). He was praised for his performance in Da 5 Bloods as a Vietnam War veteran, winning the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor.
Lindo also played Bo Catlett in Get Shorty (1995), Arthur Rose in The Cider House Rules (1999), and Detective Castlebeck in Gone in 60 Seconds (2000). Lindo starred as Alderman Ronin Gibbons in the TV series The Chicago Code (2011), as Winter on the series Believe (2014), and as Adrian Boseman in The Good Fight (2017–2021).
== Early life ==
Delroy Lindo was born in 1952 in Lewisham, the son of Jamaican parents. His mother had immigrated to the UK in 1951 to work as a nurse, and his father worked in various jobs. Lindo grew up in nearby Eltham and attended Woolwich Polytechnic School for Boys. He became interested in acting as a child when he appeared in a nativity play at school.
When he was a teenager, Lindo moved with his mother to Toronto. When he was 16, they moved to San Francisco.
== Career ==
Lindo made his film debut in 1976 with the Canadian John Candy comedy Find the Lady. He played an army sergeant in More American Graffiti (1979).
For a decade from the early 1980s, Lindo's career was more focused on theatre acting than film, although he has said this was not a conscious decision.
Lindo returned to film in the science fiction film Salute of the Jugger (1990), which has become a cult classic. Although he had turned down Spike Lee for a role in Do the Right Thing, Lee cast him as Woody Carmichael in the drama Crooklyn (1994), which brought Lindo notice. His other roles with Lee include West Indian Archie, a psychotic gangster, in Malcolm X, and a starring role as a neighborhood drug dealer in Clockers.
Other films in which he has starring roles are Barry Sonnenfeld's Get Shorty (1995), Ron Howard's Ransom (1996), and Soul of the Game (1996), as the baseball player Satchel Paige.
In 1998 Lindo co-starred as African-American explorer Matthew Henson, in the TV film Glory & Honor, directed by Kevin Hooks. It portrayed Henson's nearly 20-year partnership with Commander Robert Peary in Arctic exploration, and their effort to find the Geographic North Pole in 1909. Lindo received a Satellite Award for best actor for his portrayal of Henson. Lindo has continued to work in television, and in 2006 was seen on the short-lived NBC drama Kidnapped.
Lindo had a small role in the 1995 film Congo, playing the corrupt Captain Wanta. Lindo was not credited for the role. He played an angel in the comedy film A Life Less Ordinary (1997).
He guest-starred on The Simpsons in the episode "Brawl in the Family", playing a character named Gabriel.
In the British film Wondrous Oblivion (2003), directed by Paul Morrison, Lindo starred as Dennis Samuels, the father of a Jamaican immigrant family in London in the 1950s. Lindo said he made the film in honor of his parents, who had similarly moved to London in those years.
In 2007, Lindo began an association with Berkeley Repertory Theatre in Berkeley, California, when he directed Tanya Barfield's play The Blue Door. In the autumn of 2008, Lindo revisited August Wilson's play Joe Turner's Come and Gone, directing a production at the Berkeley Rep. In 2010, he played the role of elderly seer Bynum in David Lan's production of Joe Turner at the Young Vic Theatre in London.
Lindo was in the main cast of the Fox crime drama The Chicago Code (2011), the NBC fantasy series Believe, and the ABC soap Blood & Oil (2015). In 2017, Lindo began playing Adrian Boseman in the CBS legal drama The Good Fight, a role he would star in for the series' first four seasons and reprise as a guest star in its fifth season. Lindo was cast as the lead in an ABC drama pilot Harlem's Kitchen in March 2020.
In 2015, Lindo was expected to play Marcus Garvey in a biopic of the black nationalist historical figure that had been in pre-production for several years. In recent years Lindo has appeared in the action film Point Break (2015), the drama Battlecreek (2017), the horror film Malicious (2018), and The Harder They Fall (2021) as Bass Reeves. Lindo appeared in Da 5 Bloods (2020) in another collaboration with Spike Lee. For his role in Da 5 Bloods, Lindo received critical acclaim and a number of accolades.
Entertainment Weekly said of Hulu's comedy series Unprisoned (2023), "Delroy Lindo is so good it should be illegal."
===Upcoming===
It was announced in July 2021 that Lindo would star as Mr Nancy in the British Amazon Prime miniseries adaptation of Neil Gaiman's Anansi Boys alongside Malachi Kirby. In November, Lindo officially joined the cast of the upcoming Marvel Studios film Blade in an undisclosed role.
As of 2020, Lindo was developing a screenplay for his directorial debut about the Windrush generation.
Lindo is a football fan and supports Manchester United.
Upon learning more about the Windrush generation, both through his mother's account and his own role as a Jamaican immigrant in Wondrous Oblivion, Lindo became inspired to study the subject and history further. In 2014, he completed a master's thesis from New York University's Gallatin School.
He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Arts and Humanities from Virginia Union University.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Theatre ===
===Video games===
== Awards and nominations ==
|
[
"The Cider House Rules",
"Gotham Awards",
"Malicious (2018 film)",
"This Christmas (2007 film)",
"Eltham",
"Huntington Theatre Company",
"More American Graffiti",
"Mr. Jones (1993 film)",
"Mercy (TV series)",
"Da 5 Bloods",
"San Diego Film Critics Society",
"Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Ensemble",
"Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor",
"CBS",
"The One (2001 film)",
"Rotten Tomatoes",
"Yale Repertory Theatre",
"Critics' Choice Super Awards",
"Celebration of Cinema and Television",
"SF Gate",
"Bass Reeves",
"Do You Believe? (film)",
"Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre",
"Lackawanna Blues (film)",
"Chicago Film Critics Association",
"San Francisco",
"Agamemnon",
"Satchel Paige",
"Anansi Boys (TV series)",
"Do the Right Thing",
"Chicago Tribune",
"Brawl in the Family (The Simpsons)",
"NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special",
"Toronto",
"Soul of the Game",
"Robot Chicken",
"Up (video game)",
"Neil Gaiman",
"New York Film Critics Circle",
"The Core",
"Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association",
"Playwrights Horizons",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Manchester United",
"Oakland, California",
"New York City",
"Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Awards 2021",
"Unprisoned",
"Sinners (2025 film)",
"Black Reel Awards of 2021",
"Caius Cassius Longinus",
"Windrush generation",
"Untitled Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire sequel",
"Old Globe Theatre",
"The Book of Stars",
"Broadway World",
"Hollywood Critics Association Awards",
"Deadline Hollywood",
"Los Angeles",
"Critics' Choice Television Award",
"Gallatin School",
"Cincinnati Playhouse in the Park",
"August Wilson",
"Development hell",
"Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Ensemble",
"Congo (film)",
"Center Theatre Group",
"GQ",
"Joe Turner's Come and Gone",
"Marvel Studios",
"Lewisham",
"Marvel's Most Wanted",
"25th Critics' Choice Awards",
"Ethel Barrymore Theatre",
"Blood In Blood Out",
"Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture",
"Austin Film Critics Association Awards 2021",
"Clockers (film)",
"Nativity of Jesus",
"Of Mice and Men (play)",
"Julius Caesar (play)",
"Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play",
"San Diego Film Critics Society Awards 2021",
"Crooklyn",
"Screen Actors Guild Awards",
"Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture",
"Macbeth",
"Santa Barbara International Film Festival",
"Bleecker Street Theater",
"Drama Desk Award",
"First Time Felon",
"Shakespeare & Company (Massachusetts)",
"Ebony (magazine)",
"The Chicago Code",
"New York Theatre Workshop",
"David Lan",
"Paul Morrison (director)",
"Young Vic Theatre",
"Find the Lady (1976 film)",
"Agamemnon (Seneca)",
"Feeling Minnesota",
"National Board of Review Award for Best Cast",
"Virginia Stage Company",
"Blood & Oil",
"Mountains of the Moon (film)",
"Hollywood Critics Association Midseason Award for Best Actor",
"American Broadcasting Company",
"Blade (upcoming film)",
"The Last Castle",
"Point Break (2015 film)",
"African-American Film Critics Association",
"Perfect Witness",
"Heist (2001 film)",
"Home (Williams play)",
"The Big Bang (2011 film)",
"Getty Villa",
"The Exonerated (play)",
"Domino (2005 film)",
"Beauty and the Beast (1987 TV series)",
"A Man Called Hawk",
"Strange Justice (1999 film)",
"Black Reel Awards of 2000",
"Roundabout Theatre Company",
"Berkeley Repertory Theatre",
"California",
"Othello",
"Bright Angel",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Malachi Kirby",
"Cymbeline (film)",
"The Exonerated",
"San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Performance by an Ensemble",
"Black Reel Awards",
"Dominic Fortune",
"Gone in 60 Seconds (2000 film)",
"Playbill (magazine)",
"Helen Hayes Award",
"The Root (magazine)",
"Satellite Award",
"Master of Fine Arts",
"Robert Peary",
"Geographic North Pole",
"Center Stage (theater)",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Black Reel Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor",
"Kevin Hooks",
"Amazon Prime",
"Ransom (1996 film)",
"Bachelor of Fine Arts",
"The Guardian",
"The Harder They Fall (2021 film)",
"Lyceum Theatre (Broadway)",
"Matthew Henson",
"Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor",
"Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series",
"Black Reel Award for Outstanding Actor, TV Movie or Limited Series",
"Screen Actors Guild Award",
"The Hard Way (1991 film)",
"Tony Award",
"Battlecreek",
"Spike Lee",
"26th Critics' Choice Awards",
"23rd Critics' Choice Awards",
"The Devil's Advocate (1997 film)",
"National Board of Review",
"Clarence Thomas",
"Against the Law (album)",
"Gotham Independent Film Awards 2021",
"National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Scott Joplin",
"Get Shorty (film)",
"American Conservatory Theater",
"Negro Ensemble Company",
"Austin Film Critics Association",
"NAACP Image Award",
"National Society of Film Critics",
"A Life Less Ordinary",
"San Francisco State University",
"Marcus Garvey",
"Black Reel Awards of 2006",
"The Cider House Rules (film)",
"Tanya Barfield",
"NAACP Image Awards",
"This Is Us",
"Anansi",
"Kidnapped (American TV series)",
"Detroit Film Critics Society",
"NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture",
"Barry Sonnenfeld",
"The Blood of Heroes",
"Law & Order: Special Victims Unit",
"Master of Arts",
"Fox Broadcasting Company",
"Broken Arrow (1996 film)",
"Athol Fugard",
"The Simpsons",
"National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor",
"Romeo Must Die",
"Up (2009 film)",
"A Raisin in the Sun",
"The Good Fight",
"The Washington Post",
"Sahara (2005 film)",
"\"Master Harold\"...and the Boys",
"NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series",
"Black Reel Awards of 2010",
"Actors Theatre of Louisville",
"Satellite Awards",
"Wondrous Oblivion",
"Pros & Cons",
"Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Ensemble",
"Believe (TV series)",
"San Francisco Bay Area",
"Satellite Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film",
"Virginia Union University",
"Much Ado About Nothing",
"Malcolm X (1992 film)",
"John Candy",
"Othello (character)",
"The New York Times",
"Great Lakes Theater",
"Glory & Honor",
"New York University",
"Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play",
"NBC",
"Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor",
"Collider (website)",
"Vietnam War"
] |
8,343 |
David Janssen
|
David Janssen (born David Harold Meyer; March 27, 1931 – February 13, 1980) was an American film and television actor who is best known for his starring role as Richard Kimble in the television series The Fugitive (1963–1967). Janssen also had the title roles in three other series: Richard Diamond, Private Detective; O'Hara, U.S. Treasury; and Harry O.
In 1996, TV Guide ranked him number 36 on its 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time list.
==Early life==
David Janssen was born on March 27, 1931, in Naponee, a village in Franklin County in southern Nebraska. His father was Harold Edward Meyer, a banker, and his mother, Berniece Graf, was formerly Miss Nebraska and a Ziegfeld girl. Following his parents' divorce in 1935, his mother moved with David to Los Angeles and married Eugene Janssen in 1940. David used his stepfather's name after he entered the show business as a child.
He attended Fairfax High School, where he excelled on the basketball court, setting a school scoring record that lasted over 20 years. His first film part was at the age of thirteen, and by the age of twenty-five, he had appeared in twenty films and served two years as an enlisted man in the United States Army. During his Army days, Janssen became a friend of fellow enlistees Martin Milner and Clint Eastwood while posted at Fort Ord, California.
==Acting career==
Janssen starred in four television series of his own:
Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1957–1960)
The Fugitive (1963–1967)
O'Hara, U.S. Treasury (1971–1972)
Harry O (1974–1976)
At the time of its airing in August 1967, the final episode of The Fugitive held the record for the greatest number of American homes to watch a series finale – 72 percent. In 1996 TV Guide ranked The Fugitive number 36 on its 50 Greatest Shows of All Time list.
His films include: To Hell and Back, the biography of Audie Murphy, who was the most decorated American soldier of World War II; Hell to Eternity, a 1960 American World War II biopic starring Jeffrey Hunter as a Hispanic boy who fought in the Battle of Saipan and who was raised by Japanese-American foster parents; John Wayne's Vietnam war film The Green Berets; opposite Gregory Peck, in the space story Marooned, in which Janssen played an astronaut sent to rescue three stranded men in space; and The Shoes of the Fisherman, as a television journalist in Rome reporting on the election of a new Pope (Anthony Quinn).
He also played pilot Harry Walker in the 1973 action movie Birds of Prey. He starred as a Los Angeles police detective trying to clear himself in the killing of an apparently innocent doctor in the 1967 film Warning Shot, which was shot during a break in the spring and summer of 1966 between the third and fourth seasons of The Fugitive.
Janssen played an alcoholic in the 1977 TV movie A Sensitive, Passionate Man, which co-starred Angie Dickinson, and played an engineer who devises an unbeatable system for blackjack in the 1978 made-for-TV movie Nowhere to Run, co-starring Stefanie Powers and Linda Evans. Janssen's impressively husky voice was used to good effect as the narrator for the TV mini-series Centennial (1978–79); he also appeared in the final episode. And in 1979 he starred in the made-for-TV mini series S.O.S. Titanic as John Jacob Astor, playing opposite Beverly Ross as his wife, Madeleine.
Though Janssen's scenes were cut from the final release, he also appeared as a journalist in the film Inchon, which he accepted to work with Laurence Olivier, who played General Douglas MacArthur. At the time of his death, Janssen had just begun filming a television movie playing the part of Father Damien, the priest who dedicated himself to the leper colony on the island of Molokai, Hawaii. The part was eventually reassigned to actor Ken Howard of the CBS series The White Shadow.
==Personal life==
Janssen was married twice. His first marriage was to model and interior decorator Ellie Graham, whom he married in Las Vegas on August 25, 1958. They divorced in 1968. In 1975, he married actress and model Dani Crayne Greco. They remained married until Janssen's death.
==Death==
Janssen was a heavy drinker, and a chain smoker who smoked up to four packs of cigarettes a day. He died from a sudden heart attack in the early morning of February 13, 1980, at his beachfront home in Malibu, California, at the age of 48. At the time of his death, Janssen was filming the television movie Father Damien. Janssen was buried at the Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California. A non-denominational funeral was held at the Jewish chapel of the cemetery on February 17. Suzanne Pleshette delivered the eulogy at the request of Janssen's widow. Milton Berle, Johnny Carson, Tommy Gallagher, Richard Harris, Stan Herman, Rod Stewart, and Gregory Peck were among Janssen's pallbearers. Honorary pallbearers included Jack Lemmon, George Peppard, James Stewart, and Danny Thomas.
For his contribution to the television industry, David Janssen has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located on the 7700 block of Hollywood Boulevard.
==Selected filmography==
It's a Pleasure (1945) as Davey / Boy Referee (uncredited)
Swamp Fire (1946) as Emile's Eldest Son (uncredited)
No Room for the Groom (1952) as Soldier (scenes deleted)
Francis Goes to West Point (1952) as Corporal Thomas
Untamed Frontier (1952) as Lottie's Dance Partner (uncredited)
Bonzo Goes to College (1952) as Jack (uncredited)
Yankee Buccaneer (1952) as Beckett
Back at the Front (1952) as Soldier (uncredited)
Leave It to Harry (1954) as Quiz Show Host (short subject)
Chief Crazy Horse (1955) as Lieutenant Colin Cartwright
Cult of the Cobra (1955) as Rico Nardi
Francis in the Navy (1955) as Lieutenant Anders
The Private War of Major Benson (1955) as Young Lieutenant
To Hell and Back (1955) as Lieutenant Lee
All That Heaven Allows (1955) as Freddie Norton (uncredited)
The Square Jungle (1955) as Jack Lindsay
Never Say Goodbye (1956) as Dave Heller
The Toy Tiger (1956) as Larry Tripps
Francis in the Haunted House (1956) as Police Lieutenant Hopkins
Away All Boats (1956) as Talker (uncredited)
Mr. Black Magic (1956) as Master of Ceremonies (short subject)
Showdown at Abilene (1956) as Verne Ward
The Girl He Left Behind (1956) as Captain Genaro
Lafayette Escadrille (1958) as Duke Sinclair
Hell to Eternity (1960) as Sergeant Bill Hazen
Dondi (1961) as Dealey
King of the Roaring 20s – The Story of Arnold Rothstein (1961) as Arnold Rothstein
Ring of Fire (1961) as Sergeant Steve Walsh
Twenty Plus Two (1961) as Tom Alder
Man-Trap (1961) as Vince Biskay
My Six Loves (1963) as Marty Bliss
Warning Shot (1967) as Sergeant Tom Valens
The Green Berets (1968) as George Beckworth
The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968) as George Faber
Where It's At (1969) as A.C.
Marooned (1969) as Ted Dougherty
Generation (1969) as Jim Bolton
Macho Callahan (1970) as Diego Callahan
Once Is Not Enough (1975) as Tom Colt
The Swiss Conspiracy (1976) as David Christopher
Two-Minute Warning (1976) as Steve
Warhead (1977) as Tony Stevens
Golden Rendezvous (1977) as Charles Conway
Covert Action (1978) as Lester Horton
Inchon (1981) as David Feld (scenes deleted after premiere; final film role; filmed in 1979; released posthumously)
===Television films===
Belle Sommers (1962) as Danny Castle
Night Chase (1970) as Adrian Vico
The Longest Night (1972) as Alan Chambers
Moon of the Wolf (1972) as Sheriff Aaron Whitaker
Hijack (1973) as Jake Wilkenson
Birds of Prey (1973) as Harry Walker
Harry O – Such Dust As Dreams Are Made On (1973) as Harry Orwell
Pioneer Woman (1973) as Robert Douglas
Harry O – Smile Jenny, You're Dead (1974) as Harry Orwell
Don't Call the Police (1974) as Harry Orwell
Fer-de-Lance (1974) as Russ Bogan
Stalk the Wild Child (1976) as Dr. James Hazard
Mayday at 40,000 Feet! (1976) as Captain Pete Douglass
A Sensitive, Passionate Man (1977) as Michael Delaney
Superdome (1978) as Mike Shelley
Nowhere to Run (1978) as Harry Adams
S.O.S. Titanic (1979) as John Jacob Astor
The Golden Gate Murders (1979) as Detective Sergeant Paul Silver
High Ice (1980) as Glencoe MacDonald
City in Fear (1980) as Vince Perrino (released posthumously)
Father Damien: The Leper Priest (1980) (Incomplete – Replaced by Ken Howard)
===Television series===
Boston Blackie (1951) (Season 1 Episode 2: "Cop Killer") as Armored Car Driver (uncredited)
Lux Video Theatre (1955–1956) (3 episodes)
(Season 5 Episode 30: "It Grows on Trees") (1955) as Ralph
(Season 5 Episode 51: "Perilous Deception") (1955) as Joe Davies
(Season 6 Episode 27: "It Started With Eve") (1956) as Johnny Reynolds Jr.
Matinee Theatre (1956) (Episode 193: "Belong to Me") as Paul Merrick
Conflict (1957) (Season 1 Episode 12: "The Money") as Sid Lukes
You Are There (1957) (Season 5 Episode 8: "The End of the Dalton Gang (October 5, 1892)" as Grat Dalton
U.S. Marshal (1 episode )
Alcoa Theatre (1957–1958) (2 episodes)
(Season 1 Episode 6: "Cupid Wore a Badge") (1957) as Mike Harper
(Season 1 Episode 20: "Decoy Duck") (1958) as Jim McCandless
The Millionaire (1957–1958) (2 episodes)
(Season 4 Episode 14: "The Regina Wainwright Story") (1957) as Peter Miller
(Season 5 Episode 5: "The David Barrett Story") (1958) as David Barrett
Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre (1957–1959) (4 episodes)
(Season 1 Episode 23: "There Were Four") (1957) as Danny Ensign
(Season 2 Episode 14: "Trial by Fear") (1958) as Tod Owen
(Season 3 Episode 1: "Trail to Nowhere") (1958) as Seth Larker
(Season 3 Episode 15: "Hang the Heart High") (1959) as Dix Porter
Richard Diamond, Private Detective (1957–1960) (77 episodes) as Richard Diamond / Chuck Garrett
Sheriff of Cochise (1958) (Season 3 Episode 9: "The Turkey Farmers") as Arnie Hix
Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse (1959) (Season 1 Episode 25: "Two Counts of Murder") as Ross Ingraham
Death Valley Days (1961) (Season 9 Episode 18: "Deadline at Austin") as Dr. Bill Breckenridge
Adventures in Paradise (1961) (Season 3 Episode 6: "Show Me a Hero") as Scotty Bell
Naked City (1961–1963) (2 episodes)
(Season 3 Episode 5: "A Wednesday Night Story") (1961) as Blair Cameron
(Season 4 Episode 26: "On the Battle Front: Every Minute is Important") (1963) as Carl Ashland
Thriller (1962)
Target: The Corruptors (1962) (Season 1 Episode 19: "The Middle Man") as Robbie Wilson
General Electric Theater (1962) (Season 10 Episode 20: "Shadow of a Hero") as Pat Howard
Follow the Sun (1962) (Season 1 Episode 24: "A Choice of Weapons") as Johnny Sadowsky
Checkmate (1962) (Season 2 Episode 25: "Ride a Wild Horse") as Len Kobalsky
Cain's Hundred (1962) (Season 1 Episode 26: "Inside Track") as Dan Mullin
Kraft Mystery Theatre (1962)
Route 66 (1962) (Season 3 Episode 1: "One Tiger to a Hill") as Karno Starling
The Eleventh Hour (1962) (Season 1 Episode 3: "Make Me a Place") as Hal Kincaid
The Dick Powell Show (1963) (Season 2 Episode 23: "Thunder in a Forgotten Town") as Kenneth 'Ken' Morgan
The Fugitive (1963–1967) (120 episodes) as Dr. Richard Kimble / varied aliases
The Hollywood Palace (1965)
O'Hara, U.S. Treasury (1971–1972) (23 episodes) as James O'Hara / Jim O'Hara
Cannon (1973) (Season 3 Episode 1: "He Who Digs a Grave") as Ian Kirk
Harry O (1973–1976) (45 episodes) as Harry Orwell
Police Story (1977) (Season 5 Episode 1: "Trigger Point") as Sergeant Joe Wilson
The Word (1978) (miniseries) (all 4 episodes) as Steve Randall
Centennial (1978–1979) (Narrator for all 12 episodes) (10 episodes as Paul Garrett)
Biography (1979) as Host
|
[
"Superdome (film)",
"Death Valley Days",
"The Girl He Left Behind",
"Father Damien",
"Anthony Quinn",
"chain smoker",
"Centennial (miniseries)",
"Boston Blackie",
"Nebraska",
"Audie Murphy",
"Bonzo Goes to College",
"Rod Stewart",
"John Jacob Astor IV",
"Fort Ord",
"Stan Herman",
"The Dick Powell Show",
"Warning Shot (1967 film)",
"People (magazine)",
"Hollywood Boulevard",
"Ken Howard",
"Kraft Mystery Theatre",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Macho Callahan",
"Hijack (1973 film)",
"Harry O",
"Gregory Peck",
"Laurence Olivier",
"Man-Trap",
"The Millionaire (TV series)",
"United States Army",
"The Shoes of the Fisherman (movie)",
"Culver City, California",
"The Eleventh Hour (1962 TV series)",
"Linda Evans",
"United Press International",
"The Longest Night (1972 film)",
"Stefanie Powers",
"Yankee Buccaneer",
"Where It's At (film)",
"The Word (novel)",
"Once Is Not Enough (film)",
"Milton Berle",
"Francis in the Navy",
"O'Hara, U.S. Treasury",
"John Wayne",
"The Green Berets (film)",
"The Hollywood Palace",
"U.S. Marshal (TV series)",
"leprosy",
"James Stewart",
"Generation (film)",
"Matinee Theatre",
"Lafayette Escadrille (film)",
"Sarasota Herald-Tribune",
"Birds of Prey (1973 film)",
"Francis in the Haunted House",
"Montreal Gazette",
"Francis Goes to West Point",
"The Toy Tiger",
"It's a Pleasure (film)",
"Inchon (film)",
"Cannon (TV series)",
"Ziegfeld girl",
"Conflict (American TV series)",
"General Electric Theater",
"S.O.S. Titanic",
"The Fugitive (1963 TV series)",
"The Square Jungle",
"Nowhere to Run (1978 film)",
"Richard Diamond, Private Detective",
"George Peppard",
"Richard Kimble",
"The Private War of Major Benson",
"Twenty Plus Two",
"Checkmate (American TV series)",
"Sheriff of Cochise",
"Follow the Sun (TV series)",
"Target: The Corruptors",
"Biography (TV series)",
"Suzanne Pleshette",
"Jack Lemmon",
"Ring of Fire (1961 film)",
"Malibu, California",
"Clint Eastwood",
"Mayday at 40,000 Feet!",
"You Are There (series)",
"High Ice (film)",
"Marooned (1969 film)",
"Las Vegas",
"Back at the Front",
"Cain's Hundred",
"Martin Milner",
"Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre",
"Thriller (American TV series)",
"Untamed Frontier",
"Battle of Saipan",
"Stalk the Wild Child",
"Naked City (TV series)",
"Associated Press",
"TV Guide",
"Swamp Fire",
"The Miami News",
"Cult of the Cobra",
"Golden Rendezvous",
"Molokai",
"No Room for the Groom",
"Warhead (film)",
"Showdown at Abilene",
"Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery",
"To Hell and Back (film)",
"Alcoa Theatre",
"Covert Action (1978 film)",
"The Big Bankroll",
"The White Shadow (TV series)",
"Evening Independent",
"Chief Crazy Horse (film)",
"Moon of the Wolf",
"My Six Loves",
"City in Fear",
"Never Say Goodbye (1956 film)",
"Two-Minute Warning",
"Route 66 (TV series)",
"Hell to Eternity",
"Police Story (1973 TV series)",
"Naponee, Nebraska",
"Franklin County, Nebraska",
"Angie Dickinson",
"Douglas MacArthur",
"Away All Boats",
"blackjack",
"The Swiss Conspiracy",
"Johnny Carson",
"Danny Thomas",
"Adventures in Paradise (TV series)",
"Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse",
"Fairfax High School (Los Angeles)",
"Richard Harris",
"All That Heaven Allows",
"Lux Video Theatre"
] |
8,344 |
Docetism
|
In the history of Christianity, docetism (from the dokeĩn "to seem", dókēsis "apparition, phantom") was the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality. Broadly, it is taken as the belief that Jesus only seemed to be human, and that his human form was an illusion.
The word Dokētaí ("Illusionists") referring to early groups who denied Jesus's humanity, first occurred in a letter by Bishop Serapion of Antioch (197–203), who discovered the doctrine in the Gospel of Peter, during a pastoral visit to a Christian community using it in Rhosus, and later condemned it as a forgery. It appears to have arisen over theological contentions concerning the meaning, figurative or literal, of a sentence from the Gospel of John: "the Word was made Flesh".
Docetism was unequivocally rejected at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and is regarded as heretical by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Armenian Apostolic Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and many Protestant denominations that accept and hold to the statements of these early church councils, such as Calvinist (Reformed Christians), Reformed Baptists, Waldensians, and all Trinitarian Christians.
==Definitions==
Docetism is broadly defined as the teaching that claims that Jesus' body was either absent or illusory. The term 'docetic' is rather nebulous. Two varieties were widely known. In one version, as in Marcionism, Christ was so divine that he could not have been human, since God lacked a material body, which therefore could not physically suffer. Jesus only appeared to be a flesh-and-blood man; his body was a phantasm. Other groups who were accused of docetism held that Jesus was a man in the flesh, but Christ was a separate entity who entered Jesus' body in the form of a dove at his baptism, empowered him to perform miracles, and abandoned him upon his death on the cross.
==Christology and theological implications==
Docetism's origin within Christianity is obscure. Ernst Käsemann controversially defined the Christology of the Gospel of John as "naïve docetism" in 1968. The ensuing debate reached an impasse as awareness grew that the very term "docetism", like "gnosticism", was difficult to define within the religio-historical framework of the debate. It has occasionally been argued that its origins were in heterodox Judaism or Oriental and Grecian philosophies. The alleged connection with Jewish Christianity would have reflected Jewish Christian concerns with the inviolability of (Jewish) monotheism. Docetic opinions seem to have circulated from very early times, 1 John appearing explicitly to reject them. Some 1stcentury Christian groups developed docetic interpretations partly as a way to make Christian teachings more acceptable to non-Christian ways of thinking about divinity.
In his critique of the theology of Clement of Alexandria, Photius in his Myriobiblon held that Clement's views reflected a quasi-docetic view of the nature of Christ, writing that "[Clement] hallucinates that the Word was not incarnate but only seems to be." (ὀνειροπολεῖ καὶ μὴ σαρκωθῆναι τὸν λόγον ἀλλὰ δόξαι.) In Clement's time, some disputes contended over whether Christ assumed the "psychic" flesh of mankind as heirs to Adam, or the "spiritual" flesh of the resurrection. Docetism largely died out during the first millennium AD.
The opponents against whom Ignatius of Antioch inveighs against are often taken to be Monophysite docetists. In his letter to the Smyrnaeans, 7:1, written around 110AD, he writes:
While these characteristics fit a Monophysite framework, a slight majority of scholars consider that Ignatius was waging a polemic on two distinct fronts, one Jewish, the other docetic; a minority holds that he was concerned with a group that commingled Judaism and docetism. Others, however, doubt that there was actual docetism threatening the churches, arguing that he was merely criticizing Christians who lived Jewishly or that his critical remarks were directed at an Ebionite or Cerinthian possessionist Christology, according to which Christ was a heavenly spirit that temporarily possessed Jesus.
==Islam and docetism==
Some commentators have attempted to make a connection between Islam and docetism using the following Quranic verse:
Some scholars theorise that Islam was influenced by Manichaeism (Docetism) in this view. However, the general consensus is that Manichaeism was not prevalent in Mecca in the 6th and 7th centuries, when Islam developed, and the influence can therefore not be proven.
==Docetism and Christ myth theory==
Since Arthur Drews published his The Christ Myth (Die Christusmythe) in 1909, occasional connections have been drawn between docetist theories and the modern idea that Christ was a myth. Shailer Mathews called Drews' theory a "modern docetism". Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare thought any connection to be based on a misunderstanding of docetism. The idea recurred in classicist Michael Grant's 1977 review of the evidence for Jesus, who compared modern scepticism about a historical Jesus to the ancient docetic idea that Jesus only seemed to come into the world "in the flesh". Modern supporters of the theory did away with "seeming".
==Texts believed to include docetism==
===Non-canonical Christian texts===
Acts of John
Fundamental Epistle: In Against the Fundamental Epistle, Augustine of Hippo makes reference to Manichaeans believing that Jesus was docetic.
Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
Gospel of Basilides
Gospel of Judas
Gospel of Peter
Gospel of Philip
Second Treatise of the Great Seth
|
[
"Epistles of John",
"letter to the Smyrnaeans",
"Catholic Church",
"The Christ Myth",
"Arsuz",
"Eusebius",
"Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria",
"Eastern Orthodox Church",
"Manichaenism",
"Ernst Käsemann",
"Adam",
"Fundamental Epistle",
"Eidolon",
"monotheism",
"First Council of Nicaea",
"Marcionism",
"Augustine of Hippo",
"Gospel of Peter",
"Michael Grant (author)",
"Kohlhammer Verlag",
"Reformed Baptists",
"Mecca",
"Arthur Drews",
"heresy in Christianity",
"Manichaeism",
"Photios I of Constantinople",
"Monophysite",
"gnosticism",
"Judaism",
"history of Christianity",
"Armenian Apostolic Church",
"Acts of John",
"Gospel of Basilides",
"Gospel of Philip",
"Arianism",
"Avatar",
"Lokottaravāda",
"Cerinthus",
"Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter",
"Gospel of John",
"Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church",
"Church History (Eusebius)",
"Calvinist",
"Jesus",
"Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare",
"Patripassianism",
"Shailer Mathews",
"Gospel of Judas",
"Waldensians",
"Clement of Alexandria",
"Ignatius of Antioch",
"Adoptionism",
"Christology",
"Reformed confessions of faith",
"Jewish Christian",
"classicist",
"Ebionism",
"Binitarianism",
"Bibliotheca (Photius)",
"Trinity",
"Serapion of Antioch",
"Second Treatise of the Great Seth",
"Spanish Adoptionism"
] |
8,347 |
Drachma
|
Drachma may refer to:
Ancient drachma, an ancient Greek currency
Modern drachma, a modern Greek currency (1833...2002)
Cretan drachma, currency of the former Cretan State
Drachma proctocomys, moth species, the only species in the Genus Drachma
|
[
"Dram (disambiguation)",
"Drachma proctocomys",
"Ancient drachma",
"Cretan State",
"Modern drachma",
"Dirham"
] |
8,349 |
Denarius
|
The denarius (; : dēnāriī, ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the Tetrarchy (293–313).
The word dēnārius is derived from the Latin dēnī "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 assēs. The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (denaro), Slovene (denar), Portuguese (dinheiro), and Spanish (dinero). Its name also survives in the dinar currency.
Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), a numeral monogram that appeared on the obverse in the Republican period, denoting the 10 asses ("X") to 1 denarius ("I") conversion rate. However it can also be represented as X̶ (capital letter X with combining long stroke overlay).
==History==
A predecessor of the denarius was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War, with an average weight of 6.81 grams, or of a Roman pound. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin of didrachm weight, which was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy. These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or to pay soldiers.
The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC. Classical historians have sometimes called these coins "heavy denarii", but they are classified by modern numismatists as quadrigati, a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the quadriga, or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or biga which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii, was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.
Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses, hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman Republic and the early Empire.
The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.
The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as "containing ten". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between 270 and 275 AD, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian.
==Debasement and evolution==
==Value, comparisons and silver content==
1 gold aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver quinarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper semisses = 1,600 copper quadrantes
It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 denarii per day). Under Julius Caesar, this was doubled to 225 denarii/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms, while in the reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 denarii per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 denarii.
By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 denarius/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period. Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms. Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a troy ounce denarius had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.
At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546 ml or about 2 American cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one dupondius ( of a denarius); after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices was issued in 301 AD, the same item cost 8 debased common denarii – 6300% inflation.
Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the denarius. Under the Roman Empire (after Nero) the denarius contained approximately 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or 0.105 ozt (about troy ounce). The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the denarius fell to under 60% purity by 200 AD, and plummeted to 5% purity by 300 AD. By the reign of Gallienus, the antoninianus was a copper coin with a thin silver wash.
==Influence==
In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus, a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down denarii. The coins of Eppillus, issued around Calleva Atrebatum around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various denarii, such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius. It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the dinar used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was dinar, and it is still used in present-day Serbia. The Macedonian currency denar is also derived from the Roman denarius. The Italian word denaro, the Spanish word dinero, the Portuguese word dinheiro, and the Slovene word , all meaning money, are also derived from Latin denarius. The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as £sd, with "d" referring to denarius and standing for penny.
==Use in the Bible==
In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2, John 12:5). In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix ("quart") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius. Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times. Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation. Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6, the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages.
The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant & in Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as "tribute penny". It is commonly thought to be a denarius with the head of Tiberius.
|
[
"Tetrarchy",
"grain (measure)",
"Gold Dinar",
"Principality of Serbia",
"Unicode",
"France",
"French denier",
"gold dinar",
"antoninianus",
"gram",
"Slovene language",
"Pay (Roman army)",
"Kingdom of Serbia",
"Saxon pound",
"dupondius",
"Maximinus Thrax",
"dinar",
"Carolingian Empire",
"Gospel of Matthew",
"Roma (mythology)",
"troy ounce",
"Italian language",
"Roman pound",
"seigniorage",
"troy pound",
"Equites",
"Nero",
"M. Volteius",
"Dupondius",
"Solidus (coin)",
"Sestertius",
"£sd",
"Carolingian system",
"Offa",
"debasement",
"Naples",
"Calleva Atrebatum",
"Quadrans",
"pennyweight",
"Quinarius",
"Denarius of L. Censorinus",
"Ancient Greek units of measurement",
"Serbia",
"New Testament",
"Pepin the Short",
"Roman Empire",
"Augustus",
"victoriatus",
"Gospel of John",
"Second Triumvirate",
"Robert H. Mounce",
"quadrigatus",
"Eppillus",
"Domitian",
"Elagabalus",
"North Macedonia",
"Tincomarus",
"Biga (chariot)",
"Revelation 6",
"Roman Republic",
"tribute penny",
"Carolingian Reform",
"penny",
"Tribute penny",
"Marcus Aurelius",
"Edict on Maximum Prices",
"Spanish language",
"semis",
"Early Muslim conquests",
"Aurelian",
"Gordian III",
"Ides of March Coin",
"Gospel of Luke",
"silver",
"Septimius Severus",
"Ancient Roman units of measurement",
"copper",
"Titus",
"Yugoslavia",
"quadriga",
"Second Punic War",
"gold",
"Centurion",
"Latin",
"Vespasian",
"Charlemagne",
"Caracalla",
"As (Roman coin)",
"Diocletian",
"bronze",
"Carolingian pound",
"First Punic War",
"Macedonian denar",
"aureus",
"billon (alloy)",
"Arab",
"Render unto Caesar",
"Julia Domna",
"Parable of the Unforgiving Servant",
"Julius Caesar",
"Parable of the Good Samaritan",
"Portuguese language",
"Ancient Rome",
"silver coin",
"Berwick-upon-Tweed",
"Book of Revelation",
"Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse",
"Gallienus"
] |
8,350 |
Della Rovere
|
The House of Della Rovere (; literally "of the oak tree") was a powerful Italian noble family. It had humble origins in Savona, in Liguria, and acquired power and influence through nepotism and ambitious marriages arranged by two Della Rovere popes: Francesco Della Rovere, who ruled as Sixtus IV from 1471 to 1484 and his nephew Giuliano, who became Julius II in 1503. Sixtus IV built the Sistine Chapel, which was named after him. Julius II was patron to Michelangelo, Raphael and many other Renaissance artists and started the modern rebuilt of St. Peter's Basilica. Also the Basilica of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome was the family church of the Della Rovere. Members of the family were influential in the Church of Rome, and as dukes of Urbino, dukes of Sora and lords of Senigallia; the title of Urbino was extinguished with the death of Francesco Maria II in 1631, and the family died out with the death of his granddaughter Vittoria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany.
== History ==
Francesco Della Rovere was born into a poor family in Liguria in north-west Italy in 1414, the son of Leonardo della Rovere of Savona. A Franciscan who became Minister General of his order, then cardinal, he had a reputation for unworldliness until he was elected pope in 1471. As Sixtus IV he was both wealthy and powerful, and at once set about giving power and wealth to his nephews of the Della Rovere and Riario families. Within months of his election, he had made Giuliano della Rovere (the future pope Julius II) and Pietro Riario both cardinals and bishops; four other nephews were also made cardinals. He made Giovanni Della Rovere, who was not a priest, prefect of Rome, and arranged for him to marry into the da Montefeltro family, dukes of Urbino. Sixtus claimed descent from a noble Della Rovere family, the counts of Vinovo in Piemonte, and adopted their coat-of-arms.
Guidobaldo da Montefeltro adopted Francesco Maria I della Rovere, his sister's child and nephew of Pope Julius II. Guidobaldo I, who was heirless, called Francesco Maria at his court, and named him as heir of the Duchy of Urbino in 1504, this through the intercession of Julius II. In 1508, Francesco Maria inherited the duchy thereby starting the line of Rovere Dukes of Urbino. That dynasty ended in 1626 when Pope Urban VIII incorporated Urbino into the papal dominions. As compensation to the last sovereign duke, the title only could be continued by Francesco Maria II, and after his death by his heir, Federico Ubaldo.
Vittoria, last descendant of the della Rovere family (she was the only child of Federico Ubaldo), married Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. They had two children: Cosimo III, Tuscany's longest reigning monarch, and Francesco Maria de' Medici, a prince of the Church.
==Della Rovere Dukes of Urbino (1508)==
Francesco Maria I della Rovere (1490–1538)
Guidobaldo II della Rovere (1514–1574)
Francesco Maria II della Rovere (1549–1631) - duchy abolished, title continued
Federico Ubaldo della Rovere (1605–1623) - title became extinct with his death.
== Other people with the same surname ==
Among the many people who did not belong to this family, but bore the same name, are:
the Della Rovere family, counts of Vinovo, among them:
Domenico della Rovere of Vinovo, cardinal, who built the there
his brother Cristoforo della Rovere of Vinovo
and various artists, including:
the brothers Giovan Battista Della Rovere and Giovan Mauro Della Rovere, both known as "il Fiamminghino"
an unrelated Lombard family of painters and illuminators active in the seventeenth century.
== Gallery ==
File:Tizian Portrait Papst Sixtus IV ca. 1545-46 Uffizien Florenz-01 (cropped).jpg|Francesco della Rovere, later Sixtus IV
File:Pope Julius II.jpg|Giuliano della Rovere, later Julius II
File:Titian - Portrait of Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Urbino - WGA22982.jpg|Francesco Maria I della Rovere
File:Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) - Portrait of Guidobaldo II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino - 1956.7.1 - Yale University Art Gallery.jpg|Guidobaldo II della Rovere
File:Francesco II della Rovere.jpg|Francesco Maria II della Rovere
File:Sustermans, Justus - Vittoria della Rovere con una rosa.jpg|Vittoria della Rovere
File:Urbino, palazzo ducale visto dal mercatale 02.JPG|Palazzo Ducale, Urbino
File:Panoramica P.za Duca Rocca.jpg|Rocca Della Rovere in Senigallia
File:Rocca Roveresca2 - Mondavio, Italia.JPG|Rocca Roveresca in Mondavio
File:Palazzo Della Rovere di San Lorenzo in Campo.JPG|Palazzo Della Rovere in San Lorenzo in Campo
File:Borgo - palazzo dei Penitenzieri 1150682.JPG|Palazzo Della Rovere in Rome
|
[
"Catholic Church",
"Vittoria della Rovere",
"Giovan Mauro Della Rovere",
"Domenico della Rovere",
"prince of the Church",
"Cardinal (Catholicism)",
"Italian nobility",
"Duke of Urbino",
"Raphael",
"Pope Julius II",
"Guidobaldo II della Rovere",
"Palazzo Della Rovere",
"Riario",
"Basilica",
"Pope",
"Senigallia",
"Papal States",
"Julius II",
"Renaissance",
"dukes of Urbino",
"Vinovo",
"San Lorenzo in Campo",
"Duchy of Urbino",
"Palazzo Ducale, Urbino",
"Duchy of Sora",
"Francesco Della Rovere",
"Giuliano della Rovere",
"House of Montefeltro",
"Federico Ubaldo della Rovere",
"Guidobaldo da Montefeltro",
"Pesaro",
"limner",
"Liguria",
"Franciscan",
"San Pietro in Vincoli",
"Ferdinando II de' Medici",
"nepotism",
"Fortune favours the bold",
"Mondavio",
"Savona",
"prefect of Rome",
"bishop",
"Francesco Maria I della Rovere",
"Francesco Maria II",
"coat-of-arms",
"Grand Duchess of Tuscany",
"Sistine Chapel",
"Giovan Battista Della Rovere",
"Michelangelo",
"Pietro Riario",
"Republic of Genoa",
"papal dominions",
"Pope Urban VIII",
"Sixtus IV",
"Francesco Maria II della Rovere",
"Piemonte",
"Giovanni Della Rovere",
"St. Peter's Basilica",
"Cristoforo della Rovere",
"Rome",
"Francesco Maria de' Medici",
"Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany"
] |
8,351 |
David Mamet
|
David Alan Mamet (; born November 30, 1947) is an American playwright, author, and filmmaker.
He won a Pulitzer Prize and received Tony nominations for his plays Glengarry Glen Ross (1984) and Speed-the-Plow (1988). He first gained critical acclaim for a trio of 1970s off-Broadway plays: The Duck Variations, Sexual Perversity in Chicago, and American Buffalo. His plays Race and The Penitent, respectively, opened on Broadway in 2009 and previewed off-Broadway in 2017.
Feature films that Mamet both wrote and directed include House of Games (1987), Homicide (1991), The Spanish Prisoner (1997), and his biggest commercial success, Heist (2001). His screenwriting credits include The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981), The Verdict (1982), The Untouchables (1987), Hoffa (1992), Wag the Dog (1997), and Hannibal (2001). Mamet himself wrote the screenplay for the 1992 adaptation of Glengarry Glen Ross, and wrote and directed the 1994 adaptation of his play Oleanna (1992). He created and produced the CBS series The Unit (2006–2009).
Mamet's books include: On Directing Film (1991), a commentary and dialogue about film-making; The Old Religion (1997), a novel about the lynching of Leo Frank; Five Cities of Refuge: Weekly Reflections on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy (2004), a Torah commentary with Rabbi Lawrence Kushner; The Wicked Son (2006), a study of Jewish self-hatred and antisemitism; Bambi vs. Godzilla, a commentary on the movie business; The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture (2011), a commentary on cultural and political issues; Three War Stories (2013), a trio of novellas about the physical and psychological effects of war; and Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood (2023), an autobiographical account of his experiences in Hollywood.
== Early life and education ==
Mamet was born in 1947 in Chicago to Lenore June (née Silver), a teacher, and Bernard Morris Mamet, a labor attorney. He is Jewish. His paternal grandparents were Polish Jews. Mamet has said his parents were communists and described himself as a "red diaper baby". One of his earliest jobs was as a busboy at Chicago's London House and The Second City. He also worked as an actor, editor for Oui magazine and as a cab-driver. He was educated at the progressive Francis W. Parker School and at Goddard College in Plainfield, Vermont. At the Chicago Public Library Foundation 20th anniversary fundraiser in 2006, though, Mamet announced "My alma mater is the Chicago Public Library. I got what little educational foundation I got in the third-floor reading room, under the tutelage of a Coca-Cola sign".
After a move to Chicago's North Side, Mamet met theater director Robert Sickinger, and began to work occasionally at Sickinger's Hull House Theatre. Thus began Mamet's lifelong involvement with the theater.
==Career==
===Theater===
Mamet is a founding member of the Atlantic Theater Company; he first gained acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway plays in 1976, The Duck Variations, Sexual Perversity in Chicago, and American Buffalo. His play The Anarchist, starring Patti LuPone and Debra Winger, in her Broadway debut, opened on Broadway on November 13, 2012, in previews and was scheduled to close on December 16, 2012. His 2017 play The Penitent previewed off-Broadway on February 8, 2017.
In 2002, Mamet was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Mamet later received the PEN/Laura Pels Theater Award for Grand Master of American Theater in 2010. In 2017, Mamet released an online class for writers entitled David Mamet teaches dramatic writing.
In 2019 Mamet returned to the London West End with a new play, Bitter Wheat, at the Garrick Theatre, starring John Malkovich. In 2023 it was announced that a new Mamet play, titled Henry Johnson, was expected to debut in Los Angeles starring Shia LaBeouf.
===Film===
Mamet's first film work was as a screenwriter, later directing his own scripts. According to Joe Mantegna, Mamet worked as a script doctor for the 1978 film Towing. Mamet's first produced screenplay was the 1981 production of The Postman Always Rings Twice, based on James M. Cain's novel. He received an Academy Award nomination one year later for the 1982 legal drama, The Verdict. He also wrote the screenplays for The Untouchables (1987), Hoffa (1992), The Edge (1997), Wag the Dog (1997), Ronin (1998), and Hannibal (2001). He received a second Academy Award nomination for Wag the Dog.
In 1987, Mamet made his film directing debut with his screenplay House of Games, which won Best Screenplay awards at the 1987 Venice Film Festival and the Film of the Year in 1989 from the London Film Critics' Circle Awards. The film starred his then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, and many longtime stage associates and friends, including fellow Goddard College graduates. Mamet was quoted as saying, "It was my first film as a director and I needed support, so I stacked the deck." After House of Games, Mamet later wrote and directed two more films focusing on the world of con artists, The Spanish Prisoner (1997) and Heist (2001). Among those films, Heist enjoyed the biggest commercial success.
Other films that Mamet both wrote and directed include: Things Change (1988), Homicide (1991) (nominated for the Palme d'Or at 1991 Cannes Film Festival and won a "Screenwriter of the Year" award for Mamet from the London Film Critics' Circle Awards), Oleanna (1994), The Winslow Boy (1999), State and Main (2000), Spartan (2004), Redbelt (2008), and the 2013 bio-pic TV movie Phil Spector.
A feature-length film, a thriller titled Blackbird, was intended for release in 2015, but is still in development.
When Mamet adapted his play for the 1992 film Glengarry Glen Ross, he wrote an additional part (including the monologue "Coffee's for closers") for Alec Baldwin.
Mamet continues to work with an informal repertory company for his films, including Crouse, William H. Macy, Joe Mantegna, and Rebecca Pidgeon, as well as the aforementioned school friends.
Mamet rewrote the script for Ronin under the pseudonym "Richard Weisz" and turned in an early version of a script for Malcolm X which was rejected by director Spike Lee. Mamet also wrote an unproduced biopic script about Roscoe Arbuckle with Chris Farley intended to portray him. In 2000, Mamet directed a film version of Catastrophe, a one-act play by Samuel Beckett featuring Harold Pinter and John Gielgud (in his final screen performance). In 2008, he wrote and directed the mixed martial arts movie Redbelt, about a martial arts instructor tricked into fighting in a professional bout.
In On Directing Film, Mamet advocates for a method of storytelling based on Eisenstein's montage theory, stating that the story should be told through the juxtaposition of uninflected images. This method relies heavily on the cut between scenes, and Mamet urges directors to eliminate as much narration as possible. Mamet asserts that directors should focus on getting the point of a scene across, rather than simply following a protagonist, or adding visually beautiful or intriguing shots. Films should create order from disorder in search of the objective.
In 2023, reports emerged that Mamet would direct and co-write a new film titled Assassination, his first film since 2008. The film will center around the Chicago Mob ordering the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and will star Viggo Mortensen, Shia LaBeouf, Courtney Love, Al Pacino, and John Travolta. The film's production was scheduled to start in September 2023. In October, Barry Levinson took over as the film's director, while Mamet remained as the screenwriter.
In March 2024, Mamet stated that he is currently writing a screenplay centering about Hunter Biden, the second son of U.S. President Joe Biden. In June, Deadline reported that the film, titled The Prince, will directed by Cameron Van Hoy and star Scott Haze as the lead character Parker; alongside Nicolas Cage, J.K. Simmons, Giancarlo Esposito, and Andy Garcia. Mamet added that the film won't be "a travelogue", and will be inspired by Hunter's life, rather than serve as a biopic.
===Books===
Mamet published the essay collection Writing in Restaurants in 1986, followed by the poetry collection The Hero Pony in 1990. He has also published a series of short plays, monologues and four novels, The Village (1994), The Old Religion (1997), Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources (2000), and Chicago (2018). He has written several non-fiction texts, and children's stories, including True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor (1997). In 2004 he published a lauded version of the classical Faust story, Faustus, however, when the play was staged in San Francisco during the spring of 2004, it was not well received by critics. On May 1, 2010, Mamet released a graphic novel The Trials of Roderick Spode (The Human Ant).
Mamet detailed his conversion from modern liberalism to "a reformed liberal" in The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture in 2011. Mamet published Three War Stories, a collection of novellas, in 2013 ; the novel The Diary of a Porn Star by Priscilla Wriston-Ranger: As Told to David Mamet With an Afterword by Mr. Mamet in 2019; and the political commentary Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch in 2022. In 2023 Mamet recounted his experiences in Hollywood and the movie-making industry in Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood.
=== Television and radio ===
Mamet wrote one episode of Hill Street Blues, "A Wasted Weekend", that aired in 1987. His then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, appeared in numerous episodes (including that one) as Officer McBride. Mamet is also the creator, producer and frequent writer of the television series The Unit, where he wrote a well-circulated memo to the writing staff. He directed a third-season episode of The Shield with Shawn Ryan. In 2007, Mamet directed two television commercials for Ford Motor Company. The two 30-second ads featured the Ford Edge and were filmed in Mamet's signature style of fast-paced dialogue and clear, simple imagery. Mamet's sister, Lynn, is a producer and writer for television shows, such as The Unit and Law & Order.
Mamet has contributed several dramas to BBC Radio through Jarvis & Ayres Productions, including an adaptation of Glengarry Glen Ross for BBC Radio 3 and new dramas for BBC Radio 4. The comedy Keep Your Pantheon (or On the Whole I'd Rather Be in Mesopotamia) was aired in 2007. The Christopher Boy's Communion was another Jarvis & Ayres production, first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on March 8, 2021.
== Style and reception ==
=== Mamet speak ===
Mamet's style of writing dialogue, marked by a cynical, street-smart edge, has come to be called Mamet speak. Mamet himself has criticized his (and other writers') tendency to write "pretty" at the expense of sound, logical plots. When asked how he developed his style for writing dialogue, Mamet said, "In my family, in the days prior to television, we liked to while away the evenings by making ourselves miserable, based solely on our ability to speak the language viciously. That's probably where my ability was honed."
=== Gender issues ===
Mamet's plays have frequently sparked debate and controversy. Following a 1992 staging of Oleanna, a play in which a college student accuses her professor of trying to rape her, a critic reported that the play divided the audience by gender and recounted that "couples emerged screaming at each other".
=== Archives ===
The papers of David Mamet were sold to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 2007 and first opened for research in 2009. The growing collection consists mainly of manuscripts and related production materials for most of his plays, films, and other writings, but also includes his personal journals from 1966 to 2005. In 2015, the Ransom Center secured a second major addition to Mamet's papers, including more recent works. Additional materials relating to Mamet and his career can be found in the Ransom Center's collections of Robert De Niro, Mel Gussow, Tom Stoppard, Sam Shepard, Paul Schrader, Don DeLillo, and John Russell Brown.
==Personal life==
Mamet and actress Lindsay Crouse married in 1977 and divorced in 1990. The couple have two children. Mamet has been married to actress and singer-songwriter Rebecca Pidgeon since 1991, and they have two children. Mamet and Pidgeon live in Santa Monica, California.
===Political views===
In 2005, Mamet became a contributing blogger for The Huffington Post, drawing satirical cartoons with themes including political strife in Israel. In a 2008 essay at The Village Voice titled "Why I Am No Longer a 'Brain-Dead Liberal he discussed how his political views had shifted from liberalism to conservatism. In interviews, Mamet has highlighted his agreement with free market theorists such as Friedrich Hayek, the historian Paul Johnson, and economist Thomas Sowell, whom Mamet called "one of our greatest minds". In 2022, Mamet declined to explicitly label himself a Republican, but described himself as a conservative who "would like to conserve those things I grew up with: the love of family, the love of the country, love of service, love of God, love of community". In the same interview, Mamet went on to say that "there are famous dramatists and novelists [in the UK] whose works are full of anti-Semitic filth." He refused to give examples because of British libel laws (the interview was conducted in New York City for the Financial Times). He is known for his pro-Israel positions; in his book The Secret Knowledge he claimed that "Israelis would like to live in peace within their borders; the Arabs would like to kill them all."
Mamet endorsed Republican Mitt Romney for president in 2012, and wrote an article for The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles imploring fellow Jewish Americans to vote for Romney.
In an essay for Newsweek, published on January 29, 2013, Mamet argued against gun control laws: "It was intended to guard us against this inevitable decay of government that the Constitution was written. Its purpose was and is not to enthrone a Government superior to an imperfect and confused electorate, but to protect us from such a government."
Mamet has described the NFL anthem protests as "absolutely fucking despicable". After Trump lost the election, Mamet appeared to endorse claims that the election had been illegitimate in his 2022 book Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch, though shortly after its publication, he said he "misspoke" on the subject.
In 2022, Mamet made comments in support of Florida's Parental Rights in Education Act, called the "Don't Say Gay" bill by its critics, which restricts what public school teachers in Florida can discuss with children in kindergarten through third grade about sexual orientation and gender identity. In an interview with Fox News, Mamet claimed that the law was necessary because teachers "are abusing [children] mentally and using sex to do so", further alleging that "teachers are inclined, particularly men because men are predators, to pedophilia".
==Works==
=== Theatre ===
Lakeboat (1970)
The Duck Variations (1972)
Lone Canoe (1972)
Sexual Perversity in Chicago (1974)
Squirrels (1974)
American Buffalo (1975)
Reunion (1976)
The Water Engine (1976)
A Life in the Theatre (1977)
The Woods (1977)
The Revenge of the Space Pandas, or Binky Rudich and the Two-Speed Clock (1978)
Mr. Happiness (1978)
Prairie du Chien (1978)
The Blue Hour (1979)
Lakeboat (revision) (1980)
Edmond (1982)
The Frog Prince (1983)
Glengarry Glen Ross (1983)
The Shawl (1985)
Goldberg Street: Short Plays and Monologues (1985)
The Poet & The Rent (1986)
Speed-the-Plow (1988)
Bobby Gould in Hell (1989)
Oleanna (1992)
The Cryptogram (1994)
The Old Neighborhood (1997)
Boston Marriage (1999)
Faustus (2004)
Romance (2005)
The Voysey Inheritance (adaptation) (2005)
Keep Your Pantheon (2007)
November (2007)
The Vikings and Darwin (2008)
Race (2009)
School (2009)
The Anarchist (2012)
China Doll (2015)
The Penitent (2017)
Bitter Wheat (2019)
The Christopher Boy's Communion (2020)
Henry Johnson (2023)
===Film ===
Short film
=== Television ===
Acting roles
==Awards and nominations==
|
[
"The Voysey Inheritance",
"Rebecca Pidgeon",
"Freedom Watch",
"Oleanna (play)",
"Come Back to Sorrento (novel)",
"Glengarry Glen Ross",
"State and Main",
"2012 United States presidential election",
"We're No Angels (1989 film)",
"Beckett on Film",
"Viggo Mortensen",
"sexual orientation",
"The Times",
"Friedrich Hayek",
"CBS",
"James Spader",
"Lansky (1999 film)",
"British Academy Film Awards",
"Scott Haze",
"James Mangold",
"Nicolas Cage",
"modern liberalism in the United States",
"Whistle (novel)",
"pedophilia",
"Lawrence Kushner",
"The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles",
"Kerry Washington",
"Joe Biden",
"San Francisco",
"Ford Motor Company",
"BBC Radio",
"male bonding",
"Chicago Public Library",
"Rolling Stone",
"Lindsay Crouse",
"Edmond (play)",
"Tom Stoppard",
"A Life in the Theatre (1993 film)",
"Chicago Tribune",
"William H. Macy",
"Cameron Van Hoy",
"Sam Shepard",
"Bobby Gould in Hell",
"London Film Critics' Circle Award for Film of the Year",
"Lolita (1997 film)",
"Sexual Perversity in Chicago",
"Things Change (film)",
"Chris Farley",
"Wag the Dog",
"Harry Ransom Center",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"PEN/Laura Pels Theater Award",
"Barry Levinson",
"Walt Disney Pictures",
"The Unit",
"Mitt Romney",
"Lakeboat",
"Lakeboat (film)",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Warner Bros.",
"Francis W. Parker School (Chicago)",
"Ford Edge",
"HarperCollins",
"China Doll (play)",
"Box Office Mojo",
"Don DeLillo",
"The Water Engine",
"Bambi Vs. Godzilla",
"John Malkovich",
"Faustus (play)",
"New York Drama Critics' Circle",
"Donald Trump",
"The Cryptogram",
"The Water Engine (film)",
"Emmy Awards",
"A Life in the Theatre",
"November (play)",
"John Travolta",
"BBC Radio 3",
"The Edge (1997 film)",
"Deadline Hollywood",
"red diaper baby",
"Kimberly Peirce",
"Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist",
"Towing (film)",
"Ronin (film)",
"38th Tony Awards",
"Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay",
"Samuel Beckett",
"American Buffalo (play)",
"Andy Garcia",
"Fox Business Network",
"J.K. Simmons",
"Venice Film Festival",
"Ace in the Hole (1951 film)",
"Zosia Mamet",
"Faust",
"Plainfield, Vermont",
"Shawn Ryan",
"70th Academy Awards",
"Hunter Biden",
"The Woods (play)",
"London House (Chicago)",
"Atlantic Theater Company",
"Primetime Emmy Awards",
"Reform Judaism",
"Oui (magazine)",
"BBC Radio 4",
"Pulitzer Prize for Drama",
"Biographical film",
"Boston Marriage (play)",
"gun control",
"Bachelor of Arts",
"John Dillinger",
"Santa Monica, California",
"The Old Neighborhood (play)",
"Glengarry Glen Ross (film)",
"Paul Schrader",
"Hill Street Blues",
"Courtney Love",
"Tony Award for Best Play",
"Jewish",
"mixed martial arts",
"Spartan (film)",
"Heist (2001 film)",
"USA Films",
"Self-hating Jew",
"The Shield",
"Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play",
"55th Golden Globe Awards",
"Michael Worth",
"John Gielgud",
"script doctor",
"Beau is Afraid",
"The Frog Prince (Mamet play)",
"Shia LaBeouf",
"BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay",
"antisemitism",
"52nd British Academy Film Awards",
"The Prince (upcoming film)",
"American Theater Hall of Fame",
"University of Texas at Austin",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"The Winslow Boy (1999 film)",
"U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)",
"Tony Awards",
"The Diary of a Young Girl",
"Academy Awards",
"The Huffington Post",
"40th Golden Globe Awards",
"IGN",
"Joe Mantegna",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Hoffa (film)",
"On Directing Film",
"65th Primetime Emmy Awards",
"Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election",
"55th Academy Awards",
"The Guardian",
"The Village Voice",
"Chicago",
"Pulitzer Prize",
"The Penitent (play)",
"Coffee's for closers",
"Al Pacino",
"45th Golden Globe Awards",
"Black Widow (1987 film)",
"David Alan Grier",
"High and Low (1963 film)",
"Entertainment Weekly",
"Columbia Pictures",
"Tony Award",
"Florida Parental Rights in Education Act",
"The Daily Beast",
"Spike Lee",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited or Anthology Series",
"Richard Thomas (actor)",
"Garrick Theatre",
"Mel Gussow",
"Andrew Napolitano",
"List of Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign non-political endorsements",
"42nd Tony Awards",
"Homicide (1991 film)",
"London Film Critics' Circle Awards",
"MovieWeb",
"Clara Mamet",
"The Prince of Providence",
"Chicago Outfit",
"American Buffalo (film)",
"Fox News",
"Roscoe Arbuckle",
"Robert Sickinger",
"The Untouchables (film)",
"Robert De Niro",
"Paul Johnson (writer)",
"Prairie du Chien (play)",
"Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay",
"gender identity",
"The Shawl",
"The Wicked Son",
"Lost Masterpieces of Pornography",
"Squirrels (play)",
"Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde",
"Charlie Chan",
"Thomas Sowell",
"Ted Demme",
"Goddard College",
"Alec Baldwin",
"Drama Desk Awards",
"True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor",
"free market",
"Breitbart News",
"Three Uses of the Knife",
"Cannes Film Festival",
"Broadway theater",
"Brian De Palma",
"/Film",
"Fox Broadcasting Company",
"Giancarlo Esposito",
"The Simpsons",
"Oleanna (film)",
"Race (play)",
"Harold Pinter",
"The Duck Variations",
"Golden Globe Awards",
"Have Gun – Will Travel",
"Polish Jews",
"The Spanish Prisoner",
"Romance (Mamet play)",
"assassination of John F. Kennedy",
"The Anarchist (play)",
"Leo Frank",
"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special",
"Martin Scorsese",
"Phil Spector (film)",
"The Verdict",
"Michael Corrente",
"Malcolm X (1992 film)",
"Lynn Mamet",
"Speed-the-Plow",
"Financial Times",
"Torah",
"James M. Cain",
"Conservatism in the United States",
"Edmond (film)",
"House of Games",
"Hull House",
"Village Voice",
"Moby-Dick",
"Redbelt",
"Debra Winger",
"Newsweek",
"Hannibal (2001 film)",
"Patti LuPone",
"The Second City",
"Homer the Father",
"The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981 film)"
] |
8,352 |
December 6
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
1060 – Béla I is crowned king of Hungary.
1240 – Mongol invasion of Rus': Kyiv, defended by Voivode Dmytro, falls to the Mongols under Batu Khan.
1492 – After exploring the island of Cuba (which he had mistaken for Japan) for gold, Christopher Columbus lands on an island he names Hispaniola.
1534 – The city of Quito in Ecuador is founded by Spanish settlers led by Sebastián de Belalcázar.
===1601–1900===
1648 – Pride's Purge removes royalist sympathizers from Parliament so that the High Court of Justice could put the King on trial.
1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army begins retreat during the second Jacobite Rising.
1790 – The U.S. Congress moves from New York City to Philadelphia.
1803 – Five French warships attempting to escape the Royal Naval blockade of Saint-Domingue are all seized by British warships, signifying the end of the Haitian Revolution.
1865 – Georgia ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
1882 – Transit of Venus, second and last of the 19th century.
1884 – The Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., is completed.
1897 – London becomes the world's first city to host licensed taxicabs.
===1901–present===
1904 – Theodore Roosevelt articulated his "Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the U.S. would intervene in the Western Hemisphere should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstable.
1907 – A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, kills 362 workers.
1912 – The Nefertiti Bust is discovered.
1916 – World War I: The Central Powers capture Bucharest.
1917 – Finland declares independence from the Russian Empire.
1917 – Halifax Explosion: A munitions explosion near Halifax, Nova Scotia kills more than 1,900 people in the largest artificial explosion up to that time.
1917 – World War I: is the first American destroyer to be sunk by enemy action when it is torpedoed by German submarine .
1921 – The Anglo-Irish Treaty is signed in London by British and Irish representatives.
1922 – One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty Ireland is partitioned. Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State come into existence.
1928 – The government of Colombia sends military forces to suppress a month-long strike by United Fruit Company workers, resulting in an unknown number of deaths.
1933 – In United States v. One Book Called Ulysses Judge John M. Woolsey rules that James Joyce's novel Ulysses is not obscene despite coarse language and sexual content, a leading decision affirming free expression.
1939 – Winter War: The Red Army's advance on the Karelian Isthmus is stopped by Finns at the Mannerheim Line during the Battle of Taipale.
1941 – World War II: Camp X opens in Canada to begin training Allied secret agents for the war.
1956 – A violent water polo match between Hungary and the USSR takes place during the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, against the backdrop of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
1957 – Project Vanguard: A launchpad explosion of Vanguard TV3 thwarts the first United States attempt to launch a satellite into Earth orbit.
1967 – Adrian Kantrowitz performs the first human heart transplant in the United States.
1969 – Altamont Free Concert: At a free concert performed by the Rolling Stones, eighteen-year old Meredith Hunter is stabbed to death by Hells Angels security guards.
1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.
1973 – The Twenty-fifth Amendment: The United States House of Representatives votes 387–35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States. (On November 27, the Senate confirmed him 92–3.)
1975 – The Troubles: Fleeing from the police, a Provisional IRA unit takes a British couple hostage in their flat on Balcombe Street, London, beginning a six-day siege.
1977 – South Africa grants independence to Bophuthatswana, although it is not recognized by any other country.
1978 – Spain ratifies the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum.
1982 – The Troubles: The Irish National Liberation Army bombs a pub frequented by British soldiers in Ballykelly, Northern Ireland, killing eleven soldiers and six civilians.
1989 – The École Polytechnique massacre (or Montreal Massacre): Marc Lépine, an anti-feminist gunman, murders 14 young women at the École Polytechnique in Montreal.
1990 – A military jet of the Italian Air Force, abandoned by its pilot after an on-board fire, crashed into a high school near Bologna, Italy, killing 12 students and injuring 88 other people.
1991 – Yugoslav Wars: In Croatia, forces of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) heaviest bombardment of Dubrovnik during a siege of seven months.
1992 – The Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, India, is demolished, leading to widespread riots causing the death of over 1,500 people.
1995 – The United States Food and Drug Administration approves Saquinavir, the first protease inhibitor to treat HIV/AIDS. Within 2 years of its approval, annual deaths from AIDS in the United States fall from over 50,000 to approximately 18,000.
1998 – in Venezuela, Hugo Chávez is victorious in presidential elections.
1999 – A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.: The Recording Industry Association of America sues the peer-to-peer file-sharing service Napster, alleging copyright infringement.
2005 – An Iranian Air Force C-130 military transport aircraft crashes into a ten-floor apartment building in a residential area of Tehran, killing all 94 on board and 12 more on the ground.
2006 – NASA reveals photographs taken by Mars Global Surveyor suggesting the presence of liquid water on Mars.
2015 – Venezuelan parliamentary election: For the first time in 17 years, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela loses its majority in parliament.
2017 – Donald Trump's administration officially announces the recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
846 – Hasan al-Askari, Arabian 11th of the Twelve Imams (d. 874)
1285 – Ferdinand IV of Castile (d. 1312)
1421 – Henry VI of England (d. 1471)
1478 – Baldassare Castiglione, Italian courtier, diplomat, and author (d. 1529)
1520 – Barbara Radziwiłł, queen of Poland (d. 1551)
1545 – Janus Dousa, Dutch historian and noble (d. 1604)
1586 – Niccolò Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (d. 1670)
1592 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle (d. 1676)
===1601–1900===
1608 – George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1670)
1637 – Edmund Andros, English courtier and politician, 4th Colonial Governor of New York (d. 1714)
1640 – Claude Fleury, French historian and author (d. 1723)
1645 – Maria de Dominici, Maltese sculptor and painter (d. 1703)
1685 – Marie Adélaïde of Savoy (d. 1712)
1721 – Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French minister and politician (d. 1794)
1721 – James Elphinston, Scottish philologist and linguist (d. 1809)
1732 – Warren Hastings, British colonial administrator of India (d. 1818)
1752 – Gabriel Duvall, American jurist and politician (d. 1844)
1778 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850)
1792 – William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849)
1803 – Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (d. 1829)
1805 – Richard Hanson, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of South Australia (d. 1876)
1812 – Robert Spear Hudson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1884)
1823 – Max Müller, German-English philologist and orientalist (d. 1900)
1827 – William Arnott, Australian biscuit manufacturer and founder of Arnott's Biscuits (d. 1901)
1833 – John S. Mosby, American colonel (d. 1916)
1835 – Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, German chemist (d. 1910)
1841 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter and soldier (d. 1870)
1848 – Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer (d. 1925)
1849 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (d. 1945)
1853 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (d. 1937)
1853 – Haraprasad Shastri, Indian historian and scholar (d. 1931)
1863 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (d. 1914)
1864 – William S. Hart, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1946)
1875 – Albert Bond Lambert, American golfer and pilot (d. 1946)
1875 – Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (d. 1941)
1876 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company (d. 1932)
1878 – Elvia Carrillo Puerto, Mexican politician (d. 1968)
1882 – Warren Bardsley, Australian cricketer (d. 1954)
1884 – Cornelia Meigs, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 1973)
1886 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, author, and poet (d. 1918)
1887 – Lynn Fontanne, British actress (d. 1983)
1887 – Joseph Lamb, American pianist and composer (d. 1960)
1888 – Will Hay, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949)
1890 – Dion Fortune, Welsh occultist, psychologist, and author (d. 1946)
1890 – Yoshio Nishina, Japanese physicist and academic (d. 1951)
1890 – Rudolf Schlichter, German painter and illustrator (d. 1955)
1892 – Osbert Sitwell, English-Italian captain, poet, and author (d. 1969)
1893 – Homer N. Wallin, American admiral (d. 1984)
1893 – Sylvia Townsend Warner, English author and poet (d. 1978)
1896 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (d. 1983)
1898 – Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-American photographer and journalist (d. 1995)
1898 – John McDonald, Scottish-Australian politician, 37th Premier of Victoria (d. 1977)
1898 – Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish sociologist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)
1898 – Winifred Lenihan, American actress, writer, and director (d. 1964)
1900 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974)
===1901–present===
1901 – Eliot Porter, American photographer and academic (d. 1990)
1903 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and manager (d. 1946)
1904 – Ève Curie, French-American journalist and pianist (d. 2007)
1905 – Elizabeth Yates, American journalist and author (d. 2001)
1907 – John Barkley Rosser Sr., American logician (d. 1989)
1908 – Herta Freitag, Austrian-American mathematician (d. 2000)
1908 – Pierre Graber, Swiss lawyer and politician, 69th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2003)
1908 – Baby Face Nelson, American gangster (d. 1934)
1908 – Miklós Szabó, Hungarian runner (d. 2000)
1909 – Rulon Jeffs, American religious leader (d. 2002)
1909 – Alan McGilvray, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1996)
1910 – David M. Potter, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1971)
1912 – Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and actress (d. 2004)
1913 – Karl Haas, German-American pianist, conductor, and radio host (d. 2005)
1914 – Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (d. 1999)
1916 – Yekaterina Budanova, Russian captain and pilot (d. 1943)
1916 – Kristján Eldjárn, Icelandic educator and politician, 3rd President of Iceland (d. 1982)
1916 – Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and producer (d. 1986)
1917 – Dean Hess, American minister and colonel (d. 2015)
1917 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (d. 1977)
1917 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 2008)
1918 – Tauba Biterman, Polish Holocaust survivor (d. 2019)
1919 – Skippy Baxter, Canadian-American figure skater and coach (d. 2012)
1919 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (d. 1983)
1920 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (d. 2012)
1920 – Peter Dimmock, English sportscaster and producer (d. 2015)
1920 – George Porter, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
1921 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (d. 2003)
1921 – Piero Piccioni, Italian lawyer, pianist, and composer (d. 2004)
1922 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944)
1922 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (d. 2016)
1924 – Wally Cox, American actor (d. 1973)
1927 – Jim Fuchs, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 2010)
1928 – Bobby Van, American actor, dancer, and singer (d. 1980)
1929 – Philippe Bouvard, French journalist and radio host
1929 – Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German-Austrian cellist and conductor (d. 2016)
1929 – Frank Springer, American comic book illustrator (d. 2009)
1929 – Alain Tanner, Swiss director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2022)
1930 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian banker and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Zambia (d. 2000)
1931 – Zeki Müren, Turkish singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1996)
1932 – Kamleshwar, Indian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2007)
1933 – Henryk Górecki, Polish composer and academic (d. 2010)
1933 – Donald J. Kutyna, American general
1934 – Nick Bockwinkel, American wrestler, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015)
1935 – Jean Lapointe, Canadian actor, singer, and politician (d. 2022)
1936 – Bill Ashton, English saxophonist and composer
1936 – Kenneth Copeland, American evangelist and author
1936 – David Ossman, American writer and comedian
1937 – Alberto Spencer, Ecuadorian-American soccer player (d. 2006)
1938 – Patrick Bauchau, Belgian-American actor
1939 – Franco Carraro, Italian politician and sports administrator
1940 – Lawrence Bergman, Canadian lawyer and politician
1940 – Richard Edlund, American visual effects designer and cinematographer
1941 – Helen Cornelius, American country singer-songwriter and actress
1941 – Bruce Nauman, American sculptor and illustrator
1941 – Richard Speck, American murderer (d. 1991)
1941 – Bill Thomas, American academic and politician
1942 – Peter Handke, Austrian author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate
1942 – Robb Royer, American guitarist, keyboard player, and songwriter
1943 – Mike Smith, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2008)
1943 – Keith West, English rock singer-songwriter and music producer
1944 – Jonathan King, English singer-songwriter, record producer, music entrepreneur, television/radio presenter, and convicted sex offender
1945 – Shekhar Kapur, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter
1946 – Frankie Beverly, American soul/funk singer-songwriter, musician, and producer (d. 2024)
1946 – Willy van der Kuijlen, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2021)
1947 – Lawrence Cannon, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs
1947 – Henk van Woerden, Dutch-South African painter and author (d. 2005)
1947 – Miroslav Vitouš, Czech-American bassist and songwriter
1948 – Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, Central African politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (d. 2014)
1948 – Don Nickles, American businessman and politician
1948 – Keke Rosberg, Finnish racing driver
1948 – JoBeth Williams, American actress
1949 – Linda Barnes, American author, playwright, and educator
1949 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (d. 1986)
1949 – Doug Marlette, American author and cartoonist (d. 2007)
1949 – Peter Willey, English cricketer and umpire
1950 – Guy Drut, French hurdler and politician
1950 – Joe Hisaishi, Japanese pianist, composer, and conductor
1950 – Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, Scottish journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland
1951 – Wendy Ellis Somes, English ballerina and producer
1951 – Maurice Hope, Caribbean-English boxer
1952 – Nicolas Bréhal, French author and critic (d. 1999)
1952 – Craig Newmark, American computer programmer and entrepreneur; founded Craigslist
1952 – Shio Satō, Japanese illustrator (d. 2010)
1953 – Sue Carroll, English journalist (d. 2011)
1953 – Gary Goodman, Australian cricketer and coach
1953 – Geoff Hoon, English academic and politician, Minister of State for Europe
1953 – Tom Hulce, American actor
1953 – Masami Kurumada, Japanese author and illustrator
1954 – Nicola De Maria, Italian painter
1954 – Chris Stamey, American singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer
1955 – Anne Begg, Scottish educator and politician
1955 – Rick Buckler, English drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 2025)
1955 – Graeme Hughes, Australian cricketer, rugby league player, and sportscaster
1955 – Tony Woodcock, English footballer
1955 – Steven Wright, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter
1956 – Peter Buck, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer
1956 – Hans Kammerlander, Italian mountaineer and guide
1956 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1982)
1957 – Adrian Borland, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1999)
1957 – Andrew Cuomo, American politician, 56th Governor of New York
1957 – Bill Hanzlik, American basketball player and coach
1958 – Nick Park, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter
1959 – Deborah Estrin, American computer scientist and academic
1959 – Stephen Hepburn, English politician
1959 – Satoru Iwata, Japanese game programmer and businessman (d. 2015)
1959 – Stephen Muggleton, English computer scientist and engineer
1960 – Masahiko Katsuya, Japanese journalist and photographer (d. 2018)
1961 – David Lovering, American drummer
1961 – Jonathan Melvoin, American musician (d. 1996)
1961 – Manuel Reuter, German race car driver
1962 – Janine Turner, American actress
1962 – Ben Watt, English singer-songwriter, musician, author, DJ, and radio presenter
1963 – Ulrich Thomsen, Danish actor and producer
1964 – Mall Nukke, Estonian painter
1965 – Gordon Durie, Scottish footballer and manager
1966 – Natascha Badmann, Swiss triathlete
1966 – Per-Ulrik Johansson, Swedish golfer
1967 – Judd Apatow, American director, producer, and screenwriter
1967 – Helen Greiner, American businesswoman and engineer
1967 – Arnaldo Mesa, Cuban boxer (d. 2012)
1968 – Karl Ove Knausgård, Norwegian author
1968 – Ali Latifiyan, Iranian writer and political theorist
1968 – Akihiro Yano, Japanese baseball player
1969 – Torri Higginson, Canadian actress
1970 – Ulf Ekberg, Swedish singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer
1970 – Adrian Fenty, American lawyer and politician, 6th Mayor of the District of Columbia
1970 – Mark Reckless, English politician
1970 – Jeff Rouse, American swimmer
1971 – Craig Brewer, American director, producer, and screenwriter
1971 – José Contreras, Cuban baseball player
1971 – Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player
1971 – Naozumi Takahashi, Japanese singer and voice actor
1971 – Carole Thate, Dutch field hockey player
1971 – Ryan White, American activist (d. 1990)
1972 – Ewan Birney, English scientist
1972 – Heather Mizeur, American lawyer and politician
1974 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist and boxer
1974 – Nick Stajduhar, Canadian ice hockey player
1975 – Noel Clarke, English actor, director, and screenwriter
1975 – Adrian García Arias, Mexican footballer
1976 – Lindsay Price, American actress
1977 – Kevin Cash, American baseball player and manager
1977 – Andrew Flintoff, English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
1977 – Paul McVeigh, Irish footballer
1978 – Chris Başak, American baseball player
1978 – Darrell Jackson, American football player
1978 – Adriana Moisés Pinto, Brazilian basketball player
1978 – Ramiro Pez, Argentine rugby player
1979 – Tim Cahill, Australian footballer
1980 – Danielle Downey, American golfer and coach (d. 2014)
1980 – Steve Lovell, English footballer
1980 – Carlos Takam, Cameroonian-French boxer
1981 – Federico Balzaretti, Italian footballer
1982 – Ryan Carnes, American actor and producer
1982 – Alberto Contador, Spanish cyclist
1982 – Sean Ervine, Zimbabwean cricketer
1982 – Robbie Gould, American football player
1982 – Aaron Sandilands, Australian footballer
1982 – Susie Wolff, Scottish race car driver
1984 – Syndric Steptoe, American football player
1984 – Nora Kirkpatrick, American actress and musician
1984 – Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland
1985 – Shannon Bobbitt, American basketball player
1985 – Aristeidis Grigoriadis, Greek swimmer
1985 – R. P. Singh, Indian cricketer
1986 – Sean Edwards, English race car driver (d. 2013)
1986 – Matt Niskanen, American ice hockey player
1988 – Adam Eaton, American baseball player
1988 – Ravindra Jadeja, Indian cricketer
1988 – Sandra Nurmsalu, Estonian singer and violinist
1988 – Nils Petersen, German footballer
1988 – Nobunaga Shimazaki, Japanese voice actor
1989 – Felix Schiller, German footballer
1990 – Tamira Paszek, Austrian tennis player
1991 – Rachel Jarry, Australian basketball player
1991 – Milica Mandić, Serbian taekwondo athlete
1991 – Coco Vandeweghe, American tennis player
1992 – Viktor Antipin, Russian ice hockey player
1992 – Britt Assombalonga, Congolese footballer
1992 – Johnny Manziel, American football player
1993 – Jasprit Bumrah, Indian cricketer
1993 – Elián González, Cuban technician, known for a child custody and immigration case held in 2000
1993 – Tautau Moga, Australian-Samoan rugby league player
1994 – Giannis Antetokounmpo, Greek-Nigerian basketball player
1994 – Wakatakakage Atsushi, Japanese sumo wrestler
1994 – Shreyas Iyer, Indian cricketer
1995 – A Boogie wit da Hoodie, American rapper and singer-songwriter
1996 – Davide Calabria, Italian footballer
1996 – Stefanie Scott, American actress and singer
1997 – Sabrina Ionescu, American basketball player
1998 – Angelīna Kučvaļska, Latvian figure skater
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
343 – Saint Nicholas, Greek bishop and saint (b. 270)
735 – Prince Toneri of Japan (b. 676)
762 – Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, Arab rebel leader (b. 710)
1185 – Afonso I of Portugal (b. 1109)
1305 – Maximus, Metropolitan of Kyiv
1306 – Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk (b. 1270)
1352 – Pope Clement VI (b. 1291)
1562 – Jan van Scorel, Dutch painter (b. 1495)
===1601–1900===
1616 – Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi, Moroccan writer, judge and mathematician (b. 1552)
1618 – Jacques Davy Duperron, French cardinal (b. 1556)
1658 – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish priest and author (b. 1601)
1675 – John Lightfoot, English priest, scholar, and academic (b. 1602)
1686 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Queen consort of Ferdinand III (b. 1630)
1716 – Benedictus Buns, Dutch priest and composer (b. 1642)
1718 – Nicholas Rowe, English poet and playwright (b. 1674)
1746 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish poet and songwriter (b. 1665)
1771 – Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist and pathologist (b. 1682)
1779 – Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, French painter (b. 1699)
1788 – Jonathan Shipley, English bishop (b. 1714)
1855 – William Swainson, English ornithologist and entomologist (b. 1789)
1867 – Jean Pierre Flourens, French physiologist and academic (b. 1794)
1868 – August Schleicher, German linguist and academic (b. 1821)
1878 – Theodoros Vryzakis, Greek painter and educator (b. 1814)
1879 – Erastus Brigham Bigelow, American businessman (b. 1814)
1882 – Alfred Escher, Swiss businessman and politician, founded Credit Suisse (b. 1819)
1882 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist, essayist, and short story writer (b. 1815)
1889 – Jefferson Davis, American general and politician, President of the Confederate States of America (b. 1808)
1892 – Werner von Siemens, German engineer and businessman, founded the Siemens Company (b. 1816)
===1901–present===
1918 – Alexander Dianin, Russian chemist (b. 1851)
1921 – Said Halim Pasha, Ottoman politician, 280th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1865)
1924 – Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and screenwriter (b. 1863)
1945 – Edmund Dwyer-Gray, Irish-Australian politician, 29th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1870)
1951 – Harold Ross, American journalist and publisher, founded The New Yorker (b. 1892)
1955 – Honus Wagner, American baseball player and manager (b. 1874)
1956 – B. R. Ambedkar, Indian economist and politician, 1st Indian Minister of Justice (b. 1891)
1961 – Frantz Fanon, Martinique-French psychiatrist and author (b. 1925)
1964 – Evert van Linge, Dutch footballer and architect (b. 1895)
1972 – Janet Munro, English actress and singer (b. 1934)
1974 – Nikolay Kuznetsov, Soviet naval officer (b. 1904)
1976 – João Goulart, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 24th President of Brazil (b. 1918)
1980 – Charles Deutsch, French engineer and businessman, co-founded DB (b. 1911)
1982 – Jean-Marie Seroney, Kenyan activist and politician (b. 1927)
1983 – Lucienne Boyer, French singer and actress (b. 1903)
1983 – Gul Khan Nasir, Pakistani poet, historian, and politician (b. 1914)
1985 – Burr Tillstrom, American actor and puppeteer (b. 1917)
1985 – Burleigh Grimes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1893)
1985 – Carroll Cole, American serial killer, arsonist, and cannibal (b. 1938)
1988 – Roy Orbison, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1936)
1989 – Frances Bavier, American actress (b. 1902)
1989 – Sammy Fain, American pianist and composer (b. 1902)
1989 – John Payne, American actor, singer, and producer (b. 1912)
1990 – Pavlos Sidiropoulos, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1948)
1990 – Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Malaysia (b. 1903)
1991 – Mimi Smith, English nurse (b. 1906)
1991 – Richard Stone, English economist and statistician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)
1993 – Don Ameche, American actor (b. 1908)
1994 – Heinz Baas, German footballer and manager (b. 1922)
1994 – Gian Maria Volonté, Italian actor and director (b. 1933)
1996 – Pete Rozelle, American businessman (b. 1926)
1997 – Willy den Ouden, Dutch swimmer (b. 1918)
1998 – César Baldaccini, French sculptor and educator (b. 1921)
2000 – Werner Klemperer, German-American actor (b. 1920)
2000 – Aziz Mian, Pakistani singer-songwriter and poet (b. 1942)
2001 – Charles McClendon, American football player and coach (b. 1923)
2002 – Philip Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1923)
2003 – Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, Guatemalan general and politician, President of Guatemala (b. 1918)
2005 – Charly Gaul, Luxembourger cyclist (b. 1932)
2005 – Devan Nair, Malaysian-Singaporean union leader and politician, 3rd President of Singapore (b. 1923)
2005 – Danny Williams, South African singer (b. 1942)
2005 – William P. Yarborough, American general (b. 1912)
2006 – John Feeney, New Zealand director and producer (b. 1922)
2010 – Mark Dailey, American-Canadian journalist and actor (b. 1953)
2011 – Dobie Gray, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1940)
2012 – Miguel Abia Biteo Boricó, Equatoguinean engineer and politician, Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea (b. 1961)
2012 – Jan Carew, Guyanese author, poet, and playwright (b. 1920)
2012 – Jeffrey Koo Sr., Taiwanese banker and businessman (b. 1933)
2012 – Huw Lloyd-Langton, English guitarist (b. 1951)
2012 – Pedro Vaz, Uruguayan lawyer and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Uruguay (b. 1963)
2013 – Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers, French poet and critic (b. 1939)
2013 – Stan Tracey, English pianist and composer (b. 1926)
2013 – M. K. Turk, American basketball player and coach (b. 1942)
2014 – Ralph H. Baer, German-American video game designer, created the Magnavox Odyssey (b. 1922)
2014 – Jimmy Del Ray, American wrestler and manager (b. 1962)
2014 – Fred Hawkins, American golfer (b. 1923)
2014 – Luke Somers, English-American photographer and journalist (b. 1981)
2015 – Ko Chun-hsiung, Taiwanese actor, director, and politician (b. 1945)
2015 – Liu Juying, Chinese general and politician (b. 1917)
2015 – Nicholas Smith, British actor (b. 1934)
2016 – Peter Vaughan, British actor (b. 1923)
2024 – Maggie Tabberer, Australian fashion model and television personality (b. 1936)
==Holidays and observances==
Anniversary of the Founding of Quito (Ecuador)
Armed Forces Day (Ukraine)
Christian feast day:
Abraham of Kratia
Aemilianus (Roman Catholic Church)
Denise and companions
Blessed János Scheffler
María del Monte Carmelo Sallés y Barangueras
Nicholas of Myra, and its related observances:
Saint Nicholas Day, where Saint Nicholas/Santa Claus leaves little presents in children's shoes. (International)
December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Constitution Day (Spain)
Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan
Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Finland from Russia in 1917.
National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women (Canada)
|
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"Maurice Hope",
"Irish National Liberation Army",
"Russia",
"1956 Summer Olympics",
"Steven Wright",
"1586",
"Béla I of Hungary",
"1977",
"Karl Haas",
"Dean Hess",
"1848",
"Siemens",
"Nobel Prize in Chemistry",
"1947",
"Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences",
"George Porter",
"Janine Turner",
"735",
"Henk van Woerden",
"Monongah, West Virginia",
"2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election",
"1922",
"João Goulart",
"Patrick Bauchau",
"Shannon Bobbitt",
"The New York Times",
"1920",
"Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya",
"Ewan Birney",
"Jean-Marie Seroney",
"Peter Vaughan",
"Paul McVeigh",
"Ali Latifiyan",
"1931",
"Frantz Fanon",
"Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke",
"1992",
"Roman Catholic Church",
"Ferdinand IV of Castile",
"2013",
"Gene Stratton-Porter",
"1534",
"Eliot Porter",
"1953",
"1933",
"Northern Ireland",
"Don Ameche",
"Miklós Szabó (middle-distance runner)",
"Jonathan Shipley",
"Daniel Lisulo",
"independence of Finland",
"Edmund Andros",
"1790",
"DB (car)",
"1421",
"1716",
"1648",
"Napster",
"Prime Minister of Malaysia",
"Viktor Antipin",
"Gunnar Myrdal",
"1932",
"John Barkley Rosser Sr.",
"Bill Thomas",
"Launch pad",
"Droppin Well bombing",
"Red Army",
"1951",
"Ayodhya",
"Russian Empire",
"Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force",
"Ulrich Thomsen",
"1240",
"Tim Cahill",
"1935",
"Nicholas Smith (actor)",
"1970",
"Hugo Peretti",
"Aziz Mian",
"Skippy Baxter",
"Siege of Kiev (1240)",
"Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions",
"Johnny Manziel",
"Batu Khan",
"December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"1985",
"Stephen Hepburn",
"2010",
"Credit Suisse",
"Piero Piccioni",
"Arnott's Biscuits",
"Battle of Taipale",
"Henry VI of England",
"Jefferson Davis",
"New York City",
"Marc Lépine",
"Manuel Reuter",
"Ramiro Pez",
"Jimmy Del Ray",
"1990",
"Tautau Moga",
"Craig Brewer",
"1855",
"Premier of Tasmania",
"Elián González",
"Arnaldo Mesa",
"1771",
"Prime Minister of the Central African Republic",
"James Elphinston",
"Charles McClendon",
"United States recognition of Jerusalem as Israeli capital",
"1961",
"Ben Watt",
"Shio Satō",
"1966",
"Andrew Flintoff",
"World War I",
"Frank Springer",
"Charles Martin Hall",
"Craigslist",
"1938",
"Frédéric Bazille",
"1999",
"B. R. Ambedkar",
"United Fruit Company",
"Stefanie Scott",
"Miguel Abia Biteo Boricó",
"Minister of Foreign Affairs (Uruguay)",
"Hungarian Revolution of 1956",
"William II of the Netherlands",
"Mall Nukke",
"International observance",
"1978",
"Shreyas Iyer",
"Mimi Smith",
"Roosevelt Corollary",
"Mark Dailey",
"Zeki Müren",
"Prince Toneri",
"Willy van der Kuijlen",
"1965",
"Washington Monument",
"1892",
"1732",
"1919",
"Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"1939",
"Saquinavir",
"Otto Graham",
"846",
"Ryan Carnes",
"Masahiko Katsuya",
"Warren Hastings",
"2002",
"2001",
"1545",
"1827",
"Suomen kansallisbiografia",
"Charles Deutsch",
"Sabrina Ionescu",
"Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio",
"John S. Mosby",
"1993",
"Denise, Dativa, Leontia, Tertius, Emilianus, Boniface, Majoricus, and Servus",
"List of Ottoman Grand Viziers",
"Nefertiti Bust",
"ESPN",
"Richard Hanson (Australian politician)",
"strike action",
"Karl Ove Knausgård",
"Richard Speck",
"2003",
"1976",
"Peter Handke",
"Nils Petersen",
"1853",
"Dobie Gray",
"2012",
"Monongah mining disaster",
"Kamleshwar (writer)",
"Darrell Jackson",
"Nick Stajduhar",
"Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig",
"Janus Dousa",
"John Lightfoot",
"Hugo Chávez",
"Theodoros Vryzakis",
"John M. Woolsey",
"1989",
"Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages",
"Miroslav Vitouš",
"2000",
"Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac",
"1927",
"Akihiro Yano",
"Santa Claus",
"Nicola De Maria",
"1967",
"János Scheffler",
"Said Halim Pasha",
"Elizabeth Yates (author)",
"Heinz Baas",
"1779",
"Adrian García Arias",
"the Twelve Imams",
"Sean Ervine",
"John McDonald (Victorian politician)",
"Governor of New York",
"NASA",
"Armed Forces Day",
"1971",
"Noel Clarke",
"1904",
"Giovanni Battista Morgagni",
"1952",
"Ulysses (novel)",
"Tom Hulce",
"Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi",
"762",
"Ryan White",
"Elvia Carrillo Puerto",
"Agnes Moorehead",
"Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea",
"1984",
"Judd Apatow",
"Gerald Ford",
"Venezuela",
"Sandra Nurmsalu",
"Ira Gershwin",
"R. P. Singh",
"École Polytechnique de Montréal",
"Nora Kirkpatrick",
"Japan",
"1907",
"National Basketball Association",
"1937",
"1913",
"Dion Fortune",
"Linda Creed",
"1996",
"Helen Greiner",
"Honus Wagner",
"1963",
"Baldassare Castiglione",
"Sebastián de Belalcázar",
"1975",
"Winter War",
"Balcombe Street siege",
"Maggie Tabberer",
"Pedro Vaz (diplomat)",
"1686",
"1893",
"Anglo-Irish Treaty",
"1888",
"Battle of Bucharest",
"1958",
"Danny Williams (singer)",
"Rachel Jarry",
"Adrian Fenty",
"Kamal Jumblatt",
"Peter Dimmock",
"Syndric Steptoe",
"1941",
"Paul de Man",
"1778",
"1616",
"1908",
"1990 Italian Air Force MB-326 crash",
"1841",
"Theodore Roosevelt",
"1867",
"1949",
"1185",
"Beatification",
"1823",
"Donald Trump",
"1562",
"Milica Mandić",
"1969",
"Rulon Jeffs",
"1934",
"BBC",
"1962",
"1912",
"President of Brazil",
"Roy Orbison",
"Niccolò Zucchi",
"Benedictus Buns",
"1889",
"1060",
"Baltasar Gracián",
"Marie Adélaïde of Savoy",
"Max Müller",
"Felix Schiller",
"Jacobite rising of 1745",
"Britt Assombalonga",
"United Socialist Party of Venezuela",
"Benjamin A. Gilman",
"Fred Hawkins (golfer)",
"Christopher Columbus",
"1637",
"Lord Lieutenant of Ireland",
"Robbie Gould",
"Haraprasad Shastri",
"1957",
"Joseph Lamb (composer)",
"Pride's Purge",
"Kristján Eldjárn",
"Hispaniola",
"Quito",
"Saint Nicholas",
"Gordon Durie",
"Werner Klemperer",
"Maximus, Metropolitan of all Rus",
"Saint Nicholas Day",
"Osbert Sitwell",
"1849",
"Giannis Antetokounmpo",
"The Troubles",
"Constitution Day (Spain)",
"1746",
"1592",
"ABC News (Australia)",
"Hans Molisch",
"1306",
"1876",
"Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony",
"Aristeidis Grigoriadis",
"Liu Juying",
"November 27",
"Nobel Prize in Literature",
"Demolition of the Babri Masjid",
"Willy den Ouden",
"Azerbaijan",
"Alan McGilvray",
"Croatia",
"Bologna",
"1929",
"The New Yorker",
"Vanguard TV3",
"Barbara Radziwiłł",
"1752",
"Janet Munro",
"Homer N. Wallin",
"Wally Cox",
"Karelian Isthmus",
"Yugoslav Wars",
"Yekaterina Budanova",
"President of the Confederate States of America",
"peer-to-peer",
"1896",
"1675",
"Davide Calabria",
"Camp X",
"Eleanor Holm",
"Craig Newmark",
"Claude Fleury",
"1995",
"École Polytechnique massacre",
"Mark Reckless",
"Irv Robbins",
"Andrew Cuomo",
"Pierre Graber",
"Duesenberg",
"President of Guatemala",
"Dave Brubeck",
"Colonial Governor of New York",
"Major League Baseball",
"19th century",
"Federico Balzaretti",
"1884",
"1942",
"1903",
"Jasprit Bumrah",
"Dubrovnik",
"Susie Wolff",
"Kevin Cash",
"1492",
"Frances Bavier",
"1875",
"1805",
"Yugoslav People's Army",
"1909",
"Per-Ulrik Johansson",
"WNBA",
"Angelīna Kučvaļska",
"taxicab",
"Natascha Badmann",
"1305",
"Cuba",
"1864",
"Keke Rosberg",
"2006",
"Edmund Dwyer-Gray",
"Melbourne",
"Jan Carew",
"Burleigh Grimes",
"William Arnott (biscuit manufacturer)",
"José Contreras",
"Chris Stamey",
"1900",
"1865",
"satellite",
"Nick Park",
"1905",
"Abraham of Kratia",
"1998",
"Partition of Ireland",
"Alfred Escher",
"1917",
"1983",
"United States House of Representatives",
"Montreal",
"1878",
"1890",
"1986",
"Joyce Kilmer",
"1745",
"Shekhar Kapur",
"Will Hay",
"Haitian Revolution",
"2024",
"Food and Drug Administration",
"Sammy Fain",
"UPI",
"Devan Nair",
"Jacques Davy Duperron",
"Torri Higginson",
"Italian Air Force",
"Cyril Washbrook",
"Ravindra Jadeja",
"Guy Drut",
"Bobby Van",
"Frankie Beverly",
"Mongols",
"1897",
"President of Iceland",
"Robb Royer",
"Finnish Declaration of Independence",
"United States Senate",
"Bophuthatswana",
"1812",
"Keith West",
"Fred Duesenberg",
"file sharing",
"1955",
"Tony Lazzeri",
"Stephen Muggleton",
"2005",
"Satoru Iwata",
"Jeffrey Koo Sr.",
"Luke Somers",
"1901",
"Ulf Ekberg",
"Deborah Estrin",
"1956",
"Tamira Paszek",
"Pete Rozelle",
"Charly Gaul",
"Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)",
"Kyiv",
"Ukraine",
"1882",
"Chris Başak",
"1991",
"Joe Hisaishi",
"1930",
"2014",
"Philip Berrigan",
"1863",
"1968",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Heather Mizeur",
"1645",
"Rudolf Schlichter",
"Masami Kurumada",
"1685",
"1285",
"Evert van Linge",
"1882 transit of Venus",
"1973",
"1936",
"Nikolay Kuznetsov (officer)",
"Prime Minister of Zambia",
"Adriana Moisés Pinto",
"August Schleicher",
"Tauba Biterman",
"Harold Ross",
"David M. Potter",
"Lindsay Price",
"Indo-Pakistani War of 1971",
"1944",
"1997",
"JoBeth Williams",
"HIV/AIDS",
"Don Nickles",
"United States v. One Book Called Ulysses",
"Wakatakakage Atsushi",
"List of Presidents of the Swiss Confederation",
"Adam Eaton (outfielder)",
"Jim Fuchs",
"Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes",
"John Feeney (filmmaker)",
"1868",
"Jan van Scorel",
"Recording Industry Association of America",
"1918",
"1835",
"Bruce Nauman",
"M. K. Turk",
"Ralph H. Baer",
"2005 Iranian Air Force C-130 crash",
"1618",
"Jean Lapointe",
"Robert Spear Hudson",
"World War II",
"Coco Vandeweghe",
"Irish Free State",
"Biography.com",
"Rolling Stones",
"Nobunaga Shimazaki",
"Geoff Hoon",
"1960",
"1948",
"Halifax Explosion",
"Hells Angels",
"James Joyce",
"Tehran",
"William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle",
"Carole Thate",
"1945",
"Sylvia Townsend Warner",
"David Lovering",
"Lawrence Cannon",
"Mike Smith (Dave Clark Five)",
"Pope Clement VI",
"Gian Maria Volonté",
"2017",
"French Navy",
"Blockade of Saint-Domingue",
"High Court of Justice (1649)",
"1980",
"1974",
"1988",
"William Swainson",
"Huw Lloyd-Langton",
"Tunku Abdul Rahman",
"Ballykelly, County Londonderry",
"Henryk Górecki",
"Ecuador",
"Richard Edlund",
"2011",
"Adrian Borland",
"Protease inhibitor (pharmacology)",
"1721",
"1959",
"Alfred Eisenstaedt",
"1478",
"1914",
"Randy Rhoads",
"Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk",
"President of Singapore",
"William S. Hart",
"Lucienne Boyer",
"Spanish Constitution of 1978",
"William P. Yarborough",
"Stan Tracey",
"Carlos Takam",
"Tony Woodcock (footballer)",
"Anniversary of the Founding of Quito",
"Gul Khan Nasir",
"Lynn Fontanne",
"1803"
] |
8,353 |
December 5
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
63 BC – Cicero gives the fourth and final of the Catiline Orations.
633 – Fourth Council of Toledo opens, presided over by Isidore of Seville.
1033 – The Jordan Rift Valley earthquake destroys multiple cities across the Levant, triggers a tsunami and kills many.
1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona is assassinated, most likely by his brother, Berenguer Ramon II.
1408 – Seeking to resubjugate Muscovy, Emir Edigu of the Golden Horde reaches Moscow, burning areas around the city but failing to take the city itself.
1456 – The first of two earthquakes measuring 7.2 strikes Italy, causing extreme destruction and killing upwards of 70,000 people.
1484 – Pope Innocent VIII issues the Summis desiderantes affectibus, a papal bull that deputizes Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger as inquisitors to root out alleged witchcraft in Germany.
1496 – King Manuel I of Portugal issues a decree ordering the expulsion of Jews from the country.
1560 – Thirteen-year-old Charles IX becomes king of France, with Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici as regent.
1578 – Sir Francis Drake, after sailing through Strait of Magellan, raids Valparaiso.
===1601–1900===
1649 – The town of Raahe () is founded by Count Per Brahe the Younger.
1757 – Seven Years' War: Battle of Leuthen: Frederick II of Prussia leads Prussian forces to a decisive victory over Austrian forces under Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine.
1766 – In London, auctioneer James Christie holds his first sale.
1770 – 29th Regiment of Foot privates Hugh Montgomery and Matthew Kilroy are found guilty for the manslaughter of Crispus Attucks and Samuel Gray respectively in the Boston Massacre.
1775 – At Fort Ticonderoga, Henry Knox begins his historic transport of artillery to Cambridge, Massachusetts.
1776 – Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest academic honor society in the U.S., holds its first meeting at the College of William & Mary.
1831 – Former U.S. President John Quincy Adams takes his seat in the House of Representatives.
1847 – Jefferson Davis is elected to the U.S. Senate.
1848 – California Gold Rush: In a message to the United States Congress, U.S. President James K. Polk confirms that large amounts of gold had been discovered in California.
1865 – Chincha Islands War: Peru allies with Chile against Spain.
1895 – New Haven Symphony Orchestra of Connecticut performs its first concert.
===1901–present===
1914 – The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition began in an attempt to make the first land crossing of Antarctica.
1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Polonsky conspiracy is suppressed and its participants are executed by the Kontrrazvedka.
1921 – The Football Association bans women's football in England from league grounds, a ban that stays in place for 50 years.
1933 – The Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, repealing Prohibition in the United States.
1934 – Abyssinia Crisis: Italian troops attack Wal Wal in Abyssinia, taking four days to capture the city.
1935 – Mary McLeod Bethune founds the National Council of Negro Women in New York City.
1936 – The Soviet Union adopts a new constitution and the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic is established as a full Union Republic of the USSR.
1941 – World War II: In the Battle of Moscow, Georgy Zhukov launches a massive Soviet counter-attack against the German army.
1941 – World War II: Great Britain declares war on Finland, Hungary and Romania.
1943 – World War II: Allied air forces begin attacking Germany's secret weapons bases in Operation Crossbow.
1945 – Flight 19, a group of TBF Avengers, disappears in the Bermuda Triangle.
1952 – Beginning of the Great Smog in London. A cold fog combines with air pollution and brings the city to a standstill for four days. Later, a Ministry of Health report estimates 4,000 fatalities as a result of it.
1955 – The American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merge and form the AFL–CIO.
1955 – E. D. Nixon and Rosa Parks lead the Montgomery bus boycott.
1958 – Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) is inaugurated in the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II when she speaks to the Lord Provost in a call from Bristol to Edinburgh.
1958 – The Preston By-pass, the UK's first stretch of motorway, opens to traffic for the first time. (It is now part of the M6 and M55 motorways.)
1964 – Vietnam War: For his heroism in battle earlier in the year, Captain Roger Donlon is awarded the first Medal of Honor of the war.
1964 – Lloyd J. Old discovers the first linkage between the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and disease—mouse leukemia—opening the way for the recognition of the importance of the MHC in the immune response.
1971 – Battle of Gazipur: Pakistani forces stand defeated as India cedes Gazipur to Bangladesh.
1977 – Egypt breaks diplomatic relations with Syria, Libya, Algeria, Iraq and South Yemen in retaliation to preventing President Anwar el‐Sadat from pursuing negotiations with Israel at the Tripoli confer.
1983 – Dissolution of the Military Junta in Argentina.
1991 – Leonid Kravchuk is elected the first president of Ukraine.
1994 – The Budapest Memorandum is signed at the OSCE conference in Budapest, Hungary.
1995 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lanka's government announces the conquest of the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna.
1995 – Azerbaijan Airlines Flight A-56 crashes near Nakhchivan International Airport in Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan, killing 52 people.
2001 – Space Shuttle Endeavour launches on STS-108, carrying the Expedition 4 crew to the International Space Station.
2005 – The Civil Partnership Act comes into effect in the United Kingdom, and the first civil partnership is registered there.
2005 – The 6.8 Lake Tanganyika earthquake shakes the eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), killing six people.
2006 – Commodore Frank Bainimarama overthrows the government in Fiji.
2007 – Westroads Mall shooting: Nineteen-year-old Robert A. Hawkins kills nine people, including himself, with a WASR-10 at a Von Maur department store in Omaha, Nebraska.
2013 – Militants attack a Defense Ministry compound in Sana'a, Yemen, killing at least 56 people and injuring 200 others.
2014 – Exploration Flight Test-1, the first flight test of Orion, is launched.
2017 – The International Olympic Committee bans Russia from competing at the 2018 Winter Olympics for doping at the 2014 Winter Olympics.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
852 – Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (d. 912)
1377 – Jianwen Emperor of China (d. 1402)
1389 – Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (d. 1455)
1443 – Pope Julius II (d. 1513)
1470 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (d. 1530)
1495 – Nicolas Cleynaerts, Flemish philologist and lexicographer (d. 1542)
1537 – Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Japanese shōgun (d. 1597)
1539 – Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and author (d. 1604)
1547 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625)
1556 – Anne Cecil, Countess of Oxford, English countess (d. 1588)
1596 – Henry Lawes, English composer (d. 1662)
===1601–1900===
1661 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (d. 1724)
1666 – Francesco Scarlatti, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741)
1687 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1762)
1697 – Giuseppe de Majo, Italian organist and composer (d. 1771)
1782 – Martin Van Buren, American lawyer and politician, 8th President of the United States (d. 1862)
1784 – George Shepherd, English illustrator and painter (d. 1862)
1803 – Fyodor Tyutchev, Russian poet and diplomat (d. 1873)
1820 – Afanasy Fet, Russian poet and author (d. 1892)
1822 – Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, American philosopher and academic, co-founded Radcliffe College (d. 1907)
1829 – Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière, French-Canadian lawyer and politician, 4th Premier of Quebec (d. 1908)
1830 – Christina Rossetti, English poet and author (d. 1894)
1839 – George Armstrong Custer, American general (d. 1876)
1841 – Marcus Daly, Irish-American businessman (d. 1900)
1849 – Eduard Seler, German anthropologist, ethnohistorian, linguist, and academic (d. 1922)
1855 – Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist, and ethnographer (d. 1942)
1859 – John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, English admiral and politician, 2nd Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1935)
1861 – Konstantin Korovin, Russian-French painter and set designer (d. 1939)
1862 – John Henry Leech, English entomologist (d. 1900)
1863 – Paul Painlevé, French mathematician and politician, 84th Prime Minister of France (d. 1933)
1866 – John Beresford, Irish polo player (d. 1944)
1866 – Traian Demetrescu, Romanian poet and author (d. 1896)
1867 – Antti Aarne, Finnish author and academic (d. 1925)
1867 – Józef Piłsudski, Polish field marshal and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland (d. 1935)
1868 – Arnold Sommerfeld, German physicist and academic (d. 1951)
1869 – Ellis Parker Butler, American author and poet (d. 1937)
1870 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer and educator (d. 1949)
1872 – Harry Nelson Pillsbury, American chess player (d. 1906)
1875 – Arthur Currie, Canadian general (d. 1933)
1879 – Clyde Vernon Cessna, American pilot and businessman, founded the Cessna Aircraft Corporation (d. 1954)
1881 – René Cresté, French actor and director (d. 1922)
1886 – Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and author (d. 1968)
1886 – Pieter Oud, Dutch historian, academic, and politician, Minister of Finance of the Netherlands (d. 1968)
1886 – Nikolai Uglanov, Soviet politician (d. 1937)
1890 – David Bomberg, English painter, illustrator, and academic (d. 1957)
1890 – Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1976)
1891 – Paul Kogerman, Estonian chemist and academic (d. 1951)
1894 – Charles Robberts Swart, South African lawyer and politician, 1st State President of South Africa (d. 1982)
1895 – Elbert Frank Cox, American mathematician and academic (d. 1969)
1896 – Ann Nolan Clark, American historian, author, and educator (d. 1995)
1896 – Carl Ferdinand Cori, Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)
1897 – Nunnally Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977)
1897 – Gershom Scholem, German-Israeli philosopher and historian (d. 1982)
1898 – Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and translator (d. 1982)
1898 – Grace Moore, American soprano and actress (d. 1947)
1900 – Jimmy Dimmock, English footballer (d. 1972)
===1901–present===
1901 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (d. 1966)
1901 – Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1980)
1901 – Werner Heisenberg, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)
1902 – Emeric Pressburger, Hungarian-English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1988)
1902 – Strom Thurmond, American educator, general, and politician, 103rd Governor of South Carolina (d. 2003)
1914 – Hans Hellmut Kirst, German lieutenant and author (d. 1989)
1916 – Hilary Koprowski, Polish-American virologist and immunologist, created the world's first effective live polio vaccine (d. 2013)
1916 – Walt McPherson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)
1917 – Ken Downing, English racing driver (d. 2004)
1919 – Alun Gwynne Jones, Baron Chalfont, English historian and politician (d. 2020)
1921 – Alvy Moore, American actor and producer (d. 1997)
1922 – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (d. 2011)
1922 – Don Robertson, American songwriter and pianist (d. 2015)
1924 – Robert Sobukwe, South African banker and politician (d. 1978)
1925 – Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan politician, 73rd President of Nicaragua (d. 1980)
1926 – Adetoun Ogunsheye, first female Nigerian professor and university dean
1927 – Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand (d. 2016)
1947 – Jim Messina, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1956 – Adam Thorpe, French-English author, poet, and playwright
1956 – Krystian Zimerman, Polish virtuoso pianist
1957 – Raquel Argandoña, Chilean model, actress, and politician
1957 – Art Monk, American football player
1958 – Dynamite Kid, English wrestler (d. 2018)
1959 – Lee Chapman, English footballer
1959 – Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, Ukrainian businessman
1960 – Frans Adelaar, Dutch footballer and manager
1960 – Osvaldo Golijov, Argentinian-American composer and educator
1960 – Jack Russell, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2024)
1960 – Matthew Taylor, English businessman and politician
1961 – Ralf Dujmovits, German mountaineer
1961 – Laura Flanders, British journalist
1962 – José Cura, Argentinian tenor, conductor, and director
1962 – Pablo Morales, American swimmer and coach
1962 – Nivek Ogre, Canadian singer-songwriter
1962 – Fred Rutten, Dutch footballer and manager
1963 – Doctor Dré, American television and radio host
1963 – Carrie Hamilton, American actress and playwright (d. 2002)
1963 – Alberto Nisman, Argentinian lawyer (d. 2015)
1964 – Martin Vinnicombe, Australian cyclist
1965 – Manish Malhotra, Indian fashion designer
1965 – John Rzeznik, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1965 – Wayne Smith, Jamaican rapper (d. 2014)
1965 – Valeriy Spitsyn, Russian race walker
1967 – Gary Allan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1973 – Argo Arbeiter, Estonian footballer
1973 – Arik Benado, Israeli footballer
1973 – Mikelangelo Loconte, Italian singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
1973 – Luboš Motl, Czech physicist and academic
1974 – Ravish Kumar, Indian journalist and author
1974 – Brian Lewis, American sprinter
1975 – Ronnie O'Sullivan, English snooker player and radio host
1975 – Paula Patton, American actress
1976 – Sachiko Kokubu, Japanese actress and model
1976 – Rachel Komisarz, American swimmer and coach
1977 – Peter van der Vlag, Dutch footballer
1978 – Neil Druckmann, American video game designer and author
1978 – Olli Jokinen, Finnish ice hockey player
1978 – Marcelo Zalayeta, Uruguayan footballer
1979 – Matteo Ferrari, Italian footballer
1979 – Niklas Hagman, Finnish ice hockey player
1979 – Gareth McAuley, Northern Irish footballer
1979 – Nick Stahl, American actor
1982 – Keri Hilson, American singer-songwriter and actress
1984 – Lauren London, American actress
1985 – Frankie Muniz, American actor, drummer, and race car driver
1985 – Danny Wicks, Australian rugby league player
1986 – LeGarrette Blount, American football player
1986 – James Hinchcliffe, Canadian Indycar racing driver
1986 – Justin Smoak, American baseball player
1987 – A. J. Pollock, American baseball player
1988 – Ross Bagley, American actor
1988 – Kyle Long, American football player
1988 – Joanna Rowsell, English cyclist
1989 – Jurrell Casey, American football player
1989 – Kwon Yu-ri, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress
1990 – Montee Ball, American football player
1991 – Cam Fowler, Canadian-American ice hockey player
1991 – Jacopo Sala, Italian footballer
1991 – Christian Yelich, American baseball player
1992 – Ilja Antonov, Estonian footballer
1992 – Natalie Sourisseau, Canadian field hockey player
1993 – Ross Barkley, English footballer
1993 – Luciano Vietto, Argentine footballer
1994 – Ondrej Duda, Slovak footballer
1994 – Semi Ojeleye, American basketball player
1995 – Danny Levi, New Zealand rugby league player
1995 – Anthony Martial, French footballer
1995 – Kaetlyn Osmond, Canadian figure skater
1995 –Levy Rozman, American chess International Master, streamer and YouTuber
1995 – Alexander Sørloth, Norwegian footballer
1997 – Maddie Poppe, American singer-songwriter and musician
1997 – Quinnen Williams, American football player
1998 – Conan Gray, American singer-songwriter
1998 – Randal Kolo Muani, French footballer
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
63 BC – Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, Roman politician (b. 114 BC)
334 – Li Ban, emperor of Cheng Han (b. 288)
902 – Ealhswith, queen consort and wife of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex
1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona (b. 1053)
1212 – Dirk van Are, bishop and lord of Utrecht
1244 – Joan, Countess of Flanders and Hainault (b. 1199 or 1200)
1355 – John III, Duke of Brabant (b. 1300)
1560 – Francis II of France (b. 1544)
1570 – Johan Friis, Danish politician (b. 1494)
===1601–1900===
1624 – Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist and physician (b. 1560)
1654 – Jean François Sarrazin, French author and poet (b. 1611)
1663 – Severo Bonini, Italian organist and composer (b. 1582)
1749 – Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, Canadian commander and explorer (b. 1685)
1758 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (b. 1688)
1770 – James Stirling, Scottish mathematician and surveyor (b. 1692)
1784 – Phillis Wheatley, Senegal-born slave, later American poet (b. 1753)
1791 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer and musician (b. 1756)
1854 – Henry Ross, Canadian-Australian gold miner (b. 1829)
1819 – Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg, German poet and lawyer (b. 1750)
1870 – Alexandre Dumas, French novelist and playwright (b. 1802)
1887 – Eliza R. Snow, American poet and songwriter (b. 1804)
1891 – Pedro II of Brazil (b. 1825)
===1901–present===
1918 – Schalk Willem Burger, South African commander, lawyer, and politician, 6th President of the South African Republic (b. 1852)
1925 – Władysław Reymont, Polish novelist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1867)
1926 – Claude Monet, French painter (b. 1840)
1931 – Vachel Lindsay, American poet (b. 1879)
1933 – Alexander Atabekian, Armenian physician and anarchist publisher (b. 1869)
1940 – Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist and composer (b. 1880)
1941 – Amrita Sher-Gil, Hungarian-Pakistani painter (b. 1913)
1942 – Jock Delves Broughton, English captain (b. 1883)
1946 – Louis Dewis, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1872)
1951 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player and manager (b. 1887)
1951 – Abanindranath Tagore, Indian painter, author, and academic (b. 1871)
1953 – William Sterling Parsons, American admiral (b. 1901)
1955 – Glenn L. Martin, American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (b. 1886)
1961 – Emil Fuchs, German-American lawyer and businessman (b. 1878)
1963 – Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer and educator (b. 1905)
1963 – Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1892)
1964 – V. Veerasingam, Sri Lankan educator and politician (b. 1892)
1965 – Joseph Erlanger, American physiologist, neuroscientist, and academic Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
1968 – Fred Clark, American actor (b. 1914)
1969 – Claude Dornier, German engineer and businessman, founded Dornier Flugzeugwerke (b. 1884)
1969 – Princess Alice of Battenberg (b. 1885)
1973 – Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented the radar (b. 1892)
1975 – Constance McLaughlin Green, American historian and author (b. 1897)
1977 – Katherine Milhous, American author and illustrator (b. 1894)
1977 – Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Russian marshal and politician, Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (b. 1895)
1979 – Jesse Pearson, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)
1983 – Robert Aldrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1918)
1984 – Cecil M. Harden, American politician (b. 1894)
1986 – Edward Youde, Welsh-Chinese sinologist and diplomat, 26th Governor of Hong Kong (b. 1924)
1989 – John Pritchard, English conductor and director (b. 1921)
1990 – Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (b. 1916)
1991 – Richard Speck, American mass murderer (b. 1941)
1994 – Harry Horner, Czech-American director, producer, and production designer (b. 1910)
1995 – L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (b. 1918)
1995 – Charles Evans, English mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (b. 1918)
1995 – Gwen Harwood, Australian poet and playwright (b. 1920)
1995 – Clair Cameron Patterson, American scientist (b. 1922)
1997 – Eugen Cicero, Romanian-German jazz pianist (b. 1940)
1998 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1907)
2001 – Franco Rasetti, Italian-American physicist and academic (b. 1901)
2002 – Roone Arledge, American sportscaster and producer (b. 1931)
2002 – Ne Win, Burmese general and politician, 4th President of Burma (b. 1911)
2005 – Edward L. Masry, American lawyer and politician (b. 1932)
2006 – David Bronstein, Ukrainian-Belarusian chess player and theoretician (b. 1924)
2007 – Andrew Imbrie, American composer and academic (b. 1921)
2007 – George Paraskevaides, Greek-Cypriot businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Joannou & Paraskevaides (b. 1916)
2007 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (b. 1928)
2008 – Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (b. 1929)
2008 – George Brecht, American chemist and composer (b. 1926)
2008 – Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress (b. 1924)
2008 – Beverly Garland, American actress and businesswoman (b. 1926)
2008 – Anca Parghel, Romanian singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1957)
2009 – William Lederer, American soldier and author (b. 1912)
2010 – Alan Armer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)
2010 – Don Meredith, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1938)
2011 – Peter Gethin, English racing driver (b. 1940)
2011 – Gennady Logofet, Russian footballer and manager (b. 1942)
2012 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (b. 1920)
2012 – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian philanthropist (b. 1909)
2012 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and Cathedral of Brasília (b. 1907)
2012 – Ignatius IV of Antioch, Syrian patriarch (b. 1920)
2013 – Fred Bassetti, American architect and academic, founded Bassetti Architects (b. 1917)
2013 – William B. Edmondson, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to South Africa (b. 1927)
2013 – Nelson Mandela, South African lawyer and politician, 1st President of South Africa, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)
2014 – Ernest C. Brace, American captain and pilot (b. 1931)
2014 – Fabiola, Queen of Belgium (b. 1928)
2014 – Talât Sait Halman, Turkish poet, translator, and historian (b. 1931)
2014 – Jackie Healy-Rae, Irish hurdler and politician (b. 1931)
2014 – Silvio Zavala, Mexican historian and author (b. 1909)
2015 – Vic Eliason, American clergyman and radio host, founded VCY America (b. 1936)
2015 – Tibor Rubin, Hungarian-American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1929)
2015 – Chuck Williams, American businessman and author, founded Williams Sonoma (b. 1915)
2016 – Tyruss Himes ("Big Syke"), American rapper (b. 1968)
2017 – Michael I of Romania, fifth and last king of Romania (b. 1921)
2017 – August Ames, Canadian American pornographic actress (b. 1994)
2019 – Robert Walker, American actor (b. 1940)
2020 – Peter Alliss, English professional golfer (b. 1931)
2021 – Bob Dole, American politician (b. 1923)
2022 – Kirstie Alley, American actress and producer (b. 1951)
2023 – Norman Lear, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1922)
2024 – Jacques Roubaud, French poet, writer, and mathematician (b. 1932)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Abercius
Clement of Alexandria (Episcopal Church)
Crispina
Dalmatius of Pavia
Gerbold
Justinian of Ramsey Island
Nicetius (Nizier)
Pelinus of Brindisi
Sabbas the Sanctified
December 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Children's Day (Suriname)
Day of Military Honour - Battle of Moscow (Russia)
Discovery Day (Haiti and Dominican Republic)
International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social Development
Klozum (Schiermonnikoog, Netherlands)
Saint Nicholas' Eve (Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, Romania, Germany, Poland and the UK)
Krampusnacht (Austria)
The King Bhumibol Adulyadej Memorial Birthday (Thailand)
World Soil Day
|
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"1994",
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"1947",
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"1992",
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"Paul Painlevé",
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"1841",
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"1949",
"Wal Wal",
"1470",
"Rudy Fernandez (triathlete)",
"Jan Kubelík",
"1969",
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"1934",
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"1962",
"Carrie Hamilton",
"1912",
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"Argentina",
"Tina Charles (basketball)",
"Pope Julius II",
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"Matteo Ferrari",
"Mary McLeod Bethune",
"George Shepherd (artist)",
"2007",
"Bruce Golding",
"Conan Gray",
"1758",
"International Olympic Committee",
"1891",
"Tamil people",
"Carl Ferdinand Cori",
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"1957",
"1757",
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"Kirstie Alley",
"Ondrej Duda",
"1820",
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"William Lederer",
"1849",
"1822",
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"Johannes Heesters",
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"Gabriel Hjertstedt",
"Grace Moore",
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"Jimmy Dimmock",
"1456 Central Italy earthquakes",
"Anthony Martial",
"Harry Holgate",
"Robert Walker (actor, born 1940)",
"Gareth McAuley",
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"Louis Dewis",
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"Phillis Wheatley",
"Morgan Brittany",
"Knopf",
"1896",
"Eliza R. Snow",
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"2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake",
"1408",
"Ethiopia",
"Władysław Reymont",
"1995",
"Joannou & Paraskevaides",
"Elizabeth II",
"Madis Kõiv",
"National Reorganization Process",
"Afanasy Fet",
"Thailand",
"Matthew Kilroy (British Army soldier)",
"County of Hainaut",
"Prime Minister of Jamaica",
"Krystian Zimerman",
"Karlheinz Stockhausen",
"Dave Brubeck",
"1212",
"Wayne Smith (musician)",
"Major League Baseball",
"Rosa Parks",
"Ne Win",
"Natalie Sourisseau",
"1942",
"1903",
"Ravish Kumar",
"Abyssinia Crisis",
"1875",
"1839",
"Nikolai Uglanov",
"William Sterling Parsons",
"WNBA",
"Suriname",
"Peter Pohl",
"Andrew Yeom Soo-jung",
"Gerbold",
"Peru",
"Fiji",
"Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona",
"2006",
"USA Today",
"Jacopo Sala",
"1900",
"Ross Barkley",
"Butch Lee",
"1865",
"Charles Evans (mountaineer)",
"Pope Innocent VIII",
"Gazipur",
"Governor of South Carolina",
"1905",
"Gabriel Luna",
"Lee Chapman",
"1998",
"Norman Lear",
"Kyle Long",
"1917",
"1866",
"Flight 19",
"Bermuda Triangle",
"Jack Russell (musician)",
"Clyde Vernon Cessna",
"1983",
"United States House of Representatives",
"1389",
"1890",
"1776",
"Ronnie O'Sullivan",
"1986",
"Kevin Haller",
"Luboš Motl",
"Polonsky conspiracy",
"Secretary of State for the Northern Department",
"Neil Druckmann",
"Gennadiy Agapov",
"2024",
"José Carreras",
"Jianwen Emperor",
"Nicetius",
"UPI",
"Link Byfield",
"Preston By-pass",
"motorway",
"Lewis Pugh",
"Otto Preminger",
"Prime Minister of Pakistan",
"Alexandre Dumas",
"Budapest",
"Exploration Flight Test-1",
"Charles IX of France",
"1897",
"W.D. Amaradeva",
"King's Birthday (Thailand)",
"Sheldon Glashow",
"James Lee Burke",
"Don Meredith",
"Hugh Montgomery (British Army soldier)",
"Francesco Scarlatti",
"Fred Clark",
"1955",
"Fred Bassetti",
"Gershom Scholem",
"State President of South Africa",
"Randal Kolo Muani",
"Bob Dole",
"2005",
"Romania",
"Francis II of France",
"Tony Crafter",
"Laura Flanders",
"1537",
"Aleksandr Vasilevsky",
"Germany",
"1901",
"Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany)",
"Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg",
"Belgium",
"1956",
"Sri Lanka",
"Józef Piłsudski",
"International Space Station",
"Eric Etebari",
"Chincha Islands War",
"John Pritchard (conductor)",
"Justin Smoak",
"Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"Werner Heisenberg",
"Sarel van der Merwe",
"Arik Benado",
"Democratic Republic of the Congo",
"1991",
"Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg",
"José Cura",
"Nobel Prize in Physics",
"President of Nicaragua",
"Ellis Parker Butler",
"1930",
"2014",
"1863",
"Ukrainian War of Independence",
"Algeria",
"1968",
"Sachiko Kokubu",
"Kaetlyn Osmond",
"Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer",
"UEFA",
"Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow",
"Francis Drake",
"Republics of the Soviet Union",
"1902",
"Medal of Honor",
"Valparaiso",
"1831",
"Slovakia",
"Claude Monet",
"Ramón Ramírez (footballer)",
"Klaus Allofs",
"1936",
"1973",
"Summis desiderantes affectibus",
"Niklas Hagman",
"Andrew Imbrie",
"Fausto Sozzini",
"Lin Biao",
"Nicolas Cleynaerts",
"American Federation of Labor",
"1687",
"1847",
"Doctor Dré",
"Władysław Szpilman",
"Juha Tiainen",
"Frankie Muniz",
"James Hinchcliffe",
"1944",
"1784",
"Grand Duchy of Moscow",
"M55 motorway",
"Josh Malihabadi",
"1997",
"California",
"James K. Polk",
"National Council of Negro Women",
"Jaffna",
"United States Ambassador to South Africa",
"Jessica Paré",
"Nick Stahl",
"C. F. Powell",
"Vachel Lindsay",
"Levant",
"Semi Ojeleye",
"Keri Hilson",
"Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière",
"1868",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Hilary Koprowski",
"Oscar Niemeyer",
"Gennady Logofet",
"Catherine Tate",
"Tony Gregory",
"Kate Simon",
"Don Touhig",
"1918",
"Battle of Gazipur",
"2006 Fijian coup d'état",
"1861",
"Prime Minister of France",
"Governor-General of New Zealand",
"Egypt–Iraq relations",
"1911",
"Alexander Sørloth",
"Schalk Willem Burger",
"Bristol",
"World War II",
"Silvio Zavala",
"VCY America",
"Aviation Safety Network",
"John Henry Leech",
"Martin Vinnicombe",
"1960",
"1948",
"Antti Aarne",
"Dominican Republic",
"Adam Thorpe",
"Anwar Sadat",
"Bhumibol Adulyadej",
"Frans Adelaar",
"2014 Winter Olympics",
"Prussia",
"Pelinus",
"1945",
"René Cresté",
"Wessex",
"David Bomberg",
"Fourth Council of Toledo",
"papal bull",
"2017",
"Rachel Komisarz",
"Constance McLaughlin Green",
"Morgan J. Freeman",
"1661",
"Boston Massacre",
"1974",
"1988",
"Finland",
"Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy",
"Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)",
"Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition",
"Josh Smith",
"1775",
"Dalmatius of Pavia",
"A. J. Pollock",
"Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic",
"George Brecht",
"Pablo Morales",
"2011",
"Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine",
"Hanif Kureishi",
"Maddie Poppe",
"Bassetti Architects",
"Kingdom of Romania",
"1959",
"1914",
"902",
"Kwon Yu-ri",
"Nunnally Johnson",
"Alfred the Great",
"Gwen Harwood",
"Frederick II of Prussia",
"1556",
"Omaha, Nebraska",
"Battle of Leuthen",
"Denise Drysdale",
"International Volunteer Day",
"1803"
] |
8,354 |
December 4
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
771 – Austrasian king Carloman I dies, leaving his brother Charlemagne as sole king of the Frankish Kingdom.
963 – The lay papal protonotary is elected pope and takes the name Leo VIII, being consecrated on 6 December after ordination.
1110 – An army led by Baldwin I of Jerusalem and Sigurd the Crusader of Norway captures Sidon at the end of the First Crusade.
1259 – Kings Louis IX of France and Henry III of England agree to the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry renounces his claims to French-controlled territory on continental Europe (including Normandy) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.
1563 – The final session of the Council of Trent is held nearly 18 years after the body held its first session on December 13, 1545.
===1601–1900===
1619 – Thirty-eight colonists arrive at Berkeley Hundred, Virginia. The group's charter proclaims that the day "be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God."
1623 – 50 Christians are executed in Edo, Japan, during the Great Martyrdom of Edo.
1676 – The Battle of Lund, becomes the bloodiest battle in Scandinavian history.
1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army reaches Derby, its furthest point during the Second Jacobite Rising.
1783 – At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, U.S. General George Washington bids farewell to his officers.
1786 – Mission Santa Barbara is dedicated (on the feast day of Saint Barbara).
1791 – The first edition of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published.
1804 – The United States House of Representatives adopts articles of impeachment against Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.
1808 – Napoleonic Wars: Under the orders by commander Tomás de Morla, the city of Madrid surrenders to French Emperor Napoleon I after a 4 day long siege.
1829 – In the face of fierce local opposition, British Governor-General Lord William Bentinck issues a regulation declaring that anyone who abets sati in Bengal is guilty of culpable homicide.
1861 – American Civil War: The 109 electors of the several states of the Confederate States of America unanimously elect Jefferson Davis as President and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice President.
1863 – American Civil War: Confederate General James Longstreet lifts his unsuccessful siege of Knoxville, Tennessee after failing to capture the city.
1864 – American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea: Union cavalry forces defeat Confederate cavalry in the Battle of Waynesboro, Georgia, opening the way for General William T. Sherman's army to approach the coast.
1865 – North Carolina ratifies 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed two days later by Georgia, and U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.
1867 – Former Minnesota farmer Oliver Hudson Kelley founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the Grange).
1872 – The American brigantine is discovered drifting in the Atlantic. Her crew is never found.
1875 – Notorious New York City politician Boss Tweed escapes from prison; he is later recaptured in Spain.
1881 – The first edition of the Los Angeles Times is published.
1893 – First Matabele War: A patrol of 34 British South Africa Company soldiers is ambushed and annihilated by more than 3,000 Matabele warriors on the Shangani River in Matabeleland.
===1901–present===
1906 – Alpha Phi Alpha the first intercollegiate Greek lettered fraternity for African-Americans was founded at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.
1909 – In Canadian football, the First Grey Cup game is played. The University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeat the Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club, 26–6.
1909 – The Montreal Canadiens ice hockey club, the oldest surviving professional hockey franchise in the world, is founded as a charter member of the National Hockey Association.
1917 – The Finnish Senate submits to the Parliament of Finland a proposal for the form of government of the Republic of Finland and issued a communication to Parliament declaring the independence of Finland.
1918 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sails for the World War I peace talks in Versailles, becoming the first US president to travel to Europe while in office.
1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Polonsky conspiracy is initiated, with an attempt to assassinate the high command of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine.
1928 – Cosmo Gordon Lang was enthroned as the Archbishop of Canterbury, the first bachelor to be appointed in 150 years.
1939 – World War II: is struck by a mine (laid by ) off the Scottish coast and is laid up for repairs until August 1940.
1942 – World War II: Carlson's patrol during the Guadalcanal Campaign ends.
1943 – World War II: In Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Josip Broz Tito proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile.
1943 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt closes down the Works Progress Administration, because of the high levels of wartime employment in the United States.
1945 – By a vote of 65–7, the United States Senate approves United States participation in the United Nations. (The UN had been established on October 24, 1945.)
1948 – Chinese Civil War: The SS Kiangya, carrying Nationalist refugees from Shanghai, explodes in the Huangpu River.
1949 – Sir Duncan George Stewart, governor of the Crown Colony of Sarawak, was fatally stabbed by a member of the Rukun 13.
1950 – Korean War: Jesse L. Brown (the 1st African-American Naval aviator) is killed in action during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.
1950 – Korean War: Associated Press photographer Max Desfor photographs hundreds of Korean refugees crossing a downed bridge in the Taedong River: 1951 Pulitzer Prize winner Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea.
1956 – The Million Dollar Quartet (Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash) get together at Sun Studio for the first and last time.
1964 – Free Speech Movement: Police arrest over 800 students at the University of California, Berkeley, following their takeover and sit-in at the administration building in protest of the UC Regents' decision to forbid protests on UC property.
1965 – Launch of Gemini 7 with crew members Frank Borman and Jim Lovell. The Gemini 7 spacecraft was the passive target for the first crewed space rendezvous performed by the crew of Gemini 6A.
1969 – Black Panther Party members Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are shot and killed during a raid by 14 Chicago police officers.
1971 – The PNS Ghazi, a Pakistan Navy submarine, sinks during the course of the Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971.
1971 – During a concert by Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention at the Montreux Casino, an audience member fires a flare gun into the ceiling, causing a fire that destroys the venue. The incident served as the inspiration for Deep Purple's 1973 song Smoke on the Water.
1974 – Martinair Flight 138 crashes into the Saptha Kanya mountain range in Maskeliya, Sri Lanka, killing 191.
1977 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, president of the Central African Republic, crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire.
1977 – Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, Johor, killing 100.
1978 – Following the murder of Mayor George Moscone, Dianne Feinstein becomes San Francisco's first female mayor.
1979 – The Hastie fire in Hull kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest Bruce George Peter Lee.
1981 – South Africa grants independence to the Ciskei "homeland" (not recognized by any government outside South Africa).
1982 – The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution.
1983 – US Navy aircraft from USS John F. Kennedy and USS Independence attack Syrian missile sites in Lebanon in response to an F-14 being fired on by an SA-7. One A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair are shot down. One American pilot is killed, one is rescued, and one is captured.
1984 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Army soldiers kill 107–150 civilians in Mannar.
1986 – The MV Amazon Venture oil tanker begins leaking oil while at the port of Savannah in the United States, resulting in an oil spill of approximately .
1991 – Terry A. Anderson is released after seven years in captivity as a hostage in Beirut; he is the last and longest-held American hostage in Lebanon.
1991 – Pan American World Airways ceases its operations after 64 years.
1992 – Somali Civil War: President George H. W. Bush orders 28,000 U.S. troops to Somalia in Northeast Africa.
1998 – The Unity Module, the second module of the International Space Station, is launched.
2005 – Tens of thousands of people in Hong Kong protest for democracy and call on the government to allow universal and equal suffrage.
2006 – Six black youths assault a white teenager in Jena, Louisiana.
2014 – Islamic insurgents kill three state police at a traffic circle before taking an empty school and a "press house" in Grozny. Ten state forces die with 28 injured in gun battles ending with ten insurgents killed.
2015 – A firebomb is thrown into a restaurant in the Egyptian capital of Cairo, killing 17 people.
2017 – The Thomas Fire starts near Santa Paula in California. It eventually became the largest wildfire in modern California history to date after burning in Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties.
2021 – Semeru on the Indonesian island of Java erupts, killing at least 68 people.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
AD 34 – Persius, Roman poet (d. 62)
846 – Hasan al-Askari 11th Imam of Twelver Shia Islam (d. 874)
1428 – Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe (d. 1511)
1506 – Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche (d. 1558)
1555 – Heinrich Meibom, German poet and historian (d. 1625)
1575 – Sister Virginia Maria, Italian nun (d. 1650)
1580 – Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626)
1585 – John Cotton, English-American minister and theologian (d. 1652)
1595 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (d. 1674)
===1601–1900===
1647 – Daniel Eberlin, German composer (d. 1715)
1660 – André Campra, French composer and conductor (d. 1744)
1667 – Michel Pignolet de Montéclair, French composer and educator (d. 1737)
1670 – John Aislabie, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1742)
1713 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (d. 1786)
1727 – Johann Gottfried Zinn, German anatomist and botanist (d. 1759)
1777 – Juliette Récamier, French businesswoman (d. 1849)
1795 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish-English historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 1881)
1798 – Jules Armand Dufaure, French lawyer and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1881)
1817 – Nikoloz Baratashvili, Georgian poet and author (d. 1845)
1835 – Samuel Butler, English author and critic (d. 1902)
1844 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1914)
1861 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1922)
1865 – Edith Cavell, English nurse, humanitarian, and saint (Anglicanism) (d. 1915)
1867 – Stanley Argyle, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1940)
1868 – Jesse Burkett, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1953)
1875 – Agnes Forbes Blackadder, Scottish medical doctor (d. 1964)
1875 – Joe Corbett, American baseball player and coach (d. 1945)
1875 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian-Swiss poet and author (d. 1926)
1877 – Morris Alexander, South African politician (d. 1946)
1881 – Erwin von Witzleben, Polish-German field marshal (d. 1944)
1882 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (d. 1963)
1883 – Katharine Susannah Prichard, Australian author and playwright (d. 1969)
1884 – R. C. Majumdar, Indian historian (d. 1980)
1887 – Winifred Carney, Irish suffragist, trade unionist, and Irish republican (d. 1943)
1892 – Francisco Franco, Spanish general and dictator, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1975)
1892 – Liu Bocheng, Chinese commander and politician (d. 1986)
1893 – Herbert Read, English poet and critic (d. 1968)
1895 – Feng Youlan, Chinese philosopher and academic (d. 1990)
1897 – Robert Redfield, American anthropologist of Mexico (d. 1958)
1899 – Karl-Günther Heimsoth, German physician and politician (d. 1934)
1899 – Charlie Spencer, English footballer and manager (d. 1953)
===1901–present===
1903 – Cornell Woolrich, American author (d. 1968)
1904 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (d. 1982)
1908 – Alfred Hershey, American bacteriologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
1910 – Alex North, American composer and conductor (d. 1991)
1910 – R. Venkataraman, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th President of India (d. 2009)
1912 – Pappy Boyington, American colonel and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1988)
1913 – Mark Robson, Canadian-American director and producer (d. 1978)
1914 – Rudolf Hausner, Austrian painter and sculptor (d. 1995)
1914 – Claude Renoir, French cinematographer (d. 1993)
1915 – Eddie Heywood, American pianist and composer (d. 1989)
1916 – Ely Jacques Kahn Jr., American journalist and author (d. 1994)
1919 – I. K. Gujral, Indian poet and politician, 12th Prime Minister of India (d. 2012)
1920 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (d. 2013)
1920 – Michael Bates, English actor (d. 1978)
1920 – Jeanne Manford, American educator and activist, co-founded PFLAG (d. 2013)
1921 – Deanna Durbin, Canadian actress and singer (d. 2013)
1923 – Charles Keating, American lawyer and financier (d. 2014)
1923 – Eagle Keys, American-Canadian football player and coach (d. 2012)
1923 – John Krish, English director and screenwriter (d. 2016)
1924 – John C. Portman Jr., American architect, designed the Renaissance Center and Tomorrow Square (d. 2017)
1925 – Albert Bandura, Canadian-American psychologist and academic (d. 2021)
1926 – Ned Romero, American actor and opera singer (d. 2017)
1929 – Şakir Eczacıbaşı, Turkish pharmacist, photographer, and businessman (d. 2010)
1930 – Ronnie Corbett, Scottish actor and comedian (d. 2016)
1930 – Jim Hall, American guitarist and composer (d. 2013)
1931 – Alex Delvecchio, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager
1931 – Wally George, American radio and television host (d. 2003)
1932 – Roh Tae-woo, South Korean general and politician, 6th President of South Korea (d. 2021)
1933 – Horst Buchholz, German actor (d. 2003)
1933 – Wink Martindale, American game show host and producer (d. 2025)
1934 – Bill Collins, Australian film critic and author (d. 2019)
1934 – Victor French, American actor and director (d. 1989)
1935 – Paul O'Neill, American businessman and politician, 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 2020)
1936 – Freddy Cannon, American singer and guitarist
1945 – Roberta Bondar, Canadian neurologist, academic, and astronaut
1946 – Karina, Spanish singer/actress
1947 – Jane Lubchenco, American ecologist, academic, and diplomat
1948 – Southside Johnny, American singer-songwriter
1949 – Jock Stirrup, Baron Stirrup, English air marshal and politician
1950 – Bjørn Kjellemyr, Norwegian bassist and composer
1951 – Gary Rossington, American guitarist (d. 2023)
1955 – Philip Hammond, English businessman and politician, former Chancellor of the Exchequer
1955 – Dave Taylor, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager
1955 – Cassandra Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer
1958 – Sergei Starikov, Russian ice hockey player and coach
1960 – David Green, Nicaraguan-American baseball player
1960 – Glynis Nunn, Australian heptathlete and hurler
1961 – Frank Reich, American football player and coach
1961 – Naomi Robson, American-Australian television host
1962 – Vinnie Dombroski, American singer-songwriter and musician
1974 – Tadahito Iguchi, Japanese baseball player
1976 – Kristina Groves, Canadian speed skater
1976 – Betty Lennox, American basketball player
1977 – Ajit Agarkar, Indian cricketer
1977 – Darvis Patton, American sprinter
1977 – Morten Veland, Norwegian guitarist and songwriter
1978 – Jaclyn Victor, Malaysian singer and actress
1979 – Ysabella Brave, American singer-songwriter
1979 – Jay DeMerit, American soccer player
1980 – Brian Cook, American basketball player
1980 – Viktor, Canadian wrestler and manager
1981 – Brian Vandborg, Danish cyclist
1982 – Nathan Douglas, English triple jumper
1982 – Waldo Ponce, Chilean footballer
1982 – Ho-Pin Tung, Dutch-Chinese race car driver
1982 – Nick Vujicic, Australian evangelist
1983 – Jimmy Bartel, Australian footballer
1983 – Chinx, American rapper (d. 2015)
1984 – Lindsay Felton, American actress
1984 – Joe Thomas, American football player
1985 – Andrew Brackman, American baseball player
1985 – Stephen Dawson, Irish footballer
1985 – Carlos Gómez, Dominican baseball player
1986 – Kaija Udras, Estonian skier
1986 – Martell Webster, American basketball player
1987 – Orlando Brown, American actor and rapper
1991 – André Roberson, American basketball player
1991 – Max Holloway, American mixed martial artist
1991 – Reality Winner, American intelligence specialist convicted of espionage
1992 – Robin Bruyère, Belgian politician
1992 – Peta Hiku, New Zealand rugby league player
1992 – Jean-Claude Iranzi, Rwandan footballer
1992 – Jin, South Korean singer, songwriter and actor
1992 – Joe Musgrove, American baseball player
1992 – Blake Snell, American baseball player
1994 – Gabriel Lundberg, Danish basketball player
1996 – Ivan Belikov, Russian footballer
1996 – Diogo Jota, Portuguese footballer
1996 – Sebastián Vegas, Chilean footballer
1999 – Kim Do-yeon, South Korean singer and actress
1999 – Kang Mi-na, South Korean actress and singer
2003 – Jackson Holliday, American baseball player
2003 – Kim Do-ah, South Korean singer and actress
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
530 BC – Cyrus the Great, king of Persia (b. 600 BC)
749 – John of Damascus, Syrian priest and saint (b. 676)
771 – Carloman I, Frankish king (b. 751)
870 – Suairlech ind Eidnén mac Ciaráin, Irish bishop
1075 – Anno II, German archbishop and saint (b. 1010)
1131 – Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
1214 – William the Lion, Scottish king (b. 1143)
1260 – Aymer de Valence, Bishop of Winchester (b. 1222)
1270 – Theobald II of Navarre (b. 1238)
1334 – Pope John XXII (b. 1249)
1340 – Henry Burghersh, English bishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1292)
1341 – Janisław, Archbishop of Gniezno
1408 – Valentina Visconti, wife of Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans
1456 – Charles I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1401)
1459 – Adolphus VIII, Count of Holstein (b. 1401)
1576 – Georg Joachim Rheticus, Austrian-Slovak mathematician and cartographer (b. 1514)
1585 – John Willock, Scottish minister and reformer (b. 1515)
===1601–1900===
1603 – Maerten de Vos, Flemish painter and draughtsman (b. 1532)
1609 – Alexander Hume, Scottish poet (b. 1560)
1637 – Nicholas Ferrar, English trader (b. 1592)
1642 – Cardinal Richelieu, French cardinal and politician, Chief Minister to the French Monarch (b. 1585)
1649 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (b. 1585)
1679 – Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher and theorist (b. 1588)
1680 – Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (b. 1616)
1696 – Empress Meishō of Japan (b. 1624)
1732 – John Gay, English poet and playwright (b. 1685)
1798 – Luigi Galvani, Italian physician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1737)
1828 – Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1770)
1839 – John Leamy, Irish–American merchant (b. 1757)
1841 – David Daniel Davis, Welsh-English physician and academic (b. 1777)
1845 – Gregor MacGregor, Scottish soldier and explorer (b. 1786)
1850 – William Sturgeon, English physicist, invented the electric motor (b. 1783)
1893 – John Tyndall, Irish-English physicist and chemist (b. 1820)
1897 – Griffith Rhys Jones, Welsh conductor (b. 1834)
===1901–present===
1902 – Charles Dow, American journalist and publisher, co-founded the Dow Jones & Company (b. 1851)
1926 – Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian painter (b. 1861)
1933 – Stefan George, German-Swiss poet and translator (b. 1868)
1935 – Johan Halvorsen, Norwegian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1864)
1935 – Charles Richet, French physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1850)
1938 – Borghild Holmsen, Norwegian pianist, composer and music critic (b. 1865)
1938 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (b. 1903)
1942 – Juhan Kukk, Estonian politician, 3rd Head of State of Estonia (b. 1885)
1942 – Fritz Löhner-Beda, Jewish Austrian librettist, lyricist and writer (b. 1883)
1944 – Roger Bresnahan, American baseball player and manager (b. 1879)
1945 – Thomas Hunt Morgan, American geneticist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1866)
1945 – Richárd Weisz, Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b. 1879)
1948 – Frank Benford, American physicist and engineer (b. 1883)
1950 – Jesse L. Brown, 1st African-American Naval aviator (b. 1926)
1954 – George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd (b. 1881)
1955 – József Galamb, Hungarian-American engineer (b. 1881)
1963 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (b. 1882)
1967 – Bert Lahr, American actor (b. 1895)
1969 – Fred Hampton, American Black Panthers activist (b. 1948)
1971 – Shunryū Suzuki, Japanese-American monk and educator, founded the San Francisco Zen Center (b. 1904)
1975 – Hannah Arendt, German-American historian, theorist, and academic (b. 1906)
1976 – Tommy Bolin, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1951)
1976 – Benjamin Britten, English pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1913)
1976 – W. F. McCoy, Irish soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1886)
1980 – Francisco de Sá Carneiro, Portuguese lawyer and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1934)
1980 – Stanisława Walasiewicz, Polish-American runner (b. 1911)
1980 – Don Warrington, Canadian football player (b. 1948)
1981 – Jeanne Block, American psychologist (b. 1923)
1984 – Jack Mercer, American animator, screenwriter, voice actor, and singer (b. 1910)
1987 – Arnold Lobel, American author and illustrator (b. 1933)
1987 – Rouben Mamoulian, Armenian-American director and screenwriter (b. 1897)
1988 – Osman Achmatowicz, Polish chemist and academic (b. 1899)
1992 – Henry Clausen, American lawyer and author (b. 1905)
1993 – Margaret Landon, American missionary and author (b. 1903)
1993 – Frank Zappa, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1940)
1999 – Rose Bird, American academic and judge, 25th Chief Justice of California (b. 1936)
2000 – Henck Arron, Surinamese banker and politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Republic of Suriname (b. 1936)
2003 – Iggy Katona, American race car driver (b. 1916)
2004 – Elena Souliotis, Greek soprano and actress (b. 1943)
2005 – Errol Brathwaite, New Zealand soldier and author (b. 1924)
2005 – Gregg Hoffman, American film producer (b. 1963)
2006 – K. Ganeshalingam, Sri Lankan accountant and politician, Mayor of Colombo (b. 1938)
2006 – Ross A. McGinnis, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1987)
2007 – Pimp C, American rapper (b. 1973)
2009 – Liam Clancy, Irish singer, actor, and guitarist (b. 1935)
2010 – King Curtis Iaukea, American wrestler (b. 1937)
2011 – Sonia Pierre, Haitian-Dominican activist (b. 1965)
2011 – Sócrates, Brazilian footballer and manager (b. 1954)
2011 – Hubert Sumlin, American singer and guitarist (b. 1931)
2012 – Vasily Belov, Russian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)
2012 – Jack Brooks, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (b. 1922)
2012 – Miguel Calero, Colombian footballer and manager (b. 1971)
2012 – Anthony Deane-Drummond, English general (b. 1917)
2013 – Joana Raspall i Juanola, Spanish author and poet (b. 1913)
2014 – Claudia Emerson, American poet and academic (b. 1957)
2014 – V. R. Krishna Iyer, Indian lawyer and judge (b. 1914)
2014 – Vincent L. McKusick, American lawyer and judge (b. 1921)
2014 – Jeremy Thorpe, English lawyer and politician (b. 1929)
2015 – Bill Bennett, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Premier of British Columbia (b. 1932)
2015 – Robert Loggia, American actor and director (b. 1930)
2015 – Yossi Sarid, Israeli journalist and politician, 15th Israeli Minister of Education (b. 1940)
2016 – Patricia Robins, British writer and WAAF officer (b. 1921)
2017 – Shashi Kapoor, Indian actor (b. 1938)
2022 – Bob McGrath, American singer and actor (b. 1932)
2022 – Patrick Tambay, French race car driver (b. 1949)
2024 – Princess Birgitta of Sweden, Swedish royal (b. 1937)
2024 – Brian Thompson, American insurance executive (b. 1974)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Ada
Anno II
Barbara, and its related observances:
Barbórka, Miners' Day in Poland
Eid il-Burbara, a holiday similar to Halloween in honor of Saint Barbara. (Russia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey)
Bernardo degli Uberti
Clement of Alexandria (Anglicanism, Eastern Catholicism)
Giovanni Calabria
John of Damascus
Maruthas
Nicholas Ferrar (Anglicanism)
Osmund
Sigiramnus
December 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Navy Day (India)
Thai Environment Day (Thailand)
Tupou I Day (Tonga)
|
[
"George Washington",
"1940",
"Cardinal Richelieu",
"1921",
"13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution",
"1214",
"Semeru",
"Michael Bates (actor)",
"Josip Broz Tito",
"William Drummond of Hawthornden",
"1982",
"December 2005 protest for democracy in Hong Kong",
"Hasan al-Askari",
"United States Navy",
"Ho-Pin Tung",
"Tommy Bolin",
"Poland",
"Sherman's March to the Sea",
"530 BC",
"The Plain Dealer",
"Frank Boeijen (keyboardist)",
"Derby",
"Confederate States of America",
"1850",
"1899",
"Jeremy Thorpe",
"Eastern Catholicism",
"Hong Kong Government",
"Jim Hall (musician)",
"Carl Perkins",
"Nathan Douglas",
"1910",
"József Galamb",
"Clement of Alexandria",
"1341",
"Alex Delvecchio",
"John Willock",
"André Campra",
"2015",
"William Tecumseh Sherman",
"1924",
"1829",
"Franz Xavier Wernz",
"naval mine",
"1603",
"Liam Clancy",
"culpable homicide",
"Cairo",
"1609",
"Frank Benford",
"Tyra Banks",
"Paul O'Neill (politician)",
"National Hockey League",
"Guadalcanal Campaign",
"Smoke on the Water",
"Palace of Versailles",
"1964",
"Rose Bird",
"Jeanne Block",
"R. C. Majumdar",
"Kang Mi-na",
"Michael Jackson (footballer, born 1973)",
"Jackson Holliday",
"Jena Six",
"Vincent L. McKusick",
"Boss Tweed",
"1679",
"1861 Confederate States presidential election",
"Patrick Tambay",
"Ysabella Brave",
"Lord Chancellor",
"Charles Edward Stuart",
"W. F. McCoy",
"1872",
"Hubert Sumlin",
"Alfred Hershey",
"1777",
"1881",
"Joan Brady (American-British writer)",
"Dow Jones & Company",
"Tahir Dawar",
"Senate of Finland",
"1928",
"1981",
"1915",
"André Roberson",
"Jim Lovell",
"870",
"Impeachment of Samuel Chase",
"President of the United States",
"1946",
"Bill Bennett",
"Heinrich Meibom (poet)",
"1950",
"1887",
"Henry Clausen",
"Gerd Achterberg",
"1783",
"Crown Colony of Sarawak",
"Lee Smith (baseball)",
"Sergey Bubka",
"Juliette Récamier",
"Mannar, Sri Lanka",
"Vasily Belov",
"Orlando Brown (actor)",
"Bruce George Peter Lee",
"feast day",
"Chinx",
"Tomorrow Square",
"1979",
"Gasparo Gozzi",
"Diogo Jota",
"China",
"John Tyndall",
"Yossi Sarid",
"1994",
"Frank Borman",
"Premier of Victoria",
"Yūko Miyamura",
"Ajit Agarkar",
"Bert Lahr",
"Osman Achmatowicz",
"1906",
"1972",
"1916",
"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine",
"2016",
"Nikoloz Baratashvili",
"1943",
"Eric S. Raymond",
"Archbishop of Canterbury",
"Syria",
"United Nations",
"1954",
"1428",
"Brian Cook (basketball)",
"Peninsular War",
"Charles Keating",
"Saptha Kanya",
"Martinair Flight 138",
"Sri Lankan Army",
"Jesse Burkett",
"1696",
"Erwin von Witzleben",
"Associated Press",
"Feng Youlan",
"Karl-Günther Heimsoth",
"Thomas Hobbes",
"Francisco de Sá Carneiro",
"Russia",
"Cornell Woolrich",
"Deep Purple",
"Charlemagne",
"Cosmo Gordon Lang",
"Rukun 13",
"Ned Romero",
"Alexander Hume",
"United States Government Printing Office",
"Gemini 6A",
"Dianne Feinstein",
"Empress Meishō",
"Sócrates",
"1977",
"Francia",
"1131",
"George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd",
"Persius",
"1947",
"Napoleon Bonaparte",
"Gregg Hoffman",
"Palestinian National Authority",
"Juhan Kukk",
"Renaissance Center",
"1951 Pulitzer Prize",
"St. Ada",
"Frank Reich",
"Sun Studio",
"bishop",
"Beirut",
"1791",
"Prime Minister of Portugal",
"Regents of the University of California",
"Morris Alexander",
"The New York Times",
"1920",
"Ithaca, New York",
"Thomas Fire",
"Shadow Secretary of State for Wales",
"Bob Mosley",
"Hannah Arendt",
"1931",
"Roh Tae-woo",
"1075",
"1992",
"Raul Boesel",
"Jimmy Bartel",
"Bob McGrath",
"2013",
"Capitulation of Madrid (1808)",
"771",
"Malaysian Airline System Flight 653",
"Norway",
"1953",
"King Curtis Iaukea",
"1933",
"Edo (Tokyo)",
"independence of Finland",
"Jesse L. Brown",
"space rendezvous",
"Sebastián Vegas",
"Nia Griffith",
"Sir Duncan George Stewart",
"1932",
"Giovanni Calabria",
"San Francisco",
"Mission Santa Barbara",
"Yokozuna (sumo)",
"San Francisco Zen Center",
"1951",
"1270",
"1935",
"Thomas Hunt Morgan",
"Nixon Kiprotich",
"1970",
"Mina Caputo",
"Lukman Haruna",
"John C. Portman Jr.",
"Jaclyn Victor",
"Pope John XXII",
"1786",
"2009",
"2021",
"Central African Empire",
"Liu Bocheng",
"1883",
"Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea",
"United States Geological Survey",
"1985",
"2010",
"Israel",
"United States Secretary of the Treasury",
"Jefferson Davis",
"Los Angeles Times",
"University of California, Berkeley",
"Darvis Patton",
"electric motor",
"Blake Snell",
"1990",
"List of California wildfires",
"1808",
"Henry III of England",
"Albert Bandura",
"Grozny",
"Works Progress Administration",
"Agnes Forbes Blackadder",
"Head of State of Estonia",
"Iggy Katona",
"Aymer de Valence (bishop)",
"Saint Barbara",
"Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club",
"Santa Paula, California",
"1961",
"Gabriel Lundberg",
"1926",
"1966",
"Sri Lankan civil war",
"North Carolina",
"1595",
"John of Damascus",
"Vinnie Dombroski",
"Horst Buchholz",
"1647",
"Max Desfor",
"1938",
"Pan American World Airways",
"William the Lion",
"Joe Thomas (offensive tackle)",
"1999",
"1925",
"Black Panther Party",
"Arnold Lobel",
"Anno II",
"Law enforcement in Russia",
"Complex Networks",
"Henck Arron",
"1828",
"Charlie Spencer",
"Max Holloway",
"1978",
"1649",
"Berkeley Hundred",
"List of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom",
"1877",
"1259",
"Chief Justice of California",
"Ross A. McGinnis",
"Albert Norden",
"Jerry Lee Lewis",
"1965",
"Freddy Cannon",
"Marisa Tomei",
"Adolphus VIII, Count of Holstein",
"Mark Clark (Black Panther)",
"National Hockey Association",
"1987",
"1892",
"1732",
"1919",
"1939",
"1804",
"846",
"President of South Korea",
"University of Toronto",
"Elvis Presley",
"articles of impeachment",
"Stanley Argyle",
"Amazon Venture oil spill",
"963",
"Huangpu River",
"Samuel Butler (novelist)",
"Shaun Hollamby",
"1580",
"Robin Bruyère",
"1993",
"British South Africa Company",
"9K32 Strela-2",
"Yvonne Minton",
"Superior General of the Society of Jesus",
"Tamanishiki San'emon",
"1667",
"Democratic Federal Yugoslavia",
"Margaret Landon",
"1660",
"Vice President of the Confederate States of America",
"LTV A-7 Corsair II",
"Gary Freeman (rugby league)",
"Sati (practise)",
"Taedong River",
"National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry",
"Bill Collins (television presenter)",
"Anthony Deane-Drummond",
"1563",
"2003",
"Unity Module",
"Slavery in the United States",
"1976",
"Battle of Waynesboro, Georgia",
"Bernard King",
"2012",
"Francisco Franco",
"Korean War",
"Joana Raspall i Juanola",
"Treaty of Paris (1259)",
"Nationalist government",
"Waldo Ponce",
"Omar Khayyám",
"1575",
"Prime Minister of Iceland",
"Philip Hammond",
"Blake Leary",
"2000",
"Moscone–Milk assassinations",
"Suzanne Malveaux",
"Lindsay Felton",
"Marco Giambruno",
"1967",
"Fred Hampton",
"Minnesota",
"Dave Taylor (ice hockey)",
"Roberta Bondar",
"Horn of Africa",
"Igor Sjunin",
"Errol Brathwaite",
"Thomas Carlyle",
"Jeanne Manford",
"1971",
"1904",
"A-6 Intruder",
"Dennis Wilson",
"Imam",
"Battle of Lund",
"Knoxville, Tennessee",
"Johann Gottfried Zinn",
"Somali Civil War",
"Mayor of Colombo",
"Bobby Goodman",
"Ely Jacques Kahn Jr.",
"Johor",
"1984",
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Frank Zappa",
"George H. W. Bush",
"R. Venkataraman",
"2015 Cairo restaurant fire",
"Colony of Virginia",
"Oliver Hudson Kelley",
"Protonotary apostolic",
"Bernardo degli Uberti",
"1845",
"Kevin Richardson (footballer)",
"Rainer Maria Rilke",
"Andrew Brackman",
"National Basketball Association",
"1923",
"Maskeliya",
"1937",
"Jeff Bridges",
"1913",
"Million Dollar Quartet",
"K. Ganeshalingam",
"1996",
"1619",
"1963",
"Robert Redfield",
"Free Speech Movement",
"Jules Armand Dufaure",
"1975",
"1844",
"Johan Halvorsen",
"Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine",
"1893",
"1958",
"John Gay",
"Pakistan Navy",
"1895",
"Hannes Hafstein",
"Shangani Patrol",
"1459",
"Georg Joachim Rheticus",
"President of India",
"1941",
"Lord William Bentinck",
"Great Martyrdom of Edo",
"Mayor of San Francisco",
"PFLAG",
"Dionne Farris",
"1908",
"The Nun of Monza",
"1841",
"United States and the United Nations",
"Normandy",
"Siege of Sidon",
"Bantustan",
"Franklin D. Roosevelt",
"Jean Chapelain",
"1867",
"1949",
"Eagle Keys",
"Navy Day (India)",
"James Longstreet",
"Kingston upon Hull",
"1969",
"1934",
"Sigiramnus",
"1962",
"John Cotton (minister)",
"Jock Stirrup, Baron Stirrup",
"1912",
"Kristina Groves",
"Don Warrington (Canadian football)",
"Charles Richet",
"Governor-General of India",
"Deanna Durbin",
"Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971",
"Jordan",
"Jacobite rising of 1745",
"Kim Do-ah",
"2007",
"Álex de la Iglesia",
"1676",
"Pappy Boyington",
"1637",
"Alpha Phi Alpha",
"Claude Renoir",
"1957",
"Carlos Gómez",
"Claudia Emerson",
"Brian Thompson (businessman)",
"Shannon Briggs",
"flare gun",
"Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans",
"USS Independence (CV-62)",
"AD 34",
"Jin (singer)",
"Prime Minister of India",
"Stanisława Walasiewicz",
"Henry Burghersh",
"John Giorno",
"SS Kiangya",
"Guillermo Amor",
"Carloman I",
"1334",
"Anglicanism",
"Gemini 7",
"Toronto Varsity Blues",
"Winifred Carney",
"First Crusade",
"Joe Corbett",
"Theobald II of Navarre",
"2004",
"Johnny Cash",
"Canadian football",
"Shashi Kapoor",
"1456",
"Grumman F-14 Tomcat",
"2022",
"1929",
"1798",
"Union (American Civil War)",
"1585",
"Valentina Visconti, Duchess of Orléans",
"Siege of Knoxville",
"Samuel Argall",
"Eid il-Burbara",
"Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche",
"President of the Confederate States of America",
"1408",
"port of Savannah",
"Rick Middleton",
"Cassandra Wilson",
"Cyrus the Great",
"Princess Birgitta of Sweden",
"Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States",
"Borghild Holmsen",
"Ventura County, California",
"Bjørn Kjellemyr",
"Thailand",
"Wally George",
"Louis IX of France",
"Benjamin Britten",
"Cornell University",
"V. R. Krishna Iyer",
"Ciskei",
"Major League Baseball",
"Karina (Spanish singer)",
"Santa Barbara County, California",
"1884",
"Patricia Wettig",
"Sergei Starikov",
"1942",
"1903",
"Edith Cavell",
"1260",
"Jassen Cullimore",
"The Mothers of Invention",
"1642",
"Somalia",
"1875",
"Plum Sykes",
"1839",
"1909",
"Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)",
"WNBA",
"Austrasia",
"Alex North",
"ice hockey",
"Rouben Mamoulian",
"Morten Veland",
"Herbert Read",
"Chelsea Noble",
"I. K. Gujral",
"1864",
"Baldwin I of Jerusalem",
"2006",
"Constance Davey",
"Victor French",
"USA Today",
"American Civil War",
"Carlson's patrol",
"Roc-A-Fella Records",
"Katharine Susannah Prichard",
"1865",
"Gary Gilmore",
"John Leamy (merchant)",
"Bishop of Winchester",
"Northern Ndebele people",
"Jean-Bédel Bokassa",
"Jack Mercer",
"Gregor MacGregor",
"1998",
"Jean-Claude Iranzi",
"Andre Marrou",
"Janisław (archbishop of Gniezno)",
"Southside Johnny",
"1917",
"Monumenta Nipponica",
"Black Panthers",
"colony",
"Alexander H. Stephens",
"1983",
"United States House of Representatives",
"Montreux Casino",
"Maerten de Vos",
"Şakir Eczacıbaşı",
"Jay DeMerit",
"1986",
"universal suffrage",
"Chris Hillman",
"1745",
"Bengal Presidency",
"Fred Armisen",
"Martell Webster",
"Polonsky conspiracy",
"United States Ambassador to South Korea",
"Richárd Weisz",
"2024",
"Elena Souliotis",
"2014 Grozny clashes",
"National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum",
"UPI",
"Griffith Rhys Jones",
"Ronnie Corbett",
"Shunryū Suzuki",
"Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe",
"Steven Menzies",
"Anna Petrakova",
"Lebanon",
"Reality Winner",
"Charles I, Duke of Bourbon",
"Pimp C",
"Electoral College (Confederate States)",
"Andriy Pylyavskyi",
"Duje Dukan",
"1897",
"1984 Mannar massacre",
"Nick Vujicic",
"Nadir Afonso",
"United States Senate",
"Shanghai",
"Mark Robson (film director)",
"1955",
"John Krish",
"Nigel Heslop",
"Kate Rusby",
"Fraunces Tavern",
"2005",
"1340",
"Luigi Galvani",
"1956",
"Max Baer Jr.",
"Robert Loggia",
"International Space Station",
"Eddie Heywood",
"Ministry of Education (Israel)",
"Daniel Eberlin",
"Jelly Roll (singer)",
"1795",
"Ivana Kobilca",
"Ivan Belikov",
"Roger Bresnahan",
"Stephen Dawson",
"Kevin Sussman",
"1882",
"Thai Environment Day",
"1991",
"List of Prime Ministers of Suriname",
"1930",
"Jay-Z",
"2014",
"Caucasus Emirate",
"1863",
"Ukrainian War of Independence",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
"1968",
"David Green (baseball)",
"Pope Leo VIII",
"François Migault",
"Patricia Robins",
"December 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"Tupou I Day",
"Turkey",
"1902",
"Medal of Honor",
"Rudolf Hausner",
"1817",
"Samuel Chase",
"Yeng Constantino",
"Maruthas of Martyropolis",
"1670",
"1936",
"1973",
"Andy Hess",
"1576",
"Charles Dow",
"Tomás de Morla",
"Joe Musgrove",
"Anna McGarrigle",
"Naomi Robson",
"Edmonton",
"Matabeleland",
"Jean-Marie Pfaff",
"Council of Trent",
"Gary Rossington",
"1680",
"1944",
"Thomas Bartholin",
"John Aislabie",
"Wink Martindale",
"Stefan George",
"California",
"Tonga",
"Glynis Nunn",
"Dick Ricketts",
"PNS Ghazi",
"William Sturgeon",
"Suzette M. Malveaux",
"1868",
"1506",
"749",
"1918",
"1861",
"Battle of Chosin Reservoir",
"Prime Minister of France",
"1110",
"1835",
"Sonia Pierre",
"Nicholas Ferrar",
"Jena, Louisiana",
"Terry A. Anderson",
"World War II",
"Republic of Finland",
"constitution of the People's Republic of China",
"Kingdom of Yugoslavia",
"1713",
"1960",
"2021 Semeru eruption",
"1948",
"Michel Pignolet de Montéclair",
"USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)",
"Suairlech ind Eidnén mac Ciaráin",
"Kim Do-yeon (singer)",
"Miguel Calero",
"Montreal Canadiens",
"Chinese Civil War",
"1st Grey Cup",
"Peta Hiku",
"1623",
"1945",
"Marty Riessen",
"List of Prime Ministers of France",
"1727",
"2017",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"1555",
"Premier of British Columbia",
"Shangani River",
"1980",
"Sigurd the Crusader",
"1974",
"Ulf Kirsten",
"1988",
"Jane Lubchenco",
"Fritz Löhner-Beda",
"The Observer",
"Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool",
"Corliss Williamson",
"Osmund (bishop of Salisbury)",
"Brian Vandborg",
"Betty Lennox",
"Barbórka",
"2011",
"Stephen W. Bosworth",
"Tony Todd",
"First Matabele War",
"1914",
"Kaija Udras",
"Tadahito Iguchi",
"Viktor (wrestler)",
"Jack Brooks (American politician)",
"Scott Hastings (rugby union)",
"David Daniel Davis",
"List of Prime Ministers of Spain",
"Central African Republic"
] |
8,355 |
December 3
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
915 – Pope John X crowns Berengar I of Italy as Holy Roman Emperor (probable date).
===1601–1900===
1775 – American Revolutionary War: becomes the first vessel to fly the Grand Union Flag (the precursor to the Stars and Stripes); the flag is hoisted by John Paul Jones.
1799 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Wiesloch: Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Sztáray defeats the French at Wiesloch.
1800 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden: French General Jean Victor Marie Moreau decisively defeats the Archduke John of Austria near Munich. Coupled with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte's earlier victory at Marengo, this will force the Austrians to sign an armistice and end the war.
1800 – United States presidential election: The Electoral College casts votes for president and vice president that result in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.
1818 – Illinois becomes the 21st U.S. state.
1834 – The Zollverein (German Customs Union) begins the first regular census in Germany.
1854 – Battle of the Eureka Stockade: More than 20 gold miners at Ballarat, Victoria, are killed by state troopers in an uprising over mining licences.
1859 – Nigeria's first newspaper, missionary Henry Townsend's Iwe Irohin, was published.
1881 – The first issue of Tamperean daily newspaper Aamulehti ("Morning Paper") is published.
1898 – The Duquesne Country and Athletic Club defeats an all-star collection of early football players 16–0, in what is considered to be the first all-star game for professional American football.
===1901–present===
1901 – In a State of the Union message, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt delivers a 20,000-word report to the House of Representatives asking Congress to curb the power of trusts "within reasonable limits". The speech was not delivered in person.
1904 – The Jovian moon Himalia is discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at California's Lick Observatory.
1910 – Modern neon lighting is first demonstrated by Georges Claude at the Paris Motor Show.
1912 – Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia (the Balkan League) sign an armistice with the Ottoman Empire, temporarily halting the First Balkan War. (The armistice will expire on February 3, 1913, and hostilities will resume.)
1919 – After nearly 20 years of planning and construction, including two collapses causing 89 deaths, the Quebec Bridge opens to traffic.
1920 – Following more than a month of Turkish–Armenian War, the Turkish-dictated Treaty of Alexandropol is concluded.
1925 – Final agreement is signed between the Irish Free State, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom formalizing the Partition of Ireland.
1929 – President Herbert Hoover delivers his first State of the Union message to Congress. It is presented in the form of a written message rather than a speech.
1938 – Nazi Germany issues the Decree on the Utilization of Jewish Property forcing Jews to sell real property, businesses, and stocks at below market value as part of Aryanization.
1944 – Greek Civil War: Fighting breaks out in Athens between the ELAS and government forces supported by the British Army.
1954 – Väinö Linna's war novel The Unknown Soldier (Tuntematon sotilas) is published.
1959 – The current flag of Singapore is adopted, six months after Singapore became self-governing within the British Empire.
1960 – The musical Camelot debuts at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway. It will become associated with the Kennedy administration.
1965 – Soviet Union, Space probe of the Luna program, called Luna 8, is launched, but crashes on the Moon.
1967 – At Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, a transplant team headed by Christiaan Barnard carries out the first heart transplant on a human (53-year-old Louis Washkansky).
1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: Pakistan launches a pre-emptive strike against India and a full-scale war begins.
1972 – Spantax Flight 275 crashes during takeoff from Tenerife North–Ciudad de La Laguna Airport, killing all 155 people on board.
1973 – Pioneer program: Pioneer 10 sends back the first close-up images of Jupiter.
1979 – In Cincinnati, 11 fans are suffocated in a crush for seats on the concourse outside Riverfront Coliseum before a Who concert.
1979 – Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini becomes the first Supreme Leader of Iran.
1982 – A soil sample is taken from Times Beach, Missouri, that will be found to contain 300 times the safe level of dioxin.
1984 – Bhopal disaster: A methyl isocyanate leak from a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, kills more than 3,800 people outright and injures 150,000–600,000 others (some 6,000 of whom later died from their injuries) in one of the worst industrial disasters in history.
1989 – In a meeting off the coast of Malta, U.S. President George H. W. Bush and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev release statements indicating that the Cold War between NATO and the Warsaw Pact may be coming to an end.
1992 – The Greek oil tanker Aegean Sea, carrying 80,000 tonnes of crude oil, runs aground in a storm while approaching A Coruña, Spain, and spills much of its cargo.
1992 – A test engineer for Sema Group uses a personal computer to send the world's first text message via the Vodafone network to the phone of a colleague.
1994 – Taiwan holds its first full local elections; James Soong elected as the first and only directly elected Governor of Taiwan, Chen Shui-bian became the first directly elected Mayor of Taipei, Wu Den-yih became the first directly elected Mayor of Kaohsiung.
1994 – Sony releases the PlayStation game console in Japan.
1995 – Cameroon Airlines Flight 3701 crashes on approach to Douala International Airport in Douala, Cameroon, killing 71 of the 76 people on board.
1997 – In Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, representatives from 121 countries sign the Ottawa Treaty prohibiting manufacture and deployment of anti-personnel landmines. The United States, People's Republic of China, and Russia do not sign the treaty, however.
1999 – NASA loses radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander moments before the spacecraft enters the Martian atmosphere.
1999 – In Worcester, Massachusetts, firefighters responded to a fire at the Worcester Cold Storage and Warehouse Co. facility, which takes the lives of 6 firefighters.
2005 – XCOR Aerospace makes the first crewed rocket aircraft delivery of U.S. Mail in Kern County, California.
2007 – Winter storms cause the Chehalis River to flood many cities in Lewis County, Washington, and close a portion of Interstate 5 for several days. At least eight deaths and billions of dollars in damages are blamed on the floods.
2009 – A suicide bombing at a hotel in Mogadishu, Somalia, kills 25 people, including three ministers of the Transitional Federal Government.
2012 – At least 475 people are killed after Typhoon Bopha makes landfall in the Philippines.
2014 – The Japanese space agency, JAXA, launches the space explorer Hayabusa2 from the Tanegashima Space Center on a six-year round trip mission to an asteroid to collect rock samples.
2022 – Massive power outage after Moore County substation attack, that leaves 45,000 people, without power, for five days, leading to a FBI probe.
2023 – Mount Marapi located in West Sumatra, Indonesia begins a sporadic series of eruptions. 23 people were killed, and 12 were injured.
2024 – Martial law is declared in South Korea.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
1368 – Charles VI of France (d. 1422)
1447 – Bayezid II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1512)
1483 – Nicolaus von Amsdorf, German theologian and Protestant reformer (d. 1565)
1560 – Jan Gruter, Dutch scholar and critic (d. 1627)
1590 – Daniel Seghers, Flemish Jesuit brother and painter (d. 1661)
===1601–1900===
1616 – John Wallis, English mathematician and cryptographer (d. 1703)
1684 – Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian historian and writer (d. 1754)
1722 – Hryhorii Skovoroda, Ukrainian poet, composer, and philosopher (d. 1794)
1729 – Antonio Soler, Spanish composer and theorist (d. 1783)
1730 – Mahadaji Shinde, Maratha ruler of Gwalior (d. 1794)
1755 – Gilbert Stuart, American painter (d. 1828)
1793 – Clarkson Frederick Stanfield, English painter and academic (d. 1867)
1798 – Alfred Iverson Sr., American politician (d. 1873)
1800 – France Prešeren, Slovenian poet and lawyer (d. 1849)
1810 – Louisa Susannah Cheves McCord, American author and political essayist (d. 1879)
1826 – George B. McClellan, American general and politician, 24th Governor of New Jersey (d. 1885)
1827 – Lombe Atthill, Northern Irish obstetrician and gynaecologist (d. 1910)
1833 – Carlos Finlay, Cuban epidemiologist and physician (d. 1915)
1838 – Cleveland Abbe, American meteorologist and academic (d. 1916)
1838 – Octavia Hill, English activist and author (d. 1912)
1838 – Princess Louise of Prussia (d. 1923)
1842 – Phoebe Hearst, American philanthropist and activist (d. 1919)
1842 – Charles Alfred Pillsbury, American businessman, founded the Pillsbury Company (d. 1899)
1842 – Ellen Swallow Richards, American chemist, ecologist, and educator (d. 1911)
1848 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (d. 1904)
1850 – Richard Butler, English-Australian politician, 23rd Premier of South Australia (d. 1925)
1856 – George Leake, Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Western Australia (d. 1902)
1857 – Joseph Conrad, Polish-born British novelist (d. 1924)
1857 – Mathilde Kralik, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1944)
1863 – Gussie Davis, African-American songwriter (d. 1899)
1864 – Herman Heijermans, Dutch author and playwright (d. 1924)
1867 – William John Bowser, Canadian lawyer and politician, 17th Premier of British Columbia (d. 1933)
1872 – Arthur Charles Hardy, Canadian lawyer and politician, Canadian Speaker of the Senate (d. 1962)
1872 – William Haselden, English cartoonist (d. 1953)
1875 – Max Meldrum, Scottish-Australian painter and educator (d. 1955)
1878 – Francis A. Nixon, American businessman (d. 1956)
1879 – Albert Asher, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1965)
1879 – Charles Hutchison, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949)
1879 – Kafū Nagai, Japanese author and playwright (d. 1959)
1879 – Donald Matheson Sutherland, Canadian physician and politician, 5th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 1970)
1880 – Fedor von Bock, German field marshal (d. 1945)
1883 – Anton Webern, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1945)
1884 – Rajendra Prasad, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st President of India (d. 1963)
1884 – Walther Stampfli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 50th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1965)
1886 – Manne Siegbahn, Swedish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)
1887 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, Japanese general and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990)
1891 – Thomas Farrell, American general (d. 1967)
1894 – Deiva Zivarattinam, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1975)
1895 – Anna Freud, Austrian-English psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1982)
1895 – Sheng Shicai, Chinese warlord (d. 1970)
1897 – William Gropper, American cartoonist and painter (d. 1977)
1899 – Hayato Ikeda, Japanese politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1965)
1899 – Howard Kinsey, American tennis player (d. 1966)
1900 – Bert Hawke, Australian politician, 18th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1986)
1900 – Ulrich Inderbinen, Swiss mountaineer (d. 2004)
1900 – Richard Kuhn, Austrian-German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
===1901–present===
1901 – Glenn Hartranft, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1970)
1901 – Mildred Wiley, American high jumper (d. 2000)
1902 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain and pilot (d. 1976)
1902 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (d. 1993)
1904 – Edgar Moon, Australian tennis player (d. 1976)
1905 – Les Ames, English cricketer (d. 1990)
1907 – Connee Boswell, American jazz singer (d. 1976)
1911 – Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, conductor, and academic (d. 1979)
1914 – Irving Fine, American composer and academic (d. 1962)
1918 – Abdul Haris Nasution, Indonesian general and politician, 12th Indonesian Minister of Defence (d. 2000)
1919 – Charles Lynch, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1994)
1921 – Phyllis Curtin, American soprano and academic (d. 2016)
1921 – John Doar, American lawyer and activist (d. 2014)
1922 – Len Lesser, American actor (d. 2011)
1922 – Eli Mandel, Canadian poet, critic, and academic (d. 1992)
1922 – Sven Nykvist, Swedish director and cinematographer (d. 2006)
1923 – Trevor Bailey, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2011)
1923 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian-Serbian footballer and manager (d. 2010)
1923 – Moyra Fraser, Australian-English actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2009)
1924 – John Backus, American computer scientist, led the team that developed FORTRAN (d. 2007)
1924 – Wiel Coerver, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2011)
1924 – F. Sionil José, Filipino journalist, writer and author (d. 2022)
1924 – Roberto Mieres, Argentinian race car driver and sailor (d. 2012)
1925 – Ferlin Husky, American country music singer (d. 2011)
1926 – Bob Rogers, Australian radio and television host (d. 2024)
1927 – Andy Williams, American singer (d. 2012)
1928 – Thomas M. Foglietta, American politician and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (d. 2004)
1928 – Muhammad Habibur Rahman, Indian-Bangladeshi jurist and politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2014)
1929 – John S. Dunne, American priest and theologian (d. 2013)
1930 – Jean-Luc Godard, French-Swiss director and screenwriter (d. 2022)
1934 – Abimael Guzmán, Peruvian philosopher and academic (d. 2021)
1935 – Eddie Bernice Johnson, American nurse and politician (d. 2023)
1937 – Bobby Allison, American race car driver and businessman
1937 – Morgan Llywelyn, American-Irish model and author
1938 – Jean-Claude Malépart, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989)
1938 – Sally Shlaer, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1998)
1939 – John Paul Sr., Dutch-American race car driver
1939 – David Phillips, English chemist and academic
1940 – Jeffrey R. Holland, American academic and religious leader
1942 – Mike Gibson, Northern Irish-Irish rugby player
1942 – Pedro Rocha, Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 2013)
1942 – Alice Schwarzer, German journalist and publisher, founded EMMA Magazine
1942 – David K. Shipler, American journalist and author
1943 – Joseph Franklin Ada, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Guam
1943 – J. Philippe Rushton, English-Canadian psychologist and academic (d. 2012)
1944 – Ralph McTell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1944 – Craig Raine, English poet, author, and playwright
1944 – António Variações, Portuguese musician (d. 1984)
1948 – Jan Hrubý, Czech violinist and songwriter
1948 – Maxwell Hutchinson, English architect and television host
1948 – Ozzy Osbourne, English singer-songwriter
1949 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress (d. 2017)
1949 – Mickey Thomas, American singer-songwriter
1951 – Ray Candy, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1994)
1951 – Rick Mears, American race car driver
1956 – Ewa Kopacz, Polish physician and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland
1957 – Maxim Korobov, Russian businessman and politician
1959 – Eamonn Holmes, Irish journalist and game show host
1960 – Daryl Hannah, American actress and producer
1960 – Mike Ramsey, American ice hockey player and coach
1961 – Ben Baldanza, American economist and business executive (d. 2024)
1962 – Richard Bacon, English banker, journalist, and politician
1962 – Nataliya Grygoryeva, Ukrainian hurdler
1962 – Tammy Jackson, American basketball player
1963 – Joe Lally, American singer-songwriter and bass player
1963 – Terri Schiavo, American medical patient (d. 2005)
1964 – Darryl Hamilton, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)
1965 – Andrew Stanton, American voice actor, director, producer, screenwriter
1965 – Katarina Witt, German figure skater and actress
1979 – Sean Parker, American entrepreneur and philanthropist
1980 – Anna Chlumsky, American actress
1981 – Ioannis Amanatidis, Greek footballer
1981 – Brian Bonsall, American actor and musician
1985 – László Cseh, Hungarian swimmer
1985 – Mike Randolph, American soccer player
1985 – Brian Roberts, American basketball player
1985 – Amanda Seyfried, American actress
1987 – Michael Angarano, American actor, director, and screenwriter
1987 – Erik Grönwall, Swedish singer-songwriter
1987 – Brian Robiskie, American football player
1987 – Alicia Sacramone, American gymnast
1988 – Melissa Aldana, Chilean saxophonist
1989 – Selçuk Alibaz, Turkish footballer
1989 – Alex McCarthy, English footballer
1989 – Tomasz Narkun, Polish mixed martial artist
1990 – Christian Benteke, Belgian footballer
1990 – Sharon Fichman, Canadian-Israeli tennis player
1990 – Matt Reynolds, American baseball player
1991 – Ekaterine Gorgodze, Georgian tennis player
1992 – Cristian Ceballos, Spanish footballer
1992 – Joseph McManners, English singer-songwriter, musician and actor
1994 – Jake T. Austin, American actor
1994 – Solomone Kata, New Zealand rugby league player
1994 – Bernarda Pera, American tennis player
1995 – Julius Honka, Finnish ice hockey player
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
311 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (b. 244)
649 – Birinus, French-English bishop and saint (b. 600)
860 – Abbo, bishop of Auxerre
937 – Siegfried, Frankish nobleman
978 – Abraham, Coptic pope of Alexandria
1038 – Emma of Lesum, Saxon countess and Saint
1099 – Saint Osmund (b. 1065)
1154 – Pope Anastasius IV (b. 1073)
1265 – Odofredus, Italian lawyer and jurist
1266 – Henry III the White, Duke of Wroclaw
1309 – Henry III, Duke of Głogów (b. 1251/60)
1322 – Maud Chaworth, Countess of Leicester (b. 1282)
1532 – Louis II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (b. 1502)
1533 – Vasili III of Russia (b. 1479)
1542 – Jean Tixier de Ravisi, French scholar and academic (b. 1470)
1552 – Francis Xavier, Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1506)
1592 – Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1545)
===1601–1900===
1610 – Honda Tadakatsu, Japanese general and daimyō (b. 1548)
1668 – William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Salisbury (b. 1591)
1691 – Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh, British scientist (b. 1615)
1706 – Countess Emilie Juliane of Barby-Mühlingen (b. 1637)
1752 – Henri-Guillaume Hamal, Walloon musician and composer (b. 1685)
1765 – Lord John Sackville, English cricketer and politician (b. 1713)
1789 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (b. 1714)
1815 – John Carroll, American archbishop (b. 1735)
1854 – Edward Thonen, German emigrant to Australia (b. 1827)
1876 – Samuel Cooper, American general (b. 1798)
1882 – Archibald Tait, Scottish-English archbishop (b. 1811)
1888 – Carl Zeiss, German physicist and lens maker, created the optical instrument (b. 1816)
1890 – Billy Midwinter, English-Australian cricketer (b. 1851)
1892 – Afanasy Fet, Russian author and poet (b. 1820)
1894 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, poet, and essayist (b. 1850)
===1901–present===
1902 – Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect, designed the Otago Boys' High School and Knox Church (b. 1833)
1904 – David Bratton, American water polo player (b. 1869)
1910 – Mary Baker Eddy, American religious leader and author, founded Christian Science (b. 1821)
1912 – Prudente de Morais, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Brazil (b. 1841)
1917 – Harold Garnett, English-French cricketer (b. 1879)
1919 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter and sculptor (b. 1841)
1928 – Ezra Meeker, American farmer and politician (b. 1830)
1934 – Charles James O'Donnell, Irish lawyer and politician (b. 1849)
1935 – Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (b. 1868)
1937 – William Propsting, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1861)
1941 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (b. 1883)
1949 – Maria Ouspenskaya, Russian-American actress and educator (b. 1876)
1952 – Rudolf Margolius, Czech lawyer and politician (b. 1913)
1956 – Manik Bandopadhyay, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1908)
1956 – Alexander Rodchenko, Russian sculptor, photographer, and graphic designer (b. 1891)
1967 – Harry Wismer, American football player and sportscaster (b. 1913)
1972 – William Manuel Johnson, American bassist (b. 1872)
1973 – Emile Christian, American trombonist, cornet player, and composer (b. 1895)
1973 – Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, President of Mexico, 1952-1958 (b. 1889)
1979 – Dhyan Chand, Indian field hockey player and coach (b. 1905)
1980 – Oswald Mosley, English lieutenant, fascist, and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1896)
1981 – Walter Knott, American farmer, founded Knott's Berry Farm (b. 1889)
1981 – Joel Rinne, Finnish actor (b. 1897)
1984 – Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin, Azerbaijani-Russian mathematician and academic (b. 1919)
1989 – Fernando Martín Espina, Spanish basketball player (b. 1962)
1989 – Connie B. Gay, American businessman, founded the Country Music Association (b. 1914)
1993 – Lewis Thomas, American physician, etymologist, and academic (b. 1913)
1996 – Georges Duby, French historian and author (b. 1919)
1998 – Pierre Hétu, Canadian pianist and conductor (b. 1936)
1999 – John Archer, American actor (b. 1915)
1999 – Scatman John, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1942)
1999 – Madeline Kahn, American actress, comedian, and singer (b. 1942)
1999 – Horst Mahseli, Polish footballer (b. 1934)
1999 – Jarl Wahlström, Finnish 12th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1918)
2000 – Gwendolyn Brooks, American poet and educator (b. 1917)
2000 – Hoyt Curtin, American composer and producer (b. 1922)
2002 – Adrienne Adams, American illustrator (b. 1906)
2002 – Glenn Quinn, Irish-American actor (b. 1970)
2003 – David Hemmings, English actor (b. 1941)
2003 – Sita Ram Goel, Indian historian, publisher and writer (b. 1921)
2004 – Shiing-Shen Chern, Chinese-American mathematician and academic (b. 1911)
2005 – Frederick Ashworth, American admiral (b. 1912)
2005 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (b. 1928)
2005 – Kikka Sirén, Finnish pop/schlager singer (b. 1964)
2007 – James Kemsley, Australian cartoonist and actor (b. 1948)
2008 – Robert Zajonc, Polish-American psychologist and author (b. 1923)
2009 – Leila Lopes, Brazilian actress and journalist (b. 1959)
2009 – Richard Todd, Irish-born British soldier and actor (b. 1919)
2010 – Abdumalik Bahori, Azerbaijani poet and author (b. 1927)
2011 – Dev Anand, Indian actor, director, and producer (b. 1923)
2012 – Jules Mikhael Al-Jamil, Iraqi-Lebanese archbishop (b. 1938)
2012 – Kuntal Chandra, Bangladeshi cricketer (b. 1984)
2012 – Fyodor Khitruk, Russian animator, director, and screenwriter (b. 1917)
2012 – Diego Mendieta, Paraguayan footballer (b. 1980)
2012 – Janet Shaw, Australian cyclist and author (b. 1966)
2013 – Paul Aussaresses, French general (b. 1918)
2013 – Reda Mahmoud Hafez Mohamed, Egyptian air marshal (b. 1952)
2013 – Ahmed Fouad Negm, Egyptian poet and educator (b. 1929)
2014 – Herman Badillo, Puerto Rican-American lawyer and politician (b. 1929)
2014 – Jacques Barrot, French politician, French European Commissioner (b. 1937)
2014 – Nathaniel Branden, Canadian–American psychotherapist and author (b. 1930)
2014 – Ian McLagan, English-American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (b. 1945)
2014 – James Stewart, Canadian mathematician and academic (b. 1941)
2015 – Gladstone Anderson, Jamaican singer and pianist (b. 1934)
2015 – Eevi Huttunen, Finnish speed skater (b. 1922)
2015 – Scott Weiland, American singer-songwriter (b. 1967)
2019 – Ragnar Ulstein, Norwegian journalist and war historian (b. 1920)
2024 – Mohamed Ali Yusuf, Somali politician (b. 1944)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Abbo of Auxerre
Pope Abraham of Alexandria (Coptic, 6 Koiak))
Adrian (Ethernan)
Birinus
Cassian of Tangier
Emma (of Lesum or of Bremen)
Francis Xavier
Blessed Johann Nepomuk von Tschiderer zu Gleifheim
Zephaniah
December 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Doctors' Day (Cuba)
International Day of Persons with Disabilities
|
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"2009 Hotel Shamo bombing",
"1880",
"Hal Steinbrenner",
"Thomas Farrell (general)",
"John Wallis",
"Connee Boswell",
"1888",
"Lombe Atthill",
"France Prešeren",
"László Cseh",
"Charles James O'Donnell",
"1895",
"Holy Roman Emperor",
"Sheng Shicai",
"Georges Duby",
"Ewa Kopacz",
"Daryl Hannah",
"President of India",
"Daniel Bedingfield",
"1941",
"Cold War",
"Jules Mikhael Al-Jamil",
"Gladstone Anderson",
"Store norske leksikon",
"1616",
"Darryl Hamilton",
"James Laurinaitis",
"Francis Xavier",
"Craig Raine",
"Adrian of May",
"Cornelius Griffin",
"Emile Christian",
"António Variações",
"Theodore Roosevelt",
"Jupiter",
"1867",
"Fyodor Khitruk",
"Nazi Germany",
"1949",
"Lick Observatory",
"Douala",
"1969",
"1799",
"1842",
"1934",
"Taiwan",
"1755",
"1962",
"Flemming Povlsen",
"1590",
"1912",
"President of Brazil",
"1706",
"Louis II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken",
"Sema Group",
"anti-personnel landmine",
"Jim Brewer (basketball)",
"U.S. state",
"2007",
"Selçuk Alibaz",
"Tenerife North–Ciudad de La Laguna Airport",
"1891",
"2024 South Korean martial law",
"Manny Corpas",
"Georges Claude",
"Shiing-Shen Chern",
"1957",
"Knox Church, Dunedin",
"Didot family",
"Rocket mail",
"Sharon Fichman",
"Sally Shlaer",
"Ioannis Amanatidis",
"The Who concert disaster",
"Richard Kuhn",
"Archibald Tait",
"XCOR Aerospace",
"1818",
"Harold Garnett",
"United Kingdom",
"Carlos Finlay",
"1592",
"Worcester, Massachusetts",
"Tiffany Haddish",
"Kingdom of Montenegro",
"Bert Hawke",
"1876",
"Solomone Kata",
"2004",
"West Sumatra",
"Hayabusa2",
"Franz Klammer",
"Birinus",
"1859",
"Bruno Campos",
"2022",
"Fedor von Bock",
"1929",
"Riverfront Coliseum",
"Walter Knott",
"Adolfo Ruiz Cortines",
"Sita Ram Goel",
"1752",
"Arthur Charles Hardy",
"J. Philippe Rushton",
"1798",
"crude oil",
"Joseph Franklin Ada",
"Henk Timmer (footballer)",
"1309",
"Montell Jordan",
"Alicia Sacramone",
"Ancient Diocese of Auxerre",
"Mars Polar Lander",
"Ludvig Holberg",
"neon lighting",
"December 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"Pioneer 10",
"Jaye P. Morgan",
"EMMA (magazine)",
"Henry III the White",
"Avraam Papadopoulos",
"Reda Mahmoud Hafez Mohamed",
"1995",
"Jarl Wahlström",
"Broadway theatre",
"Dhyan Chand",
"Frank Sinclair",
"Mayor of Kaohsiung",
"Afanasy Fet",
"Joseph McManners",
"Aryanization",
"Gwalior",
"Major League Baseball",
"Ozzy Osbourne",
"1884",
"Pavel Filonov",
"Anton Sztáray",
"John Paul Sr. (racing driver)",
"Speaker of the Senate (Canada)",
"1942",
"Pioneer program",
"Women's Tennis Association",
"Himalia (moon)",
"Lewis Thomas",
"Oswald Mosley",
"Somalia",
"1875",
"Howard Kinsey",
"Pedro Rocha (Uruguayan footballer)",
"WNBA",
"MC Frontalot",
"Taipei",
"Bhopal disaster",
"Herb Moford",
"Thomas Jefferson",
"Alberto Juantorena",
"Chehalis River (Washington)",
"Cuba",
"Country Music Association",
"Melissa Aldana",
"1864",
"Chen Shui-bian",
"1533",
"John Paul Jones",
"Julius Honka",
"1322",
"Honda Tadakatsu",
"Lucette Rådström",
"1900",
"Tampere",
"1800 United States presidential election",
"Tokyo",
"1905",
"Robert Lawson (architect)",
"Partition of Ireland",
"1998",
"1917",
"Phyllis Curtin",
"Don Barnes",
"Glenn Hartranft",
"1983",
"United States House of Representatives",
"1878",
"1890",
"Raul M. Gonzalez",
"Les Ames",
"Charles Alfred Pillsbury",
"Lil Baby",
"Bill Steer",
"Irina Zhuk",
"1986",
"William Shiels",
"Sven Nykvist",
"Francis A. Nixon",
"census in Germany",
"2024",
"Manik Bandopadhyay",
"Diego Mendieta",
"Hansard",
"Odofredus",
"Rajendra Prasad",
"UPI",
"Nobility",
"Henry III, Duke of Głogów",
"Jean Tixier de Ravisi",
"Malta Summit",
"Philippines",
"Joseph Conrad",
"Moyra Fraser",
"Cassian of Tangier",
"Ministry of Defence (Indonesia)",
"Prime Minister of Poland",
"David Bratton",
"First French Empire",
"Brian Roberts (basketball)",
"Cameroon",
"Tanegashima Space Center",
"Steven Culp",
"de:Museum Industriekultur (Wuppertal)",
"stocks",
"Mogadishu",
"1897",
"AD 311",
"Louis Washkansky",
"Prime Minister of Japan",
"Kaohsiung",
"F. Sionil José",
"Adam Małysz",
"Trevor Bailey",
"1955",
"Ottawa Treaty",
"1810",
"Henri-Guillaume Hamal",
"Laura Schuler",
"Supreme Leader of Iran",
"2005",
"Nataliya Grygoryeva (hurdler)",
"1901",
"Space probe",
"Mikhail Gorbachev",
"1956",
"Mike Gibson (rugby union)",
"Maud Chaworth",
"Luna program",
"NATO",
"William Haselden",
"Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh",
"Moore County substation attack",
"John Doar",
"Yves Trudeau (artist)",
"Taiwan Province",
"1882",
"Hryhorii Skovoroda",
"1991",
"Ruhollah Khomeini",
"Nobel Prize in Physics",
"1930",
"Paul Aussaresses",
"business",
"2014",
"1863",
"1968",
"1793",
"Brian Robiskie",
"Tomasz Narkun",
"Flag of the United States",
"Nicolaus von Amsdorf",
"Antonio Soler (composer)",
"Bernarda Pera",
"1266",
"1902",
"Kafū Nagai",
"Carl Zeiss",
"Mickey Thomas (singer)",
"Treaty of Lunéville",
"Iranian Revolution",
"Samuel Cooper (general)",
"1973",
"Takao Fujinami",
"Mike Randolph",
"Dekemvriana",
"Grand Union Flag",
"Feliks Kibbermann",
"Mike Stock (musician)",
"Eli Mandel",
"South Korea",
"Herbert Hoover",
"Robert Swift",
"Koiak",
"Paris Motor Show",
"JAXA",
"Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster",
"2023 eruption of Mount Marapi",
"Kern County, California",
"Indo-Pakistani War of 1971",
"Bhopal",
"1944",
"Mayor of Taipei",
"William John Bowser",
"Christian Karembeu",
"1997",
"John Carroll (bishop)",
"Aegean Sea oil spill",
"1691",
"List of Presidents of the Swiss Confederation",
"1483",
"Luna 8",
"Ezra Meeker",
"1668",
"Horst Mahseli",
"Ekaterine Gorgodze",
"Ilta-Sanomat",
"Wiel Coerver",
"1918",
"Typhoon Bopha",
"Mike Bantom",
"1911",
"Robert Louis Stevenson",
"Bayezid II",
"Zlata Filipović",
"Bram Tankink",
"Nathaniel Branden",
"Mohamed Ali Yusuf",
"Franz Josef Degenhardt",
"Douala International Airport",
"List of European Commissioners by nationality",
"Irish Free State",
"Aviation Safety Network",
"1960",
"Scott Weiland",
"1948",
"Alex McCarthy",
"Wiesloch",
"1856",
"Eevi Huttunen",
"Moons of Jupiter",
"Illinois",
"Robert Zajonc",
"Majestic Theatre (Broadway)",
"Marcus Williams (basketball, born 1985)",
"Edwin Valero",
"Pope John X",
"1857",
"Ballarat, Victoria",
"PlayStation (console)",
"1099",
"Pierre Hétu",
"William Manuel Johnson",
"1980",
"1684",
"Kuntal Chandra",
"1974",
"David Villa",
"1988",
"Great Coastal Gale of 2007",
"Abdumalik Bahori",
"Cleveland Abbe",
"Kikka Sirén",
"1789",
"Camelot (musical)",
"Wayback Machine",
"Émile Gros Raymond Nakombo",
"1775",
"Osmund (bishop of Salisbury)",
"Mark Boucher",
"Walther Stampfli",
"Maxim Korobov",
"Dev Anand",
"2011",
"James Stewart (mathematician)",
"1959",
"1610",
"1914",
"David Hemmings",
"162173 Ryugu",
"United Nations' International Day of Persons with Disabilities",
"Governor of New Jersey",
"Väinö Linna",
"1834",
"Gary Glover",
"John Backus",
"1154",
"Zephaniah",
"Mary Baker Eddy"
] |
8,356 |
December 2
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
1244 – Pope Innocent IV arrives at Lyon for the First Council of Lyon.
1409 – The University of Leipzig opens.
===1601–1900===
1697 – St Paul's Cathedral, rebuilt to the design of Sir Christopher Wren following the Great Fire of London, is consecrated.
1763 – Dedication of the Touro Synagogue, in Newport, Rhode Island, the first synagogue in what will become the United States.
1766 – Swedish parliament approves the Swedish Freedom of the Press Act and implements it as a ground law, thus being first in the world with freedom of speech.
1804 – At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of the French.
1805 – War of the Third Coalition: Battle of Austerlitz: French troops under Napoleon decisively defeat a joint Russo-Austrian force.
1823 – Monroe Doctrine: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James Monroe proclaims American neutrality in future European conflicts, and warns European powers not to interfere in the Americas.
1845 – Manifest Destiny: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James K. Polk proposes that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.
1848 – Franz Joseph I becomes Emperor of Austria.
1851 – French President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte overthrows the Second Republic.
1852 – Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French as Napoleon III.
1859 – Origins of the American Civil War: Militant abolitionist leader John Brown is hanged for his October raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia).
1865 – Alabama ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed by North Carolina, then Georgia; U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.
1867 – At Tremont Temple in Boston, British author Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the United States.
1899 – Philippine–American War: The Battle of Tirad Pass, known as the "Filipino Thermopylae", is fought.
===1901–present===
1908 – Puyi becomes Emperor of China at the age of two.
1917 – World War I: Russia and the Central Powers sign an armistice at Brest-Litovsk, and peace talks leading to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk begin.
1927 – Following 19 years of Ford Model T production, the Ford Motor Company unveils the Ford Model A as its new automobile.
1930 – Great Depression: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President Herbert Hoover proposes a $150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the economy.
1939 – New York City's LaGuardia Airport opens.
1942 – World War II: During the Manhattan Project, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
1943 – World War II: A Luftwaffe bombing raid on the harbour of Bari, Italy, sinks numerous cargo and transport ships, including the American , which is carrying a stockpile of mustard gas.
1947 – Jerusalem Riots of 1947: Arabs riot in Jerusalem in response to the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.
1949 – Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others is adopted.
1950 – Korean War: The Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River ends with a decisive Chinese victory and UN forces are completely expelled from North Korea.
1954 – Cold War: The United States Senate votes 65 to 22 to censure Joseph McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute".
1954 – The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, between the United States and Taiwan, is signed in Washington, D.C.
1956 – The Granma reaches the shores of Cuba's Oriente Province. Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and 80 other members of the 26th of July Movement disembark to initiate the Cuban Revolution.
1957 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 126 relating to the Kashmir conflict is adopted.
1961 – In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist–Leninist and that Cuba will adopt Communism.
1962 – Vietnam War: After a trip to Vietnam at the request of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield becomes the first American official to comment adversely on the war's progress.
1968 – Wien Consolidated Airlines Flight 55 crashes into Pedro Bay, Alaska, killing all 39 people on board.
1970 – The United States Environmental Protection Agency begins operations.
1971 – Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, and Umm al-Quwain form the United Arab Emirates.
1972 – Gough Whitlam is elected the 21st Prime Minister of Australia in the 1972 Australian federal election, defeating William McMahon and leading the Australian Labor Party back into office after 23 years in Opposition.
1975 – Laotian Civil War: The Pathet Lao seizes the Laotian capital of Vientiane, forces the abdication of King Sisavang Vatthana, and proclaims the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
1976 – Fidel Castro becomes President of Cuba, replacing Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado.
1977 – A Tupolev Tu-154 crashes near Benghazi, Libya, killing 59.
1980 – Salvadoran Civil War: Four American missionaries are raped and murdered by a death squad.
1982 – At the University of Utah, Barney Clark becomes the first person to receive a permanent artificial heart.
1988 – Benazir Bhutto is sworn in as Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first woman to head the government of a Muslim-majority state.
1988 – Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched on STS-27, a classified mission for the United States Department of Defense.
1989 – The Peace Agreement of Hat Yai is signed and ratified by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and the governments of Malaysia and Thailand, ending the over two-decade-long communist insurgency in Malaysia.
1990 – Space Shuttle Columbia is launched on STS-35, carrying the ASTRO-1 spacelab observatory.
1991 – Canada and Poland become the first nations to recognize the independence of Ukraine from the Soviet Union.
1992 – Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-53 for the United States Department of Defense.
1993 – Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar is shot and killed by police in Medellín.
1993 – Space Shuttle program: STS-61: NASA launches the Space Shuttle Endeavour on a mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.
1999 – The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive following the Good Friday Agreement.
2001 – Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
2015 – San Bernardino attack: Syed Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik kill 14 people and wound 22 at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernardino, California.
2016 – Thirty-six people die in a fire at a converted Oakland, California, warehouse serving as an artist collective.
2020 – Cannabis is removed from the list of most dangerous drugs of the international drug control treaty by the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
503 – Emperor Jianwen of Liang, emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty (d. 551)
1501 – Queen Munjeong, Korean queen (d. 1565)
1578 – Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and theorist (d. 1641)
1599 – Thomas Bruce, 1st Earl of Elgin, Scottish nobleman (d. 1663)
===1601–1900===
1629 – Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, Catholic cardinal (d. 1704)
1694 – William Shirley, English-American lawyer and politician, Governor of the province of Massachusetts Bay (d. 1771)
1703 – Ferdinand Konščak, Croatian missionary and explorer (d. 1759)
1738 – Richard Montgomery, Irish-American general (d. 1775)
1754 – William Cooper, American judge and politician, founded Cooperstown, New York (d. 1809)
1759 – James Edward Smith, English botanist and mycologist, founded the Linnean Society (d. 1828)
1760 – John Breckinridge, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 5th United States Attorney General (d. 1806)
1760 – Joseph Graetz, German organist, composer, and educator (d. 1826)
1798 – António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra, Portuguese magistrate and politician (d. 1895)
1810 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (d. 1892)
1811 – Jean-Charles Chapais, Canadian farmer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Agriculture (d. 1885)
1817 – Heinrich von Sybel, German historian, academic, and politician (d. 1895)
1825 – Pedro II of Brazil (d. 1891)
1827 – William Burges, English architect and designer (d. 1881)
1846 – Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French lawyer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of France (d. 1904)
1847 – Deacon White, American baseball player and manager (d. 1939)
1859 – Kateryna Melnyk-Antonovych, Ukrainian historian and archaeologist (d. 1942)
1859 – Georges Seurat, French painter (d. 1891)
1860 – Charles Studd, England cricketer and missionary (d. 1931)
1863 – Charles Edward Ringling, American businessman, co-founded the Ringling Brothers Circus (d. 1926)
1866 – Harry Burleigh, American singer-songwriter (d. 1949)
1876 – Yusuf Akçura, Tatar-Turkish activist and ideologue of Turanism (d. 1935)
1877 – Cahir Healy, Northern Irish Anti Partitionist, writer and politician (d. 1970)
1884 – Erima Harvey Northcroft, New Zealand soldier, lawyer, and judge (d. 1953)
1884 – Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, Turkish poet and author (d. 1958)
1885 – George Minot, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)
1891 – Otto Dix, German painter and illustrator (d. 1969)
1891 – Charles H. Wesley, American historian and author (d. 1987)
1894 – Warren William, American actor (d. 1948)
1895 – Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967)
1897 – Ivan Bagramyan, Russian general (d. 1982)
1897 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (d. 1987)
1898 – Indra Lal Roy, Indian lieutenant and first Indian fighter aircraft pilot (d. 1918)
1899 – John Barbirolli, English cellist and conductor (d. 1970)
1899 – John Cobb, English race car driver and pilot (d. 1952)
1899 – Ray Morehart, American baseball player (d. 1989)
1900 – Elisa Godínez Gómez de Batista, former First Lady of Cuba (d. 1993)
1900 – Herta Hammerbacher, German landscape architect and professor (d. 1985)
===1901–present===
1901 – Raimundo Orsi, Argentinian-Italian footballer (d. 1986)
1906 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (d. 1977)
1909 – Arvo Askola, Finnish runner (d. 1975)
1909 – Walenty Kłyszejko, Estonian–Polish basketball player and coach (d. 1987)
1909 – Joseph P. Lash, American activist and author (d. 1987)
1910 – Russell Lynes, American photographer, historian, and author (d. 1991)
1910 – Taisto Mäki, Finnish runner (d. 1979)
1912 – George Emmett, English cricketer and coach (d. 1976)
1913 – Marc Platt, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2014)
1914 – Bill Erwin, American actor (d. 2010)
1914 – Adolph Green, American playwright and composer (d. 2002)
1915 – Takahito, Prince Mikasa of Japan (d. 2016)
1916 – Howard Finster, American minister and painter (d. 2001)
1917 – Sylvia Syms, American singer (d. 1992)
1921 – Carlo Furno, Italian cardinal (d. 2015)
1922 – Iakovos Kambanelis, Greek author, poet, and screenwriter (d. 2011)
1923 – Maria Callas, American-Greek soprano and actress (d. 1977)
1924 – Jonathan Frid, Canadian actor (d. 2012)
1924 – Alexander Haig, American general and politician, 59th United States Secretary of State (d. 2010)
1928 – Guy Bourdin, French photographer (d. 1991)
1929 – Dan Jenkins, American journalist and author (d. 2019)
1929 – Leon Litwack, American historian and author (d. 2021)
1930 – Gary Becker, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014)
1930 – David Piper, English race car driver
1931 – Nigel Calder, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2014)
1931 – Masaaki Hatsumi, Japanese martial artist and educator, founded Bujinkan
1931 – Wynton Kelly, American pianist and composer (d. 1971)
1931 – Edwin Meese, American lawyer, 75th United States Attorney General
1940 – Willie Brown, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2019)
1941 – Mike England, Welsh footballer and manager
1941 – Tom McGuinness, English guitarist, songwriter, author, and producer
1942 – Anna G. Jónasdóttir, Icelandic political scientist and academic
1943 – Wayne Allard, American veterinarian and politician
1944 – Cathy Lee Crosby, American actress and tennis player
1962 – John Dyegh, Nigerian businessman and politician
1963 – Brendan Coyle, English actor
1968 – Darryl Kile, American baseball player (d. 2002)
1968 – Lucy Liu, American actress and producer
1968 – Nate Mendel, American singer-songwriter and bass player
1972 – Sergei Zholtok, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2004)
1973 – Graham Kavanagh, Irish footballer and manager
1973 – Monica Seles, Serbian-American tennis player
1981 – Maria Ferekidi, Greek canoe racer
1981 – Eric Jungmann, American actor
1981 – Thomas Pöck, Austrian ice hockey player
1981 – Danijel Pranjić, Croatian footballer
1981 – Britney Spears, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress
1983 – Action Bronson, American rapper, songwriter, chef, and television host
1983 – Chris Burke, Scottish footballer
1983 – Bibiana Candelas, Mexican volleyball player
1983 – Jaime Durán, Mexican footballer
1983 – Eugene Jeter, American-Ukrainian basketball player, coach, and executive
1983 – Jana Kramer, American actress and singer
1986 – Tal Wilkenfeld, Australian bass player and composer
1988 – Alfred Enoch, English actor
1990 – Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, Ghanaian footballer
1990 – Gastón Ramírez, Uruguayan footballer
1991 – Chloé Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier
1991 – Brandon Knight, American basketball player
1991 – Charlie Puth, American singer-songwriter and pianist
1992 – Gary Sánchez, Dominican baseball player
1993 – Haruka Ishida, Japanese singer and actress
1993 – Kostas Stafylidis, Greek footballer
1994 – Zach Cunningham, American football player
1994 – Aaron Jones, American football player
1994 – Elias Lindholm, Swedish ice hockey player
1994 – Fumika Shimizu, Japanese actress and model
1994 – Tomokaze Yūta, Japanese sumo wrestler
1995 – Uladzislau Hancharou, Belarusian trampolinist
1995 – Inori Minase, Japanese actress, voice actress and singer
1996 – Jake Doran, Australian cricketer
1997 – De'Andre Hunter, American basketball player
1998 – Annalise Basso, American actress
1998 – Juice Wrld, American rapper, singer and songwriter (d. 2019)
2003 – Neil Erasmus, South African-Australian footballer
2004 – Ilia Malinin, American competitive figure skater
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
537 – Pope Silverius
930 – Ma Yin, Chinese warlord, king of Chu (Ten Kingdoms) (b. 853)
949 – Odo of Wetterau, German nobleman
1022 – Elvira Menéndez, queen of Alfonso V of Castile (b. 996)
1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam
1340 – Geoffrey le Scrope, Chief Justice of King Edward III of England
1348 – Emperor Hanazono of Japan (b. 1297)
1381 – John of Ruusbroec, Flemish priest and mystic (b. 1293)
1455 – Isabel of Coimbra, queen of Portugal (b. 1432)
1463 – Albert VI, Archduke of Austria (b. 1418)
1469 – Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, Italian banker and politician (b. 1416)
1510 – Muhammad Shaybani, Khan of Bukhara (b. 1451)
1515 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general (b. 1453)
1547 – Hernán Cortés, Spanish general and explorer (b. 1485)
1594 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mathematician, cartographer, and philosopher (b. 1512)
===1601–1900===
1615 – Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, French general (b. 1541)
1665 – Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, French author (b. 1588)
1694 – Pierre Puget, French painter, sculptor, and architect (b. 1622)
1719 – Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian and author (b. 1634)
1723 – Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (b. 1674)
1726 – Samuel Penhallow, English-American historian and author (b. 1665)
1747 – Vincent Bourne, English poet and scholar (b. 1695)
1748 – Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1662)
1774 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (b. 1720)
1814 – Marquis de Sade, French philosopher, author, and politician (b. 1740)
1844 – Eustachy Erazm Sanguszko, Polish general and politician (b. 1768)
1849 – Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (b. 1792)
1859 – John Brown, American abolitionist (b. 1800)
1881 – Jenny von Westphalen, German author (b. 1814)
1885 – Allen Wright, Principal chief of the Choctaw Nation (1866–1870); proposed the name "Oklahoma", from Choctaw words okra and umma, meaning "Territory of the Red People." (b. 1826)
1888 – Namık Kemal, Turkish journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1840)
1892 – Jay Gould, American businessman and financier (b. 1836)
1899 – Gregorio del Pilar, Filipino general and politician, 1st Governor of Bulacan (b. 1875)
===1901–present===
1918 – Edmond Rostand, French poet and playwright (b. 1868)
1924 – Kazimieras Būga, Lithuanian linguist and philologist (b. 1879)
1927 – Paul Heinrich von Groth, German scientist who systematically classified minerals and founded the journal Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie (b. 1843)
1931 – Vincent d'Indy, French composer and educator (b. 1851)
1936 – John Ringling, American businessman, co-founded Ringling Brothers Circus (b. 1866)
1943 – Nordahl Grieg, Norwegian journalist and author (b. 1902)
1944 – Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist and educator (b. 1874)
1944 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Egyptian-Italian poet and composer (b. 1876)
1944 – Eiji Sawamura, Japanese baseball player and soldier (b. 1917)
1950 – Dinu Lipatti, Romanian pianist and composer (b. 1917)
1953 – Reginald Baker, Australian rugby player (b. 1884)
1953 – Trần Trọng Kim, Vietnamese historian, scholar, and politician, Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1883)
1957 – Harrison Ford, American actor (b. 1884)
1957 – Manfred Sakel, Ukrainian-American neurophysiologist and psychiatrist (b. 1902)
1966 – L. E. J. Brouwer, Dutch mathematician and philosopher (b. 1881)
1966 – Giles Cooper, Irish author, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1918)
1967 – Francis Spellman, American cardinal (b. 1889).
1969 – José María Arguedas, Peruvian anthropologist, author, and poet (b. 1911)
1969 – Kliment Voroshilov, Ukrainian-Russian marshal and politician, 3rd Head of State of The Soviet Union (b. 1881)
1974 – Sylvi Kekkonen, Finnish writer and wife of President of Finland Urho Kekkonen (b. 1900)
1974 – Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1897)
1976 – Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)
1980 – Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1905)
1980 – Romain Gary, Lithuanian-French author, director, and screenwriter (b. 1914)
1981 – Wallace Harrison, American architect, co-founded Harrison & Abramovitz (b. 1895)
1982 – Marty Feldman, English actor and comedian (b. 1934)
1982 – Giovanni Ferrari, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1907)
1983 – Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian-American actress and singer (b. 1904)
1985 – Philip Larkin, English poet, author, and librarian (b. 1922)
1986 – Desi Arnaz, Cuban-American actor, singer, businessman, and television producer (b. 1917)
1986 – John Curtis Gowan, American psychologist and academic (b. 1912)
1987 – Luis Federico Leloir, French-Argentinian physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
1987 – Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, Belarusian physicist, astronomer, and cosmologist (b. 1914)
1988 – Karl-Heinz Bürger, German colonel (b. 1904)
1988 – Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1922)
1990 – Aaron Copland, American composer and conductor (b. 1900)
1990 – Robert Cummings, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1908)
1993 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord (b. 1949)
1995 – Robertson Davies, Canadian author, playwright, and critic (b. 1913)
1995 – Roxie Roker, American actress (b. 1929)
1995 – Mária Telkes, Hungarian–American biophysicist and chemist (b. 1900)
1997 – Shirley Crabtree, English wrestler (b. 1930)
1997 – Michael Hedges, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1953)
1999 – Charlie Byrd, American guitarist (b. 1925)
2000 – Gail Fisher, American actress (b. 1935)
2002 – Ivan Illich, Austrian priest and philosopher (b. 1926)
2002 – Arno Peters, German cartographer and historian (b. 1916)
2003 – Alan Davidson, British soldier, historian, and author (b. 1924)
2004 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (b. 1910)
2004 – Mona Van Duyn, American poet and academic (b. 1921)
2005 – William P. Lawrence, American admiral and pilot (b. 1930)
2005 – Van Tuong Nguyen, Australian convicted drug trafficker (b. 1980)
2006 – Mariska Veres, Dutch singer (b. 1947)
2007 – Jennifer Alexander, Canadian-American ballerina and actress (b. 1972)
2007 – Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic, novelist, and short story writer (b. 1916)
2008 – Odetta, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (b. 1930)
2008 – Henry Molaison, American memory disorder patient (b. 1926)
2008 – Edward Samuel Rogers, Canadian lawyer and businessman (b. 1933)
2008 – Renato de Grandis, Italian composer, musicologist, and writer (b. 1927)
2009 – Foge Fazio, American football player and coach (b. 1938)
2009 – Eric Woolfson, Scottish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b. 1945)
2012 – Tom Hendry, Canadian playwright, co-founded the Manitoba Theatre Centre (b. 1929)
2012 – Ehsan Naraghi, Iranian sociologist and author (b. 1926)
2013 – William Allain, American soldier and politician, 58th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1928)
2013 – Jean-Claude Beton, Algerian-French engineer and businessman, founded Orangina (b. 1925)
2013 – Marcelo Déda, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1960)
2013 – Junior Murvin, Jamaican singer-songwriter (b. 1946)
2014 – A. R. Antulay, Indian lawyer and politician, 8th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b. 1929)
2014 – Jean Béliveau, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1931)
2014 – Josie Cichockyj, English basketball player and coach (b. 1964)
2014 – Bobby Keys, American saxophonist (b. 1943)
2014 – Don Laws, American figure skater and coach (b. 1929)
2015 – Sandy Berger, American lawyer and politician, 19th United States National Security Advisor (b. 1945)
2015 – Will McMillan, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1944)
2015 – George T. Sakato, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1921)
2020 – Pat Patterson, American wrestler (b. 1941)
2024 – Ed Botterell, Canadian Olympic sailor (b. 1931)
2024 – Helmut Duckadam, Romanian footballer (b. 1959)
2024 – Neale Fraser, Australian tennis player (b. 1933)
2024 – Paul Maslansky, American film producer and writer (b. 1933)
2024 – Debbie Mathers, Mother of Eminem (b. 1955)
2024 – Israel Vázquez, Mexican boxer (b. 1977)
==Holidays and observances==
Armed Forces Day (Cuba)
Christian feast day:
Avitus of Rouen
Bibiana
Channing Moore Williams (Anglicanism)
Chromatius
Habakkuk (Eastern Orthodox)
December 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
International Day for the Abolition of Slavery (United Nations)
Lao National Day
National Day (United Arab Emirates)
|
[
"Ford Model T",
"Emperor of Austria",
"1940",
"1921",
"13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution",
"Raimundo Orsi",
"James Edward Smith (botanist)",
"Great Depression",
"1463",
"Leon Litwack",
"Ma Yin",
"Khan (title)",
"Toninho Horta",
"1594",
"1982",
"1615",
"Good Friday Agreement",
"XXL (magazine)",
"Giovanni Ferrari",
"1244",
"Enrico Fermi",
"Emirate of Sharjah",
"Steven Bauer",
"Michael McIndoe",
"The Plain Dealer",
"1899",
"Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg",
"1255",
"Tommy Jenkins",
"LaGuardia Airport",
"Harry Reid",
"Fifi D'Orsay",
"Lucy Liu",
"Nigel Calder",
"President of Kosovo",
"1910",
"Siyabonga Nomvethe",
"State of the Union address",
"Henry Yesler",
"Thomas Pöck",
"Julie Harris (actress)",
"Namık Kemal",
"Giles Cooper (playwright)",
"Ray Morehart",
"United Nations Command",
"Erima Harvey Northcroft",
"Queen Munjeong",
"António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra",
"Gary Becker",
"Filippo Tommaso Marinetti",
"STS-27",
"Bari",
"2015",
"1924",
"Vincent Cronin",
"Philippine–American War",
"Maria Callas",
"Pablo Escobar",
"National Hockey League",
"Philippe II, Duke of Orléans",
"503",
"Samuel Penhallow",
"1898",
"Origins of the American Civil War",
"List of Prime Ministers of Vietnam",
"Willie Brown (American football)",
"1759",
"2020",
"Jan Ullrich",
"Che Guevara",
"Puyi",
"Saint Bibiana",
"Partitionism",
"1881",
"Notre Dame Cathedral",
"Austrian Empire",
"Adam Kreek",
"Alicia Markova",
"1928",
"1915",
"1981",
"1977 Libyan Arab Airlines Tu-154 crash",
"2008",
"Ibrahim Rugova",
"Taisto Mäki",
"Keith Szarabajka",
"1946",
"Michael Hedges",
"Josef Lhévinne",
"drug lord",
"Kateryna Melnyk-Antonovych",
"1950",
"memory disorder",
"Alfred Enoch",
"Takahito, Prince Mikasa",
"Wynton Kelly",
"feast day",
"North Korea",
"United States Secretary of State",
"Cooperstown, New York",
"1979",
"Pathet Lao",
"1510",
"Daniela Ruah",
"Israel Vázquez",
"Marty Feldman",
"Granma (yacht)",
"1980 murders of U.S. missionaries in El Salvador",
"Joseph P. Lash",
"1994",
"Andrew George (politician)",
"Alfonso V of Castile",
"Jennifer Alexander",
"Lord President of the Council",
"Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset",
"United States Attorney General",
"1906",
"1972",
"2016",
"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine",
"1916",
"Deb Haaland",
"Shadow Secretary of State for Transport",
"1766",
"Manhattan Project",
"1943",
"William Allain",
"United Nations",
"Ford Model A (1927–1931)",
"1954",
"Gary Sánchez",
"Manfred Sakel",
"Dagfinn Høybråten",
"Emperor of the French",
"Rick Savage",
"Associated Press",
"537",
"1860",
"Mike Larrabee",
"1515",
"Peter Moylan",
"William Cooper (judge)",
"1852",
"1501",
"Zach Cunningham",
"United States Department of Defense",
"Liang dynasty",
"1851",
"United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine",
"Randy Gardner (figure skater)",
"Debbie Mathers",
"1811",
"1977",
"William Burges",
"Elvira Menéndez (died 1022)",
"1848",
"Josie Cichockyj",
"Nobel Prize in Chemistry",
"First Council of Lyon",
"1947",
"Governor of Bulacan",
"Colombia",
"John Cobb (racing driver)",
"Mike Mansfield",
"Edmond Rostand",
"Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences",
"Mariska Veres",
"Prime Minister of Australia",
"Paul Watson",
"John F. Kennedy",
"Mária Telkes",
"1922",
"Inori Minase",
"Luis Federico Leloir",
"Nelly Furtado",
"Don Laws",
"The New York Times",
"Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba",
"Pierre Puget",
"Silk Smitha",
"949",
"1931",
"1992",
"Laos",
"Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet",
"Annalise Basso",
"2013",
"Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)",
"Hubble Space Telescope",
"Tal Wilkenfeld",
"1953",
"Communism",
"Alexander Haig",
"1933",
"Northern Ireland",
"Joseph Graetz",
"Inland Regional Center",
"Rewi Alley",
"Secretary of State for Canada",
"Darryl Kile",
"Maria Ferekidi",
"2015 San Bernardino attack",
"Anna Kalinskaya",
"Indra Lal Roy",
"De'Andre Hunter",
"1825",
"1665",
"artificial heart",
"Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu",
"Medellín",
"Ehsan Naraghi",
"Luigi Malafronte",
"Johann Friedrich Agricola",
"Piero di Cosimo de' Medici",
"Edwin Meese",
"Russian Empire",
"1935",
"Hernán Cortés",
"1970",
"Kelefa Diallo",
"Odo of Wetterau",
"2009",
"Pedro II of Brazil",
"1723",
"Salvadoran Civil War",
"Minister for Health (Australia)",
"John Barbirolli",
"1985",
"Fumika Shimizu",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Marcelo Déda",
"Peter Blakeley",
"1990",
"Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado",
"Soviet Union",
"Isaac Bitton",
"Carol Shea-Porter",
"Jaime Durán",
"1972 Australian federal election",
"Peter Carl Goldmark",
"Joel Ward (ice hockey)",
"Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon",
"Matteo Darmian",
"1703",
"Air raid on Bari",
"1961",
"Kliment Voroshilov",
"1966",
"French Second Republic",
"World War I",
"Flight Safety Foundation",
"Vladimir Parfenovich",
"mustard gas",
"Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs",
"Space Shuttle Discovery",
"1469",
"Coronation of Napoleon",
"1999",
"1925",
"Alan Henderson",
"Geoffrey le Scrope",
"Vietnam",
"Bujinkan",
"1978",
"Tarcisio Bertone",
"President of Cuba",
"Cuban Revolution",
"930",
"1877",
"Alan Thomson (cricketer)",
"Francesco Toldo",
"John Ringling",
"Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty",
"1965",
"Yvonne Catterfeld",
"Boston",
"1987",
"Jean-Claude Beton",
"Lieutenant Governor of Nevada",
"Vincent Bourne",
"1814",
"Marquis de Sade",
"1892",
"1939",
"Elizabeth Berg (author)",
"1804",
"Reginald Baker (sportsman)",
"artist collective",
"Ivan Atanassov Petrov",
"Tomokaze Yūta",
"Jason Collins",
"Péter Máté (footballer, born 1984)",
"George Minot",
"2002",
"Kazimieras Būga",
"2001",
"Emperor Jianwen of Liang",
"1827",
"Mayor of Auckland City",
"Aaron Jones (running back)",
"Cathy Lee Crosby",
"David Macaulay",
"Elias Lindholm",
"1993",
"Pat Patterson (wrestler)",
"ESPN",
"Wilson Jermaine Heredia",
"Robert Turbin",
"1754",
"Mark Kotsay",
"1748",
"Jenny von Westphalen",
"Tata Giacobetti",
"Rachel McQuillan",
"2003",
"George T. Sakato",
"Sisavang Vatthana",
"Ralph Beard",
"1976",
"Manohar Joshi",
"Nate Mendel",
"Alan Davidson (food writer)",
"Edward Samuel Rogers",
"Governor of Mississippi",
"Pope Innocent IV",
"Pasquier Quesnel",
"Razzle (musician)",
"2012",
"Ron Sutter",
"Jüri Reinvere",
"Chris Burke (footballer)",
"1763",
"Marc Platt (dancer)",
"Mary Creagh",
"1547",
"Korean War",
"Abdul Razzaq (cricketer)",
"Brandon Knight (basketball)",
"Dorell Wright",
"1697",
"Umm al-Quwain",
"Battle of Tirad Pass",
"Maksim Tarasov",
"National Day (United Arab Emirates)",
"Space Shuttle Atlantis",
"1989",
"Battle of Austerlitz",
"2000",
"Harriet Cohen",
"1927",
"Deacon White",
"Herta Hammerbacher",
"1967",
"George Saunders",
"San Bernardino, California",
"Otto Dix",
"David Batty",
"Jana Kramer",
"NASA",
"Cassie Steele",
"1971",
"Chris Kiwomya",
"1952",
"Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik",
"Jean Béliveau",
"T. Coraghessan Boyle",
"1894",
"Haruka Ishida",
"Mine Yoshizaki",
"Penelope Spheeris",
"Will McMillan (actor)",
"1984",
"Emirate of Abu Dhabi",
"Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich",
"Yusuf Akçura",
"Shane Flanagan",
"Helmut Duckadam",
"Jerusalem Riots of 1947",
"Monica Seles",
"1845",
"Urho Kekkonen",
"Sandy Berger",
"Sim Bhullar",
"National Basketball Association",
"1923",
"1937",
"Wallace Harrison",
"Ed Botterell",
"Vietnam War",
"1913",
"1996",
"Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie",
"1963",
"Van Tuong Nguyen",
"1578",
"University of Utah",
"Napoleon Bonaparte: An Intimate Biography",
"1975",
"Francis Spellman",
"1844",
"Arvo Askola",
"Ajman",
"William P. Lawrence",
"Neale Fraser",
"Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)",
"John Banks (New Zealand politician)",
"United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs",
"Space Shuttle Endeavour",
"1958",
"1888",
"Northern Ireland Executive",
"1895",
"Ford Motor Company",
"Vincent d'Indy",
"1941",
"Patricia Hewitt",
"Gregorio del Pilar",
"Franz Joseph I of Austria",
"Nordahl Grieg",
"L. E. J. Brouwer",
"Sylvi Kekkonen",
"National Security Advisor (United States)",
"George Emmett",
"1908",
"William McMahon",
"December 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"Tom Hendry",
"Minister of Health and Care Services",
"Secretary of State for Health",
"Junior Murvin",
"1867",
"Charlie Puth",
"1949",
"1348",
"1823",
"List of heads of state of the Soviet Union",
"Charles Edward Ringling",
"Thomas Bruce, 1st Earl of Elgin",
"Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen",
"Internet Archive",
"Orangina",
"1969",
"John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry",
"1934",
"Taiwan",
"1962",
"Allen Wright",
"Muhammad Shaybani",
"1912",
"Chicago Pile-1",
"Sea Shepherd Conservation Society",
"Britney Spears",
"Else Marie Pade",
"Desi Arnaz",
"John Curtis Gowan",
"2007",
"Linnean Society",
"List of colonial governors of Massachusetts",
"1891",
"1885",
"Gail Fisher",
"1957",
"Warren William",
"Barney Clark (patient)",
"Muhammad III of Alamut",
"John Brown (abolitionist)",
"William Shirley",
"John of Ruusbroec",
"1022",
"American National Biography",
"Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others",
"Ann Patchett",
"Lyon",
"Eustachy Erazm Sanguszko",
"Shirley Crabtree",
"Pope Silverius",
"Adolph Green",
"Jarron Collins",
"Christos Karipidis",
"1849",
"Benghazi",
"Napoleon",
"Napoleon III",
"John Dyegh",
"Renee Montgomery",
"Renato de Grandis",
"Anglicanism",
"1876",
"Howard Finster",
"Foge Fazio",
"Tanya Plibersek",
"Rena Sofer",
"Karl-Heinz Bürger",
"2004",
"Malayan Communist Party",
"James Monroe",
"A. R. Antulay",
"1859",
"1929",
"Darryn Randall",
"Eric Woolfson",
"1798",
"1409",
"Laotian Civil War",
"McCarthyism",
"Peter Harding (RAF officer, born 1933)",
"Dinu Lipatti",
"Albert VI, Archduke of Austria",
"Bobby Keys",
"Jonathan Frid",
"Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River",
"Elisa Godínez Gómez de Batista",
"Manifest destiny",
"spacelab",
"Joseph McCarthy",
"Max Weber (Swiss politician)",
"Fujairah",
"Carlo Furno",
"Tom McGuinness (musician)",
"1774",
"Enron scandal",
"Armed Forces Day (Cuba)",
"1995",
"Georges Seurat",
"Aaron Copland",
"Eric Jungmann",
"Dan Jenkins",
"Isabel of Coimbra",
"1726",
"Mayor of Seattle",
"1747",
"Major League Baseball",
"1738",
"1884",
"Mona Van Duyn",
"John Wesley Ryles",
"Charles Dickens",
"Gough Whitlam",
"Eiji Sawamura",
"1942",
"Women's Tennis Association",
"University of Leipzig",
"Charles H. Wesley",
"Channing Moore Williams",
"1805",
"Charlie Byrd",
"1909",
"1760",
"Juice Wrld",
"Wien Consolidated Airlines Flight 55",
"WNBA",
"Uladzislau Hancharou",
"Ulrika Bergquist",
"Maëlle Ricker",
"Dubai",
"Joe Lo Truglio",
"Fidel Castro",
"Cuba",
"2006",
"STS-61",
"1629",
"1900",
"1865",
"Philip Larkin",
"Cahir Healy",
"1998",
"Romain Gary",
"1917",
"Removal of cannabis and cannabis resin from Schedule IV of the Single Convention on narcotic drugs, 1961",
"1866",
"Dan Butler",
"1381",
"Bill Erwin",
"Ivan Illich",
"1983",
"Anna G. Jónasdóttir",
"Gianni Versace",
"Robert Cummings",
"Gerardus Mercator",
"1986",
"Jiří Dopita",
"Ringling Brothers Circus",
"Neil Erasmus",
"St Paul's Cathedral",
"Abolitionism in the United States",
"Gareth Wigan",
"Manitoba Theatre Centre",
"David Hackett Fischer",
"2024",
"Choctaw Nation",
"Jerusalem",
"Sergei Zholtok",
"UPI",
"Touro Synagogue",
"Odetta",
"Australian Labor Party",
"Arno Peters",
"Paul Heinrich von Groth",
"Harrison Ford (silent film actor)",
"Prime Minister of Pakistan",
"26th of July Movement",
"Great Fire of London",
"Masaaki Hatsumi",
"Cannabis (drug)",
"1897",
"Versace",
"José María Arguedas",
"Roxie Roker",
"Oakland, California",
"United States Senate",
"Ilia Malinin",
"Gastón Ramírez",
"1810",
"Amaury Leveaux",
"Charles Studd",
"Christopher Wolstenholme",
"David Piper (racing driver)",
"Russell Lynes",
"2005",
"Claudiu Keșerü",
"1340",
"Andrew Ryan (rugby league)",
"1901",
"Alabama",
"Elizabeth Hardwick (writer)",
"1956",
"Vientiane",
"Francis Fox",
"U.S. Senate Majority Leader",
"Space Shuttle Columbia",
"Ukraine",
"Enron",
"United Nations Security Council Resolution 126",
"Space Shuttle program",
"Jinsei Shinzaki",
"1991",
"Chloé Dufour-Lapointe",
"1930",
"Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling",
"Emperor Hanazono",
"Danny Murtaugh",
"Avitianus",
"2014",
"1968",
"1863",
"Sayyid",
"Yael Dayan",
"Wayne Allard",
"2016 Oakland warehouse fire",
"Kostas Stafylidis",
"Harry Burleigh",
"Peace Agreement of Hat Yai (1989)",
"Bibiana Candelas",
"Yahya Kemal Beyatlı",
"Emperor of China",
"1817",
"Medal of Honor",
"Trần Trọng Kim",
"1846",
"Marxism–Leninism",
"1936",
"1973",
"Guy Bourdin",
"Mike England",
"Swedish Freedom of the Press Act",
"Chaudhry Muhammad Ali",
"Chu (Ten Kingdoms)",
"1694",
"Walenty Kłyszejko",
"Jay Gould",
"Vilgot Sjöman",
"Herbert Hoover",
"Newport, Rhode Island",
"1847",
"Jean-Charles Chapais",
"1719",
"Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar",
"Habakkuk",
"Brendan Coyle",
"Paul Maslansky",
"1944",
"Matt Walsh (basketball)",
"1997",
"Tupolev Tu-154",
"Action Bronson",
"James K. Polk",
"Rich Sutter",
"Ivan Bagramyan",
"Robertson Davies",
"Etta Bond",
"Chromatius",
"John Breckinridge (U.S. Attorney General)",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Minister of Agriculture (Canada)",
"Iakovos Kambanelis",
"Harpers Ferry, Virginia",
"Danijel Pranjić",
"1918",
"Prime Minister of France",
"International Day for the Abolition of Slavery",
"Kashmir conflict",
"World War II",
"1455",
"Tremont Temple",
"Pavel Loskutov",
"Christopher Wren",
"United Arab Emirates",
"1948",
"1960",
"Henry Molaison",
"Chief Minister of Maharashtra",
"Graham Kavanagh",
"Monroe Doctrine",
"Agostino Agazzari",
"Richard Montgomery",
"Lao National Day",
"Oriente Province",
"Stephen McGinn",
"United States Secretary of the Interior",
"Bukhara",
"Sylvia Syms (singer)",
"1945",
"Harrison & Abramovitz",
"Song Ha-yoon",
"Amin Saikal",
"Masafumi Gotoh",
"Brest-Litovsk",
"1980",
"Antonín Panenka",
"1988",
"1974",
"Lee Steele",
"Pedro Bay, Alaska",
"STS-35",
"War of the Third Coalition",
"David Rivas",
"Ferdinand Konščak",
"United States Environmental Protection Agency",
"Benjamin Stora",
"STS-53",
"Jake Doran",
"1599",
"Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau",
"Dionysis Savvopoulos",
"1959",
"1914",
"Heinrich von Sybel",
"Botho Strauß",
"Eugene Jeter",
"Treach",
"Aaron Rodgers",
"Benazir Bhutto",
"Philippe Etchebest"
] |
8,357 |
December 1
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
800 – A council is convened in the Vatican, at which Charlemagne is to judge the accusations against Pope Leo III.
1420 – Henry V of England enters Paris alongside his father-in-law King Charles VI of France.
1577 – Courtiers Christopher Hatton and Thomas Heneage are knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England.
===1601–1900===
1640 – End of the Iberian Union: Portugal acclaims as King João IV of Portugal, ending 59 years of personal union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain and the end of the rule of the Philippine Dynasty.
1662 – Diarist John Evelyn records skating on the frozen lake in St James's Park, London, watched by Charles II and Queen Catherine.
1768 – The former slave ship Fredensborg sinks off Tromøya in Norway.
1821 – José Núñez de Cáceres wins the independence of the Dominican Republic from Spain and names the new territory the Republic of Spanish Haiti.
1822 – Pedro I is crowned Emperor of Brazil.
1824 – United States presidential election: Since no candidate received a majority of the total electoral college votes in the election, the United States House of Representatives is given the task of deciding the winner in accordance with the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
1828 – Argentine general Juan Lavalle makes a coup against governor Manuel Dorrego, beginning the Decembrist revolution.
1834 – Slavery is abolished in the Cape Colony in accordance with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.
1862 – American Civil War: In his second State of the Union Address, President Abraham Lincoln reaffirms the necessity of ending slavery as ordered ten weeks earlier in the Emancipation Proclamation.
1865 – Shaw University, the first historically black university in the southern United States, is founded in Raleigh, North Carolina.
1878 – President Rutherford B. Hayes gets the first telephone installed in the White House.
1900 – Nicaragua sells canal rights to U.S. for $5 million. The canal agreement fails in March 1901. Great Britain rejects amended treaty
===1901–present===
1913 – The Buenos Aires Metro, the first underground railway system in the Southern Hemisphere and in Latin America, begins operation.
1913 – Crete, having obtained self rule from Turkey after the First Balkan War, is annexed by Greece.
1918 – Transylvania unites with Romania, following the incorporation of Bessarabia (March 27) and Bukovina (November 28) and thus concluding the Great Union.
1918 – Iceland becomes a sovereign state, yet remains a part of the Danish kingdom.
1918 – The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is proclaimed.
1919 – Lady Astor becomes the first female Member of Parliament (MP) to take her seat in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. (She had been elected to that position on November 28.)
1924 – The National Hockey League's first United States–based franchise, the Boston Bruins, plays their first game in league play at home, at the still-extant Boston Arena indoor hockey facility.
1924 – A Soviet-backed communist 1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt fails in Estonia.
1934 – Sergei Kirov is assassinated, paving way for the repressive Great Purge, and Vinnytsia massacre by General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin.
1939 – World War II: A day after the beginning of the Winter War in Finland, the Cajander III Cabinet resigns and is replaced by the Ryti I Cabinet, while the Finnish Parliament move from Helsinki to Kauhajoki to escape the Soviet airstrikes.
1939 – The Soviet Union establishes the Finnish Democratic Republic puppet state in Terijoki.
1941 – World War II: Emperor Hirohito of Japan gives his tacit approval to the decision of the imperial council to initiate war against the United States.
1941 – World War II: Fiorello La Guardia, Mayor of New York City and Director of the Office of Civilian Defense, signs Administrative Order 9, creating the Civil Air Patrol.
1952 – The New York Daily News reports the news of Christine Jorgensen, the first notable case of sex reassignment surgery.
1955 – American Civil Rights Movement: In Montgomery, Alabama, seamstress Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's racial segregation laws, an incident which leads to that city's bus boycott.
1958 – The Central African Republic attains self-rule within the French Union.
1958 – The Our Lady of the Angels School fire in Chicago kills 92 children and three nuns.
1959 – Cold War: Opening date for signature of the Antarctic Treaty, which sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on the continent.
1960 – Patrice Lumumba is arrested by Mobutu Sese Seko's men on the banks of the Sankuru River, for inciting the army to rebellion.
1963 – Nagaland, became the 16th state of India.
1964 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb North Vietnam.
1969 – Vietnam War: The first draft lottery in the United States is held since World War II.
1971 – Cambodian Civil War: Khmer Rouge rebels intensify assaults on Cambodian government positions, forcing their retreat from Kompong Thmar and nearby Ba Ray.
1971 – Purge of Croatian Spring leaders starts in Yugoslavia at the meeting of the League of Communists at the Karađorđevo estate.
1973 – Papua New Guinea gains self-government from Australia.
1974 – TWA Flight 514, a Boeing 727, crashes northwest of Dulles International Airport, killing all 92 people on board.
1974 – Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 6231, another Boeing 727, crashes northwest of John F. Kennedy International Airport.
1981 – Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308, a McDonnell Douglas MD-80, crashes in Corsica, killing all 180 people on board.
1984 – NASA conducts the Controlled Impact Demonstration, wherein an airliner is deliberately crashed in order to test technologies and gather data to help improve survivability of crashes.
1988 – World AIDS Day is proclaimed worldwide by the UN member states.
1988 – Benazir Bhutto, is named as the Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first female leader to lead a Muslim nation.
1989 – Philippine coup attempt: The right-wing military rebel Reform the Armed Forces Movement attempts to oust Philippine President Corazon Aquino in a failed bloody coup d'état.
1989 – Cold War: East Germany's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the Communist Party the leading role in the state.
1990 – Channel Tunnel sections started from the United Kingdom and France meet beneath the seabed.
1991 – Cold War: Ukrainian voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the Soviet Union.
1997 – In the Indian state of Bihar, Ranvir Sena attacks the CPI (ML) Party Unity stronghold Lakshmanpur-Bathe, killing 63 lower caste people.
1997 – Fourteen-year-old Michael Carneal opens fire at a group of students in Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky, killing three and injuring five.
2000 – Vicente Fox Quesada is inaugurated as the president of Mexico, marking the first peaceful transfer of executive federal power to an opposing political party following a free and democratic election in Mexico's history.
2001 – The United Russia political party was founded.
2005 – As a result of the merger of the Perm Oblast and the Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug, a new subject of the Russian Federation, the Perm Krai, was created.
2006 – The law on same-sex marriage comes into force in South Africa, legalizing same-sex marriage for the first time on the African continent.
2009 – The Treaty of Lisbon entered into force in the European Union.
2011 – The Alma-Ata Metro was opened.
2018 – The Oulu Police informed the public about the first offence of the much larger child sexual exploitation in Oulu, Finland.
2019 – Arsenal Women 11–1 Bristol City Women breaks the record for most goals scored in a FA Women's Super League match, with Vivianne Miedema involved in ten of the eleven Arsenal goals.
2019 – The outbreak of coronavirus infection began in Wuhan.
2020 – The Arecibo Telescope collapsed.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
624 – Hasan ibn Ali, the second Shia Imam (d. 670)
1081 – Louis VI, French king (d. 1137)
1083 – Anna Komnene, Byzantine physician and scholar (d. 1153)
1415 – Jan Długosz, Polish historian (d. 1480)
1438 – Peter II, Duke of Bourbon, son of Charles I (d. 1503)
1443 – Magdalena of France, French princess (d. 1495)
1521 – Takeda Shingen, Japanese daimyō (d. 1573)
1525 – Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (d. 1600)
1530 – Bernardino Realino, Italian Jesuit (d. 1616)
1561 – Sophie Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess consort of Pomerania-Wolgast (d. 1631)
1580 – Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, French astronomer and historian (d. 1637)
===1601–1900===
1690 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (d. 1764)
1709 – Franz Xaver Richter, Czech composer, violinist, and conductor (d. 1789)
1716 – Étienne Maurice Falconet, French sculptor (d. 1791)
1743 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist and academic (d. 1817)
1761 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (d. 1850)
1792 – Nikolai Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician and geometer (d. 1856)
1800 – Mihály Vörösmarty, Hungarian poet (d. 1855)
1805 – 9th Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leader (d. 1815)
1844 – Alexandra of Denmark (d. 1925)
1846 – Ledi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (d. 1923)
1847 – Julia A. Moore, American poet (d. 1920)
1855 – John Evans, English-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1943)
1869 – Eligiusz Niewiadomski, Polish painter and critic (d. 1923)
1871 – Archie MacLaren, English cricketer (d. 1944)
1883 – Henry Cadbury, American historian, scholar, and academic (d. 1974)
1884 – Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, German painter and etcher (d. 1976)
1886 – Rex Stout, American detective novelist (d. 1975)
1886 – Zhu De, Chinese general and politician, 1st Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976)
1894 – Afrânio Pompílio Gastos do Amaral, Brazilian herpetologist (d. 1982)
1895 – Henry Williamson, English farmer, soldier, and author (d. 1977)
1896 – Georgy Zhukov, Russian general and politician, 2nd Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (d. 1974)
1898 – Stuart Garson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Manitoba (d. 1977)
1898 – Cyril Ritchard, Australian-American actor and singer (d. 1977)
1900 – Karna Maria Birmingham, Australian artist, illustrator and print maker (d. 1987)
===1901–present===
1901 – Ilona Fehér, Hungarian-Israeli violinist and educator (d. 1988)
1903 – Nikolai Voznesensky, Soviet economic planner, member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1950)
1905 – Alex Wilson, Canadian sprinter and coach (d. 1994)
1910 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (d. 2004)
1911 – Walter Alston, American baseball player and manager (d. 1984)
1911 – Calvin Griffith, Canadian-American businessman (d. 1999)
1912 – Billy Raimondi, American baseball player (d. 2010)
1912 – Minoru Yamasaki, American architect, designed the World Trade Center (d. 1986)
1913 – Mary Martin, American actress and singer (d. 1990)
1916 – Wan Li, Chinese educator and politician, 4th Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 2015)
1917 – Thomas Hayward, American tenor and actor (d. 1995)
1917 – Marty Marion, American baseball player and manager (d. 2011)
1920 – Peter Baptist Tadamaro Ishigami, Japanese priest, 1st Bishop of Naha (d. 2014)
1921 – Vernon McGarity, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013)
1922 – Vsevolod Bobrov, Russian ice hockey player, footballer, and manager (d. 1979)
1923 – Dick Shawn, American actor (d. 1987)
1923 – Stansfield Turner, American admiral and academic, 12th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2018)
1924 – Masao Horiba, Japanese businessman, founded Horiba (d. 2015)
1925 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
1926 – Mother Antonia, American-Mexican nun and activist (d. 2013)
1926 – Allyn Ann McLerie, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2018)
1926 – Keith Michell, Australian actor (d. 2015)
1926 – Robert Symonds, American actor (d. 2007)
1926 – Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner, Scottish businessman (d. 2010)
1927 – Micheline Bernardini, French dancer and model
1928 – Emily McLaughlin, American actress (d. 1991)
1928 – Malachi Throne, American actor (d. 2013)
1929 – David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997)
1930 – Marie Bashir, Australian psychiatrist, academic, and politician, 37th Governor of New South Wales
1930 – Joachim Hoffmann, German historian and author (d. 2002)
1931 – Jimmy Lyons, American saxophonist (d. 1986)
1931 – Jim Nesbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)
1931 – George Maxwell Richards, Trinidadian politician, 4th President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2018)
1933 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006)
1936 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (d. 2014)
1937 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano and actress (d. 2005)
1937 – Gordon Crosse, English composer and academic (d. 2021)
1937 – Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Latvian psychologist and politician, President of Latvia
1938 – Sandy Nelson, American rock and roll drummer (d. 2022)
1939 – Lee Trevino, American golfer and sportscaster
1940 – Jerry Lawson, American electronic engineer and inventor (d. 2011)
1940 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005)
1945 – Lyle Bien, American vice admiral in the United States Navy
1945 – Bette Midler, American singer-songwriter, actress and producer
1946 – Jonathan Katz, American comedian and actor
1946 – Kemal Kurspahić, Bosnian journalist and author (d. 2021)
1946 – Gilbert O'Sullivan, Irish singer-songwriter and pianist
1951 – Obba Babatundé, American actor, director, and producer
1951 – Doug Mulray, Australian radio and television host (d. 2023)
1951 – Jaco Pastorius, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1987)
1951 – Nozipho Schroeder, South African lawn bowler
1951 – Treat Williams, American actor (d. 2023)
1957 – Chris Poland, American guitarist and songwriter
1957 – Deep Roy, Kenyan-British actor
1961 – Raymond E. Goldstein, American biophysicist and academic
1961 – Jeremy Northam, English actor
1964 – Jo Walton, Welsh-Canadian author and poet
1965 – Henry Honiball, South African rugby player
1965 – Magnifico, Slovenian singer
1966 – Andrew Adamson, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter
1966 – Katherine LaNasa, American actress, ballet dancer, and choreographer
1979 – Stephanie Brown Trafton, American discus thrower
1979 – Ryan Malone, American ice hockey player
1979 – Richard James, Jamaican sprinter
1980 – Iftikhar Anjum, Pakistani cricketer
1980 – Mohammad Kaif, Indian cricketer and politician
1980 – Mubarak Hassan Shami, Kenyan-Qatari runner
1980 – Gianna Terzi, Greek singer
1981 – Park Hyo-shin, South Korean singer-songwriter and actor
1981 – Luke McPharlin, Australian footballer
1981 – I Made Wirawan, Indonesian footballer
1982 – Riz Ahmed, English actor and rapper
1985 – Ilfenesh Hadera, American actress
1989 – Sotelúm, Mexican trumpet player, composer, and producer
1990 – Tomáš Tatar, Slovak ice hockey player
1991 – Rakeem Christmas, American basketball player
1991 – Hilda Melander, Swedish tennis player
1991 – Sun Yang, Chinese swimmer
1992 – Masahudu Alhassan, Ghanaian footballer
1992 – Javier Báez, Puerto Rican baseball player
1992 – Linos Chrysikopoulos, Greek basketball player
1992 – Gary Payton II, American basketball player
1992 – Marco van Ginkel, Dutch footballer
1993 – Reena Pärnat, Estonian archer
1993 – Beau Webster, Australian cricketer
1994 – Seedy Njie, English footballer
1995 – Agnė Čepelytė, Lithuanian tennis player
1995 – Jenna Fife, Scottish footballer
1995 – James Wilson, English footballer
1997 – Sada Williams, Barbadian sprinter
1997 – Jung Chae-yeon, South Korean actress and singer
1999 – Nico Schlotterbeck, German footballer
2001 – Carole Monnet, French tennis player
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
217 – Yehudah HaNasi, 'Nasi', Rabbi and editor of the Mishnah (b. 135)
660 – Eligius, Frankish bishop and saint (b. 588)
948 – Gao Conghui, Chinese governor and prince (b. 891)
969 – Fujiwara no Morotada, Japanese statesman (b. 920)
1018 – Thietmar of Merseburg, German bishop (b. 975)
1135 – Henry I, king of England (b. 1068)
1241 – Isabella of England, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1214)
1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam
1335 – Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b. 1305)
1374 – Magnus Eriksson, king of Sweden (b. 1316)
1433 – Go-Komatsu, emperor of Japan (b. 1377)
1455 – Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian goldsmith and sculptor (b. 1378)
1521 – Leo X, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1475)
1530 – Margaret of Austria, duchess of Savoy (b. 1480)
1580 – Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (b. 1509)
1581 – Alexander Briant, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr and saint (b. 1556)
1581 – Edmund Campion, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr, and saint (b. 1540)
1581 – Ralph Sherwin, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr, and saint (b. 1550)
===1601–1900===
1633 – Isabella Clara Eugenia, infanta of Spain (b. 1566)
1640 – Miguel de Vasconcelos, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1590)
1660 – Pierre d'Hozier, French genealogist and historian (b. 1592)
1729 – Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer and mathematician (b. 1665)
1750 – Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr, German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. 1671)
1755 – Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (b. 1696)
1767 – Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan, Scottish politician (b. 1710)
1825 – Alexander I, emperor and autocrat of Russia (b. 1777)
1865 – Abraham Emanuel Fröhlich, Swiss pastor, poet, and educator (b. 1796)
1866 – George Everest, Welsh geographer and surveyor (b. 1790)
1867 – Charles Gray Round, English lawyer and politician (b. 1797)
1884 – William Swainson, English-New Zealand lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of the Crown Colony of New Zealand (b. 1809)
===1901–present===
1913 – Juhan Liiv, Estonian poet and author (b. 1864)
1914 – Alfred Thayer Mahan, American captain and historian (b. 1840)
1916 – Charles de Foucauld, French priest and martyr (b. 1858)
1923 – Virginie Loveling, Belgian author and poet (b. 1836)
1928 – José Eustasio Rivera, Colombian-American lawyer and poet (b. 1888)
1933 – Pekka Halonen, Finnish painter (b. 1865)
1934 – Sergey Kirov, Russian engineer and politician (b. 1886)
1935 – Bernhard Schmidt, Estonian-German optician, invented the Schmidt camera (b. 1879)
1942 – Leon Wachholz, Polish scientist and medical examiner (b. 1867)
1943 – Damrong Rajanubhab, Thai historian and educator (b. 1862)
1944 – Charlie Kerins, Irish Republican executed by hanging (b. 1918)
1947 – Aleister Crowley, English magician, poet, and mountaineer (b. 1875)
1947 – G. H. Hardy, English mathematician and theorist (b. 1877)
1950 – Ernest John Moeran, English pianist and composer (b. 1894)
1954 – Fred Rose, American pianist, composer, and publisher (b. 1898)
1958 – Elizabeth Peratrovich, American civil rights activist (b. 1911)
1964 – J. B. S. Haldane, English-Indian geneticist and biologist (b. 1892)
1964 – Charilaos Vasilakos, Greek runner (b. 1877)
1968 – Nicolae Bretan, Romanian opera singer, composer, and conductor (b. 1887)
1968 – Darío Moreno, Turkish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b. 1921)
1973 – David Ben-Gurion, Israeli politician, 1st Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1886)
1975 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (b. 1927)
1975 – Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (b. 1898)
1975 – Anna Roosevelt Halsted, American journalist (b. 1906)
1981 – Russ Manning, American author and illustrator (b. 1929)
1984 – Roelof Frankot, Dutch painter and photographer (b. 1911)
1986 – Frank McCarthy, American general and film producer (b. 1912)
1987 – James Baldwin, American novelist, poet, and critic (b. 1924)
1987 – Punch Imlach, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b. 1918)
1988 – J. Vernon McGee, American pastor and theologian (b. 1904)
1989 – Alvin Ailey, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1931)
1990 – Carla Lehmann, Canadian-English actress (b. 1917)
1991 – Pat O'Callaghan, Irish athlete (b. 1906)
1991 – George Stigler, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
1993 – Ray Gillen, American singer-songwriter (b. 1959)
1995 – Hopper Levett, English cricketer (b. 1908)
1995 – Colin Tapley, New Zealand-English actor (b. 1907)
1995 – Maxwell R. Thurman, American general (b. 1931)
1996 – Peter Bronfman, Canadian businessman (b. 1928)
1997 – Michel Bélanger, Canadian banker and businessman (b. 1929)
1997 – Stéphane Grappelli, French violinist (b. 1908)
1997 – Endicott Peabody, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 62nd Governor of Massachusetts (b. 1920)
1998 – Janet Lewis, American poet and novelist (b. 1899)
2001 – Ellis R. Dungan, American director and producer (b. 1909)
2002 – Edward L. Beach Jr., American captain and author (b. 1918)
2002 – Dave McNally, American baseball player (b. 1942)
2003 – Clark Kerr, American economist and academic (b. 1911)
2003 – Eugenio Monti, Italian bobsledder (b. 1928)
2004 – Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld (b. 1911)
2004 – Bill Brown, Scottish footballer (b. 1931)
2005 – Gust Avrakotos, American CIA officer (b. 1938)
2005 – Mary Hayley Bell, English actress and playwright (b. 1911)
2005 – Freeman V. Horner, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1922)
2006 – Claude Jade, French actress (b. 1948)
2006 – Bruce Trigger, Canadian archaeologist, anthropologist, and historian (b. 1937)
2007 – Ken McGregor, Australian tennis player and footballer (b. 1929)
2007 – Anton Rodgers, British actor (b. 1933)
2007 – Ivo Rojnica, Croatian-Argentine war crimes suspect, businessman, diplomat, and intelligence agent (b. 1915)
2008 – Paul Benedict, American actor (b. 1938)
2008 – Joseph B. Wirthlin, American businessman and religious leader (b. 1917)
2010 – Adriaan Blaauw, Dutch astronomer and academic (b. 1914)
2010 – Hillard Elkins, American actor and producer (b. 1929)
2011 – Christa Wolf, German author and critic (b. 1929)
2012 – Jovan Belcher, American football player (b. 1987)
2012 – Arthur Chaskalson, South African lawyer and judge, 18th Chief Justice of South Africa (b. 1931)
2012 – Rick Majerus, American basketball player and coach (b. 1948)
2012 – Ed Price, American soldier, pilot, and politician (b. 1918)
2013 – Richard Coughlan, English drummer (b. 1947)
2013 – Stirling Colgate, American physicist and academic (b. 1925)
2013 – Edward Heffron, American soldier (b. 1923)
2013 – Martin Sharp, Australian cartoonist and songwriter (b. 1942)
2014 – Mario Abramovich, Argentinian violinist and composer (b. 1926)
2014 – Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Greek epidemiologist, oncologist, and academic (b. 1938)
2014 – Rocky Wood, New Zealand-Australian author (b. 1959)
2015 – Rob Blokzijl, Dutch physicist and computer scientist (b. 1943)
2015 – Joseph Engelberger, American physicist and engineer (b. 1925)
2015 – John F. Kurtzke, American neurologist and academic (b. 1926)
2015 – Jim Loscutoff, American basketball player (b. 1930)
2015 – Trevor Obst, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1940)
2018 – Vivian Lynn, New Zealand artist (b. 1931)
2018 – Ken Berry, American actor, dancer, and singer (b. 1933)
2019 – Paula Tilbrook, English actress (b. 1930)
2020 – Arnie Robinson, American athlete (b. 1948)
2022 – Gaylord Perry, American baseball player and coach (b. 1938)
2023 – Sandra Day O'Connor, first female U.S. Supreme Court Justice (1981–2006) (b. 1930)
2024 – Terry Griffiths, Welsh snooker player and coach (b. 1947)
2024 – Ian Redpath, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1941)
==Holidays and observances==
Battle of the Sinop Day (Russia)
Christian feast day:
Alexander Briant
Ansanus
Blessed Bruna Pellesi
Castritian
Charles de Foucauld
Edmund Campion
Eligius
Evasius
Grwst
Nahum
Nicholas Ferrar (Episcopal Church)
Ralph Sherwin
Ursicinus of Brescia
December 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Damrong Rajanubhab Day (Thailand)
Earliest day on which Farmer's Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Friday in December. (Ghana)
Earliest day on which Good Neighborliness Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday in December. (Turkmenistan)
Earliest day on which Sindhi Cultural Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday in December. (Sindhi diaspora)
First President Day (Kazakhstan)
Freedom and Democracy Day (Chad)
Great Union Day, celebrates the union of Transylvania with Romania in 1918 (Romania)
Military Abolition Day (Costa Rica)
National Day (Myanmar)
Republic Day (Central African Republic)
Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal)
Rosa Parks Day (Ohio and Oregon, United States)
Self-governance Day or Fullveldisdagurinn (Iceland)
Teachers' Day (Panama)
World AIDS Day, and its related observances:
Day Without Art
|
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"Nikolai Lobachevsky",
"1933",
"General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"1335",
"COVID-19 pandemic",
"Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 6231",
"Days of Military Honour",
"Riz Ahmed",
"Great Union Day",
"1716",
"Miguel de Vasconcelos",
"Mike Denness",
"1825",
"Carla Lehmann",
"Jimmy Lyons",
"Minister of Foreign Affairs (Egypt)",
"1951",
"Georgy Zhukov",
"1935",
"1970",
"Martin Rodbell",
"2009",
"Fred Rose (songwriter)",
"Nasi (Hebrew title)",
"Allyn Ann McLerie",
"1883",
"Louis VI of France",
"1985",
"2010",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Emperor of Brazil",
"Alexandra of Denmark",
"Sergey Kirov",
"Cape Colony",
"1990",
"Ken McGregor",
"Soviet Union",
"Leon Wachholz",
"Mary Hayley Bell",
"Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal)",
"Gary Peters (politician)",
"Governor of Massachusetts",
"1855",
"Premier of Tasmania",
"1083",
"Marie Tussaud",
"Christos Melissis",
"Joseph B. Wirthlin",
"1961",
"Stansfield Turner",
"Nate Torrence",
"President of the Philippines",
"Governor of Kaduna State",
"1926",
"1966",
"Indiana University Press",
"Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan",
"Maxwell R. Thurman",
"Walter Alston",
"Gary Panter",
"Anna Komnene",
"2023",
"Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan",
"Attorney-General (New Zealand)",
"Dimitrios Trichopoulos",
"Edward Heffron",
"Christos Kalantzis",
"1938",
"Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"1999",
"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia",
"1925",
"Mario Abramovich",
"National Day (Myanmar)",
"Deep Roy",
"2019",
"Oulu",
"Ranvir Sena",
"1828",
"Costinha",
"Papua New Guinea",
"William Swainson (lawyer)",
"1978",
"Chris Poland",
"Adriaan Blaauw",
"Richard Keith (actor)",
"1869",
"Kemal Kurspahić",
"Arnie Robinson",
"Manju Bansal",
"Richard Pryor",
"Charles VI of France",
"Stephanie Brown Trafton",
"1965",
"José Eustasio Rivera",
"1987",
"1919",
"racial segregation",
"1939",
"Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug",
"Lyle Bien",
"Pekka Halonen",
"Michael Hagee",
"G. H. Hardy",
"Ohio",
"Eric Bloom",
"2002",
"2001",
"Keith Michell",
"Farah Shah",
"Julee Cruise",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Turkmenistan",
"Rob Blokzijl",
"Sandra Day O'Connor",
"Panama",
"1443",
"1580",
"FA Women's Super League",
"1993",
"Agnė Čepelytė",
"Violette Verdy",
"Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy",
"1824",
"1660",
"Mika Pohjola",
"Marco van Ginkel",
"Nancy Astor",
"Andrew Adamson",
"Iftikhar Anjum",
"1577",
"The Guardian",
"2003",
"Martin Sharp",
"Ilona Fehér",
"Ray Gillen",
"Mayor of New York City",
"1976",
"Paul Benedict",
"1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt",
"Joseph Engelberger",
"2018",
"Ledi Sayadaw",
"2012",
"Danish–Icelandic Act of Union",
"Vernon McGarity",
"Ross Edwards (cricketer)",
"Raymond E. Goldstein",
"Bernhard Schmidt",
"draft lottery (1969)",
"Madame Tussauds",
"Treat Williams",
"Christa Wolf",
"Zoë Kravitz",
"Ian Redpath",
"David Doyle (actor)",
"Jaco Pastorius",
"Richard Carrier",
"East Germany",
"Science (journal)",
"1989",
"Obba Babatundé",
"Treaty of Lisbon",
"2000",
"Kingdom of Iceland",
"Dean O'Gorman",
"1927",
"Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1561–1631)",
"1967",
"Perm Krai",
"Finnish Democratic Republic",
"Igor Rodionov",
"Doug Mulray",
"Thomas Heneage",
"Saint Grwst",
"November 28",
"Filippos Petsalnikos",
"Stuart Garson",
"1862 State of the Union Address",
"NASA",
"1971",
"Arecibo Telescope",
"Rutherford B. Hayes",
"Bessarabia",
"1952",
"Tadeáš Hájek",
"Mihály Vörösmarty",
"Jenna Fife",
"Mishnah",
"1894",
"president of Mexico",
"Sylvie Daigle",
"Thomas Schie",
"Trevor Obst",
"Jan Długosz",
"Prime Minister of Israel",
"Horiba",
"1984",
"Matthews Arena",
"Sola Sierra",
"Bukovina",
"1690",
"Udit Narayan",
"National Basketball Association",
"Hirohito",
"1923",
"1937",
"Vietnam War",
"1913",
"1996",
"Republic of Spanish Haiti",
"1963",
"1081",
"Damrong Rajanubhab Day",
"Director of Central Intelligence",
"Sindhi diaspora",
"Jim Loscutoff",
"Tasso Wild",
"1975",
"Winter War",
"1844",
"George Maxwell Richards",
"969",
"Franz Xaver Richter",
"1743",
"Our Lady of the Angels School fire",
"1958",
"Gianna Terzi",
"Giacomo F. Maraldi",
"Elizabeth I of England",
"1895",
"1374",
"Nikolai Voznesensky",
"Military Abolition Day",
"1941",
"Cold War",
"Linos Chrysikopoulos",
"1241",
"Hillard Elkins",
"Tomasz Adamek",
"660",
"Sankuru River",
"Good Neighborliness Day",
"Mat Kearney",
"historically black university",
"Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner",
"Laura Ling",
"Joachim Hoffmann",
"First President Day",
"John Evelyn",
"John Roskelley",
"Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China",
"1867",
"1949",
"Alan Dedicoat",
"Almaty Metro",
"Beatification",
"Perm Oblast",
"Dulles International Airport",
"Ken Berry",
"Dave McNally",
"Juhan Liiv",
"Gilbert O'Sullivan",
"1969",
"knight",
"1934",
"Stéphane Grappelli",
"Javier Aguirre",
"1962",
"Rabbi",
"John Densmore",
"1755",
"1912",
"December 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"Jung Chae-yeon",
"Estonia",
"President of Latvia",
"Sebastián Piñera",
"Reggie Sanders",
"Kazakhstan",
"Maurice Greene (composer)",
"Vsevolod Bobrov",
"President of Chile",
"Croatian Spring",
"2007",
"Calvin Griffith",
"Richard James (sprinter, born 1979)",
"North Vietnam",
"United States",
"Cambodia",
"Jonathan Katz",
"Terry Griffiths",
"Vivianne Miedema",
"1957",
"Claude Jade",
"World Trade Center (1973–2001)",
"Endicott Peabody",
"Muhammad III of Alamut",
"AllMusic",
"João IV of Portugal",
"Juan Lavalle",
"1871",
"Farmers' Day (Ghana)",
"Micheline Bernardini",
"Ralph Sherwin (priest)",
"Karna Maria Birmingham",
"Charilaos Vasilakos",
"James Baldwin",
"Stephen Poliakoff",
"Saint Eligius",
"1822",
"1761",
"Emperor Go-Komatsu",
"Karen Tumulty",
"Luke McPharlin",
"Henry I of England",
"Pamela McGee",
"Ryti I Cabinet",
"Alain Bashung",
"Tisha Waller",
"Julia A. Moore",
"1521",
"Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"Pat O'Callaghan",
"Isabella of England",
"Anna Roosevelt Halsted",
"2004",
"Rosa Parks Day",
"World AIDS Day",
"Malachi Throne",
"Vance Joy",
"2022",
"Vinnytsia massacre",
"Karl Schmidt-Rottluff",
"1929",
"N. T. Wright",
"Evasius",
"Fiorello La Guardia",
"Rakeem Christmas",
"J. Vernon McGee",
"1862",
"Sandy Nelson",
"Jim Nesbitt",
"Boston Bruins",
"1896",
"Patrice Lumumba",
"1581",
"Eligiusz Niewiadomski",
"Neil Warnock",
"Christian Pescatori",
"Nathalie Lambert",
"Sophie Guillemin",
"Alexander I of Russia",
"1995",
"I Made Wirawan",
"Shirin M. Rai",
"1997 Heath High School shooting",
"Thailand",
"Magdalena of France",
"Emancipation Proclamation",
"1991 Ukrainian independence referendum",
"Corazon Aquino",
"Michael Raffl",
"Major League Baseball",
"Carole Monnet",
"Raleigh, North Carolina",
"Rosa Parks",
"Bihar",
"Charlie Kerins",
"Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)",
"Sindhi Cultural Day",
"1884",
"Sophia Skou",
"Reena Pärnat",
"1942",
"1903",
"Pope Leo III",
"Eugenio Monti",
"Decembrist revolution (Argentina)",
"Sergei Kirov",
"1805",
"Masao Horiba",
"Mohammad Kaif",
"List of Prime Ministers of Portugal",
"Giovanni Morone",
"Afrânio Pompílio Gastos do Amaral",
"Jane Turner",
"Nagaland",
"Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa",
"Richard Coughlan",
"Bruna Pellesi",
"Teachers' Day",
"Zelenogorsk, Saint Petersburg",
"Magnifico (musician)",
"John F. Kurtzke",
"CIA",
"2006",
"1433",
"1561",
"American Civil War",
"Montgomery, Alabama",
"Justin Chadwick",
"Roelof Frankot",
"1900",
"Edmund Campion",
"Punch Imlach",
"Buenos Aires Underground",
"1865",
"List of Presidents of Trinidad and Tobago",
"1905",
"Henry Williamson",
"1998",
"Nozipho Schroeder",
"Marty Marion",
"1917",
"Emiliano Viviano",
"1866",
"Tomáš Tatar",
"Steve Gibb",
"Abraham Lincoln",
"Peter Baptist Tadamaro Ishigami",
"Marco Greco",
"Nicolae Bretan",
"United States House of Representatives",
"1878",
"Verónica Forqué",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Dick Shawn",
"Electoral College (United States)",
"Shaw University",
"1986",
"Arjuna Ranatunga",
"Javier Báez",
"2024",
"Lou Rawls",
"Althing",
"Gaylord Perry",
"Brett Williams (footballer, born 1987)",
"Nellie Fox",
"UPI",
"1530",
"Rick Majerus",
"Republic Day (Central African Republic)",
"1415",
"Ryan Malone",
"Prime Minister of Pakistan",
"Sun Yang",
"St James's Park",
"Gary Payton II",
"Charles Gray Round",
"Michel Bélanger",
"Billy Childish",
"Dan Mavraides",
"Mubarak Hassan Shami",
"Matthew Shepard",
"United Russia",
"Vesta Williams",
"Slavery Abolition Act 1833",
"Karađorđevo estate",
"Governor of New South Wales",
"1955",
"Nestor Carbonell",
"TWA Flight 514",
"Stanton Barrett",
"2005",
"Romania",
"Philip DeFranco",
"Southern Hemisphere",
"624",
"Pope Leo X",
"1901",
"Peter Bronfman",
"Iberian Union",
"9th Dalai Lama",
"Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld",
"1956",
"Masahudu Alhassan",
"Henry Cadbury",
"House of Commons of the United Kingdom",
"Parliament of Finland",
"1821",
"José Núñez de Cáceres",
"Ukraine",
"Apostolic Palace",
"1991",
"Larry Walker",
"Same-sex marriage in South Africa",
"Premier of Manitoba",
"1930",
"Candace Bushnell",
"2014",
"1968",
"Corsica",
"Irish republicanism",
"Judah ha-Nasi",
"Emily McLaughlin",
"Ursicinus of Brescia",
"Simon Dawkins",
"Rocky Wood",
"European Union",
"Great Union",
"Charles de Foucauld",
"Turkey",
"Gordon Crosse",
"White House",
"Medal of Honor",
"George Foster (baseball)",
"Civil rights movement",
"217",
"1846",
"coup d'état",
"Salvatore Schillaci",
"1936",
"1973",
"Chad",
"Golden Brooks",
"Vicente Fox",
"Ellis R. Dungan",
"John Evans (Australian politician)",
"Mother Antonia",
"Pedro I of Brazil",
"1847",
"Jan Brett",
"Judith Hackitt",
"Helsinki",
"Anton Rodgers",
"1944",
"Planned economy",
"1997",
"George Stigler",
"Rex Stout",
"Nahum",
"South Dakota Hall of Fame",
"Gender-affirming surgery",
"Frank McCarthy (producer)",
"Ernest John Moeran",
"Bernardino Realino",
"Virginie Loveling",
"Ilta-Sanomat",
"Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga",
"Fujiwara no Morotada",
"Boeing 727",
"Channel Tunnel",
"1918",
"1438",
"Beau Webster",
"Charlene Tilton",
"Cambodian Civil War",
"1911",
"Reform the Armed Forces Movement",
"Mary Martin",
"1135",
"self rule",
"Nicholas Ferrar",
"Wuhan",
"Nico Schlotterbeck",
"World War II",
"1455",
"Bruce Trigger",
"Ed Price (Florida politician)",
"Manuel Dorrego",
"Kingdom of Yugoslavia",
"1960",
"Brad Delson",
"1948",
"James Wilson (footballer, born 1995)",
"Henry V of England",
"Bishop of Naha",
"Lee McKenzie",
"Billy Raimondi",
"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)",
"Tromøya",
"Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr",
"1824 United States presidential election",
"French Union",
"1662",
"Sarah Silverman",
"Evangelos Sklavos",
"Gao Conghui",
"Muriel Costa-Greenspon",
"South Africa",
"Philippine Dynasty",
"Civil Air Patrol",
"Étienne Maurice Falconet",
"Tahar Ben Jelloun",
"1945",
"Henry Honiball",
"Peter II, Duke of Bourbon",
"Antarctic Treaty System",
"Martin Heinrich Klaproth",
"Bette Midler",
"1525",
"Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308",
"1980",
"Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke",
"1974",
"1988",
"Assassination of Sergei Kirov",
"Finland",
"Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc",
"Russ Manning",
"Pat Spillane",
"Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)",
"Wan Li",
"Ministry of Defence (Russia)",
"Abraham Emanuel Fröhlich",
"Chief Justice of South Africa",
"Kirk Rueter",
"Ansanus",
"2011",
"hate crime",
"Jonathan Coulton",
"Hopper Levett",
"Castritian",
"Kingdom of Romania",
"1959",
"Paris",
"Schmidt camera",
"1914",
"Aleister Crowley",
"Self-governance Day",
"1834",
"Eduskunta",
"Colin Tapley",
"Ásta B. Þorsteinsdóttir",
"Central African Republic",
"Benazir Bhutto"
] |
8,359 |
December 24
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
502 – Chinese emperor Xiao Yan names Xiao Tong his heir designate.
640 – Pope John IV is elected, several months after his predecessor's death.
759 – Tang dynasty poet Du Fu departs for Chengdu, where he is hosted by fellow poet Pei Di.
971 – Battle of Ayn Shams: The Fatimids under Jawhar defeat the Qarmatians at the gates of Cairo, putting an end to the First Qarmatian invasion of Egypt.
1144 – The capital of the crusader County of Edessa falls to Imad ad-Din Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo.
1294 – Pope Boniface VIII is elected, replacing St. Celestine V, who had resigned.
1500 – A joint Venetian–Spanish fleet captures the Castle of St. George on the island of Cephalonia.
===1601–1900===
1737 – The Marathas defeat the combined forces of the Mughal Empire, Rajputs of Jaipur, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Awadh and Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Bhopal.
1777 – Kiritimati, also called Christmas Island, is discovered by James Cook.
1800 – The Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise fails to kill Napoleon Bonaparte.
1814 – Representatives of the United Kingdom and the United States sign the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812.
1818 – The first performance of "Silent Night" takes place in the Nikolauskirche in Oberndorf, Austria.
1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy begins that night, wrapping up the following morning.
1846 – British acquired Labuan from the Sultanate of Brunei for Great Britain.
1865 – Former Confederate officers Frank McCord, Richard Reed, John Lester, John Kennedy, J. Calvin Jones, and James Crowe form the Ku Klux Klan.
1868 – The Greek Presidential Guard is established as the royal escort by King George I.
1871 – The opera Aida premieres in Cairo, Egypt.
===1901–present===
1906 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast; consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech.
1913 – The Italian Hall disaster in Calumet, Michigan results in the deaths of 73 striking workers families at a Christmas party participants (including 59 children) when someone falsely yells "fire".
1914 – World War I: The "Christmas truce" begins.
1918 – Region of Međimurje is captured by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from Hungary.
1920 – Gabriele D'Annunzio surrendered the Italian Regency of Carnaro in the city of Fiume to Italian Armed Forces.
1924 – Albania becomes a republic.
1929 – Assassination attempt on Argentine President Hipólito Yrigoyen.
1929 – A four alarm fire breaks out in the West Wing of the White House in Washington, D.C.
1939 – World War II: Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas Eve appeal for peace.
1941 – World War II: Kuching is conquered by Japanese forces.
1941 – World War II: Benghazi is conquered by the British Eighth Army.
1942 – World War II: French monarchist, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, assassinates Vichy French Admiral François Darlan in Algiers, Algeria.
1943 – World War II: U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower is named Supreme Allied Commander for Operation Overlord.
1944 – World War II: The Belgian Troopship Leopoldville was torpedoed and sank with the loss of 763 soldiers and 56 crew.
1945 – Five of nine children become missing after their home in Fayetteville, West Virginia, is burned down.
1951 – Libya becomes independent. Idris I is proclaimed King of Libya.
1952 – First flight of Britain's Handley Page Victor strategic bomber.
1953 – Tangiwai disaster: In New Zealand's North Island, at Tangiwai, a railway bridge is damaged by a lahar and collapses beneath a passenger train, killing 151 people.
1964 – Vietnam War: Viet Cong operatives bomb the Brinks Hotel in Saigon, South Vietnam to demonstrate they can strike an American installation in the heavily guarded capital.
1964 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 282 crashes after takeoff from San Francisco International Airport, killing three.
1966 – A Canadair CL-44 chartered by the United States military crashes into a small village in South Vietnam, killing 111.
1968 – Apollo program: The crew of Apollo 8 enters into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so. They performed ten lunar orbits, took the Earthrise photograph, broadcast live TV pictures, and read the first ten verses of Genesis.
1969 – Nigerian troops capture Umuahia, the Biafran capital.
1971 – LANSA Flight 508 is struck by lightning and crashes in the Puerto Inca District in the Department of Huánuco in Peru, killing 91.
1973 – District of Columbia Home Rule Act is passed, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to elect their own local government.
1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia.
1983 – Aeroflot Flight 601 crashes during takeoff from Leshukonskoye Airport, Russia, killing 44 of the 49 people on board.
1994 – Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked on the ground at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers, Algeria. Over the course of three days three passengers are killed, as are all four terrorists.
1996 – A Learjet 35 crashes into Smarts Mountain near Dorchester, New Hampshire, killing both pilots on board.
1997 – The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people.
1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 is hijacked in Indian airspace between Kathmandu, Nepal, and Delhi, India. The aircraft landed at Kandahar in Afghanistan. The incident ended on December 31 with the release of 190 survivors (one passenger is killed).
2003 – The Spanish police thwart an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 p.m. inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station.
2005 – Chad–Sudan relations: Chad declares a state of belligerence against Sudan following a December 18 attack on Adré, which left about 100 people dead.
2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks against civilians in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, massacring more than 400.
2018 – A helicopter crash kills Martha Érika Alonso, first female Governor of Puebla, Mexico, and her husband Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor.
2021 – Burmese military forces commit the Mo So massacre, killing at least 44 civilians.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
3 BC – Galba, Roman emperor (d. 69)
1166 – John, King of England (d. 1216)
1389 – John V, Duke of Brittany (d. 1442)
1474 – Bartolomeo degli Organi, Italian musician (d. 1539)
1475 – Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (d. 1537)
1508 – Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian scholar (d. 1567)
1520 – Martha Leijonhufvud, Swedish noble (d. 1584)
1537 – Willem IV van den Bergh, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1586)
1549 – Kaspar Ulenberg, German theologian (d. 1617)
1588 – Constance of Austria (d. 1631)
1596 – Leonaert Bramer, Dutch painter (d. 1674)
1597 – Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1662)
===1601–1900===
1625 – Johann Rudolph Ahle, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1673)
1635 – Mariana of Austria (d. 1696)
1679 – Domenico Sarro, Italian composer and educator (d. 1744)
1698 – William Warburton, English bishop (d. 1779)
1726 – Johann Hartmann, Danish composer (d. 1793)
1731 – Julie Bondeli, Swiss salonist and lady of letters (d. 1778)
1754 – George Crabbe, English priest, surgeon, and poet (d. 1832)
1761 – Selim III, Ottoman sultan (d. 1808)
1761 – Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (d. 1831)
1797 – Carl Georg von Wächter, German jurist (d. 1880)
1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and playwright (d. 1855)
1809 – Kit Carson, American general (d. 1868)
1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (d. 1873)
1812 – Karl Eduard Zachariae von Lingenthal, German lawyer and jurist (d. 1894)
1818 – James Prescott Joule, English physicist and brewer (d. 1889)
1822 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (d. 1888)
1827 – Alexander von Oettingen, German theologian and statistician (d. 1905)
1837 – Empress Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1898)
1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (d. 1886)
1845 – George I of Greece (d. 1913)
1865 – Szymon Askenazy, Polish historian, educator, and diplomat, founded the Askenazy school (d. 1935)
1867 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (d. 1915)
1868 – Charles Harvey Bollman, American naturalist (d. 1889)
1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1941)
1869 – Henriette Roland Holst, Dutch poet, playwright, and politician (d. 1952)
1872 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1927)
1875 – Émile Wegelin, French rower (d. 1962)
1877 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter and critic (d. 1979)
1879 – Émile Nelligan, Canadian poet (d. 1941)
1879 – Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1952)
1880 – Johnny Gruelle, American author and illustrator (d. 1939)
1881 – Charles Wakefield Cadman, American composer and critic (d. 1946)
1882 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1961)
1882 – Georges Legagneux, French aviator (d. 1914)
1883 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and producer (d. 1945)
1885 – Paul Manship, American sculptor (d. 1966)
1886 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1962)
1887 – Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (d. 1951)
1887 – Axel Revold, Norwegian painter (d. 1962)
1891 – Feodor Stepanovich Rojankovsky, Russian illustrator and painter (d. 1970)
1892 – Ruth Chatterton, American actress (d. 1961)
1893 – Harry Warren, American pianist and composer (d. 1981)
1894 – Georges Guynemer, French captain and pilot (d. 1917)
1894 – Jack Thayer, American businessman (d. 1945)
1895 – E. Roland Harriman, American financier and philanthropist (d. 1978)
1895 – Noel Streatfeild, English author (d. 1986)
1895 – Marguerite Williams, American geologist (d. 1991)
1897 – Ville Pörhölä, Finnish shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1964)
1897 – Väinö Sipilä, Finnish runner (d. 1987)
1898 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (d. 1959)
1900 – Joey Smallwood, Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (d. 1991)
1900 – Hawayo Takata, Japanese-American teacher and master practitioner of Reiki (d. 1980)
===1901–present===
1903 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (d. 1972)
1903 – Ernst Krenkel, Polish-Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1971)
1903 – Ava Helen Pauling, American humanitarian and activist (d. 1981)
1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-American engineer and businessman (d. 2008)
1905 – Howard Hughes, American businessman, engineer, and pilot (d. 1976)
1906 – Franz Waxman, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1967)
1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist and author (d. 1989)
1910 – Ellen Braumüller, German javelin thrower and triathlete (d. 1991)
1910 – Fritz Leiber, American author and poet (d. 1992)
1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer, created Helvetica (d. 1980)
1913 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter and academic (d. 1967)
1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1978)
1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German author and screenwriter (d. 2007)
1918 – Dave Bartholomew, American bandleader, composer and arranger (d. 2019)
1919 – Qateel Shifai, Pakistani poet and songwriter (d. 2001)
1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist (d. 2022)
1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian author and screenwriter (d. 2002)
1920 – Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian-Russian lieutenant and navigator (d. 1944)
1922 – Ava Gardner, American actress (d. 1990)
1928 – Lev Vlassenko, Georgian-Australian pianist and educator (d. 1996)
1929 – Lennart Skoglund, Swedish footballer (d. 1975)
1929 – Red Sullivan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2019)
1930 – Robert Joffrey, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1988)
1930 – John J. Kelley, American runner (d. 2011)
1931 – Ray Bryant, American pianist and composer (d. 2011)
1931 – Mauricio Kagel, Argentinian-German composer and scholar (d. 2008)
1932 – Colin Cowdrey, Indian-English cricketer (d. 2000)
1932 – On Kawara, Japanese-American painter (d. 2014)
1934 – Stjepan Mesić, Croatian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Croatia
1936 – Ivan Lawrence, English lawyer and politician
1937 – Félix, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2012)
1938 – Valentim Loureiro, Portuguese soldier and politician
1940 – Janet Carroll, American actress and singer (d. 2012)
1940 – Anthony Fauci, American physician, Director of National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
1941 – Mike Hazlewood, English singer-songwriter (d. 2001)
1942 – Indra Bania, Indian actor, director, and playwright (d. 2015)
1942 – Jonathan Borofsky, American sculptor and painter
1942 – Đoàn Viết Hoạt, Vietnamese journalist, educator, and activist
1943 – Tarja Halonen, Finnish lawyer and politician, 11th President of Finland
1944 – Mike Curb, American businessman and politician, 42nd Lieutenant Governor of California
1944 – Daniel Johnson, Jr., Canadian lawyer and politician, 25th Premier of Quebec
1944 – Erhard Keller, German speed skater
1944 – Bob Shaw, Australian golfer
1944 – Woody Shaw, American trumpeter (d. 1989)
1945 – Lemmy, English hard rock singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2015)
1950 – Tommy Turtle, British soldier (d. 2020)
1951 – John D'Acquisto, American baseball player
1953 – Timothy Carhart, American actor
1954 – Yves Debay, Congolese-French commander and journalist (d. 2013)
1954 – José María Figueres, Costa Rican businessman and politician, President of Costa Rica (1994–1998)
1955 – Grand L. Bush, American actor
1967 – Mikhail Shchennikov, Russian race walker
1967 – Pernilla Wahlgren, Swedish singer and actress
1968 – Marleen Renders, Belgian runner
1969 – Milan Blagojevic, Australian footballer and manager
1969 – Pernille Fischer Christensen, Danish director and screenwriter
1969 – Ed Miliband, English academic and politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office
1969 – Luis Musrri, Chilean footballer and manager
1969 – Oleg Skripochka, Russian astronaut and engineer
1969 – Gintaras Staučė, Lithuanian footballer and manager
1970 – Adam Haslett,Amaury Nolasco, Puerto Rican actor
1980 – Stephen Appiah, Ghanaian footballer
1980 – Tomas Kalnoky, Czech-American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1980 – Maarja-Liis Ilus, Estonian pop musician
1981 – Dima Bilan, Russian singer-songwriter and actor
1983 – Gregor Blanco, Venezuelan baseball player
1983 – Tim Jennings, American football player
1984 – Isaac De Gois, Australian rugby league player
1984 – Austin Stowell, American actor
1990 – Brigetta Barrett, American high jumper
1990 – Ryo Miyake, Japanese fencer
1991 – Sofia Black-D'Elia, American actress
1991 – Eric Moreland, American basketball player
1991 – Louis Tomlinson, English singer
1991 – Taylor Zakhar Perez, American actor
1992 – Davante Adams, American football player
1992 – Serge Aurier, Ivorian footballer
1992 – P. J. Hairston, American basketball player
1994 – Fa'amanu Brown, New Zealand rugby league player
1994 – Miguel Castro, Dominican baseball player
1994 – Matt Frawley, Australian rugby league player
1994 – Han Seung-woo, South Korean singer
1995 – Anett Kontaveit, Estonian tennis player
1997 – William Contreras, Venezuelan baseball player
1998 – Alexis Mac Allister, Argentine footballer
2002 – Joshua Primo, Canadian basketball player
2002 – Jeremiah Trotter Jr., American football player
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
36 – Gongsun Shu, emperor of Chengjia
427 – Archbishop Sisinnius I of Constantinople
903 – Hedwiga, duchess of Saxony
950 – Shi Hongzhao, Chinese general
950 – Wang Zhang, Chinese official
950 – Yang Bin, Chinese chancellor
1193 – Roger III of Sicily (b. 1175)
1257 – John I, Count of Hainaut (b. 1218)
1263 – Hōjō Tokiyori, regent of Japan (b. 1227)
1281 – Henry V of Luxembourg (b. 1216)
1449 – Walter Bower, Scottish chronicler (b. 1385)
1453 – John Dunstaple, English composer (b. 1390)
1456 – Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia (b. 1377)
1473 – John Cantius, Polish scholar and theologian (b. 1390)
1524 – Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer and politician, Governor of Portuguese India (b. 1469)
1541 – Andreas Karlstadt, Christian theologian and reformer (b. 1486)
===1601–1900===
1635 – Hester Jonas, German nurse (b. 1570)
1660 – Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (b. 1631)
1707 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (b. 1628)
1813 – Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan (b. 1740)
1844 – Friedrich Bernhard Westphal, Danish-German painter (b. 1803)
1863 – William Makepeace Thackeray, English author and poet (b. 1811)
1865 – Charles Lock Eastlake, English painter and historian (b. 1793)
1867 – José Mariano Salas, Mexican general and politician. President of Mexico (1846, 1859) and regent of the Second Mexican Empire (b. 1797)
1868 – Adolphe d'Archiac, French paleontologist and geologist (b. 1802)
1872 – William John Macquorn Rankine, Scottish physicist and engineer (b. 1820)
1873 – Johns Hopkins, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1795)
1879 – Anna Bochkoltz, German operatic soprano, voice teacher and composer (b. 1815)
1889 – Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate, Dutch pastor and poet (b. 1819)
1893 – B. T. Finniss, Australian politician, 1st Premier of South Australia (b. 1807)
1898 – Charbel Makhluf, Lebanese priest and saint (b. 1828)
===1901–present===
1914 – John Muir, Scottish-American geologist, botanist, and author, founded Sierra Club (b. 1838)
1920 – Stephen Mosher Wood, American lieutenant and politician (b. 1832)
1923 – Joe Lacey, Irish Hunger Striker died during the 1923 Irish hunger strikes (b. 1895)
1926 – Wesley Coe, American shot putter, hammer thrower, and discus thrower (b. 1879)
1931 – Carlo Fornasini, micropalaeontologist (b. 1854)
1931 – Flying Hawk, American warrior, educator and historian (b. 1854)
1935 – Alban Berg, Austrian composer and educator (b. 1885)
1938 – Bruno Taut, German architect and urban planner (b. 1880)
1941 – Siegfried Alkan, German composer (b. 1858)
1942 – François Darlan, French admiral and politician, 122nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1881)
1945 – Josephine Sabel, American singer and comedian (b. 1866)
1947 – Charles Gondouin, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (b. 1875)
1957 – Norma Talmadge, American actress and producer (b. 1894)
1961 – Robert Hillyer, American poet and academic (b. 1895)
1962 – Wilhelm Ackermann, German mathematician (b. 1896)
1962 – Eveline Adelheid von Maydell, German illustrator (b. 1890)
1964 – Claudia Jones, Trinidad-British journalist and activist (b. 1915)
1965 – John Black, English businessman (b. 1895)
1965 – William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (b. 1906)
1967 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (b. 1913)
1969 – Stanisław Błeszyński, Polish-German entomologist and lepidopterist (b. 1927)
1969 – Cortelia Clark, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1907)
1969 – Olivia FitzRoy, English soldier and author (b. 1921)
1969 – Alfred B. Skar, Norwegian journalist and politician (b. 1896)
1971 – Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist and zoologist (b. 1924)
1972 – Gisela Richter, English-American archaeologist and historian (b. 1882)
1973 – Fritz Gause, German historian and author (b. 1893)
1975 – Bernard Herrmann, American composer and conductor (b. 1911)
1977 – Samael Aun Weor, Colombian author and educator (b. 1917)
1980 – Karl Dönitz, German admiral and politician, President of Germany (b. 1891)
1982 – Louis Aragon, French author and poet (b. 1897)
1984 – Peter Lawford, English-American actor (b. 1923)
1985 – Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, American lawyer (b. 1904)
1985 – Camille Tourville, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b. 1927)
1986 – Gardner Fox, American author (b. 1911)
1987 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, 45th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1919)
1987 – M. G. Ramachandran, Sri Lankan-Indian actor, producer, and politician, 5th Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (b. 1917)
1988 – Jainendra Kumar, Indian author (b. 1905)
1990 – Thorbjørn Egner, Norwegian playwright and songwriter (b. 1922)
1991 – Virginia Sorensen, American author (b. 1912)
1992 – Bobby LaKind, American singer-songwriter and conga player (b. 1945)
1992 – James Mathews, Australian rugby league player (b. 1968)
1992 – Peyo, Belgian cartoonist, created The Smurfs (b. 1928)
1993 – Norman Vincent Peale, American minister and author (b. 1898)
1994 – John Boswell, American historian, author, and academic (b. 1947)
1994 – Rossano Brazzi, Italian actor (b. 1916)
1997 – James Komack, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)
1997 – Toshiro Mifune, Chinese-Japanese actor and producer (b. 1920)
1997 – Pierre Péladeau, Canadian businessman, founded Quebecor (b. 1925)
1998 – Syl Apps, Canadian ice hockey player and pole vaulter (b. 1915)
1999 – Bill Bowerman, American runner, coach, and businessman, co-founded Nike, Inc. (b. 1911)
1999 – Maurice Couve de Murville, French soldier and politician, 152nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1907)
1999 – João Figueiredo, Brazilian general and politician, 30th President of Brazil (b. 1918)
1999 – William C. Schneider, American aerospace engineer (b. 1923)
2000 – John Cooper, English businessman, co-founded the Cooper Car Company (b. 1923)
2002 – Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian author and poet (b. 1920)
2002 – Jake Thackray, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1938)
2004 – Johnny Oates, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1946)
2006 – Braguinha, Brazilian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1907)
2006 – Kenneth Sivertsen, Norwegian guitarist and composer (b. 1961)
2006 – Frank Stanton, American businessman (b. 1908)
2007 – Nicholas Pumfrey, English lawyer and judge (b. 1951)
2007 – George Warrington, American businessman (b. 1952)
2008 – Ralph Harris, British journalist (b. 1921)
2008 – Harold Pinter, English playwright, screenwriter, director, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1930)
2009 – Marcus Bakker, Dutch journalist and politician (b. 1923)
2009 – Rafael Caldera, Venezuelan lawyer and politician, 65th President of Venezuela (b. 1916)
2009 – George Michael, American sportscaster (b. 1939)
2009 – Gero von Wilpert, German author and academic (b. 1933)
2010 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (b. 1926)
2010 – Frans de Munck, Dutch footballer and manager (b. 1922)
2010 – Orestes Quércia, Brazilian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of São Paulo State (b. 1938)
2010 – Eino Tamberg, Estonian composer and educator (b. 1930)
2011 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-German entertainer (b. 1903)
2012 – Richard Rodney Bennett, English-American composer and academic (b. 1936)
2012 – Charles Durning, American soldier and actor (b. 1923)
2012 – Jack Klugman, American actor (b. 1922)
2012 – Dennis O'Driscoll, Irish poet and critic (b. 1954)
2013 – Frédéric Back, German-Canadian director, animator, and screenwriter (b. 1924)
2013 – Ian Barbour, Chinese-American author and scholar (b. 1923)
2013 – John M. Goldman, English haematologist and oncologist (b. 1938)
2013 – Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)
2014 – Buddy DeFranco, American clarinet player (b. 1923)
2014 – Edward Greenspan, Canadian lawyer and author (b. 1944)
2014 – Herbert Harris, American lawyer and politician (b. 1926)
2014 – Krzysztof Krauze, Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1953)
2015 – Turid Birkeland, Norwegian businesswoman and politician, Norwegian Minister of Culture (b. 1962)
2015 – Letty Jimenez Magsanoc, Filipino journalist (b. 1941)
2015 – Adriana Olguín, Chilean lawyer and politician, Chilean Minister of Justice (b. 1911)
2016 – Rick Parfitt, British musician (b. 1948)
2016 – Liz Smith, English actress (b. 1921)
2016 – Richard Adams, English author (b. 1920)
2016 – Ben Xi, Chinese singer (b.1994)
2017 – Jerry Kindall, American baseball player and coach (b. 1935)
2017 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American model and actress (b. 1949)
2018 – Martha Érika Alonso, Governor of Puebla (b. 1973)
2018 – Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor of Puebla (b. 1968)
2023 – Richard Bowes, American science fiction author (b. 1944)
2023 – Troy Dargan, Cook Islands rugby league footballer (b. 1997)
2024 – Richard Perry, American record producer (b. 1942)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Adela and Irmina
Paola Elisabetta Cerioli
Adam and Eve
December 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Christmas Eve (Christianity) and its related observances:
Aðfangadagskvöld, the day when the 13th and the last Yule Lad arrives to towns. (Iceland)
Feast of the Seven Fishes (Italian Americans)
Juleaften (Denmark)/Julaften (Norway)/Julafton (Sweden)
Nittel Nacht (certain Orthodox Jewish denominations)
Nochebuena (Spain and Spanish-speaking countries)
The Declaration of Christmas Peace (Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City)
Wigilia (Poland)
Quviasukvik, the Inuit new year (Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Russia)
Kūčios (Lithuania)
Independence Day (Libya)
Day of Military Honour – Siege of Ismail (Russia)
|
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"1957",
"Friedrich Bernhard Westphal",
"Nike, Inc.",
"Richard Adams",
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"1871",
"Fa'amanu Brown",
"Krzysztof Krauze",
"Pierre Péladeau",
"Dinny Lacey",
"William C. Schneider",
"Yıldıray Baştürk",
"P. J. Hairston",
"1818",
"Stephenie Meyer",
"Braguinha (composer)",
"1822",
"Benghazi",
"1761",
"Napoleon",
"Dave Bartholomew",
"United Kingdom",
"Egypt",
"Eric Moreland",
"Pierre Soulages",
"Chad–Sudan relations",
"Munetaka Higuchi",
"Premier League",
"Italian Hall disaster",
"Leonaert Bramer",
"Johannes Heesters",
"Turid Birkeland",
"Pope Celestine V",
"Diedrich Bader",
"Fritz Gause",
"Premier of Newfoundland",
"Cortelia Clark",
"Nobel Prize in Literature",
"Meridian, Mississippi",
"1625",
"Smithsonian (magazine)",
"2004",
"Mike Curb",
"1456",
"Liz Smith (actress)",
"Isaac De Gois",
"1500",
"Pei Di",
"1929",
"Puerto Inca District",
"1798",
"District of Columbia Home Rule Act",
"Stephen Mosher Wood",
"Rick Parfitt",
"M. G. Ramachandran",
"Ku Klux Klan",
"Crusades",
"Nawab of Awadh",
"Wilhelm Ackermann",
"640",
"Cooper Car Company",
"Lev Vlassenko",
"Tangiwai disaster",
"Kuching",
"Georges Guynemer",
"lunar orbit",
"Jainendra Kumar",
"Norma Talmadge",
"Charles Lock Eastlake",
"1995",
"Richard Perry",
"1294",
"Han Seung-woo",
"1726",
"Apollo program",
"James Prescott Joule",
"Tang dynasty",
"Anil Kapoor",
"Ville Pörhölä",
"Major League Baseball",
"List of German presidents",
"John Boswell",
"Qarmatians",
"Siegfried Alkan",
"Matt Frawley",
"Cyclone Tracy",
"Austin Stowell",
"1942",
"1903",
"Dennis O'Driscoll",
"Glenn McQueen",
"Time (magazine)",
"Pernille Fischer Christensen",
"Timo Jutila",
"1875",
"John M. Goldman",
"Handley Page Victor",
"List of governors of Portuguese India",
"Hōjō Tokiyori",
"1873",
"Caroline Aherne",
"Peru",
"George Warrington",
"Matt Calvert",
"Väinö Sipilä",
"2006",
"Viet Cong",
"Umuahia",
"1900",
"George Michael (sportscaster)",
"1865",
"Fiume",
"Ed Miliband",
"Juleaften (Denmark)",
"1905",
"LANSA Flight 508",
"1263",
"1998",
"Clarence Gilyard",
"Smarts Mountain",
"Josephine Sabel",
"971",
"Mary Barra",
"Wade Williams",
"1983",
"1389",
"Luis Musrri",
"1986",
"1281",
"Vichy France",
"1524",
"Taylor Zakhar Perez",
"Dorchester, New Hampshire",
"Peyo",
"Jean-Louis Pons",
"Fritz Leiber",
"Félix (footballer)",
"Uganda",
"Kyrylo Fesenko",
"Marleen Renders",
"Sudan",
"Constance of Austria",
"Stefanos Athanasiadis",
"Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange",
"Learjet 35",
"AD 36",
"Toshiro Mifune",
"UPI",
"Sodder children disappearance",
"Madrid Chamartín railway station",
"United States Military Academy",
"Virginia Sorensen",
"Charles Harvey Bollman",
"Ben Xi",
"Martha Érika Alonso",
"1257",
"Brigetta Barrett",
"Jaipur State",
"1897",
"Emperor Wu of Liang",
"Abdirizak Haji Hussein",
"ETA (separatist group)",
"1812",
"Erhard Keller",
"Sofia Black-D'Elia",
"Minister for the Cabinet Office",
"Anett Kontaveit",
"1955",
"Stanisław Błeszyński",
"Jawhar (general)",
"1810",
"Franz Waxman",
"Cephalonia",
"Michael Raymond-James",
"2005",
"Daniel Johnson, Jr.",
"Alexis Mac Allister",
"Andreas Karlstadt",
"War of 1812",
"1537",
"Letty Jimenez Magsanoc",
"Nochebuena",
"Christmas Eve",
"1956",
"Ivan Lawrence",
"Roger III of Sicily",
"Maarja-Liis Ilus",
"John Cantius",
"1588",
"December 31",
"Paal Nilssen-Love",
"Edward Greenspan",
"1882",
"Simon Zenke",
"Democratic Republic of the Congo",
"1991",
"Moon",
"Shim Hwa-jin",
"Axel Revold",
"1930",
"2014",
"1968",
"Algeria",
"1863",
"1797",
"Tatmadaw",
"Frans de Munck",
"Camille Tourville",
"Italian Americans",
"John Dunstaple",
"Charbel Makhluf",
"White House",
"Buddy DeFranco",
"Emperor of China",
"Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu",
"Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate",
"South Vietnam",
"1846",
"Stephen Appiah",
"1936",
"1973",
"Nittel Nacht",
"Chad",
"Tevfik Fikret",
"Max Miedinger",
"Bibliothèque nationale de France",
"Mariana of Austria",
"Matthew Arnold",
"Lennart Skoglund",
"Jack Klugman",
"1944",
"Marcelo Salas",
"1144",
"Mikhail Shchennikov",
"1997",
"Valentim Loureiro",
"WTOK-TV",
"Battle of Adré",
"Paul Manship",
"Aleppo",
"François Darlan",
"December 18",
"Ernst Krenkel",
"Mauricio Kagel",
"Noël Coypel",
"1868",
"1837",
"John Black (businessman)",
"William Contreras",
"Adam Haslett",
"1918",
"Prime Minister of France",
"Apollo 8",
"1698",
"1193",
"Pernilla Wahlgren",
"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland",
"World War II",
"Franco Lucentini",
"Aida",
"Aviation Safety Network",
"Kingdom of Yugoslavia",
"1960",
"1948",
"Vasco da Gama",
"radio",
"The Smurfs",
"Eino Tamberg",
"Gardner Fox",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Mississippi",
"Karl Dönitz",
"Mary Higgins Clark",
"Dana Gioia",
"1945",
"Tangiwai",
"John, King of England",
"List of Prime Ministers of France",
"Troy Dargan",
"Kate Spade",
"2017",
"Álvaro Mesén",
"1980",
"Prime Minister of the Netherlands",
"1974",
"Linda Ferga",
"1988",
"Harold Pinter",
"Jack Thayer",
"William Makepeace Thackeray",
"1737",
"Sid El-Antri massacre",
"Émile Wegelin",
"Alfred B. Skar",
"2011",
"Jake Thackray",
"Adela and Irmina",
"1959",
"Old Great Square (Turku)",
"1914",
"2008 Christmas massacres",
"Canadair CL-44",
"Bartolomeo degli Organi",
"Siege of Edessa (1144)",
"Nicholas Pumfrey",
"1996 New Hampshire Learjet crash",
"Milan Blagojevic (footballer)"
] |
8,360 |
December 26
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
887 – Berengar I is elected as king of Italy by the lords of Lombardy. He is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at Pavia.
1481 – Battle of Westbroek: An army of 4,000 to 5,000 soldiers raised by David of Burgundy, Bishop of Utrecht, attacks an armed mob of people from nearby Utrecht who were trying to avenge the massacre of the inhabitants of Westbroek.
===1601–1900===
1704 – Second Battle of Anandpur: In the Second Battle of Anandpur, Aurangzeb's two generals, Wazir Khan and Zaberdast Khan executed two children of Guru Gobind Singh, Zorawar Singh aged eight and Fateh Singh aged five, by burying them alive into a wall.
1709 – The opera Agrippina by George Frideric Handel premiered in Venice.
1723 – Bach led the first performance of Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes, BWV 40, his first Christmas Cantata composed for Leipzig.
1776 – American Revolutionary War: In the Battle of Trenton, the Continental Army under General George Washington executes a successful surprise attack and defeats a garrison of Hessian forces serving Great Britain.
1790 – Louis XVI of France gives his public assent to Civil Constitution of the Clergy during the French Revolution.
1793 – Second Battle of Wissembourg: France defeats Austria.
1799 – Henry Lee III's eulogy to George Washington in congress declares him as "first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen".
1805 – Austria and France sign the Treaty of Pressburg.
1806 – Battles of Pultusk and Golymin: Russian forces hold French forces under Napoleon.
1811 – A theater fire in Richmond, Virginia kills 72 people, including the Governor of Virginia George William Smith and the president of the First National Bank of Virginia Abraham B. Venable.
1825 – Advocates of liberalism in Russia rise up against Czar Nicholas I in the Decembrist revolt, but are later suppressed.
1843 – The discovery of octonions by John T. Graves, who denoted them with a boldface O, was announced to his mathematician friend William Hamilton, discoverer of quaternions, in a letter on this date.
1860 – First Rules derby is held between Sheffield F.C. and Hallam F.C., the oldest football fixture in the world.
1861 – American Civil War: The Trent Affair: Confederate diplomatic envoys James Murray Mason and John Slidell are freed by the United States government, thus easing tensions between the U.S. and the United Kingdom.
1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Chickasaw Bayou begins as Union General William T. Sherman starts landing his troops in an attempt to advance on Vicksburg, Mississippi.
1862 – Dakota War of 1862: The largest mass-hanging in U.S. history takes place in Mankato, Minnesota, where 38 Native American prisoners are hanged.
1871 – Thespis, the first Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration, debuts.
1898 – Marie and Pierre Curie announce the isolation of radium.
===1901–present===
1919 – Babe Ruth of the Boston Red Sox is sold to the New York Yankees by owner Harry Frazee, allegedly establishing the Curse of the Bambino superstition.
1926 – World premiere of Sibelius's tone poem Tapiola.
1941 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs a bill establishing the fourth Thursday in November as Thanksgiving Day in the United States.
1941 – British Prime Minister Winston Churchill addresses a joint meeting of the U.S. Congress.
1943 – World War II: German warship Scharnhorst is sunk off Norway's North Cape after a battle against major Royal Navy forces.
1944 – World War II: George S. Patton's Third Army breaks the encirclement of surrounded U.S. forces at Bastogne, Belgium.
1948 – Cardinal József Mindszenty is arrested in Hungary and accused of treason and conspiracy.
1948 – The last Soviet troops withdraw from North Korea.
1963 – The Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand" and "I Saw Her Standing There" are released in the United States, marking the beginning of Beatlemania on an international level.
1966 – The first Kwanzaa is celebrated by Maulana Karenga, the chair of Black Studies at California State University, Long Beach.
1968 – The Communist Party of the Philippines is established by Jose Maria Sison, breaking away from the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930.
1972 – Vietnam War: As part of Operation Linebacker II, 120 American B-52 Stratofortress bombers attacked Hanoi, including 78 launched from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, the largest single combat launch in Strategic Air Command history.
1975 – Tu-144, the world's first commercial supersonic aircraft, surpassing Mach 2, goes into service.
1978 – The inaugural Paris-Dakar Rally begins.
1980 – Witnesses report the first of several sightings of unexplained lights near RAF Woodbridge, in Rendlesham Forest, Suffolk, England, United Kingdom, an incident called "Britain's Roswell".
1989 – United Express Flight 2415 crashes on approach to the Tri-Cities Airport in Pasco, Washington, killing all six people on board.
1991 – The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union meets and formally dissolves the Soviet Union, ending the Cold War.
1994 – Four Armed Islamic Group hijackers seize control of Air France Flight 8969. When the plane lands at Marseille, a French Gendarmerie assault team boards the aircraft and kills the hijackers.
1998 – Iraq announces its intention to fire upon U.S. and British warplanes that patrol the northern and southern no-fly zones.
1999 – The storm Lothar sweeps across Central Europe, killing 137 and causing US$1.3 billion in damage.
2003 – The 6.6 Bam earthquake shakes southeastern Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), leaving more than 26,000 dead and 30,000 injured.
2004 – The 9.1–9.3 Indian Ocean earthquake shakes northern Sumatra with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). One of the largest observed tsunamis, it affected coastal and partially mainland areas of Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Indonesia; death toll is estimated at 227,898.
2004 – Orange Revolution: The final run-off election in Ukraine is held under heavy international scrutiny.
2006 – Two earthquakes in Hengchun, Taiwan measuring 7.0 and 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale kill two and disrupt telecommunications across Asia.
2012 – China opens the world's longest high-speed rail route, which links Beijing and Guangzhou.
2015 – A violent EF-4 tornado hits Garland, Texas, killing nine and injuring almost 500 others.
2021 – Three people are killed when a 13-year-old opens fire on civilians at a Texaco convenience store in Garland, Texas.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
1194 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1250)
1446 – Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, French noble (d. 1472)
1526 – Rose Lok, businesswoman and Protestant exile (d. 1613)
1532 – Wilhelm Xylander, German scholar and academic (d. 1576)
1536 – Yi I, Korean philosopher and scholar (d. 1584)
1537 – Albert, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1593)
1581 – Philip III, Landgrave of Hesse-Butzbach (d. 1643)
===1601–1900===
1618 – Elisabeth of the Palatinate, German princess, philosopher, and Calvinist (d. 1680)
1628 – John Page, English Colonial politician (d. 1692)
1646 – Robert Bolling, English/English Colonial
1785 – Étienne Constantin de Gerlache, Belgian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1871)
1782 – Philaret Drozdov, Russian metropolitan and saint (d. 1867)
1791 – Charles Babbage, English mathematician and engineer, invented the Difference engine (d. 1871)
1803 – Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (d. 1882)
1819 – E. D. E. N. Southworth, American author and educator (d. 1899)
1820 – Dion Boucicault, Irish actor and playwright (d. 1890)
1837 – Morgan Bulkeley, American soldier and politician, 54th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1922)
1837 – George Dewey, American admiral (d. 1917)
1852 – Johannes François Snelleman, Dutch zoologist, orientalist, and ethnographer (d. 1938)
1853 – René Bazin, French author and academic (d. 1932)
1854 – José Yves Limantour, Mexican financier and politician, Mexican Secretary of Finance (d. 1935)
1859 – William Stephens, American lawyer and politician, 24th Governor of California (d. 1944)
1863 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, co-founded Pathé Records (d. 1957)
1864 – Yun Chi-ho, Korean activist and politician (d. 1945)
1867 – Phan Bội Châu, Vietnamese activist (d. 1940)
1869 – Mathieu Cordang, Dutch cyclist (d. 1942)
1870 – Virginia Bolten, Argentine feminist and trade unionist (d. 1960)
1872 – Norman Angell, English journalist, academic, and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
1873 – Thomas Wass, English cricketer (d. 1953)
1874 – Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah, Bangladeshi theologian and academic (d. 1965)
1883 – Maurice Utrillo, French painter (d. 1955)
1885 – Bazoline Estelle Usher, African-American educator (d. 1992)
1887 – Arthur Percival, English general (d. 1966)
1888 – Marius Canard, French orientalist and historian (d. 1982)
1889 – Ragnhild Kaarbø, Norwegian painter (d. 1949)
1890 – Konstantinos Georgakopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973)
1890 – Percy Hodge, English runner (d. 1967)
1891 – Henry Miller, American author and painter (d. 1980)
1892 – Don Barclay, American actor and illustrator (d. 1975)
1893 – Mao Zedong, Chinese politician, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (d. 1976)
1894 – Jean Toomer, American author and poet (d. 1967)
1900 – Evelyn Bark, leading member of the British Red Cross, first female recipient of the CMG (d. 1993)
===1901–present===
1901 – Elmar Muuk, Estonian linguist and author (d. 1941)
1902 – Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1980)
1903 – Elisha Cook, Jr., American actor (d. 1995)
1904 – Alejo Carpentier, Swiss-Cuban musicologist and author (d. 1980)
1905 – William Loeb III, American publisher (d. 1981)
1907 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1998)
1908 – Ralph Hill, American runner (d. 1994)
1909 – Matt Gordy, American pole vaulter (d. 1989)
1910 – Imperio Argentina, Argentine-Spanish actress and singer (d. 2003)
1910 – Marguerite Churchill, American actress (d. 2000)
1912 – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (d. 1962)
1913 – Frank Swift, English footballer and journalist (d. 1958)
1914 – Richard Widmark, American actor (d. 2008)
1915 – Rolf Botvid, Swedish actor and screenwriter (d. 1998)
1918 – Olga Lopes-Seale, Guyanese-Barbadian singer and radio host (d. 2011)
1918 – Georgios Rallis, Greek lieutenant and politician, 173rd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2006)
1921 – Steve Allen, American actor, singer, talk show host, and screenwriter (d. 2000)
1921 – John Severin, American illustrator (d. 2012)
1922 – Richard Mayes, English actor (d. 2006)
1923 – Richard Artschwager, American painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 2013)
1924 – Frank Broyles, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2017)
1926 – Earle Brown, American composer (d. 2002)
1927 – Denis Gifford, English journalist and historian (d. 2000)
1927 – Alan King, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)
1927 – Stu Miller, American baseball player (d. 2015)
1927 – Denis Quilley, English actor (d. 2003)
1928 – Martin Cooper, American engineer, invented the mobile phone
1929 – Kathleen Crowley, American actress (d. 2017)
1929 – Régine Zylberberg, Belgian-French singer and actress (d. 2022)
1930 – Jean Ferrat, French singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2010)
1930 – Harry Gamble, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)
1930 – Donald Moffat, English-American actor (d. 2018)
1933 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and voice actor (d. 2019)
1935 – Rohan Kanhai, Guyanese cricketer
1935 – Norm Ullman, Canadian ice hockey player
1936 – Kitty Dukakis, American author, First Lady of Massachusetts (d. 2025)
1936 – Peep Jänes, Estonian architect
1936 – Trevor Taylor, English race car driver (d. 2010)
1937 – John Horton Conway, English mathematician, known for Conway's Game of Life (d. 2020)
1938 – Bahram Beyzai, Iranian director, producer, and screenwriter
1938 – Robert Hamerton-Kelly, South African-American pastor, scholar, and author (d. 2013)
1938 – Alamgir Kabir, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1989)
1938 – Mirko Kovač, Yugoslav-Croatian author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
1939 – Fred Schepisi, Australian director and screenwriter
1939 – Phil Spector, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2021)
1940 – Edward C. Prescott, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022)
1940 – Ray Sadecki, American baseball player (d. 2014)
1941 – Daniel Schmid, Swiss actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006)
1942 – Vinicio Cerezo, Guatemalan politician, 28th President of Guatemala
1942 – Catherine Coulter, American author
1942 – Gray Davis, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of California
1944 – William Ayers, American academic and activist
1945 – John Walsh, American television host, producer, and activist, created America's Most Wanted
1946 – Alan Frumin, American lawyer and politician
1946 – Tiit Rosenberg, Estonian historian and academic
1947 – James T. Conway, American general
1947 – Jean Echenoz, French author
1947 – Carlton Fisk, American baseball player
1947 – Josef Janíček, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and keyboard player
1947 – Liz Lochhead, Scottish poet and playwright
1947 – Richard Levis McCormick, American historian and academic
1948 – Candy Crowley, American journalist
1949 – José Ramos-Horta, East Timorese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of East Timor, Nobel Prize laureate
1950 – Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, Pakistani businessman and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Pakistan
1950 – Mario Mendoza, Mexican baseball player and manager
1953 – Leonel Fernández, Dominican lawyer and politician, 51st President of the Dominican Republic
1953 – Toomas Hendrik Ilves, Swedish-Estonian journalist and politician, 4th President of Estonia
1953 – Makis Katsavakis, Greek footballer and manager
1953 – Henning Schmitz, German drummer
1954 – Peter Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer and philanthropist
1954 – Ozzie Smith, American baseball player and sportscaster
1955 – Evan Bayh, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of Indiana
1956 – David Sedaris, American comedian, author, and radio host
1957 – Dermot Murnaghan, English-Northern Irish journalist and game show host
1958 – Adrian Newey, English aerodynamicist and engineer
1959 – Wang Lijun, Chinese police officer and politician
1959 – Kōji Morimoto, Japanese animator and director
1959 – Hans Nielsen, Danish motorcycle racer
1960 – Keith Martin Ball, American mathematician and academic
1960 – Ruud Kaiser, Dutch footballer and manager
1960 – Cem Uzan, Turkish businessman and politician
1961 – Andrew Lock, Australian mountaineer
1962 – James Kottak, American drummer (d. 2024)
1962 – Mark Starr, English wrestler (d. 2013)
1963 – Craig Teitzel, Australian rugby league player
1963 – Lars Ulrich, Danish-American drummer, songwriter, and producer
1964 – Elizabeth Kostova, American author
1966 – Jay Farrar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1966 – Tim Legler, American basketball player and sportscaster
1968 – Matt Zoller Seitz, American film critic and author
1969 – Isaac Viciosa, Spanish runner
1970 – James Mercer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1971 – Jared Leto, American actor and musician
1971 – Mika Nurmela, Finnish footballer
1971 – Tatiana Sorokko, Russian-American model and journalist
1972 – Gaby Colebunders, Belgian politician
1972 – Esteban Fuertes, Argentinian footballer
1972 – Robert Muchamore, English author
1973 – Paulo Frederico Benevenute, Brazilian footballer
1973 – Gianluca Faliva, Italian rugby player
1973 – Nobuhiko Matsunaka, Japanese baseball player
1973 – Steve Prescott, English rugby player (d. 2013)
1974 – Joshua John Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter
1975 – Chris Calaguio, Filipino basketball player
1975 – Marcelo Ríos, Chilean tennis player
1975 – María Vasco, Spanish race walker
1976 – Simon Goodwin, Australian footballer and coach
1977 – Fatih Akyel, Turkish footballer and manager
1977 – Adrienn Hegedűs, Hungarian tennis player
1978 – Karel Rüütli, Estonian lawyer and politician
1978 – Kaoru Sugayama, Japanese volleyball player
1979 – Fabián Carini, Uruguayan footballer
1979 – Chris Daughtry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1979 – Dimitry Vassiliev, Russian ski jumper
1979 – Craig Wing, Australian rugby player
1980 – Todd Dunivant, American soccer player
1980 – Ceylan Ertem, Turkish singer
1981 – Pablo Canavosio, Argentine-Italian rugby player
1981 – Omar Infante, Venezuelan baseball player
1982 – Kenneth Darby, American football player
1982 – Noel Hunt, Irish footballer
1982 – Aksel Lund Svindal, Norwegian skier
1983 – Jeroen Soete, Belgian politician
1983 – Yu Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter
1983 – Alexander Wang, American fashion designer
1984 – Ahmed Barusso, Ghanaian footballer
1984 – Leonardo Ghiraldini, Italian rugby player
1984 – Alex Schwazer, Italian race walker
1985 – Damir Markota, Croatian basketball player
1986 – Joe Alexander, American-Israeli basketball player
1986 – Kit Harington, English actor
1986 – Hugo Lloris, French footballer
1986 – Selen Soyder, Turkish actress and beauty queen
1987 – Oskar Osala, Finnish ice hockey player
1989 – Yohan Blake, Jamaican sprinter
1989 – Sofiane Feghouli, Algerian footballer
1989 – Tomáš Kundrátek, Czech ice hockey player
1990 – Denis Cheryshev, Russian footballer
1990 – Cory Jefferson, American basketball player
1990 – Aaron Ramsey, Welsh footballer
1991 – Brandon Scherff, American football player
1991 – Eden Sher, American actress
1991 – Trevor Siemian, American football player
1992 – Cecilia Costa Melgar, Chilean tennis player
1992 – Jade Thirlwall, English singer
1994 – Colby Cave, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2020)
1994 – Souleymane Coulibaly, Ivorian footballer
1997 – Tamara Zidanšek, Slovenian tennis player
2001 – Aleksej Pokuševski, Serbian basketball player
2002 – Josh Wilson-Esbrand, English footballer
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
268 – Dionysius, pope of the Catholic Church
418 – Zosimus, pope of the Catholic Church
831 – Euthymius of Sardis, Byzantine bishop and saint (b. 754)
865 – Zheng, empress of the Tang Dynasty
893 – Masrur al-Balkhi, Abbasid general
1006 – Gao Qiong, Chinese general (b. 935)
1191 – Reginald Fitz Jocelin, archbishop-elect of Canterbury
1302 – Valdemar, king of Sweden (b. 1239)
1331 – Philip I, Prince of Taranto, titular Latin Emperor (b. 1278)
1350 – Jean de Marigny, French archbishop
1352 – John, 3rd Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1330)
1360 – Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent, English commander (b. 1314)
1413 – Michele Steno, doge of Venice (b. 1331)
1441 – Niccolò III d'Este, marquess of Ferrara
1458 – Arthur III, duke of Brittany (b. 1393)
1476 – Galeazzo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan (b. 1444)
1530 – Babur, Mughal emperor (b. 1483)
1574 – Charles de Lorraine, French cardinal (b. 1524)
===1601–1900===
1646 – Henri de Bourbon, prince of Condé (b. 1588)
1731 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French author (b. 1672)
1771 – Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosopher and activist (b. 1715)
1780 – John Fothergill, English physician and botanist (b. 1712)
1784 – Seth Warner, American colonel (b. 1743)
1786 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (b. 1713)
1863 – Francis Caulfeild, 2nd Earl of Charlemont, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (b. 1775)
1869 – Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille, French physician and physiologist (b. 1797)
1890 – Heinrich Schliemann, German-Italian archaeologist and author (b. 1822)
===1901–present===
1902 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (b. 1849)
1909 – Frederic Remington, American painter and illustrator (b. 1861)
1923 – Dietrich Eckart, German journalist, poet, and politician (b. 1868)
1925 – Jan Letzel, Czech architect, designed the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (b. 1880)
1929 – Albert Giraud, Belgian poet (b. 1860)
1931 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian and educator, created the Dewey Decimal Classification (b. 1851)
1933 – Mary Ann Bevan, English nurse who, after developing acromegaly, toured the circus sideshow circuit as "the ugliest woman in the world" (b. 1874)
1933 – Anatoly Lunacharsky, Russian journalist and politician (b. 1875)
1933 – Henry Watson Fowler, English lexicographer and educator (b. 1858)
1959 – Jack Tresadern, English footballer and manager (b. 1890)
1960 – Tetsuro Watsuji, Japanese historian and philosopher (b. 1889)
1963 – Gorgeous George, American wrestler (b. 1915)
1966 – Ina Boudier-Bakker, Dutch author (b. 1875)
1966 – Herbert Otto Gille, German general (b. 1897)
1966 – Guillermo Stábile, Argentinian footballer and manager (b. 1905)
1968 – Weegee, Ukrainian-American photographer and journalist (b. 1898)
1970 – Lillian Board, South African-English runner (b. 1948)
1972 – Harry S. Truman, American colonel and politician, 33rd President of the United States (b. 1884)
1973 – Harold B. Lee, American religious leader, 11th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1899)
1974 – Farid al-Atrash, Syrian-Egyptian singer-songwriter, oud player, and actor (b. 1915)
1974 – Jack Benny, American comedian, vaudevillian, actor, and violinist (b. 1894)
1974 – Frederick Dalrymple-Hamilton, Scottish admiral (b. 1890)
1977 – Howard Hawks, American director and screenwriter (b. 1896)
1980 – Tony Smith, American sculptor and educator (b. 1912)
1980 – Richard Chase, American cannibalistic serial killer and necrophile (b. 1950)
1981 – Amber Reeves, New Zealand-English author and scholar (b. 1887)
1981 – Suat Hayri Ürgüplü, Turkish politician, Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1903)
1981 – Savitri, Indian actress, playback singer, dancer, director and producer (b. 1936)
1983 – Hans Liska, Austrian-German artist (b. 1907)
1986 – Elsa Lanchester, English-American actress (b. 1902)
1987 – Dorothy Bliss, American invertebrate zoologist, curator at the American Museum of Natural History (b. 1916)
1988 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (b. 1907)
1988 – Pablo Sorozábal, German-Spanish composer and conductor (b. 1897)
1989 – Doug Harvey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1924)
1990 – Gene Callahan, American art director and production designer (b. 1923)
1994 – Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (b. 1933)
1997 – Cahit Arf, Turkish mathematician and academic (b. 1910)
1997 – Cornelius Castoriadis, Greek economist and philosopher (b. 1922)
1998 – Ram Swarup, Indian writer on Hindu philosophy and religion (b. 1920)
1999 – Curtis Mayfield, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)
1999 – Shankar Dayal Sharma, Indian academic and politician, 9th President of India (b. 1918)
2000 – Jason Robards, American actor (b. 1922)
2001 – Nigel Hawthorne, English actor (b. 1929)
2002 – Herb Ritts, American photographer and director (b. 1952)
2002 – Armand Zildjian, American businessman, founded the Avedis Zildjian Company (b. 1921)
2003 – Virginia Coffey, American civil rights activist (b. 1904)
2004 – Jonathan Drummond-Webb, South African surgeon and academic (b. 1959)
2004 – Angus Ogilvy, English businessman (b. 1928)
2004 – Reggie White, American football player and wrestler (b. 1961)
Casualties of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami:
Troy Broadbridge, Australian footballer (b. 1980)
Sigurd Køhn, Norwegian saxophonist and composer (b. 1959)
Mieszko Talarczyk, Polish-Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1974)
2005 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano (b. 1937)
2005 – Ted Ditchburn, English footballer and manager (b. 1921)
2005 – Kerry Packer, Australian publisher and businessman (b. 1937)
2005 – Viacheslav Platonov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1939)
2005 – Vincent Schiavelli, American actor (b. 1948)
2005 – Erich Topp, German commander (b. 1914)
2006 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (b. 1913)
2006 – Ivar Formo, Norwegian skier and engineer (b. 1951)
2006 – Munir Niazi, Pakistani poet (b. 1923)
2009 – Felix Wurman, American cellist and composer (b. 1958)
2010 – Salvador Jorge Blanco, 48th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1926)
2010 – Edward Bhengu, South African activist (b. 1934)
2010 – Teena Marie, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1956)
2011 – Houston Antwine, American football player (b. 1939)
2011 – Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (b. 1940)
2011 – Sarekoppa Bangarappa, Indian politician, 15th Chief Minister of Karnataka (b. 1932)
2011 – Joe Bodolai, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1948)
2011 – James Rizzi, American painter and illustrator (b. 1950)
2012 – Gerry Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929)
2012 – Gerald McDermott, American author and illustrator (b. 1941)
2012 – Ibrahim Tannous, Lebanese general (b. 1929)
2013 – Paul Blair, American baseball player and coach (b. 1944)
2013 – Marta Eggerth, Hungarian-American actress and singer (b. 1912)
2014 – Stanisław Barańczak, Polish-American poet, critic, and scholar (b. 1946)
2014 – James B. Edwards, American dentist, soldier, and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of Energy (b. 1927)
2014 – Leo Tindemans, Belgian politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1922)
2015 – Sidney Mintz, American anthropologist and academic (b. 1922)
2015 – Jim O'Toole, American baseball player (b. 1937)
2016 – Ricky Harris, American comedian, actor (b. 1962)
2016 – George S. Irving, American actor, singer and dancer (b. 1922)
2017 – Irv Weinstein, American broadcaster and television news anchor (b. 1930)
2020 – Brodie Lee, American Professional Wrestler (b. 1979)
2021 – Giacomo Capuzzi, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodi (b. 1929)
2021 – Paul B. Kidd, Australian author, journalist, and radio show host (b. 1945)
2021 – Karolos Papoulias, Greek politician, President of Greece from 2005 to 2015 (b. 1929)
2021 – Desmond Tutu, South African Anglican bishop, theologian and anti-apartheid and human rights activist (b. 1931)
2021 – Edward O. Wilson, American biologist (b. 1929)
2023 – Lukas Enembe, Indonesian politician, Governor of Papua from 2013 to 2023 (b.1967)
2023 – Tom Smothers, American comedian, actor, and activist (b. 1937)
2024 – Richard Parsons, American business executive (b. 1948)
2024 – Manmohan Singh, Indian economist and politician, 13th Prime Minister of India (b. 1932)
==Holidays and observances==
Boxing Day, except when December 26 is a Sunday. If it is a Sunday, Boxing Day is transferred to December 27 by Royal Proclamation. (Commonwealth of Nations), and its related observances:
Day of Good Will (South Africa and Namibia)
Family Day (Vanuatu)
Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands)
Christian feast day:
Abadiu of Antinoe (Coptic Church)
Earliest day on which Feast of the Holy Family can fall, celebrated on Sunday after Christmas or 30 if Christmas falls on a Sunday.
James the Just (Eastern Orthodox Church)
Saint Stephen (Western Church)
Synaxis of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox Church)
December 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia)
Mauro Hamza Day (Houston, Texas)
Mummer's Day (Padstow, Cornwall)
Saint Stephen's Day (public holiday in Alsace, Austria, Catalonia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland), and its related observances:
Father's Day (Bulgaria)
The first day of Kwanzaa, celebrated until January 1 (United States)
The first day of Junkanoo street parade, the second day is on the New Year's Day (The Bahamas)
The second day of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
Second day of Christmas (Public holiday in the Netherlands, Poland and Slovakia)
Wren Day (Ireland and the Isle of Man)
|
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"Kathleen Crowley",
"Jean Ferrat",
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"1994",
"James T. Conway",
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"Gene Callahan (production designer)",
"1972",
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"2016",
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"Isle of Man",
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"Noel Hunt",
"1943",
"Earle Brown",
"John Severin",
"Cornelius Castoriadis",
"1954",
"Karel Rüütli",
"Angus Ogilvy",
"Saint Stephen",
"Orange Revolution",
"David of Burgundy",
"Battle of Pułtusk",
"Associated Press",
"1860",
"Thomas Gray",
"Gray Davis",
"1852",
"Reuter, Timothy",
"Operation Linebacker II",
"William Loeb III",
"Agrippina (opera)",
"Abraham B. Venable",
"Prime Minister of Belgium",
"John T. Graves",
"Catalonia",
"1811",
"1977",
"Dissolution of the Soviet Union",
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"M. E. Sharpe",
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"Rolf Botvid",
"1947",
"Iran",
"Bazoline Estelle Usher",
"Battle of Golymin",
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"Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences",
"Saint Stephen's Day",
"Pedro Armendáriz, Jr.",
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"1791",
"1922",
"New York Yankees",
"Maurice Utrillo",
"Leo Tindemans",
"High-speed rail in China",
"The New York Times",
"Lombardy",
"2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami",
"Simon Goodwin",
"1931",
"Shankar Dayal Sharma",
"1992",
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"418",
"2013",
"Alsace",
"Joe Alexander",
"Africana studies",
"1953",
"Maldives",
"Alan King",
"1933",
"supersonic aircraft",
"Rendlesham Forest",
"1790",
"1716",
"1825",
"Wang Lijun",
"Raja Pervaiz Ashraf",
"Richard Artschwager",
"Gilbert and Sullivan",
"Mary Somerville",
"E. D. E. N. Southworth",
"Rohan Kanhai",
"Cecilia Costa Melgar",
"Elisha Cook, Jr.",
"Curse of the Bambino",
"1935",
"Synaxis",
"1970",
"1786",
"2009",
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"2021",
"Air France Flight 8969",
"Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry",
"1883",
"1985",
"2010",
"Mirko Kovač (writer)",
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"George Dewey",
"John Horton Conway",
"José Ramos-Horta",
"Mary Ann Bevan",
"John Slidell",
"Tu-144",
"Yu Takahashi (singer-songwriter)",
"Padstow",
"1870",
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"1990",
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"Lukas Enembe",
"Sarekoppa Bangarappa",
"J. Merrill Knapp",
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"1961",
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"Vinicio Cerezo",
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"Jim O'Toole",
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"Elizabeth Kostova",
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"1938",
"1999",
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"Ceylan Ertem",
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"Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone",
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"John, 3rd Earl of Kent",
"Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm",
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"Babe Ruth",
"Tomáš Kundrátek",
"1978",
"Mark Starr",
"Dietrich Eckart",
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"Carlton Fisk",
"Jean Echenoz",
"Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah",
"Jay Farrar",
"1458",
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"1987",
"1892",
"List of Governors of Connecticut",
"1919",
"Nobel Peace Prize",
"1939",
"Keith Martin Ball",
"Steve Prescott",
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"2002",
"Jared Leto",
"2001",
"Lord George Gordon",
"Chris Calaguio",
"Ahmed Barusso",
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"Richard Chase",
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"Joshua John Miller",
"Virginia Bolten",
"ESPN",
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"Heinrich Schliemann",
"Craig Wing",
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"James Mercer (musician)",
"Kit Harington",
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"public holidays in the Netherlands",
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"Aleksej Pokuševski",
"Phil Spector",
"James B. Edwards",
"Paulo Frederico Benevenute",
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"Howard Hawks",
"Mario Mendoza",
"Berengar I of Italy",
"Craig Teitzel",
"James Rizzi",
"Jose Maria Sison",
"Yi I",
"American Revolutionary War",
"1989",
"United States Army Central",
"Mathieu Cordang",
"2000",
"1927",
"Kōji Morimoto",
"Nicholas I of Russia",
"Ivar Formo",
"Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille",
"Armed Islamic Group of Algeria",
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"Esteban Fuertes",
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"1984",
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"Mika Nurmela",
"Toomas Hendrik Ilves",
"Bahram Beyzai",
"Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George",
"1907",
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"1923",
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"Thomas Wass",
"Cory Jefferson",
"I Saw Her Standing There",
"Frank Swift",
"1975",
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"Georgios Rallis",
"1888",
"1958",
"Michele Steno",
"Oskar Osala",
"Elsa Lanchester",
"President of India",
"Brandon Scherff",
"1941",
"Cold War",
"Difference engine",
"Robert Hamerton-Kelly",
"Store norske leksikon",
"1908",
"Kerry Packer",
"Philip I, Prince of Taranto",
"Brodie Lee",
"831",
"George Frideric Handel",
"Franklin D. Roosevelt",
"Henry Watson Fowler",
"1867",
"1949",
"Pierre Curie",
"Beijing",
"Gorgeous George",
"1969",
"1799",
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"Arthur III, Duke of Brittany",
"1962",
"1731",
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"United Express Flight 2415",
"United States Secretary of Energy",
"Harry Gamble",
"1889",
"Liz Lochhead",
"Richard Widmark",
"1481",
"Guru Gobind Singh",
"Guangzhou",
"Francis Caulfeild, 2nd Earl of Charlemont",
"Norm Ullman",
"Andersen Air Force Base",
"1891",
"Salvador Jorge Blanco",
"José Yves Limantour",
"Louis XVI",
"Garland, Texas",
"1885",
"Trevor Siemian",
"Martin Cooper (inventor)",
"1413",
"1957",
"Ozzie Smith",
"1871",
"Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald",
"Todd Dunivant",
"1806",
"1820",
"Masrur al-Balkhi",
"Wren Day",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodi",
"Frederic Remington",
"Avedis Zildjian Company",
"Edward Bhengu",
"Prime Minister of India",
"Texaco",
"Napoleon",
"December 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"Premier League",
"Decembrist revolt",
"René Bazin",
"Vicksburg, Mississippi",
"1782",
"Pablo Canavosio",
"Evan Bayh",
"1302",
"Ina Boudier-Bakker",
"Charles Pathé",
"Siege of Bastogne",
"Conway's Game of Life",
"Henning Schmitz",
"Guillermo Stábile",
"Hiroshima Peace Memorial",
"Houston",
"2004",
"Mummer's Day",
"Croatia",
"Abadiu of Antinoe",
"Frederick Dalrymple-Hamilton",
"1859",
"Lars Ulrich",
"1929",
"Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union",
"Farid al-Atrash",
"Weegee",
"Kitty Dukakis",
"Henry Lee III",
"New Year's Day",
"Bangladesh",
"Union (American Civil War)",
"Evelyn Bark",
"Ray Sadecki",
"1862",
"William Ayers",
"Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands)",
"Iraqi no-fly zones",
"George S. Patton",
"Babur",
"Ibrahim Tannous",
"Hugo Lloris",
"Pablo Sorozábal",
"Chief Minister of Karnataka",
"1581",
"Stu Miller",
"Gerry Anderson",
"Richard Mayes",
"Sumatra",
"Ruud Kaiser",
"Nigel Hawthorne",
"Richard Parsons (businessman)",
"Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine",
"Tim Legler",
"Melvil Dewey",
"Peep Jänes",
"Thailand",
"Pathé Records",
"Norman Angell",
"President of Guatemala",
"James Kottak",
"Matt Gordy",
"Battle of Trenton",
"Empress Dowager Zheng",
"Major League Baseball",
"Omar Infante",
"Rose Lok",
"2006 Hengchun earthquakes",
"Elmar Muuk",
"Beijing–Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong High-Speed Railway",
"1942",
"1903",
"Nobuhiko Matsunaka",
"Manmohan Singh",
"National Gendarmerie",
"Jan Letzel",
"Mayor of Manila",
"1805",
"1909",
"Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)",
"Joe Bodolai",
"Malaysia",
"Trevor Taylor (racing driver)",
"1873",
"Mary Hartwell Catherwood",
"Mao Zedong",
"1864",
"Curtis Mayfield",
"2006",
"American Civil War",
"Antoine Houdar de la Motte",
"1900",
"Doug Harvey (ice hockey)",
"Marta Eggerth",
"Maulana Karenga",
"1905",
"1476",
"Luxembourg",
"1998",
"List of bishops and archbishops of Utrecht",
"President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"David Sedaris",
"Suat Hayri Ürgüplü",
"Cornwall",
"Kaoru Sugayama",
"Clemens Maria Hofbauer",
"Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan",
"1983",
"1890",
"1776",
"Euthymius of Sardis",
"Arsenio Lacson",
"Selen Soyder",
"1986",
"Marcelo Ríos",
"Phan Bội Châu",
"Shamrock Hotel",
"Thespis (opera)",
"Percy Hodge",
"Sidney Mintz",
"2024",
"2021 Garland shooting",
"Harry Frazee",
"UPI",
"Fatih Akyel",
"1530",
"Desmond Tutu",
"William Stephens (American politician)",
"Hanoi",
"Boxing Day",
"1536",
"Prime Minister of Pakistan",
"First French Empire",
"Steve Allen",
"Dermot Murnaghan",
"Morgan Bulkeley",
"Isaac Viciosa",
"Reginald Fitz Jocelin",
"List of governors of Papua",
"Twelve Days of Christmas",
"Boeing B-52 Stratofortress",
"1955",
"Aaron Ramsey",
"Dakota War of 1862",
"Catherine Coulter",
"2005",
"1537",
"1901",
"József Mindszenty",
"Vincent Schiavelli",
"1956",
"Sri Lanka",
"Cyclone Lothar",
"Fabián Carini",
"Elisabeth of the Palatinate",
"Hessian (soldier)",
"Andrew Lock",
"1991",
"Kenneth Darby",
"Tiit Rosenberg",
"1930",
"2014",
"1968",
"1863",
"1793",
"Marguerite Churchill",
"Olga Lopes-Seale",
"Denis Gifford",
"Robert Muchamore",
"Rendlesham Forest incident",
"1360",
"Tamara Zidanšek",
"Aircraft hijacking",
"Reggie White",
"1646",
"1902",
"893",
"India",
"Ricky Harris",
"Slovakia",
"Stanisław Barańczak",
"North Cape (Norway)",
"Dorothy Bliss",
"Frank Broyles",
"Commonwealth of Nations",
"1936",
"Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party",
"1973",
"Public holidays in South Africa",
"1331",
"Utrecht",
"Harold B. Lee",
"Battle of the North Cape",
"James (brother of Jesus)",
"1441",
"Niccolò III d'Este",
"President of East Timor",
"Jack Tresadern",
"1687",
"Savitri (actress)",
"268",
"Herbert Otto Gille",
"Viacheslav Platonov",
"Latin Church",
"1944",
"Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent",
"1784",
"1997",
"1526",
"Valdemar, King of Sweden",
"Battle of Westbroek",
"John Walsh (television host)",
"moment magnitude scale",
"Ba'athist Iraq",
"Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)",
"Leonel Fernández",
"María Vasco",
"1837",
"1785",
"Asia",
"1918",
"Marius Canard",
"1861",
"Leonardo Ghiraldini",
"Jack Benny",
"Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930",
"Mauro Hamza",
"President of Greece",
"America's Most Wanted",
"1618",
"Jean François de Saint-Lambert",
"President of Estonia",
"December 27",
"World War II",
"Aviation Safety Network",
"Hans Nielsen (speedway rider)",
"1960",
"1948",
"Philaret Drozdov",
"Philip III, Landgrave of Hesse-Butzbach",
"First Ladies and Gentlemen of Massachusetts",
"Étienne Constantin de Gerlache",
"Fred Schepisi",
"oud",
"1006",
"Muriel Costa-Greenspon",
"Galeazzo Maria Sforza",
"Jeroen Soete",
"Munir Niazi",
"Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria",
"1704",
"Henry Miller",
"1945",
"Suffolk",
"Houston Antwine",
"Henri, Prince of Condé (1588–1646)",
"Peace of Pressburg (1805)",
"Sylva Koscina",
"Jason Robards",
"Rules derby",
"Mankato, Minnesota",
"2017",
"1980",
"1974",
"Secretariat of Finance and Public Credit (Mexico)",
"1988",
"1350",
"1874",
"Arthur Percival",
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"Johann Georg Pisendel",
"2011",
"mobile phone",
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"1959",
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"Tetsuro Watsuji",
"Ireland",
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"Trent Affair",
"Wilhelm Xylander",
"German battleship Scharnhorst",
"1803"
] |
8,361 |
Definable real number
|
Informally, a definable real number is a real number that can be uniquely specified by its description. The description may be expressed as a construction or as a formula of a formal language. For example, the positive square root of 2, \sqrt{2}, can be defined as the unique positive solution to the equation x^2 = 2, and it can be constructed with a compass and straightedge.
Different choices of a formal language or its interpretation give rise to different notions of definability. Specific varieties of definable numbers include the constructible numbers of geometry, the algebraic numbers, and the computable numbers. Because formal languages can have only countably many formulas, every notion of definable numbers has at most countably many definable real numbers. However, by Cantor's diagonal argument, there are uncountably many real numbers, so almost every real number is undefinable.
== Constructible numbers ==
One way of specifying a real number uses geometric techniques. A real number r is a constructible number if there is a method to construct a line segment of length r using a compass and straightedge, beginning with a fixed line segment of length 1.
Each positive integer, and each positive rational number, is constructible. The positive square root of 2 is constructible. However, the cube root of 2 is not constructible; this is related to the impossibility of doubling the cube.
==Real algebraic numbers ==
A real number r is called a real algebraic number if there is a polynomial p(x), with only integer coefficients, so that r is a root of p, that is, p(r)=0.
Each real algebraic number can be defined individually using the order relation on the reals. For example, if a polynomial q(x) has 5 real roots, the third one can be defined as the unique r such that q(r)=0 and such that there are two distinct numbers less than r at which q is zero.
All rational numbers are constructible, and all constructible numbers are algebraic. There are numbers such as the cube root of 2 which are algebraic but not constructible.
The real algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers. This means that 0 and 1 are algebraic numbers and, moreover, if a and b are algebraic numbers, then so are a+b, a-b, ab and, if b is nonzero, a/b.
The real algebraic numbers also have the property, which goes beyond being a subfield of the reals, that for each positive integer n and each real algebraic number a, all of the nth roots of a that are real numbers are also algebraic.
There are only countably many algebraic numbers, but there are uncountably many real numbers, so in the sense of cardinality most real numbers are not algebraic. This nonconstructive proof that not all real numbers are algebraic was first published by
Georg Cantor in his 1874 paper "On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers".
Non-algebraic numbers are called transcendental numbers. The best known transcendental numbers are Pi| and .
== Computable real numbers ==
A real number is a computable number if there is an algorithm that, given a natural number n, produces a decimal expansion for the number accurate to n decimal places. This notion was introduced by Alan Turing in 1936.
The computable numbers include the algebraic numbers along with many transcendental numbers including \pi Like the algebraic numbers, the computable numbers also form a subfield of the real numbers, and the positive computable numbers are closed under taking nth roots for each
Not all real numbers are computable. Specific examples of noncomputable real numbers include the limits of Specker sequences, and algorithmically random real numbers such as Chaitin's Ω numbers.
== Definability in arithmetic ==
Another notion of definability comes from the formal theories of arithmetic, such as Peano arithmetic. The language of arithmetic has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the natural numbers. Because no variables of this language range over the real numbers, a different sort of definability is needed to refer to real numbers. A real number a is definable in the language of arithmetic (or arithmetical) if its Dedekind cut can be defined as a predicate in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula \varphi in the language of arithmetic, with three free variables, such that
\forall m \, \forall n \, \forall p \left (\varphi(n,m,p)\iff\frac{(-1)^p\cdot n}{m+1}
Here m, n, and p range over nonnegative integers.
The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals. A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called analytical.
Every computable real number is arithmetical, and the arithmetical numbers form a subfield of the reals, as do the analytical numbers. Every arithmetical number is analytical, but not every analytical number is arithmetical. Because there are only countably many analytical numbers, most real numbers are not analytical, and thus also not arithmetical.
Every computable number is arithmetical, but not every arithmetical number is computable. For example, the limit of a Specker sequence is an arithmetical number that is not computable.
The definitions of arithmetical and analytical reals can be stratified into the arithmetical hierarchy and analytical hierarchy. In general, a real is computable if and only if its Dedekind cut is at level \Delta^0_1 of the arithmetical hierarchy, one of the lowest levels. Similarly, the reals with arithmetical Dedekind cuts form the lowest level of the analytical hierarchy.
== Definability in models of ZFC ==
A real number a is first-order definable in the language of set theory, without parameters, if there is a formula \varphi in the language of set theory, with one free variable, such that a is the unique real number such that \varphi(a) holds. This notion cannot be expressed as a formula in the language of set theory.
All analytical numbers, and in particular all computable numbers, are definable in the language of set theory. Thus the real numbers definable in the language of set theory include all familiar real numbers such as 0, 1, \pi, e, et cetera, along with all algebraic numbers. Assuming that they form a set in the model, the real numbers definable in the language of set theory over a particular model of ZFC form a field.
Each set model M of ZFC set theory that contains uncountably many real numbers must contain real numbers that are not definable within M (without parameters). This follows from the fact that there are only countably many formulas, and so only countably many elements of M can be definable over M. Thus, if M has uncountably many real numbers, one can prove from "outside" M that not every real number of M is definable over M.
This argument becomes more problematic if it is applied to class models of ZFC, such as the von Neumann universe. The assertion "the real number x is definable over the class model N" cannot be expressed as a formula of ZFC. Similarly, the question of whether the von Neumann universe contains real numbers that it cannot define cannot be expressed as a sentence in the language of ZFC. Moreover, there are countable models of ZFC in which all real numbers, all sets of real numbers, functions on the reals, etc. are definable.
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"right triangle"
] |
8,362 |
Diego de Almagro
|
Diego de Almagro (; – July 8, 1538), also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo, was a Spanish conquistador known for his exploits in western South America. He participated with Francisco Pizarro in the Spanish conquest of Peru. While subduing the Inca Empire he laid the foundation for Quito and Trujillo as Spanish cities in present-day Ecuador and Peru, respectively. From Peru, Almagro led the first Spanish military expedition to central Chile. Back in Peru, a longstanding conflict with Pizarro over the control of the former Inca capital of Cuzco erupted into a civil war between the two bands of conquistadores. In the battle of Las Salinas in 1538, Almagro was defeated by the Pizarro brothers and months later he was executed.
== Early years ==
The origins of Diego de Almagro were humble. He was born in 1475 in the village of Almagro or in Malagón, in Ciudad Real, where he was given the name of the village for his surname as he was the illegitimate son of Juan de Montenegro and Elvira Gutiérrez. In order to preserve the honor of his mother, her relatives took the infant Diego to the nearby town of Bolaños de Calatrava, where he was raised by Sancha López del Peral, later moving to Aldea del Rey.
At the age of four he returned to Almagro, and was placed under the tutelage of an uncle named Hernán Gutiérrez. At age fifteen he ran away from home because of his uncle's harshness. He went to the home of his mother, who was now living with her new husband, to tell her what had happened and that he was going to travel the world, and asked for some bread. His mother, anguished, gave him a piece of bread and some coins and said: "Take, son, and do not give me more trouble, and go, and God help you in your adventure."
He went to Seville and after probably stealing to survive, Almagro became a criado or servant of Don Luis Gonzalez de Polanco, one of the four Alcaldes de la Casa y Corte de Su Majestad and later a Counselor of the Catholic Monarchs. While living in Seville, Almagro stabbed another servant in an argument, inflicting serious enough injuries that he was to be tried in court.
Don Luis, using his influence, prevailed upon Don Pedro Arias Dávila to allow Almagro to embark in one of the ships going to the New World from the port of Sanlucar de Barrameda. The Casa de Contratacion (royal agency for the Spanish Empire) required that the men who crossed the Atlantic provide their own weapons, clothes, and farming tools, which Don Polanco provided to his servant.
== Arrival in America ==
Diego de Almagro, now in his late thirties, arrived in the New World on June 30, 1514, with the expedition that Ferdinand II of Aragon had sent under the leadership of Dávila. The expedition arrived at the city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, Panama, where many other future conquistadors were already assembled, among them Francisco Pizarro.
There are not many details of Almagro's activities during this period, but it is known that he accompanied various sailors who departed from Darien between 1514 and 1515. He eventually returned and settled in Darien, where he was granted an encomienda, building a house and making a living from agriculture.
Almagro undertook his first independent conquest on November 1515, commanding 260 men as he founded Villa del Acla, named after the Indian place. Due to illness he had to hand over command to Gaspar de Espinosa.
Espinosa decided to undertake a new expedition, which departed in December 1515 with 200 men, including Almagro and Francisco Pizarro, who for the first time was designated as a captain. During this expedition, which lasted 14 months, Almagro, Pizarro and Hernando de Luque became close friends.
Also during this time Almagro established a friendship with Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who was in charge of Acla. Almagro wanted to have a ship built with the remaining materials of the Espinosa expedition, to be finished on the coast of the "Great South Sea", as the Pacific Ocean was first called by the Spanish. Current historians do not believe that Almagro was expected to participate in Balboa's expedition and probably returned to Darien.
Almagro took part in the various expeditions that took place in the Gulf of Panama, including those of Espinosa, which were supported by Balboa's ships. Almagro was recorded as a witness on the lists of natives whom Espinosa ordered to be carried. He remained as an early settler in the newly founded city of Panama, staying there for four years, managing his properties and those of Pizarro. He took Ana Martínez, an indigenous woman, as a common-law wife. In this period, his first son, El Mozo, was born to them. By some accounts it was Almagro's former black African slave Malgarida who was the mother of Diego de Almagro II.
== Conquest of Peru ==
By 1524 an association of conquest regarding South America was formalized among De Almagro, Pizarro and Luque. By the beginning of August 1524, they had received the requisite permission to discover and conquer lands further south. In the first expedition, De Almagro lost his eye to an arrow shot at the Battle of Punta Quemada. He subsequently remained in Panama to recruit men and gather supplies for the expeditions led by Pizarro. During Pizarro's continued exploration of Incan territory, he and his men succeeded in defeating the Inca army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. De Almagro joined Pizarro soon afterward, bringing more men and arms.
After Peru fell to the Spanish, both Pizarro and De Almagro initially worked together in the founding of new cities to consolidate their dominions. As such, Pizarro dispatched De Almagro to pursue Quizquiz, fleeing to the Inca Empire's northern city of Quito. Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito and witnessed the destruction of the city by Inca general Rumiñawi. The Inca warrior had ordered the city to be burned and its gold to be buried at an undisclosed location where the Spanish could never find it. The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado from Guatemala, in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for Almagro and Belalcázar. Alvarado's presence, however, did not last long as he left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro.
===Following the Inca Trail and crossing the Andes===
Almagro left Cuzco on July 3, 1535, with his supporters and stopped at Moina until the 20th of that month. Meanwhile, Francisco Pizarro's brother, Juan Pizarro, had arrested Inca Manco Inca Yupanqui, further complicating De Almagro's plans as it heavily increased the dissatisfaction of the Indians submitted to Spanish rule. Not having formally been appointed governor of any territories in the Capitulation of Toledo in 1528, however, forcing him to declare himself adelantado (governor) of Nueva Toledo, or southern Peru and present-day Chile. Some sources suggest Almagro received such a requirement in 1534 by the Spanish king and was officially declared governor of New Toledo.
Once he left Moina, De Almagro followed the Inca trail followed by 750 Spaniards deciding to join him in quest for the gold lost in the ransom of Atahualpa, which had mainly benefited the Pizarro brothers and their supporters. After crossing the Bolivian mountain range and traveling past Lake Titicaca, Almagro arrived on the shores of the Desaguadero River and finally set up camp in Tupiza. From there, the expedition stopped at Chicoana and then turned to the southeast to cross the Andes mountains.
The expedition turned out to be a difficult and exhausting endeavor. The hardest phase was the crossing of the Andean cordilleras: the cold, hunger and tiredness meant the death of various Spanish and natives, but mainly slaves who were not accustomed to such rigorous climate.
During this time De Almagro fell ill, and Pizarro and his brothers grabbed the opportunity to defeat him and his followers. The Almagristas were defeated at Las Salinas in April 1538, with Orgóñez being killed on the field of battle. De Almagro fled to Cuzco, still in the hands of his loyal supporters, but found only temporary refuge; the forces of the Pizarro brothers entered the city without resistance. Once captured, Almagro was humiliated by Hernando Pizarro and his requests to appeal to the King were ignored.
When Diego de Almagro begged for his life, Hernando responded:
"-he was surprised to see Almagro demean himself in a manner so unbecoming a brave cavalier, that his fate was no worse than had befallen many a soldier before him; and that, since God had given him the grace to be a Christian, he should employ his remaining moments in making up his account with Heaven!"
Almagro was condemned to death and executed by garrote in his dungeon, and then decapitated, on July 8, 1538. His corpse was taken to the public Plaza Mayor of Cuzco, where a herald proclaimed his crimes. Hernán Ponce de León took his body and buried him in the church of Our Lady of Mercy in Cuzco.
== El Mozo ==
Diego de Almagro II (1520–1542), known as El Mozo (The Lad), son of Diego de Almagro I, whose mother was an Indian girl of Panama, became the foil of the conspirators who had put Pizarro to the sword. Pizarro was murdered on June 26, 1541; the conspirators promptly proclaimed the lad De Almagro Governor of Peru. From various causes, all of the conspirators either died or were killed except for one, who was executed after the lad Almagro gave an order. The lad De Almagro fought the desperate battle of Chupas on September 16, 1542, escaped to Cuzco, but was arrested, immediately condemned to death, and executed in the great square of the city.
|
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] |
8,363 |
Divinity
|
Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a single deity or abstract ideal but was recognized in multiple forms: as a radiant attribute possessed by gods, as a vital force pervading nature, and even as a quality glimpsed in extraordinary humans, laws, or acts. The Latin and its Greek counterparts (, ) conveyed something both immanent and awe-inspiring: a presence that could be felt in thunder, justice, ecstasy, fate, or beauty.
Among the Greeks and Romans, divinity was not confined to a rigid theological system. Gods, heroes, and even emperors might be described as partaking in divinity, just as natural forces or virtue could be seen as expressions of divine essence. Philosophers such as Plato and the Stoics used the term to refer to the soul of the cosmos or the rational order of the universe, while ritual and myth depicted the divine in vivid ways. To call something divine was not always to worship it as a god, but to acknowledge its participation in a higher, sacred order.
Early Christianity inherited this language but dramatically reshaped it. With the rise of theological monotheism, divinity came increasingly to denote the singular and absolute nature of God. The Christianization of the term narrowed its field: what had once described a quality diffused across nature, fate, and multiple gods was now claimed exclusively for the creator God and, later, extended to Christ and the Holy Spirit through doctrines of the Trinity. Over time, this led to a sharper boundary between the divine and the human, the sacred and the profane.
In contemporary usage, divinity most commonly refers either to a deity (especially in monotheistic traditions) or to a transcendent power associated with sacredness, inspiration, or spiritual authority. The term may describe the essential nature of God, as well as religious experiences, beings, or principles considered beyond ordinary human life. Outside formal religion, divinity is sometimes used in philosophical or metaphorical contexts, where it retains associations with elevated or ultimate significance.
== Etymology and conceptual range ==
The English word divinity derives from the Latin term , which itself stems from , meaning "of a god" or "divine". The Latin root echoes similar concepts in Greek, notably () and (), both of which convey a sense of sacred power, majesty, or godlike essence.
In pre-Christian Greco-Roman religion, divinity was widely understood as a diffuse and dynamic force rather than a fixed identity. The divine could manifest through natural phenomena—such as thunder, sunlight, or fertility—or through human actions exemplifying justice, courage, or beauty. The word might be used of a god, a spirit, a concept like fate, or even an Emperor, reflecting a worldview in which divine qualities permeated multiple layers of existence.
This conceptual range extended into early philosophical usage. Plato described in relation to the Form of the Good, associating it with the source of truth and intelligibility. For the Stoics, the divine was understood as a rational and animating principle that pervaded the cosmos, often identified with or nature itself. In such traditions, divinity was not only transcendent but also deeply immanent, present in the order and structure of the world.
== In classical antiquity ==
In classical antiquity, the divine was not conceived as wholly separate from the world but was instead embedded within it. Gods, heroes, natural forces, abstract concepts, and even exemplary humans could all be considered partakers in or bearers of divinity. The term in Latin and its Greek equivalents were applied not only to deities like Jupiter or Athena, but also to phenomena such as fate () or justice ().
Public religion in both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome involved a complex interplay between civic life and sacred presence. Gods were not remote; they were part of the polis, honored in temples, festivals, and rituals that affirmed their power and proximity. Emperors in Rome, for instance, could be described as having numen or even , indicating a recognized form of divine power or sanction rather than full deification.
Divinity also permeated the natural world. Rivers, mountains, stars, and weather were thought to express divine will or presence. This fluid understanding allowed for multiple overlapping expressions of the divine across the physical and social world. In this context, sacrifice, divination, and augury were not merely symbolic acts but means of communication with divine forces that shaped the rhythms of life.
Mystery cults and regional traditions added further dimensions to ancient understandings of divinity. Figures such as Dionysus or Isis embodied divine realities experienced through ritual initiation, ecstasy, and spiritual transformation. These cults often emphasized personal encounters with the divine, in contrast to the more public and civic nature of traditional state religion.
In addition to gods and natural forces, the Greeks also recognized a class of intermediate beings known as (), whose roles ranged from protective spirits to agents of fate. Originally understood as morally neutral or even benevolent, a could denote a divine presence or inspiration not fully personified as a god. Philosophers such as Socrates described their personal as a kind of guiding voice or spiritual influence. As E. R. Dodds noted, the represented an "impersonal agency" often closer to fate or inward inspiration than to anthropomorphic deity. Only later, under Christian influence, did become associated with malevolent demons—a reinterpretation that obscured its original connection to divinity.
== Philosophical and theological reflections ==
Ancient philosophy developed increasingly abstract conceptions of divinity, seeking to understand the nature of the divine beyond anthropomorphic gods. For Plato, the divine was not confined to the traditional pantheon but was associated with the eternal and unchanging Form of the Good—the highest reality and source of truth, intelligibility, and order. The divine, in this framework, was radically transcendent but also the ultimate cause and goal of all existence.
Later Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism extended this abstraction. In the writings of Plotinus, the divine was identified with the ineffable One, from which all reality emanates in hierarchical stages. Divinity, in this view, was not a person or force but the source of being itself. Below the One were successive layers of reality: the Nous, the World Soul, and the material world. Each stage retained something of the divine, though to lesser degrees.
The Stoics offered a contrasting, more immanent view. For them, the divine was not separate from nature but identical with it—expressed as , the rational principle that ordered the cosmos. Every part of the universe, including the human soul, participated in this divine reason. Stoic ethics were grounded in living according to this divine nature, aligning the individual will with the cosmic order.
These philosophical developments interacted with evolving religious traditions. In Hellenistic religion, philosophical conceptions of the divine coexisted with traditional cultic practices and new forms of personal piety. Ideas about divine immanence, transcendence, and hierarchical being shaped how mystery religions, astrology, and theurgy were interpreted and practiced.
In Gnosticism, emerging in the same intellectual milieu as Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism, a radical reinterpretation of divinity developed. In many Gnostic systems, true divinity was wholly transcendent and unknowable—often called the Pleroma or Invisible Spirit—while the visible world was the flawed creation of a lesser being, the Demiurge, ignorant of the higher realms. This cosmological dualism recast divine hierarchy not as a continuum of emanation but as a rupture between divine fullness and cosmic error. Gnostic texts such as the Secret Book of John describe the soul’s entrapment in materiality and its path of ascent through layers of hostile archons, aided by inner revelation (gnosis) and the remembrance of its divine spark. In this view, divinity was present as a spark within the human being, a fragment of the higher world seeking return.
The elasticity of the concept also allowed for overlap between divine beings and metaphysical principles. Theurgy, as practiced by Neoplatonists like Iamblichus, emphasized ritual engagement with divine intelligences, asserting that divine powers could be invoked and experienced through specific acts. Gnostic traditions likewise incorporated theurgical elements—especially in their use of invocations, names of power, and visionary ascent texts—to transcend the material realm and rejoin the divine source. In such contexts, ritual was not merely symbolic but transformative. Through prescribed invocations, visualizations, and gestures, practitioners sought a form of ritual identification with divine powers, temporarily embodying aspects of the divine as a means of ascent or union.
By late antiquity, such reflections had laid the groundwork for later Christian theology, Islamic philosophy, and Jewish mysticism, all of which engaged with and reinterpreted these classical philosophical insights into the nature of the divine.
== Transformation in early Christianity ==
The Christian reconfiguration of divinity cannot be understood apart from the theological developments of Second Temple Judaism. During this period, Jewish thought increasingly emphasized the singular and transcendent nature of God, in contrast to the polytheism of surrounding cultures. Although the Hebrew Bible includes references to divine beings—such as angels, the Elohim, and the heavenly hosts—Jewish philosophy came to insist that only the God of Israel was truly divine.
At the same time, certain Jewish texts introduced intermediary figures such as Wisdom (, ), the Logos, and the Son of Man—portrayed in works like 1 Enoch, the Book of Daniel, and the Wisdom of Solomon. These figures served as vehicles for divine action and presence without threatening strict monotheism. This layered view of divinity helped lay the groundwork for early Christian theology.
The rise of Christianity introduced a profound transformation in the concept of divinity. Drawing on both Second Temple Judaism and Greco-Roman philosophy, early Christian thinkers redefined the divine not as a plural or diffused power but as the singular and transcendent being of God. This theological shift placed greater emphasis on divine unity, omnipotence, and moral perfection.
Central to this transformation was the assertion of the divinity of Jesus. Early Christians believed that Jesus, though fully human, also shared in the divine nature. This radical claim provoked intense theological debate, especially over how divinity could be reconciled with humanity. In the fourth century, the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) affirmed that Christ was ("of the same substance") with the Father, a term drawn from Greek metaphysics to assert full equality within the Trinity.
The doctrine of the Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three persons sharing one divine essence—emerged as a core feature of Christian theology, marking a significant departure from earlier polytheistic and philosophical models. Christian thinkers such as Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, and Augustine of Hippo worked to articulate a divine unity that preserved distinct personal identities without division.
In this context, divinity came to denote not a quality diffused through nature or cosmos but the essential being of the Creator. The divine was no longer immanent in rivers, stars, or fate, but radically transcendent, revealed through revelation, incarnation, and sacrament. At the same time, mystical theology and sacramental theology preserved a sense of divine presence operating within the world, particularly through the Eucharist and the Holy Spirit.
The Christianization of the concept also reshaped language. The Greek term —used in earlier texts for divine quality—was absorbed into Christian scripture and doctrine, as in Romans 1:20, where it refers to God's "eternal power and divinity." The Latin likewise narrowed in scope, now primarily describing the being of God and, derivatively, that of Christ and the Spirit.
In sum, early Christianity both inherited and redefined classical ideas of divinity, recasting them within a monotheistic and doctrinal framework that would shape theological discourse for centuries.
== Mystical and medieval views ==
In both Christian and non-Christian traditions, divinity has often been understood not only as a theological proposition but as a reality encountered through mysticism, vision, or ecstatic experience. These encounters are frequently described as praeternatural—beyond ordinary nature but not necessarily supernatural in a transcendent or theistic sense.
In Christian mysticism, figures such as Hildegard of Bingen, Mechthild of Magdeburg, Meister Eckhart, and Julian of Norwich described divine presence in terms that transcend rational theology: as an ineffable union, a luminous darkness, a radiant harmony, or what Eckhart called the Ground of the Soul—a silent depth where divinity and the self are one. Hildegard articulated her visionary theology through music and illuminations, describing the divine as "Living Light" and the world as shot through with divine vitality.
Another voice was that of the Book of the 24 Philosophers, a 12th-century anonymous text offering cryptic, metaphysical definitions of divinity such as "God is an infinite sphere whose center is everywhere and circumference nowhere." These definitions were meditated upon throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, influencing Hermeticists and Christian humanists alike.
These currents of mystical theology culminate in texts like the 14th-century The Cloud of Unknowing, which urges the contemplative to abandon all concepts and dwell in a "cloud" of forgetting and unknowing, through which love alone may reach God. Such writings reflect a broader medieval tradition of apophatic theology, or the , where the divine is approached not through assertions but through negation, paradox, and silence.
Meanwhile, more systematic theological reflections were offered by scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, who defined God as —the very act of being itself. For Aquinas, God is both radically transcendent and immanently present, knowable through natural reason yet exceeding all conceptual grasp. Aquinas's synthesis of Aristotelian metaphysics and Christian doctrine represented a high point of medieval intellectual theology.
Umberto Eco observed that medieval thought did not regard God as merely the conclusion of a logical system, but as the principle of harmony, proportion, and illumination that permeated all levels of reality—from grammar and rhetoric to cosmology. For medieval thinkers, the divine was not just a theological abstraction but the very pattern by which the world was ordered and intelligible.
== Modern and secular use ==
In modern philosophy and secular discourse, the concept of divinity has been reinterpreted, challenged, and, in some contexts, retained in metaphorical or symbolic form. Age of Enlightenment critiques of theism and revelation prompted many thinkers to redefine or discard traditional notions of divine agency. At the same time, the idea of “the divine” persisted as a way to speak about ultimate concerns, transcendence, or the horizon of meaning.
Some modern philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant, relegated knowledge of the divine to the realm of practical reason, arguing that moral obligation points toward the postulation of God, though God cannot be known through speculative reason. Others, like Friedrich Schleiermacher, emphasized religious feeling as a sense of the infinite, shifting the ground of divinity from doctrine to experience.
In depth psychology, particularly in the work of Carl Gustav Jung, divinity is approached not as an external being but as a central archetype within the collective unconscious. Jung interpreted the divine as a symbol of the Self—the totality of the psyche—which often appears in dreams and visions as luminous, numinous figures. His model emphasized the psychological necessity of religious imagery, arguing that symbolic representations of divinity serve to mediate the integration of unconscious contents into consciousness. This approach reframed traditional theological questions in terms of inner experience and individuation, influencing fields ranging from theology to comparative religion.
In the twentieth century, theologians such as Paul Tillich described God as the "ground of being" rather than a being among others, influencing post-theistic and existential theology. Philosophers such as Charles Taylor and Mark Johnston have explored how secular modernity continues to be shaped by religious categories, even as explicit belief declines. In this view, divinity may refer less to a supernatural entity than to what commands awe, love, or ethical seriousness in a disenchanted world.
In sum, modern and secular philosophies have neither wholly abandoned nor wholly retained ancient conceptions of divinity. Instead, they have recast the divine in terms of value, depth, and existential orientation—often preserving its affective and symbolic power while detaching it from metaphysical or doctrinal claims.
== Contemporary usage ==
In contemporary usage, the term divinity continues to serve multiple roles across religious, philosophical, and cultural contexts. In mainstream Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, divinity is most often associated with the singular, transcendent being of God, understood as omnipotent, omniscient, and morally perfect. In theology, it refers to God's essential nature or substance—especially in discussions of Trinitarianism or divine attributes.
Beyond formal religion, the term is often used more broadly to describe a quality of sacredness, inspiration, or ultimate significance. In many forms of spirituality, particularly within the New Age and ecospirituality movements, divinity may be conceived as immanent in the cosmos, nature, or the self. The phrase "the divine" can refer to a felt presence, a source of inner transformation, or a principle of harmony and connection.
Modern pagan and Wiccan views of divinity are often expressed through duotheism, a theological structure that emphasizes a divine feminine (the Goddess) and a divine masculine (the Horned God), representing complementary cosmic forces. Scholars such as Ronald Hutton and Margot Adler have noted that Wiccan theology often blends polytheism, pantheism, and animism, emphasizing direct religious experience and reverence for Nature.
In academic contexts, divinity remains a key term in disciplines such as philosophy of religion, comparative religion, and theological studies. It is frequently examined in light of global religious diversity, cross-cultural mysticism, and changing understandings of transcendence. Universities and seminaries often use the term in institutional titles (e.g., "School of Divinity") to denote programs of study in theology, ministry, or sacred texts.
Popular usage of "divine" or "divinity" also extends into literature, art, and everyday speech, where it can signal aesthetic admiration, moral approval, or emotional intensity. Though sometimes metaphorical, such uses often retain a sense of elevated or awe-inspiring significance.
== Comparative and cross-cultural perspectives ==
Across world religions, the concept of divinity encompasses a wide range of meanings, from personal gods to impersonal forces, from transcendent creators to immanent presences. In many traditions outside the Abrahamic lineage, divinity is not confined to a singular, all-powerful being but is encountered as multiple, interrelated aspects of reality.
In Hinduism, divinity can be personal, as in the worship of Vishnu or Shiva, or impersonal, as in the identification of the divine with Brahman, the ultimate, formless ground of being. Tantric traditions emphasize ritual embodiment and visualization as means of accessing divine power, often conceived in nondual terms.
In Buddhism, although the tradition is non-theistic in its mainstream forms, certain schools—particularly in Vajrayana and East Asian traditions—describe states of enlightenment using language of divine radiance, luminosity, or purity. The Dharmakaya or "truth body" of a buddha is sometimes compared to an all-pervasive divine principle, although without implying a creator god.
In Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, divinity is often approached through the language of love, beauty, and yearning. The divine names and attributes are experienced as veils of the One, and the spiritual path involves remembrance (dhikr) and annihilation of the self (fana) in the divine.
Many indigenous religions and animist traditions understand divinity as an immanent presence within the natural world—rivers, trees, animals, ancestors—each bearing a spark of sacred power. Rather than separating the divine from the mundane, such traditions often treat the cosmos itself as alive and communicative.
Although theologies differ widely, a common thread across many traditions is the experience of the divine as something that both transcends and pervades reality, often described in symbolic or paradoxical language. Nondualism—the view that divinity and reality are ultimately not-two—is a recurring theme in both Eastern and Western mysticism, offering a shared framework for interpreting the sacred across cultural boundaries.
|
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"Vishnu",
"indigenous religions",
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"Christianity",
"Ground of the Soul",
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"ipsum esse subsistens",
"List of thunder deities",
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"sacrament",
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"sacrifice",
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"Friedrich Schleiermacher",
"practical reason",
"Thomas Aquinas",
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"ritual initiation",
"sacredness",
"cosmological dualism",
"philosophy of religion",
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"Margot Adler",
"Divinity (academic discipline)",
"List of beauty deities",
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"Athena",
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"daimōn",
"temples"
] |
8,367 |
Depth of field
|
The depth of field (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in an image captured with a camera. See also the closely related depth of focus.
==Factors affecting depth of field==
For cameras that can only focus on one object distance at a time, depth of field is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in the image. "Acceptably sharp focus" is defined using a property called the "circle of confusion".
The depth of field can be determined by focal length, distance to subject (object to be imaged), the acceptable circle of confusion size, and aperture. Limitations of depth of field can sometimes be overcome with various techniques and equipment. The approximate depth of field can be given by:
\text{DOF} \approx \frac{2u^2Nc}{f^2}
for a given maximum acceptable circle of confusion , focal length , f-number , and distance to subject .
As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture (i.e., reducing ) or increasing the focal length reduces the depth of field. Depth of field changes linearly with and circle of confusion, but changes in proportion to the square of the distance to the subject and inversely in proportion to the square of the focal length. As a result, photos taken at extremely close range (i.e., so small ) have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.
Rearranging the equation shows that it is the ratio between distance and focal length that affects ;
\text{DOF} \approx 2Nc\left(\frac{u}{f}\right)^2=2Nc\left(1 - \frac{1}{M_T}\right)^2
Note that M_T = -\frac{f}{u - f} is the transverse magnification which is the ratio of the lateral image size to the lateral subject size.
Image sensor size affects in counterintuitive ways. Because the circle of confusion is directly tied to the sensor size, decreasing the size of the sensor while holding focal length and aperture constant will the depth of field (by the crop factor). The resulting image however will have a different field of view. If the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, while holding the , the change in focal length will counter the decrease of from the smaller sensor and the depth of field (also by the crop factor). However, if the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, while holding the , the will remain constant.
===Effect of lens aperture===
For a given subject framing and camera position, the is controlled by the lens aperture diameter, which is usually specified as the f-number (the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter). Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the ) increases the because only the light travelling at shallower angles passes through the aperture so only cones of rays with shallower angles reach the image plane. In other words, the circles of confusion are reduced or increasing the .
For a given size of the subject's image in the focal plane, the same on any focal length lens will give the same depth of field. This is evident from the above equation by noting that the ratio is constant for constant image size. For example, if the focal length is doubled, the subject distance is also doubled to keep the subject image size the same. This observation contrasts with the common notion that "focal length is twice as important to defocus as f/stop", which applies to a constant subject distance, as opposed to constant image size.
Motion pictures make limited use of aperture control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors (e.g., scenes inside a building) and another for exteriors (e.g., scenes in an area outside a building), and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.
=== Effect of circle of confusion===
Precise focus is only possible at an exact distance from a lens; at that distance, a point object will produce a small spot image. Otherwise, a point object will produce a larger or blur spot image that is typically and approximately a circle. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is visually indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus. The diameter of the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion.
The acceptable circle of confusion depends on how the final image will be used. The circle of confusion as 0.25 mm for an image viewed from 25 cm away is generally accepted.
For 35mm motion pictures, the image area on the film is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm. The limit of tolerable error was traditionally set at diameter, while for 16 mm film, where the size is about half as large, the tolerance is stricter, . More modern practice for 35 mm productions set the circle of confusion limit at .
===Camera movements===
The term "camera movements" refers to swivel (swing and tilt, in modern terminology) and shift adjustments of the lens holder and the film holder. These features have been in use since the 1800s and are still in use today on view cameras, technical cameras, cameras with tilt/shift or perspective control lenses, etc. Swiveling the lens or sensor causes the plane of focus (POF) to swivel, and also causes the field of acceptable focus to swivel with the ; and depending on the criteria, to also change the shape of the field of acceptable focus. While calculations for of cameras with swivel set to zero have been discussed, formulated, and documented since before the 1940s, documenting calculations for cameras with non-zero swivel seem to have begun in 1990.
More so than in the case of the zero swivel camera, there are various methods to form criteria and set up calculations for when swivel is non-zero. There is a gradual reduction of clarity in objects as they move away from the , and at some virtual flat or curved surface the reduced clarity becomes unacceptable. Some photographers do calculations or use tables, some use markings on their equipment, some judge by previewing the image.
When the is rotated, the near and far limits of may be thought of as wedge-shaped, with the apex of the wedge nearest the camera; or they may be thought of as parallel to the .
==Object-field calculation methods==
Traditional depth-of-field formulas can be hard to use in practice. As an alternative, the same effective calculation can be done without regard to the focal length and . Moritz von Rohr and later Merklinger observe that the effective absolute aperture diameter can be used for similar formula in certain circumstances.
Moreover, traditional depth-of-field formulas assume equal acceptable circles of confusion for near and far objects. Merklinger suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp. The loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements. Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the hyperfocal distance, sometimes almost at infinity. For example, if photographing a cityscape with a traffic bollard in the foreground, this approach, termed the object field method by Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough. With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognizability of distant objects is paramount.
Other authors such as Ansel Adams have taken the opposite position, maintaining that slight unsharpness in foreground objects is usually more disturbing than slight unsharpness in distant parts of a scene.
==Overcoming DOF limitations==
Some methods and equipment allow altering the apparent , and some even allow the to be determined after the image is made. These are based or supported by computational imaging processes. For example, focus stacking combines multiple images focused on different planes, resulting in an image with a greater (or less, if so desired) apparent depth of field than any of the individual source images. Similarly, in order to reconstruct the 3-dimensional shape of an object, a depth map can be generated from multiple photographs with different depths of field. Xiong and Shafer concluded, in part, "...the improvements on precisions of focus ranging and defocus ranging can lead to efficient shape recovery methods."
Another approach is focus sweep. The focal plane is swept across the entire relevant range during a single exposure. This creates a blurred image, but with a convolution kernel that is nearly independent of object depth, so that the blur is almost entirely removed after computational deconvolution. This has the added benefit of dramatically reducing motion blur.
Light Scanning Photomacrography (LSP) is another technique used to overcome depth of field limitations in macro and micro photography. This method allows for high-magnification imaging with exceptional depth of field. LSP involves scanning a thin light plane across the subject that is mounted on a moving stage perpendicular to the light plane. This ensures the entire subject remains in sharp focus from the nearest to the farthest details, providing comprehensive depth of field in a single image. Initially developed in the 1960s and further refined in the 1980s and 1990s, LSP was particularly valuable in scientific and biomedical photography before digital focus stacking became prevalent.
Other technologies use a combination of lens design and post-processing: Wavefront coding is a method by which controlled aberrations are added to the optical system so that the focus and depth of field can be improved later in the process.
The lens design can be changed even more: in colour apodization the lens is modified such that each colour channel has a different lens aperture. For example, the red channel may be , green may be , whilst the blue channel may be . Therefore, the blue channel will have a greater depth of field than the other colours. The image processing identifies blurred regions in the red and green channels and in these regions copies the sharper edge data from the blue channel. The result is an image that combines the best features from the different .
At the extreme, a plenoptic camera captures 4D light field information about a scene, so the focus and depth of field can be altered after the photo is taken.
==Diffraction and DOF==
Diffraction causes images to lose sharpness at high (i.e., narrow aperture stop opening sizes), and hence limits the potential depth of field. (This effect is not considered in the above formula giving approximate values.) In general photography this is rarely an issue; because large typically require long exposure times to acquire acceptable image brightness, motion blur may cause greater loss of sharpness than the loss from diffraction. However, diffraction is a greater issue in close-up photography, and the overall image sharpness can be degraded as photographers are trying to maximize depth of field with very small apertures.
Hansma and Peterson have discussed determining the combined effects of defocus and diffraction using a root-square combination of the individual blur spots. Hansma's approach determines the that will give the maximum possible sharpness; Peterson's approach determines the minimum that will give the desired sharpness in the final image and yields a maximum depth of field for which the desired sharpness can be achieved. In combination, the two methods can be regarded as giving a maximum and minimum for a given situation, with the photographer free to choose any value within the range, as conditions (e.g., potential motion blur) permit. Gibson gives a similar discussion, additionally considering blurring effects of camera lens aberrations, enlarging lens diffraction and aberrations, the negative emulsion, and the printing paper. Couzin gave a formula essentially the same as Hansma's for optimal , but did not discuss its derivation.
Hopkins, Stokseth, and Williams and Becklund have discussed the combined effects using the modulation transfer function.
==DOF scales==
Many lenses include scales that indicate the for a given focus distance and ; the 35 mm lens in the image is typical. That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance. The scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that correspond to . When the lens is set to a given , the extends between the distances that align with the markings.
Photographers can use the lens scales to work backwards from the desired depth of field to find the necessary focus distance and aperture. For the 35 mm lens shown, if it were desired for the to extend from 1 m to 2 m, focus would be set so that index mark was centered between the marks for those distances, and the aperture would be set to .
On a view camera, the focus and can be obtained by measuring the depth of field and performing simple calculations. Some view cameras include calculators that indicate focus and without the need for any calculations by the photographer.
File:DOF scale detail.png|Detail from a lens set to . The point half-way between the 1 m and 2 m marks, the limits at , represents the focus distance of approximately 1.33 m (the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocals of 1 and 2 being 4/3).
File:TessinaDOF.jpg| scale on Tessina focusing dial
==Hyperfocal distance==
==Near:far distribution==
The beyond the subject is always greater than the in front of the subject. When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far is infinite, so the ratio is 1:∞; as the subject distance decreases, near:far ratio increases, approaching unity at high magnification. For large apertures at typical portrait distances, the ratio is still close to 1:1.
==DOF formulae==
This section covers some additional formula for evaluating depth of field; however they are all subject to significant simplifying assumptions: for example, they assume the paraxial approximation of Gaussian optics. They are suitable for practical photography, lens designers would use significantly more complex ones.
===Focus and f-number from DOF limits===
For given near and far limits and , the required f-number is smallest when focus is set to
s = \frac{2 D_{\mathrm N} D_{\mathrm F}}{D_{\mathrm N} + D_{\mathrm F}},
the harmonic mean of the near and far distances. In practice, this is equivalent to the arithmetic mean for shallow depths of field. Sometimes, view camera users refer to the difference as the focus spread.
===Foreground and background blur===
If a subject is at distance and the foreground or background is at distance , let the distance between the subject and the foreground or background be indicated by
x_{\mathrm d} = |D - s|.
The blur disk diameter of a detail at distance from the subject can be expressed as a function of the subject magnification , focal length , f-number , or alternatively the aperture , according to
b = \frac{fm_\mathrm s}{N} \frac{x_\mathrm{d}}{s \pm x_\mathrm{d}} = dm_\mathrm{s} \frac{x_\mathrm{d}}{D}.
The minus sign applies to a foreground object, and the plus sign applies to a background object.
The blur increases with the distance from the subject; when is less than the circle of confusion, the detail is within the depth of field.
|
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"defocus aberration",
"acceptable circle of confusion",
"Sensor size",
"4D light field"
] |
8,368 |
Dumnonii
|
The Dumnonii or Dumnones were a British tribe who inhabited Dumnonia, the area now known as Cornwall and Devon (and some areas of present-day Dorset and Somerset) in the further parts of the South West peninsula of Britain, from at least the Iron Age up to the early Saxon period. They were bordered to the east by the Durotriges tribe.
==Etymology==
William Camden, in his 1607 edition of Britannia, describes Cornwall and Devon as being two parts of the same 'country' which:
Camden had learnt some Welsh during the course of his studies and it would appear that he is the origin of the interpretation of Dumnonii as "deep valley dwellers" from his understanding of the Welsh of his time. The modern Welsh term is Dyfnaint. John Rhŷs later theorized that the tribal name was derived from the name of a goddess, Domnu, probably meaning "the goddess of the deep". The proto-Celtic root *dubno- or *dumno- meaning "the deep" or "the earth" (or alternatively meaning "dark" or "gloomy") appears in personal names such as Dumnorix and Dubnovellaunus. Another group with a similar name but with no known links were the Fir Domnann of Connacht.
The Roman name of the town of Exeter, Isca Dumnoniorum ("Isca of the Dumnonii"), contains the root *iska- "water" for "Water of the Dumnonii". The Latin name suggests that the city was already an oppidum, or walled town, on the banks on the River Exe before the foundation of the Roman city, in about AD 50. The Dumnonii gave their name to the English county of Devon, and their name is represented in Britain's two extant Brythonic languages as Dewnens in Cornish and Dyfnaint in Welsh. Amédée Thierry (Histoire des Gaulois, 1828), one of the inventors of the historic race of Gauls, could confidently equate them with the Cornish ("les Cornouailles").
Victorian historians often referred to the tribe as the Damnonii, which is also the name of another people from lowland Scotland, although there are no known links between the two populations.
==Language==
The people of Dumnonia spoke a Southwestern Brythonic dialect of Celtic similar to the forerunner of more recent Cornish and Breton. Irish immigrants, the Déisi, are evidenced by the Ogham-inscribed stones they have left behind, confirmed and supplemented by toponymical studies. The stones are sometimes inscribed in Latin, sometimes in both scripts.
In the sub-Roman period a Brythonic kingdom called Dumnonia emerged, covering the entire peninsula, although it is believed by some to have effectively been a collection of sub-kingdoms.
A kingdom of Domnonée (and of Cornouaille alongside) was established in the province of Armorica directly across the English Channel, and has apparent links with the British population, suggesting an ancient connection of peoples along the western Atlantic seaboard which is also borne out by the modern genetics of Devonian and Cornish populations.
==Settlements==
===Isca Dumnoniorum===
The Latin name for Exeter is Isca Dumnoniorum ("Water of the Dumnonii"). This oppidum (a Latin term meaning an important town) on the banks of River Exe certainly existed prior to the foundation of the Roman city in about AD 50. Isca is derived from the Brythonic word for flowing water, which was given to the River Exe. The Gaelic term for water is uisce/uisge. This is reflected in the Welsh name for Exeter: Caerwysg meaning "fortified settlement on the river Uisc".
Isca Dumnoniorum originated with a settlement that developed around the Roman fortress of the Legio II Augusta and is one of the four poleis (cities) attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy. It is also listed in two routes of the late 2nd century Antonine Itinerary.
A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55 and 60 and underwent renovation shortly afterwards (c. 60-65) but by c. 68 (perhaps even 66) the legion had transferred to a newer fortress at Gloucester. This saw the dismantling of the Isca fortress, and the site was then abandoned. Around AD 75, work on the civitas forum and basilica had commenced on the site of the former principia and by the late 2nd century the civitas walls had been completed. They were 3 metres thick and 6 metres high and enclosed exactly the same area as the earlier fortress. However, by the late 4th century the civitas was in decline.
{{Quote box
| quote = Next to these [the Durotriges], but more to the west, are the Dumnoni, whose towns are:Voliba 14°45 52°00Uxella 15°00 52°45Tamara 15°00 52°15Isca, where is located Legio II Augusta 17°30 52°45.
| source = —Ptolemy, Geography II.ii. They do not seem to have been politically centralised: coins are relatively rare, none of them locally minted, and the structure, distribution and construction of Bronze Age and Iron Age hill forts, Cornish rounds, and defensible farmsteads in the south west point to a number of smaller tribal groups living alongside each other.
As in most other Brythonic areas, Iron Age hill forts, such as Hembury Castle, were refortified for the use of chieftains or kings. Other high-status settlements such as Tintagel seem to have been reconstructed during this period. Post-Roman imported pottery has been excavated from many sites across the region, and the apparent surge in late 5th century Mediterranean and/or Byzantine imports is yet to be explained satisfactorily.
==Industries==
Apart from fishing and agriculture, the main economic resource of the Dumnonii was tin mining. The area of Dumnonia had been mined since ancient times, and the tin was exported from the ancient trading port of Ictis (St Michael's Mount).
During the first millennium BC trade became more organised, first with the Phoenicians, who settled Gades (Cadiz) around 1100 BC, and later with the Greeks, who had settled Massilia (Marseille) and Narbo (Narbonne) around 600 BC. Smelted Cornish tin was collected at Ictis whence it was conveyed across the Bay of Biscay to the mouth of the Loire and then to Gades via the Loire and Rhone valleys. It went then through the Mediterranean Sea in ships to Gades.
During the period c. 500-450 BC, the tin deposits seem to have become more important, and fortified settlements appear such as at Chun Castle and Kenidjack Castle, to protect both the tin smelters and mines.
The earliest account of Cornish tin mining was written by Pytheas of Massilia late in the 4th century BC after his circumnavigation of the British Isles. Underground mining was described in this account, although it cannot be determined when it had started. Pytheas's account was noted later by other writers including Pliny the Elder and Diodorus Siculus. Britain was one of the places proposed for the Cassiterides, that is Tin Islands. Tin working continued throughout Roman occupation although it appears that output declined because of new supplies brought in from the deposits discovered in Iberia (Spain and Portugal). However, when these supplies diminished, production in Dumnonia increased and appears to have reached a peak during the 3rd century AD. given that historical fact, legend and confused pseudo-history are compounded by a variety of sources in Middle Welsh and Latin. The main sources available for discussion of this period include Gildas's De Excidio Britanniae and Nennius's Historia Brittonum, the Annales Cambriae, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, William of Malmesbury's Gesta Regum Anglorum and De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae, along with texts from the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Red Book of Hergest, and Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum as well as "The Descent of the Men of the North" (Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd, in Peniarth MS 45 and elsewhere) and the Book of Baglan.
|
[
"River Exe",
"Britons (historical)",
"Mount Batten",
"Cornwall",
"English Channel",
"Ptolemy",
"Pliny the Elder",
"Exeter",
"St Michael's Mount",
"nemeton",
"Isca Dumnoniorum",
"Irish people",
"Mediterranean",
"Black Book of Carmarthen",
"Veneti (Gaul)",
"Breton language",
"Trevelgue Head",
"Southwestern Brythonic",
"toponym",
"Kenidjack Castle",
"Padstow",
"Iron Age",
"Carn Brea, Redruth",
"Durotriges",
"tin",
"Camborne",
"Legio II Augusta",
"Ogham",
"Loire",
"West Somerset",
"Domnonée",
"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum",
"Illogan",
"Isles of Scilly",
"Proto-Celtic language",
"hillfort",
"de:Dumnonia",
"Cornovii (Cornwall)",
"Dorset",
"Charles Thomas (archaeologist)",
"Bronze Age",
"Roman Empire",
"Brittonic languages",
"Byzantine",
"Cornish people",
"De Excidio Britanniae",
"Bede",
"Boscarne",
"Chysauster",
"South Hams",
"Ictis",
"Phoenicians",
"Amedée Simon Dominique Thierry",
"Plymouth",
"Hembury",
"Sub-Roman Britain",
"villa",
"oppidum",
"William Camden",
"Damnonii",
"Annales Cambriae",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Rhone",
"Book of Baglan",
"Connacht",
"Nanstallon",
"Cornovii",
"Middle Welsh",
"Launceston, Cornwall",
"poleis",
"John Rhŷs",
"Cornish language",
"Trevithick Society",
"Gesta Regum Anglorum",
"Devon",
"Armorica",
"Nennius",
"sacred grove",
"tin mining",
"Gloucester",
"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle",
"Narbonne",
"Kings of Dumnonia",
"Welsh language",
"Dumnonia",
"Roman Britain",
"Prehistoric Britain",
"Cornouaille",
"ru:Думнония",
"Red Book of Hergest",
"Cadiz",
"Gaius Iulius Solinus",
"Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd",
"Hill forts in Cornwall",
"Diodorus Siculus",
"Glastonbury Abbey",
"British Iron Age",
"Dark Ages (historiography)",
"Ravenna Cosmography",
"Antonine Itinerary",
"River Tamar",
"Dumnorix",
"Fir Domnann",
"West Country",
"Topsham, Devon",
"Mount's Bay",
"North Tawton",
"Latin",
"Chun Castle",
"Brythonic languages",
"Gildas",
"Roman villa",
"Dubnovellaunus",
"Celtic languages",
"Saxon Shore Fort",
"Historia Brittonum",
"Cassiterides",
"Déisi",
"Gaius Julius Solinus",
"Tintagel",
"William of Malmesbury",
"River Axe (Bristol Channel)",
"Saxons",
"List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes",
"Tristram Risdon",
"Greeks",
"Peniarth",
"Romano-British",
"Marseille",
"Pytheas",
"Tintagel Castle",
"Somerset"
] |
8,372 |
Declaration of independence
|
A declaration of independence is an assertion by a polity in a defined territory that it is independent and constitutes a state. Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another state or failed state, or are breakaway territories from within the larger state. In 2010, the UN's International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion in Kosovo that "International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence", though the state from which the territory wishes to secede may regard the declaration as rebellion, which may lead to a war of independence or a constitutional settlement to resolve the crisis.
==List of declarations of independence==
|
[
"Bulgarian Declaration of Independence",
"Mississippi in the American Civil War",
"Declaration of Independence of Ukraine",
"Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh",
"Declaration of Arbroath",
"Comorian Declaration of Independence",
"Bougainville Interim Government",
"Prime Minister of Malaysia",
"Martin Declaration",
"Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea",
"Burmese Declaration of Independence",
"Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic",
"Habsburg monarchy",
"Uzbekistan",
"Armenian National Congress (1917)",
"Philippines",
"National Congress of Chile",
"Kingdom of Norway (1814)",
"United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo",
"Francesc Macià",
"Irish Republic",
"Sukarno",
"Azerbaijani National Council",
"Padanian Declaration of Independence",
"First National Assembly at Epidaurus",
"Albanian Declaration of Independence",
"Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus",
"Georgian Declaration of Independence, 1918",
"Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania",
"History of Spain (1810–73)",
"Karađorđe Petrović",
"Lluís Companys",
"Constitution of Norway",
"Dictatorial Government of the Philippines",
"Province of Quebec (1763–1791)",
"Ara Sahakian",
"Provisional Government of Belgium",
"Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Finnish Declaration of Independence",
"Mexico",
"Day of Restoration of Independence (Azerbaijan)",
"Central Council of Ukraine",
"Carol I of Romania",
"Dáil Éireann (Irish Republic)",
"Somaliland Declaration of Independence",
"Bougainville Island",
"Ferdinand of Bulgaria",
"Restoration (Spain)",
"Czechoslovak National Council",
"Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada",
"Supreme Soviet of Belarus",
"Texas Declaration of Independence",
"Republic of Galicia",
"Bourbon Restoration in France",
"2008 Kosovo declaration of independence",
"Norwegian Constituent Assembly",
"Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)",
"Haitian Declaration of Independence",
"Spain",
"Purna Swaraj",
"Principality of Albania",
"Polisario Front",
"Separatism",
"Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire",
"Parliament of Finland",
"Istiqlal Party",
"United States Declaration of Independence",
"Declaration from the representatives of Catalonia",
"Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence",
"Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America",
"Kim Il Sung",
"Māori people",
"Hungarian Declaration of Independence",
"Political status of Nagorno-Karabakh",
"Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)",
"A Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union",
"Estonian Salvation Committee",
"Declaration of Independence (Azerbaijan)",
"Hungary",
"Parliament of Montenegro",
"Assembly of Vlorë",
"Treaty of Kiel",
"Palestinian Declaration of Independence",
"13th Dalai Lama",
"Territory of Papua and New Guinea",
"Israeli Declaration of Independence",
"Florida in the American Civil War",
"Venezuelan Declaration of Independence",
"Provisional Government of Northern Epirus",
"Independence of Ceylon",
"Supreme Soviet of Russia",
"Provisional Government of the Irish Republic",
"Argentine Declaration of Independence",
"Bosnia and Herzegovina independence referendum, 1992",
"Korean Declaration of Independence",
"Supreme Council of the Republic of Latvia",
"Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957",
"Congress of Tucumán",
"Tibet (1912–1951)",
"Slovak National Council",
"Latvia",
"Lee Kuan Yew",
"Singapore in Malaysia",
"Declaration of State Sovereignty of Armenia",
"North Macedonia",
"Government of the United Kingdom",
"Provisional Government of the French Republic",
"Act of Independence of Central America",
"Armenian Revolutionary Federation",
"Rowman & Littlefield Publishers",
"Second Continental Congress",
"Act of Abjuration",
"History of Western Sahara",
"Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union",
"History of the Republic of Macedonia",
"Ho Chi Minh",
"Pedro I of Brazil",
"Supreme Council of Crimea",
"State of Katanga",
"Malolos Congress",
"Lahore Resolution",
"Revolutionary Serbia",
"Serbian Revolution",
"advisory opinion on Kosovo's declaration of independence",
"Oyo State coup attempt",
"Philippine Declaration of Independence",
"Georgia in the American Civil War",
"Czechoslovak Declaration of Independence",
"Albania",
"Texas in the American Civil War",
"Second Spanish Republic",
"Verkhovna Rada",
"Bougainville conflict",
"Congress of Estonia",
"List of sovereign states by date of formation",
"Republic of Lower Canada",
"Proclamation of the Irish Republic",
"Parliament of the Republic of Moldova",
"People's Council of Latvia",
"Sovereign state",
"Italy",
"Supreme Council of Lithuania",
"Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence",
"Montenegro",
"South Carolina in the American Civil War",
"Declaration of Independence of the Republic of the North Solomons",
"Third Constituent Charter",
"Estonian restoration of Independence",
"United Provinces of the Río de la Plata",
"Library of Congress",
"Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam",
"Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence",
"Government of Bulgaria",
"University of British Columbia Press",
"Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova",
"Prime Minister of Singapore",
"Irish Declaration of Independence",
"Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Proclamation of Indonesian Independence",
"On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia",
"Supreme Council of Armenia",
"List of national independence days",
"Council of Lithuania",
"Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand",
"Yorubaland",
"Union of Utrecht",
"Independence of Croatia",
"Act of Independence of Lithuania",
"Chilean Declaration of Independence",
"Azawadi declaration of independence",
"Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Crimea",
"Mohammad Hatta",
"Jean-Jacques Dessalines",
"polity",
"rebellion",
"Syngman Rhee",
"Independence of Brazil",
"s:Georgia Declaration of Causes of Secession",
"Republic of Haiti (1820–1849)",
"Australia",
"Palestinian National Council",
"Political history of the world",
"Robert Nelson (insurrectionist)",
"Universals (Central Council of Ukraine)",
"Muslim League (Pakistan)",
"Malaysia",
"History of Slovenia",
"Declaration of Independence of Norway",
"International Court of Justice",
"American Colonization Society",
"Romanian War of Independence",
"Levon Ter-Petrossian",
"Comoros",
"Liberian Declaration of Independence",
"Vaad Leumi",
"Palestinian territories",
"Ian Smith",
"Kingdom of Norway (1814-1905)",
"Tunku Abdul Rahman",
"Peru",
"Colombian Declaration of Independence",
"independence",
"Estonian Declaration of Independence",
"Slovak National Council's Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation",
"Declaration of Independence of Armenia (1918)",
"Dominican Declaration of Independence",
"National Liberation Day of Korea",
"Republic of the North Solomons",
"Republic of Kosova",
"A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union",
"Unilateral declaration of independence",
"National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad",
"Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia",
"United Tribes of New Zealand",
"list of wars of independence",
"Republic of China (1912–1949)",
"Independence referendum",
"Belovezha Accords",
"New Spain",
"Congress of Anáhuac",
"José de San Martín",
"West Bank",
"Florida State Legislature"
] |
8,373 |
Drag racing
|
Drag racing is a type of motor racing in which automobiles or motorcycles compete, usually two at a time, to be first to cross a set finish line. The race follows a short, straight course from a standing start over a measured distance, most commonly , with a shorter, distance becoming increasingly popular, as it has become the standard for Top Fuel dragsters and Funny Cars, where some major bracket races and other sanctioning bodies have adopted it as the standard. The is also popular in some circles. Electronic timing and speed sensing systems have been used to record race results since the 1960s.
The history of automobiles and motorcycles being used for drag racing is nearly as long as the history of motorized vehicles themselves, and has taken the form of both illegal street racing and as a regulated motorsport.
== History ==
Drag racing started in the 1940s. World War II veterans were prominently involved, and some early drag races were done at decommissioned aircraft bases with landing strips that made them an ideal place for the sport. In 1951, Wally Parks formed the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The organization banned the use of nitromethane in 1957, calling it unsafe, in part through the efforts of C. J. Hart; the ban would be lifted in 1963.
Several other racing organizations were created over the past several decades, such as the Professional Drag Racers Association (PDRA) founded in 2014.
Thanks in part to the Discovery series Street Outlaws, fandom for drag racing has seen a resurgence in the past decade.
== Basics of drag racing ==
=== Starting ===
Push starts to get engines running were necessary until the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) mandated self-starters in 1976. After burnouts, cars would be pushed back by crews; this persisted until NHRA required reversing systems in 1980. Each driver then backs up to and stages at the starting line.
=== Prerace preparations ===
Before each race (commonly known as a pass), each driver is allowed to perform a burnout, which heats the driving tires and lays rubber down at the beginning of the track, improving traction. The cars run through a "water box" (formerly a "bleach box", before bleach was replaced by flammable traction compound, which produced spectacular, and dangerous, flame burnouts; the hazard led NHRA to mandate use of water in the 1970s When the first light beam is broken by a vehicle's front tire(s), the vehicle is "pre-staged" (approximately from the starting line), and the pre-stage indicator on the tree is lit. When the second light beam is broken, the vehicle is "staged", and the stage indicator on the tree is lit. Vehicles may then leave the pre-stage beam, but must remain in the stage beam until the race starts.
=== Staging ===
Once one competitor is staged, their opponent has a set amount of time to stage or they will be instantly disqualified, indicated by a red light on the tree. Otherwise, once both drivers are staged, the system chooses a short delay at random (to prevent a driver being able to anticipate the start), then starts the race. The light sequence at this point varies slightly. For example, in NHRA Professional classes, three amber lights on the tree flash simultaneously, followed 0.4 seconds later by a green light (this is also known as a "pro tree"). In NHRA Sportsman classes, the amber lights illuminate in sequence from top to bottom, 0.5 seconds apart, followed 0.5 seconds later by the green light (this is also known as a "sportsman tree" or "full tree"). If a vehicle leaves the starting line before the green light illuminates, the red light for that lane illuminates instead, and the driver is disqualified (also known as red lighting). In a handicap start, the green light automatically lights up for the first driver, and the red light is only lit in the proper lane after both cars have launched if one driver leaves early, or if both drivers left early, the driver whose reaction time is worse (if one lane has a -.015 and the other lane has a -.022, the lane of the driver who committed a 0.022 is given the red light after both cars have left), as a red light infraction is only assessed to the driver with the worse infraction, if both drivers leave early. Even if both drivers leave early, the green light is automatically lit for the driver that left last, and they still may win the pass (as in the 2014 NHRA Auto Club Pro Stock final, Erica Enders-Stevens and Jason Line both committed red light infractions; only Line was assessed with a red light, as he was -.011 versus Enders-Stevens' -.002).
=== Measurements ===
Several measurements are taken for each race: reaction time, elapsed time, and speed. Reaction time is the period from the green light illuminating to the vehicle leaving the staging beams or breaking the guard beam. Elapsed time is the period from the vehicle leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line. Speed is measured through a speed trap covering the final to the finish line, indicating average speed of the vehicle in that distance.
Except where a breakout rule is in place, the winner is the first vehicle to cross the finish line, and therefore the driver with the lowest combined reaction time and elapsed time. Because these times are measured separately, a driver with a slower elapsed time can actually win if that driver's advantage in reaction time exceeds the elapsed time difference. In heads-up racing, this is known as a holeshot win. In categories where a breakout rule is in effect (for example, NHRA Junior Dragster, Super Comp, Super Gas, Super Stock, and Stock classes, as well as some dial-in classes), if a competitor is faster than his or her predetermined time (a "breakout"), that competitor loses. If both competitors are faster than their predetermined times, the competitor who breaks out by less time wins. Regardless, a red light foul is worse than a breakout, except in Junior Dragster where exceeding the absolute limit is a cause for disqualification.
=== Bracket system ===
Most race events use a traditional bracket system, where the losing car and driver are eliminated from the event while the winner advances to the next round, until a champion is crowned. Events can range from 16 to over 100 car brackets. Drivers are typically seeded by elapsed times in qualifying. In bracket racing without a breakout (such as NHRA Competition Eliminator), pairings are based on times compared to their index (faster than index for class is better). In bracket racing with a breakout (Stock, Super Stock, but also the NHRA's Super classes), the closest to the index is favorable.
A popular alternative to the standard eliminations format is the Chicago Style format (also called the Three Round format in Australia), named for the US 30 Dragstrip near Merrillville, Indiana where a midweek meet featured this format. All entered cars participate in one qualifying round, and then are paired for the elimination round. The two fastest times among winners from this round participate in the championship round. Depending on the organization, the next two fastest times may play for third, then fifth, and so forth, in consolation rounds. Currently, the National Drag Racing Championship in Australia uses the format for major categories.
=== Distances ===
The standard distance of a drag race is 1,320 feet, 402 m, or 1/4 mile (±0.2% FIA & NHRA rules). However, due to safety concerns, certain sanctioning bodies (notably the NHRA for its Top Fuel and Funny Car classes) have shortened races to 1,000 feet. Some drag strips are even shorter and run 660 feet, 201 m, or 1/8 mile. The 1,000 foot distance is now also popular with bracket racing, especially in meets where there are 1/8 mile cars and 1/4 mile cars racing together, and is used by the revived American Drag Racing League for its primary classes (not Jr Dragster). Some organizations that deal with Pro Modified and "Mountain Motor" Pro Stock cars (Professional Drag Racers Association) use the 1/8 mile distance, even if the tracks are 1/4 mile tracks.
== Racing organizations ==
=== North America ===
The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in North America. The next largest organization is the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA). One of the major sanctioning bodies in drag racing.
The World Drag Racing Alliance (WDRA) WDRA is the first fully functioning sanctioning body created (one that actually sanctions facilities) since 1970.
Besides NHRA, IHRA, and WDRA, there are several other racing organizations were created over the past several decades. The Professional Drag Racers Association (PDRA), founded in 2014, races 1/8 mile with events throughout the US. The National Mustang Racers Association (NMRA), started in 1999, is considered the leader in Ford motorsports events. The National Muscle Car Association (NMCA), is the longest running major street-legal drag racing association. The NMCA provides competitive and organized national event competitions from grassroots drag racers all the way to the powerful and fast VP Racing Fuels Xtreme Pro Mod racers.
There are also niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehicles. The Nostalgia Drag Racing League (NDRL) based in Brownsburg, IN, runs a series of 1/4 mile (402 m) drag races in the Midwest for 1979 and older nostalgic appearing cars, with four classes of competition running in an index system. Pro 7.0 and Pro 7.50 run heads up 200 mile per hour (320 kilometre per hour) passes, while Pro Comp and Pro Gas run 8.0 to 10.0 indices. NDRL competition vehicles typically include Front Engine Dragsters, Altereds, Funny Cars, early Pro Stock clones, Super Stocks and Gassers.
The National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA) races electric vehicles against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as Dodge Vipers or classic muscle cars in 1/4 and 1/8 mile (402 m & 201 m) races. The current electric drag racing record is 6.940 seconds at 201.37 mph (324.0736 km/h) for a quarter mile (402 m). Another niche organization is the VWDRC which run a VW-only championship with vehicles running under 7 seconds.
Prior to the founding of the NHRA and IHRA, smaller organizations sanctioned drag racing in the early years, which included the competing AHRA in the United States and Canada from 1955 to 2005.
=== Australia ===
The first Australian Nationals event was run in 1965 at Riverside raceway, near Melbourne. The Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA) was established in 1973, and today they claim they are the "best in the world outside the United States". ANDRA sanctions races throughout Australia and throughout the year at all levels, from Junior Dragster to Top Fuel.
The ANDRA Drag Racing Series is for professional drivers and riders and includes Top Fuel, Top Alcohol, Top Doorslammer (similar to the USA Pro Modified class), Pro Stock (using 400 cubic inch engines (6.5 litres)), Top Bike and Pro Stock Motorcycle.
The Summit Sportsman Series is for ANDRA sportsman drivers and riders and includes Competition, Super Stock, Super Compact, Competition Bike, Supercharged Outlaws, Top Sportsman, Modified, Super Sedan, Modified Bike, Super Street and Junior Dragster.
In 2015, after a dispute with ANDRA, Sydney Dragway, Willowbank Raceway and the Perth Motorplex invited the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA) to sanction events at their tracks. Shortly thereafter the Perth Motorplex reverted to ANDRA sanction. Although greatly assisted by ANDRA prior
to its construction, Springmount Raceway opted for IHRA sanction. The 400 Thunder Series targets professional racers to its races. Intended to be the premier Drag racing series in Australia it has never been able
to run a truly National series and has been on a steady decline since its inception. Most recently Top Fuel Australia (the organization that represents the Top Fuel owners) recently extracted itself from the 400 Thunder series. ANDRA recently launched a new National series that will initially cater for Top Doorslammer and Top Fue Motorcycle. This series will provide a greater National coverage than the 400 Thunder Series did and will soon add other Professional categories.
In 2021 Heathcote Park Raceway in Victoria was sold to new ownership and has since been sanctioned by IHRA for small regional events.
===Europe===
Drag racing was imported to Europe by American NATO troops during the Cold War. Races were held in West Germany beginning in the 1960s at the airbases at Ramstein and Sembach and in the UK at various airstrips and racing circuits before the opening of Europe's first permanent drag strip at Santa Pod Raceway in 1966. In the 1990s some former russian and NVA airfields in former GDR were used for dragracing events.
The FIA organises a Europe-wide four wheeled championship for the Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock classes. FIM Europe organises a similar championship for bike classes. In addition, championships are run for sportsman classes in many countries throughout Europe by the various national motorsport governing bodies.
One of the greatest tournament is the yearly NitrolympiX on the Hockenheim racetrac.
=== New Zealand ===
Drag racing in New Zealand started in the 1960s. The New Zealand Hot Rod Association (NZHRA) sanctioned what is believed to have been the first drag meeting at an open cut coal mine at Kopuku, south of Auckland, sometime in 1966. In 1973, the first and only purpose built drag strip opened in Meremere by the Pukekohe Hot Rod Club. In April 1993 the governance of drag racing was separated from the NZHRA and the New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA) was formed. In 2014, New Zealand's second purpose built drag strip – Masterton Motorplex – opened.
The first New Zealand Drag Racing Nationals was held in the 1966/67 season at Kopuku, near Auckland.
There are now two governing bodies operating drag racing in New Zealand with the Florida-based International Hot Rod Association sanctioning both of New Zealands major tracks at Ruapuna (Pegasus Bay Drag Racing Association) in the South Island and Meremere Dragway Inc in the North Island which is now become the best drag strip in NZ. However, the official ASN of the sport, per FIA regulations, is the New Zealand Drag Racing Association.
=== South America ===
Many countries in South America are eighth-mile tracks.
Organized drag racing in Brazil is the responsibility of Club G3, a private organization. The events take place at Autódromo de Tocancipá.
=== Brazil ===
In Brazil, local cars like Volkswagen Gol, Chevrolet Opala and Chevrolet Chevette are the show makers for Brazilian dragstrips.
=== Caribbean ===
Curaçao
On the island of Curaçao, organization of drag racing events is handled by the Curaçao Autosport Foundation (FAC)
All racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at the Curaçao International Raceway.
==== Aruba ====
On the island of Aruba, all racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at Palomarga International Raceway.
Barbados
On the island of Barbados, organization of drag racing events is done by the Barbados Association of Dragsters and Drifters. Currently the drag racing is done at Bushy Park racing circuit over 1/8 mile, while "acceleration tests" of 1/4 mile are done at the Paragon military base.
Saint Lucia
On the Island of Saint Lucia, organization of drag racing events is done by no-one. All local groups are tie ups. Currently races are held at the US Old military base also known as the "Ca Ca Beff", "The Base" near the Hewanorra International Airport in Vieux Fort.
Dominican Republic
On Santo Domingo, organization of drag racing events is done by Autodromo Sunix and they happen at the Autodromo Sunix, close to the Airport SDQ.
=== South Asia ===
Organized drag racing is rapidly growing in India. The country's first drag race meet was organized by Autocar India in Mumbai in 2002. Since then there have been many drag racing events in India. The most popular event is Elite Octanes' Valley Run which is held at Ambey Valley air strip in Loanavla every year.
The biggest drag series event was organized by India Speed Week with three different locations around India. After the series two riders were chosen to represent the country 2017 initiative to bring 11 times world drag racing champion Rickey Gadson to India. The initiative was executed during the Valley Run 2017 event, which gave the participants a platform to perform at the highest level globally. Rickey Gadson, as an extension of the initiative invited two of the top performing drag racers to visit USA to train and get an opportunity to represent India at the World Finals of drag racing held on 16–18 November 2018 in Valdosta GA, USA. As a result, the two riders performed in their maiden event outside India. Also during the event, Amit Sharma, the fastest drag racer in Indian drag racing history, produced a time slip of 8.87 sec's – the fastest ever by any Indian.
Drag racing is also gaining popularity in Pakistan, with private organizations sponsoring such events. The Bahria Town housing project recently organized a drag racing event in Rawalpindi with the help of some of the country's best drivers.
Sri Lanka has seen an immense growth in drag racing due to legal meets held by the Ceylon Motor Sports Club, an FIA sanctioned body. In recent years, exotic cars and Japanese power houses have been taking part in these popular events.
=== Japan ===
Drag racing is widely performed in Japan as the racing sport.
=== South Africa ===
Drag racing is an established sport in South Africa, with a number of strips around the country including Tarlton International Raceway and ODI Raceway. Drag racing is controlled by Motorsport South Africa and all drivers are required to hold a valid Motorsport South Africa license. Drivers can compete in a number of categories including Top Eliminator, Senior Eliminator, Super Competition Eliminator, Competition Eliminator, Pro Street Bikes, Superbike Eliminator, Supersport Shootout (motorcycle), Street Modified, and Factory Stock.
Stick Shift. Reserved for vehicles with a manual transmission. The rising popularity of automatic transmissions in drag racing created the demand for these classes. Popular sanctioning bodies include United Manual Transmission Racers, Pro Stick Racing, Rocky Mountain Stick Shifters, and Ozark Mountain Super Shifters.
Super Comp/Quick Rod. The quickest of the heads-up Super classes (8.90 index) is composed primarily of dragsters. Most cars are capable of running well under the index but use electronic aids to run close to it without breaking out.
Super Gas/Super Rod. Super Gas entries, which run on a 9.90 index, are primarily full-bodied cars and street roadsters. No dragsters or altereds are permitted. As in Super Comp, competitors use electronic aids to run as close to the class standard without going under.
Super Street/Hot Rod. Racers compete on a fixed 10.90 index. All vehicles must be full-bodied cars and weigh no less than 2,800 pounds except for six-cylinder cars (2,000) and four-cylinder and rotary-powered cars (1,200). Engine and chassis modifications are virtually unlimited.
Super Stock. Super Stock vehicles resemble ordinary passenger cars, but are actually heavily modified. Entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower and compete on indexes. The breakout rule is enforced.
Stock. Stock cars are similar to Super Stockers, but rules regarding everything from engine modifications to body alterations are much stricter. Virtually any car is eligible to compete, and entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower.
Sport Compact
Top Sportsman (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA). Competitors in these full-bodied entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.99 seconds. Full Tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than .
Top Dragster (T/D) (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA). Competitors in these open-wheel entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.70 seconds. Full tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced. Cars can run in the sixes at more than . Cars can run any combination of motor: blown, turbo, nitrous or just all motor.
Top Fuel Funny Bike (high performance 5 second bikes)
Nostalgia Super Stock
NHRA and ANDRA Summit Racing series Super Pro, Pro, and bike.
Junior Dragster (racers between the ages of 8 and 18 may race a half scale version of the sport's fastest car, Top Fuel Dragster. Juniors run as follows: 12.90-slower for 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds at 8.90, and 13-18 year olds 7.90 and slower at a top speed of 85 mph). These cars race at 1/8 mile or 1/16 mile.
NHRA new class for Juniors is JR COMP running 6.90s at a top speed of (1/8 mile or 1/16 mile).
A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites.
The UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike, Super Twin Top Fuel Bike, and Pro Stock Bike contested, leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories.
To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the starting line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in bracket racing.
For a list of drag racing world records in each class, see Dragstrip#Quarter mile times.
== Dial-in ==
A 'dial-in' is a time the driver estimates it will take their car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the tree accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lower elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. However, if a driver had jump-started (red light) or crossed a boundary line, both violations override any break out (except in some classes with an absolute break out rule such as Junior classes).
The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on budget, and more dependent on skill, making it popular with casual weekend racers.
== Historic cars ==
1954 - first slingshot, built by Mickey Thompson; Smokin' White Owl built by Ollie Morris, first purpose-built rear-engined dragster and first to use a Chevrolet V8 engine.
1962 - the Greer–Black–Prudhomme dragster, with the best win record in NHRA history. Ed Donovan introduces the 417 Donovan hemi, an aluminum copy of the Chrysler.
1974 - first tube chassis Pro Stock car, Bill Jenkins' 1972 Chevrolet Vega.
1979 - Vanishing Point, rocket-powered funny car built by Sammy Miller, set current standing world record for fastest quarter-mile time (3.58 seconds) in 1984.
== Glossary ==
Back half – the second half of a track, e.g. from the 1/8 mile to mark to the 1,000 foot or 1/4 mile mark for a standard track
Beam – electronic device (e.g. an optical beam) at the starting line to detect a car's staging position
Big tire – Car with a set of rear tires taller than 28.5 inches tall and or wider than 12.5 inches of tread. Car may have modifications to the rear frame rails and suspension system to allow the large tires to fit under the car. Compare Small tire.
Bottle – nitrous system; also known as the jug.
Blanket – a ballistic cover, typically over the supercharged intake manifold assembly to contain shrapnel, in the case of an explosion.
Blow – see Blown.
Blower – supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and nitrous
Blown – supercharged, when describing a functioning engine; wrecked, when describing an engine failure.
Blowover – flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels
Breakout – in bracket racing, running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out".
Bulb(ed) – synonym for "redlight"
Bump – (also called on the bump or in the bubble) a driver is ranked by qualifying order if they are ranked 15 or 16 in most skill classes they are placed "on the bump" if the next driver improves and gets a better score that driver is eliminated and has to do another run to requalify. If they mess up on all qualification days, do not make it to elimination, or lose the first or second round that driver is eliminated and "placed on the trailer" and sent home.
Burnout – intentionally spinning and smoking the tires to build heat for better traction
Christmas tree (or "tree") – device at the starting line containing signal lights, used to start a race in addition to showing starting violations
DA – density altitude; a reference to qualities in the air.
Dial-in (bracket racing) – a car's pre-estimated ET for a pass, used for handicapping the start
Diaper – an absorbent containment blanket under the engine to prevent/reduce oil contact with the track, in the event of parts breakage
Dope (Southern U.S.) – nitrous or propane injection in a diesel engine
Doped – a car with a hidden nitrous system.
Digger – dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper)
ET – Elapsed time. Time from a car leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line.
First or worst – if both drivers commit a foul, the driver who commits the foul first loses, unless it is two separate fouls, where the loser is the driver who committed the worse foul (lane violation is worse than foul start, and failure to participate in a post-run inspection is worst).
Flopper
commonly, Funny Car
any flip-top car Coined by dragster crews in the late 1960s to separate Funny Cars, which had fiberglass bodies with fenders, from dragsters.
Fuel – shorthand for "top fuel", a mix of methanol and nitromethane ("pop", nitro)
Fueler – any car running top fuel or in a top fuel class (most often, TFD or TF/FC)
Grenade – an engine destroyed (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower".
Heads-up racing – a non-handicapped racing style where both drivers are started at the same time. Used in all professional ("pro") classes.
Holeshot – gaining an advantage by a faster reaction time at the start. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree".
Holeshot win – a race won by a driver with a slower elapsed time but a faster reaction time.
Hook[ed] up – good traction between tires and track resulting in increased acceleration and reduced slipping or smoking of tires.
James Bond – when a driver's reaction time is seven thousandths of a second after the green light (.007). A "James Bond Red" is a reaction time of -.007 seconds (red light), which is disqualification unless the opponent commits a more serious violation.
Kit – turbo or nitrous kit
Lit the tires – lost traction, causing burning rubber
Meth – methanol injection used in conjunction with gasoline (non-leaded pump) (Not to be confused with Methamphetamine)
Mill – any internal combustion engine used in a drag car, or hot rod
Nitro – nitromethane
Nitrous – nitrous oxide system; the gas used in such a system
No prep – a style of racing where the track has not been pre-treated to improve traction
Overdrive – ratio between the revolutions of the supercharger drive to the revolutions of the engine, controlling amount of boost; see underdrive
Oildown – when a car's engine or lubrication breaks during a run, leaving a streak of oil and other fluids on the track. This is punishable by fines, point penalties, and/or suspension.
Pedalfest – race won by pedalling; or poor track conditions that necessitate pedalling
Pedalling – working the throttle to maintain traction, or as a way to sandbag; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it
Pro tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turn green. Compare to "Standard tree".
Put on the trailer – lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer)
Quad - when a drag racing event features four cars in a single race, each race is called a Quad.
Quick 8 (Q8) – quickest eight cars in a defined race
Rail – dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars.
Redlight(ed) – jump(ed) the start, left before tree turned green. This is a loss unless the opponent commits a more serious foul (boundary lines or failed inspection).
Red Cherry – red light
Sandbagging – releasing the throttle or using the brakes at the end of the track during a bracket race after dialing a purposely slow time. Considered a dirty trick or tantamount to cheating in amateur classes.
Scattershield – metal sheet protecting driver in case of transmission failure
Slapper bar – traction bar
Slicks – rear tires with no tread pattern and softer rubber compound, for increased traction
Slingshot – early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed).
Small Tire – Class of car where rear tires are shorter than or equal to 28.5 in and or equal 12.5 in of tread. This type of racing usually assumes that the rear frame rails and suspension are not radically modified.
Standard tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green. Original starting method before introduction of pro tree.
Struck the tires – (also called hazing the tires, smoking the tires, or smoking out) loss of traction, causing them to smoke
Throw a belt – losing the drive belt connecting the engine's crankshaft to the supercharger
Top end – finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band.
Traction bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle to keep rear axle from twisting, causing wheel hop and loss of traction; slapper bars.
Trap(s) – the speed trap near the finish line to measure speed & E.T.
Trap speed – the speed measured by the 60 foot speed trap near the finish line, indicating maximum speed reached in a run.
Tire shake – violent shaking of the car as the tires lose and regain traction in quick succession.
Wheelie bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle, which protrude out to rear of car to help prevent car's front from raising too high or flipping over on launch.
|
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"nitrous oxide",
"Jason Line",
"Saint Lucia",
"International Hot Rod Association",
"Chevrolet Chevette",
"Hockenheimring",
"automobile",
"Sammy Miller (engineer)",
"Fremont Dragstrip",
"Jet dragster",
"bracket racing",
"Dragstrip",
"Sport Compact",
"Kolkata",
"Bill Jenkins (racer)",
"Super Comp",
"speed trap",
"Hot rod",
"street racing",
"holeshot",
"burnout (vehicle)",
"Mantorp Park",
"Ed Donovan (engine builder)",
"Australian National Drag Racing Association",
"FIA",
"Sri Lanka",
"Summit Racing",
"Junior Dragster",
"Bushy Park, Barbados",
"Bahria Town",
"Aruba",
"motorsport",
"motorcycle",
"Ramstein Air Base",
"Christmas tree (drag racing)",
"Saskatoon, Saskatchewan",
"Don Garlits",
"motor racing",
"Donovan hemi",
"Don Prudhomme",
"Hewanorra International Airport",
"Merrillville, Indiana",
"methanol",
"de:NitrolympX",
"Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile",
"Top Doorslammer",
"India",
"Street Outlaws",
"Chevrolet Vega",
"Pro Stock",
"Top Alcohol Funny Car",
"Pro Stock Motorcycle",
"Nostalgia drag racing",
"Public housing",
"Methamphetamine",
"Sand drags",
"reaction time",
"Logghe Stamping Company",
"Barbados",
"Johns Hopkins University Press",
"National Electric Drag Racing Association",
"supercharger",
"Drag boat racing",
"internal combustion engine",
"manual transmission",
"Pro FWD",
"Nostalgia Super Stock",
"Valdosta, Georgia",
"Land speed racing",
"Electric dragbike",
"standing start",
"electric drag racing",
"Rocket dragster",
"turbocharger",
"Volkswagen Gol",
"Dragster (car)",
"Stick Shift",
"Mickey Thompson",
"Front engine dragster",
"Chevrolet Opala",
"world record",
"nitromethane",
"Don Nicholson",
"Funny Car",
"Santa Pod Raceway",
"Curaçao",
"electric vehicle",
"Erica Enders-Stevens",
"Burnout (vehicle)",
"Top Fuel",
"Electric dragster",
"Seed (sports)",
"Keith Black (engineer)",
"National Hot Rod Association",
"muscle car",
"Engine displacement",
"Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme",
"NHRA",
"C. J. Hart (drag racing)",
"Union Européenne de Motocyclisme",
"Dodge Vipers",
"Tarlton International Raceway",
"Santa Ana Drags",
"Head start (positioning)",
"Wheelie bars",
"Pro Modified",
"Bracket (tournament)",
"Robert Hight",
"Rawalpindi",
"Top Alcohol Dragster",
"Pakistan",
"Lonavla"
] |
8,375 |
Draugr
|
The draugr or draug (; ; ; Danish and ; , drög)
In the Icelandic sagas, from which most modern interest is garnered, draugrs live in their graves or royal palaces, often guarding treasure buried in their burial mound. They are revenants, or animated corpses, rather than ghosts, which possess intangible spiritual bodies.
== Etymology ==
The Old Norse word draugr (initially draugʀ, see ʀ), in the sense of the undead creature, is hypothetically traced to an unrecorded , meaning "delusion, illusion, mirage" etc, from a *dreuganą ("to mislead, deceive"), ultimately from a Proto-Indo European stem ("phantom"), from ~ ("deceive"). Cognates includes ("to deceive"), ("impostor, scoundrel"), ("to deceive"), ("delusion"), ("illusion, mirage, ghost"), ("deception, delusion, illusion"), ("deceit, deception"), ("delusion"), ("bad, evil"), ("bad, evil"), , ("bad, evil"), , drúh ("injury, harm, offence"), , drógha ("deceitful, untrue, misleading"), , drauga ("deceit, deception"), , draujana ("deceptive, deceitful, misleading"), ultimately from the same root as 'dream', from a Proto-Indo European * ("deceit, illusion").
, ("evil spirit, troll"), appears related, possibly via a unrecorded ("draugr"), but also effected by ("troll"), which at the time was different and more ambiguous than today and rather meant something akin to magical creature of ill will, even being used figuratively for draugr. Further, the Swedish form drög has also acquired the meaning of "nut" (idiot);
== Terminology ==
=== Dictionaries ===
One of the earliest dictionaries for draugr, or rather its descendants, was Swedish linguist and priest Johan Ernst Rietz's (1815–1868) dialect dictionary of Swedish vernacular (1862–1867), which listed the Swedish descendants of as and (compare vs , vs ), including the archaic form in the province of Närke. He also included , and for comparison, giving the definition for both Swedish and Norwegian as:
Around the same time, although published a few years later, English philologist Richard Cleasby (1797–1847), and Icelandic scholar Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1827–1889), in "An Icelandic-English dictionary" (1873), defined (old form to ) as:
This decription was repeated almost word for word by Icelandic linguist Geir T. Zoëga (1857-1928), in his book "A concise dictionary of old Icelandic" (1910).
Norwegian journalist, author, and editor Johan Christian Johnsen (1815–1898), in his Norwegian dictionary (1881–1888), gave a different, more specific definition for than Rietz did in the 1860s, defining it as:
=== Written corpus ===
In the written corpus, the draugr is regarded not so much as a ghost, but a corporeal undead creature, or revenant, since Old Norse poetry often used terms for trees to represent humans, especially in kennings, referencing the myth that the god Odin and his brothers created the first humans Ask and Embla from trees. There was thus a connection between the idea of a felled tree's trunk and that of a dead man's corpse.
=== Haugbúi (mound-dweller) ===
The haugbúi, meaning "mound-dweller" or "howe-dweller" (composite of , "mound", cognate to English "how, howe, height", and búi, "dweller", from búa, "reside"), the dead body living within its tomb, is a variation of the draugr. The notable difference between the two was that the haugbui cannot leave its grave site and only attacks those who trespass upon their territory.
A modern rendering is also barrow-wight, popularized by J. R. R. Tolkien in his novels, however, initially used for the draugr in Eiríkur Magnússon's and William Morris' 1869 translation of Grettis saga, long before Tolkien employed the term;{{Refn|Burns
== Overall classification ==
=== Ghost with physical body ===
The draugr is a "corporeal ghost" but rather, contagiousness or transmittable nature of vampirism, that is to say, how a vampire begets another by turning his or her attack victim into one of his kind. Sometimes the chain of contagion becomes an outbreak, e.g., the case of Þórólfr bægifótr (Thorolf Lame-foot or Twist-Foot), and even called an "epidemic" regarding Þórgunna (Thorgunna).
A more speculative case of vampirism is that of Glámr, who was asked to tend sheep for a haunted farmstead and was subsequently found dead with his neck and every bone in his body broken. It has been surmised by commentators that Glámr, by "contamination," was turned into an undead (draugr) by whatever being was haunting the farm.
== Physical traits ==
Draugrs usually possessed superhuman strength, and were "generally hideous to look at", bearing a necrotic black or blue color, and were associated with a "reek of decay" or more precisely inhabited haunts that often issued foul stench.
Draugrs were said to be either hel-blár "death-blue" or nár-fölr "corpse-pale". Glámr when found dead was described as "blár sem Hel en digr sem naut (black as hell and bloated to the size of a bull)". Þórólfr Lame-foot, when lying dormant, looked "uncorrupted" and also "was black as death [ie, bruised black and blue] and swollen to the size of an ox". The close similarity of these descriptions have been noted.
Þráinn (Thrain), the berserker of Valland, "turned himself into a troll" in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar, was a fiend (dólgr) which was "black and huge.. roaring loudly and blowing fire", and possessed long scratching claws, and the claws stuck in the neck, prompting the hero Hrómundr to refer to the draugur as a sort of cat (). The possession of long claws features also in the case of another revenant, Ásviðr (Aswitus) who came to life in the night and attacked his foster-brother Ásmundr (Asmundus) with them, scratching his face and tearing one of his ears.
Draugrs often give off a morbid stench, not unlike the smell of a decaying body. The mound where Kárr the Old was entombed reeked horribly. In Harðar saga Hörðr Grímkelsson's two underlings die even before entering Sóti the Viking's mound, due to the "gust and stink ()" wafting out of it. {{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Also Þráinn's " barrow was filled with a horrible stench" in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar. The prefix, , which initially meant something akin to "malevolent esoteric supernatural being" (demon, devil, ghost, jötunn etc), was by extension, specifically in compounds, also a word for the sorcery and dark arts of said beings;
Icelandic linguist Geir T. Zoëga (1857-1928), in his book "A concise dictionary of old Icelandic" (1910), defined Old Icelandic: as:
The Swedish Academy gives the following description for the word in Swedish:
Synonyms to and include: Old Icelandic: vs , and etc ("sorcery").
=== Shape-shifting ===
The undead Víga-Hrappr Sumarliðason of Laxdaela saga, unlike the typical guardian of a treasure hoard, does not stay put in his burial place but roams around his farmstead of Hrappstaðir, menacing the living. Víga-Hrappr's ghost, it has been suggested, was capable of transforming into the seal with human-like eyes which appeared before Þorsteinn svarti/surt (Thorsteinn the Black) sailing by ship, and was responsible for the sinking of the vessel to prevent the family from reaching Hrappstaðir. The ability to shape-shift has been ascribed to Icelandic ghosts generally, particularly into the shape of a seal.
A draugr in Icelandic folktales collected in the modern age can also change into a great flayed bull, a grey horse with a broken back but no ears or tail, and a cat that would sit upon a sleeper's chest and grow steadily heavier until their victim suffocated.
=== Other magical abilities ===
Draugrs have the ability to enter into the dreams of the living, This fire would form a barrier between the land of the living and that of the dead.
The undead Víga-Hrappr exhibited the ability to sink into the ground to escape from Óláfr Hǫskuldsson the Peacock.
Some draugrs are immune to weapons, and only a hero has the strength and courage to stand up to a formidable opponent. In legends, the hero often wrestled a draugr back to his grave to defeat them since weapons would do no good. A good example of this is found in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar. Iron could injure a draugr, as with many supernatural creatures, although it would not be sufficient to stop it. Sometimes, the hero must dispose of the body in unconventional ways. The preferred method is to cut off the draugr's head, burn the body, and dump the ashes in the sea—the emphasis being on making sure that the draugr was dead and gone.
== Behaviour and character ==
Any mean, nasty, or greedy person can become a draugr. As Ármann Jakobsson notes, "most medieval Icelandic ghosts are evil or marginal people. If not dissatisfied or evil, they are unpopular".
=== Greed ===
The draugr's motivation was primarily envy and greed. Greed causes it to attack any would-be grave robbers viciously, but the draugr also expresses an innate envy of the living stemming from a longing for the things of life which it once had. They also exhibit an immense and nearly insatiable appetite, as shown in the encounter of Aran and Asmund, sword brothers who swore that, if one died, the other would sit vigil with him for three days inside the burial mound. When Aran died, Asmund brought his possessions into the barrow—banners, armor, hawk, hound, and horse—then set himself to wait the three days:
=== Bloodthirst ===
The draugr's victims were not limited to trespassers in its home. The roaming undead devastated livestock by running the animals to death either by riding them or pursuing them in some hideous, half-flayed form. Shepherds' duties kept them outdoors at night, and they were particular targets for the hunger and hatred of the undead:
Animals feeding near the grave of a draugr might be driven mad by the creature's influence. They may also die from being driven mad. Thorolf, for example, caused birds to drop dead when they flew over his bowl barrow.
=== Sitting posture and evil eye ===
The main indication that a deceased person will become a draugr is that the corpse is not horizontal. It is found standing upright (as with Víga-Hrappr), or in a sitting position (Þórólfr), indicating that the dead might return. Ármann Jakobsson suggests further that breaking the draugr's posture is a necessary or helpful step in destroying the draugr, but this is fraught with the risk of being inflicted with the evil eye, whether this is explicitly told in the case of Grettir who receives the curse from Glámr, or only implied in the case of Þórólfr, whose son warns the others to beware while they unbend Þórólfr's seated posture.
=== Annihilating ===
The draugr needing to be decapitated to hinder them from further hauntings is a common theme in the family sagas.]]
Traditionally in Iceland, a pair of open iron scissors was placed on the chest of the recently deceased, and straws or twigs might be hidden among their clothes. The big toes were tied together or needles were driven through the soles of the feet to keep the dead from being able to walk. Tradition also held that the coffin should be lifted and lowered in three directions as it was carried from the house to confuse a possible draugr's sense of direction.
The most effective means of preventing the return of the dead was believed to be a corpse door, a special door through which the corpse was carried feet-first with people surrounding it so that the corpse couldn't see where it was going. The door was then bricked up to prevent a return. It is speculated that this belief began in Denmark and spread throughout the Norse culture, founded on the idea that the dead could only leave through the way they entered.
In the "Eyrbyggja saga," draugrs are driven off by holding a "door-doom." One by one, they are summoned to the door-doom, given judgment, and forced out of the home by this legal method. The home is then purified with holy water to ensure that they never come back.
== Folklore ==
=== Icelandic sagas ===
One of the best-known revenants in the sagas is Glámr, who is defeated by the hero in Grettis saga. After Glámr dies on Christmas Eve, "people became aware that Glámr was not resting in peace. He wrought such havoc that some people fainted at the sight of him, while others went out of their minds". After a battle, Grettir eventually gets Glámr on his back. Just before Grettir kills him, Glámr curses Grettir because "Glámr was endowed with more evil force than most other ghosts", and thus he was able to speak and leave Grettir with his curse after his death. (Note that the saga does not actually use the term draugr for Glámr, per above.)
A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is presented by the example of Gunnar Hámundarson in Njáls saga: "It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon. They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen. Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face."
In the Eyrbyggja saga, a shepherd is assaulted by a blue-black draugr. The shepherd's neck is broken during the ensuing scuffle. The shepherd rises the next night as a draugr. aboard a ship, in sub-human form, wearing oilskins]]
In later Scandinavian folklore, in contrast to the Icelandic sagas, the draugr appears to have become synonymous with regular ghosts and thereof in general, sometimes with no clear distinction at all.
In Norway, however, the term draugr instead became associated with ghosts (and thereof) of people lost at sea, sometimes specified as "sea draugr" (, sjødraug) relative to "land draugr". The sea draugr occurs in legends along the coast of Norway, either at sea or along the beach. In later folklore, it became common to limit the figure to a ghost of a dead fisherman who had drifted at sea and who was not buried in Christian soil. It was said that he wore a leather jacket or was dressed in oilskin, but had a bundle of seaweed for his head. He sailed in a half-boat with blocked sails (Bø Municipality in Norway has the half-boat in its coat of arms) and announced death for those who saw him or even wanted to pull them down. This trait is common in the northernmost part of Norway, where life and culture was based on fishing more than anywhere else. The reason for this may be that the fishermen often drowned in great numbers, and the stories of restless dead coming in from sea were more common in the north than any other region of the country.
A recorded legend from Trøndelag tells how a corpse lying on a beach became the object of a quarrel between the two types of draug (headless and seaweed-headed). A similar source even tells of a third type, the gleip, known to hitch themselves to sailors walking ashore and make them slip on the wet rocks.
But, though the draug usually presages death, there is an amusing account in Northern Norway of a northerner who managed to outwit him:
The cultural link between draugrs and Christmas in Norway goes back to at least the early 1900s, probably much earlier. Sea draugrs and drowned people are mentioned as being part of the Wild Hunt in Norway, and the old Nordic Christmas tradition of leaving out food and beer on Christmas night, as to wellcome spirits of the deceased, household spirits and thereof into the house, includes draugrs in Norway; the beer left out being called "draug-beer" (, from the form drauv).
Arne Garborg describes land-draugs coming fresh from the graveyards, and the term draug is even used of vampires. The notion of draugrs who live in the mountains is present in the poetic works of Henrik Ibsen (Peer Gynt), and Aasmund Olavsson Vinje.
== Use in popular culture ==
The exoplanet PSR B1257+12 A has been named "Draugr".
=== Literature ===
The Nynorsk translation of The Lord of the Rings used the term for both Nazgûl and the dead men of Dunharrow. Tolkien's barrow-wights bear obvious similarity to, and were inspired by the haugbúi.
=== Video games ===
In video game series such as The Elder Scrolls, draugr are the undead mummified corpses of fallen warriors that inhabit the ancient burial sites of a Nordic-inspired race of man. They first appeared in the Bloodmoon expansion to The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, and would later go on to appear all throughout The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
Draugrs are a common enemy, the first encountered by the player, in the 2018 video game God of War, with a variety of different powers and abilities.
In 2019, a spaceship named Draugur was added to the game Eve Online, as the command destroyer of the Triglavian faction. Draugr appear as an enemies in the 2021 early access game Valheim, where they take the more recent, seaweed version of the Draug.
The Draugr is one of the Norse myth units of the New Gods Pack: Freyr DLC of 2024 video game Age of Mythology: Retold, associated to the god Ullr, fighting with bows and arrows.
=== Cinema ===
Season two episode two of the 2018 TV-series Hilda, entitled "The Draugen", involved draugen as the ghosts of sailors who died at sea. While their form was ghostly, the captain could wear a coat, and had a shock of seaweed for hair.
In the 2018 film Draug, a group of Viking warriors encounter the draugr while searching for a missing person inside a vast forest. The draugr are depicted as blue-black animated corpses wielding many magical abilities.
In the 2022 movie The Northman, Amleth enters a burial mound, in search of a magical sword named "Draugr". Amleth encounters an undead Mound Dweller inside the grave chamber, which he has to fight to obtain the blade.
The 2024 Icelandic horror film The Damned features a draugr tormenting the inhabitants of an isolated, winter, fishing post after they let the survivors of a shipwreck drown.
|
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"Valland",
"Nazgûl",
"Eve Online",
"wikt:how"
] |
8,376 |
Day
|
A day is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. On average, this is 24 hours (86,400 seconds). As a day passes at a given location it experiences morning, afternoon, evening, and night. This daily cycle drives circadian rhythms in many organisms, which are vital to many life processes.
A collection of sequential days is organized into calendars as dates, almost always into weeks, months and years. A solar calendar organizes dates based on the Sun's annual cycle, giving consistent start dates for the four seasons from year to year. A lunar calendar organizes dates based on the Moon's lunar phase.
In common usage, a day starts at midnight, written as 00:00 or 12:00 am in 24- or 12-hour clocks, respectively. Because the time of midnight varies between locations, time zones are set up to facilitate the use of a uniform standard time. Other conventions are sometimes used, for example the Jewish religious calendar counts days from sunset to sunset, so the Jewish Sabbath begins at sundown on Friday. In astronomy, a day begins at noon so that observations throughout a single night are recorded as happening on the same day.
In specific applications, the definition of a day is slightly modified, such as in the SI day (exactly 86,400 seconds) used for computers and standards keeping, local mean time accounting of the Earth's natural fluctuation of a solar day, and stellar day and sidereal day (using the celestial sphere) used for astronomy. In some countries outside of the tropics, daylight saving time is practiced, and each year there will be one 23-hour civil day and one 25-hour civil day. Due to slight variations in the rotation of the Earth, there are rare times when a leap second will get inserted at the end of a UTC day, and so while almost all days have a duration of 86,400 seconds, there are these exceptional cases of a day with 86,401 seconds (in the half-century spanning 1972 through 2022, there have been a total of 27 leap seconds that have been inserted, so roughly once every other year). It is a non-SI unit that is accepted for use with SI.
== Etymology ==
The term comes from the Old English term dæġ (), with its cognates such as dagur in Icelandic, Tag in German, and dag in Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Dutch – all stemming from a Proto-Germanic root *dagaz.
== Definitions ==
=== Apparent and mean solar day ===
Several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context, need, and convenience. Besides the day of 24 hours (86,400 seconds), the word day is used for several different spans of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. An important one is the solar day, the time it takes for the Sun to return to its culmination point (its highest point in the sky). Due to an orbit's eccentricity, the Sun resides in one of the orbit's foci instead of the middle. Consequently, due to Kepler's second law, the planet travels at different speeds at various positions in its orbit, and thus a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year. Because the Earth moves along an eccentric orbit around the Sun while the Earth spins on an inclined axis, this period can be up to 7.9 seconds more than (or less than) 24 hours. In recent decades, the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86,400.002 seconds (24.000 000 6 hours). There are currently about 365.2421875 solar days in one mean tropical year.
Ancient custom has a new day starting at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example, being 24 hours from sunset, old style). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude and latitude, as well as altitude), and the time of year (as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials).
A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials.
A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt).
In terms of Earth's rotation, the average day length is about 360.9856°. A day lasts for more than 360° of rotation because of the Earth's revolution around the Sun. With a full year being slightly more than 360 days, the Earth's daily orbit around the Sun is slightly less than 1°, so the day is slightly less than 361° of rotation.
Elsewhere in the Solar System or other parts of the universe, a day is a full rotation of other large astronomical objects with respect to its star.
==== Civil day ====
For civil purposes, a common clock time is typically defined for an entire region based on the local mean solar time at a central meridian. Such time zones began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regularly occurring schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. As of 2015, throughout the world, 40 such zones are now in use: the central zone, from which all others are defined as offsets, is known as UTC+00, which uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
The most common convention starts the civil day at midnight: this is near the time of the lower culmination of the Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. Such a day may be called a calendar day.
A day is commonly divided into 24 hours, with each hour being made up of 60 minutes, and each minute composed of 60 seconds.
=== Sidereal day ===
A sidereal day or stellar day is the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star (assumed to be fixed). Measuring a day as such is used in astronomy. There are about 366.2422 stellar days in one mean tropical year (one stellar day more than the number of solar days).
Besides a stellar day on Earth, other bodies in the Solar System have day times, the durations of these being:
=== In the International System of Units ===
In the International System of Units (SI), a day not an official unit, but is accepted for use with SI. A day, with symbol d, is defined using SI units as 86,400 seconds; the second is the base unit of time in SI units. In 1967–68, during the 13th CGPM (Resolution 1), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) redefined a second as "the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom". This makes the SI-based day last exactly 794,243,384,928,000 of those periods.
=== In decimal and metric time ===
Various decimal or metric time proposals have been made, but do not redefine the day, and use the day or sidereal day as a base unit. Metric time uses metric prefixes to keep time. It uses the day as the base unit, and smaller units being fractions of a day: a metric hour (deci) is of a day; a metric minute (milli) is of a day; etc. Similarly, in decimal time, the length of a day is static to normal time. A day is also split into 10 hours, and 10 days comprise a décade – the equivalent of a week. 3 décades make a month. Various decimal time proposals which do not redefine the day: Henri de Sarrauton's proposal kept days, and subdivided hours into 100 minutes; or more colloquially the term . In other languages, is also often used. Other languages also have a separate word for a full day.
Part of a date: the day of the year (doy) in ordinal dates, day of the month (dom) in calendar dates or day of the week (dow) in week dates.
Time regularly spend at paid work on a single work day, cf. man-day and workweek.
Daytime
The period of light when the Sun is above the local horizon (that is, the time period from sunrise to sunset)
The time period from 06:00–18:00 (6:00 am – 6:00 pm) or 21:00 (9:00 pm) or another fixed clock period overlapping or offset from other time periods such as "morning", "afternoon", or "evening".
The time period from first-light "dawn" to last-light "dusk".
Other
A specific period of the day, which may vary by context, such as "the school day" or "the work day".
== Variations in length ==
Mainly due to tidal deceleration – the Moon's gravitational pull slowing down the Earth's rotation – the Earth's rotational period is slowing. Because of the way the second is defined, the mean length of a solar day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 2 milliseconds per century.
Since the rotation rate of the Earth is slowing, the length of a second fell out of sync with a second derived from the rotational period. Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary.
=== Geological day lengths ===
Discovered by paleontologist John W. Wells, the day lengths of geological periods have been estimated by measuring sedimentation rings in coral fossils,
| Duration of the day
|-
| Present
| Current
| 365
| 24 hours
|-
| −100 million years
| Cretaceous
| 380
| 23 hours and 20 minutes
|-
| −200 million years
| Triassic
| 390
| 22 hours and 40 minutes
|-
| −300 million years
| Carboniferous
| 400
| 22 hours
|-
| −400 million years
| Devonian
| 410
| 21 hours and 20 minutes
|-
| −500 million years
| Cambrian
| 425
| 20 hours and 40 minutes
|}
== Boundaries ==
For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with their cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have employed several different conceptions of the day's boundaries.
In the Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:5 defines a day in terms of "evening" and "morning" before recounting the creation of the Sun to illuminate it: "And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day."
The Jewish day begins at either sunset or nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear).
Medieval Europe also followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: In this system, a reference like "two hours into the day" meant two hours after sunset and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning.
Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween (“All Hallows’ Eve”), and the Eve of Saint Agnes are remnants of the older pattern when holidays began during the prior evening.
The common convention among the ancient Romans, ancient Chinese and in modern times is for the civil day to begin at midnight, i.e. 00:00, and to last a full 24 hours until 24:00, i.e. 00:00 of the next day. The International Meridian Conference of 1884 resolved
That the Conference expresses the hope that as soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical days will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight.
In ancient Egypt the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise.
Prior to 1926, Turkey had two time systems: Turkish, counting the hours from sunset, and French, counting the hours from midnight.
== Parts ==
Humans have divided the day in rough periods, which can have cultural implications, and other effects on humans' biological processes. The parts of the day do not have set times; they can vary by lifestyle or hours of daylight in a given place.
=== Daytime ===
Daytime is the part of the day during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no obstacles. The length of daytime averages slightly more than half of the 24-hour day. Two effects make daytime on average longer than night. The Sun is not a point but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc. Additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. Thus, daytime is on average around 7 minutes longer than 12 hours.
Daytime is further divided into morning, afternoon, and evening. Morning occurs between sunrise and noon. Afternoon occurs between noon and sunset, or between noon and the start of evening. This period of time sees human's highest body temperature, an increase of traffic collisions, and a decrease of productivity. Evening begins around 5 or 6 pm, or when the sun sets, and ends when one goes to bed.
=== Twilight ===
Twilight is the period before sunrise and after sunset in which there is natural light but no direct sunlight. The morning twilight begins at dawn and ends at sunrise, while the evening twilight begins at sunset and ends at dusk. Both periods of twilight can be divided into civil twilight, nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight. Civil twilight is when the sun is up to 6 degrees below the horizon; nautical when it is up to 12 degrees below, and astronomical when it is up to 18 degrees below.
=== Night ===
Night is the period in which the sky is dark; the period between dusk and dawn when no light from the sun is visible. Light pollution during night can impact human and animal life, for example by disrupting sleep.
|
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] |
8,377 |
Database
|
In computing, a database is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a database management system (DBMS), the software that interacts with end users, applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze the data. The DBMS additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to administer the database. The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications can be referred to as a database system. Often the term "database" is also used loosely to refer to any of the DBMS, the database system or an application associated with the database.
Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage. The design of databases spans formal techniques and practical considerations, including data modeling, efficient data representation and storage, query languages, security and privacy of sensitive data, and distributed computing issues, including supporting concurrent access and fault tolerance.
Computer scientists may classify database management systems according to the database models that they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These model data as rows and columns in a series of tables, and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s, non-relational databases became popular, collectively referred to as NoSQL, because they use different query languages.
==Terminology and overview==
Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data accessed through the use of a "database management system" (DBMS), which is an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.
Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it.
Outside the world of professional information technology, the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of a database management system.
Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups:
Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that detail how the data is to be organized.
Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the data itself.
Retrieval – Selecting data according to specified criteria (e.g., a query, a position in a hierarchy, or a position in relation to other data) and providing that data either directly to the user, or making it available for further processing by the database itself or by other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a more or less direct form without modification, as it is stored in the database, or in a new form obtained by altering it or combining it with existing data from the database.
Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure.
Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model. "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database.
Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large-volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions.
Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans.
Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security.
==History==
The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. These performance increases were enabled by the technology progress in the areas of processors, computer memory, computer storage, and computer networks. The concept of a database was made possible by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks, which became widely available in the mid-1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape. The subsequent development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational, SQL/relational, and post-relational.
The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model and the CODASYL model (network model). These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships from one record to another.
The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and they remain dominant: IBM Db2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server are the most searched DBMS. The dominant database language, standardized SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.
Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object–relational impedance mismatch, which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also the development of hybrid object–relational databases.
The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key–value stores and document-oriented databases. A competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs.
===1960s, navigational DBMS===
The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing. The Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data-base" in a specific technical sense.
As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the CODASYL approach, and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market.
The CODASYL approach offered applications the ability to navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods:
Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by hashing)
Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another
Scanning all the records in a sequential order
Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many CODASYL databases also added a declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API). However, CODASYL databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications.
IBM also had its own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL databases are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use .
===1970s, relational DBMS===
Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that were primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.
In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to organize the data as a number of "tables", each table being used for a different type of entity. Each table would contain a fixed number of columns containing the attributes of the entity. One or more columns of each table were designated as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key relationships, using a set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the model takes its name). Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or relations) aimed to ensure that each "fact" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations. Virtual tables called views could present the data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated.
Codd used mathematical terms to define the model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and columns. The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations. Codd would later criticize the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model was based.
The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two primary motivations. From an engineering perspective, it enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive database reorganization. But Codd was more interested in the difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it easier to define update operations with clean mathematical definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate calculus; because these operations have clean mathematical properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably correct ways, which is the basis of query optimization. There is no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or network models, though the connections between tables are no longer so explicit.
In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to have a complex internal structure. For example, the salary history of an employee might be represented as a "repeating group" within the employee record. In the relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in multiple tables, connected only by logical keys.
For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this data would be placed in a single variable-length record. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.
As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way in which applications assembled data from multiple records. Rather than requiring applications to gather data one record at a time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found. Finding an efficient access path to the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer. This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of mathematical logic.
Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard.
IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production one, Business System 12, both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics, and now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs.
In 1970, the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D.L. Childs' Set-Theoretic Data model. MICRO was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and researchers from the University of Alberta, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University. It ran on IBM mainframe computers using the Michigan Terminal System. The system remained in production until 1998.
===Integrated approach===
In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software. The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost. Examples were IBM System/38, the early offering of Teradata, and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine.
Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However, this idea is still pursued in certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).
===Late 1970s, SQL DBMS===
IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (IBM Db2).
Larry Ellison's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle) started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it was not until Oracle Version 2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979.
Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now known as PostgreSQL. PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial institutions).
In Sweden, Codd's paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed in the mid-1970s at Uppsala University. In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise.
Another data model, the entity–relationship model, emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model. Later on, entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as a data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the two has become irrelevant.
===1980s, on the desktop===
The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff, the creator of dBASE, stated: "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.
===1990s, object-oriented===
The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be related to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term "object–relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object–relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object–relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.
===2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL===
XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records.
NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally.
In recent years, there has been a strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem, it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.
NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system.
==Use cases==
Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software).
Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models. Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized parts inventory systems, and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a database.
==Classification==
One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic, document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type. This section lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases.
An in-memory database is a database that primarily resides in main memory, but is typically backed-up by non-volatile computer data storage. Main memory databases are faster than disk databases, and so are often used where response time is critical, such as in telecommunications network equipment.
An active database includes an event-driven architecture which can respond to conditions both inside and outside the database. Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics gathering and authorization. Many databases provide active database features in the form of database triggers.
A cloud database relies on cloud technology. Both the database and most of its DBMS reside remotely, "in the cloud", while its applications are both developed by programmers and later maintained and used by end-users through a web browser and Open APIs.
Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external sources such as market research firms. The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by managers and other end-users who may not have access to operational data. For example, sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data. Some basic and essential components of data warehousing include extracting, analyzing, and mining data, transforming, loading, and managing data so as to make them available for further use.
A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database.
A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers.
A document-oriented database is designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-oriented, or semi structured, information. Document-oriented databases are one of the main categories of NoSQL databases.
An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the application's end-users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance.
End-user databases consist of data developed by individual end-users. Examples of these are collections of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, multimedia, and other files. Several products exist to support such databases.
A federated database system comprises several distinct databases, each with its own DBMS. It is handled as a single database by a federated database management system (FDBMS), which transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs, possibly of different types (in which case it would also be a heterogeneous database system), and provides them with an integrated conceptual view.
Sometimes the term multi-database is used as a synonym for federated database, though it may refer to a less integrated (e.g., without an FDBMS and a managed integrated schema) group of databases that cooperate in a single application. In this case, typically middleware is used for distribution, which typically includes an atomic commit protocol (ACP), e.g., the two-phase commit protocol, to allow distributed (global) transactions across the participating databases.
A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store information. General graph databases that can store any graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases.
An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows modeling, storage, and retrieval of (usually large) multi-dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output.
In a hypertext or hypermedia database, any word or a piece of text representing an object, e.g., another piece of text, an article, a picture, or a film, can be hyperlinked to that object. Hypertext databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information. For example, they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias, where users can conveniently jump around the text. The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database.
A knowledge base (abbreviated KB, kb or Δ) is a special kind of database for knowledge management, providing the means for the computerized collection, organization, and retrieval of knowledge. Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions and related experiences.
A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device.
Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization. They typically process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions. Examples include customer databases that record contact, credit, and demographic information about a business's customers, personnel databases that hold information such as salary, benefits, skills data about employees, enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product components, parts inventory, and financial databases that keep track of the organization's money, accounting and financial dealings.
A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries.
The major parallel DBMS architectures which are induced by the underlying hardware architecture are:
Shared memory architecture, where multiple processors share the main memory space, as well as other data storage.
Shared disk architecture, where each processing unit (typically consisting of multiple processors) has its own main memory, but all units share the other storage.
Shared-nothing architecture, where each processing unit has its own main memory and other storage.
Probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic to draw inferences from imprecise data.
Real-time databases process transactions fast enough for the result to come back and be acted on right away.
A spatial database can store the data with multidimensional features. The queries on such data include location-based queries, like "Where is the closest hotel in my area?".
A temporal database has built-in time aspects, for example a temporal data model and a temporal version of SQL. More specifically the temporal aspects usually include valid-time and transaction-time.
A terminology-oriented database builds upon an object-oriented database, often customized for a specific field.
An unstructured data database is intended to store in a manageable and protected way diverse objects that do not fit naturally and conveniently in common databases. It may include email messages, documents, journals, multimedia objects, etc. The name may be misleading since some objects can be highly structured. However, the entire possible object collection does not fit into a predefined structured framework. Most established DBMSs now support unstructured data in various ways, and new dedicated DBMSs are emerging.
==Database management system==
Connolly and Begg define database management system (DBMS) as a "software system that enables users to define, create, maintain and control access to the database." Examples of DBMS's include MySQL, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, and Microsoft Access.
The DBMS acronym is sometimes extended to indicate the underlying database model, with RDBMS for the relational, OODBMS for the object (oriented) and ORDBMS for the object–relational model. Other extensions can indicate some other characteristics, such as DDBMS for a distributed database management systems.
The functionality provided by a DBMS can vary enormously. The core functionality is the storage, retrieval and update of data. Codd proposed the following functions and services a fully-fledged general purpose DBMS should provide:
Data storage, retrieval and update
User accessible catalog or data dictionary describing the metadata
Support for transactions and concurrency
Facilities for recovering the database should it become damaged
Support for authorization of access and update of data
Access support from remote locations
Enforcing constraints to ensure data in the database abides by certain rules
It is also generally to be expected the DBMS will provide a set of utilities for such purposes as may be necessary to administer the database effectively, including import, export, monitoring, defragmentation and analysis utilities. The core part of the DBMS interacting between the database and the application interface sometimes referred to as the database engine.
Often DBMSs will have configuration parameters that can be statically and dynamically tuned, for example the maximum amount of main memory on a server the database can use. The trend is to minimize the amount of manual configuration, and for cases such as embedded databases the need to target zero-administration is paramount.
The large major enterprise DBMSs have tended to increase in size and functionality and have involved up to thousands of human years of development effort throughout their lifetime.
Early multi-user DBMS typically only allowed for the application to reside on the same computer with access via terminals or terminal emulation software. The client–server architecture was a development where the application resided on a client desktop and the database on a server allowing the processing to be distributed. This evolved into a multitier architecture incorporating application servers and web servers with the end user interface via a web browser with the database only directly connected to the adjacent tier.
A general-purpose DBMS will provide public application programming interfaces (API) and optionally a processor for database languages such as SQL to allow applications to be written to interact with and manipulate the database. A special purpose DBMS may use a private API and be specifically customized and linked to a single application. For example, an email system performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as message insertion, message deletion, attachment handling, blocklist lookup, associating messages an email address and so forth however these functions are limited to what is required to handle email.
==Application==
External interaction with the database will be via an application program that interfaces with the DBMS. This can range from a database tool that allows users to execute SQL queries textually or graphically, to a website that happens to use a database to store and search information.
===Application program interface===
A programmer will code interactions to the database (sometimes referred to as a datasource) via an application program interface (API) or via a database language. The particular API or language chosen will need to be supported by DBMS, possibly indirectly via a preprocessor or a bridging API. Some API's aim to be database independent, ODBC being a commonly known example. Other common API's include JDBC and ADO.NET.
==Database languages==
Database languages are special-purpose languages, which allow one or more of the following tasks, sometimes distinguished as sublanguages:
Data control language (DCL) – controls access to data;
Data definition language (DDL) – defines data types such as creating, altering, or dropping tables and the relationships among them;
Data manipulation language (DML) – performs tasks such as inserting, updating, or deleting data occurrences;
Data query language (DQL) – allows searching for information and computing derived information.
Database languages are specific to a particular data model. Notable examples include:
SQL combines the roles of data definition, data manipulation, and query in a single language. It was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model, although it departs in some respects from the relational model as described by Codd (for example, the rows and columns of a table can be ordered). SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. The standards have been regularly enhanced since and are supported (with varying degrees of conformance) by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs.
OQL is an object model language standard (from the Object Data Management Group). It has influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL.
XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such as MarkLogic and eXist, by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and Db2, and also by in-memory XML processors such as Saxon.
SQL/XML combines XQuery with SQL.
A database language may also incorporate features like:
DBMS-specific configuration and storage engine management
Computations to modify query results, like counting, summing, averaging, sorting, grouping, and cross-referencing
Constraint enforcement (e.g. in an automotive database, only allowing one engine type per car)
Application programming interface version of the query language, for programmer convenience
==Storage==
Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Databases as digital objects contain three layers of information which must be stored: the data, the structure, and the semantics. Proper storage of all three layers is needed for future preservation and longevity of the database. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often using the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration settings are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look at the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database).
Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data, so multiple encodings can be used in the same database.
Various low-level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data model so it can be written to the medium of choice. Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance. Conventional storage is row-oriented, but there are also column-oriented and correlation databases.
===Materialized views===
Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance. A common example is storing materialized views, which consist of frequently needed external views or query results. Storing such views saves the expensive computing them each time they are needed. The downsides of materialized views are the overhead incurred when updating them to keep them synchronized with their original updated database data, and the cost of storage redundancy.
===Replication===
Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication (with one or more copies) to increase data availability (both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple end-user accesses to the same database object, and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure of a distributed database). Updates of a replicated object need to be synchronized across the object copies. In many cases, the entire database is replicated.
===Virtualization===
With data virtualization, the data used remains in its original locations and real-time access is established to allow analytics across multiple sources. This can aid in resolving some technical difficulties such as compatibility problems when combining data from various platforms, lowering the risk of error caused by faulty data, and guaranteeing that the newest data is used. Furthermore, avoiding the creation of a new database containing personal information can make it easier to comply with privacy regulations. However, with data virtualization, the connection to all necessary data sources must be operational as there is no local copy of the data, which is one of the main drawbacks of the approach.
==Security==
Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content, its owners, and its users. It ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to unintentional database accesses by unauthorized entities (e.g., a person or a computer program).
Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) are allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or using specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.
This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements. Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called "subschemas". For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases.
Data security in general deals with protecting specific chunks of data, both physically (i.e., from corruption, or destruction, or removal; e.g., see physical security), or the interpretation of them, or parts of them to meaningful information (e.g., by looking at the strings of bits that they comprise, concluding specific valid credit-card numbers; e.g., see data encryption).
Change and access logging records who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and when it was changed. Logging services allow for a forensic database audit later by keeping a record of access occurrences and changes. Sometimes application-level code is used to record changes rather than leaving this in the database. Monitoring can be set up to attempt to detect security breaches. Therefore, organizations must take database security seriously because of the many benefits it provides. Organizations will be safeguarded from security breaches and hacking activities like firewall intrusion, virus spread, and ransom ware. This helps in protecting the company's essential information, which cannot be shared with outsiders at any cause.
==Transactions and concurrency==
Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery from a crash. A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring or releasing a lock, etc.), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems. Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands).
The acronym ACID describes some ideal properties of a database transaction: atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability.
==Migration==
A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot run it). However, in some situations, it is desirable to migrate a database from one DBMS to another. The reasons are primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and operational (different DBMSs may have different capabilities). The migration involves the database's transformation from one DBMS type to another. The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database related application (i.e., all related application programs) intact. Thus, the database's conceptual and external architectural levels should be maintained in the transformation. It may be desired that also some aspects of the architecture internal level are maintained. A complex or large database migration may be a complicated and costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to migrate. This is in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs. Typically, a DBMS vendor provides tools to help import databases from other popular DBMSs.
==Building, maintaining, and tuning==
After designing a database for an application, the next stage is building the database. Typically, an appropriate general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be used for this purpose. A DBMS provides the needed user interfaces to be used by database administrators to define the needed application's data structures within the DBMS's respective data model. Other user interfaces are used to select needed DBMS parameters (like security related, storage allocation parameters, etc.).
When the database is ready (all its data structures and other needed components are defined), it is typically populated with initial application's data (database initialization, which is typically a distinct project; in many cases using specialized DBMS interfaces that support bulk insertion) before making it operational. In some cases, the database becomes operational while empty of application data, and data are accumulated during its operation.
After the database is created, initialized and populated it needs to be maintained. Various database parameters may need changing and the database may need to be tuned (tuning) for better performance; application's data structures may be changed or added, new related application programs may be written to add to the application's functionality, etc.
==Backup and restore==
Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases when the database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with erroneous data). To achieve this, a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where each desired database state (i.e., the values of its data and their embedding in database's data structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many techniques exist to do this effectively). When it is decided by a database administrator to bring the database back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the database was in this state), these files are used to restore that state.
==Static analysis==
Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query languages. In particular, the *Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of query languages for relational databases as a way to support sound approximation techniques. The semantics of query languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data. The abstraction of relational database systems has many interesting applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine-grained access control, watermarking, etc.
==Miscellaneous features==
Other DBMS features might include:
Database logs – This helps in keeping a history of the executed functions.
Graphics component for producing graphs and charts, especially in a data warehouse system.
Query optimizer – Performs query optimization on every query to choose an efficient query plan (a partial order (tree) of operations) to be executed to compute the query result. May be specific to a particular storage engine.
Tools or hooks for database design, application programming, application program maintenance, database performance analysis and monitoring, database configuration monitoring, DBMS hardware configuration (a DBMS and related database may span computers, networks, and storage units) and related database mapping (especially for a distributed DBMS), storage allocation and database layout monitoring, storage migration, etc.
Increasingly, there are calls for a single system that incorporates all of these core functionalities into the same build, test, and deployment framework for database management and source control. Borrowing from other developments in the software industry, some market such offerings as "DevOps for database".
==Design and modeling==
The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database. A common approach to this is to develop an entity–relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools. Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language. A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organization, like "can a customer also be a supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their relationships and attributes.
Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes, or the analysis of workflow in the organization. This can help to establish what information is needed in the database, and what can be left out. For example, it can help when deciding whether the database needs to hold historic data as well as current data.
Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema. Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms data model and database model are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific database, and database model for the modeling notation used to express that design).
The most popular database model for general-purpose databases is the relational model, or more precisely, the relational model as represented by the SQL language. The process of creating a logical database design using this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization. The goal of normalization is to ensure that each elementary "fact" is only recorded in one place, so that insertions, updates, and deletions automatically maintain consistency.
The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery, security, and the like, which depend on the particular DBMS. This is often called physical database design, and the output is the physical data model. A key goal during this stage is data independence, meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications. There are two types of data independence: Physical data independence and logical data independence. Physical design is driven mainly by performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.
Another aspect of physical database design is security. It involves both defining access control to database objects as well as defining security levels and methods for the data itself.
===Models===
A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized, and manipulated. The most popular example of a database model is the relational model (or the SQL approximation of relational), which uses a table-based format.
Common logical data models for databases include:
Navigational databases
Hierarchical database model
Network model
Graph database
Relational model
Entity–relationship model
Enhanced entity–relationship model
Object model
Document model
Entity–attribute–value model
Star schema
An object–relational database combines the two related structures.
Physical data models include:
Inverted index
Flat file
Other models include:
Multidimensional model
Array model
Multivalue model
Specialized models are optimized for particular types of data:
XML database
Semantic model
Content store
Event store
Time series model
===External, conceptual, and internal views===
A database management system provides three views of the database data:
The external level defines how each group of end-users sees the organization of data in the database. A single database can have any number of views at the external level.
The conceptual level (or logical level) unifies the various external views into a compatible global view. It provides the synthesis of all the external views. It is out of the scope of the various database end-users, and is rather of interest to database application developers and database administrators.
The internal level (or physical level) is the internal organization of data inside a DBMS. It is concerned with cost, performance, scalability and other operational matters. It deals with storage layout of the data, using storage structures such as indexes to enhance performance. Occasionally it stores data of individual views (materialized views), computed from generic data, if performance justification exists for such redundancy. It balances all the external views' performance requirements, possibly conflicting, in an attempt to optimize overall performance across all activities.
While there is typically only one conceptual and internal view of the data, there can be any number of different external views. This allows users to see database information in a more business-related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint. For example, a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company's expenses, but does not need details about employees that are in the interest of the human resources department. Thus different departments need different views of the company's database.
The three-level database architecture relates to the concept of data independence which was one of the major initial driving forces of the relational model. The idea is that changes made at a certain level do not affect the view at a higher level. For example, changes in the internal level do not affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces, which reduces the impact of making physical changes to improve performance.
The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external. On the one hand it provides a common view of the database, independent of different external view structures, and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal level). In principle every level, and even every external view, can be presented by a different data model. In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels (e.g., relational model). The internal level, which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of data structure types.
==Research==
Database technology has been an active research topic since the 1960s, both in academia and in the research and development groups of companies (for example IBM Research). Research activity includes theory and development of prototypes. Notable research topics have included models, the atomic transaction concept, related concurrency control techniques, query languages and query optimization methods, RAID, and more.
The database research area has several dedicated academic journals (for example, ACM Transactions on Database Systems-TODS, Data and Knowledge Engineering-DKE) and annual conferences (e.g., ACM SIGMOD, ACM PODS, VLDB, IEEE ICDE).
|
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] |
8,378 |
Dipole
|
In physics, a dipole () is an electromagnetic phenomenon which occurs in two ways:
An electric dipole deals with the separation of the positive and negative electric charges found in any electromagnetic system. A simple example of this system is a pair of charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign separated by some typically small distance. (A permanent electric dipole is called an electret.)
A magnetic dipole is the closed circulation of an electric current system. A simple example is a single loop of wire with constant current through it. A bar magnet is an example of a magnet with a permanent magnetic dipole moment.
Dipoles, whether electric or magnetic, can be characterized by their dipole moment, a vector quantity. For the simple electric dipole, the electric dipole moment points from the negative charge towards the positive charge, and has a magnitude equal to the strength of each charge times the separation between the charges. (To be precise: for the definition of the dipole moment, one should always consider the "dipole limit", where, for example, the distance of the generating charges should converge to 0 while simultaneously, the charge strength should diverge to infinity in such a way that the product remains a positive constant.)
For the magnetic (dipole) current loop, the magnetic dipole moment points through the loop (according to the right hand grip rule), with a magnitude equal to the current in the loop times the area of the loop.
Similar to magnetic current loops, the electron particle and some other fundamental particles have magnetic dipole moments, as an electron generates a magnetic field identical to that generated by a very small current loop. However, an electron's magnetic dipole moment is not due to a current loop, but to an intrinsic property of the electron. The electron may also have an electric dipole moment though such has yet to be observed (see electron electric dipole moment).
A permanent magnet, such as a bar magnet, owes its magnetism to the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the electron. The two ends of a bar magnet are referred to as poles (not to be confused with monopoles, see Classification below) and may be labeled "north" and "south". In terms of the Earth's magnetic field, they are respectively "north-seeking" and "south-seeking" poles: if the magnet were freely suspended in the Earth's magnetic field, the north-seeking pole would point towards the north and the south-seeking pole would point towards the south. The dipole moment of the bar magnet points from its magnetic south to its magnetic north pole. In a magnetic compass, the north pole of a bar magnet points north. However, that means that Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the south pole (south-seeking pole) of its dipole moment and vice versa.
The only known mechanisms for the creation of magnetic dipoles are by current loops or quantum-mechanical spin since the existence of magnetic monopoles has never been experimentally demonstrated.
== Classification ==
A physical dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges: in the literal sense, two poles. Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above. A point (electric) dipole is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the multipole expansion is precisely the point dipole field.
Although there are no known magnetic monopoles in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical spin associated with particles such as electrons (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic point dipole has a magnetic field of exactly the same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop.
Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration. This is simply one term in the multipole expansion when the total charge ("monopole moment") is 0—as it always is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles. The dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: Its field falls off in proportion to , as compared to for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of for higher terms, or for the monopole term.
== Molecular dipoles ==
Many molecules have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms. Such is the case with polar compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF), where electron density is shared unequally between atoms. Therefore, a molecule's dipole is an electric dipole with an inherent electric field that should not be confused with a magnetic dipole, which generates a magnetic field.
The physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and, as a consequence, dipole moments are measured in the non-SI unit named debye in his honor.
For molecules there are three types of dipoles:
Permanent dipoles: These occur when two atoms in a molecule have substantially different electronegativity : One atom attracts electrons more than another, becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive. A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a polar molecule. See dipole–dipole attractions.
Instantaneous dipoles : These occur due to chance when electrons happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a molecule, creating a temporary dipole. These dipoles are smaller in magnitude than permanent dipoles, but still play a large role in chemistry and biochemistry due to their prevalence. See instantaneous dipole.
Induced dipoles : These can occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, inducing a dipole moment in that molecule. A molecule is polarized when it carries an induced dipole. See induced-dipole attraction.
More generally, an induced dipole of any polarizable charge distribution ρ (remember that a molecule has a charge distribution) is caused by an electric field external to ρ. This field may, for instance, originate from an ion or polar molecule in the vicinity of ρ or may be macroscopic (e.g., a molecule between the plates of a charged capacitor). The size of the induced dipole moment is equal to the product of the strength of the external field and the dipole polarizability of ρ.
Dipole moment values can be obtained from measurement of the dielectric constant. Some typical gas phase values given with the unit debye are:
carbon dioxide: 0
carbon monoxide: 0.112 D
ozone: 0.53 D
phosgene: 1.17 D
ammonia: 1.42 D
water vapor: 1.85 D
hydrogen cyanide: 2.98 D
cyanamide: 4.27 D
potassium bromide: 10.41 D
Potassium bromide (KBr) has one of the highest dipole moments because it is an ionic compound that exists as a molecule in the gas phase.
The overall dipole moment of a molecule may be approximated as a vector sum of bond dipole moments. As a vector sum it depends on the relative orientation of the bonds, so that from the dipole moment information can be deduced about the molecular geometry.
For example, the zero dipole of CO2 implies that the two C=O bond dipole moments cancel so that the molecule must be linear. For H2O the O−H bond moments do not cancel because the molecule is bent. For ozone (O3) which is also a bent molecule, the bond dipole moments are not zero even though the O−O bonds are between similar atoms. This agrees with the Lewis structures for the resonance forms of ozone which show a positive charge on the central oxygen atom.
An example in organic chemistry of the role of geometry in determining dipole moment is the cis and trans isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. In the cis isomer the two polar C−Cl bonds are on the same side of the C=C double bond and the molecular dipole moment is 1.90 D. In the trans isomer, the dipole moment is zero because the two C−Cl bonds are on opposite sides of the C=C and cancel (and the two bond moments for the much less polar C−H bonds also cancel).
Another example of the role of molecular geometry is boron trifluoride, which has three polar bonds with a difference in electronegativity greater than the traditionally cited threshold of 1.7 for ionic bonding. However, due to the equilateral triangular distribution of the fluoride ions centered on and in the same plane as the boron cation, the symmetry of the molecule results in its dipole moment being zero.
== Quantum-mechanical dipole operator ==
Consider a collection of N particles with charges qi and position vectors ri. For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge −e, and nuclei with charge eZi, where Zi is the atomic number of the i th nucleus.
The dipole observable (physical quantity) has the quantum mechanical dipole operator:
\mathfrak{p} = \sum_{i=1}^N \, q_i \, \mathbf{r}_i \, .
Notice that this definition is valid only for neutral atoms or molecules, i.e. total charge equal to zero. In the ionized case, we have
\mathfrak{p} = \sum_{i=1}^N \, q_i \, (\mathbf{r}_i - \mathbf{r}_c) ,
where \mathbf{r}_c is the center of mass of the molecule/group of particles.
== Atomic dipoles ==
A non-degenerate (S-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole. This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms. All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus,
\mathfrak{I} \;\mathfrak{p}\; \mathfrak{I}^{-1} = -\mathfrak{p},
where \mathfrak{p} is the dipole operator and \mathfrak{I} is the inversion operator.
The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator,
\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle = \left\langle\, S\, | \mathfrak{p} |\, S \,\right\rangle,
where |\, S\, \rangle is an S-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: \mathfrak{I}\, |\, S\, \rangle = \pm|\, S\, \rangle. Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse,
\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle =
\left\langle\, \mathfrak{I}^{-1}\, S\, | \mathfrak{p} |\, \mathfrak{I}^{-1}\, S\, \right\rangle =
\left\langle\, S\, | \mathfrak{I}\, \mathfrak{p}\, \mathfrak{I}^{-1} |\, S\, \right\rangle =
-\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle
it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion. We used here the fact that \mathfrak{I}, being a symmetry operator, is unitary: \mathfrak{I}^{-1} = \mathfrak{I}^{*}\, and by definition the Hermitian adjoint \mathfrak{I}^*\, may be moved from bra to ket and then becomes \mathfrak{I}^{**} = \mathfrak{I}\,. Since the only quantity that is equal to minus itself is the zero, the expectation value vanishes,
\left\langle \mathfrak{p} \right\rangle = 0.
In the case of open-shell atoms with degenerate energy levels, one could define a dipole moment by the aid of the first-order Stark effect. This gives a non-vanishing dipole (by definition proportional to a non-vanishing first-order Stark shift) only if some of the wavefunctions belonging to the degenerate energies have opposite parity; i.e., have different behavior under inversion. This is a rare occurrence, but happens for the excited H-atom, where 2s and 2p states are "accidentally" degenerate (see article Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector for the origin of this degeneracy) and have opposite parity (2s is even and 2p is odd).
== Field of a static magnetic dipole ==
=== Magnitude ===
The far-field strength, B, of a dipole magnetic field is given by
B(m, r, \lambda) = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{m}{r^3} \sqrt{1 + 3\sin^2(\lambda)} \, ,
where
B is the strength of the field, measured in teslas
r is the distance from the center, measured in metres
λ is the magnetic latitude (equal to 90° − θ) where θ is the magnetic colatitude, measured in radians or degrees from the dipole axis
m is the dipole moment, measured in ampere-square metres or joules per tesla
μ0 is the permeability of free space, measured in henries per metre.
Conversion to cylindrical coordinates is achieved using and
\lambda = \arcsin\left(\frac{z}{\sqrt{z^2 + \rho^2}}\right)
where ρ is the perpendicular distance from the z-axis. Then,
B(\rho, z) = \frac{\mu_0 m}{4 \pi \left(z^2 + \rho^2\right)^\frac32} \sqrt{1 + \frac{3 z^2}{z^2 + \rho^2}}
=== Vector form ===
The field itself is a vector quantity:
\mathbf{B}(\mathbf{m}, \mathbf{r}) =
\frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \ \frac{3(\mathbf{m} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}}) \hat{\mathbf{r}} - \mathbf{m}}{r^3}
where
B is the field
r is the vector from the position of the dipole to the position where the field is being measured
r is the absolute value of r: the distance from the dipole
r̂ = is the unit vector parallel to r;
m is the (vector) dipole moment
μ0 is the permeability of free space
This is exactly the field of a point dipole, exactly the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and approximately the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.
=== Magnetic vector potential ===
The vector potential A of a magnetic dipole is
\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{\mathbf{m} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2}
with the same definitions as above.
== Field from an electric dipole ==
The electrostatic potential at position r due to an electric dipole at the origin is given by:
\Phi(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\,\frac{\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2}
where p is the (vector) dipole moment, and є0 is the permittivity of free space.
This term appears as the second term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary electrostatic potential Φ(r). If the source of Φ(r) is a dipole, as it is assumed here, this term is the only non-vanishing term in the multipole expansion of Φ(r). The electric field from a dipole can be found from the gradient of this potential:
\mathbf{E} = - \nabla \Phi =\frac {1} {4\pi\epsilon_0} \ \frac{3(\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}})\hat{\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{p}}{r^3} - \delta^3(\mathbf{r})\frac{\mathbf{p}}{3\epsilon_0}.
This is of the same form of the expression for the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole, ignoring the delta function.
In a real electric dipole, however, the charges are physically separate and the electric field diverges or converges at the point charges.
This is different to the magnetic field of a real magnetic dipole which is continuous everywhere. The delta function represents the strong field pointing in the opposite direction between the point charges, which is often omitted since one is rarely interested in the field at the dipole's position.
For further discussions about the internal field of dipoles, see or .
== Torque on a dipole ==
Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge.
When placed in a homogeneous electric or magnetic field, equal but opposite forces arise on each side of the dipole creating a torque }:
\boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{p} \times \mathbf{E}
for an electric dipole moment p (in coulomb-meters), or
\boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B}
for a magnetic dipole moment m (in ampere-square meters).
The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field, which in the case of an electric dipole, yields a potential energy of
U = -\mathbf{p} \cdot \mathbf{E}.
The energy of a magnetic dipole is similarly
U = -\mathbf{m} \cdot \mathbf{B}.
== Dipole radiation ==
In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time. It is an extension, or a more physical next-step, to spherical wave radiation.
In particular, consider a harmonically oscillating electric dipole, with angular frequency ω and a dipole moment p0 along the ẑ direction of the form
\mathbf{p}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \mathbf{p}(\mathbf{r})e^{-i\omega t} = p_0\hat{\mathbf{z}}e^{-i\omega t} .
In vacuum, the exact field produced by this oscillating dipole can be derived using the retarded potential formulation as:
\begin{align}
\mathbf{E} &= \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \left\{
\frac{\omega^2}{c^2 r} \left( \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p} \right) \times \hat{\mathbf{r}} +
\left( \frac{1}{r^3} - \frac{i\omega}{cr^2} \right)
\left( 3\hat{\mathbf{r}} \left[\hat{\mathbf{r}} \cdot \mathbf{p}\right] - \mathbf{p} \right)
\right\} e^\frac{i\omega r}{c} e^{-i\omega t} \\
\mathbf{B} &= \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 c^3} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p}) \left( 1 - \frac{c}{i\omega r} \right) \frac{e^{i\omega r/c}}{r} e^{-i\omega t}.
\end{align}
For ≫ 1, the far-field takes the simpler form of a radiating "spherical" wave, but with angular dependence embedded in the cross-product:
\begin{align}
\mathbf{B}
&= \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 c^3} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p}) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r}
= \frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0 }{4\pi c} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \hat{\mathbf{z}}) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r}
= -\frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0 }{4\pi c} \sin(\theta) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r} \mathbf{\hat{\phi}} \\
\mathbf{E}
&= c \mathbf{B} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}
= -\frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0}{4\pi} \sin(\theta) \left(\hat{\phi} \times \mathbf{\hat{r}}\right) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r}
= -\frac{\omega^2 \mu_0 p_0}{4\pi} \sin(\theta) \frac{e^{i\omega (r/c - t)}}{r} \hat{\theta}.
\end{align}
The time-averaged Poynting vector
\langle \mathbf{S} \rangle = \left(\frac{\mu_0 p_0^2\omega^4}{32\pi^2 c}\right) \frac{\sin^2(\theta)}{r^2} \mathbf{\hat{r}}
is not distributed isotropically, but concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment, as a result of the non-spherical electric and magnetic waves. In fact, the spherical harmonic function (sin θ) responsible for such toroidal angular distribution is precisely the l = 1 "p" wave.
The total time-average power radiated by the field can then be derived from the Poynting vector as
P = \frac{\mu_0 \omega^4 p_0^2}{12\pi c}.
Notice that the dependence of the power on the fourth power of the frequency of the radiation is in accordance with the Rayleigh scattering, and the underlying effects why the sky consists of mainly blue colour.
A circular polarized dipole is described as a superposition of two linear dipoles.
|
[
"electric current",
"physics",
"Intrinsic and extrinsic properties",
"Inversion in a point",
"Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole",
"torque",
"Spin (physics)",
"Ammonia",
"Magnetic moment",
"ionic compound",
"electronegativity",
"capacitor",
"magnetic monopole",
"degree (angle)",
"atomic number",
"magnetic field",
"Poynting vector",
"Molecular dipole",
"Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector",
"Magnetic monopole",
"1,2-dichloroethene",
"electret",
"vector potential",
"torus",
"Polarization density",
"angular frequency",
"magnetic dipole moment",
"Electret",
"Stephen Wolfram",
"phosgene",
"electric dipole",
"north pole",
"Solid harmonics",
"electric field",
"spherical harmonic",
"multipole expansion",
"polarizability",
"force",
"quadrupole",
"Magnetic dipole–dipole interaction",
"radian",
"electric charge",
"permeability (electromagnetism)",
"electron density",
"joule",
"electrical dipole moment",
"Spin magnetic moment",
"henry (unit)",
"electrostatic potential",
"electron charge",
"bond dipole moment",
"Rayleigh scattering",
"Molecular solid",
"ampere",
"carbon dioxide",
"parity (physics)",
"debye",
"Multipole expansion",
"right hand grip rule",
"degenerate energy level",
"Oxford University Press",
"Wolfram Demonstrations Project",
"ionic bonding",
"tesla (unit)",
"boron trifluoride",
"David J. Griffiths",
"ozone",
"electron electric dipole moment",
"Cylindrical multipole moments",
"potassium bromide",
"molecular geometry",
"permittivity of free space",
"hydrogen fluoride",
"electric dipole moment",
"electron",
"Euclidean vector",
"Dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field",
"Intermolecular force",
"Laplace expansion (potential)",
"magnetic dipole",
"London dispersion force",
"spherical wave",
"compass",
"unitary operator",
"Electric dipole moment",
"Indian Ocean Dipole",
"Magnet",
"south pole",
"carbon monoxide",
"Oxford English Dictionary",
"Hermitian adjoint",
"electromagnetic",
"ammonia",
"cis–trans isomerism",
"dielectric constant",
"retarded potential",
"Spherical multipole moments",
"water vapor",
"bar magnet",
"Stark effect",
"Peter Debye",
"SI",
"cyanamide",
"molecule",
"fundamental particle",
"gradient",
"hydrogen cyanide",
"Axial multipole moments"
] |
8,386 |
Dynamics
|
Dynamics (from Greek δυναμικός dynamikos "powerful", from δύναμις dynamis "power") or dynamic may refer to:
==Physics and engineering==
Dynamics (mechanics), the study of forces and their effect on motion
== Brands and enterprises==
Dynamic (record label), an Italian record label in Genoa
==Mathematics==
Dynamical system, a concept describing a point's time dependency
Topological dynamics, the study of dynamical systems from the viewpoint of general topology
Symbolic dynamics, a method to model dynamical systems
== Social science ==
Group dynamics, the study of social group processes especially
Population dynamics, in life sciences, the changes in the composition of a population
Psychodynamics, the study of psychological forces driving human behavior
Social dynamics, the ability of a society to react to changes
Spiral Dynamics, a social development theory
== Other uses==
Dynamics (music), the softness or loudness of a sound or note
DTA Dynamic, a French ultralight trike wing design
Force dynamics, a semantic concept about how entities interact with reference to force
Dynamics (album)
The Dynamics, American R&B group
|
[
"Group dynamics",
"Power (disambiguation)",
"Kinetics (disambiguation)",
"power (disambiguation)",
"Social dynamics",
"Dynamical system",
"Population dynamics",
"Psychodynamics",
"Dynamics (album)",
"Symbolic dynamics",
"Force dynamics",
"Dynamics (mechanics)",
"DTA Dynamic",
"Topological dynamics",
"Static (disambiguation)",
"Dynamic (record label)",
"Greek language",
"Spiral Dynamics",
"The Dynamics",
"Dynamics (music)",
"Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol"
] |
8,387 |
Draught beer
|
Draught beer, also spelt draft, is beer served from a cask or keg rather than from a bottle or can. Draught beer served from a pressurised keg is also known as
== Name ==
Until Joseph Bramah patented the beer engine in 1785, beer was served directly from the barrel and carried to the customer. The Old English ("carry; pull") developed into a series of related words including drag, draw, and draught. By the time Bramah's beer pumps became popular, the use of the term draught to refer to the acts of serving or drinking beer was well established and transferred easily to beer served via the hand pumps. In time, the word came to be restricted to only such beer. The usual spelling is now "draught" in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand and more commonly "draft" in North America, although it can be spelt either way. Regardless of spelling, the word is pronounced or depending on the region the speaker is from.
Canned draught is beer served from a pressurised container featuring a widget. Smooth flow (also known as cream flow, nitrokeg, or smooth) is the name brewers give to draught beers pressurised with a partial nitrogen gas blend.
== History ==
In 1691, an article in the London Gazette mentioned John Lofting, who held a patent for a fire engine: "The said patentee has also projected a very useful engine for starting of beer, and other liquors which will draw from 20 to 30 barrels an hour, which are completely fixed with brass joints and screws at reasonable rates".
In the early 20th century, draught beer started to be served from pressurised containers. Artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney's experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in the UK until the late 1950s, it did become the favoured method in the rest of Europe, where it is known by such terms as en pression. The carbonation method of serving beer subsequently spread to the rest of the world; by the early 1970s the term "draught beer" almost exclusively referred to beer served under pressure as opposed to the traditional cask or barrel beer.
In Britain, the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) was founded in 1971 to protect traditional—unpressurised—beer and brewing methods. The group devised the term real ale to differentiate between beer served from the cask and beer served under pressure. The term real ale has since been expanded to include bottle-conditioned beer.
== Keg beer ==
Keg beer is often filtered and/or pasteurised, both of which are processes that render the yeast inactive.
In brewing parlance, a keg is different from a cask. A cask has a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer. A keg has a single opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached. Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas or especially in Czech Republic solely compressed air.
Keg has become a term of contempt used by some, particularly in the UK, since the 1960s when pasteurised draught beers started replacing traditional cask beers.
Keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, primarily because it requires less care to handle. Since 1971, CAMRA has conducted a consumer campaign on behalf of those who prefer traditional cask beer. CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament to ensure support for cask ale and microbreweries have sprung up to serve those consumers who prefer traditional cask beer.
Pressurised CO2 in the keg's headspace maintains carbonation in the beer. The CO2 pressure varies depending on the amount of CO2 already in the beer and the keg storage temperature. Occasionally the CO2 gas is blended with nitrogen gas. CO2 / nitrogen blends are used to allow a higher operating pressure in complex dispensing systems.
Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to (artificially) form a rich tight head and a less carbonated taste. This makes the beer feel smooth on the palate and gives a foamy appearance. Premixed bottled gas for creamy beers is usually 75% nitrogen and 25% CO2. This premixed gas, which only works well with creamy beers, is often referred to as Guinness Gas, Beer Gas, or Aligal (an Air Liquide brand name). Using "Beer Gas" with other beer styles can cause the last 5% to 10% of the beer in each keg to taste very flat and lifeless. In the UK, the term keg beer would imply the beer is pasteurised, in contrast to unpasteurised cask ale. Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised.
== Storage and serving temperature ==
Cask beer should be stored and served at a cellar temperature of . Once a cask is opened, it should be consumed within three days. Keg beer is given additional cooling just prior to being served either by flash coolers or a remote cooler in the cellar. This chills the beer to temperatures between .
== Canned and bottled "draught" ==
The words "draft" and "draught" have been used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers, implying that they taste and appear like beers from a cask or keg. Commercial brewers use this as a marketing tool although it is incorrect to call any beer not drawn from a cask or keg "draught". Two examples are Miller Genuine Draft, a pale lager which is produced using a cold filtering system, and Guinness stout in patented "Draught-flow" cans and bottles. Guinness is an example of beers that use a nitrogen widget to create a smooth beer with a dense head. Guinness has recently replaced the widget system from their bottled "draught" beer with a coating of cellulose fibres on the inside of the bottle. Statements indicate a new development in bottling technology that enables the mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide to be present in the beer without using a widget, making it according to Guinness "more drinkable" from the bottle.
In East Asian countries, such as China and Japan, the term "draft beer" () applied to canned or bottled beer indicates that the beer is not pasteurised (though it may be filtered), giving it a fresher taste but shorter shelf-life than conventional packaged beers.
|
[
"Guinness",
"cask",
"Bottle conditioning",
"compressed air",
"microbrewery",
"beer",
"Pasteurization",
"pasteurization",
"Stout beer",
"carbon dioxide",
"spile",
"bottle",
"New Zealand English",
"beer engine",
"Miller Genuine Draft",
"China",
"Australian English",
"London Gazette",
"yeast",
"Head (beer)",
"beer style",
"Watney Combe & Reid",
"nitrogen",
"filtration",
"carbonation",
"Brewing",
"East Asia",
"Cask breather",
"Campaign for Real Ale",
"aluminum can",
"Cask ale",
"John Lofting",
"Czech Republic",
"keg",
"James Watney",
"British English",
"United Kingdom",
"Beer tap",
"Growler (jug)",
"Widget (beer)",
"North America",
"Japan",
"British Parliament",
"cask ale",
"Old English",
"Irish English",
"John Wiley and Sons",
"Beer head",
"Fire apparatus",
"Joseph Bramah",
"pale lager"
] |
8,388 |
Director
|
Director may refer to:
==Literature==
Director (magazine), a British magazine
The Director (novel), a 1971 novel by Henry Denker
The Director (play), a 2000 play by Nancy Hasty
==Music==
Director (band), an Irish rock band
Director (Avant album) (2006)
Director (Yonatan Gat album)
==Occupations and positions==
===Arts and design===
Animation director
Artistic director
Creative director
Design director
Film director
Music director
Music video director
Television director
Theatre director
===Positions in other fields===
Director (business), a senior-level management position
Director (colonial), head of chartered company's colonial administration for a territory
Director (education), head of a university or other educational body
Company director, a member of (for example) a board of directors
Cruise director
Executive director, senior operating officer or manager of an organization or corporation, usually at a nonprofit
Finance director or chief financial officer
Funeral director
Managing director
Non-executive director
Technical director
Tournament director
==Science and technology==
Director (military), a device that continuously calculates firing data
Adobe Director, multimedia authoring software
Fibre Channel director, a large switch for computer storage networks
Director telephone system, or Director exchange
GCR Class 11E or Directors, a class of locomotive
Director, the spatial and temporal average of the orientation of the long molecular axis within a small volume element of liquid crystal
==Other uses==
Director (1969 film), a Soviet film directed by Alexey Saltykov
Director (2009 film), an American film directed by Aleks Rosenberg
The Director, an artificial intelligence system in the video game Left 4 Dead
HMS Director (1784), a ship of the British Royal Navy
Directors beer, by Courage Brewery
==People with the surname==
Aaron Director (1901–2004), professor at the University of Chicago Law School
Kim Director (born 1974), American actress
|
[
"Managing director",
"Directors beer",
"Television director",
"Director (2009 film)",
"Director (Avant album)",
"The Director (play)",
"Tournament director",
"Design director",
"Executive director",
"Director (Yonatan Gat album)",
"Directeur sportif",
"Non-executive director",
"Left 4 Dead",
"Director-general",
"Fibre Channel director",
"Kim Director",
"Aaron Director",
"Music video director",
"Adobe Director",
"Music director",
"Animation director",
"Finance director",
"Director (business)",
"HMS Director (1784)",
"Director (military)",
"Director string",
"Director telephone system",
"GCR Class 11E",
"Artistic director",
"Technical director",
"French Directory",
"liquid crystal",
"Director (band)",
"Funeral director",
"The Director (novel)",
"Director (education)",
"Director (1969 film)",
"Company director",
"Director (magazine)",
"Director (colonial)",
"Deputy Director (disambiguation)",
"Cruise director",
"Creative director",
"Theatre director",
"Film director"
] |
8,389 |
Major depressive disorder
|
{{Infobox medical condition
| name = Major depressive disorder
| image = Van Gogh - Trauernder alter Mann.jpeg
| alt =
| caption = Sorrowing Old Man (At Eternity's Gate), an 1890 portrait by Vincent van Gogh
| field = Psychiatry, clinical psychology
| synonyms = Clinical depression, major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, recurrent depression
| symptoms = Low mood, low self-esteem, loss of interest in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, pain without a clear cause,
| medication = Antidepressants
| prognosis =
| frequency = 163 million (2017) characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood, low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s, the term was adopted by the American Psychiatric Association for this symptom cluster under mood disorders in the 1980 version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), and has become widely used since. The disorder causes the second-most years lived with disability, after lower back pain.
The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the person's reported experiences, behavior reported by family or friends, and a mental status examination. There is no laboratory test for the disorder, but testing may be done to rule out physical conditions that can cause similar symptoms. with females affected about three times as often as males. The course of the disorder varies widely, from one episode lasting months to a lifelong disorder with recurrent major depressive episodes.
Those with major depressive disorder are typically treated with psychotherapy and antidepressant medication. Hospitalization (which may be involuntary) may be necessary in cases with associated self-neglect or a significant risk of harm to self or others. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be considered if other measures are not effective. with about 40% of the risk being genetic. Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, childhood traumas, environmental lead exposure, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders. Depressed people may be preoccupied with or ruminate over thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness or hopelessness.
Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory, withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide. Insomnia is common; in the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and cannot get back to sleep. Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen, as well as day-night rhythm disturbances, such as diurnal mood variation. Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect. In severe cases, depressed people may have psychotic symptoms. These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant. People who have had previous episodes with psychotic symptoms are more likely to have them with future episodes.
A depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches, or digestive problems; physical complaints are the most common presenting problem in developing countries, according to the World Health Organization's criteria for depression. Appetite often decreases, resulting in weight loss, although increased appetite and weight gain occasionally occur. Family and friends may notice agitation or lethargy. Older depressed people may have cognitive symptoms of recent onset, such as forgetfulness, and a more noticeable slowing of movements.
Depressed children may often display an irritable rather than a depressed mood; most lose interest in school and show a steep decline in academic performance. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as "normal moodiness". Elderly people may not present with classical depressive symptoms.]]
The etiology of depression is not yet fully understood. The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood. American psychiatrist Aaron Beck suggested that a triad of automatic and spontaneous negative thoughts about the self, the world or environment, and the future may lead to other depressive signs and symptoms.
===Genetics===
Genes play a major role in the development of depression. Family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for nearly 40% of the variation in risk for major depressive disorder. Like most psychiatric disorders, major depression is likely shaped by a combination of many individual genetic influences. In 2018, a genome-wide association study discovered 44 genetic variants linked to risk for major depression; a 2019 study found 102 variants in the genome linked to depression. However, it appears that major depression is less heritable compared to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Research focusing on specific candidate genes has been criticized for its tendency to generate false positive findings. There are also other efforts to examine interactions between life stress and polygenic risk for depression.
===Other health problems===
Depression can also arise after a chronic or terminal medical condition, such as HIV/AIDS or asthma, and may be labeled "secondary depression". It is unknown whether the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, or through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease or immune dysregulation in asthma). Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug-induced depression. Therapies associated with depression include interferons, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives, anticonvulsants, and hormonal agents. Celiac disease is another possible contributing factor.
Substance use in early age is associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life. Depression occurring after giving birth is called postpartum depression and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy. Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be triggered by decreased sunlight.
Vitamin B2, B6 and B12 deficiency may cause depression in females.
A 2025 study found that, among more than 172,500 adults in the UK aged 39 and older, those with a history of depression experienced the onset of chronic illnesses approximately 30% earlier than those without depression.
===Environmental===
Adverse childhood experiences (incorporating childhood abuse, neglect and family dysfunction) markedly increase the risk of major depression, especially if more than one type. Childhood trauma also correlates with severity of depression, poor responsiveness to treatment and length of illness. Some are more susceptible than others to developing mental illness such as depression after trauma, and various genes have been suggested to control susceptibility. Couples in unhappy marriages have a higher risk of developing clinical depression.
There appears to be a link between air pollution and depression and suicide. There may be an association between long-term PM2.5 exposure and depression, and a possible association between short-term PM10 exposure and suicide.
Living alone has been found to increase the risk of depression by 42%.
==Pathophysiology==
The pathophysiology of depression is not completely understood, but current theories center around monoaminergic systems, the circadian rhythm, immunological dysfunction, HPA-axis dysfunction, and structural or functional abnormalities of emotional circuits.
Derived from the effectiveness of monoaminergic drugs in treating depression, the monoamine theory posits that insufficient activity of monoamine neurotransmitters is the primary cause of depression. Evidence for the monoamine theory comes from multiple areas. First, acute depletion of tryptophan—a necessary precursor of serotonin and a monoamine—can cause depression in those in remission or relatives of people who are depressed, suggesting that decreased serotonergic neurotransmission is important in depression. Second, the correlation between depression risk and polymorphisms in the 5-HTTLPR gene, which codes for serotonin receptors, suggests a link. Third, decreased size of the locus coeruleus, reduced activity of tyrosine hydroxylase, increased density of alpha-2 adrenergic receptor, and evidence from rat models suggest decreased adrenergic neurotransmission in depression. Furthermore, decreased levels of homovanillic acid, altered response to dextroamphetamine, responses of depressive symptoms to dopamine receptor agonists, decreased dopamine receptor D1 binding in the striatum, and polymorphism of dopamine receptor genes implicate dopamine, another monoamine, in depression. Lastly, increased activity of monoamine oxidase, which degrades monoamines, has been associated with depression. However, the monoamine theory is inconsistent with observations that serotonin depletion does not cause depression in healthy persons, that antidepressants instantly increase levels of monoamines but take weeks to work, and the existence of atypical antidepressants which can be effective despite not targeting this pathway.
One proposed explanation for the therapeutic lag, and further support for the deficiency of monoamines, is a desensitization of self-inhibition in raphe nuclei by the increased serotonin mediated by antidepressants. However, disinhibition of the dorsal raphe has been proposed to occur as a result of decreased serotonergic activity in tryptophan depletion, resulting in a depressed state mediated by increased serotonin. Further countering the monoamine hypothesis is the fact that rats with lesions of the dorsal raphe are not more depressive than controls; the finding of increased jugular 5-HIAA in people who are depressed that normalized with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment, and the preference for carbohydrates in people who are depressed. Already limited, the monoamine hypothesis has been further oversimplified when presented to the general public. A 2022 review found no consistent evidence supporting the serotonin hypothesis linking serotonin levels and depression.
HPA-axis abnormalities have been suggested in depression given the association of CRHR1 with depression and the increased frequency of dexamethasone test non-suppression in people who are depressed. However, this abnormality is not adequate as a diagnosis tool because its sensitivity is only 44%. These stress-related abnormalities are thought to be the cause of hippocampal volume reductions seen in people who are depressed. Furthermore, a meta-analysis yielded decreased dexamethasone suppression, and increased response to psychological stressors. Further abnormal results have been obscured with the cortisol awakening response, with increased response being associated with depression.
There is also a connection between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system, otherwise known as the Gut-Brain axis, which is a two-way communication system between the brain and the gut. Experiments have shown that microbiota in the gut can play an important role in depression, as people with MDD often have gut-brain dysfunction. One analysis showed that those with MDD have different bacteria in their guts. Bacteria Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were most affected in people with MDD, and they are also impacted in people with irritable bowel syndrome. Another study showed that people with IBS have a higher chance of developing depression, which shows the two are connected. There is even evidence suggesting that altering the microbes in the gut can have regulatory effects on developing depression. Another model, the cortico-striatal model, suggests that abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex in regulating striatal and subcortical structures result in depression. Another model proposes hyperactivity of salience structures in identifying negative stimuli and hypoactivity of cortical regulatory structures resulting in a negative emotional bias and depression, consistent with emotional bias studies.
=== Immune pathogenesis theories on depression ===
The newer field of psychoneuroimmunology, the study between the immune system and the nervous system and emotional state, suggests that cytokines may impact depression.
Immune system abnormalities have been observed, including increased levels of cytokines -cells produced by immune cells that affect inflammation- involved in generating sickness behavior, creating a pro-inflammatory profile in MDD. Some people with depression have increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and some have decreased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Research suggests that treatments can reduce pro-inflammatory cell production, like the experimental treatment of ketamine with treatment-resistant depression. With this, in MDD, people will more likely have a Th-1 dominant immune profile, which is a pro-inflammatory profile. This suggests that there are components of the immune system affecting the pathology of MDD.
Another way cytokines can affect depression is in the kynurenine pathway, and when this is overactivated, it can cause depression. This can be due to too much microglial activation and too little astrocytic activity. When microglia get activated, they release pro-inflammatory cytokines that cause an increase in the production of COX2. This, in turn, causes the production of PGE2, which is a prostaglandin, and this catalyzes the production of indolamine, IDO. IDO causes tryptophan to get converted into kynurenine, and kynurenine becomes quinolinic acid. Quinolinic acid is an agonist for NMDA receptors, so it activates the pathway. Studies have shown that the post-mortem brains of patients with MDD have higher levels of quinolinic acid than people who did not have MDD. With this, researchers have also seen that the concentration of quinolinic acid correlates to the severity of depressive symptoms.
==Diagnosis==
===Assessment===
A diagnostic assessment may be conducted by a suitably trained general practitioner, or by a psychiatrist or psychologist, This issue is even more marked in developing countries. Rating scales are not used to diagnose depression, but they provide an indication of the severity of symptoms for a time period, so a person who scores above a given cut-off point can be more thoroughly evaluated for a depressive disorder diagnosis. Several rating scales are used for this purpose; these include the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Beck Depression Inventory or the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised.
Primary-care physicians have more difficulty with underrecognition and undertreatment of depression compared to psychiatrists. These cases may be missed because for some people with depression, physical symptoms often accompany depression. In addition, there may also be barriers related to the person, provider, and/or the medical system. Non-psychiatrist physicians have been shown to miss about two-thirds of cases, although there is some evidence of improvement in the number of missed cases.
A doctor generally performs a medical examination and selected investigations to rule out other causes of depressive symptoms. These include blood tests measuring TSH and thyroxine to exclude hypothyroidism; basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance; and a full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease. Adverse affective reactions to medications or alcohol misuse may be ruled out, as well. Testosterone levels may be evaluated to diagnose hypogonadism, a cause of depression in men. Vitamin D levels might be evaluated, as low levels of vitamin D have been associated with greater risk for depression. Cognitive testing and brain imaging can help distinguish depression from dementia. A CT scan can exclude brain pathology in those with psychotic, rapid-onset or otherwise unusual symptoms. No biological tests confirm major depression. In general, investigations are not repeated for a subsequent episode unless there is a medical indication.
===DSM and ICD criteria===
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing depressive conditions are found in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD). The latter system is typically used in European countries, while the former is used in the US and many other non-European nations, and the authors of both have worked towards conforming one with the other. Both DSM and ICD mark out typical (main) depressive symptoms. and the most recent edition of the ICD is the Eleventh Edition (ICD-11).
Under mood disorders, ICD-11 classifies major depressive disorder as either single episode depressive disorder (where there is no history of depressive episodes, or of mania) or recurrent depressive disorder (where there is a history of prior episodes, with no history of mania). ICD-11 symptoms, present nearly every day for at least two weeks, are a depressed mood or anhedonia, accompanied by other symptoms such as "difficulty concentrating, feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, recurrent thoughts of death or suicide, changes in appetite or sleep, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and reduced energy or fatigue." Major depressive disorder is classified as a mood disorder in the DSM-5. The diagnosis hinges on the presence of single or recurrent major depressive episodes. Further qualifiers are used to classify both the episode itself and the course of the disorder. The category Unspecified Depressive Disorder is diagnosed if the depressive episode's manifestation does not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. Episodes may be isolated or recurrent and are categorized as mild (few symptoms in excess of minimum criteria), moderate, or severe (marked impact on social or occupational functioning). An episode with psychotic features—commonly referred to as psychotic depression—is automatically rated as severe.
Bereavement is not an exclusion criterion in the DSM-5, and it is up to the clinician to distinguish between normal reactions to a loss and MDD. Excluded are a range of related diagnoses, including dysthymia, which involves a chronic but milder mood disturbance; recurrent brief depression, consisting of briefer depressive episodes; minor depressive disorder, whereby only some symptoms of major depression are present; and adjustment disorder with depressed mood, which denotes low mood resulting from a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor.
====Subtypes====
The DSM-5 recognizes six further subtypes of MDD, called specifiers, in addition to noting the length, severity and presence of psychotic features:
"Melancholic depression" is characterized by a loss of pleasure in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early-morning waking, psychomotor retardation, excessive weight loss (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa), or excessive guilt.
"Depression with peri-partum onset" refers to the intense, sustained and sometimes disabling depression experienced by women after giving birth or while a woman is pregnant. DSM-IV-TR used the classification "postpartum depression", but this was changed to not exclude cases of depressed woman during pregnancy. Depression with peripartum onset has an incidence rate of 3–6% among new mothers. The DSM-5 mandates that to qualify as depression with peripartum onset, onset occurs during pregnancy or within one month of delivery.
"Seasonal affective disorder" (SAD) is a form of depression in which depressive episodes come on in the autumn or winter, and resolve in spring. The diagnosis is made if at least two episodes have occurred in colder months with none at other times, over a two-year period or longer.
===Differential diagnoses===
To confirm major depressive disorder as the most likely diagnosis, other potential diagnoses must be considered, including dysthymia, adjustment disorder with depressed mood, or bipolar disorder. Dysthymia is a chronic, milder mood disturbance in which a person reports a low mood almost daily over a span of at least two years. The symptoms are not as severe as those for major depression, although people with dysthymia are vulnerable to secondary episodes of major depression (sometimes referred to as double depression). though a 2005 Cochrane review found that the routine use of screening questionnaires has little effect on detection or treatment. Screening the general population is not recommended by authorities in the UK or Canada for similar reasons, citing insufficient data. Because such interventions appear to be most effective when delivered to individuals or small groups, it has been suggested that they may be able to reach their large target audience most efficiently through the Internet.
The Netherlands mental health care system provides preventive interventions, such as the "Coping with Depression" course (CWD) for people with sub-threshold depression. The course is claimed to be the most successful of psychoeducational interventions for the treatment and prevention of depression (both for its adaptability to various populations and its results), with a risk reduction of 38% in major depression and an efficacy as a treatment comparing favorably to other psychotherapies.
==Management==
The most common and effective treatments for depression are psychotherapy, medication, and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT); a combination of treatments is the most effective approach when depression is resistant to treatment. American Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment should be individually tailored based on factors including severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and personal preference. Options may include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, exercise, ECT, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or light therapy. Antidepressant medication is recommended as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and should be given to all people with severe depression unless ECT is planned. There is evidence that collaborative care by a team of health care practitioners produces better results than routine single-practitioner care.
Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice (over medication) for people under 18, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), third wave CBT and interpersonal therapy may help prevent depression. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2004 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be used for the initial treatment of mild depression because the risk-benefit ratio is poor. The guidelines recommend that antidepressants treatment in combination with psychosocial interventions should be considered for:
Treatment options are more limited in developing countries, where access to mental health staff, medication, and psychotherapy is often difficult. Development of mental health services is minimal in many countries; depression is viewed as a phenomenon of the developed world despite evidence to the contrary, and not as an inherently life-threatening condition. There is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of psychological versus medical therapy in children.
===Lifestyle===
Physical exercise has been found to be effective for major depression, and may be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment. It is equivalent to the use of medications or psychological therapies in most people. Sleep and diet may also play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to conventional methods. In studies, smoking cessation has benefits in depression.
===Talking therapies===
Talking therapy (psychotherapy) can be delivered to individuals, groups, or families by mental health professionals, including psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, counselors, and psychiatric nurses. A 2012 review found psychotherapy to be better than no treatment but not other treatments. With more complex and chronic forms of depression, a combination of medication and psychotherapy may be used. There is moderate-quality evidence that psychological therapies are a useful addition to standard antidepressant treatment of treatment-resistant depression in the short term. Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in older people. Successful psychotherapy appears to reduce the recurrence of depression even after it has been stopped or replaced by occasional booster sessions.
The most-studied form of psychotherapy for depression is CBT, which teaches clients to challenge self-defeating, but enduring ways of thinking (cognitions) and change counter-productive behaviors. CBT can perform as well as antidepressants in people with major depression. CBT has the most research evidence for the treatment of depression in children and adolescents, and CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) are preferred therapies for adolescent depression. In people under 18, according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, medication should be offered only in conjunction with a psychological therapy, such as CBT, interpersonal therapy, or family therapy. Several variables predict success for cognitive behavioral therapy in adolescents: higher levels of rational thoughts, less hopelessness, fewer negative thoughts, and fewer cognitive distortions. CBT is particularly beneficial in preventing relapse. Cognitive behavioral therapy and occupational programs (including modification of work activities and assistance) have been shown to be effective in reducing sick days taken by workers with depression. and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Mindfulness-based stress reduction programs may reduce depression symptoms. Mindfulness programs also appear to be a promising intervention in youth. Problem solving therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and interpersonal therapy are effective interventions in the elderly. Psychoanalytic techniques are used by some practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression. A more widely practiced therapy, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is in the tradition of psychoanalysis but less intensive, meeting once or twice a week. It also tends to focus more on the person's immediate problems, and has an additional social and interpersonal focus. In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials of Short Psychodynamic Supportive Psychotherapy, this modification was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression.
===Antidepressants===
Conflicting results have arisen from studies that look at the effectiveness of antidepressants in people with acute, mild to moderate depression. A review commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) concluded that there is strong evidence that SSRIs, such as escitalopram, paroxetine, and sertraline, have greater efficacy than placebo on achieving a 50% reduction in depression scores in moderate and severe major depression, and that there is some evidence for a similar effect in mild depression. Similarly, a Cochrane systematic review of clinical trials of the generic tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline concluded that there is strong evidence that its efficacy is superior to placebo. Antidepressants work less well for the elderly than for younger individuals with depression.
To find the most effective antidepressant medication with minimal side-effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried. Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50 to 75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to improvement. Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 6–9 months after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to two years of continuation is recommended. People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases. Another option is to augment the atypical antidepressant bupropion to the SSRI as an adjunctive treatment. Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs. However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents as it increases the risk of suicidal thoughts or attempts.
For children and adolescents with moderate-to-severe depressive disorder, fluoxetine seems to be the best treatment (either with or without cognitive behavioural therapy) but more research is needed to be certain. Some antidepressants have not been shown to be effective. Any antidepressant can cause low blood sodium levels; nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs. It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating atypical antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases. The safety profile is different with reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as moclobemide, where the risk of serious dietary interactions is negligible and dietary restrictions are less strict.
It is unclear whether antidepressants affect a person's risk of suicide. For children, adolescents, and probably young adults between 18 and 24 years old, there is a higher risk of both suicidal ideations and suicidal behavior in those treated with SSRIs. For adults, it is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidality. One review found no connection; another an increased risk; and a third no risk in those 25–65 years old and a decreased risk in those more than 65. A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRIs and other antidepressant medications due to the increased risk of suicide in people younger than 24 years old. Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health.
===Other medications and supplements===
The combined use of antidepressants plus benzodiazepines demonstrates improved effectiveness when compared to antidepressants alone, but these effects may not endure. The addition of a benzodiazepine is balanced against possible harms and other alternative treatment strategies when antidepressant mono-therapy is considered inadequate.
For treatment-resistant depression, adding on the atypical antipsychotic brexpiprazole for short-term or acute management may be considered. Brexpiprazole may be effective for some people, however, the evidence as of 2023 supporting its use is weak and this medication has potential adverse effects including weight gain and akathisia. A nasal spray form of esketamine was approved by the FDA in March 2019 for use in treatment-resistant depression when combined with an oral antidepressant; risk of substance use disorder and concerns about its safety, serious adverse effects, tolerability, effect on suicidality, lack of information about dosage, whether the studies on it adequately represent broad populations, and escalating use of the product have been raised by an international panel of experts.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cytokine inhibitors are effective in treating depression. For instance, Celecoxib, an NSAID, is a selective COX-2 inhibitor– which is an enzyme that helps in the production of pain and inflammation. In recent clinical trials, this NSAID has been shown helpful with treatment-resistant depression as it helps inhibit proinflammatory signaling.
Statins, which are anti-inflammatory medications prescribed to lower cholesterol levels, have also been shown to have antidepressant effects. When prescribed for patients already taking SSRIs, this add-on treatment was shown to improve anti-depressant effects of SSRIs when compared to the placebo group. With this, statins have been shown to be effective in preventing depression in some cases too.
There is insufficient high quality evidence to suggest omega-3 fatty acids are effective in depression. There is limited evidence that vitamin D supplementation is of value in alleviating the symptoms of depression in individuals who are vitamin D-deficient. Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression by about 80%. There is a narrow range of effective and safe dosages of lithium thus close monitoring may be needed. Low-dose thyroid hormone may be added to existing antidepressants to treat persistent depression symptoms. Limited evidence suggests stimulants, such as amphetamine and modafinil, may be effective in the short term, or as adjuvant therapy. Also, it is suggested that folate supplements may have a role in depression management. There is tentative evidence for benefit from testosterone in males.
===Electroconvulsive therapy===
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in a person with depression to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses. ECT is used with informed consent as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder. Follow-up treatment is still poorly studied, but about half of people who respond relapse within twelve months. Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia. Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss. ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.
A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week, with a total of six to twelve treatments. ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant. Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some people receive maintenance ECT.
===Other===
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain. TMS was approved by the FDA for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (trMDD) in 2008. The American Psychiatric Association, the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, and the Royal Australia and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists have endorsed TMS for trMDD. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain with a weak electric current. Several meta-analyses have concluded that active tDCS was useful for treating depression.
There is a small amount of evidence that sleep deprivation may improve depressive symptoms in some individuals, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania. There is insufficient evidence for Reiki and dance movement therapy in depression. Cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment.
The microbiome of people with major depressive disorder differs from that of healthy people, and probiotic and synbiotic treatment may achieve a modest depressive symptom reduction. With this, fecal microbiota transplants (FMT) are being researched as add-on therapy treatments for people who do not respond to typical therapies. It has been shown that the patient's depressive symptoms improved, with minor gastrointestinal issues, after a FMT, with improvements in symptoms lasting at least 4 weeks after the transplant.
==Prognosis==
Studies have shown that 80% of those with a first major depressive episode will have at least one more during their life, with a lifetime average of four episodes. Other general population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half will have at least one more, and around 15% of those experience chronic recurrence. Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months. Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence. Cases when outcome is poor are associated with inappropriate treatment, severe initial symptoms including psychosis, early age of onset, previous episodes, incomplete recovery after one year of treatment, pre-existing severe mental or medical disorder, and family dysfunction.
A high proportion of people who experience full symptomatic remission still have at least one not fully resolved symptom after treatment. Recurrence or chronicity is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment.
Major depressive episodes often resolve over time, whether or not they are treated. Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10–15% reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20% no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder. The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months. According to a 2013 review, 23% of untreated adults with mild to moderate depression will remit within 3 months, 32% within 6 months and 53% within 12 months.
===Ability to work===
Depression may affect people's ability to work. The combination of usual clinical care and support with return to work (like working less hours or changing tasks) probably reduces sick leave by 15%, and leads to fewer depressive symptoms and improved work capacity, reducing sick leave by an annual average of 25 days per year. Helping depressed people return to work without a connection to clinical care has not been shown to have an effect on sick leave days. Additional psychological interventions (such as online cognitive behavioral therapy) lead to fewer sick days compared to standard management only. Streamlining care or adding specific providers for depression care may help to reduce sick leave. About 50% of people who die of suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder. About 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide. In the US, the lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression is estimated at 7% for men and 1% for women, even though suicide attempts are more frequent in women.
Depressed people also have a higher rate of dying from other causes. There is a 1.5- to 2-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease, independent of other known risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity. People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, further increasing their risk of medical complications. Cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care.
==Epidemiology==
Major depressive disorder affected approximately 163 million people in 2017 (2% of the global population). The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France. In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range. Lifetime rates are higher in the developed world (15%) compared to the developing world (11%). 15% of adolescents, ages 12 to 17, in America are also affected by depression, which is equal to 3.7 million teenagers. Among individuals reporting two or more races, the US prevalence is highest. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors.
People are most likely to develop their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth (Postpartum depression). It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one. Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness. Depression is common among those over 65 years of age and increases in frequency beyond this age. The risk of depression increases in relation to the frailty of the individual. Depression is one of the most important factors which negatively impact quality of life in adults, as well as the elderly. Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment are two barriers to reducing disability.
===Comorbidity===
Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems. The 1990–92 National Comorbidity Survey (US) reported that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicidal behavior. Depressed people have increased rates of alcohol and substance use, particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) develop comorbid depression. Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur. Depression is also frequently comorbid with alcohol use disorder and personality disorders. Depression can also be exacerbated during particular months (usually winter) in those with seasonal affective disorder. While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, using digital media may also improve mood in some situations.
Depression and pain often co-occur. One or more pain symptoms are present in 65% of people who have depression, and anywhere from 5 to 85% of people who are experiencing pain will also have depression, depending on the setting—a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics. Depression is often underrecognized, and therefore undertreated, in patients presenting with pain. Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
==History==
The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia (, ) as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. It was a similar but far broader concept than today's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included.
The term depression itself was derived from the Latin verb , meaning "to press down". From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. The term also came into use in physiology and economics. An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function. Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity. However, by the 19th century, this association has largely shifted and melancholia became more commonly linked with women. Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break-up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the libidinal cathexis of the ego. Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively but the ego itself is compromised. The person's decline of self-perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness. He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor. The first version of the DSM (DSM-I, 1952) contained depressive reaction and the DSM-II (1968) depressive neurosis, defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic-depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders.
The term unipolar (along with the related term bipolar) was coined by the neurologist and psychiatrist Karl Kleist, and subsequently used by his disciples Edda Neele and Karl Leonhard.
The term Major depressive disorder was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the "Research Diagnostic Criteria", building on earlier Feighner Criteria), The American Psychiatric Association added "major depressive disorder" to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III), To maintain consistency the ICD-10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the DSM diagnostic threshold to mark a mild depressive episode, adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes. There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s.
==Society and culture==
===Terminology===
The term "depression" is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. "Because of the lack of scientific certainty," one commentator has observed, "the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it." There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle.
===Cultural dimension===
Cultural differences contribute to different prevalence of symptoms. "Do the Chinese somatize depression? A cross-cultural study" by Parker et al. discusses the cultural differences in prevalent symptoms of depression between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. The authors reveal that individuals with depression in collectivistic cultures tend to present more somatic symptoms and less affective symptoms compared to those in individualistic cultures. The finding suggests that individualistic cultures 'warranting' or validating one's expression of emotions explains this cultural difference since collectivistic cultures see this as a taboo against the social cooperation it deems one of the most significant values.
===Stigma===
Historical figures were often reluctant to discuss or seek treatment for depression due to social stigma about the condition, or due to ignorance of diagnosis or treatments. Nevertheless, analysis or interpretation of letters, journals, artwork, writings, or statements of family and friends of some historical personalities has led to the presumption that they may have had some form of depression. People who may have had depression include English author Mary Shelley, American-British writer Henry James, and American president Abraham Lincoln. Some well-known contemporary people with possible depression include Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen and American playwright and novelist Tennessee Williams. Some pioneering psychologists, such as Americans William James and John B. Watson, dealt with their own depression.
There has been a continuing discussion of whether neurological disorders and mood disorders may be linked to creativity, a discussion that goes back to Aristotelian times. British literature gives many examples of reflections on depression. English philosopher John Stuart Mill experienced a several-months-long period of what he called "a dull state of nerves", when one is "unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent". He quoted English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "Dejection" as a perfect description of his case: "A grief without a pang, void, dark and drear, / A drowsy, stifled, unimpassioned grief, / Which finds no natural outlet or relief / In word, or sigh, or tear." English writer Samuel Johnson used the term "the black dog" in the 1780s to describe his own depression, and it was subsequently popularized by British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, who also had the disorder. In the UK, the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the Royal College of General Practitioners conducted a joint Five-year Defeat Depression campaign to educate and reduce stigma from 1992 to 1996; a MORI study conducted afterwards showed a small positive change in public attitudes to depression and treatment.
While serving his first term as Prime Minister of Norway, Kjell Magne Bondevik attracted international attention in August 1998 when he announced that he was suffering from a depressive episode, becoming the highest ranking world leader to admit to suffering from a mental illness while in office. Upon this revelation, Anne Enger became acting Prime Minister for three weeks, from 30 August to 23 September, while he recovered from the depressive episode. Bondevik then returned to office. Bondevik received thousands of supportive letters, and said that the experience had been positive overall, both for himself and because it made mental illness more publicly acceptable.
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8,391 |
Diana (mythology)
|
Diana is a goddess in Roman religion, primarily considered a patroness of the countryside and nature, hunters, wildlife, childbirth, crossroads, the night, and the Moon. She is equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, and absorbed much of Artemis' mythology early in Roman history, including a birth on the island of Delos to parents Jupiter and Latona, and a twin brother, Apollo, though she had an independent origin in Italy.
Diana is considered a virgin goddess and protector of childbirth. Historically, Diana made up a triad with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.
Diana is revered in modern neopagan religions including Roman neopaganism, Stregheria, and Wicca. In the ancient, medieval, and modern periods, Diana has been considered a triple deity, merged with a goddess of the moon (Luna/Selene) and the underworld (usually Hecate).
==Etymology==
The name Dīāna probably derives from Latin ('godly'), ultimately from Proto-Italic *dīwī, meaning 'divine, heavenly'. It stems from Proto-Indo-European *diwyós ('divine, heavenly'), formed with the stem ('daylight sky') attached the thematic suffix -yós. Cognates appear in Myceanean Greek di-wi-ja, in Ancient Greek (; 'belonging to heaven, godlike'), and in Sanskrit ('heavenly' or 'celestial').
The ancient Latin writers Varro and Cicero considered the etymology of Dīāna as allied to that of dies and connected to the shine of the Moon, noting that one of her titles is Diana Lucifera ("light-bearer").
... people regard Diana and the moon as one and the same. ... the moon (luna) is so called from the verb to shine (lucere). Lucina is identified with it, which is why in our country they invoke Juno Lucina in childbirth, just as the Greeks call on Diana the Light-bearer. Diana also has the name Omnivaga ("wandering everywhere"), not because of her hunting but because she is numbered as one of the seven planets; her name Diana derives from the fact that she turns darkness into daylight (dies). She is invoked at childbirth because children are born occasionally after seven, or usually after nine, lunar revolutions ...
--Quintus Lucilius Balbus as recorded by Marcus Tullius Cicero and translated by P.G. Walsh. De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods), Book II, Part ii, Section c
==Description==
===As a goddess of the countryside===
The persona of Diana is complex, and contains a number of archaic features. Diana was originally considered to be a goddess of the wilderness and of the hunt, a central sport in both Roman and Greek culture.
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Andreas Alföldi interpreted an image on a late Republican coin as the Latin Diana "conceived as a threefold unity of the divine huntress, the Moon goddess and the goddess of the nether world, Hekate". This coin, minted by P. Accoleius Lariscolus in 43 BCE, has been acknowledged as representing an archaic statue of Diana Nemorensis. It represents Artemis with the bow at one extremity, Luna-Selene with flowers at the other and a central deity not immediately identifiable, all united by a horizontal bar. The iconographical analysis allows the dating of this image to the 6th century at which time there are Etruscan models. The coin shows that the triple goddess cult image still stood in the lucus of Nemi in 43 BCE. Lake Nemi was called Triviae lacus by Virgil (Aeneid 7.516), while Horace called Diana montium custos nemoremque virgo ("keeper of the mountains and virgin of Nemi") and diva triformis ("three-form goddess").
Two heads found in the sanctuary and the Roman theatre at Nemi, which have a hollow on their back, lend support to this interpretation of an archaic triple Diana.
===As goddess of crossroads and the underworld===
The earliest epithet of Diana was Trivia, and she was addressed with that title by Virgil, Catullus, and many others. "Trivia" comes from the Latin trivium, "triple way", and refers to Diana's guardianship over roadways, particularly Y-junctions or three-way crossroads. This role carried a somewhat dark and dangerous connotation, as it metaphorically pointed the way to the underworld. The symbol of the crossroads is relevant to several aspects of Diana's domain. It can symbolize the paths hunters may encounter in the forest, lit only by the full moon; this symbolizes making choices "in the dark" without the light of guidance.). A theater in her sanctuary at Lake Nemi included a pit and tunnel that would have allowed actors to easily descend on one side of the stage and ascend on the other, indicating a connection between the phases of the moon and a descent by the moon goddess into the underworld. since they did retain a particular sort of influence over the world and mankind. The celestial character of Diana is reflected in her connection with inaccessibility, virginity, light, and her preference for dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods. Diana, therefore, reflects the heavenly world in its sovereignty, supremacy, impassibility, and indifference towards such secular matters as the fates of mortals and states. At the same time, however, she is seen as active in ensuring the succession of kings and in the preservation of humankind through the protection of childbirth. These functions are apparent in the traditional institutions and cults related to the goddess:
The legend of the rex Nemorensis, Diana's sacerdos (priest) in the Arician wood, who held the position until someone else challenged and killed him in a duel, after breaking a branch from a certain tree of the wood. This ever open succession reveals the character and mission of the goddess as a guarantor of kingly status through successive generations. Her function as bestower of authority to rule is also attested in the story related by Livy in which a Sabine man who sacrifices a heifer to Diana wins for his country the seat of the Roman empire.
Diana was also worshiped by women who wanted to be pregnant or who, once pregnant, prayed for an easy delivery. This form of worship is attested in archaeological finds of votive statuettes in her sanctuary in the nemus Aricinum as well as in ancient sources, e.g. Ovid.
By the 3rd century BCE, Diana is found listed among the twelve major gods of the Roman pantheon by the poet Ennius. Though the Capitoline Triad were the primary state gods of Rome, early Roman myth did not assign a strict hierarchy to the gods the way Greek mythology did, though the Greek hierarchy would eventually be adopted by Roman religion as well.
According to Macrobius (who cited Nigidius Figulus and Cicero), Janus and Jana (Diana) are a pair of divinities, worshiped as the sun and moon. Janus was said to receive sacrifices before all the others because, through him, the way of access to the desired deity is made apparent.
===Myth of Actaeon===
Diana's mythology incorporated stories which were variants of earlier stories about Artemis. Possibly the most well-known of these is the myth of Actaeon. In Ovid's version of this myth, part of his poem Metamorphoses, he tells of a pool or grotto hidden in the wooded valley of Gargaphie. There, Diana, the goddess of the woods, would bathe and rest after a hunt. Actaeon, a young hunter, stumbled across the grotto and accidentally witnessed the goddess bathing without invitation. In retaliation, Diana splashed him with water from the pool, cursing him, and he transformed into a deer. His own hunting dogs caught his scent, and tore him apart.
==Worship in the classical period==
Diana was an ancient goddess common to all Latin tribes. Therefore, many sanctuaries were dedicated to her in the lands inhabited by Latins. Her primary sanctuary was a woodland grove overlooking Lake Nemi, a body of water also known as "Diana's Mirror", where she was worshiped as Diana Nemorensis, or "Diana of the Wood". In Rome, the cult of Diana may have been almost as old as the city itself. Varro mentions her in the list of deities to whom king Titus Tatius promised to build a shrine. His list included Luna and Diana Lucina as separate entities. Another testimony to the antiquity of her cult is to be found in the lex regia of King Tullus Hostilius that condemns those guilty of incest to the sacratio to Diana. She had a temple in Rome on the Aventine Hill, according to tradition dedicated by king Servius Tullius. Its location is remarkable as the Aventine is situated outside the pomerium, i.e. original territory of the city, in order to comply with the tradition that Diana was a goddess common to all Latins and not exclusively of the Romans. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the pomerium, meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a foreign one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially transferred to Rome as Juno was after the sack of Veii.
Other known sanctuaries and temples to Diana include Colle di Corne near Tusculum, where she is referred to with the archaic Latin name of deva Cornisca and where existed a collegium of worshippers; at Évora, Portugal; Mount Algidus, also near Tusculum; at Lavinium; and at Tibur (Tivoli), where she is referred to as Diana Opifera Nemorensis. Diana was also worshiped at a sacred wood mentioned by Livy – ad compitum Anagninum (near Anagni), and on Mount Tifata in Campania.
According to Plutarch, men and women alike were worshipers of Diana and were welcomed into all of her temples. The one exception seems to have been a temple on the Vicus Patricius, which men either did not enter due to tradition, or were not allowed to enter. Plutarch related a legend that a man had attempted to assault a woman worshiping in this temple and was killed by a pack of dogs (echoing the myth of Diana and Actaeon), which resulted in a superstition against men entering the temple.
A feature common to nearly all of Diana's temples and shrines by the second century CE was the hanging up of stag antlers. Plutarch noted that the only exception to this was the temple on the Aventine Hill, in which bull horns had been hung up instead. Plutarch explains this by way of reference to a legend surrounding the sacrifice of an impressive Sabine bull by King Servius at the founding of the Aventine temple. According to legendary accounts, the sanctuary was founded by Orestes and Iphigenia after they fled from the Tauri. In this tradition, the Nemi sanctuary was supposedly built on the pattern of an earlier Temple of Artemis Tauropolos, and the first cult statue at Nemi was said to have been stolen from the Tauri and brought to Nemi by Orestes. By the 4th century BCE, the simple shrine at Nemi had been joined by a temple complex.
A festival to Diana, the Nemoralia, was held yearly at Nemi on the Ides of August (August 13–15). Worshippers traveled to Nemi carrying torches and garlands, and once at the lake, they left pieces of thread tied to fences and tablets inscribed with prayers. Diana's festival eventually became widely celebrated throughout Italy, which was unusual given the provincial nature of Diana's cult. The poet Statius wrote of the festival: and no contemporary records exist that support the historical existence of the Rex Nemorensis.
===Spread and conflation with Artemis===
Rome hoped to unify into and control the Latin tribes around Nemi, The process of identification between the two goddesses probably began when artists who were commissioned to create new religious statues for Diana's temples outside Nemi were struck by the similar attributes between Diana and the more familiar Artemis, and sculpted Diana in a manner inspired by previous depictions of Artemis. Sibyllene influence and trade with Massilia, where similar cult statues of Artemis existed, would have completed the process. historical and archaeological evidence point to the fact that the characteristics given to both Diana of the Aventine Hill and Diana Nemorensis were the product of the direct or indirect influence of the cult of Artemis, which was spread by the Phoceans among the Greek towns of Campania Cuma and Capua, who in turn had passed it over to the Etruscans and the Latins by the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.
Evidence suggests that a confrontation occurred between two groups of Etruscans who fought for supremacy, those from Tarquinia, Vulci and Caere (allied with the Greeks of Capua) and those of Clusium. This is reflected in the legend of the coming of Orestes to Nemi and of the inhumation of his bones in the Roman Forum near the temple of Saturn. The cult introduced by Orestes at Nemi is apparently that of the Artemis Tauropolos. The literary amplification reveals a confused religious background: different versions of Artemis were conflated under the epithet. As far as Nemi's Diana is concerned there are two different versions, by Strabo and Servius Honoratus. Strabo's version looks to be the most authoritative as he had access to first-hand primary sources on the sanctuaries of Artemis, i.e. the priest of Artemis Artemidoros of Ephesus. The meaning of Tauropolos denotes an Asiatic goddess with lunar attributes, lady of the herds. The only possible interpretatio graeca of high antiquity concerning Diana Nemorensis could have been the one based on this ancient aspect of a deity of light, master of wildlife. Tauropolos is an ancient epithet attached to Artemis, Hecate, and even Athena. According to the legend Orestes founded Nemi together with Iphigenia. At Cuma the Sybil is the priestess of both Phoibos and Trivia. Hesiod and Stesichorus tell the story according to which after her death Iphigenia was divinised under the name of Hecate, a fact which would support the assumption that Artemis Tauropolos had a real ancient alliance with the heroine, who was her priestess in Taurid and her human paragon. This religious complex is in turn supported by the triple statue of Artemis-Hecate. However, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had the same custom of the asylum.
===In Rome===
Worship of Diana probably spread into the city of Rome beginning around 550 BCE, during her Hellenization and combination with the Greek goddess Artemis. Diana was first worshiped along with her brother and mother, Apollo and Latona, in their temple in the Campus Martius, and later in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. However, there is no compelling evidence for such an early construction of the temple, and it is more likely that it was built in the 3rd century BCE, following the influence of the temple at Nemi, and probably about the same time the first temples to Vertumnus (who was associated with Diana) were built in Rome (264 BCE).
Later temple dedications often were based on the model for ritual formulas and regulations of the Temple of Diana. Roman politicians built several minor temples to Diana elsewhere in Rome to secure public support. One of these was built in the Campus Martius in 187 BCE; no Imperial period records of this temple have been found, and it is possible it was one of the temples demolished around 55 BCE in order to build a theater. The Romans obtained a large copy of an Ephesian Artemis statue for their temple on the Aventine Hill. Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she was shown accompanied by a deer, as in the Diana of Versailles, this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him.
===At Mount Tifata===
In Campania, Diana had a major temple at Mount Tifata, near Capua. She was worshiped there as Diana Tifatina. This was one of the oldest sanctuaries in Campania. As a rural sanctuary, it included lands and estates that would have been worked by slaves following the Roman conquest of Campania, and records show that expansion and renovation projects at her temple were funded in part by other conquests by Roman military campaigns. The modern Christian church of Sant'Angelo in Formis was built on the ruins of the Tifata temple.
===Household worship===
Diana was not only regarded as a goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, but was often worshiped as a patroness of families. She served a similar function to the hearth goddess Vesta, and was sometimes considered to be a member of the Penates, the deities most often invoked in household rituals. In this role, she was often given a name reflecting the tribe of family who worshiped her and asked for her protection. For example, in what is now Wiesbaden, Diana was worshiped as Diana Mattiaca by the Mattiaci tribe. Other family-derived named attested in the ancient literature include Diana Cariciana, Diana Valeriana, and Diana Plancia. As a house goddess, Diana often became reduced in stature compared to her official worship by the Roman state religion. In personal or family worship, Diana was brought to the level of other household spirits, and was believed to have a vested interest in the prosperity of the household and the continuation of the family. The Roman poet Horace regarded Diana as a household goddess in his Odes, and had an altar dedicated to her in his villa where household worship could be conducted. In his poetry, Horace deliberately contrasted the kinds of grand, elevated hymns to Diana on behalf of the entire Roman state, the kind of worship that would have been typical at her Aventine temple, with a more personal form of devotion.
Images of Diana and her associated myths have been found on sarcophagi of wealthy Romans. They often included scenes depicting sacrifices to the goddess, and on at least one example, the deceased man is shown joining Diana's hunt. but as her worship spread, she acquired attributes of other similar goddesses. As she became conflated with Artemis, she became a moon goddess, identified with the other lunar goddesses goddess Luna and Hekate.
Along with Mars, Diana was often venerated at games held in Roman amphitheaters, and some inscriptions from the Danubian provinces show that she was conflated with Nemesis in this role, as Diana Nemesis.
Some late antique sources went even further, syncretizing many local "great goddesses" into a single "Queen of Heaven". The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, depicted the goddess declaring:
"I come, Lucius, moved by your entreaties: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; the native Athenians the Cecropian Minerva; the island-dwelling Cypriots Paphian Venus; the archer Cretans Dictynnan Diana; the triple-tongued Sicilians Stygian Proserpine; the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; some call me Juno, some Bellona, others Hecate, others Rhamnusia; but both races of Ethiopians, those on whom the rising and those on whom the setting sun shines, and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis."
--Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass
Later poets and historians looked to Diana's identity as a triple goddess to merge her with triads heavenly, earthly, and underworld (cthonic) goddesses. Maurus Servius Honoratus said that the same goddess was called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpina in hell. Michael Drayton praises the Triple Diana in poem The Man in the Moone (1606): "So these great three most powerful of the rest, Phoebe, Diana, Hecate, do tell. Her sovereignty in Heaven, in Earth and Hell".
===In Platonism===
Based on the earlier writings of Plato, the Neoplatonist philosophers of late antiquity united the various major gods of Hellenic tradition into a series of monads containing within them triads, with some creating the world, some animating it or bringing it to life, and others harmonizing it. Within this system, Proclus considered Diana to be one of the primary animating, or life-giving, deities. Proclus, citing Orphic tradition, concludes that Diana "presides over all the generation in nature, and is the midwife of physical productive principles" and that she "extends these genitals, distributing as far as to subterranean natures the prolific power of [Bacchus]." Specifically, Proclus considered the life-generating principle of the highest order, within the Intellectual realm, to be Rhea, whom he identified with Ceres. Within her divinity was produced the cause of the basic principle of life. Projecting this principle into the lower, Hypercosmic realm of reality generated a lower monad, Kore, who could therefore be understood as Ceres' "daughter". Kore embodied the "maidenly" principle of generation that, more importantly, included a principle of division – where Demeter generates life indiscriminately, Kore distributes it individually. This division results in another triad or trinity, known as the Maidenly trinity, within the monad of Kore: namely, Diana, Proserpine, and Minerva, through whom individual living beings are given life and perfected. Specifically, according to a commentary by scholar Spyridon Rangos, Diana (equated with Hecate) gives existence, Proserpine (equated with "Soul") gives form, and Minerva (equated with "Virtue") gives intellect. Later commentators on Proclus have clarified that the virginity of Diana is not an absence of sexual drive, but a renunciation of sexuality. Diana embodies virginity because she generates but precedes active fertility (within Neoplatonism, an important maxim is that "every productive cause is superior to the nature of the produced effect").
Using the ancient Neoplatonists as a basis, Taylor also commented on the triadic nature of Diana and related goddesses, and the ways in which they subsist within one another, partaking unevenly in each other's powers and attributes. For example, Kore is said to embody both Diana/Hecate and Minerva, who create the virtuous or virgin power within her, but also Proserpine (her sole traditional identification), through whom the generative power of the Kore as a whole is able to proceed forth into the world, where it joins with the demiurge to produce further deities, including Bacchus and "nine azure-eyed, flower-producing daughters". References to contemporary Diana worship exist from the 6th century on the Iberian peninsula and what is now southern France,
Additional evidence for surviving pagan practices in the Low Countries region comes from the Vita Eligii, or "Life of Saint Eligius", written by Audoin in the 7th century. Audoin drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the people of Flanders. In his sermons, he denounced "pagan customs" that the people continued to follow. In particular, he denounced several Roman gods and goddesses alongside Druidic mythological beliefs and objects:
"I denounce and contest, that you shall observe no sacrilegious pagan customs. For no cause or infirmity should you consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators. ..Do not observe auguries ... No influence attaches to the first work of the day or the [phase of the] moon. ... [Do not] make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks... No Christian... performs solestitia or dancing or leaping or diabolical chants. No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not Neptune or Orcus or Diana or Minerva or Geniscus... No one should observe Jove's day in idleness. ... No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the trivium, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners. None should presume to hang any phylacteries from the neck of man nor beast. ..None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to pass cattle through a hollow tree or ditch ... No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck or call upon Minerva or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing. ... None should call the sun or moon lord or swear by them. ... No one should tell fate or fortune or horoscopes by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be."
Legends from medieval Belgium concern a natural spring which came to be known as the "Fons Remacli", a location which may have been home to late-surviving worship of Diana. Remacle was a monk appointed by Eligius to head a monastery at Solignac, and he is reported to have encountered Diana worship in the area around the river Warche. The population in this region was said to have been involved in the worship of "Diana of the Ardennes" (a syncretism of Diana and the Celtic goddess Arduinna), with effigies and "stones of Diana" used as evidence of pagan practices. Remacle believed that demonic entities were present in the spring, and had caused it to run dry. He performed and exorcism of the water source, and installed a lead pipe, which allowed the water to flow again.
===The "Society of Diana"===
Diana is the only pagan goddess mentioned by name in the New Testament (only in some Bible versions of Acts 19; many other Bibles refer to her as Artemis instead). As a result, she became associated with many folk beliefs involving goddess-like supernatural figures that Catholic clergy wished to demonize. In the Middle Ages, legends of night-time processions of spirits led by a female figure are recorded in the church records of Northern Italy, western Germany, and southern France. The spirits were said to enter houses and consume food which then miraculously re-appeared. They would sing and dance, and dispense advice regarding healing herbs and the whereabouts of lost objects. If the house was in good order, they would bring fertility and plenty. If not, they would bring curses to the family. Some women reported participating in these processions while their bodies still lay in bed. Historian Carlo Ginzburg has referred to these legendary spirit gatherings as "The Society of Diana". The earliest reports of these legends appear in the writings of Regino of Prüm in the year 899, followed by many additional reports and variants of the legend in documents by Ratherius and others. By 1310, the names of the goddess figures attached to the legend were sometimes combined as Herodiana.
Frazer's speculatively reconstructed folklore of Diana's origins and the nature of her cult at Nemi were not well received even by his contemporaries. Godfrey Lienhardt noted that even during Frazer's lifetime, other anthropologists had "for the most part distanced themselves from his theories and opinions", and that the lasting influence of The Golden Bough and Frazer's wider body of work "has been in the literary rather than the academic world." Robert Ackerman wrote that, for anthropologists, Frazer is "an embarrassment" for being "the most famous of them all" and that most distance themselves from his work. While The Golden Bough achieved wide "popular appeal" and exerted a "disproportionate" influence "on so many [20th century] creative writers", Frazer's ideas played "a much smaller part" in the history of academic social anthropology. Arguments against Murray's thesis would eventually include arguments against Leland. Witchcraft scholar Jeffrey Russell devoted some of his 1980 book A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics and Pagans to arguing against the claims Leland presented in Aradia. Historian Elliot Rose's A Razor for a Goat dismissed Aradia as a collection of incantations unsuccessfully attempting to portray a religion. In his book Triumph of the Moon, historian Ronald Hutton doubted not only of the existence of the religion that Aradia claimed to represent, and that the traditions Leland presented were unlike anything found in actual medieval literature, but also of the existence of Leland's sources, arguing that it is more likely that Leland created the entire story than that Leland could be so easily "duped". Religious scholar Chas S. Clifton took exception to Hutton's position, writing that it amounted to an accusation of "serious literary fraud" made by an "argument from absence".
===Modern worship===
Because Leland's claims about an Italian witch-cult are questionable, the first verifiable worship of Diana in the modern age was probably begun by Wicca. The earliest known practitioners of Neopagan witchcraft were members of a tradition begun by Gerald Gardner. Published versions of the devotional materials used by Gardner's group, dated to 1949, are heavily focused on the worship of Aradia, the daughter of Diana in Leland's folklore. Diana herself was recognized as an aspect of a single "great goddess" in the tradition of Apuleius, as described in the Wiccan Charge of the Goddess (itself adapted from Leland's text). Some later Wiccans, such as Scott Cunningham, would replace Aradia with Diana as the central focus of worship.
In the early 1960s, Victor Henry Anderson founded the Feri Tradition, a form of Wicca that draws from both Charles Leland's folklore and the Gardnerian tradition. Anderson claimed that he had first been initiated into a witchcraft tradition as a child in 1926, and that he had been told the name of the goddess worshiped by witches was Tana. The name Tana originated in Leland's Aradia, where he claimed it was an old Etruscan name for Diana. The Feri Tradition founded by Anderson continues to recognize Tana/Diana as an aspect of the Star Goddess related to the element of fire, and representing "the fiery womb that gives birth to and transforms all matter.").
A few Wiccan traditions would elevate Diana to a more prominent position of worship, and there are two distinct modern branches of Wicca focused primarily on Diana. The first, founded during the early 1970s in the United States by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts, has a feminist theology and only occasionally accepts male participants, and leadership is limited to female priestesses. McFarland Dianic Wiccans base their tradition primarily on the work of Robert Graves and his book The White Goddess, and were inspired by references to the existence of medieval European "Dianic cults" in Margaret Murray's book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe.
A third Neopagan tradition heavily inspired by the worship of Diana through the lens of Italian folklore is Stregheria, founded in the 1980s. It centers around a pair of deities regarded as divine lovers, who are known by several variant names including Diana and Dianus, alternately given as Tana and Tanus or Jana and Janus (the later two deity names were mentioned by James Frazer in The Golden Bough as later corruptions of Diana and Dianus, which themselves were alternate and possibly older names for Juno and Jupiter). The tradition was founded by author Raven Grimassi, and influenced by Italian folktales he was told by his mother. One such folktale describes the moon being impregnated by her lover the morning star, a parallel to Leland's mythology of Diana and her lover Lucifer.
Diana was also a subject of worship in certain Feraferian rites, particularly those surrounding the autumnal equinox, beginning in 1967.
==Legacy==
===In language===
Both the Romanian words for "fairy" and Sânziană, the Leonese and Portuguese word for "water nymph" xana, and the Spanish word for "shooting target" and "morning call" () seem to come from the name of Diana.
===In the arts===
Since the Renaissance, Diana's myths have often been represented in the visual and dramatic arts, including the opera L'arbore di Diana. In the 16th century, Diana's image figured prominently at the châteaus of Fontainebleau, Chenonceau, and at Anet, in deference to Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henri of France. At Versailles she was incorporated into the Olympian iconography with which Louis XIV, the Apollo-like "Sun King" liked to surround himself. Diana is also a character in the 1876 Léo Delibes ballet Sylvia. The plot deals with Sylvia, one of Diana's nymphs and sworn to chastity, and Diana's assault on Sylvia's affections for the shepherd Amyntas.
====In literature====
Diana Soren, the main character in Carlos Fuentes' novel Diana o la cazadora soltera (Diana, or The Lone Huntress), is described as having the same personality as the goddess.
In Jonathan Swift's poem: "The Progress of Beauty", as goddess of the moon, Diana is used in comparison to the 17th/early 18th century everyday woman Swift satirically writes about. Starts: 'When first Diana leaves her bed...'
In Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"), Diana leads the Trojan Brutus to Britain, where he and his people settle.
The character of Diana is the principal character in the children's novel The Moon Stallion by Brian Hayles (1978) and the BBC Television series of the same name Diana is played by the actress Sarah Sutton.
In Rick Riordan's Camp Half-Blood Chronicles, Diana acts as the Roman incarnation of Artemis, although she does not appear until The Tyrant's Tomb. Throughout The Heroes of Olympus, along with the other gods, Artemis is split between her Greek and Roman incarnations. In The Tyrant's Tomb, Apollo summons his sister for help against Tarquin and his undead army. Diana appears with the Hunters of Artemis to slay Tarquin and his army and she heals Apollo's wounds before departing again.
In Shakespeare
In Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre Diana appears to Pericles in a vision, telling him to go to her temple and tell his story to her followers.
In All's Well That Ends Well Diana appears as a figure in the play and Helena makes multiple allusions to her, such as, "Now, Dian, from thy altar do I fly..." and "...wish chastely and love dearly, that your Dian/was both herself and love..." The Steward also says, "...; Dian no queen of virgins,/ that would suffer her poor knight surprised, without/ rescue in the first assault or ransom afterward." It can be assumed that 'Dian' is simply a shortening of 'Diana' since later in the play when Parolles' letter to Diana is read aloud it reads 'Dian'.
In games and comics
The character of Diana from the video game League of Legends is largely based on the goddess.
William Moulton Marston drew from the Diana archetype as an allegorical basis for Wonder Woman's proper name, Princess Diana for DC Comics. Most versions of Wonder Woman's origin story state that she is given the name Diana because her mother Hippolyta was inspired by the goddess of the moon that Diana was born under.
Diana also is one of the primary gods in the video game Ryse.
In the manga and anime series Sailor Moon, Diana is the feline companion to Chibiusa, Usagi's daughter. Diana is the daughter of Artemis and Luna. All of these characters are advisers to rulers of the kingdom of the moon and therefore have moon-associated names.
====In painting and sculpture====
Diana has been one of the most popular themes in art. Painters like Titian, Peter Paul Rubens, François Boucher, Nicolas Poussin and made use of her myth as a major theme. Most depictions of Diana in art featured the stories of Diana and Actaeon, or Callisto, or depicted her resting after hunting. Some famous work of arts with a Diana theme are:
Diana and Actaeon, Diana and Callisto, and Death of Actaeon by Titian.
Diana and Callisto, Diana Returning from the Hunt, Diana Resting After a Bath, and Diana Getting Out of Bath by François Boucher.
Diana Bathing With Her Nymphs by Rembrandt.
Diana and Endymion by Poussin.
Diana and Callisto, Diana and Her Nymph Departing From Hunt, Diana and Her Nymphs Surprised By A Faun by Rubens.
Diana and Endymion by Johann Michael Rottmayr.
Diana Wounded, bronze statue by Sir Edgar Bertram Mackennal, housed in Tate Gallery of London (purchased 1908).
The famous fountain at Palace of Caserta, Italy, created by Paolo Persico, Brunelli, Pietro Solari, depicting Diana being surprised by Acteon.
A sculpture by Christophe-Gabriel Allegrain can be seen at the Musée du Louvre.
Diana of the Tower a copper statue by Augustus Saint-Gaudens was created as the weather vane for the second Madison Square Garden in 1893. It now is on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art
A sculpture by French sculptor François-Léon Sicard in the Archibald Fountain, Sydney, NSW, Australia
In Parma at the convent of San Paolo, Antonio Allegri da Correggio painted the chamber of the Abbess Giovanna Piacenza's apartment. He was commissioned in 1519 to paint the ceiling and mantel of the fireplace. On the mantel he painted an image of Diana riding in a chariot possibly pulled by a stag.
Fuente de la Diana Cazadora [Fountain of the Huntress Diana], a fountain sculpture of huntress Diana with arrow pointing skyward, stands in the roundabout at Paseo de la Reforma, Zona Rosa, Mexico City's Mexican Federal District.
Diana of the Chase, a bronze statue by Anna Hyatt Huntington in 1922. Diana was a defining symbol at the time, placed at institutions, such as the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University, the New York Historical Society in New York City, and the Huntington Art Gallery in San Marino, California. One of the most notable of replicas can be found at Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina, which was founded by Anna Hyatt Huntington and her husband Archer Milton Huntington in 1932.
Beaux Arts architecture and garden design (late 19th and early 20th centuries) used classic references in a modernized form. Two of the most popular of the period were of Pomona (goddess of orchards) as a metaphor for Agriculture, and Diana, representing Commerce, which is a perpetual hunt for advantage and profits.
There are many statues of Diana the Huntress in Yambol, Bulgaria.
====In film====
In Jean Cocteau's 1946 film Beauty and the Beast, it is Diana's power which has transformed and imprisoned the beast.
Diana/Artemis appears at the end of the 'Pastoral Symphony' segment of Fantasia.
In his 1968 film La Mariée était en noir François Truffaut plays on this mythological symbol. Julie Kohler, played by Jeanne Moreau, poses as Diana/Artemis for the artist Fergus. This choice seems fitting for Julie, a character beset by revenge, of which Fergus becomes the fourth victim. She poses with a bow and arrow, while wearing white.
In the 1995 comedy Four Rooms, a coven of witches resurrects a petrified Diana on New Year's Eve.
French based collective LFKs and his film/theatre director, writer and visual artist Jean Michel Bruyere produced a series of 600 shorts and "medium" film, an interactive audiovisual 360° installation (Si poteris narrare licet ("if you are able to speak of it, then you may do so" ...... ) in 2002, and a 3D 360° audiovisual installation La Dispersion du Fils from 2008 to 2016 as well as an outdoor performance, "Une Brutalité pastorale" (2000), all about the myth of Diana and Actaeon.
==== In music ====
Diana is a character in Hippolytus and Aricia, an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau.
For the album art of progressive metal band Protest the Hero's second studio album Fortress, Diana is depicted protected by rams and other animals. The theme of Diana is carried throughout the album.
The Norwegian classical composer Martin Romberg wrote a mass for mixed choir in seven parts after a selection of poems from Leland's text Aradia, in which Diana features heavily. The Witch Mass was premiered at the Vestfold International Festival in 2012 with Grex Vocalis. In order to create the right atmosphere for the music, the festival blocked of an entire road tunnel in Tønsberg to use it as a venue. The work was released on CD through Lawo Classics in 2014.
Artemis, and subsequently Diana, is used as focal point in "Artemis", track twelve of AURORA's 2022 album The Gods We Can Touch
===Other===
In the funeral oration of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, her brother drew an analogy between the ancient goddess of hunting and his sister – "the most hunted person of the modern age".
DIANA Mayer & Grammelspacher GmbH & Co.KG, an airgun company, is named after Diana, the goddess of hunting.
The Royal Netherlands Air Force 323rd Squadron is named Diana and uses a depiction of Diana with her bow in its badge.
In Ciudad Juárez in Mexico a woman calling herself "Diana Huntress of Bus Drivers" was responsible for the shooting of two bus drivers in 2013 in what may have been vigilante attacks.
Diana is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of coral snake, Micrurus diana.
|
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"Sabine",
"Iphigenia",
"Dianus",
"Sarah Sutton",
"Sylvia (ballet)",
"Diana of Versailles",
"Dianic Wicca",
"Ronald Hutton",
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"Jean Cocteau",
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"Death of Actaeon",
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"La Mariée était en noir",
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"Warche",
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"Caere",
"Palace of Versailles",
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"triple deity",
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"Brian Hayles",
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"Hecate",
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"All's Well That Ends Well",
"François-Léon Sicard",
"Ciudad Juárez",
"Carlo Ginzburg",
"Tullus Hostilius",
"Syncretism",
"Madison Square Garden (1890)",
"Lucina (mythology)",
"Artemis",
"Royal Netherlands Air Force",
"moon goddess",
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"Vulfilaic",
"Pausanias (geographer)",
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"Johann Michael Rottmayr",
"Jacques Heurgon",
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"Lucius Tarquinius Superbus",
"Diana Bathing (Boucher)",
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"villa rustica",
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"Odes (Horace)",
"Temple of Apollo Palatinus",
"species:Bo Beolens",
"Maurus Servius Honoratus",
"Audoin (bishop)",
"New York City",
"Phoebe (mythology)",
"Jean-Philippe Rameau",
"Georges Dumézil",
"Nemi",
"Nemoralia",
"Strabo",
"Alban Hills",
"Sarcophagus",
"Quintus Lucilius Balbus",
"Tifata",
"The Book People",
"Flanders",
"Metropolitan Museum of Art",
"Ceres (mythology)",
"Ancient Greek",
"Château d'Anet",
"Mythology in the Low Countries",
"Encyclopædia Britannica",
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"Louis XIV of France",
"quiver",
"wikt:phylactery",
"François Boucher",
"Actaeon",
"Pompeii",
"Ovid's Fasti",
"xana",
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"Sol (Roman mythology)",
"Ariccia",
"Temple of Artemis",
"Sir Edgar Bertram Mackennal",
"Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto",
"Modern paganism",
"Protest the Hero",
"Anagni",
"argument from ignorance",
"The Witch-Cult in Western Europe",
"species:Michael Watkins",
"Diana (Saint-Gaudens)",
"mixed choir",
"Diana, Princess of Wales",
"Cognate",
"The White Goddess",
"Remaclus",
"Livy",
"persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire",
"Mass (music)",
"Anna Hyatt Huntington",
"Latin League",
"triclinium",
"Heimdallr",
"Feraferia",
"League of Legends",
"Stregheria",
"Sibyl",
"Ops",
"Lucius Cornificius",
"Britannia",
"collegium",
"Tarquinia",
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"Leonese language",
"Victor Henry Anderson",
"Capitoline Triad",
"Metamorphoses",
"Pachamama",
"Lavinium",
"Luna (mythology)",
"demiurge",
"Horace",
"Paseo de la Reforma",
"Cicero",
"lectisternium",
"Château de Chenonceau",
"Portuguese language",
"Diana and Actaeon (Titian)",
"Massilia",
"Vis (island)",
"Latona",
"Greek mythology",
"numen",
"Georg Wissowa",
"J. M. W. Turner",
"Middle Ages",
"Historia Regum Britanniae",
"Tate Gallery",
"Di Penates",
"Campania",
"Varro",
"Vulci",
"Nonius Marcellus",
"Hippolyta (DC Comics)",
"Beaux Arts architecture",
"Pericles, Prince of Tyre",
"Stylite",
"fairy",
"Acts 19",
"Platonist",
"Cumae",
"Rhea (mythology)",
"Jean Bayet",
"The Golden Ass",
"Neopagan",
"Jupiter",
"Juno (mythology)",
"Ab urbe condita (book)",
"Joseph Fontenrose",
"Silvanus (mythology)",
"De Natura Deorum",
"Taurid",
"Brookgreen Gardens",
"wikt:heifer",
"Roman art",
"Margaret Murray",
"Rick Riordan",
"rex Nemorensis",
"Saturn (mythology)",
"Camp Half-Blood Chronicles",
"Capua",
"Mattiaci",
"Ephesus",
"Diana Nemorensis",
"Andreas Alföldi",
"Saint Eligius",
"Domus de Janas",
"Grex Vocalis",
"Proto-Italic language",
"Zona Rosa, Mexico City",
"Diana the Huntress Fountain",
"Druid",
"Merovingian dynasty",
"Quirinal Hill",
"Peter Paul Rubens",
"dryad",
"Apuleius",
"Huntington Library",
"Abnoba",
"South Carolina",
"Christophe-Gabriel Allegrain",
"denarius",
"Anagoge",
"Hellenistic period",
"Bode Museum",
"Philadelphia Museum of Art",
"Michael Drayton",
"Pythia",
"commerce",
"Jupiter (mythology)",
"Martin Romberg",
"Margut",
"Feri Tradition",
"Lunar phase",
"Sânziană",
"Danubian provinces",
"Pliny's Natural History",
"Hesiod",
"Salome",
"Dii Consentes",
"Germania Superior",
"Robert Graves",
"Murrells Inlet, South Carolina",
"Plutarch",
"avatar",
"House of the Vettii",
"Micrurus diana",
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"British Traditional Wicca",
"Regino of Prüm",
"Bernardino Cametti",
"Juno Lucina",
"Charge of the Goddess",
"Neoplatonism",
"Herodias",
"Clusium",
"poppy",
"Statius",
"Theurgy",
"John Scheid",
"pomerium",
"Vertumnus",
"Fortress (Protest the Hero album)",
"Augustus Saint-Gaudens",
"Catholic Church",
"Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)",
"Tusculum",
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"Macrobius",
"Black Forest",
"William Moulton Marston",
"composer",
"Jeffrey Burton Russell",
"opera",
"Sant'Angelo in Formis",
"Medea (Seneca)",
"Nicolas Poussin",
"Life-death-rebirth deity",
"François Truffaut",
"Temple of Diana (Rome)",
"Léo Delibes",
"Proserpina",
"wikt:vetulas",
"Plato",
"Stesichorus",
"Persephone",
"List of lunar deities",
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"Seneca the Younger",
"Titus Livius",
"Archer Milton Huntington",
"James George Frazer",
"New Testament",
"Charles Godfrey Leland",
"Artemis of Ephesus",
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"kolpos",
"lunate",
"DC Comics",
"Apollo",
"Robert Schilling (historian)",
"Ratherius",
"progressive metal",
"Sanskrit",
"Carlos Fuentes",
"Diana Returning from the Hunt",
"Archibald Fountain",
"Diane de Poitiers",
"Fabulae",
"Reconstructionist Roman religion",
"Upper Germania",
"medieval literature",
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"augur",
"Orestes",
"Caelus",
"Nemesis",
"Catullus",
"Veii",
"Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române",
"Virbius",
"Servius Honoratus",
"Berlin",
"nemus Aricinum",
"Dionysus",
"The Golden Bough (painting)",
"The Heroes of Olympus",
"Solignac",
"Margot Adler",
"Palace of Caserta",
"Selene",
"Nemesianus",
"Zsuzsanna Budapest",
"Romanian language",
"Latin",
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"Henry II of France",
"witch-hunt",
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"Asia Minor",
"Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford",
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"Luna (goddess)",
"Four Rooms",
"Anthropomorphism",
"de:Patrick G. Walsh",
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"Anacreon",
"destiny",
"Diana and Callisto",
"Rembrandt",
"Paris",
"Mexico City",
"The Golden Bough",
"Aradia",
"L'arbore di Diana",
"Wiesbaden",
"Roman imperial period (chronology)"
] |
8,396 |
December 11
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
220 – Emperor Xian of Han is forced to abdicate the throne by Cao Cao's son Cao Pi, ending the Han dynasty.
361 – Julian enters Constantinople as sole Roman Emperor.
861 – Assassination of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil by the Turkish guard, who raise al-Muntasir to the throne, start of the "Anarchy at Samarra".
969 – Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas is assassinated by his wife Theophano and her lover, the later Emperor John I Tzimiskes.
1041 – Michael V, adoptive son of Empress Zoë of Byzantium, is proclaimed emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.
1239 – Treaty of Benavente: the heiresses of the Kingdom of León renounce their throne to King Ferdinand III of Castile
1282 – Battle of Orewin Bridge: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native Prince of Wales, is killed at Cilmeri near Builth Wells in mid-Wales.
===1601–1900===
1602 – A surprise attack by forces under the command of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and his brother-in-law, Philip III of Spain, is repelled by the citizens of Geneva. (Commemorated annually by the Fête de l'Escalade.)
1640 – The Root and Branch petition, signed by 15,000 Londoners calling for the abolition of the episcopacy, is presented to the Long Parliament.
1675 – Antonio de Vea expedition enters San Rafael Lake in western Patagonia.
1688 – Glorious Revolution: James II of England, while trying to flee to France, throws the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames.
1792 – French Revolution: King Louis XVI of France is put on trial for treason by the National Convention.
1815 – The U.S. Senate creates a select committee on finance and a uniform national currency, predecessor of the United States Senate Committee on Finance.
1816 – Indiana becomes the 19th U.S. state.
1868 – Paraguayan War: Brazilian troops defeat the Paraguayan Army at the Battle of Avay.
1899 – Second Boer War: In the Battle of Magersfontein the Boers commanded by general Piet Cronjé inflict a defeat on the forces of the British Empire commanded by Lord Methuen trying to relieve the Siege of Kimberley.
===1901–present===
1901 – Guglielmo Marconi transmits the first transatlantic radio signal from Poldhu, Cornwall, England to Saint John's, Newfoundland.
1905 – A workers' uprising occurs in Kyiv, Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire), and establishes the Shuliavka Republic.
1907 – The New Zealand Parliament Buildings are almost completely destroyed by fire.
1913 – More than two years after it was stolen from the Louvre, Leonardo da Vinci's painting Mona Lisa is recovered in Florence, Italy. The thief, Vincenzo Peruggia, is immediately arrested.
1917 – World War I: British General Edmund Allenby enters Jerusalem on foot and declares martial law.
1920 – Irish War of Independence: In retaliation for a recent IRA ambush, British forces burn and loot numerous buildings in Cork city. Many civilians report being beaten, shot at, robbed and verbally abused by British forces.
1925 – Roman Catholic papal encyclical Quas primas introduces the Feast of Christ the King.
1927 – Guangzhou Uprising: Communist Red Guards launch an uprising in Guangzhou, China, taking over most of the city and announcing the formation of a Guangzhou Soviet.
1931 – Statute of Westminster 1931: The British Parliament establishes legislative equality between the UK and the Dominions of the Commonwealth—Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ireland.
1934 – Bill Wilson, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, takes his last drink and enters treatment for the final time.
1936 – Abdication Crisis: Edward VIII's abdication as King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, and Emperor of India, becomes effective.
1937 – Second Italo-Ethiopian War: Italy leaves the League of Nations.
1941 – World War II: Germany and Italy declare war on the United States, following the Americans' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States, in turn, declares war on them.
1941 – World War II: Poland declares war on the Empire of Japan.
1941 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy suffers its first loss of surface vessels during the Battle of Wake Island.
1946 – The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is established.
1948 – Arab–Israeli War: The United Nations passes General Assembly Resolution 194, creating a Conciliation Commission to mediate the conflict.
1958 – French Upper Volta and French Dahomey gain self-government from France, becoming the Republic of Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and the Republic of Dahomey (now Benin), respectively, and joining the French Community.
1960 – French forces crack down in a violent clash with protesters in French Algeria during a visit by French President Charles de Gaulle.
1962 – Arthur Lucas, convicted of murder, is the last person to be executed in Canada.
1964 – Che Guevara speaks at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City.
1972 – Apollo 17 becomes the sixth and final Apollo mission to land on the Moon.
1978 – The Lufthansa heist is committed by a group led by Lucchese family associate Jimmy Burke. It was the largest cash robbery ever committed on American soil, at that time.
1980 – The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund) is enacted by the U.S. Congress.
1981 – El Mozote massacre: Armed forces in El Salvador kill an estimated 900 civilians in an anti-guerrilla campaign during the Salvadoran Civil War.
1988 – A Soviet Air Force Il-76 aircraft crashes while participating in the Armenian earthquake relief, killing 78 people.
1990 – Demonstrations by students and workers across Albania begin, which eventually trigger the fall of communism in Albania.
1990 – Several fatal collisions in the 1990 Interstate 75 fog disaster result in a total of 12 deaths and 42 being injured
1993 – A block of the Highland Towers condominium complex collapses following a landslide caused by heavy rain and water flowing from a construction site at Ampang district in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 48 of its residents die, including one who died in hospital after being rescued alive, leaving only two survivors.
1994 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin orders Russian troops into Chechnya.
1994 – A bomb explodes on Philippine Airlines Flight 434, en route from Manila, Philippines, to Tokyo, Japan, killing one. The captain is able to land the plane safely.
1997 – The Kyoto Protocol opens for signature.
1998 – Thai Airways Flight 261 crashes near Surat Thani Airport, killing 101. The pilot flying the Airbus A310-200 is thought to have suffered spatial disorientation.
1999 – SATA Air Açores Flight 530M crashes into Pico da Esperança on São Jorge Island in the Azores, killing 35.
2001 – China joins the World Trade Organization (WTO).
2005 – The Buncefield Oil Depot catches fire in Hemel Hempstead, England.
2005 – Cronulla riots: Thousands of White Australians demonstrate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be Lebanese in Cronulla, New South Wales; these are followed up by retaliatory ethnic attacks on Cronulla.
2006 – The International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust is opened in Tehran, Iran, by then-president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; nations such as Israel and the United States express concern.
2006 – Felipe Calderón, the President of Mexico, launches a military-led offensive to put down the drug cartel violence in the state of Michoacán. This effort is often regarded as the first event in the Mexican Drug War.
2007 – Insurgency in the Maghreb: Two car bombs explode in Algiers, Algeria, one near the Supreme Constitutional Court and the other near the offices of the United Nations.
2008 – Bernie Madoff is arrested and charged with securities fraud in a $50 billion Ponzi scheme.
2009 – Finnish game developer Rovio Entertainment releases the hit mobile game Angry Birds internationally on iOS.
2012 – At least 125 people are killed and up to 200 injured in bombings in the Alawite village of Aqrab, Syria.
2017 – New York City Subway bombing: A pipe bomb partially detonates in the New York City Subway, in the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal. Four people are injured, including the perpetrator.
2019 – The results of the 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum are announced. The results are overwhelmingly one-sided. Over 98% of voters vote for Bougainville's independence.
2020 – The Food and Drug Administration issues an Emergency Use Authorization on the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, the first COVID-19 vaccine to be approved by the agency.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
1445 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1496)
1465 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shogun (d. 1489)
1475 – Pope Leo X (d. 1521)
1566 – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese organist and composer (d. 1650)
1595 – Heo Mok, Korean politician, poet and scholar (d. 1682)
===1601–1900===
1613 – Amar Singh Rathore, Rajput nobleman (d. 1644)
1712 – Francesco Algarotti, Italian poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1764)
1725 – George Mason, American lawyer and politician (d. 1792)
1758 – Carl Friedrich Zelter, German composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1832)
1761 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian physicist, economist, and jurist (d. 1835)
1781 – David Brewster, Scottish physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1868)
1801 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German poet and playwright (d. 1836)
1803 – Hector Berlioz, French composer, conductor, and critic (d. 1869)
1810 – Alfred de Musset, French dramatist, poet, and novelist (d. 1857)
1830 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (d. 1872)
1837 – Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (d. 1887)
1838 – John Labatt, Canadian brewer and businessman (d. 1915)
1843 – Robert Koch, German microbiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)
1856 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher, theorist, and author (d. 1918)
1858 – Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian director, producer, and playwright (d. 1943)
1861 – Frederick Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 5th Baron Ventry, British Army officer and Anglo-Irish peer (d. 1923)
1863 – Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (d. 1941)
1872 – René Bull, British illustrator and photographer (d. 1942)
1873 – Josip Plemelj, Slovenian mathematician and academic (d. 1967)
1875 – Yehuda Leib Maimon, Moldovan-Israeli rabbi and politician (d. 1962)
1880 – Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer and umpire (d. 1951)
1882 – Subramania Bharati, Indian journalist and poet (d. 1921)
1882 – Max Born, German physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)
1882 – Fiorello H. La Guardia, American lawyer and politician, 99th Mayor of New York City (d. 1947)
1884 – Piet Ooms, Dutch swimmer and water polo player (d. 1961)
1889 – Walter Knott, American farmer and businessman, founded Knott's Berry Farm (d. 1981)
1890 – Carlos Gardel, French-Argentinian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1935)
1890 – Mark Tobey, American-Swiss painter and educator (d. 1976)
1892 – Arnold Majewski, Finnish military hero of Polish descent (d. 1942)
1893 – Leo Ornstein, Russian-American pianist and composer (d. 2002)
1897 – Ronald Skirth, English soldier (d. 1977)
1899 – Julio de Caro, Argentinian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1980)
1900 – Hermína Týrlová, Czechoslovakian animator, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1993)
1900 – Gerd Arntz, German Modernist artist, co-creator of Isotype (d. 1988)
===1901–present===
1904 – Marge, American cartoonist (d. 1993)
1905 – Robert Henriques, English farmer, author, and broadcaster (d. 1967)
1905 – Gilbert Roland, Mexican-American actor and singer (d. 1994)
1908 – Elliott Carter, American composer and academic (d. 2012)
1908 – Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
1908 – Hákun Djurhuus, Faroese educator and politician, fourth Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1987)
1908 – Amon Göth, Austrian Nazi war criminal (d. 1946)
1909 – Ronald McKie, Australian soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1991)
1910 – Mildred Cleghorn, Native American chairwoman and educator (d. 1997)
1911 – Val Guest, English-American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (d. 2006)
1911 – Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian author, playwright, and screenwriter, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006)
1911 – Qian Xuesen, Chinese aerodynamicist and academic (d. 2009)
1912 – Carlo Ponti, Italian-Swiss film producer (d. 2007)
1913 – Jean Marais, French actor and director (d. 1998)
1916 – Elena Garro, Mexican author and playwright (d. 1998)
1916 – Pérez Prado, Cuban-Mexican singer-songwriter, pianist, and bandleader (d. 1989)
1918 – Clinton Adams, American painter and historian (d. 2002)
1918 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, historian, and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008)
1919 – Cliff Michelmore, English television host and producer (d. 2016)
1919 – Marie Windsor, American actress (d. 2000)
1920 – Mary Ivy Burks, American environmental activist (d. 2007)
1920 – Denis Jenkinson, English motorcycle racer and journalist (d. 1996)
1921 – Ilmar Laaban, Estonian poet and publicist (d. 2000)
1921 – Liz Smith, English actress (d. 2016)
1922 – Grigoris Bithikotsis, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005)
1922 – Dilip Kumar, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2021)
1922 – Maila Nurmi, Finnish-American actress, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
1922 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (d. 2007)
1923 – Betsy Blair, American actress and dancer (d. 2009)
1923 – Lillian Cahn, Hungarian-born American businesswoman, co-founded Coach, Inc. (d. 2013)
1923 – Morrie Turner, American comics creator (d. 2014)
1924 – Doc Blanchard, American football player and colonel (d. 2009)
1925 – Aaron Feuerstein, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2021)
1925 – Paul Greengard, American neuroscientist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)
1925 – James Sullivan, American politician (d. 2012)
1926 – Big Mama Thornton, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984)
1927 – John Buscema, American illustrator (d. 2002)
1929 – Axel Anderson, German actor and production manager (d. 2012)
1929 – Subhash Gupte, Indian cricketer (d. 2002)
1930 – Chus Lampreave, Spanish actress (d. 2016)
1930 – Jean-Louis Trintignant, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2022)
1931 – Ernie Beck, American basketball player
1931 – Ronald Dworkin, American philosopher and scholar (d. 2013)
1931 – Rita Moreno, Puerto Rican actress, singer, and dancer
1931 – Pierre Pilote, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)
1931 – Rajneesh, Indian guru, mystic, and educator (d. 1990)
1932 – Enrique Bermúdez, Nicaraguan colonel and engineer (d. 1991)
1932 – Keith Waldrop, American author and poet (d. 2023)
1933 – Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., Filipino civil servant and politician, 23rd President of the Senate of the Philippines (d. 2019)
1934 – Salim Durani, Afghan-Indian cricketer (d. 2023)
1935 – Pranab Mukherjee, Indian journalist and politician, 13th President of India (d. 2020)
1935 – Elmer Vasko, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1998)
1936 – Hans van den Broek, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs
1936 – Taku Yamasaki, Japanese politician
1937 – Jim Harrison, American novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2016)
1938 – Enrico Macias, Algerian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist
1938 – McCoy Tyner, American jazz musician (d. 2020)
1939 – Tom Hayden, American activist and politician (d. 2016)
1939 – Thomas McGuane, American novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter
1940 – David Gates, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1940 – Donna Mills, American actress and producer
1941 – Max Baucus, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 11th United States Ambassador to China
1941 – J. P. Parisé, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2015)
1941 – Rogier van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1988)
1941 – J. Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1991)
1942 – Anna Carteret, English actress
1943 – John Kerry, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 68th United States Secretary of State
1944 – Teri Garr, American actress and comedian (d. 2024)
1944 – Jon Garrison, American tenor and educator
1944 – Lynda Day George, American actress
1944 – Michael Lang, American concert promoter and producer (d. 2022)
1944 – Brenda Lee, American singer-songwriter
1946 – Rhoma Irama, Indonesian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
1946 – Rick McCosker, Australian cricketer
1946 – Diana Palmer, American journalist and author
1948 – Stamatis Spanoudakis, Greek guitarist and composer
1948 – Shinji Tanimura, Japanese singer-songwriter (d. 2023)
1949 – Christina Onassis, Greek-Argentine businesswoman, socialite, and heiress (d. 1988)
1951 – Mazlan Othman, Malaysian astrophysicist and astronomer
1951 – Ria Stalman, Dutch discus thrower and shot putter
1953 – Bess Armstrong, American actress
1954 – Brad Bryant, American golfer
1954 – Sylvester Clarke, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1999)
1954 – Santiago Creel, Mexican lawyer and politician, Mexican Secretary of the Interior
1954 – Jermaine Jackson, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer
1954 – Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson, Icelandic guitarist, mathematician, and engineer
1955 – Gene Grossman, American economist and academic
1955 – Stu Jackson, American basketball player, coach, and manager
1955 – Ray Kelvin, British fashion designer
1955 – Christian Sackewitz, German footballer and manager
1956 – Lani Brockman, American actress and director
1956 – Andrew Lansley, English politician, Secretary of State for Health
1957 – Peter Bagge, American author and illustrator
1958 – Chris Hughton, English-born Irish footballer and manager
1958 – Tom Shadyac, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1958 – Nikki Sixx, American bass player, songwriter, and producer
1960 – Anders Eldebrink, Swedish ice hockey player and coach
1961 – Dave King, Irish-American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1961 – Steve Nicol, Scottish footballer and manager
1961 – Macky Sall, Senegalese engineer and politician, fourth President of Senegal
1961 – Marco Pierre White, English chef and mentor
1962 – Ben Browder, American actor
1963 – Mario Been, Dutch footballer and manager
1963 – Mark Greatbatch, New Zealand cricketer
1963 – Claudia Kohde-Kilsch, German tennis player
1963 – John Lammers, Dutch footballer and manager
1963 – Nigel Winterburn, English footballer and coach
1964 – Justin Currie, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist
1964 – Dave Schools, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer
1964 – Carolyn Waldo, Canadian swimmer and sportscaster
1965 – Jay Bell, American baseball player and coach
1965 – Gavin Hill, New Zealand rugby player
1965 – Glenn Lazarus, Australian rugby league player and politician
1965 – Giannis Ragousis, Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister for National Defence
1966 – Gary Dourdan, American actor
1966 – Erik Honoré, Norwegian guitarist and producer
1966 – Göran Kropp, Swedish race car driver and mountaineer (d. 2002)
1966 – Leon Lai, Hong Kong singer and actor
1967 – Peter Kelamis, Australian voice actor
1967 – Mo'Nique, American comedian, actress, and producer
1967 – Chris Shepherd, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter
1967 – Katy Steding, American basketball player and coach
1968 – Emmanuelle Charpentier, French researcher in microbiology, genetics and biochemistry, and Nobel laureate
1968 – Fabrizio Ravanelli, Italian footballer and manager
1969 – Viswanathan Anand, Indian chess player
1969 – Stig Inge Bjørnebye, Norwegian footballer and manager
1969 – Max Martini, American actor, director, and screenwriter
1969 – Alessandro Melli, Italian footballer and manager
1970 – Victoria Fuller, American model and actress
1971 – Willie McGinest, American football player and sportscaster
1972 – Daniel Alfredsson, Swedish ice hockey player
1972 – Sami Al-Jaber, Saudi Arabian footballer and manager
1972 – Murray Goodwin, Zimbabwean cricketer
1972 – Andriy Husin, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2014)
1973 – Mos Def, American rapper
1974 – Maarten Lafeber, Dutch golfer
1974 – Rey Mysterio, American wrestler
1974 – Lisa Ortiz, American theatre and voice actress
1974 – Ben Shephard, English journalist and television host
1974 – Gete Wami, Ethiopian runner
1975 – Gerben de Knegt, Dutch cyclist
1976 – Shareef Abdur-Rahim, American basketball player, coach, and manager
1976 – Yujiro Shirakawa, Japanese actor
1977 – Mark Streit, Swiss ice hockey player
1978 – Roy Wood, Jr., American comedian, actor, and radio host
1979 – Colleen Hoover, American author
1979 – Valdis Mintals, Estonian figure skater
1979 – Rider Strong, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1980 – Adi Keissar, Israeli poet
1980 – Kristjan Kitsing, Estonian basketball player
1981 – Rebekkah Brunson, American basketball player and coach
1981 – Jason Kennedy, American journalist
1981 – Jeff McComsey, American author and illustrator
1981 – Paul Medhurst, Australian footballer
1981 – Javier Saviola, Argentine footballer
1982 – Roman Harper, American football player
1982 – Pablo Pérez Companc, Argentine race car driver
1984 – Leighton Baines, English footballer
1984 – Sandra Echeverría, Mexican actress and singer
1984 – James Ellsworth, American wrestler
1984 – Xosha Roquemore, American actress
1985 – Karla Souza, Mexican actress
1986 – Roy Hibbert, American basketball player
1987 – Violetta Bock, German politician
1987 – Clifton Geathers, American football player
1987 – Alex Russell, Australian actor
1987 – Miranda Tapsell, Australian actress
1988 – Tim Southee, New Zealand cricketer
1989 – Kellie Harrington, Irish boxer
1990 – Alexa Demie, American actress and singer
1992 – Tiffany Alvord, American singer-songwriter
1992 – Malcolm Brogdon, American basketball player
1993 – Yalitza Aparicio, Mexican actress
1995 – Abbi Grant, Scottish footballer
1996 – Hailee Steinfeld, American actress, singer and songwriter
1997 – Matthew Tkachuk, American ice hockey player
2000 – Onyeka Okongwu, American basketball player
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
384 – Pope Damasus I (b. c.304)
861 – Al-Fath ibn Khaqan, chief confidant and councillor to al-Mutawakkil
969 – Nikephoros II Phokas, Byzantine emperor (b. 912)
1121 – Al-Afdal Shahanshah, Egyptian political adviser (b. 1066)
1198 – Averroes, Spanish astronomer, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1126)
1241 – Ögedei Khan, Mongolian emperor (b. 1186)
1282 – Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Welsh prince (b. 1223)
1282 – Michael VIII Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1225)
1474 – Henry IV of Castile, King of the Crown of Castile (b. 1425)
1532 – Pietro Accolti, Italian cardinal (b. 1455)
1582 – Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Spanish general and politician, 12th Constable of Portugal (b. 1508)
===1601–1900===
1610 – Adam Elsheimer, German artist working in Rome (b. 1578)
1686 – Louis, Grand Condé, French general (b. 1621)
1694 – Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1630)
1737 – John Strype, English priest, historian, and author (b. 1643)
1747 – Edmund Curll, English bookseller and publisher (b. 1675)
1797 – Richard Brocklesby, English physician (b. 1722)
1826 – Maria Leopoldina of Austria (b. 1797)
1840 – Emperor Kōkaku of Japan (b. 1771)
1872 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (b. 1830)
1880 – Oliver Winchester, American businessman, founded the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (b. 1810)
1892 – William Milligan, Scottish theologian and scholar (b. 1821)
===1901–present===
1906 – Charles Townsend, American fencer, engineer, and academic (b. 1872)
1909 – Ludwig Mond, German-born chemist and British industrialist who discovered the metal carbonyls (b. 1839)
1913 – Carl von In der Maur, Governor of Liechtenstein (b. 1852)
1918 – Ivan Cankar, Slovenian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1876)
1920 – Olive Schreiner, South African author and activist (b. 1855)
1936 – Myron Grimshaw, American baseball player (b. 1875)
1937 – Jaan Anvelt, Estonian theorist and politician (b. 1884)
1937 – Hugh Thackeray Turner, English architect and painter (b. 1853)
1938 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian historian and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1869)
1941 – John Gillespie Magee, Jr., American pilot and poet (b. 1922)
1941 – Émile Picard, French mathematician and academic (b. 1856)
1945 – Charles Fabry, French physicist and academic (b. 1867)
1950 – Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and author (b. 1893)
1951 – Mustafa Muğlalı, Turkish general (b. 1882)
1951 – Hijri Dede, Iraqi Turkmen poet and writer (b. 1881)
1953 – Sedat Simavi, Turkish journalist and director (b. 1896)
1957 – Musidora, French actress, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1889)
1959 – Jim Bottomley, American baseball player and manager (b. 1900)
1964 – Sam Cooke, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931)
1964 – Percy Kilbride, American actor (b. 1888)
1966 – Augusta Fox Bronner, American psychologist, specialist in juvenile psychology (b. 1881)
1968 – Richard Sagrits, Estonian painter and author (b. 1910)
1968 – Arthur Hays Sulzberger, American publisher (b. 1891)
1971 – Maurice McDonald, American businessman, co-founded McDonald's (b. 1902)
1975 – Lee Wiley, American singer (b. 1908)
1975 – Nihal Atsız, Turkish philosopher, author, and poet (b. 1905)
1978 – Vincent du Vigneaud, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)
1978 – Paul O'Dea, American baseball player and manager (b. 1920)
1979 – James J. Gibson, American psychologist and author (b. 1904)
1983 – Neil Ritchie, Guyanese-English general (b. 1897)
1984 – Oskar Seidlin, German-American author, poet, and scholar (b. 1911)
1984 – George Waggner, American director, producer and actor (b. 1894)
1987 – G. A. Kulkarni, Indian author and academic (b. 1923)
1989 – Louise Dahl-Wolfe, American photographer (b. 1895)
1991 – Robert Q. Lewis, American actor, comedian, game show host/panelist, and television personality (b. 1921)
1991 – Artur Lundkvist, Swedish author and critic (b. 1906)
1994 – Philip Phillips, American archaeologist and scholar (b. 1900)
1995 – Greg Bahnsen, American minister and philosopher (b. 1948)
1996 – Willie Rushton, English cartoonist, author, and publisher, co-founded Private Eye (b. 1937)
1997 – Eddie Chapman, English spy (b. 1914)
1997 – Simon Jeffes, English guitarist and composer (b. 1949)
1998 – André Lichnerowicz, French physicist and mathematician (b. 1915)
1998 – Lynn Strait, American singer-songwriter (b. 1968)
2000 – Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Pakistani politician and diplomat (b. 1915)
2000 – David Lewis, American actor (b. 1916)
2001 – Mainza Chona, Zambian lawyer and politician, first Prime Minister of Zambia (b. 1930)
2003 – Ahmadou Kourouma, Ivorian author and playwright (b. 1927)
2004 – José Luis Cuciuffo, Argentinian footballer (b. 1962)
2004 – Arthur Lydiard, New Zealand runner and coach (b. 1917)
2008 – Bettie Page, American model (b. 1923)
2010 – Dick Hoerner, American football player (b. 1922)
2011 – John Patrick Foley, American cardinal (b. 1935)
2012 – Galina Vishnevskaya, Russian soprano and actress (b. 1926)
2012 – Mendel Weinbach, Polish-Israeli rabbi and scholar (b. 1933)
2012 – Ravi Shankar, Indian-American sitar player and composer (b. 1920)
2013 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (b. 1920)
2013 – Barbara Branden, Canadian-American author and academic (b. 1929)
2013 – Javier Jáuregui (boxer), Mexican boxer (b. 1973)
2013 – Sheikh Mussa Shariefi, Indian philosopher and scholar (b. 1942)
2014 – Hans Wallat, German conductor and director (b. 1929)
2015 – Abish Kekilbayev, Kazakh academic and politician (b. 1939)
2015 – H. Arnold Steinberg, Canadian businessman, philanthropist, and academic (b. 1933)
2015 – Hema Upadhyay, Indian painter and sculptor (b. 1972)
2015 – John "Hot Rod" Williams, American basketball player (b. 1962)
2015 – Ken Woolley, Australian architect (b. 1933)
2017 – Keith Chegwin, British TV presenter (b. 1957)
2020 – James Flynn, New Zealand intelligence researcher. (b. 1934)
2021 – Anne Rice, American author (b. 1941)
2023 – Andre Braugher, American actor (b. 1962)
2024 – David Bonderman, American billionaire businessman (b. 1942)
2024 – Khalil Haqqani, Afghan politician and warlord (b. 1966)
2024 – Purushottam Upadhyay, Indian musician, singer and composer (b. 1934)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Cian
Daniel the Stylite
María de las Maravillas de Jesús
Pope Damasus I
Sabinus of Piacenza
Victoricus, Fuscian, and Gentian
December 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Establishment of Kurdish Women's Union (Iraqi Kurdistan)
Indiana Day (United States)
International Mountain Day
National Tango Day (Argentina)
Pampanga Day (Pampanga province, Philippines)
Republic Day, the day when Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French Community in 1958. (Burkina Faso)
|
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] |
8,397 |
Danny Elfman
|
Daniel Robert Elfman (born May 29, 1953) is an American film composer, singer, songwriter, and musician. He came to prominence as the lead vocalist and primary songwriter for the new wave band Oingo Boingo in the early 1980s. Since scoring his first studio film in 1985, Elfman has garnered international recognition for composing over 100 feature film scores, as well as compositions for television, stage productions, and the concert hall.
Elfman has frequently worked with directors Tim Burton, Sam Raimi, and Gus Van Sant, contributing music to nearly 20 Burton projects, including Pee-Wee's Big Adventure, Beetlejuice, Batman, Edward Scissorhands, Batman Returns, Mars Attacks!, Sleepy Hollow, Big Fish and Alice in Wonderland, as well as scoring Raimi's Darkman, A Simple Plan, Spider-Man, Spider-Man 2, Oz the Great and Powerful, and Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, and Van Sant's Academy Award-winning films Good Will Hunting and Milk. He wrote music for all of the Men in Black and Fifty Shades of Grey franchise films, the songs and score for Henry Selick's animated musical The Nightmare Before Christmas, and the themes for the popular television series Desperate Housewives and The Simpsons.
Among his honors are four Oscar nominations, a Grammy, seven Saturn Awards for Best Music, the 2002 Richard Kirk Award, the 2015 Disney Legend Award, the Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award in 2017, and the Society of Composers & Lyricists Lifetime Achievement Award in 2022.
==Early life==
Elfman was born on May 29, 1953, in Los Angeles, California He is a son of Blossom Elfman (née Bernstein), a writer and teacher, and Milton Elfman, a teacher. He is the brother of actor, musician, and journalist Richard Elfman. Elfman was raised in an affluent, racially-mixed community in Baldwin Hills, California, where he spent much of his time at the local movie theater discovering classic sci-fi, fantasy and horror films and first noticed the music of such film composers as Bernard Herrmann and Franz Waxman. Elfman has admitted to fabricating stories about his past out of boredom, including a false birthplace of Amarillo, Texas, and parents in the United States Air Force.
In his early school days, Elfman exhibited an aptitude for science with almost no interest in music, and was even rejected from elementary school orchestra "for having no propensity for music." This would change when he switched high schools in the late 1960s and fell in with a musical crowd, who introduced him to early jazz and the work of Stravinsky and his 20th-century contemporaries.
Elfman left school to follow his brother Richard to France, where he performed violin with Jérôme Savary's Le Grand Magic Circus, an avant-garde musical theater group. He then embarked on a ten-month, self-guided tour through Africa, busking and collecting a range of West African percussion instruments until a series of illnesses forced him to return home. At this time, Richard was forming a new musical theater group in Los Angeles.
==Career==
===Oingo Boingo===
After returning to Los Angeles from Africa in the early 1970s, Elfman was asked by his brother Richard to serve as musical director of his street theatre performance art troupe The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo. He also composed original pieces and helped build instruments unique for the group, including an aluminum gamelan, the 'Schlitz celeste' made from tuned beer cans, and a "junkyard orchestra" built from car parts and trash cans.
The Mystic Knights performed on the street and in theaters, and later in nightclubs throughout Los Angeles until Richard left in 1976 to pursue filmmaking.
Before the release of Forbidden Zone, Elfman took over the Mystic Knights as lead singer-songwriter in 1976. In 1979, he pared the group down to eight players to record and tour as a ska-influenced new wave band. That summer, the group's name would change to Oingo Boingo. featuring the hit song "Weird Science" from the movie of the same name. for which Elfman also composed the score. Elfman shifted the band to a more guitar-oriented rock sound in the late 1980s, which continued through their last album Boingo in 1994.
Citing permanent hearing damage from performing live and conflicts with his film-scoring career, On October 31, 2015, Elfman and Oingo Boingo guitarist Steve Bartek performed the song "Dead Man's Party" with an orchestra as an encore to a live-to-film concert of The Nightmare Before Christmas score at the Hollywood Bowl. Elfman told the audience the performance was "20 years to the day" of Oingo Boingo's retirement.
===Film scoring===
As fans of Oingo Boingo, Tim Burton and Paul Reubens invited Elfman to write the score for their first feature film Pee-wee's Big Adventure in 1985. Elfman was initially apprehensive because of his lack of formal training and having never scored a studio feature, but after Burton accepted his initial demo of the title music, and with orchestration assistance from Oingo Boingo guitarist and arranger Steve Bartek, Elfman completed the score to great effect, paying homage to influential film composers Nino Rota and Bernard Herrmann. Elfman described the first time he heard his music played by a full orchestra as one of the most thrilling experiences of his life.
Following Pee Wee's Big Adventure, Elfman scored a string of comedies in the late 1980s, including Back to School starring Rodney Dangerfield, Burton's Beetlejuice and the Bill Murray film Scrooged. Non-comedy work included the all-synth score to Emilio Estevez's crime drama Wisdom and the big band, blues-infused music for Martin Brest's buddy cop action film Midnight Run.
In 1989, Elfman's influential, Grammy-winning score for Burton's Batman marked a major stylistic shift to dark, densely orchestrated music in the romantic idiom. scoring all but three of the director's major studio releases. Highlights include Edward Scissorhands (1990), Batman Returns (1992), Sleepy Hollow (1999), Big Fish (2003) and Alice in Wonderland (2010). In 1993, Elfman wrote the score and ten songs for the Burton-produced stop motion animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas, directed by Henry Selick, and also provided the singing voice for main character Jack Skellington, as well as the voices for secondary characters Barrel, the Clown with the Tear-Away Face and others. In 2005, he wrote the score and songs for Burton's Corpse Bride and provided the voice of the character of Bonejangles, and provided the score, songs and Oompa-Loompa vocals for Burton's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory that same year.
In addition to frequent collaborations with Burton, Raimi and Gus Van Sant, Elfman has worked with directors such as Brian De Palma, Peter Jackson, Joss Whedon, Errol Morris, Ang Lee, Richard Donner, Guillermo del Toro, David O. Russell, Taylor Hackford, Jon Amiel, Joe Johnston, and Barry Sonnenfeld. His scores for Sonnenfeld's Men in Black, Van Sant's Good Will Hunting and Milk, and Burton's Big Fish all received Academy Award nominations. and three Fifty Shades films (2015–2018). In 1996, he scored the first film in the Mission: Impossible series, adapting themes for the original television series by Lalo Schifrin as well as composing his own. Elfman scored Raimi's Spider-Man in 2002 and Spider-Man 2 in 2004, themes and selections from which were used for Raimi's Spider-Man 3, scored by Christopher Young. Elfman's Spider-Man theme was incorporated into the MCU film Spider-Man: No Way Home composed by Michael Giacchino.
Elfman entered the Marvel Cinematic Universe by providing additional music in 2015's Avengers: Age of Ultron, receiving composer credit with Brian Tyler. Elfman also scored MCU's Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness in 2022, utilizing Giacchino's theme to the original Doctor Strange film, as well as themes from WandaVision and X-Men: The Animated Series, and music from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and Bach's Toccata and Fugue.
For several high-profile sequel and reboot projects in the 2010s, Elfman incorporated established musical themes with his own original thematic material, including the DC Extended Universe's Justice League, The Grinch, Dumbo and Men in Black International.
Elfman was featured in the 2016 documentary Score, in which he appeared among over 50 film composers to discuss the craft of movie music and influential figures in the business.
===Concert music===
Elfman's first piece of original concert music, Serenada Schizophrana, was commissioned by the American Composers Orchestra, who premiered the piece on February 23, 2005, at Carnegie Hall. Subsequent concert works include his first Violin Concerto "Eleven Eleven", co-commissioned by the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, Stanford Live at Stanford University, and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, which premiered at Smetana Hall in Prague on June 21, 2017, with Sandy Cameron on violin and John Mauceri conducting the Czech National Symphony Orchestra; the Piano Quartet, co-commissioned by the Lied Center for Performing Arts University of Nebraska and the Berlin Philharmonic Piano Quartet, which premiered February 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska; and the Percussion Quartet, commissioned by Third Coast Percussion and premiered at the Philip Glass Days And Nights Festival in Big Sur on October 10, 2019.
2022 saw the first performances of three concert works. Elfman's Cello Concerto for Gautier Capuçon was premiered by the Vienna Symphony on March 18, with subsequent performances by the Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France in May and the San Francisco Symphony US premiere in November. Elfman's Percussion Concerto for Colin Currie premiered on March 25 at London's Royal Festival Hall with London Philharmonic Orchestra, and was later performed at Soka University of America in California, with Pacific Symphony. His Wunderkammer, a commission from the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain, toured the UK in summer 2022, culminating in a performance in London's Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms, with national radio and TV broadcasts.
Elfman's Suite for Chamber Orchestra was premiered on May 4, 2023, by Orpheus Chamber Orchestra at St Mark's Episcopal Church in Washington, D.C. The Suite was co-commissioned by the Library of Congress, the Royalty Pool of Andre Kostelanetz, the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra, and the National Symphony Orchestra of Ireland. Subsequent performances of the Suite include the New York premiere by the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra in July 2023 at 92NY's inaugural MidSummer Music Fest, the West Coast premiere by the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra in December 2023 at the Alex Theatre in Glendale, California, and a performance by the Reno Chamber Orchestra in October 2024.
===Stage music===
In 2008, Elfman accepted his first commission for the stage, composing the music for Twyla Tharp's Rabbit and Rogue ballet, co-commissioned by American Ballet Theatre and Orange County Performing Arts Center and premiering on June 3, 2008, at the Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln Center. Other works for stage include the music for Cirque Du Soleil's Iris in 2011, and incidental music for the Broadway production of Taylor Mac's Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus in 2019.
In October 2013, Elfman returned to the stage for the first time since his band Oingo Boingo disbanded to sing a handful of The Nightmare Before Christmas songs as part of the concert Danny Elfman's Music from the Films of Tim Burton, featuring suites of music from 15 Tim Burton films newly arranged by Elfman. The concert has since toured internationally and has played in Japan, Australia, Mexico and throughout Europe and the United States. Since 2015, Elfman has appeared regularly in a Hollywood Bowl Halloween concert featuring full orchestra performing the Nightmare Before Christmas score live to the film projection.
Elfman made his Coachella debut on April 16, 2022, with Danny Elfman: From Boingo to Batman to Big Mess to Beyond! The concert, postponed from Coachella 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, featured Elfman's film and television music arranged for band, orchestra and choir, as well as songs from his solo album Big Mess and new arrangements of songs from his Oingo Boingo catalogue. Conducted by Steve Bartek, and featuring Elfman (vocals, guitar, percussion), Wes Borland (guitar), Stu Brooks (bass), Nili Brosh (guitar), and Josh Freese (drums), the concert was expanded for two shows Halloween weekend 2022 at the Hollywood Bowl.
===Television and other projects===
In addition to his music for film, Elfman also penned themes for the television series The Simpsons, Tales from the Crypt, The Flash and Desperate Housewives, which won Elfman his first Emmy. He also adapted his original themes for the animated versions of Batman and Beetlejuice. Occasional forays into serial television include episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Amazing Stories and Pee-wee's Playhouse, the miniseries When We Rise co-composed with Chris Bacon, and themes for the Netflix series Wednesday.
He has composed music for animated shorts, including Sally Cruikshank's Face Like A Frog and Tim Burton's "Stainboy" internet series.
Elfman provided background music for Luigi Serafini's solo exhibition il Teatro della Pittura at the Fondazione Mudima di Milano in Milan, Italy in 1998 and for the Tim Burton exhibition at MoMA in 2009.
In the 1990s, Elfman composed music for advertising campaigns for Nike, Nissan and Lincoln-Mercury, and in 2002 wrote the music for Honda's "Power of Dreams" advertising campaign, which was the first cinema commercial to be shot in the IMAX format.
In 2013 he composed the music and provided the English-language vocals for the Hong Kong Disneyland attraction Mystic Manor.
On October 31, 2019, the MasterClass online educational series released "Making Music out of Chaos," presenting 21 compositional and career lessons from Elfman's four decades of experience primarily in the film industry.
Elfman scored the 10-minute video "Joe Biden," which introduced Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential candidacy nomination at the 2020 Democratic National Convention.
On November 16, 2021, Disney Branded Television announced that Elfman would compose score and songs of the upcoming Disney Television Animation and 20th Television Animation stop-motion animated comedy series Rhona Who Lives by the River created by Emily Kapnek, Elfman also serves as executive producer for the series.
In June 2024, it was announced that Elfman would compose the music for the Dark Universe section of Universal Epic Universe.
===Solo===
In October 2020, Elfman released the single, "Happy," on Anti- Records and Epitaph Records. From January 2021 on the eleventh day of each month, he released five subsequent singles "Sorry", "Love in the Time of COVID", "Kick Me", "True", and a reworking of the Oingo Boingo song "Insects" from the album Nothing to Fear. This culminated with the release of the double album Big Mess on June 11. Featuring 18 original songs, this was Elfman's first solo studio album since 1984's So-Lo.
On August 11, 2021, Elfman released a remix of "True" with lead vocals shared between Elfman and Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor. A year later, Elfman released Bigger Messier, a compilation of 23 remixes of songs on the album Big Mess by artists including Reznor, Iggy Pop, Blixa Bargeld, Squarepusher, Boy Harsher and more.
==Influences and style==
Elfman has said his major influences are composers from Hollywood's Golden Age, such as Bernard Herrmann, Dimitri Tiomkin, Max Steiner, David Tamkin, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, and Carl Stalling; 20th century classical composers Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Carl Orff; and jazz, experimental and minimalist composers Kurt Weill, Duke Ellington, Harry Partch, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Terry Riley, and Steve Reich.
Influences on specific scores include Erik Satie (Forbidden Zone), Nino Rota (Pee-wee's Big Adventure), George Gershwin (Dick Tracy), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Edward Scissorhands), and Jimi Hendrix (Dead Presidents).
Though many believe Richard Wagner informed his influential score to Batman, Elfman has said it was more likely from Wagner's influence on classic film composers such as Herrmann, Steiner, Waxman and Korngold, as he was unfamiliar with Wagner's work at the time.
Elfman counts Herrmann as his biggest influence, and has said hearing Herrmann's score to The Day the Earth Stood Still when he was a child was the first time he recognized film music as a cinematic art form and realized the powerful contribution a composer makes to the movies. Pastiche of Herrmann's music can be heard in Elfman's Pee-wee's Big Adventure, especially the cues "Stolen Bike" and "Clown Dream", which directly reference Herrmann's music from Psycho and The 7th Voyage of Sinbad respectively. His score to Batman makes more subtle nods to Herrmann's Journey to the Center of the Earth and Vertigo, and more integral homage can be heard in later scores for Mars Attacks! and Hitchcock, as well as the "Blue Strings" movement of his first concert work Serenada Schizophrana.
While Elfman is primarily known for writing large-scale orchestral works in the romantic, 20th century and Hollywood Golden Age film score traditions, his compositions have used a wide range of idioms, including rock and blues (Midnight Run, Hot to Trot), big band and jazz (Dick Tracy, Chicago), operetta (The Nightmare Before Christmas, Corpse Bride), funk and hip hop (Dead Presidents, Notorious), folk and indie rock (Taking Woodstock, Silver Linings Playbook), Americana (Article 99, Sommersby, Big Fish), minimalism (Good Will Hunting, Standard Operating Procedure, The Unknown Known), and atonal or experimental (Freeway, A Simple Plan, The Girl on the Train).
Given his appreciation and study of world music and his vast collection of instruments from non-Western cultures, the "Welcome Christmas" song from the 1966 How the Grinch Stole Christmas! for The Grinch; At the request of Tim Burton, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' songs drew inspiration from Bollywood, the Mamas and the Papas, ABBA, and Earth, Wind & Fire individually.
Elfman's work in pop music and specifically as songwriter for Oingo Boingo was influenced by the Specials, Madness, the Selecter, Devo, Fun Boy Three, and XTC.
==Methods==
===Film music===
For his film scores, Elfman draws musical inspiration almost exclusively from viewing a cut of the film, Elfman then spends a few weeks of free composition and experimentation to begin working out thematic material and to develop sounds and the harmonic palette.
When he has received approval on initial material from the filmmakers, Elfman begins to compose anywhere from 60 to 120 minutes of music cue-by-cue. He says two of the most important things to capture at this point are the tone of each scene and editorial rhythm. Next to thematic development, action set pieces tend to take Elfman the most time given the complexity of timing music to action.
Early in his career, he wrote out his scores using pencil, but has composed largely digitally since the mid-1990s.
Before recording the score, he demos each cue by mocking orchestral and choral parts on synthesizer to get approval from the director. Once approved, he provides a detailed, multi-line sketch of his composition to his lead orchestrator Steve Bartek, who ensures the sketches are appropriately broken down for sections of the orchestra (i.e. string, brass woodwind, some percussion), choir (SATB) and individual players.
Elfman also typically samples or records his own percussion and guitar playing to overlay with live orchestra. More than half of some scores feature Elfman's performance, including Dead Presidents, Mission: Impossible, Planet of the Apes, The Kingdom, The Girl on the Train and The Circle.
To produce the score, Elfman rents a recording studio and hires a conductor and orchestra/choir. He oversees the recording from the control booth so that he can troubleshoot with the film's director and recording engineers. The final recording is given to the film's sound department to mix with dialogue and sound effects for the film's complete soundtrack. Elfman will usually do a separate mix of select cues for an album presentation of the score, and has produced nearly 100 to date.
On the occasion that there are compressed deadlines or in the event he is not available to rescore or adapt his music if there are major edits to the film after the score's completion, Elfman will hire additional composers to work on small cues or sections of cues, adapting his existing material or themes. Examples include Jonathan Sheffer on Darkman, David Buckley on the Fifty Shades films, and Pinar Toprak on Justice League. Since the 1990s, Elfman has occasionally co-composed music or shared music writing credit (e.g.When We Rise, Spy Kids, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Men in Black International), or written themes that are then used or adapted by other composers, including Jonathan Sheffer (Pure Luck), Steve Bartek (Novacaine), John Debney (Heartbreakers), Deborah Lurie (9), and the Newton Brothers (Before I Wake).
Elfman has only collaborated once with another artist: Siouxsie and the Banshees, on the song "Face to Face" for Batman Returns in 1992. It was a long-distance collaboration, as the studio needed the song very quickly; Siouxsie created the foundation of the song and sent it to Elfman, who added elements, and the two would send the track back and forth. Regarding collaboration, Elfman would later state, "I'm not used to collaborating at all with anybody. I did one track with Siouxsie and the Banshees but that's it. I've always been in my own bubble, and that bubble has been very fertile".
===Concert music===
In the liner notes for the 2006 CD recording of his first concert work Serenada Schizophrana, Elfman wrote: "I began composing several dozen short improvisational compositions, maybe a minute each. Slowly, some of them began to develop themselves until finally I had six separate movements that, in some abstract, absurd way, felt connected."
===Vocals===
Elfman often incorporates choral or vocal arrangements into his film scores, Silver Linings Playbook, and his music for the Hong Kong Disneyland ride Mystic Manor. For all songs in the film, Elfman sang, manipulated and mixed several layers of his vocals to create the singing voices and harmonies of the Oompa Loompas, and incorporated his vocals into non-song score tracks that featured the characters, including "Loompa Land", "Chocolate River", "The Boat Arrives" and "The River Cruise".
===Lyrics===
Elfman typically writes the lyrics to songs he has composed for movies. He employs song structures from Tin Pan Alley and early musical theatre composers (32-bar form), and pop and rock of the 1950s and 1960s (verse-chorus). As his songs serve to advance the plot and develop characters, lyrics reflect storylines and imagery specific to the film and express the inner life of characters.
He wrote the lyrics and music for ten songs featured in the stop-motion musical The Nightmare Before Christmas. Drawing from Tim Burton's parody poem of A Visit from St. Nicholas and concept drawings, Elfman wrote each song in consultation with Burton before the film even had a script. These include the full-cast songs "This Is Halloween", "Town Meeting Song" and "Making Christmas"; four songs for the main character Jack Skellington, "Jack's Lament", "What's This?", "Jack's Obsession" and "Poor Jack", all sung by Elfman; and the other character songs "Kidnap the Sandy Claws", "Oogie Boogie's Song" and "Sally's Song". An eleventh song, "Finale/Reprise", reworks lyrics from the songs "This Is Halloween", "What's This?" and "Sally's Song" for the film's ending. Though uncredited, Burton contributed some lyrics to Nightmare, including the line "Perhaps it's the head that I found in the lake" in "Town Meeting Song".
Elfman composed five songs for Burton's Corpse Bride: "According to Plan", with lyrics co-written by screenwriter John August; "Remains of the Day" (which he sung as the character Bonejangles) and "Tears to Shed", both with additional lyrics by August; and "The Wedding Song", credited solely to Elfman. The song "Erased" was not used in the final film.
He wrote the lyrics to "Lullaby" from Charlotte's Web, the rock track "The Little Things" from Wanted which he also sang in English and Russian, and "Alice's Theme" from Alice in Wonderland. Elfman co-wrote the lyrics to "Twice the Love" from Big Fish and the "Wonka's Welcome Song" for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory with John August.
Elfman wrote the lyrics to all of Oingo Boingo's original songs 1979–1994 and has made residuals on the titular two-word opening phrase sung in his The Simpsons theme since the series first aired in 1989.
==Personal life==
As a teenager, Elfman dated his classmate Kim Gordon, who would later become one of the members of the rock band Sonic Youth. He has two daughters, Lola and Mali, from his marriage to Geri Eisenmenger. Mali is a film producer and actress. Elfman and Mali collaborated on her 2011 film Do Not Disturb.
On November 29, 2003, Elfman married actress Bridget Fonda. They have a son, Oliver. In 1998, Elfman scored A Simple Plan, starring Fonda. He is the uncle of actor Bodhi Elfman, who is married to actress Jenna Elfman.
Elfman has been an atheist since the age of 11 or 12. In an interview with the New York Post, he referred to himself as a "cynic-ologist". Several of his songs written for Oingo Boingo during this period satirized social politics, although Elfman stated his message was to "question, resist, challenge" and that his songs were not aligned to any one political agenda.
In 2008, Elfman expressed support for Barack Obama. For the 2020 Democratic National Convention, he scored the biographical video played ahead of Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential nomination in the 2020 United States elections. In a series of posts on his Instagram page discussing the video, Elfman criticized Donald Trump, Richard Nixon, and the electoral college, and linked to several voter resources.
During his 18 years with Oingo Boingo, Elfman developed significant hearing damage as a result of the continuous exposure to the high noise levels involved in performing in a rock band. Afraid of worsening his condition, he decided to leave the band, saying that he would never return to that kind of performance. His impairment was so bad that he could not "even sit in a loud restaurant or bar anymore." However, he found performing in front of orchestras more tolerable, and returned several times to reprise his live performance of Jack Skellington.
===Sexual harassment allegations===
Composer Nomi Abadi has alleged that Elfman had been involved in multiple instances of sexual harassment and misconduct with her that took place from 2015 to 2016. Elfman has denied these claims. The allegations reportedly resulted in Elfman and Abadi agreeing to a non-public settlement and nondisclosure agreement, wherein Elfman would have paid Abadi a total of $830,000 over time. In 2024, Abadi alleged that Elfman had missed payments and had defamed her in statements he made to Rolling Stone magazine in 2023 regarding this matter, suing Elfman for the full settlement of $830,000. Abadi's ex-boyfriend from the time contacted Rolling Stone to express his concern, noting the relationship between Elfman and she was never sexual, also citing the false allegations she had laid against him after their breakup, resulting in a judge ruling in his favor. The validity of Abadi's allegations was called into question when text messages and emails revealed the nature of their relationship was non-sexual and that Abadi had become enraged when her advances had been rejected. After the initial settlement, Abadi's attorneys emailed Elfman's attorneys informing them that she wanted to meet with him for "closure", though Elfman declined. and has often been used as the opening music for Primus concerts.
In the 2007 sixth season Star Wars parody "Blue Harvest", Family Guy lampooned Elfman's orchestral style. A scene shows Elfman replacing an incinerated John Williams to conduct a full orchestra playing the score, only to be decapitated by a lightsaber after conducting a few bars of oom-pah music.
Episode five of the 14th season of South Park in 2010 criticized Tim Burton for using the "same" music in all his films, referring to Elfman's scores.
In October 2016, Elfman produced a video clip for Funny or Die with original "horror" music composed to footage of Donald Trump pacing around Hillary Clinton at the second United States presidential election debates, 2016.
In 2019, selections from Elfman's Midnight Run score were used in the third season of Netflix's Stranger Things, including "Stairway Chase" in episodes 5 and 6, and "Wild Ride" and "Package Deal" in episode 6.
Christina Aguilera revealed that Elfman's music inspired her Las Vegas concert residency The Xperience.
==List of compositions==
==Awards and nominations==
===American Film Institute===
Elfman's scores for Batman and Edward Scissorhands were nominated for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.
==Discography==
Including commercial recordings of his film scores and the Oingo Boingo discography, Elfman has produced over 100 albums as of 2019.
==Appearances in film and television==
|
[
"Men in Black (1997 film)",
"Blue Harvest",
"Soundtrack.Net",
"operetta",
"the Selecter",
"Third Coast Percussion",
"Grammy Awards",
"United States Air Force",
"The Daily Nebraskan",
"John Williams",
"X-Men: The Animated Series",
"Joe Biden",
"Funny or Die",
"Synthesizer",
"Sandy Cameron",
"Meredith Corporation",
"contemporary classical music",
"The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo",
"orchestration",
"Guillermo del Toro",
"Treehouse of Horror",
"big band",
"Cirque Du Soleil",
"Pee-wee's Big Adventure",
"Billboard (magazine)",
"Star Wars (film)",
"Farewell (Oingo Boingo album)",
"Weird Science (song)",
"Bernard Herrmann",
"Big Fish",
"XTC",
"WaterTower Music",
"Forbidden Zone",
"Johann Sebastian Bach",
"Milk (2008 American film)",
"Anti- Records",
"miniseries",
"Mission: Impossible (1966 TV series)",
"Spider-Man (2002 film)",
"Warren Beatty",
"Carmina Burana (Orff)",
"Brass section",
"Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959 film)",
"Taylor Mac",
"street theatre",
"Next Exit (film)",
"Taking Woodstock",
"rough cut",
"the Mamas and the Papas",
"Lied Center for Performing Arts",
"Silver Linings Playbook",
"Notorious (2009 film)",
"Josephine Baker",
"Coachella (festival)",
"Grand Theft Auto V",
"Jewish",
"Warner Records",
"Men in Black (franchise)",
"Back to School",
"Gus Van Sant",
"The Kingdom (2007 film)",
"Nacho Libre",
"Taylor Hackford",
"Avengers: Age of Ultron",
"Martin Brest",
"Emmy Award",
"MasterClass",
"Lincoln Center",
"WandaVision",
"Academy Awards",
"Planet of the Apes (2001 film)",
"Global Media & Entertainment",
"Before I Wake (2016 film)",
"Blossom Elfman",
"Classic FM (UK)",
"Entertainment Weekly",
"Minimal music",
"92NY",
"Wednesday (TV series)",
"History of the Jews in Russia",
"Josh Freese",
"Big Sur",
"indie rock",
"Justice League (film)",
"A Simple Plan (film)",
"control booth",
"Carnegie Hall",
"9 (2009 animated film)",
"Los Angeles, California",
"South Park (season 14)",
"Barry Sonnenfeld",
"Harry Belafonte",
"Soka University of America",
"The Washington Post",
"The Simpsons",
"Heartbreakers (2001 film)",
"Mercury (automobile)",
"Berlin Philharmonic",
"Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus",
"Dmitri Shostakovich",
"Darkman",
"song structure",
"Buddy cop film",
"Jérôme Savary",
"Brian Tyler",
"Hip hop music",
"Ang Lee",
"Luigi Serafini (artist)",
"Terry Riley",
"Nomi Abadi",
"Business Insider",
"Spider-Man: No Way Home",
"Batman Returns",
"horror comedy",
"Stop motion",
"Experimental music",
"Film Score Monthly",
"new wave music",
"Stanford University",
"Richard Wagner",
"Dark Shadows (film)",
"Hong Kong Disneyland",
"main title",
"celesta",
"Men in Black II",
"Nightbreed",
"Day-O (The Banana Boat Song)",
"Chicago Film Critics Association",
"Gilbert and Sullivan",
"Harry Partch",
"Nino Rota",
"Reboot (fiction)",
"Pee-wee's Playhouse",
"Amazing Stories (1985 TV series)",
"John Mauceri",
"Midnight Run",
"Hot to Trot",
"Face to Face (Siouxsie and the Banshees song)",
"A Visit from St. Nicholas",
"Oingo Boingo discography",
"Children's film",
"Good Will Hunting",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky",
"Boy Harsher",
"oom-pah",
"Desperate Housewives",
"Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award",
"Epitaph Records",
"Hillary Clinton",
"The Xperience",
"Nili Brosh",
"Instinct (1999 film)",
"concert residency",
"Los Angeles",
"Violin Concerto (Elfman)",
"Dimitri Tiomkin",
"Carl W. Stalling",
"Treehouse of Horror II",
"Village East by Angelika",
"Max Steiner",
"Jonathan Sheffer",
"Goosebumps (film)",
"lightsaber",
"Devo",
"Science fiction film",
"Dark Universe (Universal Epic Universe)",
"Vienna Symphony",
"Beetlejuice",
"Disney Television Animation",
"Verse–chorus form",
"Sleepy Hollow (film)",
"Erich Wolfgang Korngold",
"Royal Festival Hall",
"The 7th Voyage of Sinbad",
"Fifty Shades (film series)",
"Twyla Tharp",
"Rowman & Littlefield",
"Orpheus Chamber Orchestra",
"Wonder Woman (2017 film)",
"Interview (magazine)",
"Rodney Dangerfield",
"Joe Johnston",
"Lincoln, Nebraska",
"Milan",
"Atonality",
"Gautier Capuçon",
"cadenza",
"Proof of Life",
"A Civil Action (film)",
"The Simpsons Theme",
"LA Weekly",
"Men in Black: International",
"Percussion section",
"The Day the Earth Stood Still",
"drama (film and television)",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Spider-Man 2",
"Family Guy",
"Serenada Schizophrana",
"Pasticcio",
"Flubber (film)",
"funk",
"To Die For",
"film industry",
"Scrooged",
"stop motion",
"Grammy Award",
"Stranger Things",
"White Noise (2022 film)",
"Park Record",
"Bollywood",
"Jenna Elfman",
"University High School (Los Angeles)",
"Jack Skellington",
"200 (South Park)",
"major film studio",
"ska",
"Dead Man's Party (song)",
"Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles",
"Iris (Cirque du Soleil)",
"Psycho (1960 film)",
"The Desert Sun",
"Thirty-two-bar form",
"Chris Bacon (composer)",
"Béla Bartók",
"Dick Tracy (1990 film)",
"Nine Inch Nails",
"Hitchcock (film)",
"Mystic Manor",
"Fangoria",
"Audio engineer",
"SATB",
"Joss Whedon",
"film score",
"Beetlejuice (TV series)",
"Colin Currie",
"Frankenweenie (2012 film)",
"KUCO (FM)",
"Tim Burton",
"Amarillo, Texas",
"Academy Award",
"George Gershwin",
"choir",
"Annie Awards",
"Street performance",
"2020 Democratic National Convention",
"Barack Obama",
"Dolittle (film)",
"Dumbo (2019 film)",
"independent film",
"Standard Operating Procedure (film)",
"Municipal House",
"Rolling Stone",
"Pacific Symphony",
"Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra",
"Dumbo",
"Doctor Strange (2016 film)",
"Wisdom (film)",
"Igor Stravinsky",
"Roald Dahl",
"Article 99",
"Saturn Awards",
"Stu Brooks",
"Tom Holkenborg",
"Pure Luck",
"Iggy Pop",
"Burbank, California",
"New wave music",
"The Wolfman (2010 film)",
"Royal Scottish National Orchestra",
"thriller film",
"Society of Composers & Lyricists",
"Pinar Toprak",
"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film)",
"Saturn Award for Best Music",
"Sonic Youth",
"Thomas Newman",
"The Circle (2017 film)",
"Donald Trump",
"Mission: Impossible (film)",
"Cab Calloway",
"pan flute",
"Steve Reich",
"Clive Barker",
"Campaign (magazine)",
"set piece",
"Halloween",
"Ennio Morricone",
"The Flash (1990 TV series)",
"Andre Kostelanetz",
"Medium (website)",
"Erik Satie",
"New York (magazine)",
"St. Mark's Episcopal Church (Washington, D.C.)",
"Nike, Inc.",
"AllMusic",
"Folk rock",
"National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain",
"20th Television Animation",
"David Buckley",
"ABBA",
"Spy Kids (film)",
"Music of the Marvel Cinematic Universe",
"Duke Ellington",
"Batman: The Animated Series",
"Set to Music",
"the Newton Brothers",
"Charlotte's Web (2006 film)",
"Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)",
"avant-garde",
"Trent Reznor",
"feature film",
"Forbes",
"Universal Epic Universe",
"Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness",
"BuzzFeed",
"Vertigo (film)",
"Faber Music",
"John Adams (composer)",
"Sally Cruikshank",
"Batman music",
"Theme music",
"Hans Zimmer",
"Saturn Award",
"Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"nightclub",
"Minimalist (music)",
"Hollywood Bowl",
"MCA Records",
"Classical Hollywood cinema",
"Nothing to Fear (Oingo Boingo album)",
"Marvel Cinematic Universe",
"American Composers Orchestra",
"Minnie the Moocher",
"Broadway theatre",
"Tin Pan Alley",
"DC Extended Universe",
"How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (TV special)",
"Film score",
"Baroque pop",
"David Tamkin",
"Mars Attacks!",
"Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565",
"AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores",
"Earth, Wind & Fire",
"Time (magazine)",
"National Symphony Orchestra of Ireland",
"IMAX",
"Musical film",
"Christopher Young",
"Nissan",
"Freeway (1996 film)",
"Golden Globe Award",
"Woodwind section",
"lyrics",
"Wanted (2008 film)",
"Satellite Awards",
"Peter Jackson",
"USA Today",
"Edward Scissorhands",
"Steve Bartek",
"London Philharmonic Orchestra",
"Hulk (film)",
"Dead Man's Party (album)",
"Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France",
"Carl Orff",
"Emily Kapnek",
"Boingo (album)",
"psychedelic pop",
"BBC Proms",
"Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards",
"Christina Aguilera",
"British Academy Film Awards",
"Errol Morris",
"Happy (Danny Elfman song)",
"Filmtracks",
"the Specials",
"Broadcast Music, Inc.",
"Fun Boy Three",
"Santa Cruz Sentinel",
"Homage (arts)",
"Chicago (2002 film)",
"List of classical music composers by era",
"Red Dragon (2002 film)",
"Netflix",
"United States presidential election debates, 2016",
"Honda",
"String section",
"Satan",
"The Independent",
"jazz",
"Squarepusher",
"Spider-Man 3",
"List of awards and nominations received by Danny Elfman",
"Franz Waxman",
"pop music",
"Richard Donner",
"Sommersby",
"Universal Amphitheatre",
"Saudi Arabia",
"Sam Raimi",
"Deborah Lurie",
"hearing impairment",
"Americana (music)",
"Bodhi Elfman",
"Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)",
"When We Rise",
"Jon Amiel",
"Batman (1989 film)",
"Czech National Symphony Orchestra",
"Madness (band)",
"So-Lo",
"The A.V. Club",
"Primus (band)",
"Jimi Hendrix",
"Big Mess (Danny Elfman album)",
"Crime film",
"Novocaine (2001 film)",
"Bill Murray",
"Alexandre Desplat",
"Museum of Modern Art",
"Jerry Goldsmith",
"2020 United States elections",
"Alex Theatre",
"Henry Selick",
"Set construction",
"Dolores Claiborne (film)",
"Michael Giacchino",
"California",
"Blixa Bargeld",
"Bridget Fonda",
"Superman (1978 film)",
"John Debney",
"Mission: Impossible (film series)",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Score: A Film Music Documentary",
"University of Nebraska",
"The Frighteners",
"Library of Congress",
"Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1985 TV series)",
"20th-century music",
"atheist",
"blues",
"Film editing",
"The Girl on the Train (2016 film)",
"Royal Albert Hall",
"Disney Branded Television",
"San Francisco Symphony",
"Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)",
"The Australian Financial Review",
"United States electoral college",
"Corpse Bride",
"Lalo Schifrin",
"The Nightmare Before Christmas",
"oud",
"Lou Harrison",
"Django Reinhardt",
"Hellboy II: The Golden Army",
"Oingo Boingo",
"Philip Glass",
"Ludwig van Beethoven",
"Sergei Prokofiev",
"The Unknown Known",
"David O. Russell",
"Richard Elfman",
"Brian De Palma",
"Siouxsie and the Banshees",
"Rodgers and Hammerstein",
"Fox Broadcasting Company",
"Metro (U.S. newspaper)",
"List of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory characters",
"Disney Legends",
"Oz the Great and Powerful",
"Wes Borland",
"American Ballet Theatre",
"Tales from the Crypt (TV series)",
"The Woman in the Window (2021 film)",
"Paul Reubens",
"Residual (entertainment industry)",
"Emilio Estevez",
"Kim Gordon",
"Dead Presidents",
"Cynicism (philosophy)",
"The Grinch (film)",
"gamelan",
"Kurt Weill"
] |
8,398 |
Dimension
|
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on itfor example, the point at 5 on a number line. A surface, such as the boundary of a cylinder or sphere, has a dimension of two (2D) because two coordinates are needed to specify a point on itfor example, both a latitude and longitude are required to locate a point on the surface of a sphere. A two-dimensional Euclidean space is a two-dimensional space on the plane. The inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional (3D) because three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces.
In classical mechanics, space and time are different categories and refer to absolute space and time. That conception of the world is a four-dimensional space but not the one that was found necessary to describe electromagnetism. The four dimensions (4D) of spacetime consist of events that are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally, but rather are known relative to the motion of an observer. Minkowski space first approximates the universe without gravity; the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity. 10 dimensions are used to describe superstring theory (6D hyperspace + 4D), 11 dimensions can describe supergravity and M-theory (7D hyperspace + 4D), and the state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-dimensional function space.
The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects. s frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences. They may be Euclidean spaces or more general parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics; these are abstract spaces, independent of the physical space.
== In mathematics ==
In mathematics, the dimension of an object is, roughly speaking, the number of degrees of freedom of a point that moves on this object. In other words, the dimension is the number of independent parameters or coordinates that are needed for defining the position of a point that is constrained to be on the object. For example, the dimension of a point is zero; the dimension of a line is one, as a point can move on a line in only one direction (or its opposite); the dimension of a plane is two, etc.
The dimension is an intrinsic property of an object, in the sense that it is independent of the dimension of the space in which the object is or can be embedded. For example, a curve, such as a circle, is of dimension one, because the position of a point on a curve is determined by its signed distance along the curve to a fixed point on the curve. This is independent from the fact that a curve cannot be embedded in a Euclidean space of dimension lower than two, unless it is a line. Similarly, a surface is of dimension two, even if embedded in three-dimensional space.
The dimension of Euclidean -space is . When trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the question "what makes -dimensional?" One answer is that to cover a fixed ball in by small balls of radius , one needs on the order of such small balls. This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension, but there are also other answers to that question. For example, the boundary of a ball in looks locally like and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension. While these notions agree on , they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces.
A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term "dimension" is as in: "A tesseract has four dimensions", mathematicians usually express this as: "The tesseract has dimension 4", or: "The dimension of the tesseract is 4".
Although the notion of higher dimensions goes back to René Descartes, substantial development of a higher-dimensional geometry only began in the 19th century, via the work of Arthur Cayley, William Rowan Hamilton, Ludwig Schläfli and Bernhard Riemann. Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, Schläfli's 1852 Theorie der vielfachen Kontinuität, and Hamilton's discovery of the quaternions and John T. Graves' discovery of the octonions in 1843 marked the beginning of higher-dimensional geometry.
The rest of this section examines some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension.
===Vector spaces===
The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any basis for the space, i.e. the number of coordinates necessary to specify any vector. This notion of dimension (the cardinality of a basis) is often referred to as the Hamel dimension or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other notions of dimension.
For the non-free case, this generalizes to the notion of the length of a module.
===Manifolds===
The uniquely defined dimension of every connected topological manifold can be calculated. A connected topological manifold is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean -space, in which the number is the manifold's dimension.
For connected differentiable manifolds, the dimension is also the dimension of the tangent vector space at any point.
In geometric topology, the theory of manifolds is characterized by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the high-dimensional cases are simplified by having extra space in which to "work"; and the cases and are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the Poincaré conjecture, in which four different proof methods are applied.
====Complex dimension====
The dimension of a manifold depends on the base field with respect to which Euclidean space is defined. While analysis usually assumes a manifold to be over the real numbers, it is sometimes useful in the study of complex manifolds and algebraic varieties to work over the complex numbers instead. A complex number (x + iy) has a real part x and an imaginary part y, in which x and y are both real numbers; hence, the complex dimension is half the real dimension.
Conversely, in algebraically unconstrained contexts, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, becomes a Riemann sphere of one complex dimension.
===Varieties===
The dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways. The most intuitive way is probably the dimension of the tangent space at any Regular point of an algebraic variety. Another intuitive way is to define the dimension as the number of hyperplanes that are needed in order to have an intersection with the variety that is reduced to a finite number of points (dimension zero). This definition is based on the fact that the intersection of a variety with a hyperplane reduces the dimension by one unless if the hyperplane contains the variety.
An algebraic set being a finite union of algebraic varieties, its dimension is the maximum of the dimensions of its components. It is equal to the maximal length of the chains V_0\subsetneq V_1\subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq V_d of sub-varieties of the given algebraic set (the length of such a chain is the number of "\subsetneq").
Each variety can be considered as an algebraic stack, and its dimension as variety agrees with its dimension as stack. There are however many stacks which do not correspond to varieties, and some of these have negative dimension. Specifically, if V is a variety of dimension m and G is an algebraic group of dimension n acting on V, then the quotient stack [V/G] has dimension m − n.
===Krull dimension===
The Krull dimension of a commutative ring is the maximal length of chains of prime ideals in it, a chain of length n being a sequence \mathcal{P}_0\subsetneq \mathcal{P}_1\subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq\mathcal{P}_n of prime ideals related by inclusion. It is strongly related to the dimension of an algebraic variety, because of the natural correspondence between sub-varieties and prime ideals of the ring of the polynomials on the variety.
For an algebra over a field, the dimension as vector space is finite if and only if its Krull dimension is 0.
===Topological spaces===
For any normal topological space , the Lebesgue covering dimension of is defined to be the smallest integer n for which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover in which each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than elements. In this case dim . For a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such integer exists, then the dimension of is said to be infinite, and one writes dim . Moreover, has dimension −1, i.e. dim if and only if is empty. This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term "open" in the definition by the term "functionally open".
An inductive dimension may be defined inductively as follows. Consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite collection of points) to be 0-dimensional. By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-dimensional object. By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a new direction, one obtains a 2-dimensional object. In general, one obtains an ()-dimensional object by dragging an -dimensional object in a new direction. The inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the small inductive dimension or the large inductive dimension, and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, balls have -dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets. Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have dimension −1.
Similarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest for which the -skeleton is nontrivial. Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a collection of higher-dimensional triangles joined at their faces with a complicated surface, then the dimension of the object is the dimension of those triangles.
===Hausdorff dimension===
The Hausdorff dimension is useful for studying structurally complicated sets, especially fractals. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the dimensions considered above, can also have non-integer real values. The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea. In general, there exist more definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values.
===Hilbert spaces===
Every Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same cardinality. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide.
== In physics ==
===Spatial dimensions===
Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions. (See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.)
|-
| 2 ||
|-
| 3 ||
|}
===Time===
A temporal dimension, or time dimension, is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the "fourth dimension" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.
The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans commonly perceive it. The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy).
The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space. Time is different from other spatial dimensions as time operates in all spatial dimensions. Time operates in the first, second and third as well as theoretical spatial dimensions such as a fourth spatial dimension. Time is not however present in a single point of absolute infinite singularity as defined as a geometric point, as an infinitely small point can have no change and therefore no time. Just as when an object moves through positions in space, it also moves through positions in time. In this sense the force moving any object to change is time.
===Additional dimensions===
In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm. However, there are theories that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions/hyperspace. Most notably, superstring theory requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from a more fundamental 11-dimensional theory tentatively called M-theory which subsumes five previously distinct superstring theories. Supergravity theory also promotes 11D spacetime = 7D hyperspace + 4 common dimensions. To date, no direct experimental or observational evidence is available to support the existence of these extra dimensions. If hyperspace exists, it must be hidden from us by some physical mechanism. One well-studied possibility is that the extra dimensions may be "curled up" at such tiny scales as to be effectively invisible to current experiments.
In 1921, Kaluza–Klein theory presented 5D including an extra dimension of space. At the level of quantum field theory, Kaluza–Klein theory unifies gravity with gauge interactions, based on the realization that gravity propagating in small, compact extra dimensions is equivalent to gauge interactions at long distances. In particular when the geometry of the extra dimensions is trivial, it reproduces electromagnetism. However, at sufficiently high energies or short distances, this setup still suffers from the same pathologies that famously obstruct direct attempts to describe quantum gravity. Therefore, these models still require a UV completion, of the kind that string theory is intended to provide. In particular, superstring theory requires six compact dimensions (6D hyperspace) forming a Calabi–Yau manifold. Thus Kaluza-Klein theory may be considered either as an incomplete description on its own, or as a subset of string theory model building.
In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead are not apparent because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a subspace. Thus, the extra dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions. D-branes are dynamical extended objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role. They have the property that open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints, whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are free to propagate into the whole spacetime, or "the bulk". This could be related to why gravity is exponentially weaker than the other forces, as it effectively dilutes itself as it propagates into a higher-dimensional volume.
Some aspects of brane physics have been applied to cosmology. For example, brane gas cosmology attempts to explain why there are three dimensions of space using topological and thermodynamic considerations. According to this idea it would be since three is the largest number of spatial dimensions in which strings can generically intersect. If initially there are many windings of strings around compact dimensions, space could only expand to macroscopic sizes once these windings are eliminated, which requires oppositely wound strings to find each other and annihilate. But strings can only find each other to annihilate at a meaningful rate in three dimensions, so it follows that only three dimensions of space are allowed to grow large given this kind of initial configuration.
Extra dimensions are said to be universal if all fields are equally free to propagate within them.
==In computer graphics and spatial data==
Several types of digital systems are based on the storage, analysis, and visualization of geometric shapes, including illustration software, Computer-aided design, and Geographic information systems. Different vector systems use a wide variety of data structures to represent shapes, but almost all are fundamentally based on a set of geometric primitives corresponding to the spatial dimensions:
Point (0-dimensional), a single coordinate in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Line or Polyline (1-dimensional) usually represented as an ordered list of points sampled from a continuous line, whereupon the software is expected to interpolate the intervening shape of the line as straight- or curved-line segments.
Polygon (2-dimensional) usually represented as a line that closes at its endpoints, representing the boundary of a two-dimensional region. The software is expected to use this boundary to partition 2-dimensional space into an interior and exterior.
Surface (3-dimensional) represented using a variety of strategies, such as a polyhedron consisting of connected polygon faces. The software is expected to use this surface to partition 3-dimensional space into an interior and exterior.
Frequently in these systems, especially GIS and Cartography, a representation of a real-world phenomenon may have a different (usually lower) dimension than the phenomenon being represented. For example, a city (a two-dimensional region) may be represented as a point, or a road (a three-dimensional volume of material) may be represented as a line. This dimensional generalization correlates with tendencies in spatial cognition. For example, asking the distance between two cities presumes a conceptual model of the cities as points, while giving directions involving travel "up," "down," or "along" a road imply a one-dimensional conceptual model. This is frequently done for purposes of data efficiency, visual simplicity, or cognitive efficiency, and is acceptable if the distinction between the representation and the represented is understood but can cause confusion if information users assume that the digital shape is a perfect representation of reality (i.e., believing that roads really are lines).
== More dimensions ==
==List of topics by dimension==
|
[
"cardinality",
"CW complexes",
"physics",
"T-symmetry",
"Function space",
"space (mathematics)",
"Minkowski dimension",
"general relativity",
"Hausdorff dimension",
"Project Gutenberg",
"quotient stack",
"Basis (linear algebra)",
"coordinates",
"latitude",
"Henri Poincaré",
"Singularity (mathematics)",
"Tychonoff space",
"prime ideal",
"Parity (physics)",
"Plane (geometry)",
"Superstring theory",
"Tangent space",
"algebraic variety",
"Length",
"physical space",
"Space-filling curve",
"Computer-aided design",
"manifold",
"laws of thermodynamics",
"Connectedness",
"Net (polyhedron)",
"three-dimensional space",
"4-manifold",
"Sedenion",
"Geographic coordinate system",
"Ball (mathematics)",
"Local property",
"Skew lines",
"Plane of rotation",
"Angle",
"Isoperimetric dimension",
"real numbers",
"Configuration space (mathematics)",
"differentiable manifold",
"Brady Haran",
"Polychoron",
"square",
"Position (geometry)",
"Vector graphics editor",
"Arrow of time",
"force",
"Exterior dimension",
"List of uniform tilings",
"String theory",
"large extra dimensions",
"superstring theory",
"polyhedron",
"Plane (mathematics)",
"hyperplane",
"parameter space",
"two-dimensional Euclidean space",
"imaginary part",
"Albert Einstein",
"Polygon",
"D-brane",
"fundamental forces",
"Interpolation",
"Dimension table",
"Multidimensional analysis",
"Stereoscopy",
"geometric point",
"universal extra dimension",
"Hyperspace (disambiguation)",
"spacetime",
"Mathematical induction",
"Id est",
"Hilbert space",
"Skew polygon",
"size",
"Curse of dimensionality",
"linear combination",
"Complex number",
"stack (mathematics)",
"Degrees of freedom (mechanics)",
"Flatland",
"inductive dimension",
"real part",
"Fourth dimension in art",
"normal topological space",
"M-theory",
"observer (special relativity)",
"Oxford University Press",
"One-dimensional space",
"geometric primitive",
"metric space",
"classical mechanics",
"Three-dimensional space",
"Gauge theory",
"Physical object",
"Fractal dimension",
"complex numbers",
"vector space",
"open cover",
"Spherical coordinate system",
"Habilitationsschrift",
"Mean dimension",
"Poincaré conjecture",
"tangent space",
"Curve",
"three-dimensional",
"Euclidean space",
"Euclidean plane",
"Line (geometry)",
"René Descartes",
"Cylinder (geometry)",
"Cartesian coordinate system",
"William Rowan Hamilton",
"science",
"brane",
"n-skeleton",
"Knot (mathematics)",
"Intrinsic dimension",
"algebraic set",
"Space (mathematics)",
"Real number",
"tesseract",
"integer",
"octonion",
"length of a module",
"algebraic group",
"Krull dimension",
"Volume",
"Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space",
"Cylindrical coordinate system",
"Riemann sphere",
"Brane cosmology",
"space",
"Ludwig Schläfli",
"event (relativity)",
"Surface (topology)",
"gravity",
"Cartography",
"Theorie der vielfachen Kontinuität",
"Number line",
"Metric dimension (graph theory)",
"Convex regular 4-polytope",
"Dimension (data warehouse)",
"supergravity",
"Lagrangian mechanics",
"line (geometry)",
"Bernhard Riemann",
"Boundary (mathematics)",
"surface (mathematics)",
"quantum gravity",
"Regular point of an algebraic variety",
"pseudo-Riemannian manifold",
"Group action (mathematics)",
"quantum field theory",
"University of Nottingham",
"Hamiltonian mechanics",
"box-counting dimension",
"time",
"curve",
"homeomorphic",
"Dimensional analysis",
"Spacetime",
"dimension of an algebraic variety",
"absolute space and time",
"quaternion",
"UV completion",
"Correlation dimension",
"parameter",
"Two-dimensional space",
"boundary (topology)",
"homotopy",
"Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)",
"cube",
"sphere",
"Geographic information systems",
"circle",
"orthonormal basis",
"algebra over a field",
"Isolated point",
"Supergravity theory",
"plane (geometry)",
"Bosonic string theory",
"Surface (mathematics)",
"Hurst exponent",
"Integer",
"Kaluza–Klein theory",
"3-manifold",
"Minkowski space",
"Point (geometry)",
"Hamel dimension",
"four-dimensional space",
"commutative ring",
"degrees of freedom",
"Polar coordinate system",
"Fourth dimension in literature",
"Order dimension",
"Embedding (mathematics)",
"John T. Graves",
"Space",
"q-dimension",
"fractal dimension",
"Quaternion",
"quantum mechanics",
"line segment",
"complex manifold",
"Polyhedron",
"Platonic solid",
"C-symmetry",
"Axis of rotation",
"Calabi–Yau manifold",
"entropy",
"Degrees of freedom (statistics)",
"extra dimensions",
"electromagnetism",
"geometric topology",
"hyperspace",
"Graph (discrete mathematics)",
"F-theory",
"Trigintaduonion",
"Vector space",
"Octonion",
"special relativity",
"Lebesgue covering dimension",
"simplex",
"longitude",
"function space",
"Mathematical object",
"fractal",
"free module",
"Area",
"Arthur Cayley",
"Four-dimensional space",
"Zero-dimensional space",
"mathematics",
"Princeton University Press"
] |
8,399 |
Dissolve
|
Dissolve may refer to:
==Music==
Dissolve (band), a musical project of Chris Heaphy and Roy Montgomery
"Dissolve", a 2015 song by Absofacto
"Dissolve", a song by Joji from the 2022 album Smithereens
"Dissolve", a song by Daniel Johns from the 2015 album Talk
"Dissolve", a song by Hundred Reasons from the 2002 album Ideas Above Our Station
The Dissolve (album), by Boxcutter, 2011
==Other uses==
Solvation, or dissolution, in chemistry
Dissolve (filmmaking), a type of film transition
Dissolve (2019 film), a South Korean film
The Dissolve, a defunct web magazine
|
[
"Dissolve (filmmaking)",
"Ideas Above Our Station",
"The Dissolve",
"The Dissolve (album)",
"Dissolve (2019 film)",
"Solvation",
"Dissolution (disambiguation)",
"Smithereens (album)",
"Talk (Daniel Johns album)",
"Dissolve (band)",
"Absofacto"
] |
8,400 |
Duodecimal
|
The duodecimal system, also known as base twelve or dozenal, is a positional numeral system using twelve as its base. In duodecimal, the number twelve is denoted "10", meaning 1 twelve and 0 units; in the decimal system, this number is instead written as "12" meaning 1 ten and 2 units, and the string "10" means ten. In duodecimal, "100" means twelve squared (144), "1,000" means twelve cubed (1,728), and "0.1" means a twelfth (0.08333...).
Various symbols have been used to stand for ten and eleven in duodecimal notation; this page uses and , as in hexadecimal, which make a duodecimal count from zero to twelve read 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, , , and finally 10. The Dozenal Societies of America and Great Britain (organisations promoting the use of duodecimal) use turned digits in their published material: 2 (a turned 2) for ten (dek, pronounced dɛk) and 3 (a turned 3) for eleven (el, pronounced ɛl).
The number twelve, a superior highly composite number, is the smallest number with four non-trivial factors (2, 3, 4, 6), and the smallest to include as factors all four numbers (1 to 4) within the subitizing range, and the smallest abundant number. All multiples of reciprocals of 3-smooth numbers ( where are integers) have a terminating representation in duodecimal. In particular, (0.3), (0.4), (0.6), (0.8), and (0.9) all have a short terminating representation in duodecimal. There is also higher regularity observable in the duodecimal multiplication table. As a result, duodecimal has been described as the optimal number system.
In these respects, duodecimal is considered superior to decimal, which has only 2 and 5 as factors, and other proposed bases like octal or hexadecimal. Sexagesimal (base sixty) does even better in this respect (the reciprocals of all 5-smooth numbers terminate), but at the cost of unwieldy multiplication tables and a much larger number of symbols to memorize.
== Origin ==
In this section, numerals are in decimal. For example, "10" means 9+1, and "12" means 9+3.
Georges Ifrah speculatively traced the origin of the duodecimal system to a system of finger counting based on the knuckle bones of the four larger fingers. Using the thumb as a pointer, it is possible to count to 12 by touching each finger bone, starting with the farthest bone on the fifth finger, and counting on. In this system, one hand counts repeatedly to 12, while the other displays the number of iterations, until five dozens, i.e. the 60, are full. This system is still in use in many regions of Asia.
Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon. Languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt such as Janji, Gbiri-Niragu (Gure-Kahugu), Piti, and the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara; and the Chepang language of Nepal are known to use duodecimal numerals.
Germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as eleven and twelve in English. They come from Proto-Germanic *ainlif and *twalif (meaning, respectively, one left and two left), suggesting a decimal rather than duodecimal origin. However, Old Norse used a hybrid decimal–duodecimal counting system, with its words for "one hundred and eighty" meaning 200 and "two hundred" meaning 240. In the British Isles, this style of counting survived well into the Middle Ages as the long hundred.
Historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal. There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, and the Babylonians had twelve hours in a day (although at some point, this was changed to 24). Traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches or 24 (12×2) Solar terms. There are 12 inches in an imperial foot, 12 troy ounces in a troy pound, 24 (12×2) hours in a day; many other items are counted by the dozen, gross (144, twelve squared), or great gross (1728, twelve cubed). The Romans used a fraction system based on 12, including the uncia, which became both the English words ounce and inch. Historically, many parts of western Europe used a mixed vigesimal–duodecimal currency system of pounds, shillings, and pence, with 20 shillings to a pound and 12 pence to a shilling, originally established by Charlemagne in the 780s.
== Notations and pronunciations ==
In a positional numeral system of base n (twelve for duodecimal), each of the first n natural numbers is given a distinct numeral symbol, and then n is denoted "10", meaning 1 times n plus 0 units. For duodecimal, the standard numeral symbols for 0–9 are typically preserved for zero through nine, but there are numerous proposals for how to write the numerals representing "ten" and "eleven". More radical proposals do not use any Arabic numerals under the principle of "separate identity."}}
}}
Several authors have proposed using letters of the alphabet for the transdecimal symbols. Latin letters such as (as in hexadecimal) or (initials of Ten and Eleven) are convenient because they are widely accessible, and for instance can be typed on typewriters. However, when mixed with ordinary prose, they might be confused for letters. As an alternative, Greek letters such as could be used instead. hash or octothorpe).
From 2008 to 2015, the DSA used , the symbols devised by William Addison Dwiggins.
The Dozenal Society of Great Britain (DSGB) proposed symbols . In March 2013, a proposal was submitted to include the digit forms for ten and eleven propagated by the Dozenal Societies in the Unicode Standard. Of these, the British/Pitman forms were accepted for encoding as characters at code points and . They were included in Unicode 8.0 (2015).
After the Pitman digits were added to Unicode, the DSA took a vote and then began publishing PDF content using the Pitman digits instead, but continues to use the letters X and E on its webpage.
The duodecimal period length of 1/n are (in decimal)
0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 0, 6, 0, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 6, 4, 0, 16, 0, 6, 4, 6, 1, 11, 0, 20, 2, 0, 6, 4, 4, 30, 0, 1, 16, 12, 0, 9, 6, 2, 4, 40, 6, 42, 1, 4, 11, 23, 0, 42, 20, 16, 2, 52, 0, 4, 6, 6, 4, 29, 4, 15, 30, 6, 0, 4, 1, 66, 16, 11, 12, 35, 0, ...
The duodecimal period length of 1/(nth prime) are (in decimal)
0, 0, 4, 6, 1, 2, 16, 6, 11, 4, 30, 9, 40, 42, 23, 52, 29, 15, 66, 35, 36, 26, 41, 8, 16, 100, 102, 53, 54, 112, 126, 65, 136, 138, 148, 150, 3, 162, 83, 172, 89, 90, 95, 24, 196, 66, 14, 222, 113, 114, 8, 119, 120, 125, 256, 131, 268, 54, 138, 280, ...
Smallest prime with duodecimal period n are (in decimal)
11, 13, 157, 5, 22621, 7, 659, 89, 37, 19141, 23, 20593, 477517, 211, 61, 17, 2693651, 1657, 29043636306420266077, 85403261, 8177824843189, 57154490053, 47, 193, 303551, 79, 306829, 673, 59, 31, 373, 153953, 886381, 2551, 71, 73, ...
=== Irrational numbers ===
The representations of irrational numbers in any positional number system (including decimal and duodecimal) neither terminate nor repeat. The following table gives the first digits for some important algebraic and transcendental numbers in both decimal and duodecimal.
|
[
"Solar term",
"integer factorization",
"Unicode",
"Unit of time",
"rounding",
"Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution",
"Arnold Whittall",
"italic script",
"Roman numeral",
"radix",
"inch",
"regular number",
"Italic script",
"tau",
"Carolingian monetary system",
"circumference",
"Pitch class",
"epsilon",
"Babylonia",
"Gwandara language",
"Babylonians",
"Janji language",
"ounce",
"terminating decimal",
"senary",
"power of two",
"Sexagesimal",
"natural logarithm",
"cube (algebra)",
"long hundred",
"octal",
"£sd",
"diameter",
"multiplicative inverse",
"primorial",
"Proto-Germanic",
"Gizmodo",
"composite number",
"semicolon",
"subitizing",
"prime factor",
"square (algebra)",
"repeating decimals",
"division (mathematics)",
"superior highly composite number",
"Schoolhouse Rock!",
"William James Sidis",
"Base conversion",
"Apothecaries' system",
"uncia (length)",
"Golden ratio",
"decimal",
"denominator",
"Isaac Pitman",
"numeral system",
"12 (number)",
"Systems of measurement",
"1",
"William Addison Dwiggins",
"decimal point",
"algebraic number",
"Old Norse",
"finger counting",
"Sumer",
"irreducible fraction",
"positional notation",
"F. Emerson Andrews",
"Number sign",
"Line (unit)",
"Cube (algebra)",
"smooth number",
"Gbiri-Niragu language",
"Chinese calendar",
"Arabic numerals",
"abundant number",
"Troy weight",
"civilization",
"Jean le Rond d'Alembert",
"Nigeria",
"great gross",
"push-button telephone",
"Ancient Roman units of measurement",
"Alexander Aitken",
"E (mathematical constant)",
"LaTeX",
"radix point",
"Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon",
"English language",
"recurring decimal",
"Earthly Branches",
"hexadecimal",
"Vigesimal",
"prime number",
"vigesimal",
"dozen",
"Charlemagne",
"scrupulum",
"Astrological aspect",
"irrational number",
"Piti language",
"Latin epsilon",
"siliqua",
"gross (unit)",
"Square (algebra)",
"Delta (letter)",
"Number Forms",
"transcendental number",
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"troy weight",
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"Square root of 2",
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"Chepang language",
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"Unicode 8.0",
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"Foot (unit)",
"Pi",
"Repeating decimal",
"Germanic languages"
] |
8,401 |
David Hayes Agnew
|
David Hayes Agnew (November 24, 1818March 22, 1892) was an American surgeon.
== Biography ==
Agnew was born on November 24, 1818, Nobleville, Pennsylvania (present-day Christiana). His parents were Robert Agnew and Agnes Noble. Agnew grew up as a Christian. He was surrounded by a family of doctors and had always known he was going to become a physician. As a young boy, he had a sharp sense of humor and was very intelligent.
He was educated at Jefferson College, and at Delaware College in Newark, Delaware. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine on April 6, 1838.
He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1872.
== Garfield case ==
On July 2, 1881, President James A. Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau. He held the position of chief consulting surgeon. When a committee came to give him his money for helping, Agnew said, "Gentlemen, I present no bill for my attendance to President Garfield. I gave my services freely and gratuitously". He was never optimistic about the President's case and was not fooled by fallacious beliefs. This procedure helped create Agnew's reputation.
== The Agnew Clinic ==
The Agnew Clinic is an 1889 painting by Thomas Eakins which depicts Agnew conducting a mastectomy operation before a gallery of students and doctors.
== Accomplishments ==
David Agnew wrote The Principles and Practice of Surgery, covers an experience of fifty active years, and its value, preserving and presenting as it does the life-work of such a recognized authority, can hardly be overrated. It was a three-volume set that he published from 1878 to 1883. He also helped found the Irwin & Agnew Iron Foundry in 1846.
== Death ==
Agnew caught a severe attack of epidemic influenza in 1890. He never fully recovered. Following this, he had an attack of broncho-vesicular catarrh. On March 9, 1892, he was put to bed for a series of medical problems. After a few days his condition began to improve, but suddenly, on March 12 it became much worse. On March 20, he fell into a comatose condition. Agnew stayed like this until he died at 3:20 p.m. on March 22, 1892. He is now buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery.
|
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"Christiana, Pennsylvania",
"Jefferson College (Pennsylvania)",
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"The Agnew Clinic",
"surgery",
"American Philosophical Society",
"James A. Garfield",
"Philadelphia",
"Charles J. Guiteau",
"West Laurel Hill Cemetery",
"Delaware College",
"Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania",
"American Civil War",
"University of Pennsylvania",
"Christianity",
"Newark, Delaware"
] |
8,402 |
Diving (sport)
|
Diving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, usually while performing acrobatics. Diving is an internationally recognised sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime.
Competitors possess many of the same characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgement and air awareness. Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports have similar characteristics to diving. Dmitri Sautin holds the record for most Olympic diving medals won, by winning eight medals in total between 1992 and 2008.
==History==
=== Antiquity ===
In the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing there is a wall painting from around 530 - 500 BCE that shows a person climbing rocks towards a cliff face and a second person diving down the cliff face towards water.
The Tomb of the Diver in Paestum, contains a fresco dating to around 500 to 475 BCE that also shows a scene of a person diving into a pool or stream of water from a structure.
Tomb of hunting and fishing, Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy.jpg|Fresco. Tomb of Hunting and Fishing. Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy. Around 530 - 500 BCE
The Tomb of the Diver - Paestum - Italy.JPG|Fresco. Tomb of the Diver. Paestum, Italy. 470 BCE
===Plunging===
Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the first modern diving competitions were held in England in the 1880s. The exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races.
In the seventeenth century gymnasts moved their equipment to the beaches and "performed acrobatics over the water."
The 1904 book Swimming by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865. The 1877 edition to British Rural Sports by John Henry Walsh makes note of a "Mr. Young" plunging in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, a swimmer named Drake could cover .
The English Amateur Swimming Association (at the time called the Swimming Association of Great Britain) first started a "plunging championship" in 1883. The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937.
===Fancy diving===
Diving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made from a greater height. This tradition evolved into 'fancy diving', while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as 'Plain diving'.
In England, the practice of high diving – diving from a great height – gained popularity; the first diving stages were erected at the Highgate Ponds at a height of in 1893 and the first world championship event, the National Graceful Diving Competition, was held there by the Royal Life Saving Society in 1895. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either .
It was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. They demonstrated their acrobatic techniques from the 10 m diving board at Highgate Pond and stimulated the establishment of the Amateur Diving Association in 1901, the first organisation devoted to diving in the world (later amalgamated with the Amateur Swimming Association). Fancy diving was formally introduced into the championship in 1903.
===Olympic era===
Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event. The 1908 Olympics in London added 'fancy diving' and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were first allowed to participate in the diving events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. which is determined from a combination of the moves undertaken, position used, and height. The DD value is multiplied by the scores given by the judges.
To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled; major international events such as the Olympics use seven-judge panels. For a five-judge panel, the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD. For seven-judge panels, as of the 2012 London Olympics, the two highest scores and two lowest are discarded, leaving three to be summed and multiplied by the DD. (Prior to the London Olympics, the highest and lowest scores were eliminated, and the remaining five scores were multiplied by , to allow for comparison to five-judge panels.) The cancelling of scores is used to make it difficult for a single judge to manipulate scores.
There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.
In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven, nine, or eleven judges; two or three to mark the execution of one diver, two or three to mark the execution of the other, and the remaining three or five to judge the synchronisation. The execution judges are positioned two on each side of the pool, and they score the diver which is nearer to them. The 2012 London Olympics saw the first use of eleven judges.
The score is computed similarly to the scores from other diving events, but has been modified starting with the 2012 London Olympics for the use of the larger judging panels. Each group of judges will have the highest and lowest scores dropped, leaving the middle score for each diver's execution and the three middle scores for synchronisation. The total is then weighted by and multiplied by the DD. The result is that the emphasis is on the synchronisation of the divers.
The synchronisation scores are based on:
time of take-off
height attained
synchronisation of rotations and twists
time of entry to the water
forward travel from the board
The judges may also disqualify the diver for certain violations during the dive, including:
receiving a score of 0 on all dives performed in the event
improper equipment usage (e.g., female divers not using hair ties)
===Competitive strategy===
To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers. Often, simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can achieve consistent, high scores. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores.
In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and once past a deadline (usually when the event is announced or shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives. If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced or if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform-such as a loud noise).
In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives as their competitors. The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but how they arrange their list. Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off with a confident dive to build momentum. They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive. Most divers have pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus. Coaches also play a role in this aspect of the sport. Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure during the meet. In a large meet coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is common to see coaches using hand gestures or body movements to communicate.
There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally.
Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a ulk (when the diver stops mid-hurdle) and the change of dive will not be permitted.
Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted (generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event organiser).
It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly. If a dive is performed which is as submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a strict reading of the FINA law. But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these circumstances.
==Governance==
The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronised swimming, water polo and open water swimming. Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a governing body with the other aquatic sports.
This is frequently a source of political friction as the committees are naturally dominated by swimming officials who do not necessarily share or understand the concerns of the diving community. Divers often feel, for example, that they do not get adequate support over issues like the provision of facilities. Other areas of concern are the selection of personnel for the specialised Diving committees and for coaching and officiating at events, and the team selection for international competitions.
There are sometimes attempts to separate the governing body as a means to resolve these frustrations, but they are rarely successful. For example, in the UK the Great Britain Diving Federation was formed in 1992 with the intention of taking over the governance of Diving from the ASA (Amateur Swimming Association). Although it initially received widespread support from the diving community, the FINA requirement that international competitors had to be registered with their National Governing Body was a major factor in the abandonment of this ambition a few years later.
Since FINA refused to rescind recognition of the ASA as the British governing body for all aquatic sports including diving, this meant that the elite divers had to belong to ASA-affiliated clubs to be eligible for selection to international competition.
In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school's swim team. Diving is a separate sport in Olympic and Club Diving. The NCAA will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed.
==Safety==
thumb|right|200px|A jump from a 10 metre diving platform that has been performed by taking a running start. A running start increases the difficulty of the jump and the chances that the person may over rotate and impact the water with their stomach or back instead of their feet.
The NSPI had specified a minimum depth of 7 ft 6 in (2.29 m) which proved to be insufficient in the above case. The pool into which Meneely dived was not constructed to the published standards. The standards had changed after the diving board was installed on the non-compliant pool by the homeowner. But the courts held that the pool "was close enough" to the standards to hold NSPI liable. The multimillion-dollar lawsuit was eventually resolved in 2001 for US$6.6 million ($8 million after interest was added) in favour of the plaintiff. The NSPI was held to be liable, and was financially strained by the case. It filed twice for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and was successfully reorganised into a new swimming pool industry association. that "For the purposes of obtaining rough estimates of diving board-related injury risks," the estimated "...rate of SCI [Spinal Cord Injury] due to diving into swimming pools from diving boards to be on the order of 0.028 per 100,000 swimmers..."
=== Submerged objects ===
Many diving accidents occur when divers do not account for submerged objects in the water such as rocks and logs. Because of this many beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty. It was commetend that "...shallow dives can end up in death or permanent injury." and that in 1988 on Lake Powell a person "...was left a quadriplegic after diving just 5 feet off a houseboat into the murky lake." and when a diver hits the water flat from 10 metres they are brought to rest in about 1 ft. The extreme deceleration when hitting the water flat at around 35 mph can cause severe bruising both internal and external, strains to connective tissue securing the organs, possible minor haemorrhaging to lungs and other tissues possibly resulting in a person coughing up blood, a compressed spine, broken bones, or concussion.
It was commented further that "Head, cervical spine, shoulder, and lumbar spine injuries among others are not uncommon, though rates vary significantly in the literature. Existing data suggest that as the level of competition elevates, traumatic injuries (including head injury) become relatively less common, while overuse injuries predominate."
When looking at "...(NCAA) swimming and diving injuries from 2009 to 2014... ...[it was found that there was] an injury rate of 1.94 injuries per 1000 athlete exposures (AE) for males and 2.49 injuries per 1000 AE for females, with more injuries happening during practice over competition."
It has also been commented that 10-metre platform diving can also "...cause repetitive strain injuries from repeatedly pushing off the concrete platform."
It has further been commented that "Concussions are relatively common, as are pulmonary contusions in which the force of impact bruises the lungs." from hitting his head on the diving board.
Tom has also described the deterioration of a knee injury that he received; "During the first lockdown in 2020 I’d torn some cartilage in my knee, but there was no pain and I continued to train. Just when the Olympics was only eight weeks away my knee got tighter and tighter, like a screw being turned. It became locked in a position and I couldn’t straighten it or bend it... ...We booked a scan. We thought maybe it just needed an injection to get it moving again. The doctor also mooted the idea that it might need keyhole surgery. From there I was sent for an MRI scan. From the scan, we could see that the cartilage had not only torn, it had also flipped up and the joint had come back down on top of it... ...It can be flattened and sewn back down, but the surgeon described it as being a bit like a bent credit card that may snap up again or cause more problems. The only other way to fix the problem was to take it out. “There is a recovery time of four to six weeks,” the doctor said... ...A couple of weeks after surgery, I was back in the pool, building my diving back up again."
=== Competitive diving deaths ===
In 1983, at the World University Games in Edmonton, Canada, diver Sergei Chalibashvili, aged 21, died when he was attempting a reverse 3 1/2-somersault and his head collided with the hardwood 10 metre diving platform. After the accident he was taken to hospital and died a week later. The dive he was attempting was a reverse 2 1/2 somersault.
===Trajectory===
Since the parabola is symmetrical, the travel away from the board as the diver passes it is twice the amount of the forward travel at the peak of the flight. Excessive forward distance to the entry point is penalised when scoring a dive, but obviously an adequate clearance from the diving board is essential on safety grounds.
The greatest possible height that can be achieved is desirable for several reasons:
the height attained is itself one of the factors that the judges will reward.
a greater height gives a longer flight time and therefore more time to execute manoeuvres.
for any given clearance when passing the board, the forward travel distance to the entry point will be less for a higher trajectory.
===Control of rotation===
The magnitude of angular momentum remains constant throughout the dive, but since
angular momentum = rotational velocity × moment of inertia,
and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a straight position.
Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and dives in this position are easier to perform. Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off with a very high degree of accuracy. (A small amount of control is available by moving the position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back).
The opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down. The vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface. A small amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of the legs.
===Twisting===
Dives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as well as the most challenging to perform.
The rules state that twisting "must not be generated manifestly on take-off". Consequently, divers must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements. The physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular momentum vector.
As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly to the left for a forward dive for example. For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular momentum vector along the body's long axis. The tilt can be seen in the photo.
The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist. When one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation. At the completion of the required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation.
An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set the body into twisting rotation. Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stops the twisting rotation.
===Entry===
The rules state that the body should be vertical, or nearly so, for entry. Strictly speaking, it is physically impossible to achieve a literally vertical position throughout the entry as there will inevitably still be some rotational momentum while the body is entering the water. Divers therefore attempt to create the illusion of being vertical, especially when performing rapidly rotating multiple somersault movements. For back entries, one technique is to allow the upper body to enter slightly short of vertical so that the continuing rotation leaves the final impression of the legs entering vertically. This is called "Knee save". Another is to use "Pike save" movements of scooping the upper body underwater in the direction of rotation so as to counteract the rotation of the legs. Knee saves are performed for back entries and Pike saves are performed for front entries.
The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the 1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of 3m springboard, and extended forwards in line for "head-first" dives, which are much more common competitively. It used to be common for the hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique has become favoured during the last few decades. Now the usual practice is for one hand to grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface. This creates a vacuum between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called "rip entry").
Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position. Apart from aesthetic considerations, it is important from a safety point of view that divers reinforce the habit of rolling in the direction of rotation, especially for forward and inward entries. Back injuries such as hyperextension are caused by attempting to re-surface in the opposite direction. Diving from the higher levels increases the danger and likelihood of such injuries.
==By country==
===Canada===
In Canada, elite competitive diving is regulated by DPC (Diving Plongeon Canada), although the individual provinces also have organizational bodies. The main competitive season runs from February to July, although some competitions may be held in January or December, and many divers (particularly international level athletes) will train and compete year round.
Most provincial level competitions consist of events for six age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels. These age groups roughly correspond to those standardised by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event (although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D). The age group Open is so called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty.
Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept athletic scholarships from American colleges.
Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving. Typically, masters are either adults who never practised the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport. Many diving clubs have masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world championship level.
====National championships====
Divers can qualify to compete at the age group national championships, or junior national championships, in their age groups as assigned by FINA up to the age of 18. This competition is held annually in July. Qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions in the season, although athletes who place very highly at a national championship will be automatically qualified to compete at the next. Divers must qualify at two different competitions, at least one of which must be a level 1 competition, i.e. a competition with fairly strict judging patterns. Such competitions include the Polar Bear Invitational in Winnipeg, the Sting in Victoria, and the Alberta Provincial Championships in Edmonton or Calgary. The qualifying scores are determined by DPC according to the results of the preceding year's national competition, and typically do not have much variation from year to year.
Divers older than 18, or advanced divers of younger ages, can qualify for the senior national championships, which are held twice each year, once roughly in March and once in June or July. Once again, qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions (in this case, within the 12 months preceding the national championships, and in an Open age group event), or high placements in previous national championships or international competitions. It is no longer the case that divers may use results from age group events to qualify for senior nationals, or results from Open events to qualify for age group nationals.
===Republic of Ireland===
In the Republic of Ireland facilities are limited to one operational pool at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin. Other facilities with diving boards at the University of Limerick are undergoing staff training in an effort to start diving programmes.
====National championships====
National championships take place late in the year, usually during November. The competition is held at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin and consists of four events:
Irish Open Age Group Championships
Irish Open Junior Diving Championships
Irish Open Senior Diving Championships
Novice Competition (8–18 yrs)
===United Kingdom===
In the United Kingdom, diving competitions on all boards run throughout the year. National Masters' Championships are held two or three times per year.
===United States===
====Summer diving====
In the United States, summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools. Some pools organise to form intra-pool competitions. These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children.
====High school diving====
In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving (but some schools use three meter springboards.). Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score. High school diving and swimming concludes their season with a state competition. Depending on the state and the number of athletes competing in the state, certain qualifications must be achieved to compete in the state's championship meet. There are often regional championships and district championships which are necessary to compete in before reaching the state meet to narrow the field to only the most competitive athletes. Most state championship meets consist of eleven dives. The eleven dives are usually split up between two categories: five required (voluntary) dives and six optional dives.
====Club diving====
In the United States, pre-college divers interested in learning one and three meter or platform diving should consider a club sanctioned by either USA Diving or AAU Diving. In USA Diving, Future Champions is the entry level or novice diver category with eight levels of competition. From Future Champions, divers graduate to "Junior Olympic", or JO. JO divers compete in age groups at inter-club competitions, at invitationals, and if qualified, at regional, zone and national competitions. Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver.
USA Diving sanctions the Winter Nationals championship with one, three meter, and platform events. In the summer USA Diving sanctions the Summer Nationals including all three events with both Junior and Senior divers. USA Diving is sanctioned by the United States Olympic Committee to select team representatives for international diving competitions including the World Championships and Olympic Games.
AAU Diving sanctions one national event per year in the summer. AAU competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the All-American team.
====College diving====
In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving. Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score. College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the NCAA separate from swim team events. NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school.
Each division also has rules on the number of dives in each competition. Division II schools compete with 10 dives in competition whereas Division III schools compete with 11. Division I schools only compete with 6 dives in competition. These 6 dives consist of either 5 optionals and 1 voluntary, or 6 optionals. If the meet is a 5 optional meet, then the divers will perform 1 optional from each category (Front, Back, Inward, Reverse, and Twister) and then 1 voluntary from the category of their choice. The voluntary in this type of meet is always worth a DD (Degree of Difficulty) of 2.0 even if the real DD is worth more or less on a DD sheet. In a 6 optional meet, the divers will yet again perform one dive from each category, but this time they will perform a 6th optional from the category of their choosing, which is worth its actual DD from the DD sheet.
The highest level of collegiate competition is the NCAA Division 1 Swimming and Diving Championship. Events at the championship include 1 metre springboard, 3 metre springboard, and platform, as well as various swimming individual and relay events. The points scored by swimmers and divers are combined to determine a team swimming & diving champion. To qualify for a diving event at the NCAA championships, a competitor must first finish in the top three at one of five zone championships, which are held after the various conference championship meets. A diver who scores at least 310 points on the 3 metre springboard and 300 points on the 1 metre springboard in a 6 optional meet can participate in the particular zone championship corresponding to the geographic region in which his or her school lies.
A number of colleges and universities offer scholarships to men and women who have competitive diving skills. These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club diving experience.
The NCAA limits the number of years a college student can represent any school in competitions. The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances.
====Masters' Diving====
Divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Masters' Diving programs. Masters' diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs.
Masters' Diving events are normally conducted in age-groups separated by five or ten years, and attract competitors of a wide range of ages and experience (many, indeed, are newcomers to the sport); the oldest competitor in a Masters' Diving Championship was Viola Krahn, who at the age of 101 was the first person in any sport, male or female, anywhere in the world, to compete in an age-group of 100+ years in a nationally organised competition.
==Non-competitive diving==
Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity. Such diving usually emphasises the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasise what goes on once the diver enters the water. The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training. Entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is underwater swimming.
Such non-competitive diving can occur indoors and outdoors. Outdoor diving typically takes place from cliffs or other rock formations either into fresh or salt water. However, man-made diving platforms are sometimes constructed in popular swimming destinations. Outdoor diving requires knowledge of the water depth and currents as conditions can be dangerous.
On occasion, the diver will inadvertently belly flop, entering the water horizontally or nearly so. The diver typically displaces a larger than usual amount of water.
==High diving==
A recently developing section of the sport is High Diving (e.g. see 2013 World Aquatics Championships), conducted in open air locations, usually from improvised platforms up to high (as compared with as used in Olympic and World Championship events). Entry to the water is invariably feet-first to avoid the risk of injury that would be involved in head-first entry from that height. The final half-somersault is almost always performed backwards, enabling the diver to spot the entry point and control their rotation.
Competitive high diving is run as the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series.
|
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"synchronised swimming",
"USA Diving",
"Ponds Forge",
"England",
"Amateur Athletic Union",
"Stockholm",
"Euclidean vector",
"Diving at the Summer Olympics",
"1908 Olympic Games",
"60 Minutes II",
"Olympic Games",
"Paestum",
"water polo",
"Italy",
"Diving at the Asian Games",
"vertebral compression fracture",
"London",
"Diving at the 1904 Summer Olympics",
"FINA",
"2012 London Olympics",
"swimming pool",
"Tomb of the Diver",
"Cannonball (diving)",
"List of 10 meter diving platforms in the United States",
"2012 Summer Olympics",
"concussion",
"Olympics",
"Human swimming",
"lifeguard",
"1934 British Empire Games",
"acrobatics",
"Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series",
"dance",
"Diving platform",
"English-speaking world",
"1948 Summer Olympics",
"Tomb of Hunting and Fishing",
"high diving",
"swimming (sport)",
"Sweden",
"Aquatic timing system",
"COVID-19 lockdowns",
"gymnastics",
"Lin Yue",
"angular momentum"
] |
8,406 |
Dative case
|
In grammar, the dative case (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this example, the dative marks what would be considered the indirect object of a verb in English.
Sometimes the dative has functions unrelated to giving. In Scottish Gaelic and Irish, the term dative case is used in traditional grammars to refer to the prepositional case-marking of nouns following simple prepositions and the definite article. In Georgian and Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), the dative case can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction. In Hindi, the dative construction is not limited to only certain verbs or tenses and it can be used with any verb in any tense or mood.
The dative was common among early Indo-European languages and has survived to the present in the Balto-Slavic branch, the Germanic branch, Albanian and others. It also exists in similar forms in several non-Indo-European languages, such as the Uralic family of languages. In some languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other, now extinct cases. In Ancient Greek, the dative has the functions of the Proto-Indo-European locative and instrumental as well as those of the original dative.
Under the influence of English, which uses the preposition "to" for (among other uses) both indirect objects (give to) and directions of movement (go to), the term "dative" has sometimes been used to describe cases that in other languages would more appropriately be called lative.
==Etymology==
"Dative" comes from Latin cāsus datīvus ("case for giving"), a translation of Greek δοτικὴ πτῶσις, dotikē ptôsis ("inflection for giving"). Dionysius Thrax in his Art of Grammar also refers to it as epistaltikḗ "for sending (a letter)", from the verb epistéllō "send to", a word from the same root as epistle.
==English==
The Old English language had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the Middle English period, when the accusative and dative of pronouns merged into a single oblique case that was also used with all prepositions. This conflation of case in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard the "accusative" and "dative" labels as obsolete in reference to English, often using the term "objective" for oblique.
===Set expressions===
The dative case is rare in modern English usage, but it can be argued that it survives in a few set expressions. One example is the word "methinks", with the meaning "it seems to me". It survives in this fixed form from Old English (having undergone, however, phonetic changes with the rest of the language), in which it was constructed as "[it]" + "me" (the dative case of the personal pronoun) + "thinks" (i.e., "seems", < Old English þyncan, "to seem", a verb closely related to the verb þencan, "to think", but distinct from it in Old English; later it merged with "think" and lost this meaning).
===Relic pronouns===
The modern objective case pronoun whom is derived from the dative case in Old English, specifically the Old English dative pronoun "hwām" (as opposed to the modern subjective "who", which descends from Old English "hwā") – though "whom" also absorbed the functions of the Old English accusative pronoun "hwone". It is also cognate to the word "wem" (the dative form of "wer") in German. The OED defines all classical uses of the word "whom" in situations where the indirect object is not known – in effect, indicating the anonymity of the indirect object.
Likewise, some of the object forms of personal pronouns are remnants of Old English datives. For example, "him" goes back to the Old English dative him (accusative was hine), and "her" goes back to the dative hire (accusative was hīe). These pronouns are not pure datives in modern English; they are also used for functions previously indicated by the accusative.
===Modern English===
The indirect object of the verb may be placed between the verb and the direct object of the verb: "he gave me a book" or "he wrote me a poem."
The indirect object may also be expressed using a prepositional phrase using "to": "he gave a book to me".
==German==
In general, the dative (German: Dativ) is used to mark the indirect object of a German sentence. For example:
(literally: I sent "to the man" the book.) – Masculine
(literally: I gave "to the woman" the pencil back.) – Feminine
(literally: I hand "to the child" a present.) – Neuter
In English, the first sentence can be rendered as "I sent the book to the man" and as "I sent the man the book", where the indirect object is identified in English by standing in front of the direct object. The normal word order in German is to put the dative in front of the accusative (as in the example above). However, since the German dative is marked in form, it can also be put after the accusative: . The after and signifies a now largely archaic ending for certain nouns in the dative. It survives today almost exclusively in set phrases such as (at home, lit. to house), (in the course of), and (during the day, lit. at the day), as well as in occasional usage in formal prose, poetry, and song lyrics.
Some masculine nouns (and one neuter noun, [heart]), referred to as weak nouns or n-nouns, take an -n or -en in the dative singular and plural. Many are masculine nouns ending in -e in the nominative (such as [name], [officer], and [boy]), although not all such nouns follow this rule. Many also, whether or not they fall into the former category, refer to people, animals, professions, or titles; exceptions to this include the aforementioned and , as well as (letter), (peace), (obelisk), (planet), and others.
Certain German prepositions require the dative: (from), (out of), (at, near), (against), (opposite), (with), (after, to), (since), (from), and (at, in, to). Some other prepositions ( [at], [on], [along], [behind], [in, into], (beside, next to), [over, across], [under, below], [in front of], and [among, between]) may be used with dative (indicating current location), or accusative (indicating direction toward something). (dative: The book is lying on the table), but (accusative: I put the book onto the table).
In addition the four prepositions (in place of), (in spite of), (during), and (because of) which require the genitive in modern formal language, are most commonly used with the dative in colloquial German. For example, "because of the weather" is expressed as instead of the formally correct . Other prepositions requiring the genitive in formal language, are combined with ("of") in colloquial style, e.g. instead of ("outside the garden").
The concept of an indirect object may be rendered by a prepositional phrase. In this case, the noun's or pronoun's case is determined by the preposition, not by its function in the sentence. Consider this sentence:
'I sent the book to the editor.'
Here, the subject, , is in the nominative case, the direct object, , is in the accusative case, and is in the dative case, since always requires the dative ( is a contraction of + ). However:
(accusative) . 'I forwarded the book to my friend.' ( = lit.: to give further).
In this sentence, is the indirect object, but, because it follows (direction), the accusative is required, not the dative.
All of the articles change in the dative case.
Some German verbs require the dative for their direct objects. Common examples are antworten (to answer), danken (to thank), gefallen (to please), folgen (to follow), glauben (to believe), helfen (to help), and raten (to advise). In each case, the direct object of the verb is rendered in the dative. For example:
Meine Freunde helfen mir. (My friends help me.)
These verbs cannot be used in normal passive constructions, because German allows these only for verbs with accusative objects. It is therefore ungrammatical to say: *Ich werde geholfen. "I am helped." Instead a special construction called "impersonal passive" must be used: Mir wird geholfen, literally: "To me is helped." A colloquial (non-standard) way to form the passive voice for dative verbs is the following: Ich kriege geholfen, or: Ich bekomme geholfen, literally: "I get helped". The use of the verb "to get" here reminds us that the dative case has something to do with giving and receiving. In German, help is not something you perform on somebody, but rather something you offer them.
The dative case is also used with reflexive (sich) verbs when specifying what part of the self the verb is being done to:
Ich wasche mich. – accusative (I wash myself.)
Ich wasche mir die Hände. – dative (I wash my hands, literally "I wash for myself the hands")
Cf. the respective accord in French: "" ("The children have washed themselves") vs. " [uninflected] " ("... their hands").
German can use two datives to make sentences like: Sei mir meinem Sohn(e) gnädig! "For my sake, have mercy on my son!" Literally: "Be for me to my son merciful." The first dative mir ("for me") expresses the speaker's commiseration (much like the dativus ethicus in Latin, see below). The second dative meinem Sohn(e) ("to my son") names the actual object of the plea. Mercy is to be given to the son for or on behalf of his mother/father.
Adjective endings also change in the dative case. There are three inflection possibilities depending on what precedes the adjective. They most commonly use weak inflection when preceded by a definite article (the), mixed inflection after an indefinite article (a/an), and strong inflection when a quantity is indicated (many green apples).
==Latin==
There are several uses for the dative case ():
(dative of purpose), e.g. – "[we learn] not for school, but for life", – "to call for help", – "I'm coming for help", – "I receive [this] as a gift" or – "[this] is for the girl's decoration", or "... for decoration for the girl" (as could be either dative or genitive)
, which means action for (or against) somebody, e.g., – "to till fields for Greeks"; Combination of and (double dative): "to you for joy"
(possessive dative) which means possession, e.g. – literally "to (or for) the angels are wings", this is typically found with a copula and translated as "angels have wings".
(ethic dative) indicates that the person in the dative is or should be especially concerned about the action, e.g. "What is Celsus doing for me?" (expressing the speaker being especially interested in what Celsus is doing for him or her); or "Whose interest does this serve?" (literally "To whom does this do good?")
, meaning; 'in the eyes of', e.g., 'he seems to me to be a good man'.
The dative expresses agency with the gerundive when the gerundive is used to convey obligation or necessity, e.g., , 'these things must be done by us.'
==Greek==
===Ancient===
In addition to its main function as the dativus, the dative case has other functions in Classical Greek: (The chart below uses the Latin names for the types of dative; the Greek name for the dative is δοτική πτῶσις, like its Latin equivalent, derived from the verb "to give"; in Ancient Greek, δίδωμι.)
Dativus finalis: The dativus finalis, or the 'dative of purpose', is when the dative is used to denote the purpose of a certain action. For example:
""
"I fight for the king".
""
"I die for honour".
Dativus commŏdi (incommodi): The dativus commodi sive incommodi, or the 'dative of benefit (or harm)' is the dative that expresses the advantage or disadvantage of something for someone. For example:
For the benefit of: "" (Sophocles, Ajax 1366).
"Every man toils for himself".
For the harm or disadvantage of: "" (Thucydides 2.12.4).
"This day will be the beginning of great sorrows for the Greeks (i.e., for their disadvantage)".
Dativus possessivus: The dativus possessivus, or the 'dative of possession' is the dative used to denote the possessor of a certain object or objects. For example:
"" (Thucycdides 1.86.3).
"For others have a lot of money and ships and horses, but we have good allies (i.e., To others there is a lot of money...)".
Dativus ethicus: The dativus ethicus, or the 'ethic or polite dative,' is when the dative is used to signify that the person or thing spoken of is regarded with interest by someone. This dative is mostly, if not exclusively, used in pronouns. As such, it is also called the "dative of pronouns." For example:
"" (Demosthenes 18.178).
"Pay close attention to this, I beg you (i.e., please pay..)".
"" (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 18.178).
"Oh, mother, how handsome grandpa is (I've just realized!)".
Dativus auctoris: The dativus auctoris, or the 'dative of agent,' is the dative used to denote the doer of an action. Note, however, that in Classical Greek, the agent is usually in the genitive after (by, at the hands of). The agent is in the dative most often with the perfect and pluperfect passive, and with the verbal adjective in . For example:
"" (Isocrates 8.39)
"Many cures have been discovered by doctors."
Dativus instrumenti: The dativus instrumenti, or the 'dative of instrument,' is when the dative is used to denote an instrument or means of a certain action (or, more accurately, as the instrumental case). For example:
"." (Homer, Odyssey 9.407)
"He kills me with a bait (i.e., by means of a bait)."
Dativus modi: The dativus modi, or the 'dative of manner,' is the dative used to describe the manner or way by which something happened. For example:
"" (Thucydides 8.84)
"having died of (from) a disease."
Dativus mensurae: The dativus mensurae, or the 'dative of measurement,' is the dative used to denote the measurement of difference. For example:
"" (Plato, Phaedo 101a)
"taller by a head."
"" (Plato, Laws 729d)
"by far the best."
The articles in the Greek dative are
===Modern===
The dative case, strictly speaking, no longer exists in Modern Greek, except in fossilized expressions like δόξα τω Θεώ (from the ecclesiastical τῷ Θεῷ δόξα, "Glory to God") or εν τάξει (ἐν τάξει, lit. "in order", i.e. "all right" or "OK"). Otherwise, most of the functions of the dative are expressed by the genitive or by prepositional phrases.
==Slavic languages==
In Russian, the dative case is used for indicating the indirect object of an action (that to which something is given, thrown, read, etc.). In the instance where a person is the goal of motion, dative is used instead of accusative to indicate motion toward. This is usually achieved with the preposition + destination in dative case; , meaning "to the doctor."
Dative is also the necessary case taken by certain prepositions when expressing certain ideas. For instance, when the preposition по is used to mean "along", its object is always in dative case, as in , meaning "along the sides."
Other Slavic languages apply the dative case (and the other cases) more or less the same way as does Russian; some languages may use the dative in other ways. The following examples are from Polish:
after certain verbs (dziękować komuś "to thank someone", pomóc komuś "to help someone", wierzyć komuś "to believe someone")
in certain expressions (Czy podoba ci się piosenka? "Do you like the song?", Jest mi zimno "I'm cold", Jest nam smutno "We're feeling sad", Będzie wam trudniej... "It will be more difficult for you guys"), Śniło jej się, że... "She dreamt that"
dativus commodi to indicate action for somebody (Zbuduję temu człowiekowi dom "I will build a house for this person")
when something is taken away or something occurs to someone (Zdechł im pies "Their dog died"; Zabrali mu komputer "They took away his computer"; Zepsuł nam się samochód "Our car broke down"; Coś mi się przypomniało "I just remembered something")
Some other kinds of dative use as found in the Serbo-Croatian language are: Dativus finalis (Titaniku u pomoć "to Titanic's rescue"), Dativus commodi/incommodi (Operi svojoj majci suđe "Wash the dishes for your mother"), Dativus possessivus (Ovcama je dlaka gusta "Sheep's hair is thick"), Dativus ethicus (Šta/što mi radi Boni? "What is Boni doing? (I am especially interested in what it is)") and Dativus auctoris (Izgleda mi okej "It seems okay to me").
Unusual in other Indo-European branches but common among Slavic languages, endings of nouns and adjectives are different based on grammatical function. Other factors are gender and number. In some cases, the ending may not be obvious, even when those three factors (function, gender, number) are considered. For example, in Polish, 'syn' ("son") and 'ojciec' ("father") are both masculine singular nouns, yet appear as syn → synowi and ojciec → ojcu in the dative.
==Baltic languages==
Both Lithuanian and Latvian have a distinct dative case in the system of nominal declensions.
Lithuanian nouns preserve Indo-European inflections in the dative case fairly well: (o-stems) vaikas -> sg. vaikui, pl. vaikams; (ā-stems) ranka -> sg. rankai, pl. rankoms; (i-stems) viltis -> sg. vilčiai, pl. viltims; (u-stems) sūnus -> sg. sūnui, pl. sūnums; (consonant stems) vanduo -> sg. vandeniui, pl. vandenims.
Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings (this might be the result of a more recent development): tas geras vaikas -> sg. tam geram vaikui, pl. tiems geriems vaikams.
The dative case in Latvian underwent further simplifications – the original masculine endings of both nouns and adjectives have been replaced with pronominal inflections: tas vīrs -> sg. tam vīram, pl. vīriem. Also, the final "s" in all Dative forms has been dropped. The only exception is personal pronouns in the plural: mums (to us), jums (to you). In colloquial Lithuanian the final "s" in the dative is often omitted, as well: time geriem vaikam.
In both Latvian and Lithuanian, the main function of the dative case is to render the indirect object in a sentence: (lt) aš duodu vyrui knygą; (lv) es dodu [duodu] vīram grāmatu – I am giving a book to the man.
The dative case can also be used with gerundives to indicate an action preceding or simultaneous with the main action in a sentence: (lt) jam įėjus, visi atsistojo – when he walked in, everybody stood up, lit. to him having walked in, all stood up; (lt) jai miegant, visi dirbo – while she slept, everybody was working, lit. to her sleeping, all were working.
In modern standard Lithuanian, Dative case is not required by prepositions, although in many dialects it is done frequently: (dial.) iki (+D) šiai dienai, (stand.) iki (+G) šios dienos – up until this day.
In Latvian, the dative case is taken by several prepositions in the singular and all prepositions in the plural (due to peculiar historical changes): sg. bez (+G) tevis (without thee) ~ pl. bez (+D) jums (without you); sg. pa (+A) ceļu (along the road) ~ pl. pa (+D) ceļiem (along the roads).
==Armenian==
In modern Eastern Armenian, the dative is attained by adding any article to the genitive:
dog = շուն
GEN > շան (of the dog; dog's) with no articles
DAT > շանը or շանն (to the dog) with definite articles (-ն if preceding a vowel)
DAT > մի շան (to a dog) with indefinite article
DAT > շանս (to my dog) with 1st person possessive article
DAT > շանդ (to your dog) with 2nd person possessive article
There is a general tendency to view -ին as the standard dative suffix, but only because that is its most productive (and therefore common) form. The suffix -ին as a dative marker is nothing but the standard, most common, genitive suffix -ի accompanied by the definite article -ն. But the dative case encompasses indefinite objects as well, which will not be marked by -ին:
Definite DAT > Ես գիրքը տվեցի տղային: (I gave the book to the boy)
Indefinite DAT> Ես գիրքը տվեցի մի տղայի: (I gave the book to a boy)
The main function of the dative marking in Armenian is to indicate the receiving end of an action, more commonly the indirect object which in English is preceded by the preposition to. In the use of "giving" verbs like give, donate, offer, deliver, sell, bring... the dative marks the recipient. With communicative verbs like tell, say, advise, explain, ask, answer... the dative marks the listener. Other verbs whose indirect objects are marked by the dative case in Armenian are show, reach, look, approach...
Eastern Armenian also uses the dative case to mark the time of an event, in the same way English uses the preposition at, as in Meet me at nine o' clock.
==Indo-Aryan languages==
=== Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) ===
Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) has true dative case for pronouns, but for nouns the dative case has to be constructed using the dative case-marker (postposition) को کو (ko) to the nouns in their oblique case. Pronouns in Hindustani also have an oblique case, so dative pronouns can also be alternatively constructed using the dative case-marker को کو (ko) with the pronouns in their oblique case, hence forming two sets of synonymous dative pronouns. The following table shows the pronouns in their nominative and their dative forms. Hindustani lacks pronouns in the third person and the demonstrative pronouns double as the third person pronouns. The table below shows the oblique cases of Hindustani for the nouns boy and girl which take in the dative case-marker after them to assign the combination of the oblique case and the case-marker the dative case. The oblique case of Hindustani by itself has no meaning and adding the case-marker को کو (ko) assigns the oblique case the function of the dative case.[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/jspui/bitstream/10603/153733/14/14_chapter%206%20%28pg%20206-252%29.pdf
Dative case in Hindustani can also mark the subject of a sentence. This is called the dative construction or quirky subjects.
===Finnish===
Finnish does not have a separate dative case. However, the allative case can fulfill essentially the same role as dative, beyond its primary meaning of directional movement (that is, going somewhere or approaching someone). For example: He lahjoittivat kaikki rahansa köyhille (They donated all their money to the poor.) It is similar in Estonian.
===Tsez===
In the Northeast Caucasian languages, such as Tsez, the dative also takes the functions of the lative case in marking the direction of an action. By some linguists, they are still regarded as two separate cases in those languages, although the suffixes are exactly the same for both cases. Other linguists list them separately only for the purpose of separating syntactic cases from locative cases. An example with the ditransitive verb "show" (literally: "make see") is given below:
The dative/lative is also used to indicate possession, as in the example below, because there is no such verb as "to have".
As in the examples above, the dative/lative case usually occurs in combination with another suffix as poss-lative case; this should not be regarded as a separate case, however, as many of the locative cases in Tsez are constructed analytically; hence, they are, in fact, a combination of two case suffixes. See Tsez language#Locative case suffixes for further details.
Verbs of perception or emotion (like "see", "know", "love", "want") also require the logical subject to stand in the dative/lative case. In this example the "pure" dative/lative without its POSS-suffix is used.
=== Turkish ===
The dative case (yönelme durumu) in the Turkish language is formed by adding the -e" or "-a suffixes to the end of the noun, in accordance with the effected noun's vowel harmony. The word that should be in the dative case can be found as an answer to the questions 'neye?' (to what?), 'kime?' (to whom?) and 'nereye?' (to where?) will lead to find a dative case in a sentence. There are many different uses for the dative case.
The dative also is for objects, usually indirect objects, but sometimes objects that in English would be considered direct:
The dative case tells whither, that is, the place to which. Thus it has roughly the meaning of the English prepositions "to" and "into", and also "in" when it can be replaced with "into":
|
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] |
8,407 |
Dodecahedron
|
In geometry, a dodecahedron (; ) or duodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. The most familiar dodecahedron is the regular dodecahedron with regular pentagons as faces, which is a Platonic solid. There are also three regular star dodecahedra, which are constructed as stellations of the convex form. All of these have icosahedral symmetry, order 120.
Some dodecahedra have the same combinatorial structure as the regular dodecahedron (in terms of the graph formed by its vertices and edges), but their pentagonal faces are not regular:
The pyritohedron, a common crystal form in pyrite, has pyritohedral symmetry, while the tetartoid has tetrahedral symmetry.
The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a limiting case of the pyritohedron, and it has octahedral symmetry. The elongated dodecahedron and trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron variations, along with the rhombic dodecahedra, are space-filling. There are numerous other dodecahedra.
While the regular dodecahedron shares many features with other Platonic solids, one unique property of it is that one can start at a corner of the surface and draw an infinite number of straight lines across the figure that return to the original point without crossing over any other corner.
==Regular dodecahedron==
The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids and can be represented by its Schläfli symbol {5,3}.
The dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron {3,5}, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex.
The convex regular dodecahedron also has three stellations, all of which are regular star dodecahedra. They form three of the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra. They are the small stellated dodecahedron {,5}, the great dodecahedron {5,}, and the great stellated dodecahedron {,3}. The small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are dual to each other; the great stellated dodecahedron is dual to the great icosahedron {3,}. All of these regular star dodecahedra have regular pentagonal or pentagrammic faces. The convex regular dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron are different realisations of the same abstract regular polyhedron; the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are different realisations of another abstract regular polyhedron.
==Other pentagonal dodecahedra==
In crystallography, two important dodecahedra can occur as crystal forms in some symmetry classes of the cubic crystal system that are topologically equivalent to the regular dodecahedron but less symmetrical: the pyritohedron with pyritohedral symmetry, and the tetartoid with tetrahedral symmetry:
===Pyritohedron===
A pyritohedron is a dodecahedron with pyritohedral (Th) symmetry. Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices (see figure). However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and the underlying atomic arrangement has no true fivefold symmetry axis. Its 30 edges are divided into two sets – containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length. The only axes of rotational symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes.
Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the pyritohedron form occurs in the crystals of the mineral pyrite, and it may be an inspiration for the discovery of the regular Platonic solid form. The true regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals (such as holmium–magnesium–zinc quasicrystal) with icosahedral symmetry, which includes true fivefold rotation axes.
====Crystal pyrite====
The name crystal pyrite comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite (the other one being the cube). In pyritohedral pyrite, the faces have a Miller index of (210), which means that the dihedral angle is 2·arctan(2) ≈ 126.87° and each pentagonal face has one angle of approximately 121.6° in between two angles of approximately 106.6° and opposite two angles of approximately 102.6°. The following formulas show the measurements for the face of a perfect crystal (which is rarely found in nature).
\text{Height} = \frac{\sqrt{5}}{2} \cdot \text{Long side}
\text{Width} = \frac{4}{3} \cdot \text{Long side}
\text{Short sides} = \sqrt{\frac{7}{12}} \cdot \text{Long side}
====Cartesian coordinates====
The eight vertices of a cube have the coordinates (±1, ±1, ±1).
The coordinates of the 12 additional vertices are
(0, ±(1 + h), ±(1 − h2)),
(±(1 + h), ±(1 − h2), 0) and
(±(1 − h2), 0, ±(1 + h)).
h is the height of the wedge-shaped "roof" above the faces of that cube with edge length 2.
An important case is h = (a quarter of the cube edge length) for perfect natural pyrite (also the pyritohedron in the Weaire–Phelan structure).
Another one is h = = 0.618... for the regular dodecahedron. See section Geometric freedom for other cases.
Two pyritohedra with swapped nonzero coordinates are in dual positions to each other like the dodecahedra in the compound of two dodecahedra.
====Geometric freedom====
The pyritohedron has a geometric degree of freedom with limiting cases of a cubic convex hull at one limit of collinear edges, and a rhombic dodecahedron as the other limit as 6 edges are degenerated to length zero. The regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal.
It is possible to go past these limiting cases, creating concave or nonconvex pyritohedra. The endo-dodecahedron is concave and equilateral; it can tessellate space with the convex regular dodecahedron. Continuing from there in that direction, we pass through a degenerate case where twelve vertices coincide in the centre, and on to the regular great stellated dodecahedron where all edges and angles are equal again, and the faces have been distorted into regular pentagrams. On the other side, past the rhombic dodecahedron, we get a nonconvex equilateral dodecahedron with fish-shaped self-intersecting equilateral pentagonal faces.
===Tetartoid===
A tetartoid (also tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron, pentagon-tritetrahedron, and tetrahedric pentagon dodecahedron) is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry (T). Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices. However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes.
Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does. The name tetartoid comes from the Greek root for one-fourth because it has one fourth of full octahedral symmetry, and half of pyritohedral symmetry. The mineral cobaltite can have this symmetry form.
Abstractions sharing the solid's topology and symmetry can be created from the cube and the tetrahedron. In the cube each face is bisected by a slanted edge. In the tetrahedron each edge is trisected, and each of the new vertices connected to a face center. (In Conway polyhedron notation this is a gyro tetrahedron.)
The crystal model on the right shows a tetartoid created by enlarging the blue faces of the dyakis dodecahedral core. Therefore, the edges between the blue faces are covered by the red skeleton edges.
|}
====Cartesian coordinates====
The following points are vertices of a tetartoid pentagon under tetrahedral symmetry:
(a, b, c); (−a, −b, c); (−, −, ); (−c, −a, b); (−, , ),
under the following conditions:
,
n = a2c − bc2,
d1 = a2 − ab + b2 + ac − 2bc,
d2 = a2 + ab + b2 − ac − 2bc,
.
====Geometric freedom====
The regular dodecahedron is a tetartoid with more than the required symmetry. The triakis tetrahedron is a degenerate case with 12 zero-length edges. (In terms of the colors used above this means, that the white vertices and green edges are absorbed by the green vertices.)
===Dual of triangular gyrobianticupola===
A lower symmetry form of the regular dodecahedron can be constructed as the dual of a polyhedron constructed from two triangular anticupola connected base-to-base, called a triangular gyrobianticupola. It has D3d symmetry, order 12. It has 2 sets of 3 identical pentagons on the top and bottom, connected 6 pentagons around the sides which alternate upwards and downwards. This form has a hexagonal cross-section and identical copies can be connected as a partial hexagonal honeycomb, but all vertices will not match.
==Rhombic dodecahedron==
The rhombic dodecahedron is a zonohedron with twelve rhombic faces and octahedral symmetry. It is dual to the quasiregular cuboctahedron (an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The rhombic dodecahedron packs together to fill space.
The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a degenerate pyritohedron where the 6 special edges have been reduced to zero length, reducing the pentagons into rhombic faces.
The rhombic dodecahedron has several stellations, the first of which is also a parallelohedral spacefiller.
Another important rhombic dodecahedron, the Bilinski dodecahedron, has twelve faces congruent to those of the rhombic triacontahedron, i.e. the diagonals are in the ratio of the golden ratio. It is also a zonohedron and was described by Bilinski in 1960. This figure is another spacefiller, and can also occur in non-periodic spacefillings along with the rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic icosahedron and rhombic hexahedra.
==Other dodecahedra==
There are 6,384,634 topologically distinct convex dodecahedra, excluding mirror images—the number of vertices ranges from 8 to 20. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)
Topologically distinct dodecahedra (excluding pentagonal and rhombic forms)
Uniform polyhedra:
Decagonal prism – 10 squares, 2 decagons, D10h symmetry, order 40.
Pentagonal antiprism – 10 equilateral triangles, 2 pentagons, D5d symmetry, order 20
Johnson solids (regular faced):
Pentagonal cupola – 5 triangles, 5 squares, 1 pentagon, 1 decagon, C5v symmetry, order 10
Snub disphenoid – 12 triangles, D2d, order 8
Elongated square dipyramid – 8 triangles and 4 squares, D4h symmetry, order 16
Metabidiminished icosahedron – 10 triangles and 2 pentagons, C2v symmetry, order 4
Congruent irregular faced: (face-transitive)
Hexagonal bipyramid – 12 isosceles triangles, dual of hexagonal prism, D6h symmetry, order 24
Hexagonal trapezohedron – 12 kites, dual of hexagonal antiprism, D6d symmetry, order 24
Triakis tetrahedron – 12 isosceles triangles, dual of truncated tetrahedron, Td symmetry, order 24
Other less regular faced:
Hendecagonal pyramid – 11 isosceles triangles and 1 regular hendecagon, C11v, order 11
Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron – 6 rhombi, 6 trapezoids – dual of triangular orthobicupola, D3h symmetry, order 12
Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron or elongated Dodecahedron – 8 rhombi and 4 equilateral hexagons, D4h symmetry, order 16
Truncated pentagonal trapezohedron, D5d, order 20, topologically equivalent to regular dodecahedron
==Practical usage==
Armand Spitz used a dodecahedron as the "globe" equivalent for his Digital Dome planetarium projector, based upon a suggestion from Albert Einstein.
Regular dodecahedrons are sometimes used as dice, when they are known as d12s, especially in games such as Dungeons and Dragons.
|
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"File:Endo-dodecahedron honeycomb.gif"
] |
8,408 |
Darwin, Northern Territory
|
Darwin (Larrakia: ) is the capital city of the Northern Territory, Australia. The city has nearly 53% of the Northern Territory's population, with 139,902 at the 2021 census. During the dry season, the city has clear skies and mild sea breezes from the harbour.
The Larrakia people are the traditional owners of the Darwin area, and Aboriginal people are a significant proportion of the population. On 9 September 1839, sailed into Darwin Harbour during its survey of the area. John Clements Wickham named the region "Port Darwin" in honour of Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ship's previous voyage. The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, but was renamed Darwin in 1911. The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, following devastation caused by a cyclone in 1897, another one in 1937, Japanese air raids during World War II, and Cyclone Tracy in 1974.
== History ==
=== Indigenous history ===
The Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and earliest known inhabitants of the greater Darwin area. Their name for the area is Garramilla, They had trading routes with Southeast Asia (see Macassan contact with Australia) and imported goods from as far afield as South and Western Australia. Established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes. The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple clan groups within this area is contestable.
=== Pre-20th century ===
The Dutch visited Australia's northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be attacked by the Tiwi peoples. The Dutch created the first European maps of the area. This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt. During this period, Dutch explorers named the region around Darwin—sometimes including nearby Kimberley—variations of "Van Diemen's Land", after the VOC governor-general Anthony van Diemen. This should not be confused with the more general and prolonged use of the same name for Tasmania.
The first Briton to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of on 9 September 1839. The ship's captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, the British naturalist who had sailed with him when he served as first lieutenant on the earlier second expedition of the Beagle.
In 1863, the Northern Territory was transferred from New South Wales to South Australia. In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey and found a capital for its new territory. Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about northeast of the modern city. This attempt was short-lived, and the settlement abandoned by 1865. On 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin between Fort Hill and the escarpment. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston after British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. In 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world. The discovery of gold by employees of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line digging holes for telegraph poles at Pine Creek in the 1880s spawned a gold rush, which further boosted the colony's development.
In February 1872 the brigantine Alexandra was the first private vessel to sail from an English port directly to Darwin, carrying people many of whom were coming to recent gold finds.
In early 1875 Darwin's white population had grown to approximately 300 because of the gold rush. On 17 February 1875 the left Darwin en route for Adelaide. The approximately 88 passengers and 34 crew (surviving records vary) included government officials, circuit-court judges, Darwin residents taking their first furlough, and miners. While travelling south along the north Queensland coast, the Gothenburg encountered a cyclone-strength storm and was wrecked on a section of the Great Barrier Reef. Only 22 men survived, while between 98 and 112 people perished. Many passengers who perished were Darwin residents, and news of the tragedy severely affected the small community, which reportedly took several years to recover.
In the 1870s, relatively large numbers of Chinese settled at least temporarily in the Northern Territory; many were contracted to work the goldfields and later to build the Palmerston to Pine Creek railway. By 1888 there were 6,122 Chinese in the Northern Territory, mostly in or around Darwin. The early Chinese settlers were mainly from Guangdong Province. The Chinese community established Darwin Chinatown. At the end of the 19th century, anti-Chinese feelings grew in response to the 1890s economic depression, and the White Australia policy meant many Chinese left the territory. But some stayed, became British subjects, and established a commercial base in Darwin.
===Early 20th century===
The Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by South Australia, until its transfer to the Commonwealth in 1911. In the same year, the city's official name changed from Palmerston to Darwin.
The period between 1911 and 1919 was filled with political turmoil, particularly with trade union unrest, which culminated on 17 December 1918. Led by Harold Nelson, some 1,000 demonstrators marched to Government House at Liberty Square in Darwin, where they burnt an effigy of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, John Gilruth, and demanded his resignation. The incident became known as the Darwin Rebellion. Their grievances were against the two main Northern Territory employers: Vestey's Meatworks and the federal government. Both Gilruth and the Vestey company left Darwin soon afterward.
On 18 October 1918, during the Spanish flu pandemic, the SS Mataram sailing from Singapore with infectious diseases arrived in Darwin.
In 1931, the 17 remaining patients from the leprosarium at Cossack, Western Australia were moved to Darwin, after it closed down. It was at a time when many Aboriginal people who were thought to have leprosy or other infectious diseases were sent to lock hospitals and leprosariums under the Aborigines Act 1905, which gave the Chief Protector of Aborigines powers to arrest and send any Indigenous person suspected of having a range of diseases to one of these institutions.
Around 10,000 Australian and other Allied troops arrived in Darwin at the outset of World War II to defend Australia's northern coast. On 19 February 1942 at 9:57am, 188 Japanese warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves. It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbor, though considerably more bombs were dropped on Darwin than on Pearl Harbor. The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town, airfields, and aircraft. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage. They were the first of many raids on Darwin.
Darwin Chinatown which lay within the heart of Darwin was razed to the ground by the Japanese bombing and was never rebuilt. Northern Territory administrator Aubrey Abbott wanted to eliminate the Chinese community and forcibly seized their land as it was considered prime real estate.
Darwin was further developed after the war, with sealed roads constructed connecting the region to Alice Springs to the south and Mount Isa to the southeast, and Manton Dam built in the south to provide the city with water. On Australia Day (26 January) 1959, Darwin was granted city status.
===1970–present===
On 25 December 1974, Darwin was struck by Cyclone Tracy, which killed 71 people and destroyed over 70% of the city's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, which could not withstand the lateral forces the winds generated. After the disaster, 30,000 of the population of 46,000 were evacuated in the biggest airlift in Australia's history. was part of the original Darwin Civil Aerodrome in Parap and is now a museum that still bears scars from the bombing of Darwin during World War II.
Darwin was home to Australian and U.S. pilots during the war, with airstrips built in and around Darwin. Today Darwin provides a staging ground for military exercises.
Darwin was a compulsory stopover and checkpoint in the London-to-Melbourne Centenary Air Race in 1934. The official name of the race was the MacRobertson Air Race. Winners of the race were Tom Campbell Black and C. W. A. Scott.
The following is an excerpt from Time magazine, 29 October 1934:
The Darwin Aviation Museum is about from the city centre on the Stuart Highway and is one of only three places outside the United States where a B-52 bomber (on permanent loan from the United States Air Force) is on public display.
== Geography ==
Darwin is a coastal city, situated along the western shoreline of the Northern Territory. The water meets the land from the Beagle Gulf, which extends out into the Timor Sea. The central business district occupies a low bluff overlooking Darwin Harbour to the south, beyond which lie East Arm, Middle Arm, Northern Territory, and, across the gulf, West Arm. Middle Arm has an industrial precinct on the peninsula, which is being promoted as a sustainable development area that will include plants for industries such as low-emission petrochemicals, renewable hydrogen, and carbon capture storage. The city is flanked by Frances Bay to the east and Cullen Bay to the west.
The rest of the city is relatively flat and low-lying, and areas bordering the coast are home to recreational reserves, extensive beaches, and excellent fishing.
=== City and suburbs ===
Darwin and its suburbs spread in an approximately triangular shape, with the older southwestern suburbs—and the city itself—forming one corner, the newer northern suburbs another, and the eastern suburbs, progressing towards Palmerston, forming the third.
The older part of Darwin is separated from the newer northern suburbs by Darwin International Airport and RAAF Base Darwin. Palmerston is a satellite city east of Darwin that was established in the 1980s and is one of Australia's fastest-growing municipalities. Darwin's rural areas, including Howard Springs, Humpty Doo and Berry Springs, are experiencing strong growth.
Darwin's central business district (CBD) is bounded by Daly Street in the northwest, McMinn Street in the northeast, Mitchell Street on the southwest, and Bennett Street on the southeast. The CBD has been the focus of a number of major projects, such as the billion-dollar redevelopment of the Stokes Hill wharf waterfront area, including a convention centre with seating for 1,500 people and approximately of exhibition space. The developers announced that this includes hotels, residential apartments, and public space. The city's main industrial areas are along the Stuart Highway toward Palmerston, centred on Winnellie. The area's largest shopping precinct is Casuarina Square.
The most expensive residential areas stand along the coast in suburbs such as the marina of Cullen Bay, Larrakeyah, Bayview and Brinkin. These low-lying regions are at risk during cyclones and higher tides, but adequate drainage and stringent building regulations have reduced the potential damage to buildings or injury to residents. The inner northern suburbs are home to lower-income households, although low-income Territory Housing units are scattered throughout the metropolitan area. The suburb of Lyons was part of a multi-stage land release and development in the Northern Suburbs; planning, development and construction took place from 2004 to 2009. More recent developments near Lyons subdivision includes the suburb of Muirhead.
=== Climate ===
Darwin has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons, and the average maximum temperature is similar year round. The Australian Building Codes Board classifies it as Climate Zone 1 under the National Construction Code (NCC). Climate zones are a broad classification of climate zones in the NCC ranging from one to eight, categorising the different climates of Australia. The sun passes directly overhead in mid-October and mid-February. The dry season runs from about May to September, during which nearly every day is sunny, and afternoon relative humidity averages around 30%. The hottest months are October and November, just before the onset of the main rain season. The temperature is usually below , but the heat index sometimes rises above due to humidity levels. The wet season runs generally between December and March, with a transition towards the dry season in April.
The average temperature of the sea ranges from in July to in December.
====Dry season====
The driest period of the year, seeing about of monthly rainfall on average, is between May and September. In the coolest months, June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as , but very rarely lower, and a temperature lower than has never been recorded in the city centre. Outer suburbs away from the coast occasionally record temperatures as low as in the dry season. Because of its long dry season, Darwin has the second-highest average daily hours of sunshine (8.4) of any Australian capital, with the most sunshine from April to November; only Perth, Western Australia, averages more (8.8).
====Wet season====
The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. Most rainfall occurs between December and March when thunderstorms are common, and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70 percent during the wettest months. February 2011 was also Darwin's wettest month ever recorded, with at the airport.
For a 147‑day period during the 2012 dry season, from 5 May to 29 September, Darwin recorded no precipitation. Prolonged periods of no precipitation are common in the dry season in Northern Australia (particularly in the Northern Territory and northern regions of Western Australia), although a no-rainfall event of this extent is rare.
Darwin occupies one of the most lightning-prone areas in Australia. On 31 January 2002 an early-morning squall line produced over 5,000 cloud-to-ground lightning strikes within a radius of Darwin alone—about three times the amount of lightning that Perth experiences on average in an entire year.
== Demographics ==
===Ancestry and immigration===
Darwin's population changed after the Second World War. Like many other Australian cities, Darwin experienced influxes from Europe, with significant numbers of Italians and Greeks during the 1960s and 1970s. It also began to experience an influx from other European countries, which included the Dutch, Germans, and many others. A significant proportion of Darwin's residents are recent immigrants from Asia, including the peoples of East Timor.
At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:}}
English (32.7%)
Irish (11.1%)
Scottish (8.8%)
Indigenous (8.7%)
German (5%)
Filipino (4.8%)
Chinese (4.5%)
Greek (3.2%)
Indian (2.8%)
Italian (2.6%)
Dutch (1.5%)
Indonesian (1.1%)
New Zealander (1.1%)
}}
38.3% of the population at the 2016 census was born overseas. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from the Philippines (3.6%), England (3.1%), New Zealand (2.1%), India (2%) and Greece (0.9%).
===Age===
In 2011, the Darwin population averaged 33 years old (compared to the national average of around 37), to a large extent because of the military presence and because many people opt to retire elsewhere.
=== Religion ===
As of 2021, 41.7% of Darwin had no religion, so described. The largest religious denomination was Roman Catholicism (18.2%) and Anglican (5.2%).
== Law and government ==
The Darwin City Council (incorporated under the Northern Territory Local Government Act 1993) governs the City of Darwin, which takes in the CBD and the suburbs. The city has been governed by a city council form of government since 1957. The council consists of 13 elected members, the lord mayor, and 12 aldermen.
The City of Darwin electorate is organised into four electoral units or wards. The wards are Chan, Lyons, Richardson, and Waters. The constituents of each ward are directly responsible for electing three aldermen. Constituents of all wards are directly responsible for electing the Lord Mayor of Darwin. Since the August 2017 council elections, the mayor has been Kon Vatskalis.
The rest of the Darwin area is divided into two local government areas—the Palmerston City Council and the Shire of Coomalie. These areas have elected councils that are responsible for functions delegated to them by the Northern Territory Government, such as planning and garbage collection.
The Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory convenes in Darwin in the Northern Territory Parliament House. Government House, the official residence of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, is on the Esplanade.
Darwin is split between nine electoral divisions in the Legislative Assembly—Port Darwin, Fannie Bay, Fong Lim, Nightcliff, Sanderson, Johnston, Casuarina, Wanguri, and Karama. Historically, Darwin voters elected Country Liberal Party members, but since the turn of the 21st century, voters have often selected Labor members, particularly in the more diverse northern section; as of the 2020 Northern Territory general election, all of Darwin's nine Legislative Assembly electoral divisions are held by Labor, with Labor also holding both the Northern Territory's federal electorates, Solomon and Lingiari.
Also on the Esplanade is the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory. Darwin has a Magistrate's Court on the corner of Cavenagh and Bennett streets, close to the Darwin City Council Chambers.
=== Crime ===
Darwin's police force are members of the Northern Territory Police, under the NT Police Darwin Metropolitan Command. The Darwin urban centre includes Darwin City and the associated suburbs from Buffalo Creek, Berrimah, and East Arm westwards, representing around 35% of the Northern Territory's population. Palmerston urban centre closely approximates the Palmerston Local Government Area, and represents approximately 13% of the Northern Territory's population.
Darwin has had a history of alcohol abuse and violent crime, with 6,000 assaults in 2009, of which 350 resulted in broken jaws and noses—more than anywhere else in the world, according to the Royal Darwin Hospital.
Mitchell Street, with its numerous pubs, clubs and other entertainment venues, was one of the areas policed by the CitySafe Unit, officially launched by the NT Chief Minister Paul Henderson on 25 February 2009. It was credited with success in tackling alcohol abuse linked to crime, and the NT police were looking at establishing a specialist licensing enforcement unit in 2010.
The First Response Patrol, run by Larrakia Nation, which helps move homeless Indigenous women out of dangerous situations, was credited with the decline in sexual assaults in 2009. The service operates every day from 5am to 2am.
===Recent trends===
In the 10 months between 1 October 2018, the date that the alcohol floor price and various other measures were imposed by the NT government following the Riley Review, and 31 July 2019, alcohol-related assaults dropped by 16% and domestic violence by 9% in the Darwin area.
The rate of offending in most categories of crime dropped in the Darwin urban area between 2018 and 2019, with the notable exceptions of motor vehicle theft and break-ins (both up about 12%).
Mining and energy industry production exceeds $2.5 billion per annum. The most important mineral resources are gold, zinc, and bauxite, along with manganese and many others. The energy production is mostly off-shore with oil and natural gas from the Timor Sea, although there are significant uranium deposits near Darwin. Tourism employs 8% of Darwin residents and is expected to grow as domestic and international tourists now spend time in Darwin during the wet and dry seasons. Federal spending is also a major contributor to the local economy.
Darwin's importance as a port is expected to grow, due to the increased exploitation of petroleum in the nearby Timor Sea and to the completion of the railway link and continued expansion in trade with Asia. During 2005, a number of major construction projects started in Darwin. One is the redevelopment of the Wharf Precinct, which includes a large convention and exhibition centre, apartment housing including Outrigger Pandanas and Evolution on Gardiner, retail and entertainment outlets including a large wave pool and safe swimming lagoon. The Chinatown project has also started with plans to construct Chinese-themed retail and dining outlets.
=== Tourism ===
Tourism is one of Darwin's largest industries and a major employment sector for the Northern Territory. In 2005–2006, 1.38 million people visited the Northern Territory. They stayed for 9.2 million nights and spent over $1.5 billion. The tourism industry directly employed 8,391 Territorians in June 2006, and, when indirect employment is included, tourism typically accounts for more than 14,000 jobs across the Territory.
Darwin is a hub for tours to Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park and Katherine Gorge. The year is traditionally divided into the wet and dry seasons, but there are up to six traditional seasons in Darwin. It is warm and sunny from May to September. Humidity rises during the green season, from October to April, bringing thunderstorms and monsoonal rains that rejuvenate the landscape. Tourism is largely seasonal, with most tourists visiting during the cooler dry season, from April to September.
=== Military ===
The military presence in both Darwin and the wider Northern Territory is a substantial source of employment. On 16 November 2011, Prime Minister Julia Gillard and President Barack Obama announced that the United States would station troops in Australia for the first time since World War II. The agreement between the U.S. and Australia would involve a contingent of 250 Marines arriving in Darwin in 2012, with the total number rising to a maximum of 2,500 troops by 2017 on six-month rotations as well as a supporting air element including F-22 Raptors, F-35 Joint Strike Fighters and KC-135 refuellers. China and Indonesia have expressed concern about the decision. Some analysts have argued that an expanded U.S. presence could pose a threat to security. Gillard announced that the first 200 U.S. Marines had arrived in Darwin from Hawaii on 3 April 2012. In 2013, further news of other expansion vectors aired in U.S. media, with no comment or confirmation from Australian authorities. The agreement between the two governments remains hidden from public scrutiny. Marine numbers based in Darwin increased to more than 1,150 by 2014. In a 2019 telephone survey of local residents, 51% of respondents had positive feelings about the U.S. troop presence, with 6% responding negatively. In late 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense signed a contract to create a fuel storage facility at East Arm.
Darwin hosts biennial multi-nation exercises named "Pitch Black"; in 2014 this involved military personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and the United States.
== Education ==
Education is overseen territory-wide by the Department of Education and Training (DET), whose role is to continually improve education outcomes for all students, with a focus on Indigenous students.
=== Preschool, primary and secondary ===
Darwin is served by a number of public and private schools that cater to local and overseas students. Over 16,500 primary and secondary students are enrolled in schools in Darwin, with 10,524 students attending primary education, and 5,932 students attending secondary education. Over 12,089 students are enrolled in government schools, and 2,124 in independent schools. There are over 35 primary and pre-schools and 12 secondary schools, including both government and non-government. Most schools in the city are secular, but there are a small number of Catholic and Lutheran institutions. Students intending to complete their secondary education work toward either the Northern Territory Certificate of Education, the Victorian Certificate of Education, or the Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (the latter two are offered only at Haileybury Rendall School). Until the sale and restructuring of Kormilda College in 2018, it was the only school to offer the International Baccalaureate in the Northern Territory.
Schools have been restructured into Primary, Middle, and High schools since the beginning of 2007.
=== Tertiary and vocational ===
Darwin's largest university is Charles Darwin University, the Northern Territory's central provider of tertiary education. It has both vocational and academic courses, acting as both a university and an Institute of TAFE. More than 5,500 students are enrolled in tertiary and further education courses. and Latitude College.
== Architecture ==
As Darwin was destroyed by cyclones several times and suffered severe bomb damage during World War II, few historic buildings remain in town. The Administrator's Office dating from 1883 was used as a law court and as a police station and was only slightly damaged by bombs, but in 1974, the cyclone completely destroyed it. In 1979, it was decided to rebuild, and the reconstruction was finished in 1981. The building houses government offices today. Opposite the building, Survivors Lookout offers a view of the marina.In a park in the south of the CBD, the ruin of the Town Hall built in 1883 and destroyed by the cyclone in 1974 can be seen. Browns Mart is a stone building dating from 1880 opposite the park. Browns Mart was originally used in many different activities including commerce, storage, shipping and insurance agency, mining exchange and meetings of local organisations but it was transformed into a theatre.
One of Darwin's most prominent buildings is the Chinese Temple, which was founded in 1887 and damaged by cyclones in 1897 and in 1937. It was severely damaged by bombs in 1942 and rebuilt after the war. On 24 December 1974 the cyclone completely destroyed it. Reconstruction was completed in 1978.
There are various modern churches in Darwin. St Mary's Star of the Sea Roman Catholic Cathedral was inaugurated in 1962. Christ Church Anglican Cathedral was rebuilt in 1977 after being severely damaged by bombs in 1942 and destroyed by Cyclone Tracy in 1974. The Uniting Memorial Church was built in 1960.
== Events and festivals ==
The annual Darwin Fringe Festival runs for 10 days each July as an open-access festival.
The Darwin Festival occurs each August, and includes comedy, dance, theatre, music, film and visual art, and the NT Indigenous Music Awards.
The Nightcliff Seabreeze Festival, which started in 2005, is held on the second week of May in the suburb of Nightcliff. It showcases local talent, and a popular event is Saturday family festivities along the Nightcliff foreshore, one of Darwin's most popular fitness tracks.
The Darwin beer-can regatta, held in August, celebrates Darwin's love affair with beer, and contestants race boats made of beer cans. Also in Darwin during August are the Darwin Cup horse race and the rodeo and Mud Crab Tying Competition.
The World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most fielded by universities or corporations and some by high schools. The race has a 20-year history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987.
The Royal Darwin Show is held annually in July at the Darwin Showgrounds. Exhibitions include agriculture and livestock, and horse events. Entertainment and sideshows are also included over the three days of the event.
The Darwin Street Art Festival is an annual event in September where street artists from around the world create large outdoor murals.
A yearly music festival, BASSINTHEGRASS, has been held since 2003. Since 2019 it has been held at Mindil Beach.
On 1 July, Territorians celebrate Territory Day. This is the only day of the year, apart from the Chinese New Year and New Year's Eve, that fireworks are permitted. In Darwin, the main celebrations occur at Mindil Beach, where the government commissions a large firework display.
Other festivals include the Glenti, which showcases Darwin's large Greek community, and India@Mindil, a similar festival held by the city's Indian community. The Chinese New Year is also celebrated with great festivity, highlighting the East Asian influence in Darwin.
== Arts and culture ==
The Darwin Symphony Orchestra was assembled in 1989 and has performed throughout the Territory. The Darwin Theatre Company is a locally produced professional theatre production company, performing locally and nationally.
The Darwin Entertainment Centre is the city's main concert venue and hosts theatre and orchestral performances. Other theatres include the Darwin Convention Centre, which opened in July 2008. The Darwin Convention Centre is part of the $1.1 billion Darwin Waterfront project.
The Northern Territory Museum and Art Gallery (MAGNT) in Darwin gives an overview of the history of the area, including exhibits on Cyclone Tracy and the boats of the Pacific Islands. The MAGNT also organises the annual Telstra National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Award, the longest-running Indigenous art award in Australia. The MAGNT also manages the Defence of Darwin Experience, a multi-media installation that tells the story of the Japanese air raids on Darwin during World War II.
The NT Dance Company is led by choreographer Gary Lang, who has been artistic director since 2012. Lang previously taught at many leading dance companies, including Bangarra Dance Theatre, after studying dance at NAISDA in Sydney and working as a dancer for years. The company has a strong focus on culture, and also works with disadvantaged young Indigenous people.
Local and visiting bands can be heard at venues including the Darwin Entertainment Centre, The Vic Hotel, Happy Yess, and Brown's Mart. Artists such as Jessica Mauboy and The Groovesmiths call Darwin home.
The multiculturalism of Darwin has helped make Southeast Asian noodle broth laksa the city's favourite meal.
==Other entertainment==
Weekly markets include the popular Mindil Beach Sunset Market (Thursdays and Sundays during the dry season); Parap Market; Nightcliff Market; and Rapid Creek market.
Darwin's only casino opened in 1979 as the Don Casino, operating out of the Don Hotel on Cavenagh Street. The present site of the hotel and casino on Darwin's Mindil Beach opened in 1983, at which point gambling operations ceased at the Don Hotel and resumed at the newly built facilities. The new hotel and casino was named Mindil Beach Casino until 1985, when the name changed to the Diamond Beach Hotel Casino. Upon its acquisition by MGM Grand the hotel was rebranded as the MGM Grand Darwin, before it changed to Skycity Darwin after Skycity Entertainment Group purchased the hotel in 2004.
Mitchell Street in the central business district is lined with nightclubs, takeaways, and restaurants. This is the city's entertainment hub. There are several smaller theatres, two cinema complexes (Casuarina, and Palmerston), and the Deckchair Cinema. An open-air cinema operates through the dry season, from April to October, screening independent and arthouse films.
==Recreation==
=== Beaches ===
During the months of October–May the sea contains deadly box jellyfish, known locally as stingers or sea wasps. Saltwater crocodiles are common in all waterways surrounding Darwin and are occasionally found in Darwin Harbour and on local beaches. An active trapping program is carried out by the NT Government to limit numbers of crocodiles within the Darwin urban waterway area.
The city has many kilometres of beaches, including the Casuarina Beach and renowned Mindil Beach, home of the Mindil Beach markets. Darwin City Council has designated an area of Casuarina Beach as a free beach, which has been designated as a nudist beach area since 1976.
Bundilla Beach was formerly named Vesteys Beach, In March 2021, the beach was formally renamed Bundilla Beach, the name by which it had long been known to the traditional owners, the Larrakia people.
The Darwin Surf Life Saving Club operates longboats and surf skis and provides events and lifesaving accreditations.
Lake Alexander is a man-made swimming lake at East Point Reserve.
===Fishing===
Fishing is a popular recreation among Darwin locals. Visitors fish for the barramundi, an iconic fish in the region. This fish thrives in the Daly River, Moyle River, Roper River, Anson Bay, Mary River, and South and East Alligator River.
Blue-water fishing is also available off the coast of Darwin; Spanish mackerel, black jewfish, queenfish, and snapper are found in the area.
=== Parks and gardens ===
Darwin has extensive parks and gardens. These include the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Casuarina Coastal Reserve, Charles Darwin National Park, Knuckey Lagoons Conservation Reserve, Leanyer Recreation Park, the Nightcliff Foreshore, Bicentennial Park and the Jingili Water Gardens.
=== Wildlife ===
Darwin is a popular bird-watching site, with locations such as the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Buffalo Creek, Leanyer Ponds, and Knuckey Lagoon. Slightly further from the city is one of the best birding sites in the country, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve.
Some species of native mammals are more abundant in Darwin than in the surrounding native forest and woodland ecosystems of the region, including the common brushtail possum and black-footed tree-rat. This is likely due to the presence of well-watered gardens and parks, the absence of frequent fires, and the availability of denning sites (e.g. the roofs of houses).
Darwin is also home to many species of frogs and reptiles. There are more species of snake in Darwin than any other Australian capital city, with 34 non-marine snake species found in the region, of which 23 have been recorded by professional snake catchers in Darwin itself. Fortunately for the citizens of Darwin, a far smaller proportion of these snakes are highly venomous than is typically found in other cities, due to the low numbers of front-fanged elapid species and dominance of relatively harmless pythons and colubrid species. Of the 23 more regularly encountered snake species in Darwin, it seems that species with broader habitat and dietary preferences, as well as a penchant for arboreality, are associated with more frequent human–snake interactions. Shifts in snake behaviour or movement also occur throughout the year, with species specific differences in abundance and occurrence in certain months.
== Sports ==
The Marrara Sports Complex near the airport has stadiums for Australian rules (TIO Stadium), cricket, rugby league, football, basketball (and indoor court sports), athletics and field hockey. Every two years since 1991 (excluding 2003 due to the SARS outbreak), Darwin has hosted the Arafura Games, a major regional sporting event. In July 2003, the city hosted its first international test cricket match between Australia and Bangladesh, followed by Australia and Sri Lanka in 2004.
Australian rules is played all year round and the Territory's premier league competition, the Northern Territory Football League is based in Darwin. Australian Football League clubs generally sell a handful of games to the Northern Territory each year, some of which are played at Marrara Oval. Darwin is part of a bid for a Northern Territory AFL license for proposed entry into the competition by 2028 at the earliest. The Darwin-based Indigenous All-Stars have participated in the AFL pre-season competition. In 2003, a record crowd of 17,500 attended a pre-season game between the All-Stars and Carlton Football Club at Marrara.
Rugby League and Rugby Union club competitions are played in Darwin each year, organised by the NTRL and NTRU respectively. The Darwin Hottest Sevens in the World tournament is hosted in Darwin each January, with Rugby Sevens club teams from countries including Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and Singapore competing. Darwin's Hottest 7s is the richest Rugby 7s tournament in the Southern Hemisphere.
Darwin hosts a round of the Supercars Championship every year, bringing thousands of motorsports fans to the Hidden Valley Raceway. Also in Hidden Valley, adjacent to the road-racing circuit, is Darwin's dirt track racing venue, Northline Speedway. The speedway has hosted a number of Australian Championships over the years for different categories including Sprintcars, Speedcars, and Super Sedans.
The Darwin Cup culminating on the first Monday of August is a popular horse race event for Darwin and draws large crowds every year to Fannie Bay Racecourse. While it is not as popular as the Melbourne Cup, it does draw a crowd and, in 2003, Sky Racing began televising most of the races. The Darwin Cup day is a public holiday for the Northern Territory (Picnic Day public holiday).
There is one greyhound racing track in Darwin at Winnellie Park on Hook Road. It is the only track in the Northern Territory.
In 2022, the Darwin Salties basketball club will debut in the Queensland-based NBL1 North competition, making the NBL1 the first Australian sport league to have clubs based in and playing out of every state and territory in Australia.
== Media ==
Darwin's major newspapers are the Northern Territory News (Monday–Saturday), The Sunday Territorian (Sunday), and the national daily, The Australian (Monday–Friday) and The Weekend Australian (Saturday), all published by News Corp. Free weekly community newspapers include Sun Newspapers (delivered in Darwin, Palmerston and Litchfield), and published by the NT News. Another newspaper, the Centralian Advocate (1947–present), is printed in Darwin and trucked to Alice Springs.
Former publications in (or connected to) Darwin include:
Moonta Herald and Northern Territory Gazette (1869)
Northern Territory Times and Gazette (1873–1927)
The North Australian (1883–1889)
The North Australian and Northern Territory Government Gazette (1889–1890)
The Northern Territory Times (1927–1932)
The Northern Standard (c.1929–1942)
Army News (1941–1946) – for the troops stationed in Darwin
The Darwin Sun (1981–1982) – a community newsletter
Five free-to-air channels service Darwin. Commercial television channels are provided by Seven Darwin (Seven Network affiliate), Nine Darwin (formerly branded as Channel 8) and Ten Darwin (Network Ten relay), which launched on 28 April 2008. The two government-owned national broadcast services in Darwin are the ABC and SBS. Subscription television services Foxtel via Cable and Fetch TV via IPTV are available in the Darwin/Palmerston/Litchfield areas.
Darwin has radio stations on AM and FM frequencies, as well as on DAB+ (digital radio). ABC stations include ABC Local Radio (105.7 FM), ABC Radio National (657 AM), ABC News Radio (102.5 FM), ABC Classic (107.3 FM) and Triple J (103.3 FM). SBS Radio (100.9 FM) also broadcasts its national radio network to Darwin. There are three commercial radio stations, Hot 100, Mix 104.9 and Top Country 92.3. Other stations in Darwin include university-based station Territory FM 104.1, dance music station KIK FM 91.5, Palmerston FM 88.0 and Niche Radio 87.6 Non-English stations include Arabic-language channel 2ME 1638 AM, Chinese-language channel 2CR 1701 AM, Greek-language channel 2MM 1656AM, Italian-language channel Rete Italia 1476 AM and Spanish-language channel Radio Austral 90.7 FM. Indigenous community-based stations Radio Larrakia 94.5 FM and Radio Yolngu 1530 AM. The two sports stations TAB Radio 1242 AM and SEN 1611 AM. As well as Christian stations Faith 88.4 FM, Rhema 97.7 FM and Vision Radio 1323 AM.
== Transport ==
The Territory's public transport services are managed by the Department of Lands and Planning, Public Transport Division. Darwin has a bus network serviced by a range of contracted bus operators, which provides transport to the main suburbs of Darwin.
Darwin has no commuter rail system, but long-distance passenger rail services do operate out of the city. The Alice Springs-Darwin railway line was completed in 2003, linking Darwin to Adelaide. The first service ran in 2004. The Ghan passenger train service between Adelaide and Darwin railway station via Alice Springs and Katherine runs once per week in each direction, with some exceptions.
Historically, the North Australia Railway carried passengers and freight from Darwin into the interior, reaching Pine Creek in 1889, Katherine in 1917, and Birdum in 1929. It was closed due to declining traffic in 1976.
Darwin International Airport, in the suburb of Eaton, is Darwin's only airport, which shares its runways with the Royal Australian Air Force's RAAF Base Darwin.
Darwin can be reached via the Stuart Highway, which runs the length of the Northern Territory from Darwin through Katherine, Tennant Creek, Alice Springs, and on to Adelaide. Other major roads in Darwin include Tiger Brennan Drive, Amy Johnson Avenue, Dick Ward Drive, Bagot Road, Trower Road, and McMillans Road. Bus service in the greater Darwin area is provided by Darwinbus.
===Port===
Ferries leave from Port Darwin to island locations, mainly for tourists. A ferry service to the Tiwi Islands, the Arafura Pearl, operates from Cullen Bay.
Darwin has a deepwater port, East Arm Wharf, which opened in 2000. It has of wharf line and is capable of handling Panamax-sized ships of a maximum length of and a DWT of up to .
== Infrastructure ==
=== Health ===
The Government of the Northern Territory Department of Health and Families oversees one public hospital in the Darwin metropolitan region. The Royal Darwin Hospital, in Tiwi, is the city's major teaching and referral hospital, and the largest in the Northern Territory.
There is one major private hospital, Darwin Private Hospital, in Tiwi, adjacent to the Royal Darwin Hospital. Darwin Private Hospital is operated and owned by Healthscope Ltd, a private hospital corporation.
A new hospital called Palmerston Regional Hospital was opened in August 2018 to help ease the pressure of patient numbers at the Royal Darwin Hospital.
=== Utilities ===
Water storage, supply and power for Darwin is managed by PowerWater. The corporation is also responsible for management of sewage and the major water catchments in the region. Water is mainly stored in the largest dam, The Darwin River Dam, which holds up to 90% of Darwin's water supply. For many years, Darwin's principal water supply came from Manton Dam.
Darwin and its suburbs, Palmerston and Katherine, are powered by the Channel Island Power Station, the Northern Territory's largest power plant, and the Weddell Power Station.
=== Telecommunications ===
Darwin once had Australia's only international connection to the outside world in the form of an overseas telegraph cable, connecting Darwin to Java. The southern section of the cable connected Darwin with Adelaide and was known as the overland telegraph line. In 2022, the Northern Territory Government announced that an international undersea cable system would land into Darwin, directly connecting it to Indonesia, Singapore, the United States and Timor Leste. The new cable system, representing an investment of $700 million, is expected to create a new digital economy as it is coupled with recent announcements on Data Centre Investment into Darwin. The plans for Darwin for Data Centres and International cables are outlined in the Northern Territory's Digital Strategy the Terabit Territory.
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] |
8,409 |
Dictator
|
A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a polity. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency. A wide variety of leaders coming to power in different kinds of regimes, such as one-party or dominant-party states and civilian governments under a personal rule, have been described as dictators.
__TOC__
== Etymology ==
The word dictator comes from the Latin word dictātor, agent noun from dictare (say repeatedly, assert, order). A dictator was a Roman magistrate given sole power for a limited duration. Originally an emergency legal appointment in the Roman Republic and the Etruscan culture, the term dictator did not have the negative meaning it has now. It started to get its modern negative meaning with Cornelius Sulla's ascension to the dictatorship following Sulla's civil war, making himself the first Dictator in Rome in more than a century (during which the office was ostensibly abolished) as well as de facto eliminating the time limit and need of senatorial acclamation.
He avoided a major constitutional crisis by resigning the office after about one year, dying a few years later. Julius Caesar followed Sulla's example in 49 BC and in February 44 BC was proclaimed , "Dictator in perpetuity", officially doing away with any limitations on his power, which he kept until his assassination the following month. Following Caesar's assassination, his heir Augustus was offered the title of dictator, but he declined it. Later successors also declined the title of dictator, and usage of the title soon diminished among Roman rulers.
== Modern era ==
As late as the second half of the 19th century, the term dictator had occasional positive implications. For example, during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the national leader Lajos Kossuth was often referred to as dictator, without any negative connotations, by his supporters and detractors alike, although his official title was that of regent-president. When creating a provisional executive in Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi officially assumed the title of "dictator" (see Dictatorship of Garibaldi). Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 January uprising in Poland, "Dictator" was also the official title of four leaders, the first being Ludwik Mierosławski.
Past that time, however, the term dictator assumed an invariably negative connotation. In popular usage, a dictatorship is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse against political opponents. The term has also come to be associated with megalomania. Many dictators create a cult of personality around themselves and they have also come to grant themselves increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours. For instance, Idi Amin Dada, who had been a British army lieutenant prior to Uganda's independence from Britain in October 1962, subsequently styled himself "His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular". In the movie The Great Dictator (1940), Charlie Chaplin satirized not only Adolf Hitler but the institution of dictatorship itself.
=== Characteristics ===
==== Benevolent dictatorship ====
A benevolent dictatorship refers to a government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state but is perceived to do so with regard for the benefit of the population as a whole, standing in contrast to the decidedly malevolent stereotype of a dictator. A benevolent dictator may allow for some civil liberties or democratic decision-making to exist, such as through public referendums or elected representatives with limited power, and often makes preparations for a transition to genuine democracy during or after their term. The label has been applied to leaders such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey (1923–38), Josip Broz Tito of SFR Yugoslavia (1953–80), and Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore (1959–90).
==== Military roles ====
The association between a dictator and the military is a common one. Many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and they often wear military uniforms. In some cases, this is perfectly legitimate; for instance, Francisco Franco was a general in the Spanish Army before he became Chief of State of Spain, and Manuel Noriega was officially commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces. In other cases, the association is mere pretense.
==== Crowd manipulation ====
Some dictators have been masters of crowd manipulation, such as Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Others were more prosaic speakers, such as Joseph Stalin and Francisco Franco. Typically, the dictator's people seize control of all media, censor or destroy the opposition, and give strong doses of propaganda daily, often built around a cult of personality.
Mussolini and Hitler used similar titles referring to them as "the Leader". Mussolini used "Il Duce" and Hitler was generally referred to as "der Führer", both meaning 'Leader' in Italian and German respectively. Franco used a similar title, "El Caudillo" ("the Head", 'the chieftain') and for Stalin his adopted name, meaning "Man of Steel", became synonymous with his role as the absolute leader. For Mussolini, Hitler, and Franco, the use of modest, non-traditional titles displayed their absolute power even stronger as they did not need any, not even a historic legitimacy either. However, in the case of Franco, the title "Caudillo" did have a longer history for political-military figures in both Latin America and Spain. Franco also used the phrase "By the Grace of God" on coinage or other material displaying him as Caudillo, whereas Hitler and Mussolini rarely used such language or imagery.
==== Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides ====
Over time, dictators have been known to use tactics that violate human rights. For example, under the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, government policy was enforced by secret police and the Gulag system of prison labour camps. Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time. Data collected from Soviet archives gives the death toll from Gulags as 1,053,829. The International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Sudan's military dictator Omar al-Bashir over alleged war crimes in Darfur.
Similar crimes were committed during Chairman Mao Zedong's rule over the People's Republic of China during China's Cultural Revolution, where Mao set out to purge dissidents, primarily through the use of youth groups strongly committed to his cult of personality, and during Augusto Pinochet's junta in Chile. Some dictators have been associated with genocide on certain races or groups; the most notable and wide-reaching example is the Holocaust, Adolf Hitler's genocide of eleven million people, of whom six million were Jews. Later on in Democratic Kampuchea, General Secretary Pol Pot and his policies killed an estimated 1.7 million people (out of a population of 7 million) during his four-year dictatorship. As a result, Pol Pot is sometimes described as "the Hitler of Cambodia" and "a genocidal tyrant".
=== Modern usage in formal titles ===
Because of its negative and pejorative connotations, modern authoritarian leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term dictator in their formal titles, instead they most often simply have title of president. In the 19th century, however, its official usage was more common:
The Dictatorial Government of Sicily (27 May – 4 November 1860) was a provisional executive government appointed by Giuseppe Garibaldi to rule Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand. The government ended when Sicily's annexation into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite.
Marian Langiewicz of Poland proclaimed himself Dictator and attempted (unsuccessfully) to form a Polish government in March 1863.
Romuald Traugutt was Dictator of Poland from 17 October 1863 to 10 April 1864.
The Dictatorial Government of the Philippines (24 May – 23 June 1898) was an insurgent government in the Philippines which was headed by Emilio Aguinaldo, who formally held the title of Dictator. The dictatorial government was superseded by the revolutionary government with Aguinaldo as president.
=== Criticism ===
The usage of the term dictator in western media has been criticized by the left-leaning organization Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting as "Code for Government We Don't Like". According to them, leaders that would generally be considered authoritarian but are allied with the United States such as Paul Biya or Nursultan Nazarbayev are rarely referred to as "dictators", while leaders of countries opposed to U.S. policy such as Nicolás Maduro or Bashar al-Assad have the term applied to them much more liberally.
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] |
8,410 |
Decibel
|
The decibel (symbol: dB) is a relative unit of measurement equal to one tenth of a bel (B). It expresses the ratio of two values of a power or root-power quantity on a logarithmic scale. Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a power ratio of 101/10 (approximately ) or root-power ratio of 101/20 (approximately ).
The unit fundamentally expresses a relative change but may also be used to express an absolute value as the ratio of a value to a fixed reference value; when used in this way, the unit symbol is often suffixed with letter codes that indicate the reference value. For example, for the reference value of 1 volt, a common suffix is "V" (e.g., "20 dBV").
Two principal types of scaling of the decibel are in common use. When expressing a power ratio, it is defined as ten times the logarithm with base 10. That is, a change in power by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 10 dB change in level. When expressing root-power quantities, a change in amplitude by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 20 dB change in level. The decibel scales differ by a factor of two, so that the related power and root-power levels change by the same value in linear systems, where power is proportional to the square of amplitude.
The definition of the decibel originated in the measurement of transmission loss and power in telephony of the early 20th century in the Bell System in the United States. The bel was named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell, but the bel is seldom used. Instead, the decibel is used for a wide variety of measurements in science and engineering, most prominently for sound power in acoustics, in electronics and control theory. In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, attenuation of signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often expressed in decibels.
== History ==
The decibel originates from methods used to quantify signal loss in telegraph and telephone circuits. Until the mid-1920s, the unit for loss was miles of standard cable (MSC). 1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power over one mile (approximately 1.6 km) of standard telephone cable at a frequency of radians per second (795.8 Hz), and matched closely the smallest attenuation detectable to a listener. A standard telephone cable was "a cable having uniformly distributed resistance of 88 ohms per loop-mile and uniformly distributed shunt capacitance of 0.054 microfarads per mile" (approximately corresponding to 19 gauge wire).
In 1924, Bell Telephone Laboratories received a favorable response to a new unit definition among members of the International Advisory Committee on Long Distance Telephony in Europe and replaced the MSC with the Transmission Unit (TU). 1 TU was defined such that the number of TUs was ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of measured power to a reference power.
The definition was conveniently chosen such that 1 TU approximated 1 MSC; specifically, 1 MSC was 1.056 TU. In 1928, the Bell system renamed the TU into the decibel, being one tenth of a newly defined unit for the base-10 logarithm of the power ratio. It was named the bel, in honor of the telecommunications pioneer Alexander Graham Bell.
The bel is seldom used, as the decibel was the proposed working unit.
The naming and early definition of the decibel is described in the NBS Standard's Yearbook of 1931:
In 1954, J. W. Horton argued that the use of the decibel as a unit for quantities other than transmission loss led to confusion, and suggested the name logit for "standard magnitudes which combine by multiplication", to contrast with the name unit for "standard magnitudes which combine by addition".
In April 2003, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) considered a recommendation for the inclusion of the decibel in the International System of Units (SI), but decided against the proposal. However, the decibel is recognized by other international bodies such as the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The IEC permits the use of the decibel with root-power quantities as well as power and this recommendation is followed by many national standards bodies, such as NIST, which justifies the use of the decibel for voltage ratios.
Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a power ratio of 101/10, which is approximately , and an amplitude (root-power quantity) ratio of 101/20 ().
The method of expressing a ratio as a level in decibels depends on whether the measured property is a power quantity or a root-power quantity; see Power, root-power, and field quantities for details.
=== Power quantities ===
When referring to measurements of power quantities, a ratio can be expressed as a level in decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to reference value. Thus, the ratio of P (measured power) to P0 (reference power) is represented by LP, that ratio expressed in decibels, which is calculated using the formula:
L_P = \frac{1}{2} \ln\!\left(\frac{P}{P_0}\right)\,\text{Np} = 10 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{P}{P_0}\right)\,\text{dB}
The base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the two power quantities is the number of bels. The number of decibels is ten times the number of bels (equivalently, a decibel is one-tenth of a bel). P and P0 must measure the same type of quantity, and have the same units before calculating the ratio. If P0 in the above equation, then LP = 0. If P is greater than P0 then LP is positive; if P is less than P0 then LP is negative.
Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for P in terms of P0 and LP :
P = 10^\frac{L_P}{10\,\text{dB}} P_0
=== Root-power (field) quantities ===
When referring to measurements of root-power quantities, it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares of F (measured) and F0 (reference). This is because the definitions were originally formulated to give the same value for relative ratios for both power and root-power quantities. Thus, the following definition is used:
L_F = \ln\!\left(\frac{F}{F_0}\right)\,\text{Np} = 10 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{F^2}{F_0^2}\right)\,\text{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left(\frac{F}{F_0}\right)\,\text{dB}
The formula may be rearranged to give
F = 10^\frac{L_F}{20\,\text{dB}} F_0
Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage or current when the impedance is constant. Taking voltage as an example, this leads to the equation for power gain level LG:
L_G = 20 \log_{10}\!\left (\frac{V_\text{out}}{V_\text{in}}\right)\,\text{dB}
where Vout is the root-mean-square (rms) output voltage, Vin is the rms input voltage. A similar formula holds for current.
The term root-power quantity is introduced by ISO Standard 80000-1:2009 as a substitute of field quantity. The term field quantity is deprecated by that standard and root-power is used throughout this article.
=== Relationship between power and root-power levels ===
Although power and root-power quantities are different quantities, their respective levels are historically measured in the same units, typically decibels. A factor of 2 is introduced to make changes in the respective levels match under restricted conditions such as when the medium is linear and the same waveform is under consideration with changes in amplitude, or the medium impedance is linear and independent of both frequency and time. This relies on the relationship
\frac{P(t)}{P_0} = \left(\frac{F(t)}{F_0}\right)^2
holding. In a nonlinear system, this relationship does not hold by the definition of linearity. However, even in a linear system in which the power quantity is the product of two linearly related quantities (e.g. voltage and current), if the impedance is frequency- or time-dependent, this relationship does not hold in general, for example if the energy spectrum of the waveform changes.
For differences in level, the required relationship is relaxed from that above to one of proportionality (i.e., the reference quantities P and F need not be related), or equivalently,
\frac{P_2}{P_1} = \left(\frac{F_2}{F_1}\right)^2
must hold to allow the power level difference to be equal to the root-power level difference from power P and F to P and F. An example might be an amplifier with unity voltage gain independent of load and frequency driving a load with a frequency-dependent impedance: the relative voltage gain of the amplifier is always 0 dB, but the power gain depends on the changing spectral composition of the waveform being amplified. Frequency-dependent impedances may be analyzed by considering the quantities power spectral density and the associated root-power quantities via the Fourier transform, which allows elimination of the frequency dependence in the analysis by analyzing the system at each frequency independently.
=== Conversions ===
Since logarithm differences measured in these units often represent power ratios and root-power ratios, values for both are shown below. The bel is traditionally used as a unit of logarithmic power ratio, while the neper is used for logarithmic root-power (amplitude) ratio.
=== Examples ===
The unit dBW is often used to denote a ratio for which the reference is 1 W, and similarly dBm for a reference point.
Calculating the ratio in decibels of (one kilowatt, or watts) to yields:
L_G = 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{1\,000\,\text{W}}{1\,\text{W}}\right)\,\text{dB} = 30\,\text{dB}
The ratio in decibels of to is:
L_G = 20 \log_{10} \left(\frac{31.62\,\text{V}}{1\,\text{V}}\right)\,\text{dB} = 30\,\text{dB}
, illustrating the consequence from the definitions above that LG has the same value, 30 dB, regardless of whether it is obtained from powers or from amplitudes, provided that in the specific system being considered power ratios are equal to amplitude ratios squared.
The ratio in decibels of to (one milliwatt) is obtained with the formula:
L_G = 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{10\text{W}}{0.001\text{W}}\right)\,\text{dB} = 40\,\text{dB}
The power ratio corresponding to a change in level is given by:
G = 10^\frac{3}{10} \times 1 = 1.995\,26\ldots \approx 2
A change in power ratio by a factor of 10 corresponds to a change in level of . A change in power ratio by a factor of 2 or is approximately a change of 3 dB. More precisely, the change is ± dB, but this is almost universally rounded to 3 dB in technical writing. This implies an increase in voltage by a factor of . Likewise, a doubling or halving of the voltage, corresponding to a quadrupling or quartering of the power, is commonly described as 6 dB rather than ± dB.
Should it be necessary to make the distinction, the number of decibels is written with additional significant figures. 3.000 dB corresponds to a power ratio of 103/10, or , about 0.24% different from exactly 2, and a voltage ratio of , about 0.12% different from exactly . Similarly, an increase of 6.000 dB corresponds to a power ratio of , about 0.5% different from 4.
== Properties ==
The decibel is useful for representing large ratios and for simplifying representation of multiplicative effects, such as attenuation from multiple sources along a signal chain. Its application in systems with additive effects is less intuitive, such as in the combined sound pressure level of two machines operating together. Care is also necessary with decibels directly in fractions and with the units of multiplicative operations.
=== Reporting large ratios ===
The logarithmic scale nature of the decibel means that a very large range of ratios can be represented by a convenient number, in a manner similar to scientific notation. This allows one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity. See Bode plot and Semi-log plot. For example, 120 dB SPL may be clearer than "a trillion times more intense than the threshold of hearing".
=== Representation of multiplication operations ===
Level values in decibels can be added instead of multiplying the underlying power values, which means that the overall gain of a multi-component system, such as a series of amplifier stages, can be calculated by summing the gains in decibels of the individual components, rather than multiply the amplification factors; that is, = log(A) + log(B) + log(C). Practically, this means that, armed only with the knowledge that 1 dB is a power gain of approximately 26%, 3 dB is approximately 2× power gain, and 10 dB is 10× power gain, it is possible to determine the power ratio of a system from the gain in dB with only simple addition and multiplication. For example:
A system consists of 3 amplifiers in series, with gains (ratio of power out to in) of 10 dB, 8 dB, and 7 dB respectively, for a total gain of 25 dB. Broken into combinations of 10, 3, and 1 dB, this is: With an input of 1 watt, the output is approximately Calculated precisely, the output is 1 W × 1025/10 ≈ 316.2 W. The approximate value has an error of only +0.4% with respect to the actual value, which is negligible given the precision of the values supplied and the accuracy of most measurement instrumentation.
However, according to its critics, the decibel creates confusion, obscures reasoning, is more related to the era of slide rules than to modern digital processing, and is cumbersome and difficult to interpret.
Quantities in decibels are not necessarily additive, thus being "of unacceptable form for use in dimensional analysis".
Thus, units require special care in decibel operations. Take, for example, carrier-to-noise-density ratio C/N0 (in hertz), involving carrier power C (in watts) and noise power spectral density N0 (in W/Hz). Expressed in decibels, this ratio would be a subtraction (C/N0)dB = CdB − N0 dB. However, the linear-scale units still simplify in the implied fraction, so that the results would be expressed in dB-Hz.
=== Representation of addition operations ===
According to Mitschke, "The advantage of using a logarithmic measure is that in a transmission chain, there are many elements concatenated, and each has its own gain or attenuation. To obtain the total, addition of decibel values is much more convenient than multiplication of the individual factors." However, for the same reason that humans excel at additive operation over multiplication, decibels are awkward in inherently additive operations:if two machines each individually produce a sound pressure level of, say, 90 dB at a certain point, then when both are operating together we should expect the combined sound pressure level to increase to 93 dB, but certainly not to 180 dB!; suppose that the noise from a machine is measured (including the contribution of background noise) and found to be 87 dBA but when the machine is switched off the background noise alone is measured as 83 dBA. [...] the machine noise [level (alone)] may be obtained by 'subtracting' the 83 dBA background noise from the combined level of 87 dBA; i.e., 84.8 dBA.; in order to find a representative value of the sound level in a room a number of measurements are taken at different positions within the room, and an average value is calculated. [...] Compare the logarithmic and arithmetic averages of [...] 70 dB and 90 dB: logarithmic average = 87 dB; arithmetic average = 80 dB.
Addition on a logarithmic scale is called logarithmic addition, and can be defined by taking exponentials to convert to a linear scale, adding there, and then taking logarithms to return. For example, where operations on decibels are logarithmic addition/subtraction and logarithmic multiplication/division, while operations on the linear scale are the usual operations:
87\,\text{dBA} \ominus 83\,\text{dBA} = 10 \cdot \log_{10}\bigl(10^{87/10} - 10^{83/10}\bigr)\,\text{dBA} \approx 84.8\,\text{dBA}
\begin{align}
M_\text{lm}(70, 90) &= \left(70\,\text{dBA} + 90\,\text{dBA}\right)/2 \\
&= 10 \cdot \log_{10}\left(\bigl(10^{70/10} + 10^{90/10}\bigr)/2\right)\,\text{dBA} \\
&= 10 \cdot \left(\log_{10}\bigl(10^{70/10} + 10^{90/10}\bigr) - \log_{10} 2\right)\,\text{dBA}
\approx 87\,\text{dBA}
\end{align}
The logarithmic mean is obtained from the logarithmic sum by subtracting 10\log_{10} 2, since logarithmic division is linear subtraction.
=== Fractions ===
Attenuation constants, in topics such as optical fiber communication and radio propagation path loss, are often expressed as a fraction or ratio to distance of transmission. In this case, represents decibel per meter, represents decibel per mile, for example. These quantities are to be manipulated obeying the rules of dimensional analysis, e.g., a 100-meter run with a fiber yields a loss of 0.1 km.
== Uses ==
=== Perception ===
The human perception of the intensity of sound and light more nearly approximates the logarithm of intensity rather than a linear relationship (see Weber–Fechner law), making the dB scale a useful measure.
=== Acoustics ===
The decibel is commonly used in acoustics as a unit of sound power level or sound pressure level. The reference pressure for sound in air is set at the typical threshold of perception of an average human and there are common comparisons used to illustrate different levels of sound pressure. As sound pressure is a root-power quantity, the appropriate version of the unit definition is used:
L_p = 20 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{p_{\text{rms}}}{p_{\text{ref}}}\right)\,\text{dB},
where prms is the root mean square of the measured sound pressure and pref is the standard reference sound pressure of 20 micropascals in air or 1 micropascal in water.
Use of the decibel in underwater acoustics leads to confusion, in part because of this difference in reference value.
Sound intensity is proportional to the square of sound pressure. Therefore, the sound intensity level can also be defined as:
L_p = 10 \log_{10}\!\left(\frac{I}{I_{\text{ref}}}\right)\,\text{dB},
The human ear has a large dynamic range in sound reception. The ratio of the sound intensity that causes permanent damage during short exposure to that of the quietest sound that the ear can hear is equal to or greater than 1 trillion (1012). Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic scale: the base-10 logarithm of 1012 is 12, which is expressed as a sound intensity level of 120 dB re 1 pW/m2. The reference values of I and p in air have been chosen such that this corresponds approximately to a sound pressure level of 120 dB re 20 μPa.
Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all sound frequencies, the acoustic power spectrum is modified by frequency weighting (A-weighting being the most common standard) to get the weighted acoustic power before converting to a sound level or noise level in decibels.
=== Telephony ===
The decibel is used in telephony and audio. Similarly to the use in acoustics, a frequency weighted power is often used. For audio noise measurements in electrical circuits, the weightings are called psophometric weightings.
=== Electronics ===
In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (as for gains) in preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components. Similarly, in telecommunications, decibels denote signal gain or loss from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, waveguide, coaxial cable, fiber optics, etc.) using a link budget.
The decibel unit can also be combined with a reference level, often indicated via a suffix, to create an absolute unit of electric power. For example, it can be combined with m for milliwatt to produce the dBm. A power level of 0 dBm corresponds to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW).
In professional audio specifications, a popular unit is the dBu. This is relative to the root mean square voltage which delivers 1 mW (0 dBm) into a 600-ohm resistor, or ≈ 0.775 VRMS. When used in a 600-ohm circuit (historically, the standard reference impedance in telephone circuits), dBu and dBm are identical.
=== Optics ===
In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a fiber, and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each component (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall link loss may be quickly calculated by addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.
In spectrometry and optics, the blocking unit used to measure optical density is equivalent to −1 B.
=== Video and digital imaging ===
In connection with video and digital image sensors, decibels generally represent ratios of video voltages or digitized light intensities, using 20 log of the ratio, even when the represented intensity (optical power) is directly proportional to the voltage generated by the sensor, not to its square, as in a CCD imager where response voltage is linear in intensity.
Thus, a camera signal-to-noise ratio or dynamic range quoted as 40 dB represents a ratio of 100:1 between optical signal intensity and optical-equivalent dark-noise intensity, not a 10,000:1 intensity (power) ratio as 40 dB might suggest.
Sometimes the 20 log ratio definition is applied to electron counts or photon counts directly, which are proportional to sensor signal amplitude without the need to consider whether the voltage response to intensity is linear.
However, as mentioned above, the 10 log intensity convention prevails more generally in physical optics, including fiber optics, so the terminology can become murky between the conventions of digital photographic technology and physics. Most commonly, quantities called dynamic range or signal-to-noise (of the camera) would be specified in , but in related contexts (e.g. attenuation, gain, intensifier SNR, or rejection ratio) the term should be interpreted cautiously, as confusion of the two units can result in very large misunderstandings of the value.
Photographers typically use an alternative base-2 log unit, the stop, to describe light intensity ratios or dynamic range.
== Suffixes and reference values ==
Suffixes are commonly attached to the basic dB unit in order to indicate the reference value by which the ratio is calculated. For example, dBm indicates power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt.
In cases where the unit value of the reference is stated, the decibel value is known as "absolute". If the unit value of the reference is not explicitly stated, as in the dB gain of an amplifier, then the decibel value is considered relative.
This form of attaching suffixes to dB is widespread in practice, albeit being against the rules promulgated by standards bodies (ISO and IEC), given the "unacceptability of attaching information to units" and the "unacceptability of mixing information with units". The IEC 60027-3 standard recommends the following format: This is used to measure microphone sensitivity, and also to specify the consumer line-level of , in order to reduce manufacturing costs relative to equipment using a line-level signal.
dB or dB : RMS voltage relative to (i.e. the voltage that would dissipate 1 mW into a 600 Ω load). An RMS voltage of 1 V therefore corresponds to \ 20\cdot\log_{10} \left( \frac{\ 1\ V_\mathsf{RMS}\ }{ \sqrt{0.6\ }\ V} \right) = 2.218\ \mathsf{dB_u} ~. The v comes from volt, while u comes from the volume unit displayed on a VU meter.dB can be used as a measure of voltage, regardless of impedance, but is derived from a 600 Ω load dissipating 0 dB (1 mW). The reference voltage comes from the computation \ 7 \mathsf{V} = \sqrt{R \cdot P\ }\ where \ R\ is the resistance and \ P\ is the power.
In professional audio, equipment may be calibrated to indicate a "0" on the VU meters some finite time after a signal has been applied at an amplitude of . Consumer equipment typically uses a lower "nominal" signal level of Therefore, many devices offer dual voltage operation (with different gain or "trim" settings) for interoperability reasons. A switch or adjustment that covers at least the range between and is common in professional equipment.
dB : Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574 ; dB: dB(mVRMS) – root mean square voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω. Widely used in cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single TV signal at the receiver terminals is about 0 dB. Cable TV uses 75 Ω coaxial cable, so 0 dB corresponds to −78.75 dB or approximately 13 nW.
dB or dB : dB(μVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 microvolt. Widely used in television and aerial amplifier specifications. 60 dBμV = 0 dB.
=== Acoustics ===
Probably the most common usage of "decibels" in reference to sound level is dB, sound pressure level referenced to the nominal threshold of human hearing: The measures of pressure (a root-power quantity) use the factor of 20, and the measures of power (e.g. dB and dB) use the factor of 10.
dB : dB (sound pressure level) – for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 micropascals (μPa), or , a level of 0 dB is approximately the quietest sound a human can hear. For sound in water and other liquids, a reference pressure of 1 μPa is used. An RMS sound pressure of one pascal corresponds to a level of 94 dB SPL.
dB : dB sound intensity level – relative to 10−12 W/m2, which is roughly the threshold of human hearing in air.
dB : dB sound power level – relative to 10−12 W.
dB, dB, and dB : These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). These measurements usually refer to noise and its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dB or dB(A). According to standards from the International Electro-technical Committee (IEC 61672-2013) and the American National Standards Institute, ANSI S1.4, the preferred usage is to write Nevertheless, the units dB and dB(A) are still commonly used as a shorthand for Aweighted measurements. Compare dB, used in telecommunications.
dB : dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss. The reference level varies with frequency according to a minimum audibility curve as defined in ANSI and other standards, such that the resulting audiogram shows deviation from what is regarded as 'normal' hearing.
dB : sometimes used to denote weighted noise level, commonly using the ITU-R 468 noise weighting
dB : relative to the peak to peak sound pressure.
dB : G‑weighted spectrum
=== Audio electronics ===
See also dB and dB above.
dB : dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. In audio and telephony, dB is typically referenced relative to a 600 Ω impedance, which corresponds to a voltage level of 0.775 volts or 775 millivolts.
dB : Power in dB (described above) measured at a zero transmission level point.
dB : dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Full-scale may be defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square wave. A signal measured with reference to a full-scale sine-wave appears 3 dB weaker when referenced to a full-scale square wave, thus: 0 dBFS(fullscale sine wave) = −3 dB (fullscale square wave).
dB : dB volume unit
dB : dB(true peak) – peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. In digital systems, 0 dB would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing. Measured values are always negative or zero, since they are less than or equal to full-scale.
=== Radar ===
dB : dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z = 1 mm⋅m: energy of reflectivity (weather radar), related to the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver. Values above 20 dB usually indicate falling precipitation.
dB : dB(m²) – decibel relative to one square meter: measure of the radar cross section (RCS) of a target. The power reflected by the target is proportional to its RCS. "Stealth" aircraft and insects have negative RCS measured in dB, large flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have positive values.
=== Radio power, energy, and field strength ===
dB : relative to carrier – in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power. Compare dB, used in acoustics.
dB : relative to the maximum value of the peak power.
dB : energy relative to 1 joule. 1 joule = 1 watt second = 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dB.
dB : dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. In the radio field, dB is usually referenced to a 50 Ω load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts.
dB, dB, or dB : dB(μV/m) – electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter. The unit is often used to specify the signal strength of a television broadcast at a receiving site (the signal measured at the antenna output is reported in dBμ).
dB : dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.
dB : dB(W) – power relative to 1 watt.
dB : dB(kW) – power relative to 1 kilowatt.
dB : dB electrical.
dB : dB optical. A change of 1 dB in optical power can result in a change of up to 2 dB in electrical signal power in a system that is thermal noise limited.
=== Antenna measurements ===
dB : dB(isotropic) – the gain of an antenna compared with the gain of a theoretical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions. Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.
dB : dB(dipole) – the gain of an antenna compared with the gain a half-wave dipole antenna. 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
dB : dB(isotropic circular) – the gain of an antenna compared to the gain of a theoretical circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule between dB and dB, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.
dB : dB(quarterwave) – the gain of an antenna compared to the gain of a quarter wavelength whip. Rarely used, except in some marketing material; =
dB : dB, dB(m²) – decibels relative to one square meter: A measure of the effective area for capturing signals of the antenna.
dB : dB(m) – decibels relative to reciprocal of meter: measure of the antenna factor.
=== Other measurements ===
dB or dB‑Hz : dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one hertz. E.g., 20 dBHz corresponds to a bandwidth of 100 Hz. Commonly used in link budget calculations. Also used in carrier-to-noise-density ratio (not to be confused with carrier-to-noise ratio, in dB).
dB or dB: dB(overload) – the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Similar to dB FS, but also applicable to analog systems. According to ITU-T Rec. G.100.1 the level in dB ov of a digital system is defined as: \ L_\mathsf{ov} = 10 \log_{10} \left( \frac{ P }{\ P_\mathsf{max}\ } \right)\ [\mathsf{dB_{ov}}]\ , with the maximum signal power \ P_\mathsf{max} = 1.0\ , for a rectangular signal with the maximum amplitude \ x_\mathsf{over} ~. The level of a tone with a digital amplitude (peak value) of \ x_\mathsf{over}\ is therefore \ L_\mathsf{ov} = -3.01\ \mathsf{dB_{ov}} ~.
dB : dB(relative) – simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.
dB : dB above reference noise. See also dB
dB : dB(rnC) represents an audio level measurement, typically in a telephone circuit, relative to a −90 dB reference level, with the measurement of this level frequency-weighted by a standard C-message weighting filter. The C-message weighting filter was chiefly used in North America. The psophometric filter is used for this purpose on international circuits.
dB : dB(K) – decibels relative to 1 K; used to express noise temperature.
dB or dB : dB(K⁻¹) – decibels relative to 1 K⁻¹. — not decibels per Kelvin: Used for the (G/T) factor, a figure of merit used in satellite communications, relating the antenna gain to the receiver system noise equivalent temperature .
=== List of suffixes in alphabetical order ===
==== Unpunctuated suffixes ====
dB : see dB(A).
dB : see dB adjusted.
dB : see dB(B).
dB : relative to carrier – in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power.
dB : see dB(C).
dB : see dB(D).
dB : dB(dipole) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with a half-wave dipole antenna. 0 dBd = 2.15 dB
dB : dB electrical.
dB : dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.
dB : dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Full-scale may be defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square wave. A signal measured with reference to a full-scale sine-wave appears 3 dB weaker when referenced to a full-scale square wave, thus: 0 dB (fullscale sine wave) = −3 dB (full-scale square wave).
dB : G-weighted spectrum
dB : dB(isotropic) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with the hypothetical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions. Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.
dB : dB(isotropic circular) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule between dB and dB, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.
dB : energy relative to 1 joule: 1 joule = 1 watt-second = 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dB.
dB : dB(kW) – power relative to 1 kilowatt.
dB :dB(K) – decibels relative to kelvin: Used to express noise temperature.
dB : dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt.
dB or dB : dB(m²) – decibel relative to one square meter
dB : Power in dB measured at a zero transmission level point.
dB : Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.
dB : dB(mVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω.
dB : dB optical. A change of 1 dB in optical power can result in a change of up to 2 dB in electrical signal power in system that is thermal noise limited.
dB : see dB
dB or dB : dB(overload) – the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.
dB : relative to the peak to peak sound pressure.
dB : relative to the maximum value of the peak electrical power.
dB : dB(quarterwave) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a quarter wavelength whip. Rarely used, except in some marketing material. 0 dBq = −0.85 dB
dB : dB(relative) – simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.
dB : dB above reference noise. See also dB
dB : dB represents an audio level measurement, typically in a telephone circuit, relative to the circuit noise level, with the measurement of this level frequency-weighted by a standard C-message weighting filter. The C-message weighting filter was chiefly used in North America.
dB : see dB
dB : dB(true peak) – peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.
dB or dB : RMS voltage relative to \ \sqrt{0.6\; }\ \mathsf{V}\ \approx 0.7746\ \mathsf{V}\ \approx -2.218\ \mathsf{dB_V} ~.
dB : Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.
dB : see dB
dB : see dB
dB : see dB
dB : dB(VRMS) – voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance.
dB : dB(VU) dB volume unit
dB : dB(W) – power relative to 1 watt.
dB : spectral density relative to 1 W·m⁻²·Hz⁻¹
dB : dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z = 1 mm6⋅m−3
dB : see dB
dB or dB : dB(μVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 root mean square microvolt.
dB, dB, or dB : dB(μV/m) – electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter.
==== Suffixes preceded by a space ====
dB HL : dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss.
dB Q : sometimes used to denote weighted noise level
dB SIL : dB sound intensity level – relative to 10−12 W/m2
dB SPL : dB SPL (sound pressure level) – for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 μPa in air or 1 μPa in water
dB SWL : dB sound power level – relative to 10−12 W.
==== Suffixes within parentheses ====
dB(A), dB(B), dB(C), dB(D), dB(G), and dB(Z) : These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). These measurements usually refer to noise and its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dBA or dBA.
==== Other suffixes ====
dB or dB-Hz : dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one Hertz
dB or dB : dB(K⁻¹) – decibels relative to reciprocal of kelvin
dB : dB(m⁻¹) – decibel relative to reciprocal of meter: measure of the antenna factor
mB : mB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt, in millibels (one hundredth of a decibel). 100 mB = 1 dB. This unit is in the Wi-Fi drivers of the Linux kernel and the regulatory domain sections.
|
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] |
8,411 |
Darwinism
|
Darwinism is a term used to describe a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others. The theory states that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860.
==Terminology==
Darwinism subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life or to cosmic evolution, that are distinct to biological evolution, and therefore consider it to be the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work, in place of other concepts, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.
English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860. It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo-Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920, sometimes called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern synthesis in the early 20th century, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an updated form.
While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson, Eugenie Scott, and Carl Safina that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift, for example.
In the United States and to some extent in the United Kingdom, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism.]]
Huxley, upon first reading Darwin's theory in 1858, responded, "How extremely stupid not to have thought of that!"
While the term Darwinism had been used previously to refer to the work of Erasmus Darwin in the late 18th century, the term as understood today was introduced when Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species was reviewed by Thomas Henry Huxley in the April 1860 issue of The Westminster Review. Having hailed the book as "a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism" promoting scientific naturalism over theology, and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species, Huxley compared Darwin's achievement to that of Nicolaus Copernicus in explaining planetary motion:
{{quotation|What if the orbit of Darwinism should be a little too circular? What if species should offer residual phenomena, here and there, not explicable by natural selection? Twenty years hence naturalists may be in a position to say whether this is, or is not, the case; but in either event they will owe the author of "The Origin of Species" an immense debt of gratitude.... And viewed as a whole, we do not believe that, since the publication of Von Baer's "Researches on Development," thirty years ago, any work has appeared calculated to exert so large an influence, not only on the future of Biology, but in extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated. In 1886, Alfred Russel Wallace went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called "Darwinism" without any problems.
In his book Darwinism (1889), Wallace had used the term pure-Darwinism which proposed a "greater efficacy" for natural selection. George Romanes dubbed this view as "Wallaceism", noting that in contrast to Darwin, this position was advocating a "pure theory of natural selection to the exclusion of any supplementary theory." Taking influence from Darwin, Romanes was a proponent of both natural selection and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. The latter was denied by Wallace who was a strict selectionist. Romanes' definition of Darwinism conformed directly with Darwin's views and was contrasted with Wallace's definition of the term.
==Contemporary usage==
The term Darwinism is often used in the United States by promoters of creationism, notably by leading members of the intelligent design movement, as an epithet to attack evolution as though it were an ideology (an "-ism") based on philosophical naturalism, atheism, or both. For example, in 1993, UC Berkeley law professor and author Phillip E. Johnson made this accusation of atheism with reference to Charles Hodge's 1874 book What Is Darwinism? However, unlike Johnson, Hodge confined the term to exclude those like American botanist Asa Gray who combined Christian faith with support for Darwin's natural selection theory, before answering the question posed in the book's title by concluding: "It is Atheism."
Creationists use pejoratively the term Darwinism to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as dogmatic and inflexible in their belief. In the 2008 documentary film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, which promotes intelligent design (ID), American writer and actor Ben Stein refers to scientists as Darwinists. Reviewing the film for Scientific American, John Rennie says "The term is a curious throwback, because in modern biology almost no one relies solely on Darwin's original ideas ... Yet the choice of terminology isn't random: Ben Stein wants you to stop thinking of evolution as an actual science supported by verifiable facts and logical arguments and to start thinking of it as a dogmatic, atheistic ideology akin to Marxism."
However, Darwinism is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish the modern evolutionary synthesis, which is sometimes called "neo-Darwinism", from those first proposed by Darwin. Darwinism also is used neutrally by historians to differentiate his theory from other evolutionary theories current around the same period. For example, Darwinism may refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow. It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought—particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern evolutionary synthesis.
In political discussions in the United States, the term is mostly used by its enemies. Biologist E. O. Wilson at Harvard University described the term as being "a rhetorical device to make evolution seem like a kind of faith, like 'Maoism [...] Scientists don't call it 'Darwinism'." In the United Kingdom, the term often retains its positive sense as a reference to natural selection, and for example British ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins wrote in his collection of essays A Devil's Chaplain, published in 2003, that as a scientist he is a Darwinist.
In his 1995 book Darwinian Fairytales, Australian philosopher David Stove used the term "Darwinism" in a different sense from the above examples. Describing himself as non-religious and as accepting the concept of natural selection as a well-established fact, Stove nonetheless attacked what he described as flawed concepts proposed by some "Ultra-Darwinists". Stove alleged that by using weak or false ad hoc reasoning, these Ultra-Darwinists used evolutionary concepts to offer explanations that were not valid: for example, Stove suggested that the sociobiological explanation of altruism as an evolutionary feature was presented in such a way that the argument was effectively immune to any criticism. English philosopher Simon Blackburn wrote a rejoinder to Stove, though a subsequent essay by Stove's protégé James Franklin suggested that Blackburn's response actually "confirms Stove's central thesis that Darwinism can 'explain' anything."
In more recent times, the Australian moral philosopher and professor Peter Singer, who serves as the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, has proposed the development of a "Darwinian left" based on the contemporary scientific understanding of biological anthropology, human evolution, and applied ethics in order to achieve the establishment of a more equal and cooperative human society in accordance with the sociobiological explanation of altruism.
==Esoteric usage==
In evolutionary aesthetics theory, there is evidence that perceptions of beauty are determined by natural selection and therefore Darwinian; that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced survival of the perceiving human's genes.
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Doraemon
|
is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Fujiko F. Fujio. First serialized in 1969, the manga's chapters were collected in 45 volumes published by Shogakukan from 1974 to 1996. The story revolves around an earless robotic cat named Doraemon, who travels back from the 22nd century to help a boy named Nobita Nobi.
The manga spawned a media franchise. Three anime TV series have been adapted in 1973, 1979, and 2005. Additionally, Shin-Ei Animation has produced over forty animated films, including two 3D computer-animated films, all of which are distributed by Toho. Various types of merchandise and media have been developed, including soundtrack albums, video games, and musicals. The manga series was licensed for an English language release in North America, via Amazon Kindle, by a collaboration of Fujiko F. Fujio Pro with Voyager Japan and AltJapan Co., Ltd. The anime series was licensed by Disney for an English-language release in North America in 2014, and LUK International in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.
Doraemon was well received by critics and became a hit in many Asian countries. It won numerous awards, including the Japan Cartoonists Association Award in 1973 and 1994, the Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga in 1982, and the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 1997. As of 2024, it has sold over 300 million copies worldwide, becoming one of the best-selling manga series of all time. The character of Doraemon has been viewed as a Japanese cultural icon, and was appointed as the first "anime ambassador" in 2008 by the country's Foreign Ministry.
== Synopsis ==
Nobita Nobi is a ten-year-old Japanese school boy, who is kind-hearted and honest, but also lazy, unlucky, weak, gets bad grades and is bad at sports. One day, a blue robot cat from the 22nd century named Doraemon is sent back to the past by Nobita's future great-great-grandson, Sewashi Nobi, to take care of Nobita so that his descendants can have a better life. Doraemon has a four-dimensional pocket in which he stores tools, inventions, and gadgets from the future to aid Nobita whenever he is faced with a problem. Although Doraemon is a cat robot, he has a fear of mice because of an incident where robotic mice chewed off his ears. This is why Doraemon lost his original yellow color and turned blue, from sadness.
Nobita has three main friends: Takeshi Goda (nicknamed Gian), Suneo Honekawa (Gian's sidekick), and Shizuka Minamoto, Nobita's best friend and love-interest. Gian is a strong, leading and domineering boy, but also loyal to his friends. Suneo is a wealthy and spoiled boy who uses his friendship with Gian to win the respect of other schoolmates. Shizuka is a gentle and kind girl who frequently plays with Nobita. Nobita has a crush on Shizuka; she is his prospective future wife (Nobita's future wife is initially Gian's younger sister). Although Gian and Suneo are Nobita's friends, they also typically bully and abuse him. Nobita normally responds by using Doraemon's gadgets to fight back against them, but Nobita has a tendency to get carried away with using the gadgets (or Gian and Suneo, if they steal it away), which typically results in unintended consequences for him and others.
In addition to Gian, Suneo, and Shizuka, Dorami and Hidetoshi Dekisugi are also recurring characters. Dorami is Doraemon's younger sister, and Dekisugi is a gifted student boy who as Shizuka's close friend, frequently attracts the jealousy of Nobita.
== Creation and conception ==
=== Development and themes ===
Doraemon is written and illustrated by Fujiko F. Fujio, the pen name of Japanese manga artist Hiroshi Fujimoto. According to Fujio, it was originally conceived following a series of three events: when searching for ideas for a new manga, he wished a machine existed that would come up with ideas for him, he tripped over his daughter's toy, and heard cats fighting in his neighborhood. To set up the plot and characters, he used some elements from his earlier manga series, Obake no Q-Tarō, which involve an living with humans, with a similar formula. Fujio said that the idea for Doraemon came after "an accumulation of trial and error", during which he finally found the most suitable style of manga to him. Initially, the series achieved little success as was well known at the time, and only became a hit after its adaptation into an anime TV series and multiple feature films. He used the same sequences of cartoons with regularity and continuity to enhance the reader's ease of understanding. In addition, blue, a characteristic color of Doraemon, was chosen as the main color in magazine publications, which used to have a yellow cover and red title. Problems, if occur, were resolved in a way so as not to rely on violence and eroticism, and the stories were integrated with the concept of environmentalism. The manga also insisted on the ethical values of integrity, perseverance, courage, family and respect.
In order to underline the crucial role of the young generation in society, the manga's creator chose to have the act carried out in a "children's domain" where young people can live with happiness, freedom and power without adult's interference. As Saya S. Shiraishi noted, the existence of the "domain" helped Doraemon to have a strong appeal in various Asian countries.
According to Zensho Ito, Fujio's former student, the "length" of time in the universe is one of the ideas that inspired Fujio to make Doraemon. Frequently displayed in its stories is Nobita's desire to control time, and there exist time-control gadgets that he uses to satisfy that desire, particularly the "Time Machine", which lies in his desk drawer. Unlike Western works on science fiction, the manga did not explain the theory nor the applied technology behind these tools, but instead focusing on how the characters exploit their advantages, making it more children-friendly.
=== Origin of the name ===
The name "Doraemon" can be roughly translated to "stray". Unusually, the name is written in a mixture of two Japanese scripts: Katakana () and Hiragana (). "Dora" derives from , and is a corruption of nora (stray), The name "Nobita Nobi" refers to "nobi nobi", meaning "the way a young child grows up free, healthy, and happy, unrestrained in any sense".
=== Gadgets ===
Gadgets, or , are Doraemon's tools from the future, usually used to help the characters. Fujio said that Doraemon has a total of 1,293 gadgets; according to a 2004 analysis by Yasuyuki Yokoyama of Toyama University, there are 1,963 gadgets found in 1,344 sketches. The most important gadgets include "Take-Copter", a small piece of headgear made out of bamboo that can allow its users to fly; "Time Machine", a machine used for time travel; "Anywhere Door", a pink-colored door that allows people to travel according to the thoughts of the person who turns the knob; "Time Kerchief", a handkerchief which can turn an object new or old or a person young or old; "Translator Tool", a cuboid jelly that allow one to converse in any language; and "Designer", a camera used to instantly dress-up the user.
Saya S. Shiraishi wrote that most of the gadgets were "an impressive testimony to the standards of quality control and innovation that exist in the twenty-second century".
=== Conclusion ===
The series ceased its original run in 1994 and was not given an ending before Fujimoto's death in 1996; this has since aroused numerous urban legends throughout the years. One of the most well-known "endings" of the manga was by an amateur manga cartoonist under the pen name "Yasue T. Tajima", first appeared on the Internet in 1998 and made up into a manga in 2005. The story takes place when Doraemon's battery dies, and Nobita later grows up becoming a robot engineer, potentially revive Doraemon and live a happy life. Tajima issued an apology in 2007, and the profits were shared with Shogakukan and the copyright owner, Fujiko F. Fujio Pro.
Ryūichi Yagi and Takashi Yamazaki, the directors of Stand by Me Doraemon, confirmed that it had only one opening, while the ending has been rewritten several times. Because of this, Shogakukan had to clarify that only if the marriage of Nobita and Shizuka is finalized will the mission be accomplished, and then Doraemon will return to the future.''
Since the debut of Doraemon in 1969, the stories have been selectively collected into forty-five volumes that were published under Shogakukan's imprint from July 31, 1974, to April 26, 1996. These volumes are collected in the Takaoka Central Library in Toyama, Japan, where Fujio was born. Between April 25, 2005, and February 28, 2006, Shōgakukan published a series of five manga volumes under the title Doraemon Plus (Doraemon+), featuring short stories which did not appear in the forty-five original volumes; a sixth volume, the first volume in eight years, was published on December 1, 2014. Additionally, 119 unpublished stories were compiled into six colored-manga volumes under the title Doraemon Kara Sakuhin-shu , published from July 17, 1999, to September 2, 2006. Between July 24, 2009, and September 25, 2012, Shogakukan published a master works collection consisting of twenty volumes with all 1,345 stories written by Fujio. In December 2019, on the 50th anniversary of Doraemon, a "Volume 0" was published by Shogakukan featuring six different versions of Doraemon's first appearance.
There have been two series of bilingual, Japanese and English, volumes of the manga by Shogakukan English Comics under the title Doraemon: Gadget Cat from the Future, and two audio versions. The first series has ten volumes and the second one has six. and Chingwin Publishing Group released bilingual English-Chinese versions in Taiwan.
In July 2013, Fujiko F. Fujio Pro announced that they would be collaborating with ebook publisher Voyager Japan and localization company AltJapan Co., Ltd. to release an English-language version of the manga in full color digitally via the Amazon Kindle platform in North America. Shogakukan released the first volume in November 2013; by 2016, a total of 200 volumes have been published. This English version incorporates a variety of changes to character names; Nobita is "Noby", Shizuka is "Sue", Suneo is "Sneech", and Gian is "Big G", while dorayaki is "Yummy Bun/Fudgy Pudgy Pie". Also, by 2016, four volumes of the manga have been published in English in print by Shogakukan Asia.
Shogakukan started digital distribution of all forty-five original volumes throughout Japan from July 16, 2015.
====Long Stories====
Doraemon's Long Tales, also known as Doraemon's Long Stories, is a manga and movie series ongoing since 1979, featuring longer and continuous narratives about the characters' adventures into various lands of science fiction and fantasy. The series consists of twenty-four tankōbon volumes published from 1983 to 2004.
====Spin-offs====
Several spin-off manga series of Doraemon have been made. The Doraemons, a manga illustrated by Michiaki Tanaka based on Doraemon, was published by Shogakukan in six tankōbon volumes from 1996 to 2001. Between 1997 and 2003, Shogakukan also published fifteen volumes of The Doraemons Special, created by Yukihiro Mitani and Masaru Miyazaki as a complement part of The Doraemons, including twelve from the main series and three from the Robot Training School Edition. Dorabase, a baseball-themed manga written and illustrated by Mugiwara Shintarō, is another spin-off of Doraemon; twenty-three volumes of the manga were published by Shogakukan from April 26, 2001, to October 28, 2011.
=== Anime ===
The first attempt of a Doraemon animated series was in 1973, by Nippon Television. After a January 1973 pilot named Doraemon Mirai Kara Yattekuru , twenty-six episodes, each with two segments, were broadcast on Nippon TV from April 1 to September 30 of the same year. The series was directed by Mitsuo Kaminashi with voice cast from Aoni Production; the character Doraemon was voiced by Kōsei Tomita, then later by Masako Nozawa. Later in the series, the animation studio, Nippon TeleMovie Productions, went bankrupt, and the masters were sold off or destroyed. The series was re-aired on Nippon TV and several local stations until 1979, when Shogakukan requested Toyama Television to cease broadcasting. Some of the segments were found in the archives of Imagica in 1995, and some others were recovered by Jun Masami in 2003.
Doraemon remained fairly exclusive in manga form until 1979 when an animation studio, Shin-Ei Animation (now owned by TV Asahi) produced an animated second attempt of Doraemon. The series aired on TV Asahi from April 2, 1979. Ryo Motohira served as chief director from 1981, and Tsutomu Shibayama from 1984. Eiichi Nakamura served as director of character designer, while Shunsuke Kikuchi was the composer. Nobuyo Ōyama voiced Doraemon in the series; because of this, in Asia, this version is sometimes referred to as the Ōyama Edition. In total, 1,787 episodes were produced and released in VHS and DVD by Toho. On April 15, 2005, a major renewal was carried out, including the replacement of voice actors and staff, and updated character designs. The third series is sometimes referred to in Asia as the Mizuta Edition, as a tribute for the voice actress for Doraemon, Wasabi Mizuta.
In May 2014, TV Asahi Corporation announced an agreement with The Walt Disney Company to bring the 2005 series to the Disney XD television channel and Disney Channel in the United States beginning in the summer of that year. Besides using the name changes that were used in AltJapan's English adaptation of the original manga, other changes and edits have also been made to make the show more relatable to an American audience, such as Japanese text being replaced with English text on certain objects like signs and graded papers, items such as yen notes being replaced by US dollar bills, and the setting being changed from Japan to the United States. Initial response to the edited dub was positive. The Disney adaptation began broadcast in Japan on Disney Channel from February 1, 2016. The broadcast offered the choice of the English voice track or a newly recorded Japanese track by the Japanese cast of the 2005 series.
The anime has also been aired in over sixty countries worldwide. It premiered in Thailand in 1982, the Philippines in 1999, India in 2005, and Vietnam in 2010. Other Asian countries that broadcast the series include China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and South Korea. The series is licensed in EMEA regions by LUK International; it premiered in Spain in 1993 and France in 2003. It has also been distributed in South American countries, including Brazil, Colombia, and Chile. In 2017, POPS Worldwide, a Vietnamese multimedia company, collaborated with TV Asahi to release the anime series on YouTube and other digital platforms.
==== Films ====
By 2024, there have been 43 annual feature-length animated films produced by Shin-Ei Animation and released by Toho. The first twenty-five films are based on the 1979 anime, while the rest are based on the 2005 anime.
A 3D computer animated film, Stand by Me Doraemon, debuted in Japan on August 8, 2014. Directed by Takashi Yamazaki and Ryūichi Yagi, it combines elements from the short stories of the manga series: "All the Way from the Country of the Future", "Imprinting Egg", "Goodbye, Shizuka-chan", "Romance in Snowy Mountain", "Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding", and "Goodbye, Doraemon ..." into a new complete story, from the first time Doraemon came to Nobita's house to Doraemon bidding farewell to Nobita. The film was a box office success, grossing $183.4 million worldwide. A sequel, Stand by Me Doraemon 2, also directed by Yamazaki and Yagi, was released on November 20, 2020.
==== Short films, OVA and crossover ====
Several Doraemon short films were produced and released between 1989 and 2004. Doraemon: Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding, a film about the events related to the marriage of Nobita and Shizuka; The Day When I Was Born and Doraemon: A Grandmother's Recollections, the films about the relationship between Nobita and his parents along with his grandmother. Other short films focus on Dorami and The Doraemons.
In 1994, an educational OVA was made, titled Doraemon: Nobita to Mirai Note , where the main characters express the hope for a better Earth. The OVA was released in DVD along with the 13th issue of Fujiko F. Fujio Wonderland magazine in September 2004. A crossover episode of Doraemon with AIBOU: Tokyo Detective Duo aired on TV Asahi on November 9, 2018.
==== Music ====
The soundtrack of the 1973 anime series was composed by Nobuyoshi Koshibe, When the anime got a reboot in 2005, Kan Sawada was the composer of the series. There are four other opening themes, including an instrumental version of "Doraemon no Uta" performed by Twelve Girls Band; "Hagushichao" performed by Rimi Natsukawa; "Yume wo Kanaete Doraemon" , the opening theme broadcast from 2007 to 2018; and "Doraemon" performed by Gen Hoshino, broadcast since October 2019.
Numerous collections of theme songs of the anime series and feature films were initially available in cassettes. Since the 1990s, Doraemon songs have been released in CD, under the type of singles and compilation albums. Soundtracks of Doraemon feature films have been released by Nippon Columbia since 2001 in the album series .
=== Musical shows ===
Doraemon has been adapted into a musical, titled . Based on the 1990 anime film of the same name, it debuted at Tokyo Metropolitan Art Space on September 4, 2008, running through September 14. Shoji Kokami was the director and writer, Makoto Sakamoto played Nobita and Reiko Suho as Shizuka; Jaian and Suneo were portrayed by Tomohiro Waki and Kensaku Kobayashi, respectively; Wasabi Mizuta voiced Doraemon. The musical was later revived and ran at Sunshine Theater, Tokyo from March 26 to April 2, 2017, then later in other prefectures including Fukuoka, Osaka, Miyagi and Aichi. The 2017 revival is also directed and written by Kokami, with Mizuta reprising her role;
===Video games===
Many Japanese-only video games based on Doraemon have been developed. For instance, in 1983, Bandai developed , an arcade game inspired by Pac-Man. Doraemon, a NES video game made by Hudson Soft, was released on December 12, 1986, and became one of the best-selling games of that year in Japan with over 1.15 million copies sold. On December 6, 2007, Sega published Doraemon Wii, the first Doraemon video game released on Wii. Doraemon can also be seen in Namco's Taiko no Tatsujin rhythm game series, such as in Taiko no Tatsujin: Sesson de Dodon ga Don! (2017). The first Doraemon game to receive a Western release was Doraemon Story of Seasons (2019). Card games with Doraemon themes have also been made in several special occasions, sometimes to exploit the popularity of feature films. In 2016, a special edition of Uno about the series' characters was released exclusively in Japan, as a result of a cooperation between Asatsu-DK and Mattel.
=== Merchandise ===
In Japan, the Doraemon merchandising rights belong to Shogakukan-Shueisha Productions, which has produced and distributed a wide range of products under its brand, such as toys, food, stationery, action figures, , shoes, clothing, and others. Several companies have collaborated on the creation and distribution of products on the series and its characters, including Sanrio, Converse, Moleskine, and ESP Guitars, which has made guitars decorated with Doraemon characters; a further partnership of Doraemon with Uniqlo led to a line of clothing designed by Takashi Murakami. The Doraemon franchise has also collaborated with various Japanese brands, including Tsi Groove & Sports's Jack Bunny!! golf apparel brand, Unicharm's MamiPoko diaper brand, and the video games LINE Pop 2, Monster Strike, and Granblue Fantasy. Viz Media owns the Doraemon merchandising rights in North and Latin America, and themed Happy Meals in a 2015 collaboration with McDonald's. Viz Media Europe (now Crunchyroll EMEA) manages the merchandising in Europe except Spain and Portugal; LUK International has obtained licenses in these two countries.
Characters from Doraemon have been used in advertising through specific agreements with Shogakukan. For instance, following the Cool Japan initiative promoted by the Japanese government, Sharp Corporation produced a series of commercials featuring the characters of Doraemon and Nobita, which were broadcast in several ASEAN countries. In late 2011, Shogakukan and Toyota Motor Corporation joined forces to create a series of live-action commercials as part of Toyota's ReBorn ad campaign, which depicted the manga's characters two decades after being grown up, where Hollywood actor Jean Reno played Doraemon.
== Reception ==
=== General ===
Doraemon is considered one of the best-known manga of all time, a true Japanese cultural icon, Akihiro Motoyama observed that "mothers who watched the movies when they were children are now taking their own children to see them". It was also commercially successful: over books were sold in Japan by 1996. The 1979 also achieved high ratings on television. With the film Doraemon: Nobita's Secret Gadget Museum, the Doraemon anime film series reached 100 million tickets sold at the Japanese box office, surpassing Godzilla as the highest-grossing film franchise in Japan. By 2015, it had sold over 103 million tickets, and was the largest franchise by numbers of admissions in the country.
Doraemon was also a hit in Asia in general, and was considered one of the typical cases of Japanese soft power, although it was published without a license in some countries. The anime television series is available in over 60 countries, However, Doraemon was less successful in Western countries, because it was viewed as a children-only series, and there were some tight restrictions about publishing manga and broadcasting anime series there. The manga has sold over copies worldwide by 2012; over 250 million by 2019; and over 300 million by 2024. Estimates show that Doraemon has generated at least more than in merchandise sales by 2019, and over $1.7 billion from anime feature films by 2020, making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time.
Outside Japan, Doraemon achieved particular success in Vietnam, with a record-breaking 40 million copies sold by 2006. The manga was first launched there in 1992 by Kim Đồng Publishing House, but the copyright from Shogakukan was not fully acquired until 1996. In 1993, the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture considered the manga's publication to be "an impactful event for the improvement of children, youth and adult's likings ... [Doraemon] is a comprehensively educational book series which has the effect of developing children's personality".
=== Critical response and analysis ===
Doraemon received favorable reviews. Mark Schilling wrote, "For kids whose lives are often so regulated, Doraemon represents a welcome breath of freedom and a glimpse of a funnier, friendlier world where all dreams, even foolish ones, can come true." Italian writer Massimo Nicora wrote that the manga "can be interpreted as a type of book that criticizes, with irony, the omnipotence of science that pretends to solve every problem with its tools", alluding to the fact that Doraemon's gadgets often end up making the problems even worse than they initially were, more than anything else. He added that it represents "the metaphor of the childish imagination, which always manages to find the most bizarre and original solutions, in a continuous game of transformation of reality".
Some critics considered that Nobita's flawed personality and modest background is different from the special or extraordinary characteristics usually seen in other typical anime and manga protagonists; this portrayal has been seen as reasons of its appeal as well as the contrary, especially in the United States.
In his 2000 article, Leo Ching explained that the success of Doraemon in Asia was because it had reflected the Asian values such as imagination and responsibility, the same reason that Oshin, another Japanese cultural export, became well known there. On the other hand, according to an analysis by Anne Allison, professor of cultural anthropology at Duke University, the strong point of it was not the variety of the gadgets, but the relationship between Doraemon and Nobita, which was particularly appreciated. Jason Thompson praised the "silly situations" and "old fashioned, simple artwork", with Doraemon's expression and comments adding to the "surrounding elementary-school mischief".
=== Awards, accolades and public recognition ===
Doraemon has received numerous accolades. It won the Japan Cartoonists Association Award twice in 1973 and 1994, the former for Excellence Award while the latter for Minister of Education, Science and Technology Award. In 1982, it received the first Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga. In 1997, the manga won the Grand Prize at the first Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize. The 1979 series won the award from the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs four times for best television series in 1984, 1985, 1988 and 1989.
A 2006 poll among 80,000 Japanese fans for the 10th anniversary of the Japan Media Arts Festival placed Doraemon at fifth among the top ten best manga of all time. The 2005 and 2006 surveys conducted by TV Asahi found the Doraemon anime ranked fifth and third, respectively, among the 100 most favorite anime series of all time. In 2010, a survey conducted by researchers of Tokyo Polytechnic University found that most responders considered Doraemon, along with Dragon Ball franchise, to be the anime series that represents Cool Japan. In a 2013 survey, Doraemon was found to be the best anime recommended for foreign people.
=== Criticisms ===
Doraemon has been blamed for having a negative impact on children, due to the controversial traits of the characters in the anime. The character has received criticism in China, where some media outlets considered Doraemon to be a politically subversive character and that it was a tool of Japan's "cultural invasion". Some education groups in Taiwan demanded the anime to be banned, as the plot involve bullying which would encourage campus bullying. In 2016, a resolution to ban Hindi dubbed Doraemon anime series was submitted in Pakistan. Disney Channel India, the regional broadcaster of the anime, was banned in Bangladesh and Pakistan citing non-availability of localized dubs for content including Doraemon.
== Cultural impact and legacy ==
The Doraemon manga has inspired many other mangakas; these include Eiichiro Oda, the creator of One Piece with the idea of "Devil Fruits", and Masashi Kishimoto, the creator of Naruto, who showed interest in drawing characters from anime shows during his childhood, including Doraemon. The manga has also been mentioned in Gin Tama and Great Teacher Onizuka. The character Doraemon is considered one of the cultural icons in Japan, and one of the most well-known characters in manga history; Mark Schilling noted that Doraemon's "Take-Copter" is familiar among Japanese people "just as Snoopy's biplane is familiar to most Americans".
On April 22, 2002, on the special issue of Asian Hero in Time magazine, Doraemon was the only anime character to be named one of the twenty-two Asian Heroes, and was described as "The Cuddliest Hero in Asia". A 2007 poll by Oricon shown that Doraemon was the second-strongest manga character ever, behind only Son Goku of Dragon Ball. Doraemon is also referred as something with the ability to satisfy all wishes. In 2008, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs appointed Doraemon as the first anime cultural ambassador; a Ministry spokesperson explained the decision as an attempt to help people in other countries understand Japanese anime better and to deepen their interest in Japanese culture. On September 3, 2012, Doraemon was granted official residence in the city of Kawasaki, Kanagawa, one hundred years before he was born. In the same year, Hong Kong celebrated the birthday of Doraemon 100 years early with a series of displays of the character. In April 2013, Doraemon was chosen as Japan's ambassador in Tokyo's bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics. He appeared in the 2016 Summer Olympics closing ceremony to promote the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.
A Fujiko F. Fujio museum opened in Kawasaki on September 3, 2011, featuring Doraemon as the star of the museum. The National Museum of Singapore held a time-travelling exhibition in October 2020 as a tribute to the manga. After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Shogakukan released an earthquake survival guidebook, which included the main cast of the Doraemon manga series. TV Asahi launched the Doraemon Fund charity fund to raise money for natural disasters in 2004, and in 2011. In 2020, Mumbai's Sion Friends Circle group distributed food and books to kids using mascots, one being Doraemon, to help during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Vietnam, a Doraemon scholarship fund was established in 1996, and the Doraemon character has been used for education of traffic safety. Doraemon's creator, Fujiko F. Fujio, received the Culture Fighter Medal from the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture in 1996 for his contributions to young education through the manga.
Many prominent figures have been nicknamed after the cast of Doraemon: politician Osamu Fujimura is known as the "Doraemon of Nagatacho" due to his figure and warm personality, and sumo wrestler Takamisugi was nicknamed "Doraemon" because of his resemblance to the character. In 2015, a group of people in a drought-affected village in northern Thailand used a Doraemon toy to complete a rain-ritual, in order to avoid controversies that would occur by using real animals.
A parody of Doraemon created by Hikari Fujisaki, titled Nozoemon , was first serialized in Nihon Bungeisha's Comic Heaven magazine in September 2014, with the compiled book volume released on June 9, 2015; however, it was discontinued in August 2015 due to content issues.
|
[
"Sanrio",
"The Japan Times",
"animated film",
"manga artist",
"Duke University",
"Hong Kong",
"Disney Channel (Indian TV channel)",
"Son Goku (Dragon Ball)",
"COVID-19 pandemic",
"barber pole",
"Government of Japan",
"One Piece",
"manga",
"Uniqlo",
"soft power",
"Singapore",
"List of best-selling manga",
"Sài Gòn Giải Phóng",
"OVA",
"Anne Allison",
"Hudson Soft",
"Moleskine",
"Liberty Times",
"Snoopy",
"obake",
"Nikkey Shimbun",
"Stand by Me Doraemon",
"Disney Channel Japan",
"Philippines",
"Toyama University",
"Doraemon: Nobita and the Animal Planet",
"Asatsu-DK",
"Tsutomu Shibayama",
"Mount Fuji",
"Crunchyroll",
"Kōsei Tomita",
"VHS",
"Japan Cartoonists Association Award",
"Doraemon (2005 TV series)",
"Nobuyo Ōyama",
"Tō-Ō Nippō",
"The Independent",
"Takeshi Goda",
"Comedy",
"Rimi Natsukawa",
"Doraemon: A Grandmother's Recollections",
"2020 Summer Olympics",
"Nobita Nobi",
"Children's anime and manga",
"AltJapan Co., Ltd.",
"MIT",
"Box Office Mojo",
"Miyagi Prefecture",
"Mark Schilling",
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"Takashi Murakami",
"MOS:A&M",
"Sharp Corporation",
"Doraemon Wii",
"Taiwan",
"List of highest-grossing media franchises",
"Rakuten",
"School violence",
"Doraemon: Nobita's Secret Gadget Museum",
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"List of Doraemon chapters",
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"Dragon Ball",
"Japan Today",
"Toyama Television",
"List of Doraemon soundtrack albums",
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"Nerima",
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"VnExpress",
"The Walt Disney Company",
"Aoni Production",
"action figure",
"Europe, the Middle East and Africa",
"op-ed",
"Crunchyroll EMEA",
"Ishikawa Goemon",
"Tokyo Polytechnic University",
"Shogakukan-Shueisha Productions",
"Viz Media Europe",
"Toho",
"parody",
"Toyama Prefecture",
"time travel",
"Namco",
"Hiragana",
"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism",
"otaku",
"The Doraemons",
"Cool Japan",
"Kawasaki, Kanagawa",
"Shin-Ei Animation",
"Osamu Fujimura",
"Shizuka Minamoto",
"Unicharm",
"Single (music)",
"Siliconera",
"Chingwin Publishing Group",
"The Diplomat (magazine)",
"AIBOU: Tokyo Detective Duo",
"Jean Reno",
"urban legend",
"Voyager Books",
"Mickey Mouse",
"ShoPro",
"Takashi Yamazaki",
"Osamu Tezuka",
"The Star (Malaysia)",
"Fujiko Fujio",
"South Korea",
"Cassette tape",
"Oricon",
"2020 Summer Paralympics",
"The Straits Times",
"NTT Communications",
"Movimento Italiano Genitori",
"Neo (magazine)",
"Doraemon (1973 TV series)",
"EMEA",
"Rough Guides",
"Fujiko F. Fujio",
"Katakana",
"Hindustan Times",
"gekiga",
"Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize",
"Aichi Prefecture",
"Pac-Man",
"Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Vietnam)",
"ASEAN countries",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Mattel",
"Stuff (magazine)",
"Wasabi Mizuta",
"Doraemon (1986 video game)",
"List of Doraemon Plus chapters",
"mangaka",
"Nihon Bungeisha",
"Granblue Fantasy",
"time machine",
"China",
"Happy Meal",
"Takamisugi",
"Nippon Television",
"IGN",
"YouTube",
"Dorami",
"anime",
"Asia",
"Suneo Honekawa",
"Indonesia",
"What Am I for Momotaro",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Billboard Japan",
"Osaka Prefecture",
"ja:NTTコム オンライン・マーケティング・ソリューション",
"Gin Tama",
"World Bank",
"Great Teacher Onizuka",
"The Guardian",
"Japanese yen",
"Agency for Cultural Affairs",
"McDonald's",
"Shogakukan Manga Award",
"Masashi Kishimoto",
"Doraemon Plus",
"List of Doraemon films",
"Doraemon (1979 TV series)",
"Taiko no Tatsujin",
"ESP Guitars",
"Oshin",
"Science fiction",
"Cambridge University Press",
"2016 Summer Olympics closing ceremony",
"National Museum of Singapore",
"Nintendo Entertainment System",
"Doraemon Story of Seasons",
"Nippon Columbia",
"Thailand",
"Converse (shoe company)",
"List of Doraemon video games",
"Shunsuke Kikuchi",
"List of highest-grossing films in Japan",
"Naruto",
"Bandai",
"Wii",
"Sega",
"Eiichiro Oda",
"Momotarō",
"Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry",
"National Diet Library",
"Time (magazine)",
"Doraemon's Long Tales",
"baseball",
"3D computer graphics",
"DVD",
"2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami",
"Kumiko Ōsugi",
"Monster Strike",
"Malaysia",
"Hindi",
"Doraemon (character)",
"media franchise",
"United States dollar",
"Stand by Me Doraemon 2",
"Viz Media",
"Doraemon: Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding",
"Satoko Yamano (voice actress)",
"Uno (card game)",
"Kim Đồng Publishing House",
"Imagica",
"CoroCoro Comic",
"IMDb",
"Gen Hoshino",
"Hot Topic",
"Japan Media Arts Festival",
"Shogakukan",
"Obake no Q-Tarō",
"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)",
"Asahi Shimbun",
"compilation album",
"The New York Times",
"Twelve Girls Band",
"Shogakukan Asia",
"Amazon Kindle",
"2112: The Birth of Doraemon",
"Godzilla (franchise)",
"Crayon Shin-chan",
"Toyota Motor Corporation",
"Tokyo",
"Tuoi Tre",
"Thanh Niên",
"Jason Thompson (writer)",
"TV Asahi"
] |
8,414 |
Dartmoor Preservation Association
|
Dartmoor Preservation Association (DPA) is one of the oldest environmental or amenity bodies in the UK. It was founded in 1883. It concerns itself with Dartmoor, a National Park in Devon, south-west England. It began with two main areas of concern. Firstly, commoners' rights were being eroded through army use, including the firing of live artillery shells, and piecemeal enclosure of land around the margins. Secondly, there was increasing public interest in Dartmoor's scenery, archaeology, history and wildlife
The DPA has opposed what it considered to be unsuitable developments on Dartmoor throughout its history. In its founding year, the secretary, Robert Burnard persuaded the War Department not to fire on the Okehampton Firing Range on Saturdays to allow access to the public. Many battles have been fought since, particularly against the military presence and the proposed building of reservoirs on the moor, notably under the Chairmanship of Lady Sayer, granddaughter of Robert Burnard.
The DPA continues to follow the same objectives as when it was founded. For example, in June 2015, it supported the inhabitants of Widecombe-in-the-Moor against the erecting of a telecommunications mast in an area of pristine countryside against the wishes of the local population.
Dartmoor Preservation Association is a registered charity, Number 215665.
==Background==
Dartmoor is said to be one of the last remaining areas of wilderness in Britain, but it has been a managed landscape since the late Neolithic (3,000-2,500 BCE). The Bronze Age inhabitants (from 2,500 to 750 BCE) cleared ancient forest and developed farming. They made extensive use of surface moorstone in the construction of roundhouses (their remains now seen as "hut circles"), enclosures, land-dividing reaves, stone rows, stone circles, menhirs and kistvaens.
Farming has continued through the medieval period to the present day, but a more disruptive activity to the landscape was the appearance of tin-mining, firstly by stream-working, then by lode-working and finally by underground mining. Many valleys have been dug over and scarred, leaving a rich industrial archaeology. Other activities such as newtake wall building, peat cutting, rabbit warrening, quarrying, clay extraction and the building of a prominent prison have all left marks on the moor. Recent undertakings have left more obvious changes: the building of reservoirs and the planting of conifer forests.
==History of the association==
The use of moorstone continued up to recent times with the extensive building of dry stone walls around farm newtakes. Later, stone was cut and dressed. The use of moorstone continued to such an extent that in 1847 boundary markers were cut around Pew Tor to protect it. Marker stones were erected around Roos Tor. The taking of stone started to change the Dartmoor landscape: for example Eric Hemery (writing in 1983) stated that Swell Tor had been "decapitated and disembowelled by the quarrymen".
In August 1881, a public meeting was convened by the Portreeve of Tavistock in the Guildhall to discuss the continued taking of stone, particularly from landmark tors.
===Commoners' rights===
The first publication of the DPA, in 1890, was a short history of commoners' rights on Dartmoor and the commons of Devon. They are used for small arms, mortars and artillery smoke and illuminating shells.
The use of the moor by the military has been a major concern of the DPA since its founding. In its first year, Robert Burnard (DPA Secretary) persuaded the War Department not to fire on the Okehampton Firing Range on Saturdays so that there may be some public access to the area. In 1963 the DPA published a widely circulated 24-page booklet entitled Misuse of a National Park which includes photographs of unexploded shells lying on the open moor, corrugated iron buildings, large craters, a derelict tank used as a target, bullet marks on standing stones, etc. It also contains details of a 1958 incident in which a young boy was killed by a mortar shell near Cranmere Pool.
Since the 1960s there has been much less military damage and litter as a result of the DPA persuading the Services to be more cautious. The current leases run for many years, with Cramber Tor most recently being granted a further 40-year licence.
===Afforestation===
Early afforestation occurred when Brimpts was planted with trees in 1862.
===Reservoirs===
There are eight Dartmoor reservoirs, with the earliest being Tottiford Reservoir, 1861. Three were built in the mid-20th century: Fernworthy, 1942; Avon, 1957 and Meldon, 1972, and the DPA fought many battles over these. It opposed plans for reservoirs on Brent Moor (1899) and Holne Moor (1901) where, later, the Avon Reservoir and Venford Reservoirs were respectively built. The DPA was one of many local and national amenity bodies that fought the building of the Meldon dam. The DPA offered a viable alternative site, Gorhuish Valley, for various reasons, including the fact that minerals such as arsenic would leach into the water supply if Meldon were selected. The Meldon story was discussed many times in Parliament. Another battle was fought against the flooding of the Swincombe valley to form another reservoir. This was rejected in parliament in 1970, revived in 1974 and finally resolved by the building of the Roadford Reservoir to the west of the moor. In 1985 the DPA used funds from a bequest to purchase 50 acres of land where the dam of a reservoir at Swincombe would have to be. and confirmed on 30 October 1951. Shortly after this, the DPA tried to ensure that the new National Park was run by an independent committee and not by the Dartmoor Standing Committee that was a subcommittee of Devon County Council Planning Committee.
===North Hessary Tor TV mast===
The DPA learned in October 1951 that the BBC planned to build a 750-foot television mast on North Hessary Tor, near Princetown, that was erected in 1955. This was to be a relay from a transmitting station at Wenvoe, South Wales. The DPA objected to this threat and sought expert opinion, offered alternative solutions, pressed for a public enquiry, engaged a lawyer, held public meetings, distributed pamphlets, wrote to the press and petitioned parliament.
===Sharpitor===
During World War II, the Royal Air Force (RAF) built a mast and buildings on Peek Hill, as RAF Sharpitor. In 1956, permission was granted to rebuild the station as part of the "Gee" radio navigation system, to be occupied for ten years. There followed delay in leaving and a proposal was made in 1970 by Devon & Cornwall Police to use the mast, which was rejected. Then later that year Plymouth Corporation wanted to use the exposed site for housing juvenile offenders. This was also rejected, but Plymouth appealed. At a public enquiry in June 1973 Lady Sylvia Sayer represented the DPA and permission for development on the site was refused. A few years later, DPA fought successfully in support of South West Water (SWW) against renewed calls for a new reservoir at Swincombe. To mark the victory, Sylvia Sayer asked SWW if DPA could purchase the rocky outcrop of Sharpitor. The DPA purchased 32 acres in February 1984.
===Okehampton bypass===
Okehampton lies on the A30 main road, the shortest route from London to west Devon and Cornwall. The need for a bypass was mooted in 1963. In 1975, three routes were considered: a northern route through mainly farmland, a central route using a railway, and a southern route through Dartmoor National Park. In August 1976, the Department of the Environment announced the preferred route was through the National Park. A major event on the timeline of this project was a 96-day public enquiry from 1 May 1979 to 4 February 1980 held in Okehampton. In March 1984, the DPA with other organisations petitioned Parliament opposing compulsory purchase orders on public open spaces. The Secretary of State announced in July 1985 that he was introducing a bill to reverse the decision of a Joint Parliamentary Committee and confirm a route through the National Park. This was followed by a confirmation bill in November 1985 that was passed in the House of Lords on 5 December 1985. Construction started in November 1986 and the road was opened on 19 July 1988.
==Since 2000==
The DPA continues to follow the same objectives as when it was founded. The activities have widened, involving local partners, it has a calendar of events, walks and work days with its Conservation Team undertaking a variety of moorland projects, it funds the supply of walking boots to some children who need them for the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme through the Moor Boots Scheme, it collaborates with the Campaign for National Parks, it monitors the activities of Dartmoor National Park Authority who run the National Park. It objected to eight planning proposals (with success in seven cases), with many other achievements in the DPA Director's Annual Report. The DPA remains true to its original objectives and has also added other activities in support of Dartmoor and its inhabitants.
===China clay expansion===
The china clay industry on Dartmoor was established long before the DPA was founded. The earliest record of a china clay pit refers to Hook Lake in 1502. The area was surveyed around 1827 by Cornishmen with thirty years experience in the clay industry. They obtained a 21-year lease in 1830, from the Earl of Morley who owned the land, to work the area between Lee Moor and Shaugh Moor. A rival pit was opened at Leftlake in about 1850 and at Hemerdon and Broomage in about 1855. Further pits were opened at Cholwichtown, Whitehill Yeo and Wigford Down/Brisworthy (circa 1860). Others followed at Smallhanger and Headon in the 1870s.
The DPA argues that this is an activity that does not agree with the ethos of a National Park, whose purpose is to protect landscape from unsuitable development. In 1994, the National Park boundaries were changed to include common land at Shaugh Moor and exclude china clay worked land at Lee Moor. The DPA revived its campaign with the publication of a booklet in 1999 when the Blackabrook Valley, Crownhill Down and Shaugh Moor, near the popular tourist area of Cadover Bridge, all came under threat from exploitation or dumping of waste. The china clay companies relinquished planning permissions in 2001. A presumed Bronze Age barrow, known as Emmets Post, was to be removed and three other monuments may be affected. The DPA were recorded twice, with other bodies, in a Devon County Council Development Management Committee Report for their representations in securing the future of the three areas where planning permissions were relinquished in 2001. Oxford Archaeology held an open day during their excavation of Emmets Post in 2014 prior to its removal.
===House of Lords reception===
The DPA and Exmoor Society held a joint reception at the House of Lords on 6 November 2008, hosted by Baroness Mallalieu, to lobby members of both Houses of Parliament and relevant Ministers about ensuring that environmental schemes for the uplands are "fit for purpose". Both organisations funded an invited number of upland hill farmers to attend.
===Whitehorse Hill excavation===
The excavation in August 2011 on the north moor of a Bronze Age burial kistvaen, or cist, that was originally uncovered in 2001 was part-funded by the DPA, along with other bodies.
===South West Uplands Federation Conference===
A conference for the upland farmers of Bodmin Moor, Exmoor and Dartmoor was held as a joint venture between the South West Uplands Federation and the DPA. It was run by the DPA at Exeter Racecourse in October 2012, with 150 delegates. Speakers came from the Foundation for Common Land, the Forest of Dartmoor Commoners, the University of Gloucestershire, the National Farmers Union of England and Wales and the Open Spaces Society. The CEO raised sponsorship from Dartmoor National Park, Exmoor National Park, Natural England, Duchy of Cornwall and the Exmoor Society - this reflecting the standing of the DPA with those bodies.
===Undergrounding power cables===
Two major projects to underground overhead power cables in Dartmoor National Park have been completed in a joint project between Western Power Distribution, the South West Protected Landscapes Forum (SWPLF) and Dartmoor National Park Authority. The two schemes on Holne Moor and Walkhampton Common between them remove nearly 6 km of overhead line from open moorland. At nearly 5 km, the Walkhampton scheme is the largest to be undertaken in the South West region by Western Power Distribution. The old overhead line was readily visible from the B3212 Princetown to Yelverton Road, strung across Walkhampton Common from Devil's Elbow to just above Horseyeatt at Peek Hill. The works to provide the new underground supply were mainly undertaken on the highway to minimise the impact on the sensitive moorland landscape, its archaeology, wildlife and livestock. The DPA has supported the undergrounding of these visually intrusive power lines for many years.
===The Dartmoor Conservation Garden===
The Dartmoor Conservation Garden is a joint project between DPA and Dartmoor National Park Authority (DNPA) and is located in the Jack Wigmore Garden behind the High Moorland Centre in Princetown: this is a memorial garden to a former Chair of the Authority. It is planted with a cross-section of typical native Dartmoor plants. It also houses some typical Dartmoor archaeological features, such as a 4,000-year-old Bronze Age burial kistvaen (or cist) and a medieval granite cross from Ter Hill. This marked the Monk's Path but was constantly being pushed over by cattle. The purpose of the Garden is to illustrate the biodiversity on Dartmoor. The project came online in June 2015.
===Widecombe telecommunications mast===
The DPA were involved in a campaign in June 2015 against four telecommunications masts planned for Dartmoor, with the first to be erected in the village of Widecombe. At short notice, the DPA banners were taken out, letters written, press interviews given and support given to the villagers when an inflatable mast was demonstrated – with the effect that the planning application was withdrawn.
===Friends of Dartmoor===
In common with other amenity bodies, such as those for the Lake District, Peak District, Pembrokeshire Coast, Yorkshire Dales Three Peaks and the New Forest Trust, the image of Dartmoor Preservation Association is evolving from its Victorian origins, although the original name is being retained. Friends of Dartmoor projects a more modern image of preservation where several years of diplomacy have achieved good relations with the partner agencies that operate in the Dartmoor arena. This is due mainly to the efforts of the previous CEO, James Paxman and his successor, Phil Hutt.
The objectives enshrined in the constitution are the protection, preservation and enhancement in the public interest of the landscape, antiquities, flora and fauna, natural beauty, cultural heritage and scientific interest of Dartmoor. Also the protection and preservation of public access to and on Dartmoor subject to the ancient rights of commoners. Co-operation with the commoners and any organisation in achieving DPA objectives, also the study of and the recording and publication of information upon the antiquities, history and natural history of Dartmoor.
The DPA has twenty-two policies listed on its web site: regarding access and rights of way, fencing, protecting monuments, diverse habitats, bracken, china clay quarrying, military training and live firing, hill farming and small scale traditional local industries, quarrying, television and telephone masts, wind farms, planning applications, housing developments, woodlands and forestry, ponies, swaling, and recreational activities.
===Conservation===
The DPA conservation team meet throughout the year to work on a number of ongoing projects; from gorse clearance, to habitat protection and archaeological surveying. A quarterly timetable is released both on the organisation's website and through its member publications, along with details of how to get involved. The team also host an annual open day at the DPA land holding of Pudsham Meadows.
|
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"Peat",
"The Plymouth Athenaeum",
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"Dartmoor tin-mining",
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"Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme",
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"Devon and Cornwall Police",
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"Roundhouse (dwelling)",
"HM Prison Dartmoor",
"stone row",
"menhir",
"Open Spaces Society",
"charitable organisation",
"Widecombe-in-the-Moor",
"Richard Hansford Worth",
"Burrator Reservoir",
"china clay",
"Shell (projectile)",
"Phytophthora ramorum",
"House of Lords",
"Tottiford, Kennick, and Trenchford Reservoirs",
"National parks of the United Kingdom",
"Dartmoor reservoirs",
"Forestry Commission",
"National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949",
"Sibelco",
"Nature Conservancy (UK)",
"Dartmoor Training Area",
"North Hessary Tor"
] |
8,418 |
Dartmouth College
|
Dartmouth College ( ) is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution. Emerging into national prominence at the turn of the 20th century, Dartmouth has since been considered among the most prestigious undergraduate colleges in the United States. In addition to the undergraduate faculty of arts and sciences, Dartmouth has four professional and graduate schools: the Geisel School of Medicine, the Thayer School of Engineering, the Tuck School of Business, and the Guarini School of Graduate and Advanced Studies.
Situated on a terrace above the Connecticut River, Dartmouth's main campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New England. The university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. Dartmouth is known for its undergraduate focus, Greek culture, and campus traditions. 25 U.S. governors, 8 U.S. Cabinet secretaries, 3 Nobel Prize laureates, 2 U.S. Supreme Court justices, and a U.S. vice president. Other notable alumni include 81 Rhodes Scholars, 26 Marshall Scholarship recipients, 13 Pulitzer Prize recipients, 10 CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and 51 Olympic medalists.
== History ==
Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Yale graduate and Congregational minister from Windham, Connecticut, who had sought to establish a school to train Native Americans as Christian missionaries. It was one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution. Wheelock's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom. Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747, and later moved to Long Island to preach to the Montauks. and Dartmouth "was recognized in the African-American community as a place where a man of color could go to get educated". One of them, Jonathan C. Gibbs, served as Secretary of State and Superintendent of Public Instruction for the state of Florida.
In 1866, the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts was incorporated in Hanover, in connection with Dartmouth College. The institution was officially associated with Dartmouth and was directed by Dartmouth's president. The new college was moved to Durham, New Hampshire, in 1891, and later became known as the University of New Hampshire.
Dartmouth emerged onto the national academic stage at the turn of the 20th century. Prior to this period, the college had clung to traditional methods of instruction and was relatively poorly funded. John Sloan Dickey, serving as president from 1945 until 1970, strongly emphasized the liberal arts, particularly public policy and international relations.
During the 1990s, the college saw a major academic overhaul under President James O. Freedman and a controversial (and ultimately unsuccessful) 1999 initiative to encourage the school's single-sex Greek houses to go coed.
In 2019, Dartmouth College was elected to the Association of American Universities (AAU).
In April 2022, Dartmouth College returned the papers of Samson Occom, who helped Eleazar Wheelock secure the funds for Dartmouth College for what Occom believed would be a school for Native students in Connecticut, to the Mohegan Tribe.
On June 12, 2023 Sian Beilock began her tenure as the first female president of Dartmouth.
In September of 2023, Dartmouth convened an event entitled The Future of Mental Health and Wellness, which included the seven living U.S. Surgeons General at the time. In 2024, the College hired a chief wellness office in order to provide increased mental health support on campus and to help students to manage daily stressors.
In April of 2024, Dartmouth announced the creation of the Dartmouth Climate Collaboration, pledging $500 million towards the goal of eliminating carbon emissions on campus by 2050. The plan includes the installation of high-capacity heat pumps and a geoexchange system, making it the largest operational change in the College’s history.
== Academics ==
Dartmouth, a liberal arts institution, offers a four-year Bachelor of Arts and ABET-accredited Bachelor of Engineering degree to undergraduate students. The Economics Department, whose prominent professors include David Blanchflower, Andrew Samwick, and Diego Comin, among others, also holds the distinction as the top-ranked bachelor's-only economics program in the world. Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the Dartmouth Workshop, the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System, Dartmouth BASIC, and Dartmouth ALGOL 30. In 2005, sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $169 million. With the exception of Dartmouth College Press titles, in 2021, Brandeis become the sole owner of all copyrights and titles of UPNE.
=== Rankings ===
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Lord Hall.JPG|Lord Hall, Allen House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Morton Hall 01.JPG|Morton Hall, East Wheelock House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Woodward Hall 02.JPG|Woodward Hall, North Park House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Mid Massachusetts Hall 02.JPG|Mid Massachusetts Hall, School House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Topliff Hall 03.JPG|Topliff Hall, South House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-21 03 - Russell Sage Hall.JPG|Russell Sage Hall, West House
== Student life ==
Dartmouth Student Government represents students on issues related to student life. Annually, students elect a student body president, vice president, and undergraduate senate to represent them in the following academic year. In 2006, The Princeton Review ranked Dartmouth third in its "Quality of Life" category, and sixth for having the "Happiest Students".
In 2014, Dartmouth College was the third highest in the nation in "total of reports of rape" on their main campus, with 42 reports of rape. In 2015, the Huffington Post reported that Dartmouth had the highest rate of bystander intervention of any college surveyed, with 57.7% of Dartmouth students reporting that they would take some sort of action if they saw someone acting in a "sexually violent or harassing manner," compared to 45.5% of students nationally.
Dartmouth fraternities have an extensive history of hazing and alcohol abuse, leading to police raids and accusations of sexual harassment.
=== Student groups ===
Dartmouth's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests.
The college has an additional classification of social/residential organizations known as undergraduate societies. Dartmouth's athletic teams compete in the NCAA Division I eight-member Ivy League conference; some teams also participate in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). The Dartmouth Men's Rugby Team, founded in 1951, has been ranked among the best collegiate teams in that sport, winning for example the Ivy Rugby Conference every year between 2008 and 2020. In the spring, Green Key is a weekend mostly devoted to campus parties and celebration. originating in the 1860s, is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green ("Dartmouth Green") as the school's official color in 1866. According to a 2008 article in The Wall Street Journal based on data from payscale.com, Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed. Top employers of new graduates include Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, McKinsey & Company, Bain & Company, Amazon, Microsoft, and Google.
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 41st Vice President of the United States and 49th Governor of New York, graduated cum laude from Dartmouth with a degree in economics in 1930. Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, the 42nd Governor of Illinois, businessman Bruce Rauner; and the 31st governor and current senator from North Dakota, John Hoeven (R), are also Dartmouth alumni. Ernesto de la Guardia, class of 1925, was president of the Republic of Panama.
In literature and journalism, Dartmouth has produced 13 Pulitzer Prize winners: Thomas M. Burton, Paul Gigot, Frank Gilroy, Jake Hooker, Frost, who received four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry in his lifetime, attended but did not graduate from Dartmouth; he is, however, the only person to have received two honorary degrees from Dartmouth.
In the area of religion and theology, Dartmouth alumni include priests and ministers Ebenezer Porter, Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs, Caleb Sprague Henry, Arthur Whipple Jenks, Solomon Spalding, and Joseph Tracy; Transcendental Meditation Movement leader John Hagelin; and rabbis Marshall Meyer, Arnold Resnicoff, and David E. Stern. Jeffrey R. Immelt (General Electric),
Dick Durrance and Tim Caldwell competed for the United States in skiing in the 1936 and 1976 Winter Olympics, respectively. and is based loosely on a series of stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth. In a CNN interview, John Landis said the movie was "based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth", Alpha Delta Phi.
Dartmouth's Winter Carnival tradition was the subject of the 1939 film Winter Carnival starring Ann Sheridan and written by Budd Schulberg '36 and F. Scott Fitzgerald.
|
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8,419 |
Dartmouth, Devon
|
Dartmouth () is a town and civil parish in the English county of Devon. It is a tourist destination set on the western bank of the estuary of the River Dart, which is a long narrow tidal ria that runs inland as far as Totnes. It lies within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and South Hams district, and had a population of 5,512 in 2001, reducing to 5,064 at the 2011 census. There are two electoral wards in the Dartmouth area (Townstal & Kingswear). Their combined population at the above census was 6,822.
==History==
In 1086, the Domesday Book listed Dunestal as the only settlement in the area which now makes up the parish of Dartmouth. It was held by Walter of Douai. It paid tax on half a hide, and had two plough teams, two slaves, five villagers and four smallholders. There were six cattle, 40 sheep and 15 goats. At this time Townstal (as the name became) was apparently a purely agricultural settlement, centred around the church. Walter of Douai rebelled against William II, and his lands were confiscated and added to the Honour of Marshwood (Dorset), which sublet Townstal and Dartmouth to the FitzStephens. It was probably during the early part of their proprietorship that Dartmouth began to grow as a port, as it was of strategic importance as a deep-water port for sailing vessels. The port was used as the sailing point for the Crusades of 1147 and 1190, and Warfleet Creek, close to Dartmouth Castle is supposed by some to be named for the vast fleets which assembled there. Dartmouth was a home of the Royal Navy from the reign of Edward III and was twice surprised and sacked during the Hundred Years' War, after which the mouth of the estuary was closed every night with a great chain. The narrow mouth of the Dart is protected by two fortified castles, Dartmouth Castle and Kingswear Castle. Originally Dartmouth's only wharf was Bayard's Cove, a relatively small area protected by a fort at the southern end of the town.
In 1373 Geoffrey Chaucer visited and among the pilgrims in his Canterbury Tales,
Notwithstanding Dartmouth's connections with the crown and respectable society, it was a major base for privateering in medieval times. John Hawley or Hauley, a licensed privateer and sometime mayor of Dartmouth is reputed to be a model for Chaucer's "schipman".
The earliest street in Dartmouth to be recorded by name (in the 13th century) is Smith Street. Several of the houses on the street are originally late 16th century or early 17th century and probably rebuilt on the site of earlier medieval dwellings. The street name undoubtedly derives from the smiths and shipwrights who built and repaired ships here when the tidal waters reached as far as this point. Smith Street was also the site of the town pillory in medieval times.
The first church in the parish was St Clement's, Townstal, which may have existed in some form before the 1190s. It was granted by the FitzStephens to Torre Abbey in about 1198, the Abbey having been founded in 1196, and the present stone-built church was probably started shortly after this.
Manorial transactions are first recorded in 1220, when the manor house was at Norton, about half a mile west of Townstal. Names of occupations also started to appear, including taverner, tailor, coggar, korker, goldsmith, glover, skinner and baker. The "Fosse", now Foss Street, a dam across the creek known later as The Mill Pool, was first mentioned in 1243. The flow of water out of the pool through the Mill Gullet powered a tidal mill. The dam was used as an unofficial footpath linking Clifton, to the south, with Hardness, to the north. Before this it was necessary to go westwards to the head of the creek at Ford to travel between the two settlements. The lord of the manor was given the rights to hold a weekly market and an annual fair in 1231. In 1281, a legal case proved that the Lord of Totnes had the right to charge tolls on ships using the river, and this right was bought by Nicholas of Tewkesbury in 1306, who conveyed the town, river and port to the king in 1327, so making Dartmouth a Royal Borough. The king gave the river to the Duchy of Cornwall in 1333, who still own the "fundus" or bed of the river. In 1335 Edward III granted Dartmouth to Joan of Carew, whose husband was Lord of Stoke Fleming, and almost immediately she obediently passed the lordship to Guy de Bryan, one of the king's leading ministers. In 1341, the town was granted a Royal Charter, which allowed for the election of a mayor. The borough was required to provide two ships for forty days per year. After 1390, no more is heard of lordship rights, and the borough became effectively independent of any lord.
St Saviour's Church was constructed in 1335 and consecrated in 1372. It contains a pre-Reformation oak rood screen built in 1480 and several monuments including the tomb of John Hawley (died 1408) and his two wives, covered with a large brass plate effigy of all three. A large medieval ironwork door is decorated with two leopards of the Plantagenets and is possibly the original portal. Although it is dated "1631", this is thought to be the date of a subsequent refurbishment coincidental with major renovations of the church in the 17th century. The gallery of the church is decorated with the heraldic crests of prominent local families and is reputed to be constructed of timbers from ships captured during the defeat of the Spanish Armada, although this has not been categorically substantiated. An engraving of a painting by Thomas Allom of the interior of the church, showing the rood screen, provided the inspiration for Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration Dartmouth Church in Fisher's Drawing Room scrap Book, 1833.
In medieval times, land access from the Totnes direction passed the manor at Norton and the parish church at Townstal before falling steeply along what are now Church Road, Mount Boone and Ridge Hill to the river at Hardness. There were steeper routes via Townstal Hill and Clarence Street and also via Brown's Hill. These were all too steep for vehicles, so the only land access was by packhorse. In 1671 there is the first mention of the building of the "New Ground". A previously existing sandbank was built up using ships' ballast, and a quay wall was built around it to provide more mooring space. The area proved too unstable to be built on, and is now the Royal Avenue Gardens. It was originally linked to the corner of the Quay by a bridge, opposite Duke Street. At the other end of The Quay, Spithead extended into the river for a few yards.
Dartmouth sent numerous ships to join the English fleet that attacked the Spanish Armada, including the Roebuck, Crescent and Hart. The Nuestra Señora del Rosario, the Spanish Armada's "payship" commanded by Admiral Pedro de Valdés, was captured along with all its crew by Sir Francis Drake. It was reportedly anchored in the River Dart for more than a year and the crew were used as labourers on the nearby Greenway Estate which was the home of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh. Greenway was later the home of Dame Agatha Christie.
In 1592 the Madre de Deus, a Portuguese treasure ship captured by the English in the Azores, docked at Dartmouth Harbour. It attracted all manner of traders, dealers, cutpurses and thieves and by the time Sir Walter Raleigh arrived to reclaim the Crown's share of the loot, a cargo estimated at half a million pounds had been reduced to £140,000. Still, ten freighters were needed to carry the treasure to London.
Henry Hudson put into Dartmouth on his return from North America, and was arrested for sailing under a foreign flag. The Pilgrim Fathers put into Dartmouth's Bayard's Cove, en route from Southampton to America. They rested a while before setting off on their journey in the Mayflower and the Speedwell on 20 August 1620. About 300 miles west of Land's End, upon realising that the Speedwell was unseaworthy, it returned to Plymouth. The Mayflower departed alone to complete the crossing to Cape Cod. Dartmouth's sister city is Dartmouth, Massachusetts.
The town contains many medieval and Elizabethan streetscapes and is a patchwork of narrow lanes and stone stairways. A significant number of the historic buildings are listed. One of the most obvious is the Butterwalk, built 1635 to 1640. Its intricately carved wooden fascia is supported on granite columns. Charles II held court in the Butterwalk whilst sheltering from storms in 1671 in a room which now forms part of Dartmouth Museum. Much of the interior survives from that time.
The Royal Castle Hotel was built in 1639 on the then new quay. The building was re-fronted in the 19th century, and as the new frontage is itself listed, it is not possible to see the original which lies beneath. A claimant for the oldest building is a former merchant's house in Higher Street, now a Good Beer Guide listed public house called the Cherub, built circa 1380. Agincourt House (next to the Lower Ferry) is also 14th century.
The remains of a fort at Gallants Bower just outside the town are some of the best preserved remains of a Civil War defensive structure. The fort was built by Royalist occupation forces in c. 1643 to the south east of the town, with a similar fort at Mount Ridley on the opposite slopes of what is now Kingswear. The Parliamentarian General Fairfax attacked from the north in 1646, taking the town and forcing the Royalists to surrender, after which Gallants Bower was demolished.
===19th century===
Before 1671, what is now the town centre was almost entirely tidal mud flats. The New Road (now Victoria Road) was constructed across the bed of the (silted up) Mill Pool and up the Ford valley after 1823. Spithead was extended in 1864 when the Dartmouth and Torbay Railway arrived in Kingswear and a pontoon was constructed, linked to Spithead by a bridge. The railway directors and others formed the Dartmouth Harbour Commissioners.
At this time, all the roads in those parts of Dartmouth which were not land reclamations were very narrow. In 1864-7 Higher Street was widened into Southtown and linked to Lower Street, which was also widened, with the northern part renamed Fairfax Place. Some of the buildings were rebuilt further back with decorative frontages.
In 1881 the Harbour Commissioners produced a scheme for an embankment or esplanade from near the Lower Ferry to Hardness, across the remains of The Pool, to provide an attraction for tourists and further mooring space. It was completed in 1885 after much disagreement between the Borough, the Commissioners and the Railway (now the Great Western Railway). A new station was also built at this time. The building of the Embankment left a section of river isolated between Spithead and the New Ground, which is known as The Boatfloat, and is linked to the river by a bridge for small vessels under the road.
The coming of steam ships led to Dartmouth being used as a bunkering port, with coal being brought in by ship or train. Coal lumpers were members of gangs, who competed to bunker the ships by racing to be first to a ship. This led to the men living as close as possible to the river, and their tenements became grossly overcrowded, with the families living in slum conditions, with up to 15 families in one house, one family to a room.
The Royal National Lifeboat Institution opened the Dart Lifeboat Station at the Sand Quay in 1878, but it was closed in 1896. In all this time only one effective rescue was made by the lifeboat.
===20th century===
The area to the north of Ridge Hill was a shallow and muddy bay ("Coombe Mud") with a narrow road running along the shore linking with the Higher Ferry. The mud was a dumping ground for vessels, including a submarine. The reclamation was completed in 1937 by the extension of the Embankment and the reclamation of the mud behind it, which became Coronation Park.
In the 1920s, aided by government grants, the council made a start on clearing the slums. This was aided by the decline in the use of coal as a fuel for ships. The slums were demolished, and the inhabitants were rehoused in new houses in the Britannia Avenue area, to the west of the old village or hamlet of Townstal. The process was interrupted by the second world war, but was resumed with the construction of many prefabs, and later more houses. Community facilities were minimal at first, but a central area was reserved for a church, which was used by the Baptists and opened in 1954, together with a speedway track. The latter was later used for housing, but a new community centre was opened nearby, together with a leisure centre, an outdoor swimming pool, and later an indoor pool, and supermarkets. There are also light industrial units.
In the latter part of the Second World War the town was a base for American forces and one of the departure points for Utah Beach in the D Day landings. Slipways and harbour improvements were also constructed. Much of the surrounding countryside and notably Slapton Sands was closed to the public while it was used by US troops for practise landings and manoeuvres.
Between 1985 and 1990 the Embankment was widened by 6 metres and raised to prevent flooding at spring tides. A tidal lock gate was provided at the Boatfloat bridge, which could be closed at such times.
===21st century===
Dart Lifeboat Station was reopened in 2007, the first time that a lifeboat had been stationed in the town since 1896. It has initially been kept in a temporary building in Coronation Park.
==Governance==
The town was an ancient borough, incorporated by Edward III, known formally as Clifton-Dartmouth-Hardness, and consisting of the three parishes of St Petrox, St Saviour and Townstal, and incorporating the hamlets of Ford, Old Mill and Norton. It was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. The town returned two members of parliament from the 13th century until 1835, after which one Member of Parliament (MP) was elected until the town was disenfranchised in 1868. It remained a municipal borough until 1974, when it was merged into the South Hams district, and became a successor parish of Dartmouth with a town council.
Dartmouth Town Council is the lowest of three tiers of local government. It consists of 16 councillors representing the two wards of Clifton and Townstal. At the second tier, Dartmouth forms part of the Dartmouth and Kingswear ward of South Hams District Council, which returns three councillors. At the upper tier of local government Dartmouth and Kingswear Electoral Division elects one member to Devon County Council.
==Culture and tourism==
The Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta takes place annually over three days at the end of August. The event sees the traditional regatta boat races along with markets, fun fairs, community games, musical performances, air displays including the Red Arrows and fireworks. A Royal Navy guard ship is often present at the event.
Other cultural events include beer festivals in February and July (the latter in Kingswear), a music festival and an art and craft weekend in June, a food festival in October and a Christmas candlelit event.
The Flavel Centre incorporates the public library and performance spaces, featuring films, live music and comedy and exhibitions.
Bayard's Cove has been used in several television productions, including The Onedin Line a popular BBC television drama series that ran from 1971 to 1980. Many of the scenes from the BBC's popular series Down to Earth, starring Ricky Tomlinson, were filmed at various locations around the town.
Notable tourist attractions include the Dartmouth Royal Naval College, Bayard's Cove Fort, Dartmouth Castle and the Dartmouth Steam Railway which terminates at Kingswear on the opposite bank of the river.
Boat cruises to nearby places along the coast (such as Torbay and Start Bay) and up the river (to Totnes, Dittisham and the Greenway Estate) are provided by several companies. The paddlesteamer PS Kingswear Castle returned to the town in 2013. The South West Coast Path National Trail passes through the town, and also through extensive National Trust coastal properties at Little Dartmouth and Brownstone (Kingswear). The Dart Valley Trail starts in Dartmouth, with routes either side of the River Dart as far as Dittisham, and continuing to Totnes via Cornworthy, Tuckenhay and Ashprington. The area has long been well regarded for yachting, and there are extensive marinas at Sandquay, Kingswear and Noss (approximately one mile north of Kingswear).
==Climate==
The nearest Met Office weather station is Slapton, about 5 miles south-south west of Dartmouth and a similar distance from the coast. As with the rest of the British Isles and South West England, the area experiences a maritime climate with warm summers and mild winters—this is particularly pronounced due to its position near the coast—extremes range from a record low of just in January 1987 up to a record high of during June 1976.
==Transport==
Dartmouth is linked to Kingswear, on the other side of the River Dart, by three ferries. The Higher Ferry and the Lower Ferry are both vehicular ferries. The Passenger Ferry, as its name suggests, carries only passengers, principally to connect with the Dartmouth Steam Railway at Kingswear railway station. The nearest bridge across the Dart is in Totnes, some away by road.
The A379 road runs through Dartmouth, linking the town to Slapton and Kingsbridge to the southwest and to Torbay to the east across the Higher Ferry. The A3122 connects Dartmouth to a junction with the A381, and hence to both Totnes and a more direct route to Kingsbridge.
Stagecoach South West provides local town bus services and links to Plymouth, Totnes and Exeter, and Kingsbridge. In addition it provides links to the Torbay resorts of Brixham, Paignton and Torquay from Kingswear via the ferry.
No railway has ever run to Dartmouth, but the town does have a railway station, opened on 31 March 1890 to replace the original facility on the pontoon, although it is now a restaurant. In fact Dartmouth Railway Station was built while the line from Paignton to the River Dart was still being built, anticipating a bridge across the river being built near the present Greenway Halt. The railway line to Kingswear was opened in 1864. As a result of shortage of capital, a deviation from the original scheme to run the line from Churston to Greenway with a steamer service to Dartmouth was proposed, but defeated in Parliament. It had been suggested that this could, at a later date, be used as a jumping off point for a bridge to the west bank of the Dart and a line direct to Dartmouth. In 1900, a Light Railway scheme was proposed for a crossing of the Dart near Maypool to join another line from Totnes and then proceed to Kingsbridge and Yealmpton, with a branch to Salcombe. This was also defeated by lack of funds. The railway terminated at a station called "Kingswear for Dartmouth" (now on the Dartmouth Steam Railway) and a ferry took passengers across the river to the station at Dartmouth railway station, which had a dedicated pontoon. British Railways formally closed the line to mainline passenger trains in 1973, but it immediately re-opened as a heritage line and has run as one ever since.
==Media==
Local TV coverage is provided by BBC West and ITV West Country. Television signals are received from the Beacon Hill TV transmitter and the local relay transmitter situated south east of the town.
Local radio stations include BBC Radio Devon on 104.3 FM, Heart West on 96.4 FM, Greatest Hits Radio South Devon on 105.5 FM, and Radio Exe on 107.3 FM.
The Dartmouth Chronicle is the town's local weekly newspaper.
==Education==
===Britannia Royal Naval College===
The town is home to the Royal Navy's officer training college (Britannia Royal Naval College), where all officers of the Royal Navy and many foreign naval officers are trained.
===Schools===
Dartmouth has one primary school—St John the Baptist R.C. Primary School, and one all-through school—Dartmouth Academy—for those aged 3–16. Dartmouth also has a pre-school in the centre of town, established for over 40 years and based in the old Victorian school rooms at South Ford Road. It provides care for 2- to 5-year-olds and is run as a charitable organisation.
==Sport and leisure==
Dartmouth has a Non-League football club Dartmouth A.F.C. who play at Long Cross.
Dartmouth also hosts the annual "World Indoor Rally Championship", based on slot car racing in the late summer.
At the end of August and early September there is the annual Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta.
Since 1905 Dartmouth has had a greenhouse as part of the Royal Avenue Gardens. In May 2013 this building, used for the previous 10 years by Dartmouth in Bloom, a not-for-profit organisation affiliated with Britain in Bloom, was closed as structurally unsound. There are proposals to restore the greenhouse to its prior Edwardian style.
==Notable residents==
George Parker Bidder (1806–1878), the civil engineer and calculating prodigy, notable for his work on railways over much of the world, as well as the docks of the East End in the Port of London. Bidder died at his home at Paradise Point near Warfleet Creek and is buried at nearby Stoke Fleming.
Simon Drew (born 1952), a commercially successful cartoonist and illustrator, lives in Dartmouth and runs a shop on Fosse Street.
John Flavel (ca.1627–1691), an English Puritan Presbyterian minister and author.
Gordon Onslow Ford (1912–2003), a leading British surrealist painter, attended the Royal Naval College.
Sir John Harvey Jones (1924–2008), businessman and television presenter, attended the Royal Naval College.
Rachel Kempson (1910–2003), stage and film actress, was born in Dartmouth. She was the wife of Sir Michael Redgrave and mother of Vanessa, Lynn and Corin, and published her autobiography, Life Among the Redgraves, in 1988.
Christopher Robin Milne (1920–1996), son of A. A. Milne, after whom the character Christopher Robin in the Winnie-the-Pooh books was named, used to own the Harbour Bookshop. The bookshop closed in September 2011.
Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729), the inventor of the atmospheric engine – the first successful steam-powered pumping engine—was born in Dartmouth in 1663. An 18th-century working Newcomen steam engine is on display in the town.
Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas (1799–1848), an English antiquary.
Mary Nightingale (born 1963), ITV newscaster, lived in Dartmouth for much of her childhood.
John "Jack" Russell (1795–1883), an English parson, an enthusiastic fox-hunter and dog breeder.
Flora Thompson (1876–1947), lived in Above Town between 1928 and 1940, writing Lark Rise and Over to Candleford during this time. The books were later published as Lark Rise to Candleford. She is buried at Longcross Cemetery.
Theodore Veale (1892–1980), recipient of the Victoria Cross during the First World War.
John L. Wimbush (1854–1914), landscape and portrait painter.
Stephen Beresford, BAFTA winning screenwriter and playwright grew up in the town and has written several plays set in Dartmouth, including The Last of the Haussmans first performed at the Royal National Theatre.
|
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"Radio Exe",
"bunkering",
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"South Hams",
"Good Beer Guide",
"Victoria Cross",
"Dartmouth Passenger Ferry",
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"Plymouth",
"Dartmouth Academy",
"Walter of Douai",
"privateer",
"Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta",
"Lark Rise to Candleford",
"John Hawley (died 1408)",
"flag state",
"rood screen",
"Sir Walter Raleigh",
"Thomas Allom",
"Pound sterling",
"England",
"Dartmouth railway station",
"BBC West",
"Dartmouth, Massachusetts",
"all-through school",
"English Civil War",
"John Flavel",
"tourist destination",
"borough",
"Speedwell (1577 ship)",
"Dartmouth Butterwalk",
"maritime climate",
"Devon",
"Charles II of England",
"Edward III of England",
"Azores",
"atmospheric engine",
"2011 United Kingdom census",
"General Fairfax",
"Plantagenet",
"civil parish",
"British Isles",
"Spanish Armada",
"British Rail",
"municipal borough",
"Winnie-the-Pooh",
"Royal National Lifeboat Institution",
"Dartmouth Steam Railway",
"Royal Navy",
"Crusades",
"Met Office",
"Newcomen steam engine",
"Slapton, Devon",
"Michael Redgrave",
"Elizabethan era",
"Domesday Book",
"Dittisham",
"Warfleet Creek",
"Ashprington",
"Britain in Bloom",
"Flora Thompson",
"Over to Candleford",
"World War II",
"Cape Cod",
"Britannia Royal Naval College",
"Red Arrows",
"railway station",
"Heart West",
"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)",
"Tuckenhay",
"calculating prodigy",
"Western Morning News",
"Torre Abbey",
"Kingswear railway station",
"Dartmouth Higher Ferry",
"The Onedin Line",
"Stagecoach South West",
"Salcombe",
"surrealist",
"Mary Nightingale",
"Normandy landings",
"Dartmouth Castle",
"Dame Agatha Christie",
"Dartmouth Harbour",
"The Shipman's Tale",
"Theodore Veale",
"Lifeboat (rescue)",
"South West England",
"Vanessa Redgrave",
"Stephen Beresford",
"Thomas Newcomen",
"Battle of Flores (1592)",
"electoral wards",
"BBC Radio Devon",
"Marshwood Castle",
"Dartmouth A.F.C.",
"South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty",
"Beacon Hill transmitting station",
"A. A. Milne",
"primary school",
"Bayard's Cove Fort",
"Jack Russell (priest)",
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"KNMI (institute)",
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"East End",
"Dart Lifeboat Station",
"Christopher Robin Milne",
"Royalist",
"Dartmouth Museum",
"slot car racing",
"Corin Redgrave",
"Dartmouth and Torbay Railway"
] |
8,420 |
Dodo
|
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = {{longitem|style=line-height:1.25em|
One of the most detailed descriptions is by Herbert in A Relation of Some Yeares Travaille into Afrique and the Greater Asia from 1634:
=== Contemporary depictions ===
The travel journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland (1601–1603), rediscovered in the 1860s, contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius. They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle, who also drew other now-extinct Mauritian birds, and to a second, less refined artist. Apart from these sketches, it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th-century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens, which affects their reliability.
The traditional image of the dodo is of a very fat and clumsy bird, but this view may be exaggerated. The general opinion of scientists today is that many old European depictions were based on overfed captive birds or crudely stuffed specimens. It has also been suggested that the images might show dodos with puffed feathers, as part of display behaviour.
An Indian Mughal painting rediscovered in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, in 1955 shows a dodo along with native Indian birds. It depicts a slimmer, brownish bird, and its discoverer Aleksander Iwanow and British palaeontologist Julian Hume regarded it as one of the most accurate depictions of the living dodo; the surrounding birds are clearly identifiable and depicted with appropriate colouring. It is believed to be from the 17th century and has been attributed to the Mughal painter Ustad Mansur. The bird depicted probably lived in the menagerie of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, located in Surat, where the English traveller Peter Mundy also claimed to have seen two dodos sometime between 1628 and 1633.
All post-1638 depictions appear to be based on earlier images, around the time reports mentioning dodos became rarer. Differences in the depictions led ornithologists such as Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and Masauji Hachisuka to speculate about sexual dimorphism, ontogenic traits, seasonal variation, and even the existence of different species, but these theories are not accepted today. Because details such as markings of the beak, the form of the tail feathers, and colouration vary from account to account, it is impossible to determine the exact morphology of these features, whether they signal age or sex, or if they even reflect reality. Hume argued that the nostrils of the living dodo would have been slits, as seen in the Gelderland, Cornelis Saftleven, Savery's Crocker Art Gallery, and Mansur images. According to this claim, the gaping nostrils often seen in paintings indicate that taxidermy specimens were used as models. In 2016, the first 3D endocast was made from the brain of the dodo; the brain-to-body-size ratio was similar to that of modern pigeons, indicating that dodos were probably equal in intelligence.
Many endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans, so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct. Before humans arrived, Mauritius was entirely covered in forests, but very little remains of them today, because of deforestation. The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened. The dodo lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail, the broad-billed parrot, the Mascarene grey parakeet, the Mauritius blue pigeon, the Mauritius scops owl, the Mascarene coot, the Mauritian shelduck, the Mauritian duck, and the Mauritius night heron. Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle-backed Mauritius giant tortoise, the domed Mauritius giant tortoise, the Mauritian giant skink, and the Round Island burrowing boa. The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion, but vanished from both islands. Some plants, such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid, have also become extinct.
=== Diet and feeding ===
A 1631 Dutch letter (long thought lost, but rediscovered in 2017) is the only account of the dodo's diet, and also mentions that it used its beak for defence. The document uses word-play to refer to the animals described, with dodos presumably being an allegory for wealthy mayors:
{{quotation|The mayors are superb and proud. They presented themselves with an unyielding, stern face and wide open mouth, very jaunty and audacious of gait. They did not want to budge before us; their war weapon was the mouth, with which they could bite fiercely. Their food was raw fruit; they were not dressed very well, but were rich and fat, therefore we brought many of them on board, to the contentment of us all.
Several contemporary sources state that the dodo used Gastroliths (gizzard stones) to aid digestion. The English writer Sir Hamon L'Estrange witnessed a live bird in London and described it as follows:
It is not known how the young were fed, but related pigeons provide crop milk. Contemporary depictions show a large crop, which was probably used to add space for food storage and to produce crop milk. It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the dodo and the solitaire was limited by the amount of crop milk they could produce for their young during early growth.
In 1973, the tambalacoque, also known as the dodo tree, was thought to be dying out on Mauritius, to which it is endemic. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old. Stanley Temple hypothesised that it depended on the dodo for its propagation, and that its seeds would germinate only after passing through the bird's digestive tract. He claimed that the tambalacoque was now nearly coextinct because of the disappearance of the dodo. Temple overlooked reports from the 1940s that found that tambalacoque seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without being abraded during digestion. Others have contested his hypothesis and suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated or seeds were also distributed by other extinct animals such as Cylindraspis tortoises, fruit bats, or the broad-billed parrot. According to Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke, two experts in the ecology of the Mascarene Islands, the tree, while rare, has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers several hundred, not 13 as claimed by Temple, hence, discrediting Temple's view as to the dodo and the tree's sole survival relationship.
The Brazilian ornithologist Carlos Yamashita suggested in 1997 that the broad-billed parrot may have depended on dodos and Cylindraspis tortoises to eat palm fruits and excrete their seeds, which became food for the parrots. Anodorhynchus macaws depended on now-extinct South American megafauna in the same way, but now rely on domesticated cattle for this service.
=== Reproduction and development ===
As it was flightless and terrestrial and there were no mammalian predators or other kinds of natural enemy on Mauritius, the dodo probably nested on the ground. The account by François Cauche from 1651 is the only description of the egg and the call:
|
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"List of extinct bird species since 1500",
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"Bird call",
"anatomy",
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"Mauritius night heron",
"Pieter van den Broecke",
"biota (ecology)",
"Arthur Rackham",
"Joseph Smit",
"pennaceous",
"Durban Museum of Natural Science",
"bustard",
"sexually dimorphic",
"Jacob van Neck",
"Mascarene coot",
"vestigial",
"premaxillae",
"gizzard stone",
"island gigantism",
"Nagasaki",
"coat of arms of Mauritius",
"moulted",
"Naturalis",
"moa",
"Madagascar",
"1662",
"extant taxon",
"tarsometatarsus",
"Phoenix (mythology)",
"Mare aux Songes",
"integument",
"word-play",
"3-D computer graphics",
"admiral",
"megafauna",
"CT scans",
"DNA analysis",
"thick-billed ground pigeon",
"Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust",
"family",
"columbidae",
"Reuters",
"septum",
"hallux",
"Anodorhynchus",
"synonym (taxonomy)",
"Ashmolean Museum",
"Northgrippian",
"Pheidole dodo",
"Naturwissenschaften",
"red rail",
"nomenclatural priority",
"Pieter Holsteyn II",
"post-cranial",
"herbivore"
] |
8,421 |
Sideroxylon grandiflorum
|
Sideroxylon grandiflorum, also known as the tambalacoque or dodo tree, is a long-lived species of tree in the sapote family Sapotaceae. It is endemic to Mauritius.
== Description ==
The fruit of Sideroxylon grandiflorum is analogous to a peach. Each is termed a drupe because each has a hard endocarp, or pit, surrounding the seed. The plant itself superficially resembles the unrelated Plumeria, but the dodo tree's flowers and fruit are cauliflorous.
==Ecology==
In 1973, it was argued that the species was becoming extinct. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old; the true age could not be determined because tambalacoque has no growth rings. Stanley Temple hypothesized that the dodo, which became extinct in the 17th century, ate tambalacoque fruits, and that only after passing through the digestive tract of the dodo could the seeds germinate. Temple force-fed seventeen tambalacoque fruits to wild turkeys in 1977. Seven of the fruits were crushed by the bird's gizzard, while the remaining ten were either regurgitated or passed with the bird's feces. Temple planted the remaining ten fruits, three of which germinated. Temple did not try to germinate any seeds from control fruits that had not been fed to turkeys so the effect on germination of feeding fruits to turkeys was unknown. Studies on tambalacoque seed germination by Hill (1941) and King (1946) found that the seeds germinated without abrading.
Temple's hypothesis that the tree required the dodo was contested. Others have suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated or that other extinct animals, such as giant tortoises, fruit bats, or the broad-billed parrot, may also have been distributing the seeds. The decline of the tree may be due to introduction of domestic pigs and crab-eating macaques, and competition from introduced plants. Alternatively, the difference in reported tree numbers may arise from the fact that young trees are not distinct in appearance and may easily be confused with similar species. Catling (2001) in a summary cites Owadally and Temple (1979) and Witmer (1991), while Hershey (2004) reviewed the flaws in Temple's dodo-tambalacoque hypothesis.
In 2004, the Botanical Society of America's Plant Science Bulletin disputed Temple's research as flawed. The Bulletin published evidence as to why the dodo's extinction did not directly cause the increasing disappearance of young trees, including suggestions that the Cylindraspis giant tortoises would have been more likely to disperse the seeds than dodos, casting doubt on Temple's view as to the dodo and the tree's sole survival relationship. More recently, the tree’s decline within native forests was shown to be in fact driven by invasive introduced species: The tree’s first germination in its native habitat were observed in 2001 (26 seedlings) exclusively where invasive alien weeds had been cleared and further observations and controlled experiments showed that invasive introduced macaques (Macaca fascicularis Rafles 1821) pick most of the tree’s fruits when still unripe, killing the seeds, and reducing natural germination rates by up to about 40 times.
==Uses==
The dodo tree is highly valued for its wood in Mauritius, which has led some foresters to scrape the pits by hand to make them sprout and grow.
|
[
"Oikos (journal)",
"Crab-eating macaque",
"Science (journal)",
"crab-eating macaque",
"introduced species",
"Stanley Temple",
"abrading",
"peach",
"growth ring",
"Sapotaceae",
"Réunion",
"Botanical Society of America",
"Plumeria",
"cauliflorous",
"fruit bat",
"endemic",
"A. P. de Candolle",
"Cylindraspis",
"dodo",
"endocarp",
"wild turkey",
"Extinction",
"Sideroxylon majus",
"drupe",
"domestic pig",
"broad-billed parrot",
"Mauritius"
] |
8,425 |
Dwight Schultz
|
William Dwight Schultz (born November 24, 1947) is an American television, film and voice actor.
He is known for his roles as Captain "Howling Mad" Murdock on the 1980s action series The A-Team and as Reginald Barclay in the Star Trek franchise.
He is also known in animation as the megalomaniacal mad scientist Dr. Animo in the Ben 10 series, Adrian Toomes/Vulture in some Marvel video games, Chef Mung Daal in the children's animated series Chowder, and Eddie the Squirrel in CatDog. He is of German descent and a Roman Catholic. He attended Calvert Hall College High School and Towson University.
==Career==
Schultz's breakthrough role was that of Captain "Howling Mad" Murdock on The A-Team. He appeared in several films, including The Fan (1981), and he starred in Fat Man and Little Boy (1989) as J. Robert Oppenheimer. In the early 1990s, he had a recurring role as Lieutenant Reginald Barclay in Star Trek: The Next Generation; he reprised the role in Star Trek: Voyager and the film Star Trek: First Contact. He played in the 1992 television film Child of Rage, starring opposite Mel Harris as a compassionate couple who adopt a troubled girl who has been sexually abused. In November 2009, Schultz confirmed that he and former A-Team co-star Dirk Benedict would make cameo appearances in the feature film The A-Team. He also posts political commentaries and podcasts on his official fansite.
==Personal life==
Schultz married actress Wendy Fulton in 1983. They have a daughter.
Schultz is Catholic and a conservative. In 2012 he began regular appearances on The Glazov Gang, an Internet political talk show hosted by Jamie Glazov, managing editor of FrontPage Magazine.
==Filmography==
===Film===
===Voice===
===Television===
===Cartoons===
===Broadway===
Night and Day
The Crucifer of Blood
The Water Engine
===Radio===
Dark Matters Radio with Don Ecker and Special Co-Host Dwight Schultz
Howling Mad Radio
The Jerry Doyle Show
The Laura Ingraham Show
The Rusty Humphries Show
The Savage Nation
|
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"Avatar: The Last Airbender",
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"List of Ben 10 characters",
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"World of Warcraft: Legion",
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"Infinity Blade III",
"Kraven the Hunter",
"Standing Room Only (TV series)",
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"Catscratch",
"Destroy All Humans! Path of the Furon",
"Jack the Ripper",
"Happy Halloween, Scooby-Doo!",
"Spider-Man (2002 video game)",
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"Wendy Fulton",
"Cartoon Network Universe: FusionFall",
"Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel",
"Dragon Age II",
"Mr. Mxyzptlk",
"Final Fantasy XIII",
"Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated",
"Call to Power II",
"Star Trek: Voyager",
"Jamie Glazov",
"The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim – Dragonborn",
"Ben 10: Secret of the Omnitrix",
"Ben 10 (2005 TV series)",
"Ben 10: Protector of Earth",
"Wolfenstein: The New Order",
"Resonance of Fate",
"Final Fantasy X-2",
"Ultimate Avengers 2",
"Cengage",
"Kaena: The Prophecy",
"Master of Orion: Conquer the Stars",
"Hill Street Blues",
"Spider-Man 2 (2004 video game)",
"Gun (video game)",
"Terminator Salvation (video game)",
"Kraken",
"Touched by an Angel",
"Bitter Harvest (1981 film)",
"Killer7",
"Deadly Games (TV series)",
"Reginald Barclay",
"Young Justice (TV series)",
"FanX",
"Barbie: Star Light Adventure",
"Night and Day (play)",
"Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (video game)",
"The Jerry Doyle Show",
"Vicarious Visions",
"Star Trek: The Next Generation",
"Fat Man and Little Boy (film)",
"Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura",
"Ninja Scroll: The Series",
"Family Guy",
"Towson University",
"Calvert Hall College High School",
"Stargate SG-1 (season 2)",
"Chowder (TV series)",
"Ben 10: Omniverse (video game)",
"Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled",
"Iron Man VR",
"Nowhere Man (American TV series)",
"Ultimate Spider-Man (TV series)",
"The Savage Nation",
"Batman: Under the Red Hood",
"The Long Walk Home",
"Barry Allen",
"Maryland",
"Dirk Benedict",
"Todd McFarlane's Spawn",
"Lords of EverQuest",
"Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader",
"Armored Core 4",
"Klaus (film)",
"Lego Dimensions",
"God of War: Chains of Olympus",
"CHiPS",
"The A-Team",
"Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn",
"The Crucifer of Blood",
"Activision",
"Babylon 5",
"Child of Rage",
"Mesmero",
"The Wild Thornberrys",
"PlayStation 2",
"Living Monolith",
"The Fan (1981 film)",
"Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman",
"Superman Returns (video game)",
"FrontPage Magazine",
"Watchmen Chapter 1",
"Attuma",
"Dick Dastardly",
"Jellystone!",
"The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy",
"Mafia II",
"PC Gamer",
"List of The A-Team characters",
"Asterix and the Vikings",
"Avengers Assemble (TV series)",
"Conan (2007 video game)",
"Advent Rising",
"S.H.I.E.L.D.",
"narcissistic personality disorder",
"Spider-Man (2018 video game)",
"Sega",
"Skylanders: Trap Team",
"Ben 10: Omniverse",
"SyFy Wire",
"Nurse (1981 TV series)",
"Ben 10 Alien Force: Vilgax Attacks",
"Gears of War 3",
"Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash",
"Kirby Buckets",
"Golgo 13",
"Fantastic Four (2005 video game)",
"X-Men: The Official Game",
"Invader Zim",
"The Temp (film)",
"Valkyria Chronicles",
"All Hail King Julien",
"The A-Team (film)",
"Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (character)",
"Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy",
"Technovore",
"Battlestar Galactica (2003 video game)",
"Yakuza (video game)",
"Stargate SG-1",
"Destroy All Humans!",
"Martian Manhunter",
"Rugrats",
"PlayStation Portable",
"Skylanders: Swap Force",
"Ben 10",
"Alone in the Dark (1982 film)",
"Eobard Thawne",
"IMDb",
"Reign: The Conqueror",
"The Cramp Twins",
"Star Trek",
"Harvey Beaks",
"Ben 10: Destroy All Aliens",
"Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (video game)",
"The Agency (2001 TV series)",
"Deep (2017 film)",
"Nintendo DS",
"Spider-Man: Web of Shadows",
"Dark Sector",
"Final Fantasy X",
"Diagnosis: Murder",
"Batman: Arkham Knight",
"Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops",
"FromSoftware",
"The Bard's Tale (2004 video game)",
"Red Ghost (character)",
"EverQuest II",
"Baten Kaitos Origins"
] |
8,429 |
Density
|
Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is a substance's mass per unit of volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:
\rho = \frac{m}{V},
where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.
For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration.
Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium is the densest known element at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus a relative density less than one relative to water means that the substance floats in water.
The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid, which causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material.
The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.
Other conceptually comparable quantities or ratios include specific density, relative density (specific gravity), and specific weight.
== History ==
=== Density, floating, and sinking ===
The understanding that different materials have different densities, and of a relationship between density, floating, and sinking must date to prehistoric times. Much later it was put in writing. Aristotle, for example, wrote:
=== Volume vs. density; volume of an irregular shape ===
In a well-known but probably apocryphal tale, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a golden wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass; but the king did not approve of this. Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water. Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" (). As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment.
The story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time.
Nevertheless, in 1586, Galileo Galilei, in one of his first experiments, made a possible reconstruction of how the experiment could have been performed with ancient Greek resources
==Units==
From the equation for density (), mass density has any unit that is mass divided by volume. As there are many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3) and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) are probably the most commonly used units for density. One g/cm3 is equal to 1000 kg/m3. One cubic centimetre (abbreviation cc) is equal to one millilitre. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical and US customary units may be used. See below for a list of some of the most common units of density.
The litre and tonne are not part of the SI, but are acceptable for use with it, leading to the following units:
kilogram per litre (kg/L)
gram per millilitre (g/mL)
tonne per cubic metre (t/m3)
Densities using the following metric units all have exactly the same numerical value, one thousandth of the value in (kg/m3). Liquid water has a density of about 1 kg/dm3, making any of these SI units numerically convenient to use as most solids and liquids have densities between 0.1 and 20 kg/dm3.
kilogram per cubic decimetre (kg/dm3)
gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
megagram (metric ton) per cubic metre (Mg/m3)
In US customary units density can be stated in:
Avoirdupois ounce per cubic inch (1 g/cm3 ≈ 0.578036672 oz/cu in)
Avoirdupois ounce per fluid ounce (1 g/cm3 ≈ 1.04317556 oz/US fl oz = 1.04317556 lb/US fl pint)
Avoirdupois pound per cubic inch (1 g/cm3 ≈ 0.036127292 lb/cu in)
pound per cubic foot (1 g/cm3 ≈ 62.427961 lb/cu ft)
pound per cubic yard (1 g/cm3 ≈ 1685.5549 lb/cu yd)
pound per US liquid gallon (1 g/cm3 ≈ 8.34540445 lb/US gal)
pound per US bushel (1 g/cm3 ≈ 77.6888513 lb/bu)
slug per cubic foot
Imperial units differing from the above (as the Imperial gallon and bushel differ from the US units) in practice are rarely used, though found in older documents. The Imperial gallon was based on the concept that an Imperial fluid ounce of water would have a mass of one Avoirdupois ounce, and indeed 1 g/cm3 ≈ 1.00224129 ounces per Imperial fluid ounce = 10.0224129 pounds per Imperial gallon. The density of precious metals could conceivably be based on Troy ounces and pounds, a possible cause of confusion.
Knowing the volume of the unit cell of a crystalline material and its formula weight (in daltons), the density can be calculated. One dalton per cubic ångström is equal to a density of 1.660 539 066 60 g/cm3.
== Measurement ==
A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials. Such techniques include the use of a hydrometer (a buoyancy method for liquids), Hydrostatic balance (a buoyancy method for liquids and solids), immersed body method (a buoyancy method for liquids), pycnometer (liquids and solids), air comparison pycnometer (solids), oscillating densitometer (liquids), as well as pour and tap (solids). However, each individual method or technique measures different types of density (e.g. bulk density, skeletal density, etc.), and therefore it is necessary to have an understanding of the type of density being measured as well as the type of material in question.
===Homogeneous materials===
The density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Similarly, hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object.
===Heterogeneous materials===
If the body is not homogeneous, then its density varies between different regions of the object. In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location. In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: \rho(\vec{r}) = dm / dV, where dV is an elementary volume at position \vec r. The mass of the body then can be expressed as
m = \int_V \rho(\vec{r})\,dV.
=== Non-compact materials ===
In practice, bulk materials such as sugar, sand, or snow contain voids. Many materials exist in nature as flakes, pellets, or granules.
Voids are regions which contain something other than the considered material. Commonly the void is air, but it could also be vacuum, liquid, solid, or a different gas or gaseous mixture.
The bulk volume of a material —inclusive of the void space fraction— is often obtained by a simple measurement (e.g. with a calibrated measuring cup) or geometrically from known dimensions.
Mass divided by bulk volume determines bulk density. This is not the same thing as the material volumetric mass density.
To determine the material volumetric mass density, one must first discount the volume of the void fraction. Sometimes this can be determined by geometrical reasoning. For the close-packing of equal spheres the non-void fraction can be at most about 74%. It can also be determined empirically. Some bulk materials, however, such as sand, have a variable void fraction which depends on how the material is agitated or poured. It might be loose or compact, with more or less air space depending on handling.
In practice, the void fraction is not necessarily air, or even gaseous. In the case of sand, it could be water, which can be advantageous for measurement as the void fraction for sand saturated in water—once any air bubbles are thoroughly driven out—is potentially more consistent than dry sand measured with an air void.
In the case of non-compact materials, one must also take care in determining the mass of the material sample. If the material is under pressure (commonly ambient air pressure at the earth's surface) the determination of mass from a measured sample weight might need to account for buoyancy effects due to the density of the void constituent, depending on how the measurement was conducted. In the case of dry sand, sand is so much denser than air that the buoyancy effect is commonly neglected (less than one part in one thousand).
Mass change upon displacing one void material with another while maintaining constant volume can be used to estimate the void fraction, if the difference in density of the two voids materials is reliably known.
== Changes of density ==
In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalization. For example, the density of water increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C; similar behavior is observed in silicon at low temperatures.
The effect of pressure and temperature on the densities of liquids and solids is small. The compressibility for a typical liquid or solid is 10−6 bar−1 (1 bar = 0.1 MPa) and a typical thermal expansivity is 10−5 K−1. This roughly translates into needing around ten thousand times atmospheric pressure to reduce the volume of a substance by one percent. (Although the pressures needed may be around a thousand times smaller for sandy soil and some clays.) A one percent expansion of volume typically requires a temperature increase on the order of thousands of degrees Celsius.
In contrast, the density of gases is strongly affected by pressure. The density of an ideal gas is
\rho = \frac {MP}{RT},
where is the molar mass, is the pressure, is the universal gas constant, and is the absolute temperature. This means that the density of an ideal gas can be doubled by doubling the pressure, or by halving the absolute temperature.
In the case of volumic thermal expansion at constant pressure and small intervals of temperature the temperature dependence of density is
\rho = \frac{\rho_{T_0}}{1 + \alpha \cdot \Delta T},
where \rho_{T_0} is the density at a reference temperature, \alpha is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material at temperatures close to T_0.
== Density of solutions ==
The density of a solution is the sum of mass (massic) concentrations of the components of that solution.
Mass (massic) concentration of each given component \rho_i in a solution sums to density of the solution,
\rho = \sum_i \rho_i .
Expressed as a function of the densities of pure components of the mixture and their volume participation, it allows the determination of excess molar volumes:
\rho = \sum_i \rho_i \frac{V_i}{V}\, = \sum_i \rho_i \varphi_i = \sum_i \rho_i \frac{V_i}{\sum_i V_i + \sum_i {V^E}_i},
provided that there is no interaction between the components.
Knowing the relation between excess volumes and activity coefficients of the components, one can determine the activity coefficients:
\overline{V^E}_i = RT \frac{\partial\ln\gamma_i}{\partial P}.
== List of densities ==
=== Various materials ===
=== Water ===
=== Air ===
=== Molar volumes of liquid and solid phase of elements ===
|
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"Air",
"Bulk density",
"cubic yard",
"dasymeter",
"specific weight",
"Beryllium",
"Bismuth",
"volume",
"Galileo Galilei",
"excess molar quantity",
"Potassium",
"dimensionless",
"Selenium",
"close-packing of equal spheres",
"temperature",
"Granite",
"gold",
"Zinc",
"void space fraction",
"absolute temperature",
"Oak",
"Vitruvius",
"weight",
"Homogeneous (chemistry)",
"Cork (material)",
"Silver",
"Buoyancy",
"test tube",
"Lighter than air",
"hydrometer",
"Celsius",
"liquid",
"Sodium",
"Tin",
"Diamond",
"wreath",
"water",
"Coriolis flow meter",
"Plastics",
"Orthobaric density",
"pressure",
"intensive property",
"specific density",
"SI",
"US liquid gallon",
"Neutron star",
"Paper density",
"specific volume",
"molar mass",
"buoyancy",
"cubic foot",
"Volumic quantity",
"Charge density",
"Tungsten hexafluoride",
"Aerogel",
"Specific weight",
"goldsmith",
"Eureka (word)",
"rho",
"Cooking oil",
"kilogram per cubic metre",
"Displacement (fluid)",
"mass concentration (chemistry)",
"Earth",
"litre",
"Wood",
"bulk volume",
"solid",
"millilitre",
"ångström",
"Hiero II of Syracuse",
"bushel",
"Pound (mass)",
"Concrete",
"Tungsten"
] |
8,432 |
Dave Barry
|
{{Infobox writer
| name = Dave Barry
| image = Dave-barry-post-hunt-2011.jpg
| caption = Barry at the 2011 Washington Post Hunt
| birth_name = David McAlister Barry
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Armonk, New York, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = HumoristAuthor
| spouse = Ann Shelnutt (1969–19?)
== Early life and education ==
Barry was born in Armonk, New York, where his father, David W. Barry, was a Presbyterian minister. He was educated at Wampus Elementary School, Harold C. Crittenden Junior High School (both in Armonk), and Pleasantville High School, where he was elected "Class Clown" in 1965. He earned a bachelor of arts degree in English from Haverford College in 1969.
As an alumnus of a Quaker-affiliated college, he avoided military service during the Vietnam War by registering as a religious conscientious objector. Barry decided "early on" that he was an atheist. He said, "The problem with writing about religion is that you run the risk of offending sincerely religious people, and then they come after you with machetes."
At Burger, he taught effective writing to businesspeople. In his own words, he "spent nearly eight years trying to get various businesspersons to...stop writing things like 'Enclosed please find the enclosed enclosures,' but...eventually realized that it was hopeless."
In 1981, he wrote a humorous guest column in The Philadelphia Inquirer about watching the birth of his son, which attracted the attention of Gene Weingarten, then an editor of the Miami Herald Sunday magazine, Tropic. Weingarten hired Barry as a humor columnist in 1983. Barry's column was syndicated nationally. Barry won a Pulitzer Prize for Commentary in 1988 for "his consistently effective use of humor as a device for presenting fresh insights into serious concerns".
Barry's first novel, Big Trouble, was published in 1999. The book was adapted into a motion picture directed by Barry Sonnenfeld and starring Tim Allen, Rene Russo, and Patrick Warburton, with a cameo by Barry (deleted in post-production). The movie was originally due for release in September 2001, but was postponed following the September 11, 2001 attacks because the story involved terrorists smuggling a nuclear weapon onto an airplane. The film was released in April 2002.
In response to a column in which Barry mocked the cities of Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, for calling themselves the "Grand Cities", Grand Forks named a sewage pumping station after Barry in January 2002. Barry traveled to Grand Forks for the dedication ceremony.
Articles written by Barry have appeared in publications such as Boating, Home Office Computing, and Reader's Digest, in addition to the Chicken Soup for the Soul inspirational book series. Two of his articles have been included in The Best American Sports Writing series. One of his columns was used as the introduction to the book Pirattitude!: So You Wanna Be a Pirate? Here's How! (), a follow-up to Barry's role in publicizing International Talk Like a Pirate Day. His books have frequently appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list.
On October 31, 2004, Barry announced that he would be taking an indefinite leave of absence of at least a year from his weekly column to spend more time with his family. In December 2005, Barry said in an interview with Editor & Publisher that he would not resume his weekly column, although he would continue such features as his yearly gift guide, his year-in-review feature, and his blog, as well as an occasional article or column.
In 2005, Barry won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.
== Dave's World television series ==
From 1993 to 1997, CBS broadcast the sitcom Dave's World based on the books Dave Barry Turns 40 and Dave Barry's Greatest Hits. The show starred Harry Anderson as Barry and DeLane Matthews as his wife Beth. In an early episode, Barry appeared in a cameo role. After four seasons, the program was canceled shortly after being moved from its "coveted" Monday night slot to the "Friday night death slot", so named because of its association with low viewership.
== Music ==
During college, Barry was in a band called the Federal Duck (the band issued a self-titled album on Musicor Records in 1968, but by that time Barry was no longer in the group). While at the Miami Herald, he and several of his colleagues created a band called the Urban Professionals, with Barry on lead guitar and vocals. They performed an original song called "The Tupperware Song" at the Tupperware headquarters in Orlando, Florida.
Beginning in 1992, Barry played lead guitar in the Rock Bottom Remainders, a rock band made up of published authors. Remainder is a publishing term for a book that does not sell. The band was founded by Barry's sister-in-law, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, for an American Booksellers Association convention, and has included Stephen King, Amy Tan, Ridley Pearson, Scott Turow, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount Jr., Barbara Kingsolver, Matt Groening, and Barry's brother Sam, among others. The band's members "are not musically skilled, but they are extremely loud", according to Barry. Several high-profile musicians, including Al Kooper, Warren Zevon, and Roger McGuinn have performed with the band, and Bruce Springsteen sat in at least once. The band's road tour resulted in the book, Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude. The Rock Bottom Remainders disbanded in 2012 following Goldmark's death from breast cancer. They have reunited several times, performing at the Tucson Festival of Books in 2016 and 2018.
== Other activities ==
Beginning in 1984, Barry and Tropic editors Gene Weingarten and Tom Shroder have organized the Tropic Hunt (now the Herald Hunt), an annual puzzlehunt in Miami. A Washington, D.C., spinoff, the Post Hunt, began in 2008.
Barry has run several mock campaigns for president of the United States, running on a libertarian platform. He has also written for the Libertarian Party's national newsletter.
The screen adaptation of Barry's book Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys was released in 2005; it is available on DVD.
== Personal life ==
Barry married Lois Ann Shelnutt in 1969. He married Beth Lenox in 1976. Barry and Lenox worked together at the Daily Local News, where they began their journalism careers on the same day in September 1971; they had one child, Robert, born 1980. Barry and Lenox divorced in 1993. In 1996, Barry married Miami Herald sportswriter Michelle Kaufman; they had a daughter, Sophie, in 2000.
Barry's father and his youngest brother suffered from alcoholism, and his father died in 1984; his sister Mary Katherine was institutionalized for schizophrenia; and his mother died by suicide in 1987.
Barry has had dogs named Goldie, Earnest, Zippy, and now Lucy. All have been mentioned regularly in Barry's columns.
== Works ==
=== Non-fiction ===
The Taming of the Screw (1983, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
Babies and Other Hazards of Sex: How to Make a Tiny Person in Only 9 Months With Tools You Probably Have Around the Home (1984, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead (1985, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
Claw Your Way to the Top: How to Become the Head of a Major Corporation in Roughly a Week (1986, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex (1987 with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)
Homes and Other Black Holes (1988)
Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States (1989)
Dave Barry Turns 40 (1990)
Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need (1991)
Dave Barry's Guide to Life (1991) (includes Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex, Babies and Other Hazards of Sex, Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead and Claw Your Way to the Top)
Dave Barry Does Japan (1992)
Dave Barry's Gift Guide to End All Gift Guides (1994)
Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys (1996)
Dave Barry in Cyberspace (1996)
Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs (1997)
Dave Barry Turns 50 (1998)
Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway: A Vicious and Unprovoked Attack on Our Most Cherished Political Institutions (2001)
"My Teenage Son's Goal in Life is to Make Me Feel 3,500 Years Old" and Other Thoughts On Parenting From Dave Barry (2001)
"The Greatest Invention in the History Of Mankind Is Beer" And Other Manly Insights From Dave Barry (2001)
Dave Barry's Money Secrets (2006)
Dave Barry on Dads (2007)
Dave Barry's History of the Millennium (So Far) (2007)
I'll Mature When I'm Dead: Dave Barry's Amazing Tales of Adulthood (2010)
You Can Date Boys When You're Forty: Dave Barry on Parenting and Other Topics He Knows Very Little About (2014)
Live Right and Find Happiness (Although Beer is Much Faster): Life Lessons and Other Ravings from Dave Barry (2015)
Best. State. Ever.: A Florida Man Defends His Homeland (2015)
For This We Left Egypt?: A Passover Haggadah for Jews and Those Who Love Them (2017, with Alan Zweibel and Adam Mansbach)
Lessons from Lucy (2019)
A Field Guide to the Jewish People (2019, with Adam Mansbach and Alan Zweibel)
=== Collected columns ===
Dave Barry's Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book (1985)
Dave Barry's Greatest Hits (1988)
Dave Barry Talks Back (1991)
The World According to Dave Barry (1994) (includes Dave Barry Talks Back, Dave Barry Turns 40 and Dave Barry's Greatest Hits)
Dave Barry is NOT Making This Up (1995)
Dave Barry Is from Mars and Venus (1997)
Dave Barry Is Not Taking This Sitting Down (2000)
Boogers Are My Beat (2003)
=== Fiction ===
Big Trouble (1999). .
Tricky Business (2002). .
Peter and the Starcatchers (2004, with Ridley Pearson). .
Peter and the Shadow Thieves (2006, with Ridley Pearson). .
Peter and the Secret of Rundoon (2007, with Ridley Pearson). .
Escape From the Carnivale (2006, with Ridley Pearson). .
The Shepherd, the Angel, and Walter the Christmas Miracle Dog (2006). .
Cave of the Dark Wind (2007, with Ridley Pearson). .
Science Fair (2008, with Ridley Pearson). .
Peter and the Sword of Mercy (2009, with Ridley Pearson). .
Blood Tide (2008, with Ridley Pearson). .
The Bridge to Neverland (2011, with Ridley Pearson). .
Lunatics (2012, with Alan Zweibel). .
Insane City (2013). .
The Worst Class Trip Ever (2015). .
The Worst Night Ever (2016). .
Swamp Story (2023). .
=== Film adaptations ===
Big Trouble (2002)
Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys (2005)
Peter and the Starcatchers (Disney project, announced May 17, 2012. Release date TBA)
=== Collaborations ===
Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude (1994) with Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Al Kooper, Ridley Pearson, Roy Blount, Jr., Joel Selvin, Amy Tan, Dave Marsh, Tad Bartimus, Matt Groening, Greil Marcus, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver, Michael Dorris
Naked Came the Manatee (1998) with Carl Hiaasen, Elmore Leonard, James W. Hall, Edna Buchanan, Les Standiford, Paul Levine, Brian Antoni, Tananarive Due, John Dufresne, Vicki Hendricks, Carolina Hospital, Evelyn Mayerson
Novels (as listed above) with Ridley Pearson and Alan Zweibel
Hard Listening, (July 2013) is an interactive ebook about his participation in a writer/musician band, the Rock Bottom Remainders. Published by digital publisher, Coliloquy, LLC
=== Audio recordings ===
A Totally Random Evening With Dave Barry (1992)
A Prairie Home Companion: English Majors: A Comedy Collection for the Highly Literate (as guest) (1997)
Stranger than Fiction (compilation album) (1998)
|
[
"Tropic (magazine)",
"Tim Allen",
"Daily Local News",
"Roy Blount Jr.",
"Washington, D.C.",
"Peter and the Sword of Mercy",
"CBS",
"Dave Barry's History of the Millennium (So Far)",
"Stephen King",
"Dave Barry in Cyberspace",
"Edna Buchanan",
"September 11, 2001 attacks",
"Matt Groening",
"Orlando, Florida",
"Kathi Kamen Goldmark",
"Never Land Books",
"Tom Shroder",
"The New York Times Best Seller list",
"Libertarianism",
"Amy Tan",
"Carl Hiaasen",
"Miami Herald",
"Chicago Tribune",
"Boating (magazine)",
"Bruce Springsteen",
"Friday night death slot",
"Greil Marcus",
"Grand Forks, North Dakota",
"Al Kooper",
"Peter and the Shadow Thieves",
"Barbara Kingsolver",
"East Grand Forks, Minnesota",
"suicide",
"Boogers Are My Beat",
"children's literature",
"nuclear weapon",
"Haverford College",
"Musicor Records",
"alcoholism",
"Peter and the Starcatchers",
"Michael Dorris",
"Template:Infobox writer/doc",
"schizophrenia",
"Scott Turow",
"Science Fair (novel)",
"Paul Levine",
"Rene Russo",
"Washington Post",
"Mitch Albom",
"Les Standiford",
"parody",
"Warren Zevon",
"Pulitzer Prize for Commentary",
"Reader's Digest",
"Bachelor of Arts",
"Rock Bottom Remainders",
"Armonk, New York",
"Vicki Hendricks",
"journalism",
"Dave Barry Turns 50",
"Michelle Kaufman",
"Religious Society of Friends",
"Stranger than Fiction (compilation album)",
"Tananarive Due",
"draft evasion",
"Alan Zweibel",
"American Booksellers Association",
"The Bridge to Neverland",
"Sam Barry (author)",
"Adam Mansbach",
"cameo appearance",
"Coliloquy",
"Roy Blount, Jr.",
"DeLane Matthews",
"Tricky Business (novel)",
"puzzlehunt",
"Gene Weingarten",
"Libertarian Party (United States)",
"Dave Marsh",
"John Dufresne",
"Big Trouble (2002 film)",
"Tropic Hunt",
"West Chester, Pennsylvania",
"Print syndication",
"I'll Mature When I'm Dead",
"Evelyn Mayerson",
"Presbyterianism",
"James W. Hall",
"sportswriter",
"Chicken Soup for the Soul",
"Tad Bartimus",
"Elmore Leonard",
"Tucson Festival of Books",
"alma mater",
"The Philadelphia Inquirer",
"Joel Selvin",
"Naked Came the Manatee",
"Associated Press",
"Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs",
"Harry Anderson",
"Ridley Pearson",
"Roger McGuinn",
"Exploding whale",
"Dave's World",
"International Talk Like a Pirate Day",
"Pleasantville High School (New York)",
"Barry Sonnenfeld",
"copy editor",
"conscientious objector",
"Brian Antoni",
"Tabitha King",
"Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism",
"comic novel",
"Carolina Hospital",
"Big Trouble (novel)",
"Remaindered book",
"Dave Barry Turns 40",
"Tupperware",
"Post Hunt",
"Atheism",
"The New York Times",
"Patrick Warburton",
"Humorist",
"Peter and the Secret of Rundoon",
"Editor & Publisher",
"Newsweek",
"post-production",
"The Best American Sports Writing",
"Vietnam War"
] |
8,436 |
David Angell
|
David Lawrence Angell (April 10, 1946 – September 11, 2001)
==Early life==
Angell was born in Providence, Rhode Island, to Henry and Mae (née Cooney) Angell. He received a bachelor's degree in English literature from Providence College. He married Lynn Edwards on August 14, 1971. Soon after Angell entered the U.S. Army upon graduation and served at the Pentagon until 1972. His brother, the Most Rev. Kenneth Angell, was a Roman Catholic prelate and Bishop of Burlington, Vermont.
==Legacy==
The American Screenwriters Association awards the annual David Angell Humanitarian Award to any individual in the entertainment industry who contributes to global well-being through donations of time, expertise or other support to improve the human condition.
In 2004, The Angell Foundation of Los Angeles, California, awarded Providence College a gift of $2 million for the Smith Center for the Arts.
At the National September 11 Memorial, Angell and his wife are memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-1, along with other passengers from Flight 11.
|
[
"Condo (TV series)",
"Domestic Life (TV series)",
"Encore! Encore!",
"Wings (1990 TV series)",
"September 11 attacks",
"WIAT",
"Kenneth Angell",
"Goodnight, Seattle",
"Emmy Award",
"the Pentagon",
"David Lee (screenwriter)",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"David Angell Humanitarian Award",
"Peter Casey (screenwriter)",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Burlington",
"World Trade Center (1973–2001)",
"National 9/11 Memorial",
"The Good Son (Frasier)",
"Daphne Moon",
"The Guardian",
"Archie Bunker's Place",
"Niles Crane",
"Manhattan",
"Rhode Island",
"World Trade Center (1973-2001)",
"New York City",
"Hollywood.com",
"American Airlines Flight 11",
"Cheers",
"Providence, Rhode Island",
"Frasier",
"United States Army",
"American Screenwriters Association",
"Emmy Awards",
"Grub Street Productions",
"Roman Catholic Church",
"National September 11 Memorial",
"Providence College",
"Boston"
] |
8,437 |
Diedrich Hermann Westermann
|
Diedrich Hermann Westermann (24 June 1875 – 31 May 1956) was a German missionary, Africanist, and linguist. He substantially extended and revised the work of Carl Meinhof, his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly. Westermann is seen as one of the founders of modern African linguistics.
He carried out extensive linguistic and anthropological research in the area ranging from Senegal eastwards to the Upper Nile. His linguistic publications cover a wide range of African languages, including the Gbe languages, Nuer, Kpelle, Shilluk, Hausa, and Guang.
Westermann's comparative work, begun in 1911, initially brought together much of today's Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan language phyla under the name Sudanic languages. His most important later publication Die westlichen Sudansprachen 1927a divided these into East and West Sudanic languages and laid the basis for what would become Niger–Congo. In this book and a series of associated articles between 1925 and 1928, Westermann both identified a large number of roots that form the basis of our understanding of Niger–Congo and set out the evidence for the coherence of many of the families that constitute it. Much of the classification of African languages associated with Joseph Greenberg actually derives from the work of Westermann.
In 1927 Westermann published a Practical Orthography of African Languages, which became later known as the Westermann script. Subsequently, he published the influential and oft-reprinted Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages in collaboration with Ida C. Ward (1933).
He was born in Baden near Bremen and also died there.
|
[
"Languages of Africa",
"Niger–Congo",
"Bremen (city)",
"Hausa language",
"Kpelle language",
"Ida C. Ward",
"Nilo-Saharan",
"Baden, Lower Saxony",
"Africa Alphabet",
"linguistics",
"Shilluk language",
"Guang language",
"Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages",
"Africa",
"Sudanic languages",
"Carl Meinhof",
"African studies",
"Gbe languages",
"Nuer language"
] |
8,439 |
Diacritic
|
A diacritic (also diacritical mark, diacritical point, diacritical sign, or accent) is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek (, "distinguishing"), from (, "to distinguish"). The word diacritic is a noun, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas diacritical is only an adjective. Some diacritics, such as the acute , grave , and circumflex (all shown above an 'o'), are often called accents. Diacritics may appear above or below a letter or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.
The main use of diacritics in Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. Historically, English has used the diaeresis diacritic to indicate the correct pronunciation of ambiguous words, such as "coöperate", without which the letter sequence could be misinterpreted to be pronounced . Other examples are the acute and grave accents, which can indicate that a vowel is to be pronounced differently than is normal in that position, for example not reduced to /ə/ or silent as in the case of the two uses of the letter e in the noun résumé (as opposed to the verb resume) and the help sometimes provided in the pronunciation of some words such as doggèd, learnèd, blessèd, and especially words pronounced differently than normal in poetry (for example movèd, breathèd).
Most other words with diacritics in English are borrowings from languages such as French to better preserve the spelling, such as the diaeresis on and , the acute from , the circumflex in the word , and the cedille in . All these diacritics, however, are frequently omitted in writing, and English is the only major modern European language that does not have diacritics in common usage.
In Latin-script alphabets in other languages diacritics may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French ("there") versus ("the"), which are both pronounced . In Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other writing systems, diacritics may perform other functions. Vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama ( ् etc.) and the Arabic sukūn ( ) mark the absence of vowels. Cantillation marks indicate prosody. Other uses include the Early Cyrillic titlo stroke ( ◌҃ ) and the Hebrew gershayim ( ), which, respectively, mark abbreviations or acronyms, and Greek diacritical marks, which showed that letters of the alphabet were being used as numerals. In Vietnamese and the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Mandarin in China, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur.
In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new, distinct letter or as a letter–diacritic combination. This varies from language to language and may vary from case to case within a language.
In some cases, letters are used as "in-line diacritics", with the same function as ancillary glyphs, in that they modify the sound of the letter preceding them, as in the case of the "h" in the English pronunciation of "sh" and "th". Such letter combinations are sometimes even collated as a single distinct letter. For example, the spelling sch was traditionally often treated as a separate letter in German. Words with that spelling were listed after all other words spelled with s in card catalogs in the Vienna public libraries, for example (before digitization).
==Types==
Among the types of diacritic used in alphabets based on the Latin script are:
accents (so called because the acute, grave, and circumflex were originally used to indicate different types of pitch accents in the polytonic transcription of Greek)
– acute (); for example
– grave; for example
– circumflex; for example
– caron, wedge; for example
– double acute; for example
– double grave; for example
one dot
– an overdot is used in many orthographies and transcriptions; for example
– an underdot is also used in many orthographies and transcriptions; for example
– an interpunct is used in the Catalan (l·l)
– a dot above right is used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī
tittle, the superscript dot of the modern lowercase Latin and
two dots:
two overdots () are used for umlaut, diaeresis and others; (for example )
two underdots () are used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and the ALA-LC romanization system
– triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels (the "dots" are triangular, not circular).
curves
– breve; for example
– inverted breve; for example
– sicilicus, a palaeographic diacritic similar to a caron or breve
– tilde; for example
– titlo
vertical stroke
– a subscript vertical stroke is used in IPA to mark syllabicity and in to mark a schwa
– a superscript vertical stroke is used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī
macron or horizontal line
– macron; for example
– underbar
overlays
– vertical bar through the character
– slash through the character; for example
– crossbar through the character
ring
– overring: for example
superscript curls
– apostrophe
– inverted apostrophe
– reversed apostrophe
– hook above ()
– horn (); for example
subscript curls
– undercomma; for example
– cedilla; for example
– hook, left or right, sometimes superscript
– ogonek; for example
double marks (over or under two base characters)
– double breve
– tie bar or top ligature
– double circumflex
– longum
– double tilde
double sub/superscript diacritics
– double cedilla
– double ogonek
– double diaeresis
– double ypogegrammeni
The tilde, dot, comma, titlo, apostrophe, bar, and colon are sometimes diacritical marks, but also have other uses.
Not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, but occurs at the beginning of the word, as in the dialects ’Bulengee and ’Dolimi. Because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, and may occur above, below, before, after, or around the consonant letter they modify.
The tittle (dot) on the letter or the letter , of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish from the minims (downstrokes) of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii (as in ), then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, and finally to all lowercase is. The , originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling today's acute accent to a long flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today.
Several languages of eastern Europe use diacritics on both consonants and vowels, whereas in western Europe digraphs are more often used to change consonant sounds. Most languages in Europe use diacritics on vowels, aside from English where there are typically none (with some exceptions).
==Diacritics specific to non-Latin alphabets==
===Arabic===
(ئ ؤ إ أ and stand alone ء) : indicates a glottal stop.
(ــًــٍــٌـ) () symbols: Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, e.g. .
(ــّـ) : Gemination (doubling) of consonants.
(ٱ) : Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk.
(آ) : A written replacement for a that is followed by an alif, i.e. (). Read as a glottal stop followed by a long , e.g. are written out respectively as . This writing rule does not apply when the alif that follows a is not a part of the stem of the word, e.g. is not written out as as the stem does not have an alif that follows its .
(ــٰـ) superscript (also "short" or "dagger alif": A replacement for an original alif that is dropped in the writing out of some rare words, e.g. is not written out with the original alif found in the word pronunciation, instead it is written out as .
(In Arabic: also called ):
(ــَـ) (a)
(ــِـ) (i)
(ــُـ) (u)
(ــْـ) (no vowel)
The or vowel points serve two purposes:
They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels (, , or ) or their absence ().
At the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood.
For nouns, The is for the nominative, for the accusative, and for the genitive.
For verbs, the is for the imperfective, for the perfective, and the is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods.
Vowel points or should not be confused with consonant points or () – one, two or three dots written above or below a consonant to distinguish between letters of the same or similar form.
===Greek===
These diacritics are used in addition to the acute, grave, and circumflex accents and the diaeresis:
– iota subscript ()
– rough breathing (, ): aspiration
– smooth (or soft) breathing (, ): lack of aspiration
===Hebrew===
Niqqud
– Dagesh
– Mappiq
– Rafe
– Shin dot (at top right corner)
– Sin dot (at top left corner)
– Shva
– Kubutz
– Holam
– Kamatz
– Patakh
– Segol
– Tzeire
– Hiriq
(Cantillation marks do not generally render correctly; refer to Hebrew cantillation#Names and shapes of the ta'amim for a complete table together with instructions for how to maximize the possibility of viewing them in a web browser.)
Other
– Geresh
– Gershayim
===Korean===
The diacritics 〮 and 〯 , known as Bangjeom (), were used to mark pitch accents in Hangul for Middle Korean. They were written to the left of a syllable in vertical writing and above a syllable in horizontal writing.
===Sanskrit and Indic===
===Syriac===
A dot above and a dot below a letter represent , transliterated as a or ă,
Two diagonally-placed dots above a letter represent , transliterated as ā or â or å,
Two horizontally-placed dots below a letter represent , transliterated as e or ĕ; often pronounced and transliterated as i in the East Syriac dialect,
Two diagonally-placed dots below a letter represent , transliterated as ē,
A dot underneath the Beth represent a soft sound, transliterated as v
A tilde (~) placed under Gamel represent a sound, transliterated as j
The letter Waw with a dot below it represents , transliterated as ū or u,
The letter Waw with a dot above it represents , transliterated as ō or o,
The letter Yōḏ with a dot beneath it represents , transliterated as ī or i,
A tilde (~) under Kaph represent a sound, transliterated as ch or č,
A semicircle under Peh represents an sound, transliterated as f or ph.
In addition to the above vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes ə, e̊ or superscript e (or often nothing at all) to represent an original Aramaic schwa that became lost later on at some point in the development of Syriac. Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons.
==Non-alphabetic scripts==
Some non-alphabetic scripts also employ symbols that function essentially as diacritics.
Non-pure abjads (such as Hebrew and Arabic script) and abugidas use diacritics for denoting vowels. Hebrew and Arabic also indicate consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and Devanagari use them for foreign sounds. Devanagari and related abugidas also use a diacritical mark called a virama to mark the absence of a vowel. In addition, Devanagari uses the moon-dot chandrabindu ( ँ ) for vowel nasalization.
Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics use several types of diacritics, including the diacritics with alphabetic properties known as Medials and Finals. Although long vowels originally were indicated with a negative line through the Syllabic glyphs, making the glyph appear broken, in the modern forms, a dot above is used to indicate vowel length. In some of the styles, a ring above indicates a long vowel with a [j] off-glide. Another diacritic, the "inner ring" is placed at the glyph's head to modify [p] to [f] and [t] to [θ]. Medials such as the "w-dot" placed next to the Syllabics glyph indicates a [w] being placed between the syllable onset consonant and the nucleus vowel. Finals indicate the syllable coda consonant; some of the syllable coda consonants in word medial positions, such as with the "h-tick", indicate the fortification of the consonant in the syllable following it.
The Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries use the dakuten (◌゛) and handakuten (◌゜) (in Japanese: 濁点 and 半濁点) symbols, also known as nigori (濁 "muddying") or ten-ten (点々 "dot dot") and maru (丸 "circle"), to indicate voiced consonants or other phonetic changes.
Emoticons are commonly created with diacritic symbols, especially Japanese emoticons on popular imageboards.
==Alphabetization or collation==
Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in alphabetical order. For example, French and Portuguese treat letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries. The Scandinavian languages and the Finnish language, by contrast, treat the characters with diacritics , , and as distinct letters of the alphabet, and sort them after . Usually (a-umlaut) and (o-umlaut) [used in Swedish and Finnish] are sorted as equivalent to (ash) and (o-slash) [used in Danish and Norwegian]. Also, aa, when used as an alternative spelling to , is sorted as such. Other letters modified by diacritics are treated as variants of the underlying letter, with the exception that is frequently sorted as .
Languages that treat accented letters as variants of the underlying letter usually alphabetize words with such symbols immediately after similar unmarked words. For instance, in German where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (e.g. schon and then schön, or fallen and then fällen). However, when names are concerned (e.g. in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed ; Austrian phone books now treat characters with umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying vowel).
In Spanish, the grapheme is considered a distinct letter, different from and collated between and , as it denotes a different sound from that of a plain . But the accented vowels , , , , are not separated from the unaccented vowels , , , , , as the acute accent in Spanish only modifies stress within the word or denotes a distinction between homonyms, and does not modify the sound of a letter.
For a comprehensive list of the collating orders in various languages, see Collating sequence.
==Generation with computers==
Modern computer technology was developed mostly in countries that speak Western European languages (particularly English), and many early binary encodings were developed with a bias favoring Englisha language written without diacritical marks. With computer memory and computer storage at premium, early character sets were limited to the Latin alphabet, the ten digits and a few punctuation marks and conventional symbols. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), first published in 1963, encoded just 95 printable characters. It included just four free-standing diacriticsacute, grave, circumflex and tildewhich were to be used by backspacing and overprinting the base letter. The ISO/IEC 646 standard (1967) defined national variations that replace some American graphemes with precomposed characters (such as , and ), according to languagebut remained limited to 95 printable characters.
Unicode was conceived to solve this problem by assigning every known character its own code; if this code is known, most modern computer systems provide a method to input it. For historical reasons, almost all the letter-with-accent combinations used in European languages were given unique code points and these are called precomposed characters. For other languages, it is usually necessary to use a combining character diacritic together with the desired base letter. Unfortunately, even as of 2024, many applications and web browsers remain unable to operate the combining diacritic concept properly.
Depending on the keyboard layout and keyboard mapping, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Keyboards used in countries where letters with diacritics are the norm, have keys engraved with the relevant symbols. In other cases, such as when the US international or UK extended mappings are used, the accented letter is created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark, followed by the letter to place it on. This method is known as the dead key technique, as it produces no output of its own but modifies the output of the key pressed after it.
==Languages with letters containing diacritics==
The following languages have letters with diacritics that are orthographically distinct from those without diacritics.
=== Latin script ===
====Baltic====
Latvian has the following letters: , , , , , , , , , ,
Lithuanian. In general usage, where letters appear with the caron (, and ), they are considered as separate letters from , or and collated separately; letters with the ogonek (, , and ), the macron () and the overdot () are considered as separate letters as well, but not given a unique collation order.
====Celtic====
Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave accents on its seven vowels , , , , , , (hence the composites , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). However all except the circumflex (which is used as a macron) are fairly rare.
Following spelling reforms since the 1970s, Scottish Gaelic uses graves only, which can be used on any vowel (, , , , ). Formerly acute accents could be used on , and , which were used to indicate a specific vowel quality. With the elimination of these accents, the new orthography relies on the reader having prior knowledge of pronunciation of a given word.
Manx uses the cedilla diacritic combined with h to give the digraph (pronounced ) to mark the distinction between it and the digraph (pronounced or ). Other diacritics used in Manx included the circumflex and diaeresis, as in , , , etc. to mark the distinction between two similarly spelled words but with slightly differing pronunciation.
Irish uses only acute accents to mark long vowels, following the 1948 spelling reform. Lenition is indicated using an overdot in Gaelic type (,,, , , , , ); in Roman type, a suffixed is used. Thus, is equivalent to .
Breton does not have a single orthography (spelling system), but uses diacritics for a number of purposes. The diaeresis is used to mark that two vowels are pronounced separately and not as a diphthong/digraph. The circumflex is used to mark long vowels, but usually only when the vowel length is not predictable by phonology. Nasalization of vowels may be marked with a tilde, or following the vowel with the letter . The plural suffix -où is used as a unified spelling to represent a suffix with a number of pronunciations in different dialects, and to distinguish this suffix from the digraph which is pronounced as . An apostrophe is used to distinguish , pronounced as the digraph is used in other Celtic languages, from the French-influenced digraph ch, pronounced .
====Finno-Ugric====
Estonian has a distinct letter , which contains a tilde. Estonian vowels with double-dot diacritics , , are similar to German, but these are also distinct letters, unlike
German umlauted letters. All four have their own place in the alphabet, between and . Carons in or appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords. Also these are distinct letters, placed in the alphabet between s and t.
Finnish uses double-dotted vowels ( and ). As in Swedish and Estonian, these are regarded as individual letters, rather than 'vowel + diacritic' combinations (as happens in German). It also uses the characters , and in foreign names and loanwords. In the Finnish and Swedish alphabets, , and collate as separate letters after , the others as variants of their base letter.
Hungarian uses the double-dot, the acute and double acute diacritics (the last is unique to Hungarian): (, ), (, , , , ) and (, ). The acute accent indicates the long form of a vowel (in case of /, /, /) while the double acute performs the same function for and . The acute accent can also indicate a different sound (more open, as in case of /, /). Both long and short forms of the vowels are listed separately in the Hungarian alphabet, but members of the pairs /, /, /, /, /, / and / are collated in dictionaries as the same letter.
Livonian has the following letters: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
====Germanic====
German uses the two-dots diacritic (): letters , , , used to indicate the fronting of back vowels (see umlaut (linguistics)).
Dutch uses acute, circumflex, grave and two-dots diacritics with most vowels and cedilla with c, as in French. This results in , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . This is mostly on words (and names) originating from French (like crème, café, gêne, façade). The acute accent is also used to stress the vowel (like één). The two-dots diacritic is used as a linguistic diaeresis (a vowel hiatus) that splits the two vowels, e.g., reële, reünie, coördinatie), rather than to indicate a linguistic as used in German.
Afrikaans uses 16 additional vowel forms, both uppercase and lowercase: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
Faroese uses acutes and some additional letters. All are considered separate letters and have their own place in the alphabet: , , , , and .
Icelandic uses acutes and other additional letters. All are considered separate letters, and have their own place in the alphabet: , , , , , and .
Danish and Norwegian use additional characters like the o-slash and the a-overring . These letters come after and in the order , . Historically, the has developed from a ligature by writing a small superscript over a lowercase ; if an character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled a, thus . The Scandinavian languages collate these letters after , but have different national collation standards.
Swedish uses a-diaeresis () and o-diaeresis () in the place of () and slashed o () in addition to the a-overring (). Historically, the two-dots diacritic for the Swedish letters and developed from a small Gothic written above the letters. These letters are collated after , in the order , , .
====Romance====
In Asturian, Galician and Spanish, the character is a letter and collated between n and o.
Asturian uses an underdot: (lower case, ), and (lower case )
Catalan uses the acute accent , , , , the grave accent , , , the diaeresis , , the cedilla , and the interpunct .
In Valencian, the circumflex , , , , may also be used.
Corsican uses the following in its alphabet: /, /, /, /, /.
French uses four diacritics, appearing on vowels (circumflex, acute, grave, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in .
Italian uses two diacritics, appearing on vowels (acute, grave)
Leonese: could use or .
Portuguese uses a tilde with the vowels and and a cedilla with c.
Romanian uses a breve on the letter a () to indicate the sound schwa , as well as a circumflex over the letters a () and i () for the sound . Romanian also writes a comma below the letters s () and t () to represent the sounds and , respectively. These characters are collated after their non-diacritic equivalent.
Spanish uses acute accents (, , , , ) to indicate stress falling on a different syllable than the one it would fall on based on default rules, and to distinguish certain one-syllable homonyms (e.g. (masculine singular definite article) and [he]). The acute accent is also used to break up sequences of vowels that would normally be pronouced as a diphthong into two syllables, as in the word . Diaeresis is used on u only, to distinguish the combinations from , e.g. . The tilde on is not considered a diacritic as is considered a distinct letter from , not a mutated form of it.
====Slavic====
Gaj's Latin alphabet, used in Croatian and latinized Serbian, has the symbols , , , and , which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. It also has one digraph including a diacritic, dž, which is also alphabetized independently, and follows and precedes in the alphabetical order.
The Czech alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý), caron (č ď ě ň ř š ť ž), and for one letter (ů) the ring. (In ď and ť the caron is modified to look rather like an apostrophe.) Letter with caron are considered separate letters, whereas vowels are considered only as longer variants of the unaccented letters. Acute does not affect alphabetical order, letters with caron are ordered after original counterparts.
Polish has the following letters: ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż. These are considered to be separate letters: each of them is placed in the alphabet immediately after its Latin counterpart (e.g. between and ), and are placed after in that order.
The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has no diacritics, instead it has a grapheme (glyph) for every letter of its Latin counterpart (including Latin letters with diacritics and the digraphs dž, lj and nj).
The Slovak alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý ĺ ŕ), caron (č ď ľ ň š ť ž dž), umlaut (ä) and circumflex accent (ô). All of those are considered separate letters and are placed directly after the original counterpart in the alphabet.
The basic Slovenian alphabet has the symbols , , and , which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. Letters with a caron are placed right after the letters as written without the diacritic. The letter ('d with bar') may be used in non-transliterated foreign words, particularly names, and is placed after and before .
====Turkic====
Azerbaijani includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü.
Crimean Tatar includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Unlike Turkish, Crimean Tatar also has the letter Ñ.
Gagauz includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö and Ü. Unlike Turkish, Gagauz also has the letters Ä, Ê Ș and Ț. Ș and Ț are derived from the Romanian alphabet for the same sounds. Sometime the Turkish Ş may be used instead of Ș.
Turkish uses a with a breve (), two letters with two dots ( and , representing two rounded front vowels), two letters with a cedilla ( and , representing the affricate and the fricative ), and also possesses a dotted capital (and a dotless lowercase representing a high unrounded back vowel). In Turkish each of these are separate letters, rather than versions of other letters, where dotted capital and lower case are the same letter, as are dotless capital and lowercase . Typographically, and are sometimes rendered with an underdot, as in . The new Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, and Gagauz alphabets are based on the Turkish alphabet and its same diacriticized letters, with some additions.
Turkmen includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ö, Ş and Ü. In addition, Turkmen uses A with diaeresis (Ä) to represent , N with caron () to represent the velar nasal , Y with acute () to represent the palatal approximant , and Z with caron () to represent .
====Other====
Albanian has two special letters Ç and Ë upper and lowercase. They are placed next to the most similar letters in the alphabet, c and e correspondingly.
Esperanto has the symbols ŭ, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, which are included in the alphabet, and considered separate letters.
Filipino also has the character ñ as a letter and is collated between n and o.
Modern Greenlandic does not use any diacritics, although ø and å are used to spell loanwords, especially from Danish and English. From 1851 until 1973, Greenlandic was written in an alphabet invented by Samuel Kleinschmidt, where long vowels and geminate consonants were indicated by diacritics on vowels (in the case of consonant gemination, the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant). For example, the name Kalaallit Nunaat was spelled Kalâdlit Nunât. This scheme uses the circumflex (◌̂) to indicate a long vowel (e.g. ; modern: ), an acute accent (◌́) to indicate gemination of the following consonant: (i.e. ; modern: ) and, finally, a tilde (◌̃) or a grave accent (◌̀), depending on the author, indicates vowel length and gemination of the following consonant (e.g. ; modern: ). , used only before , are now written in Greenlandic.
Hawaiian uses the kahakō (macron) over vowels, although there is some disagreement over considering them as individual letters. The kahakō over a vowel can completely change the meaning of a word that is spelled the same but without the kahakō.
Kurdish uses the symbols Ç, Ê, Î, Ş and Û with other 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.
Lakota alphabet uses the caron for the letters č, ȟ, ǧ, š, and ž. It also uses the acute accent for stressed vowels á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ.
Malay uses some diacritics such as á, ā, ç, í, ñ, ó, š, ú. Uses of diacritics was continued until late 19th century except ā and ē.
Maltese uses a C, G, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has an H with an extra horizontal bar. For uppercase H, the extra bar is written slightly above the usual bar. For lowercase H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a t, and not touching the lower part (Ħ, ħ). The above characters are considered separate letters. The letter 'c' without a dot has fallen out of use due to redundancy. 'Ċ' is pronounced like the English 'ch' and 'k' is used as a hard c as in 'cat'. 'Ż' is pronounced just like the English 'Z' as in 'Zebra', while 'Z' is used to make the sound of 'ts' in English (like 'tsunami' or 'maths'). 'Ġ' is used as a soft 'G' like in 'geometry', while the 'G' sounds like a hard 'G' like in 'log'. The digraph 'għ' (called għajn after the Arabic letter name ʻayn for غ) is considered separate, and sometimes ordered after 'g', whilst in other volumes it is placed between 'n' and 'o' (the Latin letter 'o' originally evolved from the shape of Phoenician ʻayin, which was traditionally collated after Phoenician nūn).
The romanization of Syriac uses the altered letters of. Ā, Č, Ḏ, Ē, Ë, Ġ, Ḥ, Ō, Š, Ṣ, Ṭ, Ū, Ž alongside the 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.
Vietnamese uses the horn diacritic for the letters ơ and ư; the circumflex for the letters â, ê, and ô; the breve for the letter ă; and a bar through the letter đ. Separately, it also has á, à, ả, ã and ạ, the five tones used for vowels besides the flat tone 'a'.
===Cyrillic letters===
Belarusian and Uzbek Cyrillic have a letter .
Belarusian, Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian have the letter .
Belarusian and Russian have the letter . In Russian, this letter is usually replaced by , although it has a different pronunciation. The use of instead of does not affect the pronunciation. Ё is always used in children's books and in dictionaries. A minimal pair is все (vs'e, "everybody" pl.) and всё (vs'o, "everything" n. sg.). In Belarusian the replacement by is a mistake; in Russian, it is permissible to use either or for but the former is more common in everyday writing (as opposed to instructional or juvenile writing).
The Cyrillic Ukrainian alphabet has the letters , and . Ukrainian Latynka has many more.
Macedonian has the letters and .
In Bulgarian and Macedonian the possessive pronoun ѝ (ì, "her") is spelled with a grave accent in order to distinguish it from the conjunction и (i, "and").
The acute accent above any vowel in Cyrillic alphabets is used in dictionaries, books for children and foreign learners to indicate the word stress, it also can be used for disambiguation of similarly spelled words with different lexical stresses.
==Diacritics that do not produce new letters==
F shows students' efforts at placing the [[ü and acute accent diacritic used in Spanish orthography.]]
===English===
English is one of the few European languages that does not have many words that contain diacritical marks. Instead, digraphs are the main way the Modern English alphabet adapts the Latin to its phonemes. Exceptions are unassimilated foreign loanwords, including borrowings from French (and, increasingly, Spanish, like jalapeño and piñata); however, the diacritic is also sometimes omitted from such words. Loanwords that frequently appear with the diacritic in English include café, résumé or resumé (a usage that helps distinguish it from the verb resume), soufflé, and naïveté (see English terms with diacritical marks). In older practice (and even among some orthographically conservative modern writers), one may see examples such as élite, mêlée and rôle.
English speakers and writers once used the diaeresis more often than now in words such as coöperation (from Fr. coopération), zoölogy (from Grk. zoologia), and seeër (now more commonly see-er or simply seer) as a way of indicating that adjacent vowels belonged to separate syllables, but this practice has become far less common. The New Yorker magazine is a major publication that continues to use the diaeresis in place of a hyphen for clarity and economy of space.
A few English words, often when used out of context, especially in isolation, can only be distinguished from other words of the same spelling by using a diacritic or modified letter. These include exposé, lamé, maté, öre, øre, résumé and rosé. In a few words, diacritics that did not exist in the original have been added for disambiguation, as in maté (from Sp. and Port. mate), saké (the standard Romanization of the Japanese has no accent mark), and Malé (from Dhivehi މާލެ), to clearly distinguish them from the English words mate, sake, and male.
The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous (rébel vs. rebél) or nonstandard for metrical reasons (caléndar), the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament).
In certain personal names such as Renée and Zoë, often two spellings exist, and the person's own preference will be known only to those close to them. Even when the name of a person is spelled with a diacritic, like Charlotte Brontë, this may be dropped in English-language articles, and even in official documents such as passports, due either to carelessness, the typist not knowing how to enter letters with diacritical marks, or technical reasons (California, for example, does not allow names with diacritics, as the computer system cannot process such characters). They also appear in some worldwide company names and/or trademarks, such as Nestlé and Citroën.
===Other languages===
The following languages have letter-diacritic combinations that are not considered independent letters.
Afrikaans uses a diaeresis to mark vowels that are pronounced separately and not as one would expect where they occur together, for example voel (to feel) as opposed to voël (bird). The circumflex is used in ê, î, ô and û generally to indicate long close-mid, as opposed to open-mid vowels, for example in the words wêreld (world) and môre (morning, tomorrow). The acute accent is used to add emphasis in the same way as underlining or writing in bold or italics in English, for example Dit is jóú boek (It is your book). The grave accent is used to distinguish between words that are different only in placement of the stress, for example appel (apple) and appèl (appeal) and in a few cases where it makes no difference to the pronunciation but distinguishes between homophones. The two most usual cases of the latter are in the sayings òf... òf (either... or) and nòg... nòg (neither... nor) to distinguish them from of (or) and nog (again, still).
Aymara uses a diacritical horn over p, q, t, k, ch.
Catalan has the following composite characters: à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, l·l. The acute and the grave indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of .
Some orthographies of Cornish such as Kernowek Standard and Unified Cornish use diacritics, while others such as Kernewek Kemmyn and the Standard Written Form do not (or only use them optionally in teaching materials).
Dutch uses the diaeresis. For example, in ruïne it means that the u and the i are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the way that the combination ui is normally pronounced. Thus it works as a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the i. Diacritics can be used for emphasis (érg koud for very cold) or for disambiguation between a number of words that are spelled the same when context does not indicate the correct meaning (één appel = one apple, een appel = an apple; vóórkomen = to occur, voorkómen = to prevent). Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, mostly loanwords. The ç also appears in some loanwords.
Faroese. Non-Faroese accented letters are not added to the Faroese alphabet. These include é, ö, ü, å and recently also letters like š, ł, and ć.
Filipino has the following composite characters: á, à, â, é, è, ê, í, ì, î, ó, ò, ô, ú, ù, û. Everyday use of diacritics for Filipino is, however, uncommon, and meant only to distinguish between homonyms between a word with the usual penultimate stress and one with a different stress placement. This aids both comprehension and pronunciation if both are relatively adjacent in a text, or if a word is itself ambiguous in meaning. The letter ñ ("eñe") is not a n with a diacritic, but rather collated as a separate letter, one of eight borrowed from Spanish. Diacritics appear in Spanish loanwords and names observing Spanish orthography rules.
Finnish. Carons in š and ž appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords, but may be substituted with sh or zh if and only if it is technically impossible to produce accented letters in the medium. Contrary to Estonian, š and ž are not considered distinct letters in Finnish.
French uses five diacritics. The grave (accent grave) marks the sound when over an e, as in père ("father") or is used to distinguish words that are otherwise homographs such as a/à ("has"/"to") or ou/où ("or"/"where"). The acute (accent aigu) is only used in "é", modifying the "e" to make the sound , as in étoile ("star"). The circumflex (accent circonflexe) generally denotes that an S once followed the vowel in Old French or Latin, as in fête ("party"), the Old French being feste and the Latin being festum. Whether the circumflex modifies the vowel's pronunciation depends on the dialect and the vowel. The cedilla (cédille) indicates that a normally hard "c" (before the vowels "a", "o", and "u") is to be pronounced , as in ça ("that"). The diaeresis diacritic () indicates that two adjacent vowels that would normally be pronounced as one are to be pronounced separately, as in Noël ("Christmas").
Galician vowels can bear an acute (á, é, í, ó, ú) to indicate stress or difference between two otherwise same written words (é, 'is' vs. e, 'and'), but the diaeresis is only used with ï and ü to show two separate vowel sounds in pronunciation. Only in foreign words may Galician use other diacritics such as ç (common during the Middle Ages), ê, or à.
German uses the three umlauted characters ä, ö and ü. These diacritics indicate vowel changes. For instance, the word Ofen "oven" has the plural Öfen . The mark originated as a superscript e; a handwritten blackletter e resembles two parallel vertical lines, like a diaeresis. Due to this history, "ä", "ö" and "ü" can be written as "ae", "oe" and "ue" respectively, if the umlaut letters are not available.
Hebrew has many various diacritic marks known as niqqud that are used above and below script to represent vowels. These must be distinguished from cantillation, which are keys to pronunciation and syntax.
The International Phonetic Alphabet uses diacritic symbols and characters to indicate phonetic features or secondary articulations.
Irish uses the acute to indicate that a vowel is long: á, é, í, ó, ú. It is known as síneadh fada "long sign" or simply fada "long" in Irish. In the older Gaelic type, overdots are used to indicate lenition of a consonant: ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ.
Italian mainly has the acute and the grave (à, è/é, ì, ò/ó, ù), typically to indicate a stressed syllable that would not be stressed under the normal rules of pronunciation but sometimes also to distinguish between words that are otherwise spelled the same way (e.g. "e", and; "è", is). Despite its rare use, Italian orthography allows the circumflex (î) too, in two cases: it can be found in old literary context (roughly up to 19th century) to signal a syncope (fêro→fecero, they did), or in modern Italian to signal the contraction of ″-ii″ due to the plural ending -i whereas the root ends with another -i; e.g., s. demonio, p. demonii→demonî; in this case the circumflex also signals that the word intended is not demoni, plural of "demone" by shifting the accent (demònî, "devils"; dèmoni, "demons").
Lithuanian uses the acute, grave and tilde in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language's pitch accent system.
Maltese also uses the grave on its vowels to indicate stress at the end of a word with two syllables or more:– lowercase letters: à, è, ì, ò, ù; capital letters: À, È, Ì, Ò, Ù
Māori makes use of macrons to mark long vowels.
Occitan has the following composite characters: á, à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, n·h, s·h. The acute and the grave indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, and the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of nh/n·h and sh/s·h (i.e., that the letters are supposed to be pronounced separately, not combined into "ny" and "sh").
Portuguese has the following composite characters: à, á, â, ã, ç, é, ê, í, ó, ô, õ, ú. The acute and the circumflex indicate stress and vowel height, the grave indicates crasis, the tilde represents nasalization, and the cedilla marks the result of a historical lenition.
Acutes are also used in Slavic language dictionaries and textbooks to indicate lexical stress, placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable. This can also serve to disambiguate meaning (e.g., in Russian писа́ть (pisáť) means "to write", but пи́сать (písať) means "to piss"), or "бо́льшая часть" (the biggest part) vs "больша́я часть" (the big part).
Spanish uses the acute and the diaeresis. The acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns. It can also be used to "break up" a diphthong as in tío (pronounced , rather than as it would be without the accent). Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelled alike, such as si ("if") and sí ("yes"), and also to distinguish interrogative and exclamatory pronouns from homophones with a different grammatical function, such as donde/¿dónde? ("where"/"where?") or como/¿cómo? ("as"/"how?"). The acute may also be used to avoid typographical ambiguity, as in 1 ó 2 ("1 or 2"; without the acute this might be interpreted as "1 0 2". The diaeresis is used only over u (ü) for it to be pronounced in the combinations gue and gui, where u is normally silent, for example ambigüedad. In poetry, the diaeresis may be used on i and u as a way to force a hiatus. As foreshadowed above, in nasal ñ the tilde (squiggle) is not considered a diacritic sign at all, but a composite part of a distinct glyph, with its own chapter in the dictionary: a glyph that denotes the 15th letter of the Spanish alphabet.
Swedish uses the acute to show non-standard stress, for example in (café) and (résumé). This occasionally helps resolve ambiguities, such as ide (hibernation) versus idé (idea). In these words, the acute is not optional. Some proper names use non-standard diacritics, such as Carolina Klüft and Staël von Holstein. For foreign loanwords the original accents are strongly recommended, unless the word has been infused into the language, in which case they are optional. Hence crème fraîche but ampere. Swedish also has the letters å, ä, and ö, but these are considered distinct letters, not a and o with diacritics.
Tamil does not have any diacritics in itself, but uses the Arabic numerals 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when Tamil script is used to write long passages in Sanskrit.
Thai has its own system of diacritics derived from Indian numerals, which denote different tones.
Vietnamese uses the acute (dấu sắc), the grave (dấu huyền), the tilde (dấu ngã), the underdot (dấu nặng) and the hook above (dấu hỏi) on vowels as tone indicators.
Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave on its seven vowels a, e, i, o, u, w, y. The most common is the circumflex (which it calls to bach, meaning "little roof", or acen grom "crooked accent", or hirnod "long sign") to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar word with a short vowel or a semivowel. The rarer grave accent has the opposite effect, shortening vowel sounds that would usually be pronounced long. The acute accent and diaeresis are also occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively. The w-circumflex and the y-circumflex are among the most commonly accented characters in Welsh, but unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents.
==Transliteration==
Several languages that are not written with the Roman alphabet are transliterated, or romanized, using diacritics. Examples:
Arabic has several romanisations, depending on the type of the application, region, intended audience, country, etc. many of them extensively use diacritics, e.g., some methods use an underdot for rendering emphatic consonants (ṣ, ṭ, ḍ, ẓ, ḥ). The macron is often used to render long vowels. š is often used for , ġ for .
Chinese has several romanizations that use the umlaut, but only on u (ü). In Hanyu Pinyin, the four tones of Mandarin Chinese are denoted by the macron (first tone), acute (second tone), caron (third tone) and grave (fourth tone) diacritics. Example: ā, á, ǎ, à.
Romanized Japanese (Rōmaji) occasionally uses macrons to mark long vowels. The Hepburn romanization system uses macrons to mark long vowels, and the Kunrei-shiki and Nihon-shiki systems use a circumflex.
Sanskrit, as well as many of its descendants, like Hindi and Bengali, uses a lossless romanization system, IAST. This includes several letters with diacritical markings, such as the macron (ā, ī, ū), over- and underdots (ṛ, ḥ, ṃ, ṇ, ṣ, ṭ, ḍ) as well as a few others (ś, ñ).
==Limits==
===Orthographic===
Possibly the greatest number of combining diacritics required to compose a valid character in any Unicode language is 8, for the "well-known grapheme cluster in Tibetan and Ranjana scripts" or .
It consists of
An example of rendering, may be broken depending on browser:
===Unorthographic/ornamental===
Some users have explored the limits of rendering in web browsers and other software by "decorating" words with excessive nonsensical diacritics per character to produce so-called Zalgo text.
==List of diacritics in Unicode ==
Diacritics for Latin script in Unicode:
|
[
"Ħ",
"acronym",
"abugida",
"abbreviation",
"Norwegian language",
"French language",
"ņ",
"hook above",
"Bulgarian language",
"glottal stop",
"Greenlandic orthography",
"ą",
"Pe̍h-ōe-jī",
"Voiceless glottal fricative",
"Carolina Klüft",
"passport",
"chandrabindu",
"d",
"ĉ",
"French alphabet",
"virgulillia",
"Grammatical number",
"German alphabet",
"ISO/IEC 8859",
"Standard Chinese phonology",
"Hangul",
"Arabic alphabet",
"Uzbek alphabet",
"è",
"Romanization of Chinese",
"Ê",
"apex (diacritic)",
"Ş",
"ї",
"orthography",
"Spanish alphabet",
"inverted apostrophe",
"Spanish orthography",
"Azerbaijani alphabet",
"Ș",
"double cedilla",
"Afrikaans alphabet",
"Polish alphabet",
"letter (alphabet)",
"Tamil alphabet",
"Ö",
"S-cedilla",
"ring above",
"Cornish language",
"dead key",
"ť",
"č",
"kje",
"katakana",
"ď",
"Latin alphabet",
"double acute accent",
"Gaj's Latin alphabet",
"Afrikaans",
"syllabic consonant",
"Faroese alphabet",
"Māori language",
"å",
"ḑ",
"Malay language",
"Renée",
"International Phonetic Alphabet",
"underdot",
"dž",
"Niqqud",
"ô",
"Malé",
"Ä",
"Manx language",
"double ogonek",
"Eberhard Nestle",
"Ye (Cyrillic)",
"writing systems",
"õ",
"Albanian alphabet",
"Nj (digraph)",
"Ğ",
"horn (diacritic)",
"gje",
"Hepburn romanization",
"Typeface",
"reversed apostrophe",
"Hebrew language",
"ř",
"Italian alphabet",
"cedilla",
"Japanese language",
"vowel height",
"Sin dot",
"Occitan alphabet",
"Heavy metal umlaut",
"palaeography",
"ļ",
"Short U (Cyrillic)",
"Mappiq",
"vowel harmony",
"Breton orthography",
"Kubutz",
"ö",
"Hebrew alphabet",
"Arabic romanization",
"Nestlé",
"lenition",
"ń",
"digraph (orthography)",
"Yo (Cyrillic)",
"í",
"à",
"imageboards",
"umlaut (diacritic)",
"rasm",
"Segol",
"Š",
"penult",
"loanword",
"List of Latin digraphs",
"tittle",
"stress (linguistics)",
"ñ",
"ű",
"Croatian language",
"ø",
"lower case",
"ų",
"Valencian language",
"Early Cyrillic",
"circumflex accent",
"Prosody (linguistics)",
"Corsican alphabet",
"Slovenian alphabet",
"hiragana",
"computer memory",
"Dutch orthography",
"iota subscript",
"ę",
"ź",
"Ň",
"Macedonian language",
"dotless i",
"polytonic transcription",
"Emoticon",
"Devanagari",
"List of Latin letters",
"Asturian language",
"Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics",
"Ñ",
"double grave accent",
"syllabary",
"û",
"Vietnamese language",
"keyboard layout",
"Lakota language",
"tone (linguistics)",
"Latin script",
"ê",
"Ancient Greek",
"ā",
"double dot (diacritic)",
"abjad",
"ґ",
"Dagesh",
"Close-mid vowel",
"Kamatz",
"Catalan alphabet",
"Tzeire",
"ú",
"ĝ",
"ġ",
"Ý",
"Filipino alphabet",
"Kernewek Kemmyn",
"ĵ",
"Patakh",
"ż",
"Collating sequence",
"vowel length",
"tie (typography)",
"Turkish alphabet",
"Rheinische Dokumenta",
"Irish language",
"Welsh language",
"Phoenician alphabet",
"ė",
"jussive",
"caron",
"circumflex",
"German orthography",
"rough breathing",
"Swedish alphabet",
"comma below",
"pitch accent",
"fronting (phonology)",
"precomposed character",
"Greek numerals",
"Ṣ",
"Kalaallit Nunaat",
"Turkmen alphabet",
"Gershayim",
"Noun adjunct",
"Palatalization (sound change)",
"transliteration",
"ů",
"Leonese language",
"loan word",
"Assyrian Neo-Aramaic",
"Arabic language",
"Maltese alphabet",
"Portuguese language",
"homonym",
"loanwords",
"î",
"Lje",
"Standard Written Form",
"dot (diacritic)",
"Japan",
"Standard Chinese",
"é",
"Slovak alphabet",
"ò",
"tilde",
"Latin-script alphabets",
"acute accent",
"Vietnamese alphabet",
"Unicode",
"UK extended",
"Romanization",
"Alt code",
"plural",
"Kurdish alphabet",
"Spanish language in the Philippines",
"Livonian language",
"umlaut (linguistics)",
"Scandinavian languages",
"diaeresis (diacritic)",
"й",
"Ē",
"Lithuanian alphabet",
"hamza",
"Greek language",
"minimal pair",
"ISO/IEC 646",
"Roman type",
"hiatus (linguistics)",
"ī",
"Tone (linguistics)",
"Ū",
"combining character",
"adjective",
"ž",
"lexical stress",
"ȭ",
"ĺ",
"Languages of Europe",
"Grammatical conjugation",
"gershayim",
"Filipino name",
"Belarusian alphabet",
"Gagauz alphabet",
"two dots (diacritic)",
"Citroën",
"Lenition",
"Hebrew cantillation",
"Latin-script alphabet",
"Shin dot",
"colon (punctuation)",
"alphabet",
"Macron below",
"Syncope (phonetics)",
"Corsican language",
"Wali language (Gur)",
"Estonian alphabet",
"niqqud",
"Serbian Cyrillic alphabet",
"Slavic language",
"English terms with diacritical marks",
"comma",
"vowel",
"vowel hiatus",
"æ",
"long vowels",
"ă",
"The New Yorker",
"Ṭ",
"dakuten",
"Ț",
"romanization of Syriac",
"ṡ",
"ý",
"đ",
"List of loanwords in Tagalog",
"Open-mid vowel",
"Grave accent",
"Nihon-shiki",
"ł",
"ŝ",
"ù",
"Irish alphabet",
"ç",
"ǟ",
"ä",
"Thai script",
"palatal approximant",
"emphatic consonant",
"ring (diacritic)",
"ē",
"Scripts in Unicode",
"Middle Korean",
"Î",
"minim (palaeography)",
"résumé",
"Samuel Kleinschmidt",
"Acute accent",
"Zoe (name)",
"ALA-LC romanization",
"titlo",
"Scottish Gaelic",
"ȱ",
"collation",
"double ypogegrammeni",
"smooth breathing",
"Hindi",
"ì",
"ć",
"Danish alphabet",
"Ü",
"Ḷ",
"Rōmaji",
"noun",
"computer storage",
"List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode",
"Hawaiian alphabet",
"Umlaut (diacritic)",
"Č",
"Hungarian alphabet",
"â",
"ț",
"Portuguese alphabet",
"Ā",
"Finnish language",
"Hiriq",
"ë",
"ģ",
"Ġ",
"Staël von Holstein",
"Dotless I",
"Ž",
"geminate consonant",
"Ç",
"Gaelic type",
"diphthong",
"Chinese language",
"ň",
"Kunrei-shiki romanization",
"Aleph",
"Shva",
"US international",
"glyph",
"cedille",
"ċ",
"Compose key",
"Italian language",
"ó",
"apostrophe",
"İ",
"sukūn",
"Macron (diacritic)",
"Holam",
"Ō",
"Kernowek Standard",
"voiced consonant",
"Romanian alphabet",
"English alphabet",
"shadda",
"Ukrainian alphabet",
"Bengali language",
"Arabic diacritics",
"Û",
"ū",
"Finnish alphabet",
"Zalgo text",
"International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration",
"Charlotte Brontë",
"Pinyin",
"Sanskrit",
"ŭ",
"bar (diacritic)",
"Ë",
"ü",
"Ḥ",
"inflection",
"inverted breve",
"Vowel pointing (disambiguation)",
"Aymara language",
"š",
"Category:Letters with diacritics",
"acute (diacritic)",
"overdot",
"ogonek",
"ș",
"Crimean Tatar language",
"Catalan language",
"Combining character",
"ě",
"California",
"Spanish language",
"character set",
"Indian numerals",
"hook (diacritic)",
"Galician language",
"velar nasal",
"Czech alphabet",
"ķ",
"virama",
"Short I",
"Arabic numerals",
"ela geminada",
"ĥ",
"sicilicus",
"Esperanto alphabet",
"schwa",
"Oxford English Dictionary",
"Ḏ",
"Arabic",
"Geresh",
"keyboard mapping",
"Caron",
"Unicode character property",
"Rafe",
"Russian alphabet",
"į",
"Serbian language",
"ï",
"Thai language",
"á",
"Dutch alphabet",
"Thai alphabet",
"lowercase",
"ASCII",
"Unified Cornish",
"Welsh alphabet",
"Latynka",
"grave accent",
"List of U.S. cities with diacritics",
"ȯ",
"breve",
"interpunct",
"Latvian alphabet",
"dot above",
"ŕ",
"code point",
"Icelandic orthography",
"ś",
"Indic script",
"ő"
] |
8,442 |
Digraph
|
Digraph, often misspelled as diagraph, may refer to:
Digraph (orthography), a pair of characters used together to represent a single sound, such as "nq" in Hmong RPA
Ligature (writing), the joining of two letters as a single glyph, such as "æ"
Digraph (computing), a group of two characters in computer source code to be treated as a single character
A directed graph, in graph theory
Digraph, a component of a CIA cryptonym, a covert code name
Digraph, a two-letter ISO 639-1 language code
|
[
"protractor",
"Digram (disambiguation)",
"wikt:Diagraph",
"Romanized Popular Alphabet",
"Unigraph",
"List of ISO 639-1 codes",
"Multigraph (disambiguation)",
"scale ruler",
"Trigraph (disambiguation)",
"Digraph (orthography)",
"CIA cryptonym",
"Digramme",
"Digraphia",
"directed graph",
"Ligature (writing)",
"Digraph (computing)",
"Bigram"
] |
8,443 |
Didgeridoo
|
The didgeridoo (;()), also spelt didjeridu, among other variants, is a wind instrument, played with vibrating lips to produce a continuous drone while using a special breathing technique called circular breathing. The didgeridoo was developed by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia at least 1,000 years ago, and is now in use around the world, though still most strongly associated with Indigenous Australian music. In the Yolŋu languages of the indigenous people of northeast Arnhem Land the name for the instrument is the yiḏaki, or more recently by some, mandapul. In the Bininj Kunwok language of West Arnhem Land it is known as mako (pronounced, and sometimes spelt, as mago).
A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from long. Most are around long. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key. Flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length.
==History==
There are no reliable sources of the exact age of the didgeridoo. Archaeological studies suggest that people of the Kakadu region in Northern Australia have been using the didgeridoo for less than 1,000 years, based on the dating of rock art paintings. (that had begun 1500 years ago) shows a didgeridoo player and two song-men participating in an Ubarr ceremony. It is thus thought that it was developed by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, possibly in Arnhem Land.
T. B. Wilson's Narrative of a Voyage Round the World (1835) includes a drawing of an Aboriginal man from Raffles Bay on the Cobourg Peninsula (about east of Darwin) playing the instrument. Others observed such an instrument in the same area, made of bamboo and about long. In 1893, English palaeontologist Robert Etheridge, Junior observed the use of "three very curious trumpets" made of bamboo in northern Australia. There were then two native species of bamboo growing along the Adelaide River, Northern Territory".
==Etymology==
The name didgeridoo is not of Aboriginal Australian linguistic origin and is considered to be an onomatopoetic word. The earliest occurrences of the word in print include a 1908 edition of the Hamilton Spectator referring to a did-gery-do' (hollow bamboo)", a 1914 edition of The Northern Territory Times and Gazette, and a 1919 issue of Smith's Weekly, in which it was referred to as a "didjerry" and was said to produce the sound "didjerry, didjerry, didjerry and so on ad infinitum".
A rival explanation, that didgeridoo is a corruption of the Irish phrase or Scottish Gaelic , is controversial. Irish or , and Scottish Gaelic , are nouns that, depending on the context, may mean "trumpeter", "hummer", "crooner" or "puffer", while Irish means "black", and Scottish Gaelic means "native".
==Other names==
There are numerous names for the instrument among the Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, none of which closely resemble the word "didgeridoo" (see below). Some didgeridoo enthusiasts, scholars and Aboriginal people advocate using local language names for the instrument.
Yiḏaki (transcribed yidaki in English, sometimes spelt yirdaki) is one of the most commonly used names although, strictly speaking, it refers to a specific type of the instrument made and used by the Yolngu peoples of north-east Arnhem Land. Some Yolngu people began using the word mandapul after 2011, out of respect for the passing of a Manggalili man who had a name sounding similar to yidaki.
In west Arnhem Land, it is known as a mako, a name popularised by virtuoso player David Blanasi, a Bininj man, whose language was Kunwinjku, and who brought the didgeridoo to world prominence. The word is pronounced mago and is sometimes spelt that way.
There are at least 45 names for the didgeridoo, several of which suggest its original construction of bamboo, such as bambu, bombo, kambu, and pampu, which are still used in the lingua franca by some Aboriginal people. The following are some of the more common regional names.
==Description and construction==
A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from long. Most are around long. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key. However, flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length.
The didgeridoo is classified as a wind instrument and is similar in form to a straight trumpet, but made of wood. It has also been called a dronepipe.
===Traditional===
Traditional didgeridoos are usually made from hardwoods, especially the various eucalyptus species that are endemic to northern and central Australia. Generally the main trunk of the tree is harvested, though a substantial branch may be used instead. Traditional didgeridoo makers seek suitably hollow live trees in areas with obvious termite activity. Termites attack these living eucalyptus trees, removing only the dead heartwood of the tree, as the living sapwood contains a chemical that repels the insects. Various techniques are employed to find trees with a suitable hollow, including knowledge of landscape and termite activity patterns, and a kind of tap or knock test, in which the bark of the tree is peeled back, and a fingernail or the blunt end of a tool, such as an axe, is knocked against the wood to determine if the hollow produces the right resonance. Once a suitably hollow tree is found, it is cut down and cleaned out, the bark is taken off, the ends trimmed, and the exterior is shaped; this results in a finished instrument. A rim of beeswax may be applied to the mouthpiece end.
===Modern===
Non-traditional didgeridoos can be made from native or non-native hard woods (typically split, hollowed and rejoined), glass, fibreglass, metal, agave, clay, resin, PVC piping and carbon fibre. These typically have an upper inside diameter of around down to a bell end of anywhere between and have a length corresponding to the desired key. The end of the pipe can be shaped and smoothed to create a comfortable mouthpiece or an added mouthpiece can be made of any shaped and smoothed material such as rubber, a rubber stopper with a hole or beeswax.
Modern didgeridoo designs are distinct from the traditional Australian Aboriginal didgeridoo, and are innovations recognised by musicologists. Didgeridoo design innovation started in the late 20th century, using non-traditional materials and non-traditional shapes. The practice has sparked, however, a good deal of debate among indigenous practitioners and non-indigenous people about its aesthetic, ethical, and legal issues.
===Decoration===
Didgeridoos can be painted by their maker or a dedicated artist using traditional or modern paints while others retain the natural wood grain design with minimal or no decoration.
==Playing==
A didgeridoo can be played simply by producing a vibrating sound of the lips to produce the basic drone. More advanced playing involves the technique known as circular breathing. The circular breathing technique requires breathing in through the nose whilst simultaneously using the muscles of the cheeks to compress the cheeks and release the stored air out of the mouth. By using this technique, a skilled player can replenish the air in their lungs, and with practice they can sustain a note for as long as desired. Recordings exist of modern didgeridoo players playing continuously for more than 40 minutes; Mark Atkins on Didgeridoo Concerto (1994) plays for over 50 minutes continuously. Although circular breathing does eliminate the need to stop playing to take a breath, discomfort might still develop during a period of extended play due to chapped lips or other oral discomfort.
The didgeridoo functions "...as an aural kaleidoscope of timbres" and "the extremely difficult virtuoso techniques developed by expert performers find no parallel elsewhere."
Other variations in the didgeridoo's sound can be made by adding vocalisations to the drone. Most of the vocalisations are related to sounds emitted by Australian animals, such as the dingo or the kookaburra. To produce these sounds, the players use their vocal folds to produce the sounds of the animals whilst continuing to blow air through the instrument. The results range from very high-pitched sounds to much lower sounds involving interference between the lip and vocal fold vibrations. Adding vocalisations increases the complexity of the playing.
==In popular culture==
Charlie McMahon, who formed the group Gondwanaland, was one of the first non-Aboriginal players to gain fame as a professional didgeridoo player. He has toured internationally with Midnight Oil. He invented the didjeribone, a sliding didgeridoo made from two lengths of plastic tubing; its playing style is somewhat in the manner of a trombone.
It was featured on the British children's TV series Blue Peter.
Industrial music bands like Test Dept use the didgeridoo.
Early songs by the acid jazz band Jamiroquai featured didgeridoo player Wallis Buchanan, including the band's first single "When You Gonna Learn", which features prominent didgeridoo in the introduction and solo sections.
Ambient artist Steve Roach uses it in his collaborative work Australia: Sound of the Earth with Australian Aboriginal artist David Hudson and cellist Sarah Hopkins, as well as Dreamtime Return.
It is used in the Indian song "Jaane Kyon" from the film Dil Chahta Hai.
Chris Brooks, lead singer of the New Zealand hard rock band Like a Storm, uses the didgeridoo in some songs, including "Love the Way You Hate Me" from their album Chaos Theory: Part 1 (2012).
Kate Bush made extensive use of the didgeridoo, played by Australian musician Rolf Harris, on her album The Dreaming (1982), which was written and recorded after a holiday in Australia.
Singer and multi-instrumentalist Xavier Rudd plays the didgeridoo and features the instrument frequently in his recordings
==Cultural significance==
Traditionally, the didgeridoo was played as an accompaniment to ceremonial dancing and singing and for solo or recreational purposes. For Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, the yidaki is still used to accompany singers and dancers in cultural ceremonies. For the Yolngu people, the yidaki is part of their whole physical and cultural landscape and environment, comprising the people and spirit beings which belong to their country, kinship system and the Yolngu Matha language. It is connected to Yolngu Law and underpinned by ceremony, in song, dance, visual art and stories. establish the beat for the songs during ceremonies. The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the clapsticks are precise, and these patterns have been handed down for many generations. In the Wangga genre, the song-man starts with vocals and then introduces bilma to the accompaniment of didgeridoo.
===Sex-based traditional prohibition debate===
Traditionally, only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonial occasions; playing by women is sometimes discouraged by Aboriginal communities and elders. In 2008, publisher HarperCollins apologised for its book The Daring Book for Girls, which openly encouraged girls to play the instrument, after Aboriginal academic Mark Rose described such encouragement as "extreme cultural insensitivity" and "an extreme faux pas... part of a general ignorance that mainstream Australia has about Aboriginal culture." However, Linda Barwick, an ethnomusicologist, said that though traditionally women have not played the didgeridoo in ceremony, in informal situations there is no prohibition in the Dreaming Law. For example, in 1966, ethnomusicologist Alice Marshall Moyle made a recording in Borroloola of Jemima Wimalu, a Mara woman from the Roper River, proficiently playing the didgeridoo. In 1995, musicologist Steve Knopoff observed Yirrkala women performing djatpangarri songs that are traditionally performed by men and in 1996, ethnomusicologist Elizabeth MacKinley reported women of the Yanyuwa group giving public performances.
Although there is no prohibition in the area of the didgeridoo's origin, such restrictions have been applied by other Indigenous communities. The didgeridoo was introduced to the Kimberleys in the early 20th century but it was only much later, such as in Rose's 2008 criticism of The Daring Book for Girls, that Aboriginal men showed adverse reactions to women playing the instrument and prohibitions are especially evident in the South East of Australia. The belief that women are prohibited from playing is widespread among non-Aboriginal people and is also common among Aboriginal communities in Southern Australia; some ethnomusicologists believe that the dissemination of the taboo belief and other misconceptions is a result of commercial agendas and marketing. The majority of commercial didgeridoo recordings available are distributed by multinational recording companies and feature non-Aboriginal people playing a New Age style of music with liner notes promoting the instrument's spirituality which misleads consumers about the didgeridoo's secular role in traditional Aboriginal culture. A small 2010 study noted marked improvements in the asthma management of 10 Aboriginal adults and children following a six-month programme of once-weekly didgeridoo lessons.
|
[
"Yolngu Matha language",
"traditional owners",
"Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts",
"agave",
"clarinet",
"taboo",
"Gondwanaland (band)",
"Yolngu",
"eucalyptus",
"lingua franca",
"croon",
"New Age",
"Kakadu National Park",
"Linda Barwick",
"Groote Eylandt",
"Arrernte people",
"obstructive sleep apnea",
"Wangga",
"Blue Peter",
"Kimberleys",
"Rolf Harris",
"George Chaloupka",
"dingo",
"timbre",
"Northern Territory",
"endemic (ecology)",
"fibreglass",
"cylindrical",
"The Independent",
"British Medical Journal",
"HarperCollins",
"multi-instrumentalist",
"Nightcliff, Northern Territory",
"The Dreaming (album)",
"BBC",
"Mark Atkins (musician)",
"trumpet",
"Midnight Oil",
"Katherine, Northern Territory",
"Iwaidja",
"Indigenous Australian music",
"Wind instrument",
"Drone (music)",
"Ethnomusicology",
"Australia: Sound of the Earth",
"University of New South Wales",
"hard rock",
"Alice Springs",
"eleventh",
"Test Dept",
"mouthpiece (brass)",
"Aerophone",
"trombone",
"Kunwinjku language",
"Jawoyn",
"Central Australia",
"Charlie McMahon",
"clapstick",
"Gagudju",
"resin",
"Hum (sound)",
"wind instrument",
"Hamilton Spectator (Australia)",
"Steve Roach (musician)",
"kookaburra",
"Nitmiluk National Park",
"Aboriginal Australian ceremony",
"The Northern Territory Times and Gazette",
"Cobourg Peninsula",
"Yolŋu languages",
"Dhuwal",
"Modern didgeridoo designs",
"formants",
"Australian National Dictionary Centre",
"Jaane Kyon",
"Dhuwal language",
"Kate Bush",
"Djalu Gurruwiwi",
"the Dreaming",
"Smith's Weekly",
"Adelaide River, Northern Territory",
"harmonic",
"Peter Sculthorpe",
"Alice Marshall Moyle",
"Xavier Rudd",
"termite",
"Flinders University",
"bamboo",
"Digeridoo (EP)",
"Corruption (linguistics)",
"Indigenous peoples",
"David Hudson (musician)",
"northern Australia",
"Irish language",
"liner notes",
"Onomatopoeia",
"Adelaide River",
"Erke",
"Warray language",
"circular breathing",
"natural trumpet",
"David Blanasi",
"Mayali dialect",
"snoring",
"Like a Storm",
"Industrial music",
"Djinang people",
"musicologist",
"Aboriginal kinship",
"Cone (geometry)",
"Bininj",
"Alphorn",
"Ngarluma language",
"A. P. Elkin",
"Alligator Rivers",
"wikt:puff",
"hardwood",
"Jamiroquai",
"Darwin, Northern Territory",
"Scottish Gaelic",
"William Barton (musician)",
"Aboriginal Australian languages",
"List of didgeridoo players",
"Anindilyakwa people",
"Kimberley (Western Australia)",
"Bininj Kunwok language",
"beeswax",
"Nyulnyul language",
"Aboriginal Australians",
"Maya music",
"When You Gonna Learn",
"Chaos Theory: Part 1",
"Pintupi",
"Robert Etheridge, Junior",
"Dil Chahta Hai",
"rock art",
"Arnhem Land",
"Roebourne, Western Australia",
"Bininj Gun-Wok"
] |
8,449 |
Developmental biology
|
Developmental biology is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in the adult organism.
== Perspectives ==
The main processes involved in the embryonic development of animals are: tissue patterning (via regional specification and patterned cell differentiation); tissue growth; and tissue morphogenesis.
Regional specification refers to the processes that create the spatial patterns in a ball or sheet of initially similar cells. This generally involves the action of cytoplasmic determinants, located within parts of the fertilized egg, and of inductive signals emitted from signaling centers in the embryo. The early stages of regional specification do not generate functional differentiated cells, but cell populations committed to developing to a specific region or part of the organism. These are defined by the expression of specific combinations of transcription factors.
Cell differentiation relates specifically to the formation of functional cell types such as nerve, muscle, secretory epithelia, etc. Differentiated cells contain large amounts of specific proteins associated with cell function.
Morphogenesis relates to the formation of a three-dimensional shape. It mainly involves the orchestrated movements of cell sheets and of individual cells. Morphogenesis is important for creating the three germ layers of the early embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) and for building up complex structures during organ development.
Tissue growth involves both an overall increase in tissue size, and also the differential growth of parts (allometry) which contributes to morphogenesis. Growth mostly occurs through cell proliferation but also through changes in cell size or the deposition of extracellular materials.
The development of plants involves similar processes to that of animals. However, plant cells are mostly immotile so morphogenesis is achieved by differential growth, without cell movements. Also, the inductive signals and the genes involved are different from those that control animal development.
===Generative biology===
Generative biology is the generative science that explores the dynamics guiding the development and evolution of a biological morphological form.
== Developmental processes ==
=== Cell differentiation ===
Cell differentiation is the process whereby different functional cell types arise in development. For example, neurons, muscle fibers and hepatocytes (liver cells) are well known types of differentiated cells. Differentiated cells usually produce large amounts of a few proteins that are required for their specific function and this gives them the characteristic appearance that enables them to be recognized under the light microscope. The genes encoding these proteins are highly active. Typically their chromatin structure is very open, allowing access for the transcription enzymes, and specific transcription factors bind to regulatory sequences in the DNA in order to activate gene expression. For example, NeuroD is a key transcription factor for neuronal differentiation, myogenin for muscle differentiation, and HNF4 for hepatocyte differentiation.
Cell differentiation is usually the final stage of development, preceded by several states of commitment which are not visibly differentiated. A single tissue, formed from a single type of progenitor cell or stem cell, often consists of several differentiated cell types. Control of their formation involves a process of lateral inhibition, based on the properties of the Notch signaling pathway. For example, in the neural plate of the embryo this system operates to generate a population of neuronal precursor cells in which NeuroD is highly expressed.
=== Regeneration ===
Regeneration indicates the ability to regrow a missing part. This is very prevalent amongst plants, which show continuous growth, and also among colonial animals such as hydroids and ascidians. But most interest by developmental biologists has been shown in the regeneration of parts in free living animals. In particular four models have been the subject of much investigation. Two of these have the ability to regenerate whole bodies: Hydra, which can regenerate any part of the polyp from a small fragment, and planarian worms, which can usually regenerate both heads and tails. Both of these examples have continuous cell turnover fed by stem cells and, at least in planaria, at least some of the stem cells have been shown to be pluripotent. The other two models show only distal regeneration of appendages. These are the insect appendages, usually the legs of hemimetabolous insects such as the cricket, and the limbs of urodele amphibians. Considerable information is now available about amphibian limb regeneration and it is known that each cell type regenerates itself, except for connective tissues where there is considerable interconversion between cartilage, dermis and tendons. In terms of the pattern of structures, this is controlled by a re-activation of signals active in the embryo.
There is still debate about the old question of whether regeneration is a "pristine" or an "adaptive" property. If the former is the case, with improved knowledge, we might expect to be able to improve regenerative ability in humans. If the latter, then each instance of regeneration is presumed to have arisen by natural selection in circumstances particular to the species, so no general rules would be expected.
== Embryonic development of animals ==
The sperm and egg fuse in the process of fertilization to form a fertilized egg, or zygote. This undergoes a period of divisions to form a ball or sheet of similar cells called a blastula or blastoderm. These cell divisions are usually rapid with no growth so the daughter cells are half the size of the mother cell and the whole embryo stays about the same size. They are called cleavage divisions.
Mouse epiblast primordial germ cells (see Figure: "The initial stages of human embryogenesis") undergo extensive epigenetic reprogramming. This process involves genome-wide DNA demethylation, chromatin reorganization and epigenetic imprint erasure leading to totipotency.
Morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three layered structure consisting of multicellular sheets called ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. These sheets are known as germ layers. This is the process of gastrulation. During cleavage and gastrulation the first regional specification events occur. In addition to the formation of the three germ layers themselves, these often generate extraembryonic structures, such as the mammalian placenta, needed for support and nutrition of the embryo, and also establish differences of commitment along the anteroposterior axis (head, trunk and tail).
Regional specification is initiated by the presence of cytoplasmic determinants in one part of the zygote. The cells that contain the determinant become a signaling center and emit an inducing factor. Because the inducing factor is produced in one place, diffuses away, and decays, it forms a concentration gradient, high near the source cells and low further away. The remaining cells of the embryo, which do not contain the determinant, are competent to respond to different concentrations by upregulating specific developmental control genes. This results in a series of zones becoming set up, arranged at progressively greater distance from the signaling center. In each zone a different combination of developmental control genes is upregulated. These genes encode transcription factors which upregulate new combinations of gene activity in each region. Among other functions, these transcription factors control expression of genes conferring specific adhesive and motility properties on the cells in which they are active. Because of these different morphogenetic properties, the cells of each germ layer move to form sheets such that the ectoderm ends up on the outside, mesoderm in the middle, and endoderm on the inside.
Morphogenetic movements not only change the shape and structure of the embryo, but by bringing cell sheets into new spatial relationships they also make possible new phases of signaling and response between them. In addition, first morphogenetic movements of embryogenesis, such as gastrulation, epiboly and twisting, directly activate pathways involved in endomesoderm specification through mechanotransduction processes. This property was suggested to be evolutionary inherited from endomesoderm specification as mechanically stimulated by marine environmental hydrodynamic flow in first animal organisms (first metazoa). Twisting along the body axis by a left-handed chirality is found in all chordates (including vertebrates) and is addressed by the axial twist theory.
Growth in embryos is mostly autonomous. For each territory of cells the growth rate is controlled by the combination of genes that are active. Free-living embryos do not grow in mass as they have no external food supply. But embryos fed by a placenta or extraembryonic yolk supply can grow very fast, and changes to relative growth rate between parts in these organisms help to produce the final overall anatomy.
The whole process needs to be coordinated in time and how this is controlled is not understood. There may be a master clock able to communicate with all parts of the embryo that controls the course of events, or timing may depend simply on local causal sequences of events.
=== Metamorphosis ===
Developmental processes are very evident during the process of metamorphosis. This occurs in various types of animal such as insects, amphibians, some fish, and many marine invertebrates. Well-known examples are seen in frogs, which usually hatch as a tadpole and metamorphoses to an adult frog, and certain insects which hatch as a larva and then become remodeled to the adult form during a pupal stage.
All the developmental processes listed above occur during metamorphosis. Examples that have been especially well studied include tail loss and other changes in the tadpole of the frog Xenopus, and the biology of the imaginal discs, which generate the adult body parts of the fly Drosophila melanogaster.
== Plant development ==
Plant development is the process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows. It is studied in plant anatomy and plant physiology as well as plant morphology.
Plants constantly produce new tissues and structures throughout their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature tissues. Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues. By contrast, an animal embryo will very early produce all of the body parts that it will ever have in its life. When the animal is born (or hatches from its egg), it has all its body parts and from that point will only grow larger and more mature.
The properties of organization seen in a plant are emergent properties which are more than the sum of the individual parts. "The assembly of these tissues and functions into an integrated multicellular organism yields not only the characteristics of the separate parts and processes but also quite a new set of characteristics which would not have been predictable on the basis of examination of the separate parts."
=== Growth ===
A vascular plant begins from a single celled zygote, formed by fertilisation of an egg cell by a sperm cell. From that point, it begins to divide to form a plant embryo through the process of embryogenesis. As this happens, the resulting cells will organize so that one end becomes the first root, while the other end forms the tip of the shoot. In seed plants, the embryo will develop one or more "seed leaves" (cotyledons). By the end of embryogenesis, the young plant will have all the parts necessary to begin its life.
Once the embryo germinates from its seed or parent plant, it begins to produce additional organs (leaves, stems, and roots) through the process of organogenesis. New roots grow from root meristems located at the tip of the root, and new stems and leaves grow from shoot meristems located at the tip of the shoot. Branching occurs when small clumps of cells left behind by the meristem, and which have not yet undergone cellular differentiation to form a specialized tissue, begin to grow as the tip of a new root or shoot. Growth from any such meristem at the tip of a root or shoot is termed primary growth and results in the lengthening of that root or shoot. Secondary growth results in widening of a root or shoot from divisions of cells in a cambium.
In addition to growth by cell division, a plant may grow through cell elongation. This occurs when individual cells or groups of cells grow longer. Not all plant cells will grow to the same length. When cells on one side of a stem grow longer and faster than cells on the other side, the stem will bend to the side of the slower growing cells as a result. This directional growth can occur via a plant's response to a particular stimulus, such as light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), water, (hydrotropism), and physical contact (thigmotropism).
Plant growth and development are mediated by specific plant hormones and plant growth regulators (PGRs) (Ross et al. 1983). Endogenous hormone levels are influenced by plant age, cold hardiness, dormancy, and other metabolic conditions; photoperiod, drought, temperature, and other external environmental conditions; and exogenous sources of PGRs, e.g., externally applied and of rhizospheric origin.
=== Morphological variation ===
Plants exhibit natural variation in their form and structure. While all organisms vary from individual to individual, plants exhibit an additional type of variation. Within a single individual, parts are repeated which may differ in form and structure from other similar parts. This variation is most easily seen in the leaves of a plant, though other organs such as stems and flowers may show similar variation. There are three primary causes of this variation: positional effects, environmental effects, and juvenility.
=== Evolution of plant morphology ===
Transcription factors and transcriptional regulatory networks play key roles in plant morphogenesis and their evolution. During plant landing, many novel transcription factor families emerged and are preferentially wired into the networks of multicellular development, reproduction, and organ development, contributing to more complex morphogenesis of land plants.
Most land plants share a common ancestor, multicellular algae. An example of the evolution of plant morphology is seen in charophytes. Studies have shown that charophytes have traits that are homologous to land plants. There are two main theories of the evolution of plant morphology, these theories are the homologous theory and the antithetic theory. The commonly accepted theory for the evolution of plant morphology is the antithetic theory. The antithetic theory states that the multiple mitotic divisions that take place before meiosis, cause the development of the sporophyte. Then the sporophyte will development as an independent organism.
== Developmental model organisms ==
Much of developmental biology research in recent decades has focused on the use of a small number of model organisms. It has turned out that there is much conservation of developmental mechanisms across the animal kingdom. In early development different vertebrate species all use essentially the same inductive signals and the same genes encoding regional identity. Even invertebrates use a similar repertoire of signals and genes although the body parts formed are significantly different. Model organisms each have some particular experimental advantages which have enabled them to become popular among researchers. In one sense they are "models" for the whole animal kingdom, and in another sense they are "models" for human development, which is difficult to study directly for both ethical and practical reasons. Model organisms have been most useful for elucidating the broad nature of developmental mechanisms. The more detail is sought, the more they differ from each other and from humans.
===Plants===
Thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana)
===Vertebrates===
Frog: Xenopus Good embryo supply. Especially suitable for microsurgery.
Zebrafish: Danio rerio. Good embryo supply. Well developed genetics.
Chicken: Gallus gallus. Early stages similar to mammal, but microsurgery easier. Low cost.
Mouse: Mus musculus. A mammal Good embryo supply. Well developed genetics.
Nematode: Caenorhabditis elegans. Good embryo supply. Well developed genetics. Low cost.
===Unicellular===
Algae: Chlamydomonas For studies of regeneration urodele amphibians such as the axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum are used, and also planarian worms such as Schmidtea mediterranea. Plant development has focused on the thale cress Arabidopsis thaliana as a model organism.
|
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"cleavage (embryo)",
"cell proliferation",
"Blastocyst",
"generative science",
"axolotl",
"plant",
"Cell signaling networks",
"cell potency",
"Cell differentiation",
"regional specification",
"embryonic development",
"Promoter (biology)",
"primary growth",
"tissue growth",
"chromatin",
"sea urchin",
"epigenetics",
"Signal transduction",
"Zebrafish",
"Xenopus laevis",
"planarian",
"Arabidopsis thaliana",
"Secondary growth",
"ectoderm",
"thigmotropism",
"epiboly",
"plant hormone",
"hydrotropism",
"Caenorhabditis elegans",
"Morphogenesis",
"xenopus tropicalis",
"gastrulation",
"base excision repair",
"vascular plant",
"mesoderm",
"chordates",
"cotyledon",
"urodele amphibians",
"Schmidtea mediterranea",
"Oxford University Press",
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"embryogenesis",
"plant anatomy",
"Notch signaling pathway",
"asexual reproduction",
"transcription factors",
"genome",
"germ cell",
"Development (journal)",
"blastula",
"fertilisation",
"Saccharomyces",
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"Enhancer (genetics)",
"stem cell",
"cell (biology)",
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"Teratology",
"axial twist theory",
"germination",
"seed",
"phototropism",
"stem cells",
"Chlamydomonas",
"organogenesis",
"animal",
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"morphogenesis",
"Xenopus",
"allometry",
"metamorphosis",
"NeuroD",
"Fish development",
"Gene regulatory network",
"Body plan",
"myogenin",
"Synthetic biology",
"germ layers",
"Cell signaling",
"gravitropism",
"HNF4",
"DNA demethylation",
"Plant evolutionary developmental biology",
"Organoid",
"Ontogeny",
"zygote",
"plant physiology",
"placenta",
"embryo",
"cytoplasmic determinant",
"epiblast",
"Drosophila melanogaster",
"endoderm",
"Embryology",
"meristem",
"Cambium (botany)",
"The Company of Biologists",
"Ascidiacea",
"cellular differentiation",
"chirality",
"blastoderm",
"model organisms",
"Regional specification"
] |
8,452 |
December 27
|
==Events==
===Pre-1600===
537 – The second Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is consecrated.
1512 – The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the conduct of settlers with regard to native Indians in the New World.
1521 – The Zwickau prophets arrive in Wittenberg, disturbing the peace and preaching the Apocalypse.
===1601–1900===
1655 – Second Northern War/the Deluge: Monks at the Jasna Góra Monastery in Częstochowa are successful in fending off a month-long siege.
1657 – The Flushing Remonstrance articulates for the first time in North American history that freedom of religion is a fundamental right.
1703 – Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty which allows Portugal to export wines to England on favorable trade terms.
1814 – War of 1812: The destruction of the schooner brings to an end Commodore Daniel Patterson's makeshift fleet, which fought a series of delaying actions that contributed to Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans.
1831 – Charles Darwin embarks on his journey aboard , during which he will begin to formulate his theory of evolution.
1836 – The worst ever avalanche in England occurs at Lewes, Sussex, killing eight people.
1845 – Ether anesthetic is used for childbirth for the first time by Dr. Crawford Long in Jefferson, Georgia.
1845 – Having coined the phrase "manifest destiny" the previous July, journalist John L. O'Sullivan argued in his newspaper New York Morning News that the United States had the right to claim the entire Oregon Country.
===1901–present===
1911 – "Jana Gana Mana", the national anthem of India, is first sung in the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress.
1918 – The Great Poland Uprising against the Germans begins.
1918 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine occupies Yekaterinoslav and seizes seven airplanes from the UPRAF, establishing an Insurgent Air Fleet.
1922 – becomes the first purpose-built aircraft carrier to be commissioned in the world.
1927 – Kern and Hammerstein's musical play Show Boat, considered to be the first true American musical play, opens at the Ziegfeld Theatre on Broadway.
1929 – Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin orders the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class".
1932 – Radio City Music Hall, "Showplace of the Nation", opens in New York City.
1935 – Regina Jonas is ordained as the first female rabbi in the history of Judaism.
1939 – The 7.8 Erzincan earthquake shakes eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). At least 32,700 people were killed.
1939 – Winter War: Finland holds off a Soviet attack in the Battle of Kelja.
1945 – The International Monetary Fund is created with the signing of an agreement by 29 nations.
1949 – Indonesian National Revolution: The Netherlands officially recognizes Indonesian independence. End of the Dutch East Indies.
1966 – The Cave of Swallows, the largest known cave shaft in the world, is discovered in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 splashes down in the Pacific Ocean, ending the first orbital crewed mission to the Moon.
1968 – North Central Airlines Flight 458 crashes at O'Hare International Airport, killing 28.
1978 – Spain becomes a democracy after 40 years of fascist dictatorship.
1983 – Pope John Paul II visits Mehmet Ali Ağca in Rebibbia's prison and personally forgives him for the 1981 attack on him in St. Peter's Square.
1985 – Palestinian guerrillas kill eighteen people inside the airports of Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria.
1989 – The Romanian Revolution concludes, as the last minor street confrontations and stray shootings abruptly end in the country's capital, Bucharest.
1991 – Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 751 crashes in Gottröra in the Norrtälje Municipality in Sweden, injuring 92.
1996 – Taliban forces retake the strategic Bagram Airfield which solidifies their buffer zone around Kabul, Afghanistan.
1997 – Protestant paramilitary leader Billy Wright is assassinated in Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
1999 – Burger King and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission order a recall of plastic Poké Ball containers after they are determined to be a choking hazard.
2002 – Two truck bombs kill 72 and wound 200 at the pro-Moscow headquarters of the Chechen government in Grozny, Chechnya, Russia.
2004 – Radiation from an explosion on the magnetar SGR 1806-20 reaches Earth. It is the brightest extrasolar event known to have been witnessed on the planet.
2007 – Former Pakistani prime minister Benazir Bhutto is assassinated in a shooting incident.
2007 – Riots erupt in Mombasa, Kenya, after Mwai Kibaki is declared the winner of the presidential election, triggering a political, economic, and humanitarian crisis.
2008 – Operation Cast Lead: Israel launches three-week operation on Gaza.
2009 – Iranian election protests: On the Day of Ashura in Tehran, Iran, government security forces fire upon demonstrators.
2019 – Bek Air Flight 2100 crashes during takeoff from Almaty International Airport in Almaty, Kazakhstan, killing 13.
==Births==
===Pre-1600===
1350 – John I of Aragon (d. 1395)
1390 – Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (d. 1411)
1459 – John I Albert, King of Poland (d. 1501)
1481 – Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Margrave of Bayreuth (d. 1527)
1493 – Johann Pfeffinger, German theologian (d. 1573)
1566 – Jan Jesenius, Bohemian physician, politician and philosopher (d. 1621)
1571 – Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer (d. 1630)
1572 – Johannes Vodnianus Campanus, Czech poet, playwright, and composer (d. 1622)
1584 – Philipp Julius, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1625)
1595 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, hetman of Ukraine (d. 1657)
===1601–1900===
1622 – Teofil Rutka, Polish philosopher (d. 1700)
1633 – Jean de Lamberville, French missionary (d. 1714)
1636 – William Whitelock, English gentleman, Member of Parliament (d. 1717)
1637 – Petar Kanavelić, Venetian writer (d. 1719)
1645 – Giovanni Antonio Viscardi, Swiss architect (d. 1713)
1655 – Abstrupus Danby, English politician (d. 1727)
1660 – Veronica Giuliani, Italian Capuchin mystic (d. 1727)
1663 – Johann Melchior Roos, German painter (d. 1731)
1683 – Conyers Middleton, English priest and theologian (d. 1750)
1689 – Jacob August Franckenstein, Encyclopedia editor, professor (d. 1733)
(baptised) 1692 – Francis Blake Delaval, British Royal Navy officer and Member of Parliament (d. 1752)
1697 – Sollom Emlyn, Irish legal writer (d. 1754)
1705 – Prince Frederick Henry Eugen of Anhalt-Dessau, German prince of the House of Ascania (d. 1781)
1713 – Giovanni Battista Borra, Italian architect and engineer (d. 1770)
1714 – George Whitefield, English preacher and saint (d. 1770)
1715 – Philippe de Noailles, French general (d. 1794)
1721 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher and author (d. 1790)
(baptised) 1761 – Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian field marshal and politician, Governor-General of Finland (d. 1818)
1773 – George Cayley, English engineer and politician (d. 1857)
1776 – Nikolay Kamensky, Russian general (d. 1811)
1797 – Ghalib, Indian poet (d. 1869)
1797 – Charles Hodge, American theologian (d. 1878)
1803 – François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier, Canadian activist (d. 1839)
1809 – Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Greek poet and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (d. 1892)
1822 – Louis Pasteur, French chemist and microbiologist (d. 1895)
1823 – Mackenzie Bowell, English-Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1917)
1827 – Stanisław Mieroszewski, Polish-born politician, writer, historian and member of the Imperial Council of Austria (d. 1900)
1832 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and philanthropist, founded the Tretyakov Gallery (d. 1897)
1838 – Lars Oftedal, Norwegian priest, social reformer, politician, and newspaper editor (d. 1900)
1858 – Juan Luis Sanfuentes, Chilean lawyer and politician, 17th President of Chile (d. 1930)
1863 – Louis Lincoln Emmerson, American lawyer and politician, 27th Governor of Illinois (d. 1941)
1864 – Hermann-Paul, French painter and illustrator (d. 1940)
1878 – Kalle Korhonen, Finnish politician (d. 1938)
1879 – Sydney Greenstreet, English-American actor (d. 1954)
1882 – Mina Loy, British modernist poet and artist (d. 1966)
1883 – Cyrus S. Eaton, Canadian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1979)
1888 – Thea von Harbou, German actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 1954)
1892 – Alfred Edwin McKay, Canadian captain and pilot (d. 1917)
1896 – Louis Bromfield, American author and theorist (d. 1956)
1896 – Maurice De Waele, Belgian cyclist (d. 1952)
1896 – Carl Zuckmayer, German author and playwright (d. 1977)
1898 – Inejiro Asanuma, Japanese politician (d. 1960)
1900 – Hans Stuck, German racing driver (d. 1978)
===1901–present===
1901 – Marlene Dietrich, German-American actress and singer (d. 1992)
1901 – Irene Handl, English actress (d. 1987)
1904 – René Bonnet, French racing driver and engineer (d. 1983)
1905 – Cliff Arquette, American actor and comedian (d. 1974)
1906 – Oscar Levant, American pianist, composer, and actor (d. 1972)
1907 – Asaf Halet Çelebi, Turkish poet (d. 1958)
1907 – Sebastian Haffner, German journalist and author (d. 1999)
1907 – Mary Howard, English author (d. 1991)
1907 – Conrad L. Raiford, American baseball player and activist (d. 2002)
1907 – Willem van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1978)
1909 – James Riddell, English skier and author (d. 2000)
1910 – Charles Olson, American poet and educator (d. 1970)
1911 – Anna Russell, English-Canadian singer and actress (d. 2006)
1913 – Elizabeth Smart, Canadian poet and novelist (d. 1986)
1915 – William Masters, American gynecologist, author, and academic (d. 2001)
1915 – Gyula Zsengellér, Hungarian-Cypriot footballer and manager (d. 1999)
1916 – Werner Baumbach, German pilot (d. 1953)
1916 – Cathy Lewis, American actress (d. 1968)
1917 – Buddy Boudreaux, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 2015)
1917 – T. Nadaraja, Sri Lankan lawyer and academic (d. 2004)
1917 – Onni Palaste, Finnish soldier and author (d. 2009)
1918 – John Celardo, American captain and illustrator (d. 2012)
1919 – Charles Sweeney, American general and pilot (d. 2004)
1920 – Bruce Hobbs, American jockey and trainer (d. 2005)
1921 – John Whitworth, English countertenor (d. 2013)
1923 – Bruno Bobak, Polish-Canadian painter and educator (d. 2012)
1923 – Lucas Mangope, South African politician (d. 2018)
1924 – Jean Bartik, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2011)
1924 – James A. McClure, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2011)
1925 – Michel Piccoli, French actor, singer, director, and producer (d. 2020)
1926 – Jerome Courtland, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2012)
1927 – Antony Gardner, English engineer and politician (d. 2011)
1927 – Nityanand Swami, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Uttarakhand (d. 2012)
1927 – Audrey Wagner, American baseball player, obstetrician, and gynecologist (d. 1984)
1930 – Marshall Sahlins, American anthropologist and academic (d. 2021)
1930 – Wilfrid Sheed, English-born American novelist and essayist (d. 2011)
1931 – Scotty Moore, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2016)
1933 – Dave Marr, American golfer (d. 1997)
1934 – Larisa Latynina, Ukrainian gymnast and coach
1934 – Jeffrey Sterling, Baron Sterling of Plaistow, English businessman
1935 – Michael Turnbull, English bishop
1936 – James Harrison, Australian blood plasma donor (d. 2025)
1936 – Phil Sharpe, English cricketer (d. 2014)
1936 – Eve Uusmees, Estonian swimmer and coach
1939 – John Amos, American actor (d. 2024)
1943 – Joan Manuel Serrat, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist
1943 – Peter Sinfield, English songwriter and producer (d. 2024)
1943 – Roy White, American baseball player and coach
1944 – Mick Jones, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer
1947 – Bill Eadie, American wrestler and coach
1947 – Doug Livermore, English footballer and manager
1947 – Willy Polleunis, Belgian runner
1948 – Gérard Depardieu, French-Russian actor
1949 – Terry Ito, Japanese director, producer, and critic
1950 – Haris Alexiou, Greek singer-songwriter
1950 – Roberto Bettega, Italian footballer and manager
1950 – Terry Bozzio, American drummer and songwriter
1951 – Karla Bonoff, American singer-songwriter
1952 – Jay Hill, Canadian farmer and politician
1952 – David Knopfler, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1954 – Mandie Fletcher, English director, producer, and production manager
1954 – Teo Chee Hean, Singaporean politician and 5th Senior Minister of Singapore
1955 – Brad Murphey, American race car driver
1955 – Barbara Olson, American journalist and author (d. 2001)
1956 – Doina Melinte, Romanian runner
1958 – Steve Jones, American golfer
1959 – Gerina Dunwich, American astrologer, historian, and author
1959 – Andre Tippett, American football player and coach
1960 – Maryam d'Abo, English actress
1969 – Jean-Christophe Boullion, French racing driver
1969 – Chyna, American professional wrestler and actress (d. 2016)
1971 – Duncan Ferguson, Scottish footballer and coach
1971 – Guthrie Govan, English guitarist and educator
1971 – Savannah Guthrie, American television journalist
1975 – Aigars Fadejevs, Latvian race walker and therapist
1975 – Heather O'Rourke, American actress (d. 1988)
1979 – Pascale Dorcelus, Canadian weightlifter
1979 – David Dunn, English footballer and manager
1979 – Carson Palmer, American football player
1980 – Bernard Berrian, American football player
1980 – Claudio Castagnoli, Swiss wrestler
1980 – Dahntay Jones, American basketball player
1980 – Meelis Kompus, Estonian journalist
1981 – David Aardsma, American baseball player
1981 – Emilie de Ravin, Australian actress
1985 – Logan Bailly, Belgian footballer
1985 – Jérôme d'Ambrosio, Belgian racing driver
1985 – Adil Rami, French footballer
1985 – Paul Stastny, Canadian-American ice hockey player
1986 – Torah Bright, Australian snowboarder
1986 – Jamaal Charles, American football player
1986 – Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, Jamaican sprinter
1987 – Lily Cole, English model
1988 – Jorge Gutiérrez, Mexican basketball player
1988 – Hera Hilmar, Icelandic actress
1988 – Zavon Hines, Jamaican-English footballer
1988 – Ok Taec-yeon, South Korean singer and actor
1988 – Rick Porcello, American baseball player
1988 – Hayley Williams, American singer-songwriter
1990 – Max Lindholm, Finnish figure skater
1990 – Jonathan Marchessault, Canadian ice hockey player
1990 – Milos Raonic, Canadian tennis player
1990 – Zelina Vega, American wrestler
1991 – Chloe Bridges, American actress
1991 – Danny Wilson, Scottish footballer
1992 – Joel Indermitte, Estonian footballer
1992 – Maicel Uibo, Estonian decathlete
1993 – Olivia Cooke, English actress
1995 – Timothée Chalamet, French-American actor
1995 – Ghislain Konan, Ivorian footballer
1995 – Mark Lapidus, Estonian chess player
1997 – Mads Juel Andersen, Danish footballer
1997 – Vachirawit Chivaaree, Thai actor and singer
1997 – Ana Konjuh, Croatian tennis player
1997 – Jang Gyu-ri, South Korean actress
1998 – Luka Garza, American basketball player
1999 – Brock Purdy, American football player
2001 – Ander Barrenetxea, Spanish footballer
==Deaths==
===Pre-1600===
683 – Gaozong of Tang, 3rd emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty (b. 628)
870 – Aeneas of Paris, Frankish bishop
975 – Balderic, bishop of Utrecht (b. 897)
1003 – Emma of Blois, French duchess and regent
1005 – Nilus the Younger, Byzantine abbot (b. 910)
1076 – Sviatoslav II, Grand Prince of Kiev (b. 1027)
1087 – Bertha of Savoy, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1051)
1381 – Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, English politician (b. 1352)
1518 – Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate (b. c. 1470)
1543 – George, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (b. 1484)
1548 – Francesco Spiera, Italian lawyer and jurist (b. 1502)
===1601–1900===
1603 – Thomas Cartwright, English minister and theologian (b. 1535)
1637 – Vincenzo Giustiniani, Italian banker (b. 1564)
1641 – Francis van Aarssens, Dutch diplomat (b. 1572)
1642 – Herman op den Graeff, Dutch bishop (b. 1585)
1656 – Andrew White, English Jesuit missionary (b. 1579)
1660 – Hervey Bagot, English politician (b. 1591)
1663 – Christine of France, Duchess of Savoy (b. 1606)
1672 – Jacques Rohault, French philosopher (b. 1618)
1683 – Maria Francisca of Savoy, Queen consort of Portugal (b. 1646)
1689 – Gervase Bryan, English clergyman (b. 1622)
1693 – Henri de Villars, French prelate (b. 1621)
1694 – Henrik Span, naval officer in the Dutch (b. 1634)
1704 – Hans Albrecht von Barfus, Prussian field marshal and politician (b. 1635)
1707 – Jean Mabillon, French monk and scholar (b. 1632)
1707 – Robert Leke, 3rd Earl of Scarsdale, English earl, politician (b. 1654)
1737 – William Bowyer, English printer (b. 1663)
1743 – Hyacinthe Rigaud, French painter (b. 1659)
1771 – Henri Pitot, French engineer, invented the Pitot tube (b. 1695)
1776 – Johann Rall, Hessian colonel (b. )
1782 – Henry Home, Lord Kames, Scottish judge and philosopher (b. 1697)
1800 – Hugh Blair, Scottish minister and author (b. 1718)
1812 – Joanna Southcott, English religious leader (b. 1750)
1834 – Charles Lamb, English essayist and poet (b. 1775)
1836 – Stephen F. Austin, American soldier and politician (b. 1793)
1858 – Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, French pianist and composer (b. 1785)
1895 – Eivind Astrup, Norwegian explorer (b. 1871)
1896 – John Brown, English businessman and politician (b. 1816)
1900 – William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong, English engineer and businessman, founded Armstrong Whitworth (b. 1810)
===1901–present===
1914 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (b. 1863)
1919 – Achilles Alferaki, Russian-Greek composer and politician, Governor of Taganrog (b. 1846)
1923 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (b. 1832)
1924 – Agda Meyerson, Swedish nurse and healthcare activist (b. 1866)
1936 – Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Turkish poet, academic, and politician (b. 1873)
1938 – Calvin Bridges, American geneticist and academic (b. 1889)
1938 – Osip Mandelstam, Polish-Russian poet and critic (b. 1891)
1938 – Zona Gale, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b. 1874)
1939 – Rinaldo Cuneo, American painter (b. 1877)
1943 – Ants Kurvits, Estonian general and politician, 10th Estonian Minister of War (b. 1887)
1950 – Max Beckmann, German-American painter and sculptor (b. 1884)
1952 – Patrick Joseph Hartigan, Australian priest, author, and educator (b. 1878)
1953 – Şükrü Saracoğlu, Turkish soldier and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1887)
1953 – Julian Tuwim, Polish poet and author (b. 1894)
1955 – Alfred Carpenter, English admiral, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1881)
1956 – Lambert McKenna, Irish priest and lexicographer (b. 1870)
1965 – Edgar Ende, German painter (b. 1901)
1972 – Lester B. Pearson, Canadian historian and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Canada, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897)
1974 – Vladimir Fock, Russian physicist and mathematician (b. 1898)
1974 – Amy Vanderbilt, American author (b. 1908)
1978 – Chris Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951)
1978 – Houari Boumediene, Algerian colonel and politician, 2nd President of Algeria (b. 1932)
1978 – Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937)
1979 – Hafizullah Amin, Afghan educator and politician, 2nd General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (b. 1929)
1981 – Hoagy Carmichael, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b. 1899)
1982 – Jack Swigert, American pilot, astronaut, and politician (b. 1931)
1985 – Jean Rondeau, French racing driver (b. 1946)
1986 – George Dangerfield, English-American historian and journalist (b. 1904)
1986 – Dumas Malone, American historian and author (b. 1892)
1987 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (b. 1897)
1988 – Hal Ashby, American director and producer (b. 1929)
1992 – Kay Boyle, American novelist, poet, and educator (b. 1902)
1993 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (b. 1902)
1993 – Evald Mikson, Estonian footballer (b. 1911)
1993 – André Pilette, Belgian racing driver (b. 1918)
1994 – Fanny Cradock, English author and critic (b. 1909)
1994 – J. B. L. Reyes, Filipino lawyer and jurist (b. 1902)
1995 – Shura Cherkassky, Ukrainian-American pianist (b. 1909)
1995 – Genrikh Kasparyan, Armenian chess player and composer (b. 1910)
1997 – Brendan Gill, American journalist and essayist (b. 1914)
1997 – Billy Wright, Northern Irish loyalist leader (b. 1960)
1999 – Michael McDowell, American author and screenwriter (b. 1950)
2002 – George Roy Hill, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
2003 – Alan Bates, English actor (b. 1934)
2003 – Iván Calderón, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (b. 1962)
2004 – Hank Garland, American guitarist (b. 1930)
2007 – Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani politician, Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1953)
2007 – Jerzy Kawalerowicz, Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1922)
2007 – Jaan Kross, Estonian author and poet (b. 1920)
2008 – Delaney Bramlett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1939)
2008 – Robert Graham, Mexican-American sculptor (b. 1938)
2009 – Isaac Schwartz, Ukrainian-Russian composer and educator (b. 1923)
2011 – Catê, Brazilian footballer and manager (b. 1973)
2011 – Michael Dummett, English soldier, philosopher, and academic (b. 1925)
2011 – Helen Frankenthaler, American painter and educator (b. 1928)
2011 – Johnny Wilson, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1929)
2012 – Harry Carey, Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)
2012 – Lloyd Charmers, Jamaican singer, keyboard player, and producer (b. 1938)
2012 – Tingye Li, Chinese-American physicist and engineer (b. 1931)
2012 – Archie Roy, Scottish astronomer and academic (b. 1924)
2012 – Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (b. 1934)
2012 – Salt Walther, American race car driver (b. 1947)
2013 – Richard Ambler, English-Scottish biologist and academic (b. 1933)
2013 – Mohamad Chatah, Lebanese economist and politician, Lebanese Minister of Finance (b. 1951)
2013 – Gianna D'Angelo, American soprano and educator (b. 1929)
2013 – John Matheson, Canadian colonel, lawyer, and politician (b. 1917)
2013 – Farooq Sheikh, Indian actor, philanthropist and a popular television presenter (b. 1948)
2014 – Ben Ammi Ben-Israel, American-Israeli religious leader, founded the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem (b. 1939)
2014 – Ulises Estrella, Ecuadorian poet and academic (b. 1939)
2014 – Ronald Li, Hong Kong accountant and businessman (b. 1929)
2014 – Karel Poma, Belgian bacteriologist and politician (b. 1920)
2015 – Stein Eriksen, Norwegian-American skier (b. 1927)
2015 – Dave Henderson, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1958)
2015 – Ellsworth Kelly, American painter and sculptor (b. 1923)
2015 – Meadowlark Lemon, American basketball player and minister (b. 1932)
2015 – Alfredo Pacheco, Salvadoran footballer (b. 1982)
2015 – Stevie Wright, English-Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1947)
2016 – Carrie Fisher, American actress, screenwriter, author, producer, and speaker (b. 1956)
2016 – Ratnasiri Wickremanayake, Sri Lankan politician (b. 1933)
2018 – Frank Blaichman, Polish resistance fighter (b. 1922)
2019 – Maria Creveling, American League of Legends player (b. 1995)
2023 – Lee Sun-kyun, South Korean actor (b. 1975)
2023 – Gaston Glock, Austrian firearm engineer and founder of Glock (b. 1929)
2024 – Greg Gumbel, American sportscaster (b. 1946)
2024 – Olivia Hussey, Argentinian-English actress (b. 1951)
2024 – Charles Shyer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1941)
==Holidays and observances==
Christian feast day:
Blessed Francesco Spoto
Blessed Sára Salkaházi
Fabiola
John the Apostle
Pope Maximus of Alexandria
Nicarete
Theodorus and Theophanes
December 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Constitution Day (North Korea)
Emergency Rescuer's Day (Russia)
Saint Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church; a public holiday in Romania)
The third of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
|
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"Michael Turnbull (bishop)",
"Jérôme d'Ambrosio",
"Lisa Jakub",
"Hafizullah Amin",
"Rome and Vienna airport attacks",
"1809",
"1969",
"BBC",
"1934",
"1962",
"Mohamad Chatah",
"Peter Sinfield",
"1481",
"1566",
"Kazakhstan",
"John Celardo",
"Kenyan presidential election, 2007",
"1693",
"Colin Charvis",
"Jaan Kross",
"President of Chile",
"2007",
"Jean Bartik",
"Giovanni Battista Borra",
"Estonian Minister of War",
"1637",
"Erin E. Stead",
"Bohdan Khmelnytsky",
"Emergency Rescuer's Day",
"Ulises Estrella",
"Hermann-Paul",
"Gérard Depardieu",
"1087",
"Glock Ges.m.b.H.",
"Taliban",
"Abstrupus Danby",
"Indian National Congress",
"Emilie de Ravin",
"Ingrid Várgas Calvo",
"Mark Few",
"1822",
"Attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II",
"1761",
"Premier League",
"Nikolay Kamensky",
"Guido Westerwelle",
"1782",
"1836",
"1548",
"Naver",
"Marlene Dietrich",
"Pitot tube",
"Lloyd Charmers",
"1521",
"December 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)",
"Catê",
"2004",
"Lenny Kaye",
"Terry Ito",
"Iván Calderón (baseball)",
"Meadowlark Lemon",
"1929",
"Gianna D'Angelo",
"Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March",
"Dekulakization",
"1572",
"Burger King",
"George Dangerfield",
"Frank Blaichman",
"Wilson Cruz",
"Doina Melinte",
"Remilia",
"Armstrong Whitworth",
"evolution",
"Patrick Sharp",
"Alexandros Rizos Rangavis",
"Achilles Alferaki",
"Cave of Swallows",
"1896",
"Anna Russell",
"Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950",
"Kabul",
"1995",
"Duncan Ferguson",
"Broadway theatre",
"1622",
"Amy Vanderbilt",
"Gaston Glock",
"Apollo program",
"Tang dynasty",
"Kay Boyle",
"Charles Hodge",
"1714",
"Nityanand Swami (politician)",
"Joanna Southcott",
"1942",
"Pascale Dorcelus",
"Governor-General of Finland",
"Jerzy Kawalerowicz",
"Day of Ashura",
"William Masters",
"Fernando Pisani",
"1832",
"Nilus the Younger",
"1642",
"Bernard Berrian",
"Duchy of Savoy",
"1909",
"Piotr Morawski",
"Ernesto Zedillo",
"David Knopfler",
"Aquismón",
"Michael Morgan (rugby league born 1991)",
"Mehmet Akif Ersoy",
"1543",
"Zavon Hines",
"Constitution Day (North Korea)",
"Cole Hamels",
"Conrad L. Raiford",
"Western Christianity",
"Laws of Burgos",
"1864",
"Chechnya",
"Częstochowa",
"Sweden",
"Chris Tate (footballer)",
"1900",
"Mandie Fletcher",
"Teofil Rutka",
"Lily Cole",
"Hayley Williams",
"Charles Lamb",
"1905",
"Milos Raonic",
"Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation",
"1998",
"1917",
"freedom of religion",
"1381",
"1493",
"1983",
"1878",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Battle of Kelja",
"Polly Toynbee",
"1776",
"1986",
"Emperor Gaozong of Tang",
"Farooq Sheikh",
"Roberto Bettega",
"Karel Poma",
"Joan Manuel Serrat",
"Vice-Chancellor of Germany",
"Juan Luis Sanfuentes",
"Max Beckmann",
"2024",
"William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong",
"1641",
"Julian Tuwim",
"1076",
"Buddy Boudreaux",
"Thomas Cartwright (theologian)",
"Battle of New Orleans",
"UPI",
"Jacques Rohault",
"Aeneas of Paris",
"O'Hare International Airport",
"Luka Garza",
"Maurice De Waele",
"Prime Minister of Pakistan",
"Jay Hill (politician)",
"Veronica Giuliani",
"Alfred Edwin McKay",
"Spanish transition to democracy",
"SGR 1806-20",
"Miles Aiken",
"Palestinians",
"Henri Pitot",
"Jang Gyu-ri",
"Cliff Arquette",
"François Hemsterhuis",
"Twelve Days of Christmas",
"1812",
"1955",
"Adil Rami",
"William Bowyer (1663–1737)",
"Francis van Aarssens",
"Romania",
"Scotty Moore",
"War of 1812",
"1901",
"1956",
"Parliament of Finland",
"Jerome Courtland",
"Dutch East Indies",
"Jay Pandolfo",
"Sherri Steinhauer",
"1882",
"1991",
"Henrik Span",
"Maryam d'Abo",
"Ronald Li",
"1930",
"National Transportation Safety Board",
"2014",
"1968",
"Ukrainian War of Independence",
"1863",
"Bagram Airfield",
"1797",
"Petar Kanavelić",
"Bucharest",
"Mina Loy",
"Roy White",
"1005",
"Gustave Eiffel",
"Turkey",
"1705",
"1645",
"1831",
"Hagia Sophia",
"Yekaterinoslav",
"1936",
"1973",
"Maicel Uibo",
"Apocalypse",
"Feliks Kibbermann",
"Bahmani Sultanate",
"Asaf Halet Çelebi",
"Joel Indermitte",
"Mayor of Boston",
"1518",
"Bruce Hobbs",
"1694",
"Hyacinthe Rigaud",
"Teo Chee Hean",
"Cokie Roberts",
"1944",
"Irene Handl",
"Bill Self",
"David Dunn",
"1997",
"Fanny Cradock",
"Mwai Kibaki",
"Gottröra",
"Sussex",
"Rinaldo Cuneo",
"Show Boat",
"Regina Jonas",
"Daimí Pernía",
"King of Poland",
"Theresa Randle",
"Louis Pasteur",
"Saint Fabiola",
"Joe Kinnear",
"Senior Minister of Singapore",
"Stephen F. Austin",
"Variety (magazine)",
"Ghalib",
"Lester B. Pearson",
"Willem van Otterloo",
"Gaspar Noé",
"Queen consort of Portugal",
"1918",
"Hank Garland",
"Apollo 8",
"1911",
"Thea von Harbou",
"Jefferson, Georgia",
"Kristoffer Zegers",
"1618",
"Guthrie Govan",
"Jasna Góra Monastery",
"975",
"Aviation Safety Network",
"Mehmet Ali Ağca",
"North Central Airlines Flight 458",
"1713",
"1960",
"Cathy Lewis",
"1948",
"Andre Tippett",
"Cyrus S. Eaton",
"Mike Pinder",
"President of Algeria",
"John I of Aragon",
"Donald Nally",
"George Whitefield",
"Olivia Hussey",
"Tehran",
"John Whitworth (musician)",
"1704",
"1945",
"Flushing Remonstrance",
"Gilles Simon",
"People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan",
"Dahntay Jones",
"Deuce McAllister",
"1512",
"Nicarete",
"Stanisław Mieroszewski",
"1980",
"Judaism",
"Ukrainian People's Republic Air Fleet",
"1974",
"1988",
"1350",
"Hans Albrecht von Barfus",
"David Shepherd (umpire)",
"Brock Purdy",
"1737",
"Timothée Chalamet",
"aircraft carrier",
"Governor of Illinois",
"Jay Ellis",
"Emma of Blois",
"Genrikh Kasparyan",
"Werner Baumbach",
"2011",
"Wittenberg",
"Sollom Emlyn",
"1721",
"Christine of France",
"1959",
"1914",
"Mads Juel Andersen",
"Burger King Pokémon container recall",
"Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth",
"1834",
"James Riddell (skier)",
"Harry Carey, Jr.",
"Eiffel Tower",
"Alan Bates",
"2002 Grozny truck bombing",
"Benazir Bhutto",
"Vienna",
"1803"
] |
8,454 |
Double planet
|
In astronomy, a double planet (also binary planet) is a binary satellite system where both objects are planets, or planetary-mass objects, and whose barycenter is external to both planetary bodies.
Although up to a third of the star systems in the Milky Way are binary, double planets are expected to be much rarer given the typical planet to satellite mass ratio is around 1:10,000, they are influenced heavily by the gravitational pull of the parent star and according to the giant-impact hypothesis are gravitationally stable only under particular circumstances.
The Solar System does not have an official double planet, however the Earth–Moon system is sometimes considered to be one. In promotional materials advertising the SMART-1 mission, the European Space Agency referred to the Earth–Moon system as a double planet.
Several dwarf planet candidates can be described as binary planets. At its 2006 General Assembly, the International Astronomical Union considered a proposal that Pluto and Charon be reclassified as a double planet, but the proposal was abandoned in favor of the current IAU definition of planet. Other trans-Neptunian systems with proportionally large planetary-mass satellites include Eris–Dysnomia, Orcus–Vanth and Varda–Ilmarë.
Binary asteroids with components of roughly equal mass are sometimes referred to as double minor planets. These include binary asteroids 69230 Hermes and 90 Antiope and binary Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) 79360 Sila–Nunam and .
== Definition of "double planet" ==
{m_\mathrm{s}} \cdot \left( \frac{d_\mathrm{s}}{d_\mathrm{p}} \right)^2
where is the mass of the primary (the larger body), is the mass of the Sun, is the distance between the smaller body and the Sun, and is the distance between the smaller body and the primary.| Isaac Asimov}}
See the Path of Earth and Moon around Sun section in the "Orbit of the Moon" article for a more detailed explanation.
This definition of double planet depends on the pair's distance from the Sun. If the Earth–Moon system happened to orbit farther away from the Sun than it does now, then Earth would win the tug of war. For example, at the orbit of Mars, the Moon's tug-of-war value would be 1.05. Also, several tiny moons discovered since Asimov's proposal would qualify as double planets by this argument. Neptune's small outer moons Neso and Psamathe, for example, have tug-of-war values of 0.42 and 0.44, less than that of Earth's Moon. Yet their masses are tiny compared to Neptune's, with an estimated ratio of 1.5 () and 0.4 ().
=== Formation of the system ===
A final consideration is the way in which the two bodies came to form a system. Both the Earth–Moon and Pluto–Charon systems are thought to have been formed as a result of giant impacts: one body was impacted by a second body, resulting in a debris disk, and through accretion, either two new bodies formed or one new body formed, with the larger body remaining (but changed). However, a giant impact is not a sufficient condition for two bodies being "double planets" because such impacts can also produce tiny satellites, such as the four small outer satellites of Pluto.
A now-abandoned hypothesis for the origin of the Moon was actually called the "double-planet hypothesis"; the idea was that the Earth and the Moon formed in the same region of the Solar System's proto-planetary disk, forming a system under gravitational interaction. This idea, too, is a problematic condition for defining two bodies as "double planets" because planets can "capture" moons through gravitational interaction. For example, the moons of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) are thought to be asteroids captured long ago by Mars. Such a definition would also deem Neptune–Triton a double planet, since Triton was a Kuiper belt body the same size and of similar composition to Pluto, later captured by Neptune.
|
[
"Vanth (moon)",
"Ilmarë",
"Natural satellite",
"Neptune",
"Quasi-satellite",
"Eris (dwarf planet)",
"Phobos (moon)",
"69230 Hermes",
"Charon (moon)",
"Pluto",
"dwarf planet",
"Deimos (moon)",
"Satellite system (astronomy)",
"Titan (moon)",
"79360 Sila–Nunam",
"origin of the Moon",
"Kuiper belt object",
"astronomical object",
"174567 Varda",
"Moon",
"Astronomical Society of the Pacific",
"moons of Mars",
"Wikt:convex",
"SMART-1",
"New Horizons",
"Kuiper belt",
"Wikt:concave",
"Psamathe (moon)",
"Ecliptic",
"planemo",
"Binary system (astronomy)",
"Definition of planet",
"barycenter",
"gravitation",
"Triton (moon)",
"Mars",
"Neso (moon)",
"Orbit of the Moon",
"Hill sphere",
"brown dwarf",
"Fusor (astronomy)",
"star system",
"Milky Way",
"Earth",
"Solar System",
"European Space Agency",
"90482 Orcus",
"Isaac Asimov",
"2006 definition of planet",
"planets",
"Dysnomia (moon)",
"giant-impact hypothesis",
"minor planet",
"tug of war (astronomy)",
"Binary asteroid",
"International Astronomical Union",
"Capture of Triton",
"IAU definition of planet",
"giant impact hypothesis",
"Phoebe (moon)",
"3753 Cruithne",
"deuterium fusion",
"90 Antiope",
"Co-orbital configuration"
] |
8,456 |
Denaturation (biochemistry)
|
In biochemistry, denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose folded structure present in their native state due to various factors, including application of some external stress or compound, such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), agitation, radiation, or heat. If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death. Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from conformational change and loss of solubility or dissociation of cofactors to aggregation due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups. The loss of solubility as a result of denaturation is called coagulation. Denatured proteins lose their 3D structure, and therefore, cannot function.
Proper protein folding is key to whether a globular or membrane protein can do its job correctly; it must be folded into the native shape to function. However, hydrogen bonds and cofactor-protein binding, which play a crucial role in folding, are rather weak, and thus, easily affected by heat, acidity, varying salt concentrations, chelating agents, and other stressors which can denature the protein. This is one reason why cellular homeostasis is physiologically necessary in most life forms.
== Common examples ==
When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.
A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, which are typically largely egg albumins in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming an interconnected solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid. The skin that forms on curdled milk is another common example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by chemically "cooking" raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade, without heat.
== Protein denaturation ==
Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to protein aggregation.
=== Background ===
Proteins or polypeptides are polymers of amino acids. A protein is created by ribosomes that "read" RNA that is encoded by codons in the gene and assemble the requisite amino acid combination from the genetic instruction, in a process known as translation. The newly created protein strand then undergoes posttranslational modification, in which additional atoms or molecules are added, for example copper, zinc, or iron. Once this post-translational modification process has been completed, the protein begins to fold (sometimes spontaneously and sometimes with enzymatic assistance), curling up on itself so that hydrophobic elements of the protein are buried deep inside the structure and hydrophilic elements end up on the outside. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment.
Protein folding consists of a balance between a substantial amount of weak intra-molecular interactions within a protein (Hydrophobic, electrostatic, and Van Der Waals Interactions) and protein-solvent interactions. As a result, this process is heavily reliant on environmental state that the protein resides in.
When a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact. Since all structural levels of the protein determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured. This is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active and tend to fold upon binding to their biological target.
=== How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure ===
In quaternary structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted.
Tertiary structure denaturation involves the disruption of:
Covalent interactions between amino acid side-chains (such as disulfide bridges between cysteine groups)
Non-covalent dipole-dipole interactions between polar amino acid side-chains (and the surrounding solvent)
Van der Waals (induced dipole) interactions between nonpolar amino acid side-chains.
In secondary structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, and adopt a random coil configuration.
Primary structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent peptide bonds, is not disrupted by denaturation.
==== Loss of function ====
Most biological substrates lose their biological function when denatured. For example, enzymes lose their activity, because the substrates can no longer bind to the active site, and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' transition states are no longer positioned to be able to do so. The denaturing process and the associated loss of activity can be measured using techniques such as dual-polarization interferometry, CD, QCM-D and MP-SPR.
==== Loss of activity due to heavy metals and metalloids ====
By targeting proteins, heavy metals have been known to disrupt the function and activity carried out by proteins. Heavy metals fall into categories consisting of transition metals as well as a select amount of metalloid. This understanding has led to the notion that all the information needed for proteins to assume their native state was encoded in the primary structure of the protein, and hence in the DNA that codes for the protein, the so-called "Anfinsen's thermodynamic hypothesis".
Denaturation can also be irreversible. This irreversibility is typically a kinetic, not thermodynamic irreversibility, as a folded protein generally has lower free energy than when it is unfolded. Through kinetic irreversibility, the fact that the protein is stuck in a local minimum can stop it from ever refolding after it has been irreversibly denatured.
==== Protein denaturation due to pH ====
Denaturation can also be caused by changes in the pH which can affect the chemistry of the amino acids and their residues. The ionizable groups in amino acids are able to become ionized when changes in pH occur. A pH change to more acidic or more basic conditions can induce unfolding. Acid-induced unfolding often occurs between pH 2 and 5, base-induced unfolding usually requires pH 10 or higher. The area of partially separated DNA is known as the denaturation bubble, which can be more specifically defined as the opening of a DNA double helix through the coordinated separation of base pairs. However, the Poland-Scheraga Model is now considered elementary because it fails to account for the confounding implications of DNA sequence, chemical composition, stiffness and torsion.
Recent thermodynamic studies have inferred that the lifetime of a singular denaturation bubble ranges from 1 microsecond to 1 millisecond. This information is based on established timescales of DNA replication and transcription. Other than denaturation by heat, nucleic acids can undergo the denaturation process through various chemical agents such as formamide, guanidine, sodium salicylate, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), propylene glycol, and urea. These chemical denaturing agents lower the melting temperature (Tm) by competing for hydrogen bond donors and acceptors with pre-existing nitrogenous base pairs. Some agents are even able to induce denaturation at room temperature. For example, alkaline agents (e.g. NaOH) have been shown to denature DNA by changing pH and removing hydrogen-bond contributing protons.
==== Chemical denaturation as an alternative ====
The optical activity (absorption and scattering of light) and hydrodynamic properties (translational diffusion, sedimentation coefficients, and rotational correlation times) of formamide denatured nucleic acids are similar to those of heat-denatured nucleic acids. Therefore, depending on the desired effect, chemically denaturing DNA can provide a gentler procedure for denaturing nucleic acids than denaturation induced by heat. Studies comparing different denaturation methods such as heating, beads mill of different bead sizes, probe sonication, and chemical denaturation show that chemical denaturation can provide quicker denaturation compared to the other physical denaturation methods described. These molecules compete with surrounding hydrogen bond acceptors for hydrogen bond donors, therefore acting as "hydrogen bond breakers" and weakening interactions between surrounding molecules in the environment. nitrogen and oxygen therefore maintain the potential to weaken the integrity of DNA when exposed to air. As a result, DNA strands exposed to air require less force to separate and exemplify lower melting temperatures.
Trichloroacetic acid 12% in water
Sulfosalicylic acid
==== Bases ====
Bases work similarly to acids in denaturation. They include:
Sodium bicarbonate
==== Solvents ====
Most organic solvents are denaturing, including:
Ethanol
==== Cross-linking reagents ====
Cross-linking agents for proteins include:
Formaldehyde
Glutaraldehyde
==== Chaotropic agents ====
Chaotropic agents include:
Urea 6–8 mol/L
Guanidinium chloride 6 mol/L
Lithium perchlorate 4.5 mol/L
Sodium dodecyl sulfate
==== Disulfide bond reducers ====
Agents that break disulfide bonds by reduction include:
2-Mercaptoethanol
Dithiothreitol
TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine)
==== Chemically reactive agents ====
Agents such as hydrogen peroxide, elemental chlorine, hypochlorous acid (chlorine water), bromine, bromine water, iodine, nitric and oxidising acids, and ozone react with sensitive moieties such as sulfide/thiol, activated aromatic rings (phenylalanine) in effect damage the protein and render it useless.
==== Other ====
Mechanical agitation
Picric acid
Radiation
Temperature
Joule heating
=== Nucleic acid denaturants ===
==== Chemical ====
Acidic nucleic acid denaturants include:
Acetic acid
HCl
Nitric acid
Basic nucleic acid denaturants include:
NaOH
Other nucleic acid denaturants include:
DMSO
Formamide
Guanidine
Sodium salicylate
Propylene glycol
Urea
==== Physical ====
Thermal denaturation
Beads mill
Probe sonication
Radiation
|
[
"Apoptosis",
"Precipitation (chemistry)",
"protein aggregation",
"dual-polarization interferometry",
"Guanidine",
"hydrophobic",
"Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids",
"Pure and Applied Chemistry",
"hydrogen bond",
"Protein structure",
"disulfide bridge",
"Circular dichroism",
"Sulfosalicylic acid",
"non-covalent interactions",
"Cofactor (biochemistry)",
"RNA",
"2-Mercaptoethanol",
"ribosome",
"Sodium salicylate",
"nitrogen",
"guanidine",
"rate of reaction",
"Alcohol (chemistry)",
"iron",
"Nucleic acid",
"Electronegativity",
"stiffness",
"pH",
"base pair",
"Formamide",
"enzyme",
"Random coil",
"formamide",
"International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry",
"heat",
"base (chemistry)",
"atom",
"enzymatic",
"Elsevier",
"sedimentation coefficient",
"TCEP",
"Q10 (temperature coefficient)",
"Nat. Chem. Biol.",
"Sodium dodecyl sulfate",
"Acid",
"Dithiothreitol",
"Polymerase",
"zinc",
"disulfide bond",
"Blackwell Science",
"Ethanol",
"active site",
"DNA sequencing",
"Protein aggregation",
"solvent",
"Lithium perchlorate",
"posttranslational modification",
"biochemistry",
"salinity",
"Christian B. Anfinsen",
"ceviche",
"globular protein",
"van der Waals force",
"DNA",
"nucleotide",
"physiology",
"transcription (genetics)",
"Sodium hydroxide",
"Formaldehyde",
"Denatured alcohol",
"metalloid",
"sonication",
"Polymerase chain reaction",
"Thermostability",
"catalysis",
"Propylene glycol",
"Electrostatics",
"protein",
"Nucleic acid double helix",
"alpha helix",
"torsion (mechanics)",
"Cell (biology)",
"life",
"Nucleobase",
"Trichloroacetic acid",
"conformational change",
"acetone",
"polypeptide",
"inorganic",
"oxygen",
"Southern blot",
"multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance",
"Anfinsen's dogma",
"Covalent",
"DNA repair",
"Protein primary structure",
"propylene glycol",
"Annealing (biology)",
"Equilibrium unfolding",
"Side chain",
"curdled",
"Radiation",
"Phosphate-buffered saline",
"chloroform",
"Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis",
"sodium salicylate",
"Sodium bicarbonate",
"Joule heating",
"Acetic acid",
"amino acid",
"hydrophilic",
"Cross-link",
"beta sheet",
"translucent",
"copper",
"homeostasis",
"dimethyl sulfoxide",
"dipole",
"protein folding",
"temperature",
"codon",
"polymerase chain reaction",
"cysteine",
"Dimethyl sulfoxide",
"rotational correlation time",
"solubility",
"Northern blot",
"Rotational diffusion",
"molarity",
"membrane protein",
"Guanidinium chloride",
"organic compound",
"acid",
"nucleic acid",
"transition state",
"Nucleic acid thermodynamics",
"ovalbumin",
"peptide bond",
"Optical rotation",
"Glutaraldehyde",
"Urea",
"pressure",
"Nucleic acid sequence",
"translation (genetics)",
"intrinsically unstructured proteins",
"molecule",
"native state",
"DNA replication",
"Base (chemistry)",
"nitrogenous base",
"Alkalinity",
"Protein",
"urea",
"Atmosphere of Earth",
"Chaotropic agent",
"Picric acid",
"Protein folding",
"Chelation",
"Molten globule",
"random coil",
"Antiparallel (biochemistry)",
"Fixation (histology)",
"Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring"
] |
8,459 |
Dwight L. Moody
|
Dwight Lyman Moody (February 5, 1837 – December 22, 1899), also known as D. L. Moody, was an American evangelist and publisher connected with Keswickianism, who founded the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now Northfield Mount Hermon School), Moody Bible Institute, and Moody Publishers. One of his most famous quotes was "Faith makes all things possible... Love makes all things easy." Moody gave up his lucrative boot and shoe business to devote his life to revivalism, working first in the Civil War with Union troops through YMCA in the United States Christian Commission. In Chicago, he built one of the major evangelical centers in the nation, which is still active. Working with singer Ira Sankey, he toured the country and the British Isles, drawing large crowds with a dynamic speaking style.
==Early life==
Dwight Moody was born in Northfield, Massachusetts, as the seventh child of a large family. His father, Edwin J. Moody (1800–1841), was a small farmer and stonemason. His mother was Betsey Moody (née Holton; 1805–1896). They had five sons and a daughter before Dwight's birth. His father died when Dwight was age four; fraternal twins, a boy, and a girl were born one month after the father's death. Their mother struggled to support the nine children, but she still found it necessary to send some off to work for their room and board. Dwight too was sent off, where he received cornmeal porridge, and milk three times a day. He complained to his mother, but when she learned that he was getting all he wanted to eat, she sent him back. During this time, she continued to send the children to church. Together with his eight siblings, Dwight was raised in the Unitarian church. His oldest brother ran away and was not heard from by the family until many years later.
When Moody turned 17, he moved to Boston to work (after receiving many job rejections locally) in an uncle's shoe store. One of the uncle's requirements was that Moody attend the Congregational Church of Mount Vernon, where Dr. Edward Norris Kirk served as the pastor. In April 1855 Moody was converted to evangelical Christianity when his Sunday school teacher, Edward Kimball, talked to him about how much God loved him. His conversion sparked the start of his career as an evangelist. Moody first applied to the church in May 1855, but he was not received as a church member until May 4, 1856.
According to Moody's memoir, his teacher, Edward Kimball, said:
==Civil War==
D. L. Moody "could not conscientiously enlist" in the Union Army during the Civil War, later describing himself as "a Quaker" in this respect. After the Civil War started, he became involved with the United States Christian Commission of YMCA. He paid nine visits to the battlefront, being present among the Union soldiers after the Battle of Shiloh (a.k.a. Pittsburg Landing) and the Battle of Stones River; he also entered Richmond, Virginia, with the troops of General Grant.
On August 28, 1862, Moody married Emma C. Revell, with whom he had a daughter, Emma Reynolds Moody, and two sons, William Revell Moody and Paul Dwight Moody.
==Chicago and the postwar years==
In 1858, he started a Sunday school.
The growing Sunday School congregation needed a permanent home, so Moody started a church in Chicago, the Illinois Street Church in 1864.
In June 1871 at an International Sunday School Convention in Indianapolis, Indiana, Dwight Moody met Ira D. Sankey. He was a gospel singer, with whom Moody soon began to cooperate and collaborate.
Four months later, in October 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed Moody's church building, as well as his house and those of most of his congregation. Many had to flee the flames, saving only their lives, and ending up completely destitute. Moody, reporting on the disaster, said about his own situation that: "...he saved nothing but his reputation and his Bible."
In the years after the fire, Moody's wealthy Chicago patron John V. Farwell tried to persuade him to make his permanent home in the city, offering to build a new house for Moody and his family. But the newly famous Moody, also sought by supporters in New York, Philadelphia, and elsewhere, chose a tranquil farm he had purchased near his birthplace in Northfield, Massachusetts. He felt he could better recover from his lengthy preaching trips in a rural setting.
===Evangelistic travels===
During a trip to the United Kingdom in the spring of 1872, Moody became well known as an evangelist. Literary works published by the Moody Bible Institute claim that he was the greatest evangelist of the 19th century. He preached almost a hundred times and came into communion with the Plymouth Brethren. On several occasions, he filled stadia of a capacity of 2,000 to 4,000. According to his memoir, in the Botanic Gardens Palace, he attracted an audience estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000.
That turnout continued throughout 1874 and 1875, with crowds of thousands at all of his meetings. During his visit to Scotland, Moody was helped and encouraged by Andrew A. Bonar. The famous London Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon invited him to speak, and he promoted the American as well. When Moody returned to the US, he was said to frequently attract crowds of 12,000 to 20,000, such crowds being as common as they had been in England. President Grant and some of his cabinet officials attended a Moody meeting on January 19, 1876. Moody held evangelistic meetings from Boston to New York, throughout New England, and as far west as San Francisco, also visiting other West Coast towns from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to San Diego.
Moody aided the work of cross-cultural evangelism by promoting "The Wordless Book", a teaching tool Charles Spurgeon had developed in 1866. In 1875, Moody added a fourth color to the design of the three-color evangelistic device: gold — to "represent heaven." This "book" has been and is still used to teach uncounted thousands of illiterate people, young and old, around the globe about the gospel message.
Moody visited Britain with Ira D. Sankey, with Moody preaching and Sankey singing at meetings. Together they published books of Christian hymns. In 1883, they visited Edinburgh and raised £10,000 for the building of a new home for the Carrubbers Close Mission. Moody later preached at the laying of the foundation stone for what is now called the Carrubbers Christian Centre, one of the few buildings on the Royal Mile which continues to be used for its original purpose.
===International acclaim===
His influence was felt among Swedes. Being of English heritage, never visiting Sweden or any other Scandinavian country, and never speaking a word of Swedish, nonetheless, he became a hero revivalist among Swedish Mission Friends () in Sweden and America.
News of Moody's large revival campaigns in Great Britain from 1873 through 1875 traveled quickly to Sweden, making "Mr. Moody" a household name in homes of many Mission Friends. Moody's sermons published in Sweden were distributed in books, newspapers, and colporteur tracts, and they led to the spread of Sweden's "Moody fever" from 1875 through 1880.
He preached his last sermon on November 16, 1899, in Kansas City, Missouri. Becoming ill, he returned home by train to Northfield. During the preceding several months, friends had observed he had added some to his already ample frame. Although his illness was never diagnosed, it has been speculated that he suffered from congestive heart failure. He died on December 22, 1899, surrounded by his family. Already installed as the leader of the Chicago Bible Institute, R. A. Torrey succeeded Moody as its pastor.
==Legacy==
Religious historian James Findlay says that:
Speaking before thousands in the dark business suit, bearded, rotund Dwight L. Moody seemed the epitome of the "businessman in clerical garb" who typified popular religion in late 19th-century America... Earthy, unlettered, a dynamo of energy, the revivalist was very much a man of his times... Moody adapted revivalism, one of the major institutions of evangelical Protestantism, to the urban context. ... His organizational ability, demonstrated in the great revivals he conducted in England, combined to fashion his spectacular career as the creator of modern mass revivalism.
Ten years after Moody's death the Chicago Avenue Church was renamed the Moody Church in his honor, and the Chicago Bible Institute was likewise renamed the Moody Bible Institute.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born in 1890, was named after him. During World War II, the Liberty ship was built in Panama City, Florida, and named in his honor.
==Works==
Heaven Diggory Press
Prevailing Prayer—What Hinders it? Diggory Press
Secret Power Diggory Press
The Ten Commandments
Also, A Life for Christ—What a Normal Christian Life Looks Like.
The Way to God and How to Find it
|
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"Boston",
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"Charles Spurgeon"
] |
8,460 |
Dieting
|
Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity. As weight loss depends on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.), have been shown to be no more effective than one another. Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.
Some guidelines recommend dieting to lose weight for people with weight-related health problems, but not for otherwise healthy people. One survey found that almost half of all American adults attempt to lose weight through dieting, including 66.7% of obese adults and 26.5% of normal weight or underweight adults. Dieters who are overweight (but not obese), who are normal weight, or who are underweight may have an increased mortality rate as a result of dieting.
One of the first dietitians was the English doctor George Cheyne. He himself was tremendously overweight and would constantly eat large quantities of rich food and drink. He began a meatless diet, taking only milk and vegetables, and soon regained his health. He began publicly recommending his diet for everyone who was obese. In 1724, he wrote An Essay of Health and Long Life, in which he advises exercise and fresh air and avoiding luxury foods.
The Scottish military surgeon, John Rollo, published Notes of a Diabetic Case in 1797. It described the benefits of a meat diet for those with diabetes, basing this recommendation on Matthew Dobson's discovery of glycosuria in diabetes mellitus. By means of Dobson's testing procedure (for glucose in the urine) Rollo worked out a diet that had success for what is now called type 2 diabetes.
The first popular diet was "Banting", named after the English undertaker William Banting. In 1863, he wrote a booklet called Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public, which contained the particular plan for the diet he had successfully followed. His own diet was four meals per day, consisting of meat, greens, fruits, and dry wine. The emphasis was on avoiding sugar, sweet foods, starch, beer, milk and butter. Banting's pamphlet was popular for years to come, and would be used as a model for modern diets. The pamphlet's popularity was such that the question "Do you bant?" referred to his method, and eventually to dieting in general. His booklet remains in print as of 2007.
The first weight-loss book to promote calorie counting, and the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller, was the 1918 Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories by American physician and columnist Lulu Hunt Peters.
It was estimated that over 1000 weight-loss diets have been developed up to 2014.
===Low-fat===
Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet. Calorie consumption is reduced because less fat is consumed. Diets of this type include NCEP Step I and II. A meta-analysis of 16 trials of 2–12 months' duration found that low-fat diets (without intentional restriction of caloric intake) resulted in average weight loss of over habitual eating.
===Low-carbohydrate===
===Low-calorie===
Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500–1,000 calories per day, which can result in a weight loss per week. The National Institutes of Health reviewed 34 randomized controlled trials to determine the effectiveness of low-calorie diets. They found that these diets lowered total body mass by 8% in the short term, over 3–12 months. They subject the body to starvation and produce an average loss of per week. "2-4-6-8", a popular diet of this variety, follows a four-day cycle in which only 200 calories are consumed the first day, 400 the second day, 600 the third day, 800 the fourth day, and then totally fasting, after which the cycle repeats. There is some evidence that these diets results in considerable weight loss. Crash dieting can be highly dangerous because it can cause various kind of issues for the human body. Crash dieting can produce weight loss but without professional supervision all along, the extreme reduction in calories and potential unbalance in the diet's composition can lead to detrimental effects, including sudden death.
===Fasting===
Fasting is the act of intentional taking a long time interval between meals. Lengthy fasting (multiple days in a week) might be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition. During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores. although some dispute this. The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting, have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent the issues of long fasting.
Intermittent fasting commonly takes the form of periodic fasting, alternate-day fasting, time-restricted feeding, and/or religious fasting. Studies have suggested that for people in intensive care, an intermittent fasting regimen might "[preserve] energy supply to vital organs and tissues... [and] powerfully activates cell-protective and cellular repair pathways, including autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant defenses, which may promote resilience to cellular stress." The effects of decreased serum glucose and depleted hepatic glycogen causing the body to switch to ketogenic metabolism are similar to the effects of reduced carbohydrate-based diets. There is evidence demonstrating profound metabolic benefits of intermittent fasting in rodents. Exclusion of animal products can reduce the intake of certain nutrients, which might lead to nutritional deficiencies of protein, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins D and B12. including meat, nuts, eggs, some oils, fresh fruits, and vegetables.
===Environmentally sustainable===
Another kind of diet focuses not on the dieter's health effects, but on its environment. The One Blue Dot plan of the BDA offers recommendations towards reducing diets' environmental impacts, by:
Reducing meat to 70g per person per day.
Prioritising plant proteins.
Promoting fish from sustainable sources.
Moderate dairy consumption.
Focusing on wholegrain starchy foods.
Promoting seasonal locally sourced fruits and vegetables.
Reducing high fat, sugar and salty foods overconsumption.
Promoting tap water and unsweetened tea/coffee as the de facto choice for healthy hydration.
Reducing food waste.
==Effectiveness==
Several diets are effective for short-term weight loss for obese individuals, As weight maintenance depends on calorie intake, A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between low-calorie, low-carbohydrate, and low-fat diets in terms of short-term weight loss, with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss over 12–18 months in all studies. Most diet studies do not assess long-term weight loss. A 2001 meta-analysis of 29 American studies found that participants of structured weight-loss programs maintained an average of 23% (3 kg) of their initial weight loss after five years, representing a sustained 3.2% reduction in body mass. sometimes called a Health at Every Size (HAES) approach or a "weight neutral" approach.
Long term losses from dieting are best maintained with continuing professional support, long term increases in physical activity, the use of anti-obesity medications, continued use of meal replacements, and additional periods of dieting to undo weight regain.
=== Adverse effects ===
==== Increased mortality rate ====
A number of studies have found that intentional weight loss is associated with an increase in mortality in people without weight-related health problems. A 2009 meta-analysis of 26 studies found that "intentional weight loss had a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy (with obesity-related risk factors), especially unhealthy obese, but appeared to be associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals, and for those who were overweight but not obese." Supplements should not replace foods that are important to a healthy diet. A 2006 study found that dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors were predictive of obesity and eating disorders five years later, with the authors recommending a "shift away from dieting and drastic weight-control measures toward the long-term implementation of healthful eating and physical activity".
==Mechanism==
When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.
=== Set-Point Theory ===
The Set-Point Theory, first introduced in 1953, postulated that each body has a preprogrammed fixed weight, with regulatory mechanisms to compensate. This theory was quickly adopted and used to explain failures in developing effective and sustained weight loss procedures. A 2019 systematic review of multiple weight change procedures, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding but also exercise and overeating, found systematic "energetic errors" for all these procedures. This shows that the body cannot precisely compensate for errors in energy/calorie intake, countering the Set-Point Theory and potentially explaining both weight loss and weight gain such as obesity. This review was conducted on short-term studies, therefore such a mechanism cannot be excluded in the long term, as evidence is currently lacking on this timeframe.
==Methods==
===Meal timing===
A meal timing schedule is known to be an important factor of any diet. Recent evidence suggest that new scheduling strategies, such as intermittent fasting or skipping meals, and strategically placed snacks before meals, may be recommendable to reduce cardiovascular risks as part of a broader lifestyle and dietary change.
===Food diary===
A 2008 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine showed that dieters who kept a daily food diary (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if a person records their eating, they are more aware of what they consume and therefore eat fewer calories.
===Water===
A 2009 review found limited evidence suggesting that encouraging water consumption and substituting energy-free beverages for energy-containing beverages (i.e., reducing caloric intake) may facilitate weight management. A 2009 article found that drinking 500 ml of water prior to meals for a 12-week period resulted in increased long-term weight reduction. (References given in main article.)
==Society==
It is estimated that about 1 out of 3 Americans is dieting at any given time. 85% of dieters are women. Approximately sixty billion dollars are spent every year in the USA on diet products, including "diet foods", such as light sodas, gym memberships or specific regimes. 80% of dieters start by themselves, whereas 20% see a professional or join a paid program. The typical dieter attempts 4 tries per year.
===Weight loss groups===
Some weight loss groups aim to make money, others work as charities. The former include Weight Watchers and Peertrainer. The latter include Overeaters Anonymous, TOPS Club and groups run by local organizations.
These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on twelve-step programs, while others are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.
Attending group meetings for weight reduction programmes rather than receiving one-on-one support may increase the likelihood that obese people will lose weight. Those who participated in groups had more treatment time and were more likely to lose enough weight to improve their health. Study authors suggested that one explanation for the difference is that group participants spent more time with the clinician (or whoever delivered the programme) than those receiving one-on-one support.
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"Matthew Dobson (physician)",
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"glycogenolysis"
] |
8,461 |
Diet
|
Diet may refer to:
==Food==
Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group
Dieting, the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake
Diet food, foods that aid in creating a diet for weight loss or gain
Healthy diet, the process of helping to maintain or improve overall health
==Politics==
Diet (assembly), a formal deliberative assembly
===Current===
National Diet, Japan's bicameral legislature, in its current form since 1947, composed of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors
Landtag, a diet of states and provinces in Germany, Austria, South Tyrol in Italy, and the national parliament of Liechtenstein
Bundestag (Deutscher Bundestag), the lower house of Germany's Parliament, was established in West Germany in 1949, and all of Germany in 1990
===Historical===
Diet of Finland, the legislative assembly of the Grand Duchy of Finland from 1809 to 1906
Diet of Hungary, the legislative assembly of the Kingdom of Hungary from 15th century to 1946
Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire), the imperial assembly of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806
Federal Convention (German Confederation), or Confederate Diet (German: Bundesversammlung or Bundestag) was the only central institution of the German Confederation (1815–1848 and 1850–1866)
Reichstag
Reichstag (German Empire) (Reichstag), the Diet of the Empire, the legislative assembly of the German Empire, 1871–1917
Reichstag (Weimar Republic), (Reichstag), the Diet of the Weimar Republic, from 1919 to 1933
Reichstag (Nazi Germany), (Reichstag), the Diet of Nazi Germany, from 1933 to 1945, a purely ceremonial "parliament" in a totalitarian dictatorship without elections
==Television, film, or music==
"Diet", an episode of the Adult Swim animated television series, Aqua Teen Hunger Force
The Diet (cartoon), a Beetle Bailey animated short
"Diet", a 2020 single by Peakboy
==Other uses==
DIET, an open-source middleware for high-performance computing
|
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"Dietsch (disambiguation)",
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"Reichstag (Nazi Germany)",
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"Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)",
"Diet (nutrition)",
"Diet (assembly)"
] |
8,463 |
Dubnium
|
Dubnium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Db and atomic number 105. It is highly radioactive: the most stable known isotope, dubnium-268, has a half-life of about 16 hours. This greatly limits extended research on the element.
Dubnium does not occur naturally on Earth and is produced artificially. The Soviet Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) claimed the first discovery of the element in 1968, followed by the American Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1970. Both teams proposed their names for the new element and used them without formal approval. The long-standing dispute was resolved in 1993 by an official investigation of the discovery claims by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, resulting in credit for the discovery being officially shared between both teams. The element was formally named dubnium in 1997 after the town of Dubna, the site of the JINR.
Theoretical research establishes dubnium as a member of group 5 in the 6d series of transition metals, placing it under vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. Dubnium should share most properties, such as its valence electron configuration and having a dominant +5 oxidation state, with the other group 5 elements, with a few anomalies due to relativistic effects. A limited investigation of dubnium chemistry has confirmed this.
==Introduction==
== Discovery ==
===Background===
Uranium, element 92, is the heaviest element to occur in significant quantities in nature; heavier elements can only be practically produced by synthesis. The first synthesis of a new element—neptunium, element 93—was achieved in 1940 by a team of researchers in the United States. In the following years, American scientists synthesized the elements up to mendelevium, element 101, which was synthesized in 1955. From element 102, the priority of discoveries was contested between American and Soviet physicists. Their rivalry resulted in a race for new elements and credit for their discoveries, later named the Transfermium Wars.
=== Reports ===
The first report of the discovery of element 105 came from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Soviet Union, in April 1968. The scientists bombarded 243Am with a beam of 22Ne ions, and reported 9.4 MeV (with a half-life of 0.1–3 seconds) and 9.7 MeV (t1/2 > 0.05 s) alpha activities followed by alpha activities similar to those of either 256103 or 257103. Based on prior theoretical predictions, the two activity lines were assigned to 261105 and 260105, respectively. After collecting more data, JINR proposed the name bohrium (Bo) in honor of the Danish nuclear physicist Niels Bohr, a founder of the theories of atomic structure and quantum theory; they soon changed their proposal to nielsbohrium (Ns) to avoid confusion with boron. Another proposed name was dubnium. When LBL first announced their synthesis of element 105, they proposed that the new element be named hahnium (Ha) after the German chemist Otto Hahn, the "father of nuclear chemistry", thus creating an element naming controversy.
In the early 1970s, both teams reported synthesis of the next element, element 106, but did not suggest names. JINR suggested establishing an international committee to clarify the discovery criteria. This proposal was accepted in 1974 and a neutral joint group formed. Neither team showed interest in resolving the conflict through a third party, so the leading scientists of LBL—Albert Ghiorso and Glenn Seaborg—traveled to Dubna in 1975 and met with the leading scientists of JINR—Georgy Flerov, Yuri Oganessian, and others—to try to resolve the conflict internally and render the neutral joint group unnecessary; after two hours of discussions, this failed. The joint neutral group never assembled to assess the claims, and the conflict remained unresolved.
In 1981, the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; Society for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, claimed synthesis of element 107; their report came out five years after the first report from JINR but with greater precision, making a more solid claim on discovery. GSI acknowledged JINR's efforts by suggesting the name nielsbohrium for the new element. This recommendation was criticized by the American scientists for several reasons. Firstly, their suggestions were scrambled: the names rutherfordium and hahnium, originally suggested by Berkeley for elements 104 and 105, were respectively reassigned to elements 106 and 108. Secondly, elements 104 and 105 were given names favored by JINR, despite earlier recognition of LBL as an equal co-discoverer for both of them. Thirdly and most importantly, IUPAC rejected the name seaborgium for element 106, having just approved a rule that an element could not be named after a living person, even though the 1993 report had given the LBL team the sole credit for its discovery.
In 1995, IUPAC abandoned the controversial rule and established a committee of national representatives aimed at finding a compromise. They suggested seaborgium for element 106 in exchange for the removal of all the other American proposals, except for the established name lawrencium for element 103. The equally entrenched name nobelium for element 102 was replaced by flerovium after Georgy Flerov, following the recognition by the 1993 report that that element had been first synthesized in Dubna. This was rejected by American scientists and the decision was retracted.
In 1996, IUPAC held another meeting, reconsidered all names in hand, and accepted another set of recommendations; it was approved and published in 1997. Element 105 was named dubnium (Db), after Dubna in Russia, the location of the JINR; the American suggestions were used for elements 102, 103, 104, and 106. The name dubnium had been used for element 104 in the previous IUPAC recommendation. The American scientists "reluctantly" approved this decision. IUPAC pointed out that the Berkeley laboratory had already been recognized several times, in the naming of berkelium, californium, and americium, and that the acceptance of the names rutherfordium and seaborgium for elements 104 and 106 should be offset by recognizing JINR's contributions to the discovery of elements 104, 105, and 106.
Even after 1997, LBL still sometimes used the name hahnium for element 105 in their own material, doing so as recently as 2014. However, the problem was resolved in the literature as Jens Volker Kratz, editor of Radiochimica Acta, refused to accept papers not using the 1997 IUPAC nomenclature.
== Isotopes ==
Dubnium, having an atomic number of 105, is a superheavy element; like all elements with such high atomic numbers, it is very unstable. The longest-lasting known isotope of dubnium, 268Db, has a half-life of around a day. No stable isotopes have been seen, and a 2012 calculation by JINR suggested that the half-lives of all dubnium isotopes would not significantly exceed a day. or 292122 of a half-life of over 100 million years in 2009; neither claim gained acceptance.}}
The short half-life of dubnium limits experimentation. This is exacerbated by the fact that the most stable isotopes are the hardest to synthesize. Elements with a lower atomic number have stable isotopes with a lower neutron–proton ratio than those with higher atomic number, meaning that the target and beam nuclei that could be employed to create the superheavy element have fewer neutrons than needed to form these most stable isotopes. (Different techniques based on rapid neutron capture and transfer reactions are being considered as of the 2010s, but those based on the collision of a large and small nucleus still dominate research in the area.)
Only a few atoms of 268Db can be produced in each experiment, and thus the measured lifetimes vary significantly during the process. As of 2022, following additional experiments performed at the JINR's Superheavy Element Factory (which started operations in 2019), the half-life of 268Db is measured to be hours. 1.3 h, and 1.6 h. These two are the heaviest isotopes of dubnium to date, and both were produced as a result of decay of the heavier nuclei 288Mc and 294Ts rather than directly, because the experiments that yielded them were originally designed in Dubna for 48Ca beams. For its mass, 48Ca has by far the greatest neutron excess of all practically stable nuclei, both quantitative and relative,
== Predicted properties ==
According to the periodic law, dubnium should belong to group 5, with vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. Several studies have investigated the properties of element 105 and found that they generally agreed with the predictions of the periodic law. Significant deviations may nevertheless occur, due to relativistic effects, which dramatically change physical properties on both atomic and macroscopic scales. These properties have remained challenging to measure for several reasons: the difficulties of production of superheavy atoms, the low rates of production, which only allows for microscopic scales, requirements for a radiochemistry laboratory to test the atoms, short half-lives of those atoms, and the presence of many unwanted activities apart from those of synthesis of superheavy atoms. So far, studies have only been performed on single atoms.
In 2009, at the JAEA tandem accelerator in Japan, dubnium was processed in nitric and hydrofluoric acid solution, at concentrations where niobium forms and tantalum forms . Dubnium's behavior was close to that of niobium but not tantalum; it was thus deduced that dubnium formed . From the available information, it was concluded that dubnium often behaved like niobium, sometimes like protactinium, but rarely like tantalum.
In 2021, the volatile heavy group 5 oxychlorides MOCl3 (M = Nb, Ta, Db) were experimentally studied at the JAEA tandem accelerator. The trend in volatilities was found to be NbOCl3 > TaOCl3 ≥ DbOCl3, so that dubnium behaves in line with periodic trends.
|
[
"Yuri Oganessian",
"body-centered cubic",
"nitrogen-15",
"flerovium",
"Frédéric Joliot-Curie",
"transition metal",
"half-life",
"hydrofluoric acid",
"atomic number",
"Transfermium Wars",
"alpha decay",
"element naming controversy",
"International Union of Pure and Applied Physics",
"moscovium",
"gas-phase chemistry",
"berkelium",
"Joint Institute for Nuclear Research",
"Niels Bohr",
"hydrobromic acid",
"mendelevium",
"European Russia",
"molecular orbital",
"americium-243",
"seaborgium",
"International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry",
"nobelium",
"group 5 element",
"Elsevier",
"Soviet Union",
"systematic element name",
"World Scientific",
"methyl isobutyl ketone",
"americium",
"hafnium tetrachloride",
"neutron–proton ratio",
"atomic structure",
"Old quantum theory",
"aqua regia",
"relativistic effects",
"niobium",
"tantalum",
"Complexation",
"tennessine",
"periodic law",
"Molar concentration",
"Uranium",
"shielding effect",
"electron configuration",
"Springer Science+Business Media",
"Dubna",
"wikt:thermochromatography",
"hafnium",
"neptunium",
"nuclear isomer",
"Georgy Flerov",
"Niobium(V) chloride",
"Berkeley, California",
"vanadium",
"Journal of Physics: Conference Series",
"isotopes of dubnium",
"California",
"Darmstadt",
"superheavy element",
"Chemical symbol",
"diisobutyl carbinol",
"Glenn Seaborg",
"Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung",
"covalent bond",
"sorption",
"Encyclopedia Britannica",
"hydrochloric acid",
"Aqueous solution",
"neon-22",
"Hesse",
"spin–orbit interaction",
"spontaneous fission",
"californium-249",
"lanthanum",
"nitric acid",
"collimator",
"Moscow Oblast",
"Albert Ghiorso",
"Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory",
"calcium-48",
"synthetic element",
"r-process",
"Atomic orbital",
"protactinium",
"electromagnetic attraction",
"californium",
"law of large numbers",
"boron",
"hydrolysis",
"azimuthal quantum number",
"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory",
"Otto Hahn",
"cover slip",
"electronvolt",
"Nuclear reaction",
"discovery of the chemical elements",
"ammonium hydroxide"
] |
8,464 |
Disaccharide
|
A disaccharide (also called a double sugar or biose) is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are simple sugars soluble in water. Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides). The most common types of disaccharides—sucrose, lactose, and maltose—have 12 carbon atoms, with the general formula C12H22O11. The differences in these disaccharides are due to atomic arrangements within the molecule.
The joining of monosaccharides into a double sugar happens by a condensation reaction, which involves the elimination of a water molecule from the functional groups only. Breaking apart a double sugar into its two monosaccharides is accomplished by hydrolysis with the help of a type of enzyme called a disaccharidase. As building the larger sugar ejects a water molecule, breaking it down consumes a water molecule. These reactions are vital in metabolism. Each disaccharide is broken down with the help of a corresponding disaccharidase (sucrase, lactase, and maltase).
==Classification==
There are two functionally different classes of disaccharides:
Reducing disaccharides, in which one monosaccharide, the reducing sugar of the pair, still has a free hemiacetal unit that can perform as a reducing aldehyde group; lactose, maltose and cellobiose are examples of reducing disaccharides, each with one hemiacetal unit, the other occupied by the glycosidic bond, which prevents it from acting as a reducing agent. They can easily be detected by the Woehlk test or Fearon's test on methylamine.
Non-reducing disaccharides, in which the component monosaccharides bond through an acetal linkage between their anomeric centers. This results in neither monosaccharide being left with a hemiacetal unit that is free to act as a reducing agent. Sucrose and trehalose are examples of non-reducing disaccharides because their glycosidic bond is between their respective hemiacetal carbon atoms. The reduced chemical reactivity of the non-reducing sugars, in comparison to reducing sugars, may be an advantage where stability in storage is important.
==Formation==
The formation of a disaccharide molecule from two monosaccharide molecules proceeds by displacing a hydroxy group from one molecule and a hydrogen nucleus (a proton) from the other, so that the new vacant bonds on the monosaccharides join the two monomers together. Because of the removal of the water molecule from the product, the term of convenience for such a process is "dehydration reaction" (also "condensation reaction" or "dehydration synthesis"). For example, milk sugar (lactose) is a disaccharide made by condensation of one molecule of each of the monosaccharides glucose and galactose, whereas the disaccharide sucrose in sugar cane and sugar beet, is a condensation product of glucose and fructose. Maltose, another common disaccharide, is condensed from two glucose molecules.
The dehydration reaction that bonds monosaccharides into disaccharides (and also bonds monosaccharides into more complex polysaccharides) forms what are called glycosidic bonds.
==Properties==
The glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxy group on the component monosaccharide. So, even if both component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (alpha- or beta-) result in disaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties. Depending on the monosaccharide constituents, disaccharides are sometimes crystalline, sometimes water-soluble, and sometimes sweet-tasting and sticky-feeling. Disaccharides can serve as functional groups by forming glycosidic bonds with other organic compounds, forming glycosides.
==Assimilation==
Digestion of disaccharides involves breakdown into monosaccharides.
==Common disaccharides==
Maltose, cellobiose, and chitobiose are hydrolysis products of the polysaccharides starch, cellulose, and chitin, respectively.
Less common disaccharides include:
|
[
"Trehalulose",
"carbon",
"Cellobiose",
"hydroxy group",
"Xylobiose",
"Fructose",
"Glucosamine",
"hemiacetal",
"sucrose",
"chitin",
"Laminaribiose",
"Melibiose",
"Chitobiose",
"solubility",
"condensation reaction",
"Trehalose",
"Kojibiose",
"glycosidic bond",
"dehydration reaction",
"mannose",
"aldehyde",
"fructose",
"Glucose",
"methylamine",
"sugar",
"Sucrose",
"disaccharidase",
"stereochemistry",
"diastereoisomer",
"proton",
"glycosidic linkage",
"Isomaltose",
"cellobiose",
"Gentiobiose",
"polysaccharide",
"Chemistry Teacher International",
"sucrase",
"Galactose",
"Dehydration reaction",
"starch",
"reducing sugar",
"Merriam-Webster",
"maltose",
"Turanose",
"lactase",
"glucose",
"trehalose",
"metabolism",
"galactose",
"oligosaccharide",
"glycoside",
"hydrolysis",
"functional group",
"anomer",
"Lactose",
"rhamnose",
"Isomaltulose",
"Isomer",
"Hydrogen atom",
"enzyme",
"Sophorose",
"acetal",
"Rutinose",
"maltase",
"lactose",
"monomer",
"Maltose",
"cellulose",
"Melibiulose",
"monosaccharide",
"Allolactose",
"Lactulose",
"Nigerose",
"reducing agent",
"carbohydrate",
"Mannobiose"
] |
8,465 |
Dactylic hexameter
|
Dactylic hexameter is a form of meter used in Ancient Greek epic and didactic poetry as well as in and epic, didactic, and satirical, and pastoral Latin poetry.
Its name is derived from Greek , ("six"), and it consists of six feet, the first five feet containing either two long syllables, a spondee (– –), or a long syllable followed by two short syllables, a dactyl (–ᴗᴗ), and the last foot consisting of either a spondee or a long syllable followed by one short syllable, a trochee(– ᴗ), schematically represented below:
The hexameter is traditionally associated with classical epic poetry in both Greek and Latin and was consequently considered to be the grand style of Western classical poetry. Some well known examples of its use are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, Virgil's Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, Lucan's Pharsalia (an epic on Caesar's civil war), Valerius Flaccus's Argonautica, and Statius's Thebaid.
However, this meter had a wide use outside of epic. Greek works in dactylic hexameter include Hesiod's Works and Days and Theogony, Theocritus's Idylls, and Callimachus's hymns. In Latin famous works include Lucretius's philosophical , Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics, book 10 of Columella's manual on agriculture, as well as Latin satirical poems by the poets Lucilius, Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. The hexameter continued to be used in Christian times, for example in the of the 5th-century Irish poet Sedulius and Bernard of Cluny's 12th-century satire among many others.
Hexameters also form part of elegiac poetry in both languages, the elegiac couplet being a dactylic hexameter line paired with a dactylic pentameter line. This form of verse was used for love poetry by Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, for Ovid's letters from exile, and for many of the epigrams of Martial.
== Structure ==
The most fundamental structure of dactylic hexameter poetry is a line. Lines are further divided into feet, and feet are divided into syllables.
=== Feet ===
A hexameter verse contains six feet. The first five feet can be either a dactyl or a spondee. However, because Latin is much richer in long syllables than Greek, spondaic feet are more common in Latin hexameter. In both Greek and Latin hexameter the fifth feet is usually a dactyl, and a spondee is also rare in the third feet in Greek hexameter. The sixth foot can be filled by either a trochee or a spondee. Thus a dactylic hexameter line is scanned as follows:
– ᴗ ᴗ | – ᴗ ᴗ | – ᴗ ᴗ | – ᴗ ᴗ | – ᴗ ᴗ | – x
An example of this in Latin is the first line of Virgil's Aeneid:
"I sing of arms, and of the man who first from the shores of Troy ..."
The scansion is generally marked as follows, by placing long and short marks above the central vowel of each syllable:
– u u | – u u | – – | – – | – u u | – –
ar ma vi | rum que ca | nō Troj | jae quī | prī mu sa | bō rīs
dactyl | dactyl | spondee | spondee | dactyl | spondee
In dactylic verse, short syllables always come in pairs, so words such as "soldiers" or "more easily" cannot be used in a hexameter.
=== Syllables ===
Unlike English verse, which is based on stress, ancient Greek and Latin poetry is based on the length, i.e. relative duration, of a syllable. In scansion only the sounds are meaningful, and word boundaries do not matter.
In Greek, a long syllable is () and a short syllable is (). In Latin the terms are and .
==== Greek ====
In Greek a syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a dipthong or two consonants follow the vowel(s) of the syllable. That is to say, a syllable with a short vowel is scanned as long if contains a long vowel or a dipthong or if it is closed; and a syllable is closed only if it ends with a consonant, otherwise it is open.
For example, all syllables in , , and are long. However, there are many exceptions to simple rules mentioned above, as a matter of fact too many to be listed here.
==== Latin ====
In Latin a syllable is long (by nature) if it contains a long vowel or a dipthong and long (by position) if it contains a short vowel followed by two consonants, even if these are in different words. For example, all syllables in and are long by nature, whereas , , , and in , are long by position.
However, when a liquid -- l or r -- follows a plosive, a syllable containing a short vowel may remain short by position. For example, could be scanned either as having a short first syllable or as having a long first syllable .
In scansion the letter h is ignored, and qu counts as a single consonant. So, for example in the phrase the syllable et remains short, and in the word the first syllable remains short too.
The semiconsonantal i and u are scanned as consonants. For example, in and , i is considered a consonant, pronounced like the English y. Thus has three syllables and has two. But, in the first I is a vowel and forms a separate syllable. Additionally, an i between two or more vowels stands almost without exeption for a double consonant; so, for example , standing for has two syllables.
In some editions of Latin texts the consonant v is written as u, in which case u is also often consonantal. This can sometimes cause ambiguity; e.g., in the word (= ) "he rolls" the second u is a consonant, but in (= ) "he wanted" the second u is a vowel.
===Elision===
In Latin, when a word ends in a vowel or -m and is followed by a word starting with a vowel or h, the last vowel is usually suppressed or elided. For example, .
In Greek, short vowels elide freely; however, long wovels are not elided, though they may be shortened in some cases: E.g. ().
In modern Greek writing the elision is shown by an apostrophe. For example:
The Greek style of not eliding a long vowel is sometimes imitated in Latin for special effect, for example, "with womanly wailing" (Aen. 9.477).
When a vowel is elided, it does not count in the scansion. So, for the purposes of scansion, has four syllables.
=== Caesura ===
Caesura is a word break in the middle of a foot or metron. In Greek hexameter there must be a caesura after i) the first syllable of the 3rd foot, a strong or masculine caesura, ii) the second syllable of a dactyl in the 3rd foot, a weak or feminine caesura, or iii) the first syllable of the 4th foot; the first two being much more common than the last.
In Latin hexameter the weak caesura is rarer than in Greek hexameter. On the one hand, in Virgil the strong caesura is found in ca. 85% of the time.
An example of a weak caesura can be found from the first line of Homer's Odyssey:
"Tell me, Muse, of the man of many wiles, who very much"
And an example of a strong caesura follows on the next line of Odyssey:
"wandered, after having sacked the sacred citadel of Troy."
In Latin (but not in Greek, as the above example shows), a feminine caesura in the 3rd foot is usually accompanied with masculine caesuras in the 2nd and especially in the 4th feet:
"You are bidding me, o queen, to renew an unspeakable sorrow"
Sometimes caesuras in the 2nd and 4th feet of a line make do, and there is no caesura in the 3rd foot. For example:
"then from his high couch Father Aeneas began as follows"
==In Greek==
The hexameter was first used by early Greek poets of the oral tradition, and the most complete extant examples of their works are the Iliad and the Odyssey, which influenced the authors of all later classical epics that survive today. Early epic poetry was also accompanied by music, and pitch changes associated with the accented Greek must have highlighted the melody, though the exact mechanism is still a topic of discussion.
The first line of Homer's Iliad provides an example:
"Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus’ son Achilles"
Dividing the line into metrical units or feet it can be scanned as follows:
(-deō is one syllable)
— ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — — | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — —
This line also includes a masculine caesura after , a break that separates the line into two parts. Homer employs a feminine caesura more commonly than later writers. An example occurs in Iliad 1.5:
"... and every bird; and the plan of Zeus was fulfilled"
— — | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪, ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — —
Homer's hexameters contain a higher proportion of dactyls than later hexameter poetry. They are also characterised by a laxer following of verse principles than later epicists almost invariably adhered to. For example, Homer allows spondaic fifth feet (albeit not often), whereas many later authors do not.
Homer also altered the forms of words to allow them to fit the hexameter, typically by using a dialectal form: ptolis is an epic form used instead of the Attic polis as necessary for the meter. Proper names sometimes take forms to fit the meter, for example Pouludamas instead of the metrically unviable Poludamas.
Some lines require a knowledge of the digamma for their scansion, e.g. Iliad 1.108:
"you have not yet spoken a good word nor brought one to pass"
— — | — ∪ ∪ | — — | — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ ∪ | — —
Here the word (epos) was originally (wepos) in Ionian; the digamma, later lost, lengthened the last syllable of the preceding (eipas) and removed the apparent defect in the meter. A digamma also saved the hiatus in the third foot. This example demonstrates the oral tradition of the Homeric epics that flourished before they were written down sometime in the 7th century BC.
Most of the later rules of hexameter composition have their origins in the methods and practices of Homer.
== In Latin ==
The dactylic hexameter was adapted from Greek to Latin. Though the metre was taken from Greek unaltered, the Latin language has a higher proportion of long syllables than Greek, and so it is by nature more spondaic. Additionally, the Roman poets did not avoid the weak caesura in the fourth foot as much as the Greeks did.
=== Ennius ===
The earliest example of hexameter in Latin poetry is the panegyric history of Rome, Annales, by Ennius, establishing a standard for later Latin epics. Ennius experimented with different kinds of lines, for example, lines with five dactyls:
"Then the trumpet with terrifying sound went 'taratantara!'"
or lines consisting entirely of spondees:
"To him replied the king of Alba Longa"
lines without a caesura:
"With scattered long spears the plain gleams and bristles"
lines ending in a one-syllable word or in words of more than three syllables:
"A single man, by delaying, restored the situation for us."
"I do not demand gold for myself nor should you give me a price:
not buying and selling war, but waging it"
or even lines starting with two short syllables:
| u u – | – – | –, u u | – – | – u u | – –
"the blacktail, the rainbow wrasse, the bird wrasse, and the maigre" (kinds of fish)
However, most of these features were abandoned by later writers or used only occasionally for special effect.
===Later writers===
Later Republican writers, such as Lucretius, Catullus, and even Cicero, wrote hexameter compositions, and it was at this time that the principles of Latin hexameter were firmly established and followed by later writers such as Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, and Juvenal. Virgil's opening line for the Aeneid is a classic example:
"I sing of arms and of the man who first from the shores of Troy ..."
In Latin, lines were arranged so that the metrically long syllables —- those occurring at the beginning of a foot -— often avoided the natural stress of a word. In the earlier feet of a line, meter and stress were expected to clash, while in the last two feet they were expected to coincide, as in above. The coincidence of word accent and meter in the last two feet could be achieved by restricting the last word to one of two or three syllables.
Most lines (about 85% in Virgil) have a caesura or word division after the first syllable of the 3rd foot, as above . Because of the penultimate accent in Latin, this ensures that the word accent and meter will not coincide in the 3rd foot. But in those lines with a feminine or weak caesura, such as the following, there is inevitably a coincidence of meter and accent in the 3rd foot:
"there follows shouting of men and rattling of ropes"
To offset this, whenever there was a feminine caesura in the 3rd foot, there was usually also a masculine caesura in the 2nd and 4th feet, to ensure that in those feet at least, the word accent and meter did not coincide.
===Metrical effects===
By the age of Augustus, poets like Virgil closely followed the rules of the meter and approached it in a highly rhetorical way, looking for effects that can be exploited in skilled recitation. For example, the following line from the Aeneid (8.596) describes the movement and sound of galloping horses:
"with four-footed sound the hoof shakes the crumbling plain"
This line is made up of five dactyls and a closing spondee, an unusual rhythmic arrangement that imitates the described action. A different effect is found in 8.452, where Virgil describes how the blacksmith sons of Vulcan forged Aeneas' shield. The five spondees and the word accents cutting across the verse rhythm give an impression of huge effort:
"They with much force raise their arms one after another"
A slightly different effect is found in the following line (3.658), describing the terrifying one-eyed giant Polyphemus, blinded by Ulysses. Here again there are five spondees but there are also three elisions, which cause the word accent of all the words but to coincide with the beginning of each foot:
"A horrendous huge shapeless monster, whose eye (lit. light) had been removed"
A succession of long syllables in some lines indicates slow movement, as in the following example where Aeneas and his companion the Sibyl (a priestess of Apollo) were entering the darkness of the world of the dead:
"they were going in the darkness beneath the lonely night through the shadow"
The following example (Aeneid 2.9) describes how Aeneas is reluctant to begin his narrative, since it is already past midnight. The feminine caesura after without a following 4th-foot caesura ensures that all the last four feet have word accent at the beginning, which is unusual. The monotonous effect is reinforced by the assonance of dent ... dent and the alliteration of S ... S:
"And already the moist night is falling from the sky
and the setting constellations are inviting sleep"
Dactyls are associated with sleep again in the following unusual line, which describes the activity of a priestess who is feeding a magic serpent (Aen. 4.486). In this line, there are five dactyls, and every one is accented on the first syllable:
"sprinkling moist honey and sleep-inducing poppy"
A different technique, at 1.105, is used when describing a ship at sea during a storm. Here Virgil places a single-syllable word at the end of the line. This produces a jarring rhythm that echoes the crash of a large wave against the side of the ship:
"(The boat) gives its side to the waves; there immediately follows in a heap a steep mountain of water."
The Roman poet Horace uses a similar trick to highlight the comedic irony in this famous line from his Ars Poetica (line 139):
"The mountains will be in labor, but all that will be born is a ridiculous ... mouse"
Usually in Latin the 5th foot of a hexameter is a dactyl. However, in his poem 64, Catullus several times uses a 5th foot spondee, which gives a Greek flavour to his verse, as in this line describing the forested Vale of Tempe in northern Greece:
"Tempe, which woods surround, hanging over it"
Virgil also occasionally imitates Greek practice, for example, in the first line of his 3rd Eclogue:
"Tell me, Damoetas, whose cattle are these? Are they Meliboeus's?"
Here there is a break in sense after a 4th-foot dactyl, a feature known as a bucolic diaeresis, because it is frequently used in Greek pastoral poetry. In fact it is common in Homer too (as in the first line of the Odyssey quoted above), but rare in Latin epic.
===Stylistic features of epic===
Certain stylistic features are characteristic of epic hexameter poetry, especially as written by Virgil.
====Enjambment====
Hexameters are frequently enjambed—the meaning runs over from one line to the next, without terminal punctuation—which helps to create the long, flowing narrative of epic. Sentences can also end in different places in the line, for example, after the first foot. In this, classical epic differs from medieval Latin, where the lines are often composed individually, with a break in sense at the end of each one.
====Poetic vocabulary====
Often in poetry ordinary words are replaced by poetic ones, for example or for water, for sea, for ship, for river, and so on. Some ordinary Latin words are avoided, e.g. etc., simply because they cannot be fitted into a hexameter verse.
====Hyperbaton====
It is common in poetry for adjectives to be widely separated from their nouns, and quite often one adjective–noun pair is interleaved with another. This feature is known as hyperbaton "stepping over". An example is the opening line of Lucan's epic on the Civil War:
"Wars through the Emathian – more than civil – plains"
Another example is the opening of Ovid's mythological poem Metamorphoses where the word "new" is in a different line from "bodies" which it describes:
(Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.1)
"My spirit leads me to tell of forms transformed into new bodies."
One particular arrangement of words that seems to have been particularly admired is the golden line, a line which contains two adjectives, a verb, and two nouns, with the first adjective corresponding to the first noun such as:
"and the barbarian pipe was strident with horrible music"
Catullus was the first to use this kind of line, as in the above example. Later authors used it rarely (1% of lines in Ovid), but in silver Latin it became increasingly popular.
====Alliteration and assonance====
Virgil in particular used alliteration and assonance frequently, although it is much less common in Ovid. Often more than one consonant was alliterated and not necessarily at the beginning of words, for example:
"But the queen, now long wounded by grave anxiety,
feeds the wound in her veins and is tormented by an unseen fire"
Also in Virgil:
"places silent with night everywhere"
"those ones with oars sweep the dark shallows"
Sometimes the same vowel is repeated:
"on me, me, I who did it am here, turn your swords on me!"
"he does not let go of the reins, but he is not strong enough to hold them back, and he does not know the names of the horses"
====Rhetorical techniques====
Rhetorical devices such as anaphora, antithesis, and rhetorical questions are frequently used in epic poetry. Tricolon is also common:
"All this crowd that you see, are the poor and unburied;
that ferryman is Charon; these, that the wave is carrying, are the buried."
====Genre of subject matter====
The poems of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid often vary their narrative with speeches. Well known examples are the speech of Queen Dido cursing Aeneas in book 4 of the Aeneid, the lament of the nymph Juturna when she is unable to save her brother Turnus in book 12 of the Aeneid, and the quarrel between Ajax and Ulysses over the arms of Achilles in book 13 of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Some speeches are themselves narratives, as when Aeneas tells Queen Dido about the fall of Troy and his voyage to Africa in books 2 and 3 of the Aeneid. Other styles of writing include vivid descriptions, such as Virgil's description of the god Charon in Aeneid 6, or Ovid's description of Daedalus's labyrinth in book 8 of the Metamorphoses; similes, such as Virgil's comparison of the souls of the dead to autumn leaves or clouds of migrating birds in Aeneid 6; and lists of names, such as when Ovid names 36 of the dogs who tore their master Actaeon to pieces in book 3 of the Metamorphoses.
===Conversational style===
Raven divides the various styles of the hexameter in classical Latin into three types: the early stage (Ennius), the fully developed type (Cicero, Catullus, Virgil, and Ovid, with Lucretius about midway between Ennius and Cicero), and the conversational type, especially Horace, but also to an extent Persius and Juvenal. One feature which marks these off is their often irregular line endings (for example, words of one syllable) and also the very conversational, un-epic style. Horace in fact called his satires ("conversations"). The word order and vocabulary is much as might be expected in prose. An example is the opening of the 9th satire of book 1:
"I was walking by chance along the Sacred Way, as is my custom,
meditating on some trifle or other, completely absorbed in it,
when suddenly up ran a certain person known to me by name only.
He grabbed my hand and said 'How are you, sweetest of things?'"
===Silver Age and Late Empire===
The verse innovations of the Augustan writers were carefully imitated by their successors in the Silver Age of Latin literature. The verse form itself then was little changed as the quality of a poet's hexameter was judged against the standard set by Virgil and the other Augustan poets, a respect for literary precedent encompassed by the Latin word . Deviations were generally regarded as idiosyncrasies or hallmarks of personal style and were not imitated by later poets. Juvenal, for example, was fond of occasionally creating verses that placed a sense break between the fourth and fifth foot (instead of in the usual caesura positions), but this technique—known as the bucolic diaeresis—did not catch on with other poets.
In the late empire, writers experimented again by adding unusual restrictions to the standard hexameter. The rhopalic verse of Ausonius is a good example; besides following the standard hexameter pattern, each word in the line is one syllable longer than the previous, e.g.:
"O God, Hope of Eternal Life, Conciliator,
if, with chaste entreaties, hoping for pardon, we keep vigil,
look kindly on us and grant these prayers."
Also notable is the tendency among late grammarians to thoroughly dissect the hexameters of Virgil and earlier poets. A treatise on poetry by Diomedes Grammaticus is a good example, as this work categorizes dactylic hexameter verses in ways that were later interpreted under the golden line rubric. Independently, these two trends show the form becoming highly artificial—more like a puzzle to solve than a medium for personal poetic expression.
===Middle Ages===
By the Middle Ages, some writers adopted more relaxed versions of the meter. Bernard of Cluny, in the 12th century, for example, employs it in his De Contemptu Mundi, but ignores classical conventions in favor of accentual effects and predictable rhyme both within and between verses, e.g.:
"These are the last days, the worst of times: let us keep watch.
Behold the menacing arrival of the supreme Judge.
He is coming, he is coming to end evil, to crown just actions,
Reward what is right, free us from anxieties, and give the heavens."
Not all medieval writers are so at odds with the Virgilian standard, and with the rediscovery of classical literature, later Medieval and Renaissance writers are far more orthodox, but by then the form had become an academic exercise. Petrarch, for example, devoted much time to his Africa, a dactylic hexameter epic on Scipio Africanus, completed in 1341, but this work was unappreciated in his time and remains little read today. It begins as follows:
"To me also, o Muse, tell of the man,
conspicuous for his merits and fearsome in war,
to whom noble Africa, broken beneath Italian arms,
first gave its eternal name."
In contrast, Dante decided to write his epic, the Divine Comedy in Italian—a choice that defied the traditional epic choice of Latin dactylic hexameters—and produced a masterpiece beloved both then and now.
With the Neo-Latin period, the language itself came to be regarded as a medium only for serious and learned expression, a view that left little room for Latin poetry. The emergence of Recent Latin in the 20th century restored classical orthodoxy among Latinists and sparked a general (if still academic) interest in the beauty of Latin poetry. Today, the modern Latin poets who use the dactylic hexameter are generally as faithful to Virgil as Rome's Silver Age poets.
==In modern languages==
===In English===
Many poets have attempted to write dactylic hexameters in English, though few works composed in the meter have stood the test of time. Most such works are accentual rather than quantitative. Perhaps the most famous is Longfellow's "Evangeline", whose first lines are as follows:
"This is the / forest pri/meval. The / murmuring / pines and the / hemlocks
Bearded with / moss, and in / garments / green, indis/tinct in the / twilight,
Stand like / Druids of / eld, with / voices / sad and pro/phetic..."
Contemporary poet Annie Finch wrote her epic libretto Among the Goddesses in dactylic tetrameter, which she claims is the most accurate English accentual equivalent of dactylic hexameter. Poets who have written quantitative hexameters in English include Robert Bridges and Rodney Merrill, whose translation of part of the Iliad begins as follows (see External links below):
"Sing now, / goddess, the / wrath of A/chilles the / scion of / Peleus,
Ruinous / rage, which / brought the A/chaeans un/counted af/flictions;
Many the / powerful / souls it / sent to the / dwelling of / Hades..."
Although the rules seem simple, it is hard to use classical hexameter in English because English is a stress-timed language that condenses vowels and consonants between stressed syllables, while hexameter relies on the regular timing of the phonetic sounds. Languages having the latter properties (i.e., languages that are not stress-timed) include Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian and Hungarian.
===In German===
Dactylic hexameter has proved more successful in German than in most modern languages. Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock's epic Der Messias popularized accentual dactylic hexameter in German. Subsequent German poets to employ the form include Goethe (notably in his Reineke Fuchs) and Schiller.
The opening lines of Goethe's ("Reynard the Fox"), written in 1793–1794, are:
"Pentecost, the lovely festival, had come; field and forest
grew green and bloomed; on hills and ridges, in bushes and hedges
The newly encouraged birds practised a merry song;
Every meadow sprouted with flowers in fragrant grounds,
The sky shone festively cheerfully and the earth was colourful."
===In French===
Jean-Antoine de Baïf (1532–1589) wrote poems regulated by quantity on the Greco–Roman model, a system which came to be known as vers mesurés, or vers mesurés à l'antique, which the French language of the Renaissance permitted. To do this, he invented a special phonetic alphabet. In works like his Étrénes de poézie Franzoęze an vęrs mezurés (1574) or Chansonnettes he used the dactylic hexameter, and other meters, in a quantitative way.
An example of one of his elegiac couplets is as follows. The final -e of , , and is sounded, and the word is pronounced /i/:
| – u u | – – | – u u | – – | – u u | – –
| – u u | – u u | – || – u u | – u u | –
"Let the handsome Narcissus come, who never loved another except himself,
and let him look at your eyes, and let him try not to love you."
A modern attempt at reproducing the dactylic hexameter in French is this one, by André Markowicz (1985), translating Catullus's poem 63. Again the final -e and -es of , , and are sounded:
| – – | – u u | – u u | – u u | – u u | – – |
| – u u | – – | – u u | – u u | – u u | – – |
"Is it for this that you have snatched me from the altars of my ancestors,
to abandon me, traitorous Theseus, on these deserted shores?"
===In Hungarian===
Hungarian is extremely suitable to hexameter (and other forms of poetry based on quantitative meter). It has been applied to Hungarian since 1541, introduced by the grammarian János Sylvester.
A hexameter can even occur spontaneously. For example, a student may extricate themselves from failing to remember a poem by saying the following, which is a hexameter in Hungarian:
Itt ela/kadtam, / sajnos / nem jut e/szembe a / többi.
"I'm stuck here, unfortunately the rest won't come into my mind."
Sándor Weöres included an ordinary nameplate text in one of his poems (this time, a pentameter):
Tóth Gyula / bádogos / és // vízveze/ték-szere/lő.
"Gyula Tóth tinsmith and plumber"
A label on a bar of chocolate went as follows, another hexameter, noticed by the poet Dániel Varró:
Tejcsoko/ládé / sárgaba/rack- és / kekszdara/bokkal
"Milk chocolate with apricot and biscuit bits"
Due to this feature, the hexameter has been widely used both in translated (Greek and Roman) and in original Hungarian poetry up to the twentieth century (e.g. by Miklós Radnóti).
===In Lithuanian===
The Seasons (Metai) by Kristijonas Donelaitis is a famous Lithuanian poem in quantitative dactylic hexameters. Because of the nature of Lithuanian, more than half of the lines of the poem are entirely spondaic save for the mandatory dactyl in the fifth foot.
|
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"Latin rhythmic hexameter",
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"Robert Bridges",
"A Pallas nagy lexikona",
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"plosive",
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"Bernard of Cluny",
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"epic poetry",
"Hungarian language",
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"Tibullus",
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"Horace",
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"Cicero",
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"Mihály Vörösmarty",
"pastoral",
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"Latin literature",
"Reineke Fuchs",
"Liquid consonant"
] |
8,466 |
Dorado
|
Dorado (, ) is a constellation in the Southern Sky. It was named in the late 16th century and is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Its name refers to the mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus), which is known as dorado ("golden") in Spanish, although it has also been depicted as a swordfish. Dorado contains most of the Large Magellanic Cloud, the remainder being in the constellation Mensa. The South Ecliptic pole also lies within this constellation.
Even though the name Dorado is not Latin but Spanish, astronomers give it the Latin genitive form Doradus when naming its stars; it is treated (like the adjacent asterism Argo Navis) as a feminine proper name of Greek origin ending in -ō (like Io or Callisto or Argo), which have a genitive ending -ūs.
==History==
Dorado was one of twelve constellations named by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. It appeared:
On a celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius.
First depiction in a celestial atlas, in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.
In Johannes Kepler's edition of Tycho Brahe's star list in the Rudolphine Tables of 1627; this was the first time that it was given the alternative name Xiphias, the swordfish. The name Dorado ultimately became dominant and was adopted by the IAU.
Dorado represents a dolphinfish; it has also been called the goldfish because Dorado are gold-colored.
==Features==
===Stars===
Alpha Doradus is a blue-white star of magnitude 3.3, 176 light-years from Earth. It is the brightest star in Dorado. Beta Doradus is a notably bright Cepheid variable star. It is a yellow-tinged supergiant star that has a minimum magnitude of 4.1 and a maximum magnitude of 3.5. One thousand and forty light-years from Earth, Beta Doradus has a period of 9 days and 20 hours.
R Doradus is one of the many variable stars in Dorado. S Dor, 9.721 hypergiant in the Large Magellanic Cloud, is the prototype of S Doradus variable stars. The variable star R Doradus 5.73 has the largest-known apparent size of any star other than the Sun. Gamma Doradus is the prototype of the Gamma Doradus variable stars.
Supernova 1987A was the closest supernova to occur since the invention of the telescope. SNR 0509-67.5 is the remnant of an unusually energetic Type 1a supernova from about 400 years ago.
HE 0437-5439 is a hypervelocity star escaping from the Milky Way/Magellanic Cloud system.
Dorado is also the location of the South Ecliptic pole, which lies near the fish's head. The pole was called "Polus Doradinalis" by Philipp von Zesen, aka Caesius.
In early 2020, the exoplanet TOI-700 d was discovered orbiting the star TOI-700 in Dorado. This is the first potentially Earth-like exoplanet to be discovered by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite.
===Deep-sky objects===
Because Dorado contains part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, it is rich in deep sky objects. The Large Magellanic Cloud, 25,000 light-years in diameter, is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way Galaxy, located at a distance of 179,000 light-years. It has been deformed by its gravitational interactions with the larger Milky Way. In 1987, it became host to SN 1987A, the first supernova of 1987 and the closest since 1604. This 25,000-light-year-wide galaxy contains over 10,000 million stars. All coordinates given are for Epoch J2000.0.
N 180B is an emission nebula located in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
NGC 1566 (RA 04h 20m 00s Dec -56° 56.3′) is a face-on spiral galaxy. It gives its name to the NGC 1566 Group of galaxies.
NGC 1755 (RA 04h 55m 13s Dec -68° 12.2′) is a globular cluster.
NGC 1763 (RA 04h 56m 49s Dec -68° 24.5′) is a bright nebula associated with three type B stars.
NGC 1761 (RA 04h 56m 37s Dec -66° 28.4') is an open cluster.
NGC 1820 (RA 05h 04m 02s Dec -67° 15.9′) is an open cluster.
NGC 1850 (RA 05h 08m 44s Dec -68° 45.7′) is a globular cluster.
NGC 1854 (RA 05h 09m 19s Dec -68° 50.8′) is a globular cluster.
NGC 1869 (RA 05h 13m 56s Dec -67° 22.8′) is an open cluster.
NGC 1901 (RA 05h 18m 15s Dec -68° 26.2′) is an open cluster.
NGC 1910 (RA 05h 18m 43s Dec -69° 13.9′) is an open cluster.
NGC 1936 (RA 05h 22m 14s Dec -67° 58.7′) is a bright nebula and is one of four NGC objects in close proximity, the others being NGC 1929, NGC 1934 and NGC 1935.
NGC 1978 (RA 05h 28m 36s Dec -66° 14.0′) is an open cluster.
NGC 2002 (RA 05h 30m 17s Dec -66° 53.1′) is an open cluster.
NGC 2014 (RA 05h 44m 12.7s Dec −67° 42′ 57″) is a red emission nebula.
NGC 2020 (RA 05h 44m 12.7s Dec −67° 42′ 57″) is an HII region surrounding a Wolf–Rayet star.
NGC 2027 (RA 05h 35m 00s Dec -66° 55.0′) is an open cluster.
NGC 2032 (RA 05h 35m 21s Dec -67° 34.1′; also known as "Seagull Nebula") is a nebula complex that contains four NGC designations: NGC 2029, NGC 2032, NGC 2035 and NGC 2040.
NGC 2074 (RA 05h 39m 03.0s Dec −69° 29′ 54″) is an emission nebula.
NGC 2078 (RA 05h 39m 54s Dec −69° 44′ 54″) is an emission nebula.
NGC 2080, also called the "Ghost Head Nebula", is an emission nebula that is 50 light-years wide in the Large Magellanic Cloud. It is named for the two distinct white patches that it possesses, which are regions of recent star formation. The western portion is colored green from doubly ionized oxygen, the southern portion is red from hydrogen alpha emissions, and the center region is colored yellow from both oxygen and hydrogen emissions. The western white patch, A1, has one massive, recently formed star inside. The eastern patch, A2, has several stars hidden in its dust.
Tarantula Nebula is in the Large Magellanic Cloud, named for its spiderlike shape. It is also designated 30 Doradus, as it is visible to the naked eye as a slightly out-of-focus star. Larger than any nebula in the Milky Way at 1,000 light-years in diameter, it is also brighter, because it is illuminated by the open star cluster NGC 2070, which has at its center the star cluster R136. The illuminating stars are supergiants.
NGC 2164 (RA 05h 58m 53s Dec -68° 30.9′) is a globular cluster.
N44 is a superbubble in the Large Magellanic Cloud that is 1,000 light-years wide. Its overall structure is shaped by the 40 hot stars towards its center. Within the superbubble of N44 is a smaller bubble catalogued as N44F. It is approximately 35 light-years in diameter and is shaped by an incredibly hot star at its center, which has a stellar wind speed of 7 million kilometers per hour. N44F also features dust columns with probable star formation hidden inside.
==Equivalents==
In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Dorado are in two of Xu Guangqi's Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, Jìnnánjíxīngōu): the White Patches Attached (夾白, Jiābái) and the Goldfish (金魚, Jīnyú).
==Namesakes==
Dorado (SS-248) and Dorado (SS-526), two United States Navy submarines, were named after the same sea creature as the constellation.
==Gallery==
NGC1706 - HST - Potw1943a.tif|NGC 1706 is a spiral galaxy, about 230 million light-years away.
|
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"NGC 1935",
"NGC 2027",
"Volans",
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"Horologium (constellation)",
"NGC 2029",
"Beta Doradus",
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"Tarantula Nebula",
"Gamma Doradus variable",
"J2000.0",
"hydrogen alpha",
"doubly ionized oxygen",
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"hypergiant",
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"Cepheid variable",
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"Jodocus Hondius",
"Magellanic Cloud",
"NGC 2014",
"Caelum",
"Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser",
"Frederick de Houtman",
"Southern Sky",
"Argo Navis",
"NGC 2074",
"NGC 2002",
"Johannes Kepler",
"NGC 1566",
"Earth analog",
"N44 (astronomy)",
"SIMBAD",
"supergiant",
"Xu Guangqi",
"Gamma Doradus",
"NGC 2035",
"Milky Way",
"Large Magellanic Cloud",
"NGC 1869",
"NGC 1910",
"SNR 0509-67.5",
"Wolf–Rayet star",
"USS Dorado (SS-248)",
"Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite",
"NGC 1755"
] |
8,467 |
Draco (legislator)
|
Draco (; , ), also called Drako or Drakon, according to Athenian tradition, was the first legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece. He replaced the system of oral law and blood feud by the Draconian constitution, a written code to be enforced only by a court of law. His laws were supposed to have been very harsh, establishing the death penalty for most offenses. Tradition held that all of his laws were repealed by Solon, save for those on homicide. An inscription from 409/8 BC contains part of the current law and refers to it as "the law of Draco about homicide". Nothing is known about the specifics of other laws established by Draco.
According to some scholars, Draco may have been a fictional figure, entirely or in part. Biographical information about him is almost entirely lacking; he was held to have established his legal code in the year 621/620 BC. Since the 19th century, the adjective draconian (Greek: , ) refers to similarly unforgiving rules or laws in Greek, English, and other European languages.
== Historicity ==
Nothing is known about Draco's life except that he established his legal code during the reign of the archon Aristaechmus in the year 621/620 BC. The Suda, the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, records a folkloric story about Draco's death: he went to Aegina to establish laws and was suffocated in the theater when his supporters honored him by throwing many hats, shirts and cloaks on him. Some scholars question whether Draco was a real historical figure or consider that he may have been partially fictional. Karl Julius Beloch hypothesized that Draco was not a person; drakon means 'serpent' in Greek, and a sacred serpent on the acropolis was worshipped in the Athenian religion. Therefore, the "laws of Draco" may have been laws issued in the name of the sacred serpent by its priests; later, this origin was forgotten and Draco was reinterpreted as a lawgiver. Raphael Sealey notes that this hypothesis helps explain how the seemingly protracted development of Athenian homicide law could be attributed to a single source. However, most scholars believe that Draco really did establish laws on homicide and other offenses, and some accept the attribution to him of the inscription partially recording the homicide law.
==Draconian constitution==
The laws ( – ) that he laid were the first written constitution of Athens. So that no one would be unaware of them, they were posted on wooden tablets ( – ), where they were preserved for almost two centuries on steles of the shape of four-sided pyramids ( – ). The tablets were called , perhaps because they could be pivoted along the pyramid's axis to read any side.
The constitution featured several major innovations:
Instead of oral laws known to a special class, arbitrarily applied and interpreted, all laws were written, thus being made known to all literate citizens (who could appeal to the Areopagus for injustices): "the constitution formed under Draco, when the first code of laws was drawn up". (Aristotle: Athenian Constitution, Part 5, Section 41)
The laws distinguish between murder and involuntary homicide, a novel concept at that time.
The laws were particularly harsh. For example, any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery. The punishment was more lenient for those owing a debt to a member of a lower class. The death penalty was the punishment for even minor offences, such as stealing a cabbage. Concerning the liberal use of the death penalty in the Draconic code, Plutarch states:
All Draco's laws were repealed by Solon in the early 6th century BC, with the exception of the homicide law.
==Homicide law==
After much debate, the Athenians decided to revise the laws, including the homicide law, in 409 BC. The text of the homicide law is partially preserved in a fragmentary inscription. It states that it is up to the victim's relatives to prosecute a killer.
According to the preserved part of the inscription, unintentional homicides received a sentence of exile. It is not clear whether Draco's law specified the punishment for intentional homicide. In 409 BC, intentional homicide was punished by death, but Draco's law begins: "." Although ambiguous and difficult to translate, one suggested translation is: "Even if a man not intentionally kills another, he is exiled."
==Council of Four Hundred==
Draco introduced the lot-chosen Council of Four Hundred, distinct from the Areopagus, which evolved in later constitutions to play a large role in Athenian democracy. Aristotle notes that Draco, while having the laws written, merely legislated for an existing unwritten Athenian constitution such as setting exact qualifications for eligibility for office.
According to Aristotle, Draco extended the franchise to all free men who could furnish themselves with a set of military equipment. However, this claim is not based on the authentic tradition, thus untrue as claimed by Welwei in 1998. They elected the Council of Four Hundred from among their number; nine archons and the treasurers were drawn from persons possessing an unencumbered property of not less than ten minas, the generals (strategoi) and commanders of cavalry (hipparchoi) from those who could show an unencumbered property of not less than a hundred minas and had children born in lawful wedlock over ten years of age. Thus, in the event of their death, their estate could pass to a competent heir. These officers were required to hold to account the prytanes (councillors), strategoi (generals) and hipparchoi (cavalry officers) of the preceding year until their accounts had been audited. "The Council of Areopagus was guardian of the laws, and kept watch over the magistrates to see that they executed their offices in accordance with the laws. Any person who felt himself wronged might lay an information before the Council of Areopagus, on declaring what law was broken by the wrong done to him. But, as has been said before, loans were secured upon the persons of the debtors, and the land was in the hands of a few."
|
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] |
8,468 |
Determinant
|
In mathematics, the determinant is a scalar-valued function of the entries of a square matrix. The determinant of a matrix is commonly denoted , , or . Its value characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map represented, on a given basis, by the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if and only if the matrix is invertible and the corresponding linear map is an isomorphism.
The determinant is completely determined by the two following properties: the determinant of a product of matrices is the product of their determinants, and the determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal entries.
The determinant of a matrix is
\begin{vmatrix} a & b\\c & d \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc,
and the determinant of a matrix is
\begin{vmatrix}
a & b & c \\
d & e & f \\
g & h & i
\end{vmatrix} = aei + bfg + cdh - ceg - bdi - afh.
The determinant of an matrix can be defined in several equivalent ways, the most common being Leibniz formula, which expresses the determinant as a sum of n! (the factorial of ) signed products of matrix entries. It can be computed by the Laplace expansion, which expresses the determinant as a linear combination of determinants of submatrices, or with Gaussian elimination, which allows computing a row echelon form with the same determinant, equal to the product of the diagonal entries of the row echelon form.
Determinants can also be defined by some of their properties. Namely, the determinant is the unique function defined on the matrices that has the four following properties:
The determinant of the identity matrix is .
The exchange of two rows multiplies the determinant by .
Multiplying a row by a number multiplies the determinant by this number.
Adding a multiple of one row to another row does not change the determinant.
The above properties relating to rows (properties 2–4) may be replaced by the corresponding statements with respect to columns.
The determinant is invariant under matrix similarity. This implies that, given a linear endomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space, the determinant of the matrix that represents it on a basis does not depend on the chosen basis. This allows defining the determinant of a linear endomorphism, which does not depend on the choice of a coordinate system.
Determinants occur throughout mathematics. For example, a matrix is often used to represent the coefficients in a system of linear equations, and determinants can be used to solve these equations (Cramer's rule), although other methods of solution are computationally much more efficient. Determinants are used for defining the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix, whose roots are the eigenvalues. In geometry, the signed -dimensional volume of a -dimensional parallelepiped is expressed by a determinant, and the determinant of a linear endomorphism determines how the orientation and the -dimensional volume are transformed under the endomorphism. This is used in calculus with exterior differential forms and the Jacobian determinant, in particular for changes of variables in multiple integrals.
== Two by two matrices ==
The determinant of a matrix \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{pmatrix} is denoted either by "" or by vertical bars around the matrix, and is defined as
\det \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{pmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{vmatrix} = ad - bc.
For example,
\det \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 7 \\1 & -4 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} 3 & 7 \\ 1 & {-4} \end{vmatrix} = (3 \cdot (-4)) - (7 \cdot 1) = -19.
=== First properties ===
The determinant has several key properties that can be proved by direct evaluation of the definition for 2 \times 2-matrices, and that continue to hold for determinants of larger matrices. They are as follows: first, the determinant of the identity matrix \begin{pmatrix}1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} is 1.
Second, the determinant is zero if two rows are the same:
\begin{vmatrix} a & b \\ a & b \end{vmatrix} = ab - ba = 0.
This holds similarly if the two columns are the same. Moreover,
\begin{vmatrix}a & b + b' \\ c & d + d' \end{vmatrix} = a(d+d')-(b+b')c = \begin{vmatrix}a & b\\ c & d \end{vmatrix} + \begin{vmatrix}a & b' \\ c & d' \end{vmatrix}.
Finally, if any column is multiplied by some number r (i.e., all entries in that column are multiplied by that number), the determinant is also multiplied by that number:
\begin{vmatrix} r \cdot a & b \\ r \cdot c & d \end{vmatrix} = rad - brc = r(ad-bc) = r \cdot \begin{vmatrix} a & b \\c & d \end{vmatrix}.
==Geometric meaning==
If the matrix entries are real numbers, the matrix represents the linear map that maps the basis vectors to the columns of . The images of the basis vectors form a parallelogram that represents the image of the unit square under the mapping. The parallelogram defined by the columns of the above matrix is the one with vertices at , , , and , as shown in the accompanying diagram.
The absolute value of is the area of the parallelogram, and thus represents the scale factor by which areas are transformed by .
The absolute value of the determinant together with the sign becomes the signed area of the parallelogram. The signed area is the same as the usual area, except that it is negative when the angle from the first to the second vector defining the parallelogram turns in a clockwise direction (which is opposite to the direction one would get for the identity matrix).
To show that is the signed area, one may consider a matrix containing two vectors and representing the parallelogram's sides. The signed area can be expressed as for the angle θ between the vectors, which is simply base times height, the length of one vector times the perpendicular component of the other. Due to the sine this already is the signed area, yet it may be expressed more conveniently using the cosine of the complementary angle to a perpendicular vector, e.g. , so that becomes the signed area in question, which can be determined by the pattern of the scalar product to be equal to according to the following equations:
\text{Signed area} =
|\boldsymbol{u}|\,|\boldsymbol{v}|\,\sin\,\theta = \left|\boldsymbol{u}^\perp\right|\,\left|\boldsymbol{v}\right|\,\cos\,\theta' =
\begin{pmatrix} -c \\ a \end{pmatrix} \cdot \begin{pmatrix} b \\ d \end{pmatrix} = ad - bc.
Thus the determinant gives the area scale factor and the orientation induced by the mapping represented by A. When the determinant is equal to one, the linear mapping defined by the matrix preserves area and orientation.
If an real matrix A is written in terms of its column vectors A = \left[\begin{array}{c|c|c|c} \mathbf{a}_1 & \mathbf{a}_2 & \cdots & \mathbf{a}_n\end{array}\right], then
A\begin{pmatrix}1 \\ 0\\ \vdots \\0\end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{a}_1, \quad
A\begin{pmatrix}0 \\ 1\\ \vdots \\0\end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{a}_2, \quad
\ldots, \quad
A\begin{pmatrix}0 \\0 \\ \vdots \\1\end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{a}_n.
This means that A maps the unit n-cube to the n-dimensional parallelotope defined by the vectors \mathbf{a}_1, \mathbf{a}_2, \ldots, \mathbf{a}_n, the region P = \left\{c_1 \mathbf{a}_1 + \cdots + c_n\mathbf{a}_n \mid 0 \leq c_i\leq 1 \ \forall i\right\} (\forall stands for "for all" as a logical symbol.)
The determinant gives the signed n-dimensional volume of this parallelotope, \det(A) = \pm \text{vol}(P), and hence describes more generally the n-dimensional volume scale factor of the linear transformation produced by A. (The sign shows whether the transformation preserves or reverses orientation.) In particular, if the determinant is zero, then this parallelotope has volume zero and is not fully n-dimensional, which indicates that the dimension of the image of A is less than n. This means that A produces a linear transformation which is neither onto nor one-to-one, and so is not invertible.
== Definition ==
Let A be a square matrix with n rows and n columns, so that it can be written as
A = \begin{bmatrix}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \cdots & a_{1,n} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \cdots & a_{2,n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{n,1} & a_{n,2} & \cdots & a_{n,n}
\end{bmatrix}.
The entries a_{1,1} etc. are, for many purposes, real or complex numbers. As discussed below, the determinant is also defined for matrices whose entries are in a commutative ring.
The determinant of A is denoted by det(A), or it can be denoted directly in terms of the matrix entries by writing enclosing bars instead of brackets:
\begin{vmatrix}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \cdots & a_{1,n} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \cdots & a_{2,n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{n,1} & a_{n,2} & \cdots & a_{n,n}
\end{vmatrix}.
There are various equivalent ways to define the determinant of a square matrix A, i.e. one with the same number of rows and columns: the determinant can be defined via the Leibniz formula, an explicit formula involving sums of products of certain entries of the matrix. The determinant can also be characterized as the unique function depending on the entries of the matrix satisfying certain properties. This approach can also be used to compute determinants by simplifying the matrices in question.
===Leibniz formula===
==== 3 × 3 matrices ====
The Leibniz formula for the determinant of a matrix is the following:
\begin{vmatrix}a&b&c\\d&e&f\\g&h&i\end{vmatrix}
= aei + bfg + cdh - ceg - bdi - afh.\
In this expression, each term has one factor from each row, all in different columns, arranged in increasing row order. For example, bdi has b from the first row second column, d from the second row first column, and i from the third row third column. The signs are determined by how many transpositions of factors are necessary to arrange the factors in increasing order of their columns (given that the terms are arranged left-to-right in increasing row order): positive for an even number of transpositions and negative for an odd number. For the example of bdi, the single transposition of bd to db gives dbi, whose three factors are from the first, second and third columns respectively; this is an odd number of transpositions, so the term appears with negative sign.
The rule of Sarrus is a mnemonic for the expanded form of this determinant: the sum of the products of three diagonal north-west to south-east lines of matrix elements, minus the sum of the products of three diagonal south-west to north-east lines of elements, when the copies of the first two columns of the matrix are written beside it as in the illustration. This scheme for calculating the determinant of a matrix does not carry over into higher dimensions.
==== n × n matrices ====
Generalizing the above to higher dimensions, the determinant of an n \times n matrix is an expression involving permutations and their signatures. A permutation of the set \{1, 2, \dots, n \} is a bijective function \sigma from this set to itself, with values \sigma(1), \sigma(2),\ldots,\sigma(n) exhausting the entire set. The set of all such permutations, called the symmetric group, is commonly denoted S_n. The signature \sgn(\sigma) of a permutation \sigma is +1, if the permutation can be obtained with an even number of transpositions (exchanges of two entries); otherwise, it is -1.
Given a matrix
A=\begin{bmatrix}
a_{1,1}\ldots a_{1,n}\\
\vdots\qquad\vdots\\
a_{n,1}\ldots a_{n,n}
\end{bmatrix},
the Leibniz formula for its determinant is, using sigma notation for the sum,
\det(A)=\begin{vmatrix}
a_{1,1}\ldots a_{1,n}\\
\vdots\qquad\vdots\\
a_{n,1}\ldots a_{n,n}
\end{vmatrix} = \sum_{\sigma \in S_n}\sgn(\sigma)a_{1,\sigma(1)}\cdots a_{n,\sigma(n)}.
Using pi notation for the product, this can be shortened into
\det(A) = \sum_{\sigma \in S_n} \left( \sgn(\sigma) \prod_{i=1}^n a_{i,\sigma(i)}\right).
The Levi-Civita symbol \varepsilon_{i_1,\ldots,i_n} is defined on the -tuples of integers in \{1,\ldots,n\} as if two of the integers are equal, and otherwise as the signature of the permutation defined by the n-tuple of integers. With the Levi-Civita symbol, the Leibniz formula becomes
\det(A) = \sum_{i_1,i_2,\ldots,i_n} \varepsilon_{i_1\cdots i_n} a_{1,i_1} \!\cdots a_{n,i_n},
where the sum is taken over all -tuples of integers in \{1,\ldots,n\}.
== Properties==
===Characterization of the determinant===
The determinant can be characterized by the following three key properties. To state these, it is convenient to regard an n \times n matrix A as being composed of its n columns, so denoted as
A = \big ( a_1, \dots, a_n \big ),
where the column vector a_i (for each i) is composed of the entries of the matrix in the i-th column.
\det\left(I\right) = 1, where I is an identity matrix.
The determinant is multilinear: if the jth column of a matrix A is written as a linear combination a_j = r \cdot v + w of two column vectors v and w and a number r, then the determinant of A is expressible as a similar linear combination:
\begin{align}|A|
&= \big | a_1, \dots, a_{j-1}, r \cdot v + w, a_{j+1}, \dots, a_n | \\
&= r \cdot | a_1, \dots, v, \dots a_n | + | a_1, \dots, w, \dots, a_n |
\end{align}
The determinant is alternating: whenever two columns of a matrix are identical, its determinant is 0:
| a_1, \dots, v, \dots, v, \dots, a_n| = 0.
If the determinant is defined using the Leibniz formula as above, these three properties can be proved by direct inspection of that formula. Some authors also approach the determinant directly using these three properties: it can be shown that there is exactly one function that assigns to any n \times n matrix A a number that satisfies these three properties. This also shows that this more abstract approach to the determinant yields the same definition as the one using the Leibniz formula.
To see this it suffices to expand the determinant by multi-linearity in the columns into a (huge) linear combination of determinants of matrices in which each column is a standard basis vector. These determinants are either 0 (by property 9) or else ±1 (by properties 1 and 12 below), so the linear combination gives the expression above in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol. While less technical in appearance, this characterization cannot entirely replace the Leibniz formula in defining the determinant, since without it the existence of an appropriate function is not clear.
===Immediate consequences===
These rules have several further consequences:
The determinant is a homogeneous function, i.e., \det(cA) = c^n\det(A) (for an n \times n matrix A).
Interchanging any pair of columns of a matrix multiplies its determinant by −1. This follows from the determinant being multilinear and alternating (properties 2 and 3 above): |a_1, \dots, a_j, \dots a_i, \dots, a_n| = - |a_1, \dots, a_i, \dots, a_j, \dots, a_n|. This formula can be applied iteratively when several columns are swapped. For example |a_3, a_1, a_2, a_4 \dots, a_n| = - |a_1, a_3, a_2, a_4, \dots, a_n| = |a_1, a_2, a_3, a_4, \dots, a_n|. Yet more generally, any permutation of the columns multiplies the determinant by the sign of the permutation.
If some column can be expressed as a linear combination of the other columns (i.e. the columns of the matrix form a linearly dependent set), the determinant is 0. As a special case, this includes: if some column is such that all its entries are zero, then the determinant of that matrix is 0.
Adding a scalar multiple of one column to another column does not change the value of the determinant. This is a consequence of multilinearity and being alternative: by multilinearity the determinant changes by a multiple of the determinant of a matrix with two equal columns, which determinant is 0, since the determinant is alternating.
If A is a triangular matrix, i.e. a_{ij}=0, whenever i>j or, alternatively, whenever i, then its determinant equals the product of the diagonal entries: \det(A) = a_{11} a_{22} \cdots a_{nn} = \prod_{i=1}^n a_{ii}. Indeed, such a matrix can be reduced, by appropriately adding multiples of the columns with fewer nonzero entries to those with more entries, to a diagonal matrix (without changing the determinant). For such a matrix, using the linearity in each column reduces to the identity matrix, in which case the stated formula holds by the very first characterizing property of determinants. Alternatively, this formula can also be deduced from the Leibniz formula, since the only permutation \sigma which gives a non-zero contribution is the identity permutation.
====Example====
These characterizing properties and their consequences listed above are both theoretically significant, but can also be used to compute determinants for concrete matrices. In fact, Gaussian elimination can be applied to bring any matrix into upper triangular form, and the steps in this algorithm affect the determinant in a controlled way. The following concrete example illustrates the computation of the determinant of the matrix A using that method:
A = \begin{bmatrix}
-2 & -1 & 2 \\
2 & 1 & 4 \\
-3 & 3 & -1
\end{bmatrix}.
Combining these equalities gives |A| = -|E| = -(18 \cdot 3 \cdot (-1)) = 54.
===Transpose===
The determinant of the transpose of A equals the determinant of A:
\det\left(A^\textsf{T}\right) = \det(A).
This can be proven by inspecting the Leibniz formula. This implies that in all the properties mentioned above, the word "column" can be replaced by "row" throughout. For example, viewing an matrix as being composed of n rows, the determinant is an n-linear function.
=== Multiplicativity and matrix groups ===
The determinant is a multiplicative map, i.e., for square matrices A and B of equal size, the determinant of a matrix product equals the product of their determinants:
\det(AB) = \det (A) \det (B)
This key fact can be proven by observing that, for a fixed matrix B, both sides of the equation are alternating and multilinear as a function depending on the columns of A. Moreover, they both take the value \det B when A is the identity matrix. The above-mentioned unique characterization of alternating multilinear maps therefore shows this claim.
A matrix A with entries in a field is invertible precisely if its determinant is nonzero. This follows from the multiplicativity of the determinant and the formula for the inverse involving the adjugate matrix mentioned below. In this event, the determinant of the inverse matrix is given by
\det\left(A^{-1}\right) = \frac{1}{\det(A)} = [\det(A)]^{-1}.
In particular, products and inverses of matrices with non-zero determinant (respectively, determinant one) still have this property. Thus, the set of such matrices (of fixed size n over a field K) forms a group known as the general linear group \operatorname{GL}_n(K) (respectively, a subgroup called the special linear group \operatorname{SL}_n(K) \subset \operatorname{GL}_n(K). More generally, the word "special" indicates the subgroup of another matrix group of matrices of determinant one. Examples include the special orthogonal group (which if n is 2 or 3 consists of all rotation matrices), and the special unitary group.
Because the determinant respects multiplication and inverses, it is in fact a group homomorphism from \operatorname{GL}_n(K) into the multiplicative group K^\times of nonzero elements of K. This homomorphism is surjective and its kernel is \operatorname{SL}_n(K) (the matrices with determinant one). Hence, by the first isomorphism theorem, this shows that \operatorname{SL}_n(K) is a normal subgroup of \operatorname{GL}_n(K), and that the quotient group \operatorname{GL}_n(K)/\operatorname{SL}_n(K) is isomorphic to K^\times.
The Cauchy–Binet formula is a generalization of that product formula for rectangular matrices. This formula can also be recast as a multiplicative formula for compound matrices whose entries are the determinants of all quadratic submatrices of a given matrix.
=== Laplace expansion ===
Laplace expansion expresses the determinant of a matrix A recursively in terms of determinants of smaller matrices, known as its minors. The minor M_{i,j} is defined to be the determinant of the (n-1) \times (n-1) matrix that results from A by removing the i-th row and the j-th column. The expression (-1)^{i+j}M_{i,j} is known as a cofactor. For every i, one has the equality
\det(A) = \sum_{j=1}^n (-1)^{i+j} a_{i,j} M_{i,j},
which is called the Laplace expansion along the th row. For example, the Laplace expansion along the first row (i=1) gives the following formula:
\begin{vmatrix}a&b&c\\ d&e&f\\ g&h&i\end{vmatrix} =
a\begin{vmatrix}e&f\\ h&i\end{vmatrix} - b\begin{vmatrix}d&f\\ g&i\end{vmatrix} + c\begin{vmatrix}d&e\\ g&h\end{vmatrix}
Unwinding the determinants of these 2 \times 2-matrices gives back the Leibniz formula mentioned above. Similarly, the Laplace expansion along the j-th column is the equality
\det(A)= \sum_{i=1}^n (-1)^{i+j} a_{i,j} M_{i,j}.
Laplace expansion can be used iteratively for computing determinants, but this approach is inefficient for large matrices. However, it is useful for computing the determinants of highly symmetric matrix such as the Vandermonde matrix
\begin{vmatrix}
1 & 1 & 1 & \cdots & 1 \\
x_1 & x_2 & x_3 & \cdots & x_n \\
x_1^2 & x_2^2 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_n^2 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
x_1^{n-1} & x_2^{n-1} & x_3^{n-1} & \cdots & x_n^{n-1}
\end{vmatrix} =
\prod_{1 \leq i < j \leq n} \left(x_j - x_i\right).
The n-term Laplace expansion along a row or column can be generalized to write an n x n determinant as a sum of \tbinom nk terms, each the product of the determinant of a k x k submatrix and the determinant of the complementary (n−k) x (n−k) submatrix.
===Adjugate matrix===
The adjugate matrix \operatorname{adj}(A) is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors, that is,
(\operatorname{adj}(A))_{i,j} = (-1)^{i+j} M_{ji}.
For every matrix, one has
(\det A) I = A\operatorname{adj}A = (\operatorname{adj}A)\,A.
Thus the adjugate matrix can be used for expressing the inverse of a nonsingular matrix:
A^{-1} = \frac 1{\det A}\operatorname{adj}A.
=== Block matrices ===
The formula for the determinant of a 2 \times 2 matrix above continues to hold, under appropriate further assumptions, for a block matrix, i.e., a matrix composed of four submatrices A, B, C, D of dimension m \times m, m \times n, n \times m and n \times n, respectively. The easiest such formula, which can be proven using either the Leibniz formula or a factorization involving the Schur complement, is
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& 0\\ C& D\end{pmatrix} = \det(A) \det(D) = \det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ 0& D\end{pmatrix}.
If A is invertible, then it follows with results from the section on multiplicativity that
\begin{align}
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
& = \det(A)\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
\underbrace{\det\begin{pmatrix}A^{-1}& -A^{-1} B\\ 0& I_n\end{pmatrix}}_{=\,\det(A^{-1})\,=\,(\det A)^{-1}}\\
& = \det(A) \det\begin{pmatrix}I_m& 0\\ C A^{-1}& D-C A^{-1} B\end{pmatrix}\\
& = \det(A) \det(D - C A^{-1} B),
\end{align}
which simplifies to \det (A) (D - C A^{-1} B) when D is a 1 \times 1 matrix.
A similar result holds when D is invertible, namely
\begin{align}
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
& = \det(D)\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix}
\underbrace{\det\begin{pmatrix}I_m& 0\\ -D^{-1} C& D^{-1}\end{pmatrix}}_{=\,\det(D^{-1})\,=\,(\det D)^{-1}}\\
& = \det(D) \det\begin{pmatrix}A - B D^{-1} C& B D^{-1}\\ 0& I_n\end{pmatrix}\\
& = \det(D) \det(A - B D^{-1} C).
\end{align}
Both results can be combined to derive Sylvester's determinant theorem, which is also stated below.
If the blocks are square matrices of the same size further formulas hold. For example, if C and D commute (i.e., CD=DC), then
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ C& D\end{pmatrix} = \det(AD - BC).
This formula has been generalized to matrices composed of more than 2 \times 2 blocks, again under appropriate commutativity conditions among the individual blocks.
For A = D and B = C, the following formula holds (even if A and B do not commute)
\det\begin{pmatrix}A& B\\ B& A\end{pmatrix} = \det(A - B) \det(A + B).
=== Sylvester's determinant theorem ===
Sylvester's determinant theorem states that for A, an matrix, and B, an matrix (so that A and B have dimensions allowing them to be multiplied in either order forming a square matrix):
\det\left(I_\mathit{m} + AB\right) = \det\left(I_\mathit{n} + BA\right),
where Im and In are the and identity matrices, respectively.
From this general result several consequences follow.
A generalization is \det\left(Z + AWB\right) = \det\left( Z\right) \det\left(W \right) \det\left(W^{-1} + B Z^{-1} A\right)(see Matrix_determinant_lemma), where Z is an invertible matrix and W is an invertible matrix.
===Sum===
The determinant of the sum A+B of two square matrices of the same size is not in general expressible in terms of the determinants of A and of B.
However, for positive semidefinite matrices A, B and C of equal size,
\det(A + B + C) + \det(C) \geq \det(A + C) + \det(B + C)\text{,}
with the corollary
\det(A + B) \geq \det(A) + \det(B)\text{.}
Brunn–Minkowski theorem implies that the th root of determinant is a concave function, when restricted to Hermitian positive-definite n\times n matrices. Therefore, if and are Hermitian positive-definite n\times n matrices, one has
\sqrt[n]{\det(A+B)}\geq\sqrt[n]{\det(A)}+\sqrt[n]{\det(B)}, since the th root of the determinant is a homogeneous function.
==== Sum identity for 2×2 matrices ====
For the special case of 2\times 2 matrices with complex entries, the determinant of the sum can be written in terms of determinants and traces in the following identity:
\det(A+B) = \det(A) + \det(B) + \text{tr}(A)\text{tr}(B) - \text{tr}(AB).
== Properties of the determinant in relation to other notions ==
=== Eigenvalues and characteristic polynomial ===
The determinant is closely related to two other central concepts in linear algebra, the eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial of a matrix. Let A be an n \times n matrix with complex entries. Then, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, A must have exactly n eigenvalues \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \ldots, \lambda_n. (Here it is understood that an eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity occurs times in this list.) Then, it turns out the determinant of is equal to the product of these eigenvalues,
\det(A) = \prod_{i=1}^n \lambda_i=\lambda_1\lambda_2\cdots\lambda_n.
The product of all non-zero eigenvalues is referred to as pseudo-determinant.
From this, one immediately sees that the determinant of a matrix A is zero if and only if 0 is an eigenvalue of A. In other words, A is invertible if and only if 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
The characteristic polynomial is defined as
\chi_A(t) = \det(t \cdot I - A).
Here, t is the indeterminate of the polynomial and I is the identity matrix of the same size as A. By means of this polynomial, determinants can be used to find the eigenvalues of the matrix A: they are precisely the roots of this polynomial, i.e., those complex numbers \lambda such that
\chi_A(\lambda) = 0.
A Hermitian matrix is positive definite if all its eigenvalues are positive. Sylvester's criterion asserts that this is equivalent to the determinants of the submatrices
A_k := \begin{bmatrix}
a_{1,1} & a_{1,2} & \cdots & a_{1,k} \\
a_{2,1} & a_{2,2} & \cdots & a_{2,k} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
a_{k,1} & a_{k,2} & \cdots & a_{k,k}
\end{bmatrix}
being positive, for all k between 1 and n.
=== Trace ===
The trace tr(A) is by definition the sum of the diagonal entries of and also equals the sum of the eigenvalues. Thus, for complex matrices ,
\det(\exp(A)) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(A))
or, for real matrices ,
\operatorname{tr}(A) = \log(\det(\exp(A))).
Here exp() denotes the matrix exponential of , because every eigenvalue of corresponds to the eigenvalue exp() of exp(). In particular, given any logarithm of , that is, any matrix satisfying
\exp(L) = A
the determinant of is given by
\det(A) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(L)).
For example, for , , and , respectively,
\begin{align}
\det(A) &= \frac{1}{2}\left(\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^2 - \operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)\right), \\
\det(A) &= \frac{1}{6}\left(\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^3 - 3\operatorname{tr}(A) ~ \operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right) + 2 \operatorname{tr}\left(A^3\right)\right), \\
\det(A) &= \frac{1}{24}\left(\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^4 - 6\operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)\left(\operatorname{tr}(A)\right)^2 + 3\left(\operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)\right)^2 + 8\operatorname{tr}\left(A^3\right)~\operatorname{tr}(A) - 6\operatorname{tr}\left(A^4\right)\right).
\end{align}
cf. Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Such expressions are deducible from combinatorial arguments, Newton's identities, or the Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm. That is, for generic , the signed constant term of the characteristic polynomial, determined recursively from
c_n = 1; ~~~c_{n-m} = -\frac{1}{m}\sum_{k=1}^m c_{n-m+k} \operatorname{tr}\left(A^k\right) ~~(1 \le m \le n)~.
In the general case, this may also be obtained from
\det(A) = \sum_{\begin{array}{c}k_1,k_2,\ldots,k_n \geq 0\\k_1+2k_2+\cdots+nk_n=n\end{array}}\prod_{l=1}^n \frac{(-1)^{k_l+1}}{l^{k_l}k_l!} \operatorname{tr}\left(A^l\right)^{k_l},
where the sum is taken over the set of all integers satisfying the equation
\sum_{l=1}^n lk_l = n.
The formula can be expressed in terms of the complete exponential Bell polynomial of n arguments sl = −(l – 1)! tr(Al) as
\det(A) = \frac{(-1)^n}{n!} B_n(s_1, s_2, \ldots, s_n).
This formula can also be used to find the determinant of a matrix with multidimensional indices and . The product and trace of such matrices are defined in a natural way as
(AB)^I_J = \sum_K A^I_K B^K_J, \operatorname{tr}(A) = \sum_I A^I_I.
An important arbitrary dimension identity can be obtained from the Mercator series expansion of the logarithm when the expansion converges. If every eigenvalue of A is less than 1 in absolute value,
\det(I + A) = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{1}{k!} \left(-\sum_{j=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^j}{j} \operatorname{tr}\left(A^j\right)\right)^k\,,
where is the identity matrix. More generally, if
\sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{1}{k!} \left(-\sum_{j=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^j s^j}{j}\operatorname{tr}\left(A^j\right)\right)^k\,,
is expanded as a formal power series in then all coefficients of for are zero and the remaining polynomial is .
=== Upper and lower bounds ===
For a positive definite matrix , the trace operator gives the following tight lower and upper bounds on the log determinant
\operatorname{tr}\left(I - A^{-1}\right) \le \log\det(A) \le \operatorname{tr}(A - I)
with equality if and only if . This relationship can be derived via the formula for the Kullback-Leibler divergence between two multivariate normal distributions.
Also,
\frac{n}{\operatorname{tr}\left(A^{-1}\right)} \leq \det(A)^\frac{1}{n} \leq \frac{1}{n}\operatorname{tr}(A) \leq \sqrt{\frac{1}{n}\operatorname{tr}\left(A^2\right)}.
These inequalities can be proved by expressing the traces and the determinant in terms of the eigenvalues. As such, they represent the well-known fact that the harmonic mean is less than the geometric mean, which is less than the arithmetic mean, which is, in turn, less than the root mean square.
=== Derivative ===
The Leibniz formula shows that the determinant of real (or analogously for complex) square matrices is a polynomial function from \mathbf R^{n \times n} to \mathbf R. In particular, it is everywhere differentiable. Its derivative can be expressed using Jacobi's formula:
\frac{d \det(A)}{d \alpha} = \operatorname{tr}\left(\operatorname{adj}(A) \frac{d A}{d \alpha}\right).
where \operatorname{adj}(A) denotes the adjugate of A. In particular, if A is invertible, we have
\frac{d \det(A)}{d \alpha} = \det(A) \operatorname{tr}\left(A^{-1} \frac{d A}{d \alpha}\right).
Expressed in terms of the entries of A, these are
\frac{\partial \det(A)}{\partial A_{ij}}= \operatorname{adj}(A)_{ji} = \det(A)\left(A^{-1}\right)_{ji}.
Yet another equivalent formulation is
\det(A + \epsilon X) - \det(A) = \operatorname{tr}(\operatorname{adj}(A) X) \epsilon + O\left(\epsilon^2\right) = \det(A) \operatorname{tr}\left(A^{-1} X\right) \epsilon + O\left(\epsilon^2\right),
using big O notation. The special case where A = I, the identity matrix, yields
\det(I + \epsilon X) = 1 + \operatorname{tr}(X) \epsilon + O\left(\epsilon^2\right).
This identity is used in describing Lie algebras associated to certain matrix Lie groups. For example, the special linear group \operatorname{SL}_n is defined by the equation \det A = 1. The above formula shows that its Lie algebra is the special linear Lie algebra \mathfrak{sl}_n consisting of those matrices having trace zero.
Writing a 3 \times 3 matrix as A = \begin{bmatrix}a & b & c\end{bmatrix} where a, b,c are column vectors of length 3, then the gradient over one of the three vectors may be written as the cross product of the other two:
\begin{align}
\nabla_\mathbf{a}\det(A) &= \mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{c} \\
\nabla_\mathbf{b}\det(A) &= \mathbf{c} \times \mathbf{a} \\
\nabla_\mathbf{c}\det(A) &= \mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}.
\end{align}
== History ==
Historically, determinants were used long before matrices: A determinant was originally defined as a property of a system of linear equations.
The determinant "determines" whether the system has a unique solution (which occurs precisely if the determinant is non-zero).
In this sense, determinants were first used in the Chinese mathematics textbook The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (九章算術, Chinese scholars, around the 3rd century BCE). In Europe, solutions of linear systems of two equations were expressed by Cardano in 1545 by a determinant-like entity.
Determinants proper originated separately from the work of Seki Takakazu in 1683 in Japan and parallelly of Leibniz in 1693. stated, without proof, Cramer's rule. Both Cramer and also were led to determinants by the question of plane curves passing through a given set of points.
Vandermonde (1771) first recognized determinants as independent functions. gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors: Vandermonde had already given a special case. Immediately following, Lagrange (1773) treated determinants of the second and third order and applied it to questions of elimination theory; he proved many special cases of general identities.
Gauss (1801) made the next advance. Like Lagrange, he made much use of determinants in the theory of numbers. He introduced the word "determinant" (Laplace had used "resultant"), though not in the present signification, but rather as applied to the discriminant of a quadratic form. Gauss also arrived at the notion of reciprocal (inverse) determinants, and came very near the multiplication theorem.
The next contributor of importance is Binet (1811, 1812), who formally stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m columns and n rows, which for the special case of reduces to the multiplication theorem. On the same day (November 30, 1812) that Binet presented his paper to the Academy, Cauchy also presented one on the subject. (See Cauchy–Binet formula.) In this he used the word "determinant" in its present sense, summarized and simplified what was then known on the subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's. With him begins the theory in its generality.
used the functional determinant which Sylvester later called the Jacobian. In his memoirs in Crelle's Journal for 1841 he specially treats this subject, as well as the class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called alternants. About the time of Jacobi's last memoirs, Sylvester (1839) and Cayley began their work. introduced the modern notation for the determinant using vertical bars.
The study of special forms of determinants has been the natural result of the completion of the general theory. Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by Lebesgue, Hesse, and Sylvester; persymmetric determinants by Sylvester and Hankel; circulants by Catalan, Spottiswoode, Glaisher, and Scott; skew determinants and Pfaffians, in connection with the theory of orthogonal transformation, by Cayley; continuants by Sylvester; Wronskians (so called by Muir) by Christoffel and Frobenius; compound determinants by Sylvester, Reiss, and Picquet; Jacobians and Hessians by Sylvester; and symmetric gauche determinants by Trudi. Of the textbooks on the subject Spottiswoode's was the first. In America, Hanus (1886), Weld (1893), and Muir/Metzler (1933) published treatises.
== Applications ==
=== Cramer's rule ===
Determinants can be used to describe the solutions of a linear system of equations, written in matrix form as Ax = b. This equation has a unique solution x if and only if \det (A) is nonzero. In this case, the solution is given by Cramer's rule:
x_i = \frac{\det(A_i)}{\det(A)} \qquad i = 1, 2, 3, \ldots, n
where A_i is the matrix formed by replacing the i-th column of A by the column vector b. This follows immediately by column expansion of the determinant, i.e.
\det(A_i) =
\det\begin{bmatrix}a_1 & \ldots & b & \ldots & a_n\end{bmatrix}
=\sum_{j=1}^n x_j\det\begin{bmatrix}a_1 & \ldots & a_{i-1} & a_j & a_{i+1} & \ldots & a_n\end{bmatrix} =
x_i\det(A)
where the vectors a_j are the columns of A. The rule is also implied by the identity
A\, \operatorname{adj}(A) = \operatorname{adj}(A)\, A = \det(A)\, I_n.
Cramer's rule can be implemented in \operatorname O(n^3) time, which is comparable to more common methods of solving systems of linear equations, such as LU, QR, or singular value decomposition.
=== Linear independence ===
Determinants can be used to characterize linearly dependent vectors: \det A is zero if and only if the column vectors of the matrix A are linearly dependent. For example, given two linearly independent vectors v_1, v_2 \in \mathbf R^3, a third vector v_3 lies in the plane spanned by the former two vectors exactly if the determinant of the 3 \times 3 matrix consisting of the three vectors is zero. The same idea is also used in the theory of differential equations: given functions f_1(x), \dots, f_n(x) (supposed to be n-1 times differentiable), the Wronskian is defined to be
W(f_1, \ldots, f_n)(x) =
\begin{vmatrix}
f_1(x) & f_2(x) & \cdots & f_n(x) \\
f_1'(x) & f_2'(x) & \cdots & f_n'(x) \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
f_1^{(n-1)}(x) & f_2^{(n-1)}(x) & \cdots & f_n^{(n-1)}(x)
\end{vmatrix}.
It is non-zero (for some x) in a specified interval if and only if the given functions and all their derivatives up to order n-1 are linearly independent. If it can be shown that the Wronskian is zero everywhere on an interval then, in the case of analytic functions, this implies the given functions are linearly dependent. See the Wronskian and linear independence. Another such use of the determinant is the resultant, which gives a criterion when two polynomials have a common root.
=== Orientation of a basis ===
The determinant can be thought of as assigning a number to every sequence of n vectors in Rn, by using the square matrix whose columns are the given vectors. The determinant will be nonzero if and only if the sequence of vectors is a basis for Rn. In that case, the sign of the determinant determines whether the orientation of the basis is consistent with or opposite to the orientation of the standard basis. In the case of an orthogonal basis, the magnitude of the determinant is equal to the product of the lengths of the basis vectors. For instance, an orthogonal matrix with entries in Rn represents an orthonormal basis in Euclidean space, and hence has determinant of ±1 (since all the vectors have length 1). The determinant is +1 if and only if the basis has the same orientation. It is −1 if and only if the basis has the opposite orientation.
More generally, if the determinant of A is positive, A represents an orientation-preserving linear transformation (if A is an orthogonal or matrix, this is a rotation), while if it is negative, A switches the orientation of the basis.
=== Volume and Jacobian determinant ===
As pointed out above, the absolute value of the determinant of real vectors is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by those vectors. As a consequence, if f : \mathbf R^n \to \mathbf R^n is the linear map given by multiplication with a matrix A, and S \subset \mathbf R^n is any measurable subset, then the volume of f(S) is given by |\det(A)| times the volume of S. More generally, if the linear map f : \mathbf R^n \to \mathbf R^m is represented by the m \times n matrix A, then the n-dimensional volume of f(S) is given by:
\operatorname{volume}(f(S)) = \sqrt{\det\left(A^\textsf{T} A\right)} \operatorname{volume}(S).
By calculating the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by four points, they can be used to identify skew lines. The volume of any tetrahedron, given its vertices a, b, c, d, \frac 1 6 \cdot |\det(a-b,b-c,c-d)|, or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a spanning tree over the vertices.
For a general differentiable function, much of the above carries over by considering the Jacobian matrix of f. For
f: \mathbf R^n \rightarrow \mathbf R^n,
the Jacobian matrix is the matrix whose entries are given by the partial derivatives
D(f) = \left(\frac {\partial f_i}{\partial x_j}\right)_{1 \leq i, j \leq n}.
Its determinant, the Jacobian determinant, appears in the higher-dimensional version of integration by substitution: for suitable functions f and an open subset U of Rn (the domain of f), the integral over f(U) of some other function is given by
\int_{f(U)} \phi(\mathbf{v})\, d\mathbf{v} = \int_U \phi(f(\mathbf{u})) \left|\det(\operatorname{D}f)(\mathbf{u})\right| \,d\mathbf{u}.
The Jacobian also occurs in the inverse function theorem.
When applied to the field of Cartography, the determinant can be used to measure the rate of expansion of a map near the poles.
== Abstract algebraic aspects ==
=== Determinant of an endomorphism ===
The above identities concerning the determinant of products and inverses of matrices imply that similar matrices have the same determinant: two matrices A and B are similar, if there exists an invertible matrix X such that . Indeed, repeatedly applying the above identities yields
\det(A) = \det(X)^{-1} \det(B)\det(X) = \det(B) \det(X)^{-1} \det(X) = \det(B).
The determinant is therefore also called a similarity invariant. The determinant of a linear transformation
T : V \to V
for some finite-dimensional vector space V is defined to be the determinant of the matrix describing it, with respect to an arbitrary choice of basis in V. By the similarity invariance, this determinant is independent of the choice of the basis for V and therefore only depends on the endomorphism T.
=== Square matrices over commutative rings ===
The above definition of the determinant using the Leibniz rule holds works more generally when the entries of the matrix are elements of a commutative ring R, such as the integers \mathbf Z, as opposed to the field of real or complex numbers. Moreover, the characterization of the determinant as the unique alternating multilinear map that satisfies \det(I) = 1 still holds, as do all the properties that result from that characterization.
A matrix A \in \operatorname{Mat}_{n \times n}(R) is invertible (in the sense that there is an inverse matrix whose entries are in R) if and only if its determinant is an invertible element in R. For R = \mathbf Z, this means that the determinant is +1 or −1. Such a matrix is called unimodular.
The determinant being multiplicative, it defines a group homomorphism
\operatorname{GL}_n(R) \rightarrow R^\times,
between the general linear group (the group of invertible n \times n-matrices with entries in R) and the multiplicative group of units in R. Since it respects the multiplication in both groups, this map is a group homomorphism.
Given a ring homomorphism f : R \to S, there is a map \operatorname{GL}_n(f) : \operatorname{GL}_n(R) \to \operatorname{GL}_n(S) given by replacing all entries in R by their images under f. The determinant respects these maps, i.e., the identity
f(\det((a_{i,j}))) = \det ((f(a_{i,j})))
holds. In other words, the displayed commutative diagram commutes.
For example, the determinant of the complex conjugate of a complex matrix (which is also the determinant of its conjugate transpose) is the complex conjugate of its determinant, and for integer matrices: the reduction modulo m of the determinant of such a matrix is equal to the determinant of the matrix reduced modulo m (the latter determinant being computed using modular arithmetic). In the language of category theory, the determinant is a natural transformation between the two functors \operatorname{GL}_n and (-)^\times. Adding yet another layer of abstraction, this is captured by saying that the determinant is a morphism of algebraic groups, from the general linear group to the multiplicative group,
\det: \operatorname{GL}_n \to \mathbb G_m.
=== Exterior algebra ===
The determinant of a linear transformation T : V \to V of an n-dimensional vector space V or, more generally a free module of (finite) rank n over a commutative ring R can be formulated in a coordinate-free manner by considering the n-th exterior power \bigwedge^n V of V. The map T induces a linear map
\begin{align}
\bigwedge^n T: \bigwedge^n V &\rightarrow \bigwedge^n V \\
v_1 \wedge v_2 \wedge \dots \wedge v_n &\mapsto T v_1 \wedge T v_2 \wedge \dots \wedge T v_n.
\end{align}
As \bigwedge^n V is one-dimensional, the map \bigwedge^n T is given by multiplying with some scalar, i.e., an element in R. Some authors such as use this fact to define the determinant to be the element in R satisfying the following identity (for all v_i \in V):
\left(\bigwedge^n T\right)\left(v_1 \wedge \dots \wedge v_n\right) = \det(T) \cdot v_1 \wedge \dots \wedge v_n.
This definition agrees with the more concrete coordinate-dependent definition. This can be shown using the uniqueness of a multilinear alternating form on n-tuples of vectors in R^n.
For this reason, the highest non-zero exterior power \bigwedge^n V (as opposed to the determinant associated to an endomorphism) is sometimes also called the determinant of V and similarly for more involved objects such as vector bundles or chain complexes of vector spaces. Minors of a matrix can also be cast in this setting, by considering lower alternating forms \bigwedge^k V with k < n.
== Generalizations and related notions ==
Determinants as treated above admit several variants: the permanent of a matrix is defined as the determinant, except that the factors \sgn(\sigma) occurring in Leibniz's rule are omitted. The immanant generalizes both by introducing a character of the symmetric group S_n in Leibniz's rule.
=== Determinants for finite-dimensional algebras===
For any associative algebra A that is finite-dimensional as a vector space over a field F, there is a determinant map
\det : A \to F.
This definition proceeds by establishing the characteristic polynomial independently of the determinant, and defining the determinant as the lowest order term of this polynomial. This general definition recovers the determinant for the matrix algebra A = \operatorname{Mat}_{n \times n}(F), but also includes several further cases including the determinant of a quaternion,
\det (a + ib+jc+kd) = a^2 + b^2 + c^2 + d^2,
the norm N_{L/F} : L \to F of a field extension, as well as the Pfaffian of a skew-symmetric matrix and the reduced norm of a central simple algebra, also arise as special cases of this construction.
=== Infinite matrices ===
For matrices with an infinite number of rows and columns, the above definitions of the determinant do not carry over directly. For example, in the Leibniz formula, an infinite sum (all of whose terms are infinite products) would have to be calculated. Functional analysis provides different extensions of the determinant for such infinite-dimensional situations, which however only work for particular kinds of operators.
The Fredholm determinant defines the determinant for operators known as trace class operators by an appropriate generalization of the formula
\det(I+A) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(\log(I+A))).
Another infinite-dimensional notion of determinant is the functional determinant.
===Operators in von Neumann algebras===
For operators in a finite factor, one may define a positive real-valued determinant called the Fuglede−Kadison determinant using the canonical trace. In fact, corresponding to every tracial state on a von Neumann algebra there is a notion of Fuglede−Kadison determinant.
=== Related notions for non-commutative rings ===
For matrices over non-commutative rings, multilinearity and alternating properties are incompatible for , so there is no good definition of the determinant in this setting.
For square matrices with entries in a non-commutative ring, there are various difficulties in defining determinants analogously to that for commutative rings. A meaning can be given to the Leibniz formula provided that the order for the product is specified, and similarly for other definitions of the determinant, but non-commutativity then leads to the loss of many fundamental properties of the determinant, such as the multiplicative property or that the determinant is unchanged under transposition of the matrix. Over non-commutative rings, there is no reasonable notion of a multilinear form (existence of a nonzero with a regular element of R as value on some pair of arguments implies that R is commutative). Nevertheless, various notions of non-commutative determinant have been formulated that preserve some of the properties of determinants, notably quasideterminants and the Dieudonné determinant. For some classes of matrices with non-commutative elements, one can define the determinant and prove linear algebra theorems that are very similar to their commutative analogs. Examples include the q-determinant on quantum groups, the Capelli determinant on Capelli matrices, and the Berezinian on supermatrices (i.e., matrices whose entries are elements of \mathbb Z_2-graded rings). Manin matrices form the class closest to matrices with commutative elements.
== Calculation ==
Determinants are mainly used as a theoretical tool. They are rarely calculated explicitly in numerical linear algebra, where for applications such as checking invertibility and finding eigenvalues the determinant has largely been supplanted by other techniques. Computational geometry, however, does frequently use calculations related to determinants.
While the determinant can be computed directly using the Leibniz rule this approach is extremely inefficient for large matrices, since that formula requires calculating n! (n factorial) products for an n \times n matrix. Thus, the number of required operations grows very quickly: it is of order n!. The Laplace expansion is similarly inefficient. Therefore, more involved techniques have been developed for calculating determinants.
===Gaussian elimination===
Gaussian elimination consists of left multiplying a matrix by elementary matrices for getting a matrix in a row echelon form. One can restrict the computation to elementary matrices of determinant . In this case, the determinant of the resulting row echelon form equals the determinant of the initial matrix. As a row echelon form is a triangular matrix, its determinant is the product of the entries of its diagonal.
So, the determinant can be computed for almost free from the result of a Gaussian elimination.
=== Decomposition methods ===
Some methods compute \det(A) by writing the matrix as a product of matrices whose determinants can be more easily computed. Such techniques are referred to as decomposition methods. Examples include the LU decomposition, the QR decomposition or the Cholesky decomposition (for positive definite matrices). These methods are of order \operatorname O(n^3), which is a significant improvement over \operatorname O (n!).
For example, LU decomposition expresses A as a product
A = PLU.
of a permutation matrix P (which has exactly a single 1 in each column, and otherwise zeros), a lower triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U.
The determinants of the two triangular matrices L and U can be quickly calculated, since they are the products of the respective diagonal entries. The determinant of P is just the sign \varepsilon of the corresponding permutation (which is +1 for an even number of permutations and is -1 for an odd number of permutations). Once such a LU decomposition is known for A, its determinant is readily computed as
\det(A) = \varepsilon \det(L)\cdot\det(U).
=== Further methods ===
The order \operatorname O(n^3) reached by decomposition methods has been improved by different methods. If two matrices of order n can be multiplied in time M(n), where M(n) \ge n^a for some a>2, then there is an algorithm computing the determinant in time O(M(n)). This means, for example, that an \operatorname O(n^{2.376}) algorithm for computing the determinant exists based on the Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm. This exponent has been further lowered, as of 2016, to 2.373.
In addition to the complexity of the algorithm, further criteria can be used to compare algorithms.
Especially for applications concerning matrices over rings, algorithms that compute the determinant without any divisions exist. (By contrast, Gauss elimination requires divisions.) One such algorithm, having complexity \operatorname O(n^4) is based on the following idea: one replaces permutations (as in the Leibniz rule) by so-called closed ordered walks, in which several items can be repeated. The resulting sum has more terms than in the Leibniz rule, but in the process several of these products can be reused, making it more efficient than naively computing with the Leibniz rule. Algorithms can also be assessed according to their bit complexity, i.e., how many bits of accuracy are needed to store intermediate values occurring in the computation. For example, the Gaussian elimination (or LU decomposition) method is of order \operatorname O(n^3), but the bit length of intermediate values can become exponentially long. By comparison, the Bareiss Algorithm, is an exact-division method (so it does use division, but only in cases where these divisions can be performed without remainder) is of the same order, but the bit complexity is roughly the bit size of the original entries in the matrix times n.
If the determinant of A and the inverse of A have already been computed, the matrix determinant lemma allows rapid calculation of the determinant of , where u and v are column vectors.
Charles Dodgson (i.e. Lewis Carroll of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland fame) invented a method for computing determinants called Dodgson condensation. Unfortunately this interesting method does not always work in its original form.
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] |
8,470 |
David Ricardo
|
David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a British political economist, politician, and member of Parliament. He is recognized as one of the most influential classical economists, alongside figures such as Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith and James Mill.
Ricardo was born in London as the third surviving child of a successful stockbroker and his wife. He came from a Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin. At 21, he eloped with a Quaker and converted to Unitarianism, causing estrangement from his family. He made his fortune financing government borrowing and later retired to an estate in Gloucestershire. Ricardo served as High Sheriff of Gloucestershire and bought a seat in Parliament as an earnest reformer. He was friends with prominent figures like James Mill, Jeremy Bentham, and Thomas Malthus, engaging in debates over various topics. Ricardo was also a member of The Geological Society, and his youngest sister was an author.
As MP for Portarlington, Ricardo advocated for liberal political movements and reforms, including free trade, parliamentary reform, and criminal law reform. He believed free trade increased the well-being of people by making goods more affordable. Ricardo notably opposed the Corn Laws, which he saw as barriers to economic growth. His friend John Louis Mallett described Ricardo's conviction in his beliefs, though he expressed doubts about Ricardo's disregard for experience and practice. Ricardo died at 51 from an ear infection that led to septicaemia (sepsis). He left behind a considerable fortune and a lasting legacy, with his free trade views eventually becoming public policy in Britain.
Ricardo wrote his first economics article at age 37, advocating for a reduction in the note-issuing of the Bank of England. He was also an abolitionist and believed in the autonomy of a central bank as the issuer of money. Ricardo worked on fixing issues in Adam Smith's labour theory of value, stating that the value of a commodity depends on the labour necessary for its production. He contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits, defining rent as the difference between the produce obtained by employing equal quantities of capital and labour. Ricardo's Theory of Profit posited that as real wages increase, real profits decrease due to the revenue split between profits and wages.
Ricardian theory of international trade challenges the mercantilist concept of accumulating gold or silver by promoting industry specialization and free trade. Ricardo introduced the concept of "comparative advantage", suggesting that nations should concentrate resources only in industries where they have the greatest efficiency of production relative to their own alternative uses of resources. He argued that international trade is always beneficial, even if one country is more competitive in every area than its trading counterpart. Ricardo opposed protectionism for national economies and was concerned about the short-term impact of technological change on labour.
==Personal life==
Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third surviving of the 17 children of successful stockbroker Abraham Israel Ricardo (1733?–1812) and Abigail (1753–1801), daughter of Abraham Delvalle (also "del Valle"), of a respectable Sephardic Jewish family that had been settled in England for three generations as "small but prosperous" tobacco and snuff merchants, and had obtained British citizenship. Abigail's sister, Rebecca, was wife of the engraver Wilson Lowry, and mother of the engraver Joseph Wilson Lowry and the geologist, mineralogist, and author Delvalle Lowry. The Ricardo family were Sephardic Jews of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from the Dutch Republic. This religious difference resulted in estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position of independence. His father disowned him and his mother apparently never spoke to him again.
Following this estrangement he went into business for himself with the support of Lubbocks and Forster, an eminent banking house. He made the bulk of his fortune by profitably financing Government borrowing. A popular story states that he made his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo: in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823,The Sunday Times reported that during the battle Ricardo "netted upwards of a million sterling", a huge sum at the time, and this was later popularised by the economist Paul Samuelson. In reality, Ricardo was already very rich, and in June 1815, sold his latest government stock before the result of the battle was known in London, missing half of the rise.
He subsequently purchased Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire, and retired to the country. He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818–19. In August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlington's seat in Parliament for £4,000, as part of the terms of a loan of £25,000. His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer. He held the seat until his death five years later.
Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of landowners in a society. He also was a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society. He grew his wealth dealing in securities during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.
As the Napoleonic Wars waged on, Ricardo developed a disdain for the Corn Laws imposed by the British to encourage exports. Notably, government intervention in the grain trade can be traced as far back as the 1400s; and thereafter trade was controlled, regulated, and taxed. Meanwhile, England developed a capitalist economy involving workers and landlords generating and consuming incomes and capital accumulations that depended entirely on capitalists’ profits, and these key economic elements were under perpetual pressure during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Political reform was needed as agricultural output was struggling to keep pace with population growth. The Corn Laws imposed barriers to imports that increased subsistence/consumption costs and triggered demand for higher wages. Higher wages reduced profits for agricultural producers, and had the immediate effects of reducing capital investments and slowing the growth of a nation's economy. Rising rents, attributed by Ricardo to the Corn Laws, came at the expense of the economic profits of nations. For David Ricardo, free trade was ever the answer; he envisioned Britain as importing agriculture products in exchange for exporting manufactured goods. Eventually, after his death, the interventionist laws were repealed, and his free trade views became public policy in Britain.
Of David Ricardo, his friend John Louis Mallett commented: " … he meets you upon every subject that he has studied with a mind made up, and opinions in the nature of mathematical truths. He spoke of parliamentary reform and ballot as a man who would bring such things about, and destroy the existing system tomorrow, if it were in his power, and without the slightest doubt on the result … It is this very quality of the man’s mind, his entire disregard of experience and practice, which makes me doubtful of his opinions on political economy."
==Death and legacy==
Ten years after retiring and four years after entering Parliament, Ricardo died at 51 from an infection of the middle ear that spread into his brain and induced septicaemia.
He and his wife Priscilla had eight children together including Osman Ricardo (1795–1881, MP for Worcester 1847–1865), David Ricardo (1803–1864, MP for Stroud 1832–1833) and Mortimer Ricardo, who served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire.
Ricardo is buried in an ornate grave in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas in Hardenhuish, now a suburb of Chippenham, Wiltshire. At the time of his death, his assets were estimated at £675,000–£775,000.
He was also an abolitionist, speaking at a meeting of the Court of the East India Company in March 1823, where he said he regarded slavery as a stain on the character of the nation.
===Banking===
Adam Smith argued that free commercial banking, such as the banking system in Scotland which had no central bank when Wealth of Nations was written in 1776, was favourable to economic growth. Writing just a few decades later, Ricardo argued for a central bank, a cause that was taken up by his students, including John Stuart Mill, who was known to favour the laissez-faire policies in every place but banking.
Ricardo wrote the Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank (published posthumously in 1824), which argued for the autonomy of the central bank as the issuer of money.
Ricardo proposed that a ratio of gold and Treasury bills, and a fixed claim (asset) against the government, would secure the central bank's liquidity:
The public, or the Government on behalf of the public, is indebted to the Bank in a sum of money larger than the whole amount of Bank notes in circulation; for the Government not only owes the Bank fifteen million, its original capital, which is lent at 3 per cent. interest, but also many more millions which are advanced on Exchequer bills, on half-pay and pension annuities, and on other securities. It is evident, therefore, that if the Government itself were to be the sole issuer of paper money instead of borrowing it of the Bank, the only difference would be with respect to the interest: the Bank would no longer receive interest and the Government would no longer pay it; but all other classes in the community would be exactly in the same position in which they now stand.
Ricardo was a man of many trades, economically and financially speaking. Ricardo was able to recognize and identify the problem presented through banking within regulations and debauched standards of approval at certain times. Ricardo knew that banks in rural areas as well as the Bank of England had increased note lending and overall lending in 1810. Through this, Ricardo proved subsequent changes in price level through the market was also affected and thus new regulations needed to be made available. Furthermore, Ricardo was able to understand and distinguish the socioeconomic makeup that created and established parameters around different classes within the economy. Ricardo advocated for the productive powers of labour to be held in high concern as the most influential of devices that played a role in the progression of the American Economy along with others. In addition, Ricardo made notable advancements in the concept build involving reactions in the open market when considering banking altercations, stock investments, or other considerable impacting events. Ricardo wanted to establish a firm ground between the bank and the control over monetary policy because there was power within the banking system that Ricardo believed needed to be considered carefully. In 1816, Ricardo said “In the present state of the law, they have the power, without any control whatever, of increasing or reducing the circulation in any degree they may think proper: a power which should neither be entrusted to the State itself, nor to anybody in it; as there can be no security for the uniformity in the value of the currency, when its augmentation or diminution depends solely on the will of the issuers.” Ricardo felt the circulation of money and the decision behind how much is available at any time should not be entrusted to either the State, or any individual. Ricardo argued for the most even distribution possible with the highest control readily available.
===Value theory===
David Ricardo worked to fix the issues he felt were most concerning with Adam Smith’s Labour Theory of Value. Both men worked with the assumption that land, labour, and capital were the three basic factors of production. However, Smith narrowed in on labour as the determinant of value. Ricardo believes that with production having three factors it is impossible for only one of them to determine value on its own. Ricardo illustrates his point by adapting Smith's deer-beaver analogy to show that even when labour is the only factor of production the hardship and tools of the labour will drive a wedge in the relative value of the good. Due to his criticisms of the Labour Theory of Value George Stigler called his theory a "93% labor theory of value".
Ricardo's most famous work is his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). He advanced a labour theory of value:
The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.
Ricardo's note to Section VI:
Mr. Malthus appears to think that it is a part of my doctrine, that the cost and value of a thing be the same;—it is, if he means by cost, "cost of production" including profit.
===Rent===
Ricardo contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as "the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labour." Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land use and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, principally benefited landowners. According to Ricardo, such premium over "real social value" that is reaped due to ownership constitutes value to an individual but is at best a paper monetary return to "society". The portion of such purely individual benefit that accrues to scarce resources Ricardo labels "rent".
In particular, Ricardo postulates that rent is a result of increased populations which results in assets growing scarce and in some cases diminished returns of which were once abundant. Ricardo breaks down this premise by first supposing there are three fields of land - No. 1, 2, 3, - to yield corn, with an equal employment of capital and labour. Initially land No.1 is cultivated and is very productive as measured through the abundant surplus. Over time this abundant surplus becomes diminished as the result of an increase in population, which subsequently creates an increased demand for food. The less desired land, No.2, must now be cultivated and eventually so must land No.3 and so on and so forth. For Ricardo each new cultivated results in diminished surplus as the quality of land fails to yield the equal of that before it. In light of such diminishing surplus landowners see opportunities to charge rent as a means to compensate for the loss of returns on output. In studying rents, for example, Ricardo experiments numerically to determine the relative share of profit accruing to land owner, capital holder and laborers through what Morgan calls 'numerical model farming'. In his numerical and verbal accounts Ricardo tests different improvements in capital, technology or labour to increase the yield of a farm, paralleling actual experiments run by his contemporaries such as "Turnip" Townshend. that is in those industries in which it has the greatest efficiency of production relative to its own alternative uses of resources, rather than industries where it holds a competitive edge compared to rival nations. Ricardo suggested that national industries which were, in fact, mildly profitable and marginally internationally competitive should be jettisoned in favour of the industries that made the best use of limited resources—the assumption being that subsequent economic growth due to better resource use would more than offset any short-run economic dislocation which would result from closing mildly profitable and marginally competitive national industries.
Ricardo attempted to prove theoretically that international trade is always beneficial. Paul Samuelson called the numbers used in Ricardo's example dealing with trade between England and Portugal the "four magic numbers". "In spite of the fact that the Portuguese could produce both cloth and wine with less amount of labour, Ricardo suggested that both countries would benefit from trade with each other".
As for recent extensions of Ricardian models, see Ricardian trade theory extensions.
=== Comparative advantage ===
Ricardo's theory of international trade was reformulated by John Stuart Mill in 1844. The term "comparative advantage" was introduced by J. S. Mill and his contemporaries.
John Stuart Mill started a neoclassical turn of international trade theory, i.e. his formulation was inherited by Alfred Marshall and others, and has both contributed to the resurrection of the anti-Ricardian concept of law of supply and demand, and induced the arrival of neoclassical theory of value.
===New interpretation===
Ricardo's four magic numbers have long been interpreted as comparison of two ratios of labour (or other input in fixed supply) coefficients. This interpretation is now considered as overly simplistic by modern economists. The point was rediscovered by Roy J. Ruffin in 2002 and re-examined and explained in detail in Andrea Maneschi in 2004. The more flexible approach is now known as the new interpretation, despite having been previously mentioned by Piero Sraffa in 1930 and by Kenzo Yukizawa in 1974. The new interpretation affords a totally new reading of Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy and Taxation with regards to trade theory, although it does not change the mathematics of optimal resource allocation.
=== Protectionism ===
Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British "Corn Laws"—imposing tariffs on agricultural products—ensured that less-productive domestic land would be cultivated and rents would be driven up . Thus, profits would be directed toward landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists. Ricardo believed landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than invest. He believed the Corn Laws were leading to the stagnation of the British economy. In 1846, his nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-upon-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws.
Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yields mixed results. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846.
=== Technological change ===
Ricardo was concerned about the impact of technological change on labour in the short-term. In 1821, he wrote that he had become "convinced that the substitution of machinery for human labour, is often very injurious to the interests of the class of labourers", and that "the opinion entertained by the labouring class, that the employment of machinery is frequently detrimental to their interests, is not founded on prejudice and error, but is conformable to the correct principles of political economy."
=== Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade ===
Ricardo himself was the first to recognize that comparative advantage is a domain-specific theory, meaning that it applies only when certain conditions are met. Ricardo noted that the theory applies only in situations where capital is immobile. Regarding his famous example, he wrote:
it would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists [and consumers] of England... [that] the wine and cloth should both be made in Portugal [and that] the capital and labour of England employed in making cloth should be removed to Portugal for that purpose.
Ricardo recognized that applying his theory in situations where capital was mobile would result in offshoring, and thereby economic decline and job loss. To correct for this, he argued that (i) "most men of property [will be] satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seek[ing] a more advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations", and (ii) capital was functionally immobile.
Critics also argue that Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is flawed in that it assumes production is continuous and absolute. In the real world, events outside the realm of human control (e.g. natural disasters) can disrupt production. In this case, specialisation could cripple a country that depends on imports from foreign, naturally disrupted countries. For example, if an industrially based country trades its manufactured goods with an agrarian country in exchange for agricultural products, a natural disaster in the agricultural country (e.g. drought) may cause the industrially based country to starve.
As Joan Robinson pointed out, following the opening of free trade with England, Portugal endured centuries of economic underdevelopment: "the imposition of free trade on Portugal killed off a promising textile industry and left her with a slow-growing export market for wine, while for England, exports of cotton cloth led to accumulation, mechanisation and the whole spiralling growth of the industrial revolution". Robinson argued that Ricardo's example required that economies be in static equilibrium positions with full employment and that there could not be a trade deficit or a trade surplus. These conditions, she wrote, were not relevant to the real world. She also argued that Ricardo's math did not take into account that some countries may be at different levels of development and that this raised the prospect of 'unequal exchange' which might hamper a country's development, as we saw in the case of Portugal.
The development economist Ha-Joon Chang challenges the argument that free trade benefits every country:
Ricardo’s theory is absolutely right—within its narrow confines. His theory correctly says that, accepting their current levels of technology as given, it is better for countries to specialize in things that they are relatively better at. One cannot argue with that. His theory fails when a country wants to acquire more advanced technologies—that is, when it wants to develop its economy. It takes time and experience to absorb new technologies, so technologically backward producers need a period of protection from international competition during this period of learning. Such protection is costly, because the country is giving up the chance to import better and cheaper products. However, it is a price that has to be paid if it wants to develop advanced industries. Ricardo’s theory is, thus seen, for those who accept the status quo but not for those who want to change it.
==Ricardian equivalence==
Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (i.e., whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. This is due to the fact the public saves its excess money to pay for expected future tax increases that will be used to pay off the debt. Ricardo notes that the proposition is theoretically implied in the presence of intertemporal optimisation by rational taxpayers: but that since taxpayers do not act so rationally, the proposition fails to be true in practice. Thus, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence.
==Influence and intellectual legacy==
David Ricardo's ideas had a tremendous influence on later developments in economics. US economists rank Ricardo as the second most influential economic thinker, behind Adam Smith, prior to the twentieth century.
===Ricardian socialists===
Despite his laissez-faire capitalist views, Ricardo's writings fascinated a number of early socialists in the 1820s, who thought his value theory had radical implications. They argued that, in view of labour theory of value, labour produces the entire product, and the profits capitalists get are a result of exploitations of workers. These include Thomas Hodgskin, William Thompson, John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone.
===Georgists===
Georgists believe that rent, in the sense that Ricardo used, belongs to the community as a whole. Henry George was greatly influenced by Ricardo, and often cited him, including in his most famous work, Progress and Poverty from 1879. In the preface to the fourth edition he wrote: "What I have done in this book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and Lasalle; to show that laissez faire (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of many cloud grand and elevating perceptions."
===Neo-Ricardians===
After the rise of the 'neoclassical' school, Ricardo's influence declined temporarily. It was Piero Sraffa, the editor of the Collected Works of David Ricardo and the author of seminal Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, who resurrected Ricardo as the originator of another strand of economic thought, which was effaced with the arrival of the neoclassical school. The new interpretation of Ricardo and Sraffa's criticism against the marginal theory of value gave rise to a new school, now named neo-Ricardian or Sraffian school. Major contributors to this school include Luigi Pasinetti (1930–2023), Pierangelo Garegnani (1930–2011), Ian Steedman (1941–), Geoffrey Harcourt (1931–2021), Heinz Kurz (1946–), Neri Salvadori (1951–), Pier Paolo Saviotti (–) among others. See also Neo-Ricardianism. The Neo-Ricardian school is sometimes seen to be a component of Post-Keynesian economics.
====Neo-Ricardian trade theory====
Inspired by Piero Sraffa, a new strand of trade theory emerged and was named neo-Ricardian trade theory. The main contributors include Ian Steedman and Stanley Metcalfe. They have criticised neoclassical international trade theory, namely the Heckscher–Ohlin model on the basis that the notion of capital as primary factor has no method of measuring it before the determination of profit rate (thus trapped in a logical vicious circle). This was a second round of the Cambridge capital controversy, this time in the field of international trade. Depoortère and Ravix judge that neo-Ricardian contribution failed without giving effective impact on neoclassical trade theory, because it could not offer "a genuine alternative approach from a classical point of view."
====Evolutionary growth theory====
Several distinctive groups have sprung out of the neo-Ricardian school. One is the evolutionary growth theory, developed notably by Luigi Pasinetti, J.S. Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and others.
Pasinetti argued that the demand for any commodity came to stagnate and frequently decline, demand saturation occurs. Introduction of new commodities (goods and services) is necessary to avoid economic stagnation.
====Contemporary theories====
Ricardo's idea was even expanded to the case of continuum of goods by Dornbusch, Fischer, and Samuelson This formulation is employed for example by Matsuyama and others.
Ricardian trade theory ordinarily assumes that the labour is the unique input. This is a deficiency as intermediate goods occupies now a great part of international trade. The situation changed after the appearance of Yoshinori Shiozawa's work of 2007. He has succeeded to incorporate traded input goods in his model. His theory became more useful by the discovery of new definition of regular international values (a couple of wage rates for countries and prices for products), because it is not defined as the normal vector at a facet of world production possibility set, which is the set where all countries enjoy full employment. The new definition is given in Shiozawa and Fujimoto (2018) and in Shiozawa (2020). Bardhan and Jafee found that intermediate inputs occupy 37 to 38% in the imports to the US for the years from 1992 to 1997, whereas the percentage of intrafirm trade grew from 43% in 1992 to 52% in 1997.
====Unequal exchange====
Chris Edward includes Emmanuel's unequal exchange theory among variations of neo-Ricardian trade theory. Arghiri Emmanuel argued that the Third World is poor because of the international exploitation of labour.
The unequal exchange theory of trade has been influential to the (new) dependency theory.
==Publications==
Ricardo's publications included:
The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes (1810), which advocated the adoption of a metallic currency.
Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock (1815), which argued that repealing the Corn Laws would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society.
On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), an analysis that concluded that land rent grows as population increases. It also clearly laid out the theory of comparative advantage, which argued that all nations could benefit from free trade, even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners.
His works and writings were collected in (11 volumes)
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] |
8,471 |
Delphinus
|
{{Infobox constellation
| name = Delphinus
| abbreviation = Del
| genitive = Delphini
| pronounce = Delfínus, genitive
| symbolism = dolphin
| RA = to
| dec= to
The second story tells of the Greek poet Arion of Lesbos (7th century BC), who a dolphin saved. He was a court musician at the palace of Periander, ruler of Corinth. Arion had amassed a fortune during his travels to Sicily and Italy. On his way home from Tarentum, his wealth caused the crew of his ship to conspire against him. Threatened with death, Arion asked to be granted a last wish, which the crew granted: he wanted to sing a dirge. This he did, and while doing so, flung himself into the sea. There, he was rescued by a dolphin which had been charmed by Arion's music. The dolphin carried Arion to the coast of Greece and left.
===In non-Western astronomy===
In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Delphinus are located within the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ).
In Polynesia, two cultures recognized Delphinus as a constellation. In Pukapuka, it was called Te Toloa and in the Tuamotus, it was called Te Uru-o-tiki.
In Hindu astrology, the Delphinus corresponds to the Nakshatra, or lunar mansion, of Dhanishta.
==Characteristics==
Delphinus is bordered by Vulpecula to the north, Sagitta to the northwest, Aquila to the west and southwest, Aquarius to the southeast, Equuleus to the east and Pegasus to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the IAU in 1922, is "Del". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and . 241 light-years from Earth. It is a spectroscopic binary. It is officially named Sualocin. The star has an absolute magnitude of -0.4.
Beta Delphini is officially called Rotanev. The gap between its close binary stars is visible from large amateur telescopes. To the unaided eye, it appears to be a white star of magnitude 3.6.
Delta Delphini is a type A-type star of magnitude 4.43. It is a spectroscopic binary, and both stars are Delta Scuti variables.
Epsilon Delphini, Deneb Dulfim (lit. "tail [of the] Dolphin"), or Aldulfin, is a star of stellar class B6 III. Its magnitude is variable at around 4.03.
Zeta Delphini, an A3Va
Rho Aquilae at magnitude 4.94 Due to its proper motion, it has been in the (round-figure parameter) bounds of the constellation since 1992. It is an A-type main sequence star with a lower metallicity than the Sun.
HR Delphini was a nova that brightened to magnitude 3.5 in December 1967. It took an unusually long time for the nova to reach peak brightness which indicate that it barely satisfied the conditions for a thermonuclear runaway. Another nova by the name V339 Delphini was detected in 2013; it peaked at magnitude 4.3 and was the first nova observed to produce lithium.
Musica, also known by its Flamsteed designation 18 Delphini, is one of the five stars with known planets located in Delphinus. It has a spectral type of G6 III. Arion, the planet, is a very dense and massive planet with a mass at least 10.3 times greater than Jupiter. Arion was part of the first NameExoWorlds contest where the public got the opportunity to suggest names for exoplanets and their host stars.
===Exoplanets===
In 2024 the planet TOI-6883 b was discovered in the constellation Delphinus. It has a 16.249 day orbital period around its host star, a radius 1.08 times Jupiter's, and a mass 4.34 times Jupiter's. It has an orbital period of 7.8458 days, a radius of 0.7 times Jupiter's, and a third of Jupiter's mass. The Neptunian-size planet was discovered from an abnormality in data retrieved from TOI-6883 c.
===Deep-sky objects===
Its rich Milky Way star field means many modestly deep-sky objects. NGC 6891 is a planetary nebula of magnitude 10.5; another is NGC 6905 or the Blue Flash Nebula. The Blue Flash Nebula shows broad emission lines. The central star in NGC 6905 has a spectral type of WO2, meaning it is rich in oxygen.
NGC 6934 is a globular cluster of magnitude 9.75. It is about 52,000 light-years away from the Solar System. It is in the Shapley-Sawyer Concentration Class VIII and is thought to share a common origin with another globular cluster in Boötes. It has an intermediate metallicity for a globular cluster, but as of 2018 it has been poorly studied. At a distance of about 137,000 light-years, the globular cluster NGC 7006 is at the outer reaches of the galaxy. It is also fairly dim at magnitude 11.5 and is in Class I.
|
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"Shakespeare",
"International Astronomical Union",
"planetary nebula"
] |
8,472 |
Disk storage
|
Disk storage (also sometimes called drive storage) is a data storage mechanism based on a rotating disk. The recording employs various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to the disk's surface layer. A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism. Notable types are hard disk drives (HDD), containing one or more non-removable rigid platters; the floppy disk drive (FDD) and its removable floppy disk; and various optical disc drives (ODD) and associated optical disc media.
(The spelling disk and disc are used interchangeably except where trademarks preclude one usage, e.g., the Compact Disc logo. The choice of a particular form is frequently historical, as in IBM's usage of the disk form beginning in 1956 with the "IBM 350 disk storage unit".)
== Background ==
Audio information was originally recorded by analog methods (see Sound recording and reproduction). Similarly the first video disc used an analog recording method. In the music industry, analog recording has been mostly replaced by digital optical technology where the data is recorded in a digital format with optical information.
The first commercial digital disk storage device was the IBM 350 which shipped in 1956 as a part of the IBM 305 RAMAC computing system. The random-access, low-density storage of disks was developed to complement the already used sequential-access, high-density storage provided by tape drives using magnetic tape. Vigorous innovation in disk storage technology, coupled with less vigorous innovation in tape storage, has reduced the difference in acquisition cost per terabyte between disk storage and tape storage; however, the total cost of ownership of data on disk including power and management remains larger than that of tape.
Disk storage is now used in both computer storage and consumer electronic storage, e.g., audio CDs and video discs (VCD, DVD and Blu-ray).
Data on modern disks is stored in fixed length blocks, usually called sectors and varying in length from a few hundred to many thousands of bytes. Gross disk drive capacity is simply the number of disk surfaces times the number of blocks/surface times the number of bytes/block. In certain legacy IBM CKD drives the data was stored on magnetic disks with variable length blocks, called records; record length could vary on and between disks. Capacity decreased as record length decreased due to the necessary gaps between blocks.
== Access methods ==
Digital disk drives are block storage devices. Each disk is divided into logical blocks (collection of sectors). Blocks are addressed using their logical block addresses (LBA). Read from or write to disk happens at the granularity of blocks.
Originally the disk capacity was quite low and has been improved in one of several ways. Improvements in mechanical design and manufacture allowed smaller and more precise heads, meaning that more tracks could be stored on each of the disks. Advancements in data compression methods permitted more information to be stored in each of the individual sectors.
The drive stores data onto cylinders, heads, and sectors. The sector unit is the smallest size of data to be stored in a hard disk drive, and each file will have many sector units assigned to it. The smallest entity in a CD is called a frame, which consists of 33 bytes and contains six complete 16-bit stereo samples (two bytes × two channels × six samples = 24 bytes). The other nine bytes consist of eight CIRC error-correction bytes and one subcode byte used for control and display.
The information is sent from the computer processor to the BIOS into a chip controlling the data transfer. This is then sent out to the hard drive via a multi-wire connector. Once the data is received onto the circuit board of the drive, they are translated and compressed into a format that the individual drive can use to store onto the disk itself. The data is then passed to a chip on the circuit board that controls the access to the drive. The drive is divided into sectors of data stored onto one of the sides of one of the internal disks. An HDD with two disks internally will typically store data on all four surfaces.
The hardware on the drive tells the actuator arm where it is to go for the relevant track, and the compressed information is then sent down to the head, which changes the physical properties, optically or magnetically, for example, of each byte on the drive, thus storing the information. A file is not stored in a linear manner; rather, it is held in the best way for quickest retrieval.
==Rotation speed and track layout==
Mechanically there are two different motions occurring inside the drive. One is the rotation of the disks inside the device. The other is the side-to-side motion of the head across the disk as it moves between tracks.
There are two types of disk rotation methods:
constant linear velocity (used mainly in optical storage) varies the rotational speed of the optical disc depending upon the position of the head, and
constant angular velocity (used in HDDs, standard FDDs, a few optical disc systems, and vinyl audio records) spins the media at one constant speed regardless of where the head is positioned.
Track positioning also follows two different methods across disk storage devices. Storage devices focused on holding computer data, e.g., HDDs, FDDs, and Iomega zip drives, use concentric tracks to store data. During a sequential read or write operation, after the drive accesses all the sectors in a track, it repositions the head(s) to the next track. This will cause a momentary delay in the flow of data between the device and the computer. In contrast, optical audio and video discs use a single spiral track that starts at the innermost point on the disc and flows continuously to the outer edge. When reading or writing data, there is no need to stop the flow of data to switch tracks. This is similar to vinyl records, except vinyl records started at the outer edge and spiraled in toward the center.
== Interfaces ==
The disk drive interface is the mechanism/protocol of communication between the rest of the system and the disk drive itself. Storage devices intended for desktop and mobile computers typically use ATA (PATA) and SATA interfaces. Enterprise systems and high-end storage devices will typically use SCSI, SAS, and FC interfaces in addition to some use of SATA.
== Basic terminology ==
Disk : Generally refers to magnetic media and devices.
Disc : Required by trademarks for certain optical media and devices.
Platter : An individual recording disk. A hard disk drive contains a set of platters. Developments in optical technology have led to multiple recording layers on DVDs.
Spindle : the spinning axle on which the platters are mounted.
Rotation : Platters rotate; two techniques are common:
Constant angular velocity (CAV) keeps the disk spinning at a fixed rate, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). This means the heads cover more distance per unit of time on the outer tracks than on the inner tracks. This method is typical with computer hard drives.
Constant linear velocity (CLV) keeps the distance covered by the heads per unit time fixed. Thus the disk has to slow down as the arm moves to the outer tracks. This method is typical for CD drives.
Track : The circle of recorded data on a single recording surface of a platter.
Sector : A segment of a track
Low level formatting : Establishing the tracks and sectors.
Head : The device that reads and writes the information—magnetic or optical—on the disk surface.
Arm : The mechanical assembly that supports the head as it moves in and out.
Seek time : Time needed to move the head to a new position (specific track).
Rotational latency : Average time, once the arm is on the right track, before a head is over a desired sector.
Data transfer rate : The rate at which user data bits are transferred from or to the medium. Technically, this would more accurately be entitled the "gross" data transfer rate.
|
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] |
8,474 |
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
|
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (; 1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852), was a British Army officer and statesman who was one of the leading military and political figures in Britain during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, twice serving as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He was one of the British commanders who ended the Anglo-Mysore wars by defeating Tipu Sultan in 1799 and among those who ended the Napoleonic Wars in a Coalition victory when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
Wellesley was born into a Protestant Ascendancy family in Dublin, Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. Wellesley was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. Rising to the rank of colonel by 1796, he served in the Flanders campaign before being sent to India, where Wellesley fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, ending the conflict with a victory at Seringapatam in 1799. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.
Rising to prominence as a general officer during the Peninsular War, Wellesley was promoted to field marshal after leading British-led forces to victory against a French army at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's first exile in 1814, he served as the British ambassador to France and was made Duke of Wellington. During the Hundred Days campaign in 1815, Wellington commanded another British-led army which, together with a Prussian army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
After the end of his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a Tory from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. Wellington oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, while he opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued to be one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the Forces until his death in 1852.
== Early life ==
=== Family ===
Wellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, beginning life as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne, Countess of Mornington, and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father was himself the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington, and had a short career in politics representing the constituency of Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Mornington was also an accomplished composer, and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named. Through Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, Wellesley was a descendant of Edward I.
Wellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley, later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, and Baron Maryborough.
=== Birth date and place ===
The exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known, but biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence, which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St. Peter's Church on Aungier Street in Dublin. However, Ernest Lloyd states "registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769".
Wellesley may have been born at his parents' townhouse, Mornington House at 6 Merrion Street (the address later became known as 24 Upper Merrion Street),
His family's home at Dangan Castle, Dangan near Summerhill, County Meath has also been purported to have been his birthplace. In his obituary, published in The Times in 1852, it was reported that Dangan was unanimously believed to have been the place of his birth, though suggested it was unlikely, but not impossible, that the family had travelled to Dublin for his baptism. A pillar was erected in his honour near Dangan in 1817.
The place of his birth has been much disputed following his death, with Sir J.B. Burke writing the following in 1873:
"Isn't it remarkable that until recently all the old memoirs of the Duke of Wellington seemed to infer that County Meath was the place of birth. Nowadays the theory that he was born in Dublin is generally accepted but by no means proved".
Other places that have been put forward as the location of his birth include a coach between Meath and Dublin, the Dublin packet boat and the Wellesley townhouse in Trim, County Meath.
=== Childhood ===
Wellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin, Mornington House, and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.
He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur."
In 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement.
== Early military career ==
===Ireland===
Despite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that "I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt".
On 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title "Freeman" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.
On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, 2nd Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd.
===Netherlands===
In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellesley, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment.
Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that "At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson".
Returning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.
===India===
Arriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India.
In 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to "Wellesley"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling.
====Fourth Anglo-Mysore War====
As part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,
At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.
The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...". He continued:
The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.
Under the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August.
After extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat.
====Seringapatam====
Immediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they re-attacked successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved "never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight".
Lewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account:
One of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.
A few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged.
After battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton.
Wellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea.
He was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery.
====Dhoondiah Waugh insurgency====
In 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. Having escaped after the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region.
Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it.
Given independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery.
Throughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with "trifling loss". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had "taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash; his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son.
====Second Anglo-Maratha War====
In September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
When he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.
====Assaye, Argaum and Gawilghur====
Splitting his army into two forces to pursue and locate the main Marathas army (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller), Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately.
On 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre.
An officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: "The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, till our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ..." With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped "I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye and not Waterloo was the best battle he ever fought.
Despite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi, forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon.
Military historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style).
====Leaving India====
Wellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking "I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time, equivalent to £ in ), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on . Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile.
==Return to Britain==
=== Meeting Nelson ===
In September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found "almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, "I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later.
Wellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe.
He then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation. Wellesley was described as having been "handsome, very brown, quite bald and a hooked nose".
=== War against Denmark-Norway ===
Wellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender.
By 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar.
==Peninsular War==
=== 1808–1809 ===
Ready for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands:
Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley.
Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared.
Simultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809.
Although overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal.
Wellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto.
With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat.
The next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal.
Following his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley.
=== 1810–1812 ===
In 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign.
In 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal.
In 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.
His army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812.
Wellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties.
The French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack.
=== 1813–1814 ===
In 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington wrote in a now famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, "We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers".
Although later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, "the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are".
After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city.
Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County.
He received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of "Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo" and "Grandee of Spain") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz.
His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular.
In late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated:
He was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna.
On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order.
==Hundred Days==
===Facing Napoleon===
On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.
Napoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia.
The French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.
===Battle of Waterloo===
The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses.
Shortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone.
At about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village.
The French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks.
Meanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard.
The French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke.
Further to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke.
The last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: "La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.
After the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.
===Controversy===
Much historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road.
The campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, "The Waterloo Dispatch".) This was published as the 1842 "Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany.
===Army of occupation in Paris===
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Wellington was appointed commander of the multi-national army of occupation based in Paris. The army consisted of troops from the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia, along with contributions from five smaller European states. Although the various contingents were administered by their own commanders, they were all subordinated to Wellington, who was also responsible for liaison with the French administration. The role of the army was to prevent a resurgence of French aggression and to allow the restored King Louis XVIII to consolidate his control over the country. The army of occupation was never required to intervene militarily and was dissolved in 1818, after which Wellington returned to Britain. It was his last active military command.
==Prime Minister==
=== First term ===
Wellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827.
Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in January 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister. with the additional ceremonial title, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.
=== Catholic emancipation ===
Ireland presented his first major challenge. In July 1828, William Vesey Fitzgerald, President of the Board of Trade, was defeated in a County Clare by-election by the champion of Catholic Emancipation, Daniel O'Connell. The electoral upset dramatised the issue of the Oath of Supremacy – the sacramental test that effectively barred Roman Catholics from Parliament (denying O'Connell his seat) and from higher offices of the judiciary and state. However, in the willingness of Ireland's enfranchised forty-shilling freeholders to defy their landlords and vote for emancipation candidates, Wellington recognised a "vast demonstration of populist political organisation, and clerical power" more challenging than a separatist conspiracy.
With Peel, who had served as Chief Secretary for Ireland, Wellington was persuaded of the need for a new Oath of Allegiance unexceptional to Catholics. In the face of stiff opposition from the King and in the Lords, he forced the issue by threatening to resign, which would have cleared the way for a new Whig majority with designs not only for emancipation but also for parliamentary reform. The King and his brother, the Duke of Cumberland, did seek to put together a ministry united against Catholic emancipation. But recognising that such a government could not command a majority in the Commons, they soon abandoned the attempt.
For Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 (passed with Whig support) O'Connell accorded Wellington little credit. The Duke was no Irish patriot: "To be sure he was born in Ireland", the "Emancipator" famously remarked, "but to be born in a stable does not make a man a horse". This quip was widely reported and frequently attributed, mistakenly, to Wellington himself.
Wellington's government did exact a significant price for emancipation.The Relief Act was accompanied by a restriction of the Irish franchise. The property threshold for the county vote was raised five-fold to the British ten-pound standard, disenfranchising O'Connell's Forty Shilling Freeholders, and with them the greater part of the Irish electorate.
=== Duel with Winchilsea ===
The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of "an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology.
The nickname "Iron Duke" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.
=== Resignation and aftermath ===
Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830.
The Whigs introduced a Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Bill was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the king threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life".
Wellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England "is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character." The bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.
===Government===
Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill.
Wellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected representative peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled.
== Later life ==
=== Family ===
Wellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin, on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House, and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.
===Retirement===
Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting "Who? Who?" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after "half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House.
From 1834 until his death in 1852, Wellington served as Chancellor of the University of Oxford.
===Death and funeral===
Wellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83.
Although in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush. Queen Victoria wrote: "He was the pride and the bon génie, as it were, of this country! He was the GREATEST man this country ever produced, and the most devoted and loyal subject, and the staunchest supporter the Crown ever had."
He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: "Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood", and "Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral.
Wellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the "Great Banner" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria.
Most of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral.
After his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.
Owing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title "33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.
==Personality==
Wellington always rose early; he "couldn't bear to lie awake in bed", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march "at daybreak" and dine on "cold meat" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on "cold meat and bread", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day).
Álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed "By God, that will do!" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers.
Military historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, "I am going to dine with Wellington tonight", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. "Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name," Wellington said. "My Lord," replied the officer, "we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?"
While known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as "too nearly an expression of opinion", Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches. In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the "scum of the earth", can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss.
Wellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.)
Following an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance, he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, a botched operation on his left ear led to permanent deafness on that side and some contemporaries suggested that he never fully recovered his health.
Wellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale, offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses, Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, "Publish and be damned". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail.
He was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was "Sparrowhawks, ma'am".
Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture.
==Titles and tributes==
===Nicknames===
The nickname "Iron Duke" relates to Wellington's political, rather than to his military, career. Its use is often disparaging. It is possible the term became more commonly used after 1832 when Wellington had metal shutters installed at Apsley House to prevent rioters breaking the windows. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45.
In popular ballads of the day Wellington was called "Nosey" or "Old Nosey". More complimentary sobriquets, including "The Beau" and "Beau Douro", referenced his noted dress sense. Spanish troops called him "The Eagle", while Portuguese troops called him "Douro Douro" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809.
Napoleon dismissed his opponent as a "Sepoy General", a reference to Wellington's service in India. The name was used in the French newspaper as a means of propaganda. His allies were more enthusiastic; Tsar Alexander I of Russia calling him , the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase "the world's conqueror" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington", referring to him as "the great World-victor's victor". Similar tags included "Europe's Liberator" and "Saviour of the Nations".
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"Brussels",
"Cork Harbour",
"Penal Laws against Irish Catholics",
"lieutenant colonel",
"St. Peter's Church, Aungier Street, Dublin",
"Surveyor-General of the Ordnance (Ireland)",
"Azim-ud-Daula",
"Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington",
"Seventh Coalition",
"George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie",
"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland",
"George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen",
"David Baird, 1st Baronet",
"Duchess of Richmond's ball",
"George Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea",
"Protestant Ascendancy",
"Ensign (rank)",
"Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition",
"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)",
"Tories (political faction)",
"St. Paul's Cathedral",
"Hessian boot",
"Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey",
"Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher",
"Prussia",
"73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot",
"Ludwig van Beethoven",
"Siege of Almeida (1811)",
"Hyde Park, London",
"Merrion Hotel",
"Godavari",
"Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston",
"Richard Holmes (military historian)",
"Dhoondiah Waugh",
"Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool",
"Marquess of Wellington",
"power vacuum",
"monsoon",
"Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington",
"Francisco Goya",
"Major (rank)",
"Oath of Supremacy",
"Auguste de Marmont",
"Charles Cornwallis Chesney",
"Seringapatam Medal",
"Henry Grattan",
"Charles Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay",
"skirmisher",
"Patan district",
"Second Battle of Porto",
"General (United Kingdom)",
"Almaraz",
"David Hendrik Chassé"
] |
8,476 |
Disk operating system
|
A disk operating system (DOS) is a computer operating system that resides on and can use a disk storage device, such as a floppy disk, hard disk drive, or optical disc. A disk operating system provides a file system for organizing, reading, and writing files on the storage disk, and a means for loading and running programs stored on that disk. Strictly speaking, this definition does not include any other functionality, so it does not apply to more complex OSes, such as Microsoft Windows, and is more appropriately used only for older generations of operating systems.
Disk operating systems for mainframes, minicomputers, microprocessors, and home computers are usually loaded from the disks as part of the boot process.
==History==
Early computers predate disk drives, floppy disks, or modern flash storage. Early storage devices such as delay lines, core memories, punched cards, punched tape, magnetic tape, and magnetic drums were used instead. Early microcomputers and home computers used paper tape, audio cassette tape (such as Kansas City standard), or no permanent storage at all. Without permanent storage, program and data entry is done at front panel switches directly into memory or through a computer terminal or keyboard, sometimes controlled by a BASIC interpreter in ROM. When power is turned off, any information is lost.
In the early 1960s, as disk drives became larger and more affordable, various mainframe and minicomputer vendors introduced disk operating systems and modified existing operating systems to use disks.
Hard disks and floppy disk drives require software to manage rapid access to block storage of sequential and other data. For most microcomputers, a disk drive of any kind was an optional peripheral. Systems could be used with a tape drive or booted without a storage device at all. The disk operating system component of the operating system was only needed when a disk drive was used.
By the time IBM announced the System/360 mainframes, the concept of a disk operating system was well established. Although IBM did offer Basic Programming Support (BPS/360) and TOS/360 for small systems, they were out of the mainstream and most customers used either DOS/360 or OS/360.
Most home and personal computers of the late 1970s and 1980s used a disk operating system, most often with "DOS" in the name and simply referred to as "DOS" within their respective communities: CBM DOS for Commodore 8-bit systems, Atari DOS for the Atari 8-bit computers, TRS-DOS for the TRS-80, Apple DOS and ProDOS for the Apple II, and MS-DOS for IBM PC compatibles. CP/M is also a disk operating system, despite not having the "DOS" acronym in the name.
A disk operating system is usually loaded from a disk, but there are exceptions, such as Commodore's disk drives for the Commodore 64 and VIC-20 which contain the DOS in ROM. AmigaDOS also mostly resides in ROM, as a part of a Kickstart firmware (a few select versions are also loaded from disk).
==OS extensions==
Commodore DOS is on 8-bit Commodore computers such as the Commodore 64. Unlike most other DOS systems, it is integrated into the disk drives, not loaded into the computer's own memory.
Atari DOS is used by the Atari 8-bit computers. The Atari OS only offers low-level disk-access, so an extra layer called DOS can be booted from a floppy for higher level functions such as filesystems. Third-party replacements for Atari DOS include DOS XL, SpartaDOS, MyDOS, TurboDOS, and Top-DOS.
MSX-DOS is for the MSX computer standard. The initial version, released in 1984, is MS-DOS 1.0 ported to Z80. In 1988, version 2 has facilities such as subdirectories, memory management, and environment strings. The MSX-DOS kernel resides in ROM (built-in on the disk controller) so basic file access capacity is available even without the command interpreter, by using BASIC extended commands.
Disc Filing System (DFS) is an optional component for the Acorn BBC Micro, as a kit with a disk controller chip, a ROM chip, and a few logic chips, to be installed inside the computer.
Advanced Disc Filing System (ADFS) is a successor to Acorn's DFS.
AMSDOS is for the Amstrad CPC computers.
GDOS and G+DOS is for the +D and DISCiPLE disk interfaces for the ZX Spectrum.
==Main OSes==
Some disk operating systems are the operating systems for the entire computer system.
The Burroughs (now Unisys) Master Control Program (MCP) for the B5000 originally runs from a drum, but starting with the B5500 it runs from a disk. It is the basis for the MCP on the B6500, B7500, and successors.
The SIPROS, Chippewa Operating System (COS), SCOPE, MACE and KRONOS operating systems on the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6000 series and 7600 are all disk operating systems. KRONOS became NOS and SCOPE became NOS/BE.
The GECOS operating system for the GE (later Honeywell and Groupe Bull) 600 family of mainframe computers (it later became GCOS).
The IBM Basic Operating System/360 (BOS/360), Disk Operating System/360 (DOS/360) and Operating System/360 (OS/360) are standard for all but the smallest System/360 installations; the 360/67 also has Control Program-67 /Cambridge Monitor System (CP-67/CMS) and Time Sharing System/360 (TSS/360). BOS is gone, CP-67/CMS has evolved into z/VM, DOS has evolved into z/VSE, OS has evolved into z/OS and TSS/360 evolved into TSS/370 PRPQ, which is now gone.
The EXEC II operating system for the UNIVAC 1107 and 1108, and the EXEC 8 operating system for the 1108, which has evolved into OS 2200 for the Unisys ClearPath Dorado Series.
The DOS-11 operating system for DEC PDP-11 minicomputers.
CP/M is a disk operating system, as the main or alternate operating system for numerous microcomputers of the 1970s and 1980s.
Apple DOS is the primary operating system for the Apple II, from 1979 with the introduction of the floppy disk drive, until 1983 when it was replaced by ProDOS.
TRSDOS is the operating system for the TRS-80 line of computers from Tandy.
MS-DOS for IBM PC compatibles with Intel x86 CPUs. 86-DOS was modeled on CP/M, and then was adapted as the basis for Microsoft's MS-DOS. It was rebranded by IBM as PC DOS until 1993. Various compatible systems were later produced by different organizations, starting with DR-DOS in 1988.
|
[
"360/67",
"Chippewa Operating System",
"NOS (operating system)",
"Burroughs MCP",
"Burroughs large systems",
"Kansas City standard",
"IBM",
"x86",
"IBM PC",
"UNIVAC 1107",
"TSS/360",
"86-DOS",
"MSX-DOS",
"EXEC 8",
"TRSDOS",
"DOS/360 and successors",
"Microsoft Windows",
"DEC BATCH-11/DOS-11",
"Commodore 1541",
"UNIVAC 1100/2200 series",
"Commodore International",
"punched tape",
"Apple ProDOS",
"Apple II",
"Live CD",
"TRS-DOS",
"VIC-20",
"CP-67/CMS",
"BASIC",
"floppy disk drive",
"DR-DOS",
"magnetic tape",
"home computer",
"TurboDOS",
"AMSDOS",
"Advanced Disc Filing System",
"IBM System/360",
"BBC Micro",
"magnetic drum",
"Amstrad CPC",
"CDC Kronos",
"audio cassette tape",
"ZX Spectrum",
"Burroughs Corporation",
"CDC 7600",
"OS/360 and successors",
"disk storage",
"floppy disk",
"AmigaDOS",
"Hard disk",
"IBM PC DOS",
"Microsoft",
"Zilog Z80",
"Atari 8-bit computers",
"computer file",
"mainframe computer",
"CDC 6000 series",
"IBM Basic Programming Support",
"BOS/360",
"Commodore DOS",
"minicomputer",
"Commodore 64",
"System/360",
"DISCiPLE",
"hard disk drive",
"PDP-11",
"GE",
"Apple DOS",
"CP/M",
"z/VM",
"Intel",
"front panel",
"Top-DOS",
"flash storage",
"MS-DOS",
"CDC SCOPE",
"MyDOS",
"Groupe Bull",
"Kickstart (Amiga)",
"read-only memory",
"z/OS",
"punched card",
"ProDOS",
"Unisys",
"GECOS",
"Atari DOS",
"Digital Equipment Corporation",
"z/VSE",
"+D",
"GE-600 series",
"UNIVAC EXEC II",
"Control Data Corporation",
"Disc Filing System",
"TRS-80",
"operating system",
"Booting",
"Analog delay line",
"core memories",
"UNIVAC 1108",
"SpartaDOS X",
"microprocessor",
"file system",
"MSX",
"Honeywell",
"DOS XL",
"optical disc",
"computer terminal"
] |
8,477 |
Dual
|
Dual or Duals may refer to:
==Paired/two things==
Dual (mathematics), a notion of paired concepts that mirror one another
Dual (category theory), a formalization of mathematical duality
see more cases in :Category:Duality theories
Dual number, a number system used in automatic differentiation
Dual (grammatical number), a grammatical category used in some languages
Dual county, a Gaelic games county which competes in both Gaelic football and hurling
Dual diagnosis, a psychiatric diagnosis of co-occurrence of substance abuse and a mental problem
Dual fertilization, simultaneous application of a P-type and N-type fertilizer
Dual impedance, electrical circuits that are the dual of each other
Dual SIM cellphone supporting use of two SIMs
Aerochute International Dual a two-seat Australian powered parachute design
==Acronyms and other uses==
Dual (brand), a manufacturer of Hifi equipment
DUAL (cognitive architecture), an artificial intelligence design model
DUAL algorithm, or diffusing update algorithm, used to update Internet protocol routing tables
Dual language, alternative spelling of the Australian Aboriginal Dhuwal language
DUAL table, a special one-row and one-column database table
Dual-Ghia, US-brand of luxury-car of the late 1950s
== Media ==
Dual (2008 film), a 2008 western drama film
Dual (2022 film), a 2022 science fiction thriller film
"Dual" (Heroes), an episode of Heroes
Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure, an anime series
Dual (album), an album of traditional Scottish and Irish music recorded by Éamonn Doorley, Muireann Nic Amhlaoibh, Julie Fowlis and Ross Martin, released 2008
Dual (EP), a 2013 EP by Sampha
Duals, an album by U2
The Duals, American duo
|
[
"Dhuwal language",
"Dual (album)",
"Dual-Ghia",
"Dual (category theory)",
"Dual county",
"Category:Duality theories",
"Dual (Heroes)",
"Dual (2022 film)",
"Dual diagnosis",
"Duel (disambiguation)",
"The Duals",
"Double (disambiguation)",
"Dual (brand)",
"automatic differentiation",
"DUAL table",
"Dual SIM",
"Duo (disambiguation)",
"Dual (mathematics)",
"fertilizer",
"Dual (2008 film)",
"Duality (disambiguation)",
"Duals",
"Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure",
"DUAL algorithm",
"Twin (disambiguation)",
"Dual (EP)",
"Aerochute International Dual",
"Dual (grammatical number)",
"DUAL (cognitive architecture)",
"Pair (disambiguation)",
"Dual impedance",
"Dual number"
] |
8,478 |
Doublespeak
|
Doublespeak is language that deliberately obscures, disguises, distorts, or reverses the meaning of words. Doublespeak may take the form of euphemisms (e.g., "downsizing" for layoffs and "servicing the target" for bombing), in which case it is primarily meant to make the truth sound more palatable. It may also refer to intentional ambiguity in language or to actual inversions of meaning. In such cases, doublespeak disguises the nature of the truth.
Doublespeak is most closely associated with political language used by large entities such as corporations and governments.
== Origins and concepts ==
The term doublespeak derives from two concepts in George Orwell's novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, "doublethink" and "Newspeak", despite the term itself not being used in the novel. Another version of the term, doubletalk, also referring to intentionally ambiguous speech, did exist at the time Orwell wrote his book, but the usage of doublespeak, as well as of "doubletalk", in the sense of emphasizing ambiguity, clearly predates the publication of the novel. Parallels have also been drawn between doublespeak and Orwell's classic essay, Politics and the English Language, which discusses linguistic distortion for purposes related to politics. In the essay, he observes that political language often serves to distort and obscure reality. Orwell's description of political speech is extremely similar to the popular definition of the term, doublespeak:
The writer Edward S. Herman cited what he saw as examples of doublespeak and doublethink in modern society. Herman describes in his book, Beyond Hypocrisy, the principal characteristics of doublespeak:
== Examples ==
=== In politics ===
Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky comment in their book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media that Orwellian doublespeak is an important component of the manipulation of the English language in American media, through a process called dichotomization, a component of media propaganda involving "deeply embedded double standards in the reporting of news." For example, the use of state funds by the poor and financially needy is commonly referred to as "social welfare" or "handouts," which the "coddled" poor "take advantage of". These terms, however, are not as often applied to other beneficiaries of government spending such as military spending. The bellicose language used interchangeably with calls for peace towards Armenia by Azerbaijani president Aliyev after the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War were described as doublespeak in media.
=== In advertising ===
Advertisers can use doublespeak to mask their commercial intent from users, as users' defenses against advertising become more entrenched. Some are attempting to counter this technique with a number of systems offering diverse views and information to highlight the manipulative and dishonest methods that advertisers employ.
According to Jacques Ellul, "the aim is not to even modify people’s ideas on a given subject, rather, it is to achieve conformity in the way that people act." He demonstrates this view by offering an example from drug advertising. Use of doublespeak in advertisements resulted in aspirin production rates rising by almost 50 percent from over 23 million pounds in 1960 to over 35 million pounds in 1970.
===In comedy===
Doublespeak, particularly when exaggerated, can be used as a device in satirical comedy and social commentary to ironically parody political or bureaucratic establishments' intent on obfuscation or prevarication. The television series Yes Minister is notable for its use of this device. Oscar Wilde was an early proponent of this device and a significant influence on Orwell.
===Intensify/downplay pattern===
This pattern was formulated by Hugh Rank and is a simple tool designed to teach some basic patterns of persuasion used in political propaganda and commercial advertising. The function of the intensify/downplay pattern is not to dictate what should be discussed but to encourage coherent thought and systematic organization. The pattern works in two ways: intensifying and downplaying. All people intensify, and this is done via repetition, association and composition. Downplaying is commonly done via omission, diversion and confusion as they communicate in words, gestures, numbers, et cetera. Individuals can better cope with organized persuasion by recognizing the common ways whereby communication is intensified or downplayed, so as to counter doublespeak.
===In social media===
In 2022 and 2023, it was widely reported that social media users were using a form of doublespeak – sometimes called "algospeak" – to subvert content moderation on platforms such as TikTok. Examples include using the word "unalive" instead of "dead" or "kill", or using "leg booty" instead of LGBT, which users believed would prevent moderation algorithms from banning or shadow banning their accounts.
== Doublespeak Award ==
Doublespeak is often used by politicians to advance their agenda. The Doublespeak Award is an "ironic tribute to public speakers who have perpetuated language that is grossly deceptive, evasive, euphemistic, confusing, or self-centered." It has been issued by the US National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) since 1974. The recipients of the Doublespeak Award are usually politicians, national administration or departments. An example of this is the United States Department of Defense, which won the award three times, in 1991, 1993, and 2001. For the 1991 award, the United States Department of Defense "swept the first six places in the Doublespeak top ten" for using euphemisms like "servicing the target" (bombing) and "force packages" (warplanes). Among the other phrases in contention were "difficult exercise in labor relations", meaning a strike, and "meaningful downturn in aggregate output", an attempt to avoid saying the word "recession".
===Hugh Rank===
Hugh Rank helped form the Doublespeak committee in 1971 and was its first chairman. Under his editorship, the committee produced a book called Language and Public Policy (1974), with the aim of informing readers of the extensive scope of doublespeak being used to deliberately mislead and deceive the audience. He highlighted the deliberate public misuses of language and provided strategies for countering doublespeak by focusing on educating people in the English language so as to help them identify when doublespeak is being put into play. He was also the founder of the Intensify/Downplay pattern that has been widely used to identify instances of doublespeak being used.
== Education against doublespeak ==
Charles Weingartner, one of the founding members of the NCTE committee on Public Doublespeak mentioned: "people do not know enough about the subject (the reality) to recognize that the language being used conceals, distorts, misleads. Teachers of English should teach our students that words are not things, but verbal tokens or signs of things that should finally be carried back to the things that they stand for to be verified."
|
[
"Doublespeak Award",
"Edward S. Herman",
"Irony",
"Noam Chomsky",
"Code word (figure of speech)",
"Rutgers University-Camden",
"Azerbaijan",
"Double-talk",
"Cant (language)",
"Aesopian language",
"George Orwell",
"Yes Minister",
"TikTok",
"social welfare",
"Manufacturing Consent",
"Double entendre",
"Armenia",
"William D. Lutz",
"United States",
"Ilham Aliyev",
"Catachresis",
"Politics and the English Language",
"Double bind",
"Nineteen Eighty-Four",
"Meaning (linguistics)",
"layoff",
"Obfuscation",
"Euphemism",
"social media",
"Dog-whistle politics",
"bombing",
"handout",
"ambiguity",
"Newspeak",
"Oscar Wilde",
"National Council of Teachers of English",
"Cognitive dissonance",
"content moderation",
"Corporate lingo",
"C-SPAN",
"Jacques Ellul",
"LGBT",
"Obscurantism",
"doublethink",
"Polite fiction",
"euphemism",
"obfuscation",
"Second Nagorno-Karabakh War",
"Business speak",
"algospeak",
"shadow banning"
] |
8,481 |
Dressed to Kill (1980 film)
|
Dressed to Kill is a 1980 American erotic psychological thriller film written and directed by Brian De Palma, and starring Michael Caine, Angie Dickinson and Nancy Allen. It depicts the events leading up to the brutal murder of a New York City housewife (Dickinson) before following a prostitute (Allen) who witnesses the crime, and her attempts to solve it with the help of the victim's son (Keith Gordon). It contains several direct references to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film Psycho.
Released in July 1980, Dressed to Kill was a box office success in the United States, grossing over $30 million. It received largely favorable reviews, and critic David Denby of New York magazine proclaimed it "the first great American movie of the '80s". Dickinson won the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance. Allen received both a Golden Globe Award nomination for New Star of the Year, as well as an inaugural first-year Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress.
==Plot==
Sexually frustrated housewife Kate Miller is attending therapy sessions with New York City psychiatrist Dr. Robert Elliott. During an appointment, Kate attempts to seduce him, but Elliott rejects her advances, stating his unwillingness to jeopardize his happy marriage. Kate has planned to spend the day with her teenage son Peter, an inventor, but he has to cancel as he has reached a critical point in his research for his entry to the city's science fair. Thus, Kate goes alone to the Metropolitan Museum of Art where she unexpectedly flirts with a mysterious stranger. Kate and the stranger stalk each other through the museum until they finally wind up outside, where Kate joins him in a taxi, where he pleasures her. They go to his apartment and have sex.
Hours later, Kate awakens and decides to discreetly leave while the man, Warren Lockman, is asleep. Kate sits at his desk to leave him a note and finds a document from the Health Department indicating that Warren has contracted both syphilis and gonorrhea. Shocked, she leaves the apartment, but having hastily forgotten her wedding ring on the nightstand, she returns to retrieve it. The elevator doors open on the figure of a tall, blonde woman in dark sunglasses wielding a straight razor, who violently slashes Kate to death in the elevator. Upon discovering the body, Liz Blake, a high-priced call girl, notices the killer in the elevator's convex mirror, and subsequently becomes both the prime suspect and the killer's next target.
Dr. Elliott receives a bizarre message on his answering machine from "Bobbi", a transgender patient. Bobbi taunts the psychiatrist for ending their therapy sessions, apparently because Elliott refuses to sign the necessary papers for Bobbi to undergo sex reassignment surgery. Elliott tries to convince Dr. Levy, the patient's new doctor, that Bobbi is endangering herself and others.
Police Detective Marino doubts Liz's story, partly because of her profession, so Liz partners with a revenge-minded Peter to find the killer, using a series of his homemade listening devices and time-lapse cameras to track patients leaving Elliott's office. They catch Bobbi on camera, and soon a tall blonde in sunglasses starts stalking Liz, subsequently making several attempts on her life. Peter thwarts one of them in the New York City Subway by spraying Bobbi with homemade Mace.
The pair scheme to learn Bobbi's birth name by infiltrating Dr. Elliott's office. Liz baits the therapist by stripping to lingerie and flirting with him, distracting him long enough to briefly exit and look through his appointment book. Peter is watching through the window when a blonde pulls him away. When Liz returns, a razor-wielding blonde confronts her; the blonde outside shoots and wounds the blonde inside, knocking the wig off and revealing the razor-wielding blonde as Dr. Elliott/Bobbi. The blonde who shot Bobbi is actually a female police officer, revealing herself to be the blonde who has been trailing Liz.
Elliott is arrested and committed to a mental institution. Dr. Levy later explains to Liz that Elliott wanted to be a woman, but his male side would not allow him to proceed with the operation. Whenever a woman sexually aroused Elliott, Bobbi, representing the unstable, female side of the doctor's personality, became threatened to the point that she finally became murderous. When Dr. Levy realized this through his last conversation with Elliott, he called the police, who went to work and eventually apprehended Elliott.
Elliott escapes from the asylum after strangling a nurse, stalks Liz to Peter's house, and slashes her throat. She wakes up screaming and Peter rushes to her side, letting her realize it was merely a nightmare.
==Cast==
==Production==
=== Casting ===
De Palma originally wanted Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann to play Kate Miller, but she declined because of the violence. He also approached Jill Clayburgh, who was unavailable, and the role then went to Angie Dickinson. Sean Connery was offered the role of Robert Elliott and was enthusiastic about it, but declined because of previous commitments. Connery later worked with De Palma on the 1987 Oscar-winning adaptation of The Untouchables.
=== Filming ===
Dressed to Kill was shot primarily in New York City, though the art gallery scene was filmed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The film was shot between October 1979 and January 1980.
The naked body in the opening scene, taking place in a shower, was not that of Angie Dickinson, but of 1977 Penthouse Pet of the Year model Victoria Lynn Johnson. De Palma has referred to the elevator killing as the best murder scene he has ever done.
=== Censorship ===
Two versions of the film exist in North America, an R-rated version and an unrated version. The unrated version is around 30 seconds longer and shows more pubic hair in the shower scene, more blood in the elevator scene (including a close-up shot of the killer slitting Kate's throat), and more explicit dialogue from Liz during the scene in Elliott's office. These scenes were trimmed when the MPAA originally gave the film an X rating.
== Release ==
===Box office===
Dressed to Kill premiered in Los Angeles and New York City on July 25, 1980. It grossed a total of $31.9 million at the U.S. box office, and was the 21st highest-grossing film of the year. In September 2011, MGM released both R-rated and unrated versions on DVD and Blu-ray.
The Criterion Collection released separate deluxe Blu-ray and DVD editions of the film on September 8, 2015. On October 25, 2022, Kino Lorber issued the film for the first time in 4K UHD Blu-ray format.
==Reception==
===Critical response===
Dressed to Kill holds a 83% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10. The consensus states, "With arresting visuals and an engrossingly lurid mystery, Dressed to Kill stylishly encapsulates writer-director Brian De Palma's signature strengths." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film three stars out of four, stating "the museum sequence is brilliant" and adding: "Dressed to Kill is an exercise in style, not narrative; it would rather look and feel like a thriller than make sense, but DePalma has so much fun with the conventions of the thriller that we forgive him and go along." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune also gave it three stars out of four, writing that there were scenes "that are as exciting and as stylish as any ever put on film. Unfortunately, a good chunk of the film is a whodunit, and its mystery is so easy to solve that we merely end up watching the film's visual pyrotechnics at a distance, never getting all that involved." Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "witty, romantic," and "very funny, which helps to defuse the effect of the graphically photographed violence. In addition, the film is, in its own inside-out way, peculiarly moral." His review added that "The performers are excellent, especially Miss Dickinson." Variety declared "Despite some major structural weaknesses, the cannily manipulated combination of mystery, gore and kinky sex adds up to a slick commercial package that stands to draw some rich blood money." David Denby of New York magazine proclaimed the film "the first great American movie of the '80s."
Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times wrote "The brilliance of Dressed to Kill is apparent within seconds of its opening gliding shot; it is a sustained work of terror—elegant, sensual, erotic, bloody, a directorial tour de force." Pauline Kael of The New Yorker stated of De Palma that "his timing is so great that when he wants you to feel something he gets you every time. His thriller technique, constantly refined, has become insidious, jewelled. It's hardly possible to find a point at which you could tear yourself away from this picture." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote, "This elegant new murder thriller promises to revive the lagging summer box office and enhance De Palma's reputation as the most exciting and distinctive manipulator of suspense since Alfred Hitchcock." In his movie guide, Leonard Maltin gave the film stars out of four, calling it a "High-tension melodrama", and stating "De Palma works on viewers' emotions, not logic, and maintains a fever pitch from start to finish." He also praised Pino Donaggio's "chilling music score."
John Simon, of the National Review, after taking note of the two-page advertisements full of superlatives in The New York Times, wrote "What Dressed to Kill dispenses liberally, however, is sophomoric soft-core pornography, vulgar manipulation of the emotions for mere sensation, salacious but inept dialogue that is a cross between comic-strip Freudianism and sniggering double entendres, and a plot line so full of holes to be at best a dotted line".
===Controversy===
The film led to controversy and protests upon its release. When the film was screened, Iowa City National Organization for Women and members of other feminist organizations picketed the film as it was shown on the University of Iowa campus, distributing leaflets against the film, condemning what they saw as a depiction of violence against women as entertainment. During the film's initial release, the activist group Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media distributed a leaflet, arguing that "The distorted image of a psychotic male transvestite makes all sexual minorities appear sick and dangerous." Numerous critics have since placed Dressed to Kill in a lineage of slasher movies that perpetuate the transphobic myth that trans people are mentally ill sexual predators. Dressed to Kill was featured in the 2020 documentary Disclosure: Trans Lives on Screen; in a 2020 reappraisal of the film for The Guardian, the critic Scott Tobias referred to De Palma's understanding of trans issues as "disconcertingly retrograde....There's no getting around the ugly association of gender transition with violence, other than to say that it feels thoroughly aestheticized".
In a 2016 interview, De Palma said, "I don't know what the transgender community would think [of the film now]... Obviously I realize that it's not good for their image to be transgender and also be a psychopathic murderer. But I think that [perception] passes with time. We're in a different time." He added that he was "glad" that the film had become "a favorite of the gay community," which he attributed to its "flamboyance".
===Accolades===
|
[
"Alfred Hitchcock",
"Curved mirror",
"Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress",
"Chicago Sun-Times",
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"Transgender in film and television",
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"The Untouchables (film)",
"George Litto",
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"Filmways",
"Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress",
"Saturn Award for Best Director",
"Penthouse (magazine)",
"Brian De Palma",
"erotic thriller",
"Psycho (1960 film)",
"The Washington Post",
"AFI Catalog of Feature Films",
"sexual minorities",
"Leonard Maltin",
"Prostitution",
"Golden Globe Awards",
"Golden Globe Award",
"Gene Siskel",
"Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor",
"prostitute",
"Michael Caine",
"Metacritic",
"Golden Raspberry Awards",
"The New York Times",
"David Margulies",
"Bill Randolph",
"Angie Dickinson",
"Anneka Di Lorenzo"
] |
8,483 |
Diesel cycle
|
The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. This is in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines are used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel–electric locomotives, and both surface ships and submarines.
The Diesel cycle is assumed to have constant pressure during the initial part of the combustion phase (V_2 to V_3 in the diagram, below). This is an idealized mathematical model: real physical diesels do have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the Otto cycle. In contrast, the idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates a constant volume process during that phase.
== Idealized Diesel cycle ==
The image shows a p–V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle; where p is pressure and V the volume or v the specific volume if the process is placed on a unit mass basis. The idealized Diesel cycle assumes an ideal gas and ignores combustion chemistry, exhaust- and recharge procedures and simply follows four distinct processes:
1→2 : isentropic compression of the fluid (blue)
2→3 : constant pressure heating (red)
3→4 : isentropic expansion (yellow)
4→1 : constant volume cooling (green)
The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. During the bottom isentropic processes (blue), energy is transferred into the system in the form of work W_{in}, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat. During the constant pressure (red, isobaric) process, energy enters the system as heat Q_{in}. During the top isentropic processes (yellow), energy is transferred out of the system in the form of W_{out}, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat. During the constant volume (green, isochoric) process, some of the energy flows out of the system as heat through the right depressurizing process Q_{out}. The work that leaves the system is equal to the work that enters the system plus the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system; in other words, net gain of work is equal to the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system.
Work in (W_{in}) is done by the piston compressing the air (system)
Heat in (Q_{in}) is done by the combustion of the fuel
Work out (W_{out}) is done by the working fluid expanding and pushing a piston (this produces usable work)
Heat out (Q_{out}) is done by venting the air
Net work produced = Q_{in} - Q_{out}
The net work produced is also represented by the area enclosed by the cycle on the p–V diagram. The net work is produced per cycle and is also called the useful work, as it can be turned to other useful types of energy and propel a vehicle (kinetic energy) or produce electrical energy. The summation of many such cycles per unit of time is called the developed power. The W_{out} is also called the gross work, some of which is used in the next cycle of the engine to compress the next charge of air.
=== Maximum thermal efficiency ===
The maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio. It has the following formula under cold air standard analysis:
\eta_{th}=1-\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}\left ( \frac{\alpha^{\gamma}-1}{\gamma(\alpha-1)} \right )
where
\eta_{th} is thermal efficiency
\alpha is the cut-off ratio \frac{V_3}{V_2} (ratio between the end and start volume for the combustion phase)
is the compression ratio \frac{V_1}{V_2}
\gamma is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)
The cut-off ratio can be expressed in terms of temperature as shown below:
\frac{T_2}{T_1} ={\left(\frac{V_1}{V_2}\right)^{\gamma-1}} = r^{\gamma-1}
\displaystyle {T_2} ={T_1} r^{\gamma-1}
\frac{V_3}{V_2} = \frac{T_3}{T_2}
\alpha = \left(\frac{T_3}{T_1}\right)\left(\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}\right)
T_3 can be approximated to the flame temperature of the fuel used. The flame temperature can be approximated to the adiabatic flame temperature of the fuel with corresponding air-to-fuel ratio and compression pressure, p_3.
T_1 can be approximated to the inlet air temperature.
This formula only gives the ideal thermal efficiency. The actual thermal efficiency will be significantly lower due to heat and friction losses. The formula is more complex than the Otto cycle (petrol/gasoline engine) relation that has the following formula:
\eta_{otto,th}=1-\frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}
The additional complexity for the Diesel formula comes around since the heat addition is at constant pressure and the heat rejection is at constant volume. The Otto cycle by comparison has both the heat addition and rejection at constant volume.
=== Comparing efficiency to Otto cycle ===
Comparing the two formulae it can be seen that for a given compression ratio (), the ideal Otto cycle will be more efficient. However, a real diesel engine will be more efficient overall since it will have the ability to operate at higher compression ratios. If a petrol engine were to have the same compression ratio, then knocking (self-ignition) would occur and this would severely reduce the efficiency, whereas in a diesel engine, the self ignition is the desired behavior. Additionally, both of these cycles are only idealizations, and the actual behavior does not divide as clearly or sharply. Furthermore, the ideal Otto cycle formula stated above does not include throttling losses, which do not apply to diesel engines.
== Applications ==
=== Diesel engines ===
Diesel engines have the lowest specific fuel consumption of any large internal combustion engine employing a single cycle, 0.26 lb/hp·h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines (combined cycle power plants are more efficient, but employ two engines rather than one). Two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly turbocharging, make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines.
In North America, diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad and earthmoving environments.
=== Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs ===
Many model airplanes use very simple "glow" and "diesel" engines. Glow engines use glow plugs. "Diesel" model airplane engines have variable compression ratios. Both types depend on special fuels.
Some 19th-century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression. (It was the research of Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot that established the thermodynamic value of compression.) A historical implication of this is that the diesel engine could have been invented without the aid of electricity.
See the development of the hot-bulb engine and indirect injection for historical significance.
|
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] |
8,484 |
Deus Ex (video game)
|
Deus Ex is a 2000 action role-playing game developed by Ion Storm and published by Eidos Interactive. Originally released for Microsoft Windows, it was released for Mac OS the same year, and for PlayStation 2 in 2002. The gameplay—combining first-person shooter, stealth, and role-playing elements—features exploration and combat in environments connected to multiple city-based levels, with quests that can be completed in a number of ways and character customization based around cybernetic enhancements. Conversations between characters feature a variety of responses, with choices at key story points affecting how some events play out. A post-release patch incorporated deathmatch-style multiplayer.
Deus Ex is set in 2052, in a dystopian cyberpunk future beset by terrorist acts, economic inequality, and a plague dubbed the Gray Death. The player character, the cybernetically-enhanced JC Denton, is an anti-terrorism agent who is deployed when a terrorist group interrupts supplies of a rare Gray Death vaccine. Investigating the incident, Denton ends up involved in a struggle between multiple factions for control of the world. The story is inspired by popular conspiracy theory motifs, incorporating groups including the Illuminati and Majestic 12.
The game was created by Warren Spector, who acted as director and producer, and put together a design concept during the early 1990s under the title "Troubleshooter". After being approached by Ion Storm about creating a project with complete creative freedom, Spector began pre-production in 1997. Staff included lead designer Harvey Smith, lead writer Sheldon Pacotti, and lead composer Alexander Brandon. The game was build using the Unreal Engine, which led to issues with coding and NPC behavior. Due to technical and time issues, some planned features and areas had to be downscaled or cut entirely.
Upon release, Deus Ex was a commercial success, selling one million copies worldwide. It saw critical acclaim from game journalists for its design and freedom of player choice. Its graphics and audio saw more mixed reactions. The PlayStation 2 port saw mixed reactions, but many praised its translation of the game's mechanics to console. It won multiple gaming awards, has been ranked among the best video games of all time, and fostered an active fan community. It has also been cited an early example of the "immersive sim". Deus Ex was expanded into a series of the same name, with a direct sequel Invisible War releasing in 2003.
== Gameplay ==
Deus Ex is an action role-playing game with incorporated first-person shooter and stealth mechanics. Players take on the role of JC Denton, a man equipped with nanotechnology-based cybernetic enhancements called augmentations.
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| Game Innovation Spotlight
| Deus Ex
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| Game of the Year
| Deus Ex
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| Deus Ex
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| Game of the Year
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| PC Game of the Year
| Deus Ex
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| PC Role-Playing
| Deus Ex
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| Sound Design
| Deus Ex
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| British Academy of Film and Television Arts
| PC Game of the Year
| Deus Ex
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|}
==Legacy==
According to Spector, Deus Ex received over thirty "Best of" awards from various outlets during 2001, something of which he remains proud. The game has also ranked high in lists of the best video games of all time compiled by various publications. 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games of all time, calling its influence "too massive to properly gauge". Several articles and retrospectives have also cited Deus Ex as a core title in the "immersive sim", a type of video game that promotes realism and freedom of player choice. A movie adaptation was also licenced by Columbia Pictures in 2002.
Speaking in 2015, Spector recalled that he never expected the game to sell well, but was pleased it gained a strong cult following and continued to receive fan letters about it. Several former staff workers including Smith, Paccotti, and others associated with Ion Storm recall their time with the game fondly as both a team effort and an informative experience.
===Future games===
A sequel to Deus Ex was announced in 2001, with Ion Storm and Eidos Interactive returning as developer and publisher respectively; the next game was designed as a console-focused release. Many of the original staff returned, with Smith acting as director, and Pacotti and Brandon returning as lead writer and composer. Titled Deus Ex: Invisible War and acting as a direct sequel, the game released in 2003 for Windows and the original Xbox. Ion Storm made multiple attempts to create a third Deus Ex title before being closed in 2005. The Deus Ex series was revived at new developer Eidos-Montréal, which would go on to develop or supervise multiple new Deus Ex titles beginning with the prequel Human Revolution (2011).
|
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"Ian Livingstone",
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] |
8,485 |
Diego Maradona
|
Diego Armando Maradona Franco (; 30 October 196025 November 2020) was an Argentine professional football player and manager. Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the sport, he was one of the two joint winners of the FIFA Player of the 20th Century award, alongside Pelé.
An advanced playmaker who operated in the classic number 10 position, Maradona's vision, passing, ball control, and dribbling skills were combined with his small stature, which gave him a low centre of gravity and allowed him to manoeuvre better than most other players. His presence and leadership on the field had a great effect on his team's general performance, while he would often be singled out by the opposition. In addition to his creative abilities, he possessed an eye for goal and was known to be a free kick specialist. A precocious talent, Maradona was given the nickname ("The Golden Boy"), a name that stuck with him throughout his career.
Maradona was the first player to set the world record transfer fee twice: in 1982 when he transferred to Barcelona for £5 million, and in 1984 when he moved to Napoli for a fee of £6.9 million. He played for Argentinos Juniors, Boca Juniors, Barcelona, Napoli, Sevilla and Newell's Old Boys during his club career, and is most famous for his time at Napoli where he won numerous accolades and led the club to their first Serie A title win only to do it all over again one year later. Maradona also had a troubled off-field life and his time with Napoli ended after he was banned for taking cocaine.
In his international career with Argentina, he earned 91 caps and scored 34 goals. Maradona played in four FIFA World Cups, including the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, where he captained Argentina and led them to victory over West Germany in the final, and won the Golden Ball as the tournament's best player. In the 1986 World Cup quarter final, he scored both goals in a 2–1 victory over England that entered football history for two different reasons. The first goal was an unpenalized handling foul known as the "Hand of God", while the second goal followed a dribble past five England players, voted "Goal of the Century" by FIFA.com voters in 2002.
Maradona also had a career in management. He became the coach of Argentina's national football team in November 2008. He was in charge of the team at the 2010 World Cup in South Africa before leaving at the end of the tournament. He then coached Dubai-based club Al Wasl in the UAE Pro-League for the 2011–12 season. In 2017, Maradona became the coach of Fujairah before leaving at the end of the season. From May to September 2018, he was the chairman of Dynamo Brest. From September 2018 to June 2019, Maradona was coach of Mexican club Dorados, and was the coach of Argentine Primera División club Gimnasia de La Plata from September 2019 until his death in 2020. He was ranked as the third best football player of all time by FourFourTwo.
==Early years==
Diego Armando Maradona was born on 30 October 1960, at the Policlínico (Polyclinic) Evita Hospital in Lanús, Buenos Aires Province, to a poor family that had moved from Corrientes Province; he was raised in Villa Fiorito, a shantytown on the southern outskirts of Buenos Aires, Argentina. His father Diego Maradona "Chitoro" (1927–2015), who worked at a chemicals factory, was of Guaraní (Indigenous) and Galician (Spanish) descent, and his mother Dalma Salvadora Franco, "Doña Tota" (1930–2011), was of Italian and Croatian descent.
{{Blockquote|When Diego came to Argentinos Juniors for trials, I was really struck by his talent and couldn't believe he was only eight years old. In fact, we asked him for his ID card so we could check it, but he told us he didn't have it on him. We were sure he was having us on because, although he had the physique of a child, he played like an adult. When we discovered he'd been telling us the truth, we decided to devote ourselves purely to him.|source=Francisco Cornejo, youth coach who discovered Maradona Maradona received his first football as a gift at age three and quickly became devoted to the game. At age eight, he was spotted by a talent scout while he was playing in his local club Estrella Roja. In March 1969 he was recommended to Los Cebollitas (The Little Onions), the junior team of Buenos Aires's Argentinos Juniors by his close friend and football rival Gregorio Carrizo who had already been picked by coach Francis Gregorio Cornejo. Maradona became a star for the Cebollitas, and as a 12-year-old ball boy he amused spectators by showing his ball skills during the halftime breaks of Argentinos Juniors' first division games. During 1973 and 1974, Maradona led Cebollitas to two Evita Tournament wins and 141 undefeated games in a row, playing alongside players like Adrian Domenech and Claudio Rodríguez, in what is regarded as the best youth team in the history of Argentine football. Maradona named Brazilian playmaker Rivellino and Manchester United winger George Best among his inspirations growing up.
==Club career==
===Argentinos Juniors===
On 20 October 1976, Maradona made his professional debut for Argentinos Juniors, 10 days before his 16th birthday, versus Talleres de Córdoba. He entered to the pitch wearing the number 16 jersey, and became the youngest player in the history of the Argentine Primera División. A few minutes into his debut, Maradona kicked the ball through the legs of Juan Domingo Cabrera, a nutmeg that would become symbolic of his talent. After the game, Maradona said: "That day I felt I had held the sky in my hands." Thirty years later, Cabrera remembered Maradona's debut: "I was on the right side of the field and went to press him, but he didn't give me a chance. He made the nutmeg and when I turned around, he was far away from me."
Maradona scored his first goal as a professional against Marplatense team San Lorenzo on 14 November 1976, two weeks after turning 16, and added another goal in the match as well. Maradona made 11 appearances that season, with the two goals scored on his debut being the only ones he scored.
In the 1977 season, Maradona played 49 matches and scored 19 goals, and started to get on the radar of other South American clubs. In the 1978 season, Maradona scored 26 goals in 35 matches, and had the 1978 World Cup in his sights. However, when the squads were released on 19 May, he was not selected by coach Cesar Luis Menotti to the surprise of many. Two days after being left out, he scored a brace in a victory against his Chacarita Juniors. In 1979, Maradona scored 26 goals in 26 games, and finished top scorer in both Metropolitan and Nacional tournaments. in 1980, he scored 43 goals in 45 appearances and was the top scorer again for the last four consecutive tournaments.
===Boca Juniors===
Maradona spent five years at Argentinos Juniors, from 1976 to 1981, scoring 115 goals in 167 appearances before his US$4-million transfer to Boca Juniors in February 1981. Maradona received offers to join other clubs, including River Plate who offered to make him the club's best paid player. However, River decided to drop its bid due to its large payroll in keeping Daniel Passarella and Ubaldo Fillol.
Maradona signed a contract with Boca Juniors on 20 February 1981. He made his debut two days later against Talleres de Córdoba, scoring twice in the club's 4–1 win. On 10 April, Maradona played his first Superclásico against River Plate at La Bombonera stadium. Boca defeated River 3–0 with Maradona scoring a goal after dribbling past Alberto Tarantini and Fillol. Despite the distrustful relationship between Maradona and Boca Juniors manager, Silvio Marzolini, Boca had a successful season, winning the league title after securing a point against Racing Club. That would be the only title won by Maradona in the Argentine domestic league.
===Barcelona===
After the 1982 World Cup, Maradona was transferred to Barcelona for a then world record fee of £5 million ($7.6 million). In the 1982–83 season, under coach César Luis Menotti, Barcelona and Maradona won two trophies, the Copa del Rey and Copa de la Liga, both of them coming against Real Madrid.
On 26 June 1983, in the 1st leg of the Copa de la Liga finals at Estadio Santiago Bernabeu, Maradona scored and became the first Barcelona player to be applauded by arch-rival Real Madrid fans. With the manner in which the goal was scored resulting in applause from opposition fans, only Ronaldinho (in November 2005) and Andrés Iniesta (in November 2015) have since been granted such an ovation as Barcelona players from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu. Three days later, Barcelona won the second leg 2–1, with Maradona scoring a penalty and helping his club win another title against their archrivals.
Due to illness and injury as well as controversial incidents on the field, Maradona had a difficult tenure in Barcelona. First a bout of hepatitis, then a broken ankle in a La Liga game at the Camp Nou in September 1983 caused by a reckless tackle by Athletic Bilbao's Andoni Goikoetxea—nicknamed "the Butcher of Bilbao"—threatened to jeopardize Maradona's career, but with treatment and rehabilitation, it was possible for him to return to the pitch after a three-month recovery period. After receiving another hard tackle by Goikoetxea, as well as being taunted with racist insults related to his father's Native American ancestry throughout the match by Bilbao fans, and being provoked by Bilbao's Miguel Sola at full time after Barcelona lost 1–0, Maradona snapped. One Barcelona executive stated: "When I saw those scenes of Maradona fighting and the chaos that followed I realized we couldn't go any further with him." Maradona got into frequent disputes with Barcelona executives, particularly club president Josep Lluís Núñez, culminating with a demand to be transferred out of the Camp Nou in 1984. During his two injury-hit seasons at Barcelona, Maradona scored 38 goals in 58 games. Maradona transferred to Napoli in Italy's Serie A for another world record fee, £6.9 million ($10.48 million).
===Napoli===
Maradona arrived in Naples and was presented to the world media as a Napoli player on 5 July 1984, where he was welcomed by 75,000 fans at his presentation at the Stadio San Paolo. Sports writer David Goldblatt commented, "They [the fans] were convinced that the saviour had arrived." Prior to Maradona's arrival, Italian football was dominated by teams from the north and centre of the country, such as AC Milan, Juventus, Inter Milan and Roma, and no team in the south of the Italian Peninsula had ever won a league title. This was perhaps the perfect scenario for Maradona and his working-class-sympathetic image, as he joined a once-great team that was facing relegation at the end of the 1983–84 Serie A season, in what was the toughest and most highly regarded football league in Europe.
At Napoli, Maradona reached the peak of his professional career: he soon inherited the captain's armband from Napoli veteran defender Giuseppe Bruscolotti and quickly became an adored star among the club's fans; in his time there he elevated the team to the most successful era in its history.
The following season, the team's prolific attacking trio, formed by Maradona, Bruno Giordano, and Careca, was later dubbed the "Ma-Gi-Ca" (magical) front-line. Despite the team's failing to defend their league title, losing out to AC Milan after a collapse in the final four matches, Maradona was the Serie A top scorer in the 1987–88 season with 15 goals, and was the all-time leading goalscorer for Napoli, with 115 goals, He was also the top scorer for that season's Coppa Italia, scoring six goals, despite being eliminated in the quarter-finals by Torino, with Maradona's two goals in the second leg not enough to prevent the elimination. In the 1988–89 season, Napoli finished runner-up in the league and in the Coppa Italia, losing to Sampdoria in the final. However the team avenged these runner-up finishes with the UEFA Cup title, won over two legs in the final against Stuttgart. During the second leg of the quarterfinals against rivals Juventus, Maradona scored a penalty, and Napoli eventually qualified to the next round after extra time. During the first leg of the finals, Maradona scored from a penalty in a 2–1 home victory and later assisted Careca's match-winning goal, while in the second leg on 17 May—a 3–3 away draw—he assisted Ciro Ferrara's goal with a header.
Napoli would win their second league title in 1989–90, and later won the 1990 Italian Supercup, beating rivals Juventus 5–1.
Although Maradona was successful on the field during his time in Italy, his personal problems increased. His cocaine use continued, and he received US$70,000 in fines from his club for missing games and practices, ostensibly because of "stress". He faced a scandal there regarding an illegitimate son, and he was also the object of some suspicion over an alleged friendship with the Camorra crime syndicate. He also faced intense backlash and harassment from some local fans after the 1990 World Cup, in which he and Argentina beat Italy in a semi-final match at the San Paolo stadium.
In 2000, the number 10 jersey of Napoli was officially retired, but in 2011, Maradona stated that he wanted Ezequiel Lavezzi to use it. In a poll on Il Mattino, 54% of fans voted to keep the shirt retired, and the change ultimately did not occur. On 4 December 2020, nine days after Maradona's death, Napoli's home stadium was renamed Stadio Diego Armando Maradona.
===Late career===
After serving a 15-month ban for failing a drug test for cocaine, Maradona left Napoli in disgrace in 1992. Despite interest from Real Madrid and Marseille, he signed for Sevilla, where he stayed for one year. In 1993, he played for Newell's Old Boys and in 1995 returned to Boca Juniors for a two-year stint. In 1996, he played in a friendly match alongside his brother Raul for Toronto Italia against the Canadian National Soccer League All-Stars. In 2000, he captained Bayern Munich in a friendly against the German national team in the farewell game of Lothar Matthäus. Maradona was himself given a testimonial match on 10 November 2001, played between an all-star World XI and the Argentina national team, scoring two penalty kicks in a 6–3 win at La Bombonera.
==International career==
=== Debut at age 16 ===
Maradona made his full international debut at age 16, against Hungary, on 27 February 1977, only four months after his professional debut for Argentinos Juniors.
He was left off the Argentine squad for the 1978 World Cup on home soil by coach César Luis Menotti who felt he was too young at age 17. On 3 November 1978, just a few days after turning 18, Maradona played for the U20 Argentina team in a friendly match against Franz Beckenbauer's New York Cosmos, scoring twice in a 2–1 win.
=== 1979 World Youth Championship and Copa América ===
At age 18, Maradona played the 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship in Japan and emerged as the star of the tournament, shining in Argentina's 3–1 final win over the Soviet Union, scoring a total of six goals in six appearances in the tournament. On 2 June 1979, Maradona scored his first senior international goal in a 3–1 win against Scotland at Hampden Park. He went on to play for Argentina in two 1979 Copa América ties during August 1979, a 2–1 loss against Brazil and a 3–0 win over Bolivia in which he scored his side's third goal.
Maradona appeared at the 1979 Copa América, where Argentina had a poor performance, being knocked out in the first round. Maradona exited the tournament having scored once in a 3-0 victory against Bolivia.
===1982 World Cup===
Maradona played his first World Cup tournament in 1982 in his new country of residence, Spain. Argentina played Belgium in the opening game of the 1982 Cup at the Camp Nou in Barcelona. Maradona did not perform to expectations, as Argentina, the defending champions, lost 1–0. Although the team convincingly beat both Hungary and El Salvador in Alicante to progress to the second round, there were internal tensions within the team, with the younger, less experienced players at odds with the older, more experienced players. With a team that also included such players as Mario Kempes, Osvaldo Ardiles, Ramón Díaz, Daniel Bertoni, Alberto Tarantini, Ubaldo Fillol and Daniel Passarella, the Argentine side was defeated in the second round by Brazil and by eventual winners Italy. The Italian match is renowned for Maradona being aggressively man-marked by Claudio Gentile, as Italy beat Argentina at the Sarrià Stadium in Barcelona, 2–1.
Maradona played in all five matches without being substituted, scoring twice against Hungary. He was fouled repeatedly in all five games and particularly in the last one against Brazil at the Sarrià, a game that was blighted by poor officiating and violent fouls. With Argentina already down 3–0 to Brazil, Maradona's temper eventually got the better of him and he was sent off with five minutes remaining for a serious retaliatory foul against Batista. Throughout the tournament, Maradona asserted his dominance and was the most dynamic player of the competition. He played every minute of every Argentina game, scoring five goals and making five assists; three of the assists came in the opening match against South Korea at the Olímpico Universitario Stadium in Mexico City. His first goal of the tournament came against Italy in the second group game in Puebla. Argentina eliminated Uruguay in the first knockout round in Puebla, setting up a match against England at the Azteca Stadium, also in Mexico City.
After scoring two contrasting goals in the 2–1 quarter-final win against England, his legend was cemented. The majesty of his second goal and the notoriety of his first led to the French newspaper L'Équipe describing Maradona as "half-angel, half-devil". This match was played with the background of the Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom. Replays showed that the first goal was scored by striking the ball with his hand. Maradona was coyly evasive, describing it as "a little with the head of Maradona and a little with the hand of God".
Maradona's second goal, just four minutes after the hotly disputed hand-goal, was later voted by FIFA as the greatest goal in the history of the World Cup. He received the ball in his own half, swivelled around and with 11 touches ran more than half the length of the field, dribbling past five English outfield players (Peter Beardsley, Steve Hodge, Peter Reid, Terry Butcher and Terry Fenwick) before he left goalkeeper Peter Shilton on his backside with a feint, and slotted the ball into the net. This goal was voted "Goal of the Century" in a 2002 online poll conducted by FIFA. A 2002 Channel 4 poll in the UK saw his performance ranked number 6 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.
Maradona followed this with two more goals in a semi-final match against Belgium at the Azteca, including another virtuoso dribbling display for the second goal. In the final match, West Germany attempted to contain him by double-marking him, but in the 84th minute he nevertheless found space past West German player Lothar Matthäus to give the final pass to Jorge Burruchaga for the winning goal. Argentina beat West Germany 3–2 in front of 115,000 fans at the Azteca with Maradona lifting the World Cup as captain.
During the tournament, Maradona attempted or created more than half of Argentina's shots, attempted a tournament-best 90 dribbles—three times more than any other player—and was fouled a record 53 times, winning his team twice as many free kicks as any player. Maradona scored or assisted ten of Argentina's 14 goals (71%), including the assist for the winning goal in the final, ensuring that he would be remembered as one of the greatest names in football history. By the end of the World Cup, Maradona went on to win the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament by unanimous vote and was widely regarded to have won the World Cup virtually single-handedly, something that he later stated he did not entirely agree with. Zinedine Zidane, watching the 1986 World Cup as a 14-year-old, stated Maradona "was on another level". In a tribute to him, Azteca Stadium authorities built a statue of him scoring the "Goal of the Century" and placed it at the entrance of the stadium.
Regarding Maradona's performance at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, in 2014, Roger Bennett of ESPN FC described it as "the most virtuoso performance a World Cup has ever witnessed," with Steven Goff of The Washington Post dubbing his performance as "one of the finest in tournament annals." In 2002, Russell Thomas of The Guardian described Maradona's second goal against England in the 1986 World Cup quarter-finals as "arguably the greatest individual goal ever." In a 2009 article for CBC Sports, John Molinaro described the goal as "the greatest ever scored in the tournament – and, maybe, in soccer." In a 2018 article for Sportsnet, he added: "No other player, not even Pel[é] in 1958 nor Paolo Rossi in 1982, had dominated a single competition the way Maradona did in Mexico." He also went on to say of Maradona's performance: "The brilliant Argentine artist single-handedly delivered his country its second World Cup." Regarding his two memorable goals against England in the quarter-finals, he commented: "Yes, it was Maradona's hand, and not God's, that was responsible for the first goal against England. But while the 'Hand of God' goal remains one of the most contentious moments in World Cup history, there can be no disputing that his second goal against England ranks as the greatest ever scored in the tournament. It transcended mere sports – his goal was pure art."
=== 1987 and 1989 Copa América ===
At the 1987 Copa América in Argentina, he scored three goals in four matches, including a brace in a 3-0 victory against Ecuador, but Argentina lost the semi-final 0–1 against eventual winners Uruguay.
In the 1989 Copa América in Brazil, Maradona played six games but would not score any goals. Argentina would finish the tournament third.
===1990 World Cup===
Maradona captained Argentina again in the 1990 World Cup in Italy to yet another World Cup final. An ankle injury affected his overall performance, and he was much less dominant than four years earlier, and the team were missing three of their best players due to injury. After losing their opening game to Cameroon at the San Siro in Milan, Argentina were almost eliminated in the group stage, only qualifying in third position from their group. In the round of 16 match against Brazil in Turin, Claudio Caniggia scored the only goal after being set up by Maradona.
In the quarter-final, Argentina faced Yugoslavia in Florence; the match ended 0–0 after 120 minutes, with Argentina advancing in a penalty shootout even though Maradona's kick, a weak shot to the goalkeeper's right, was saved. The semi-final against the host nation Italy at Maradona's club stadium in Naples, the Stadio San Paolo, was also resolved on penalties after a 1–1 draw. This time, however, Maradona was successful with his effort, daringly rolling the ball into the net with an almost exact replica of his unsuccessful kick in the previous round. At the final in Rome, Argentina lost 1–0 to West Germany, the only goal being a controversial penalty scored by Andreas Brehme in the 85th minute, after Rudi Völler was adjudged to be fouled.
=== 1993 Artemio Franchi Cup ===
On 24 February 1993, Maradona returned to the national team when Argentina played the 1993 Artemio Franchi Cup against Denmark in Mar del Plata. Argentina won 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw.
=== 1994 World Cup ===
At the 1994 World Cup in the United States, Maradona played in only two games (both at the Foxboro Stadium near Boston), scoring one goal against Greece, before being sent home after failing a drug test for ephedrine doping. After scoring Argentina's third goal against Greece, Maradona had one of the most remarkable World Cup goal celebrations as he ran towards one of the sideline cameras shouting with a distorted face and bulging eyes, in sheer elation of his return to international football. This turned out to be Maradona's last international goal for Argentina. In the second game, a 2–1 victory over Nigeria which was to be his last game for Argentina, he set up both of his team's goals on free kicks, the second an assist to Caniggia, in what were two very strong showings by the Argentine team.
In his autobiography, Maradona argued that the test result was due to his personal trainer giving him the energy drink Rip Fuel. His claim was that the U.S. version, unlike the Argentine one, contained the chemical and that, having run out of his Argentine dosage, his trainer unwittingly bought the U.S. formula. Maradona also separately claimed that he had an agreement with FIFA, on which the organization reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play. His failed drug test at the 1994 World Cup signalled the end of his international career, which lasted 17 years and yielded 34 goals from 91 games, including one winner's medal and one runners-up medal in the World Cup.
===Unofficial internationals===
Alongside official internationals, Maradona also played and scored for an Argentina XI against the World XI in 1978 to mark the first anniversary of their first World Cup win, a year after that captained the 'Rest of the World' against the English Football League XI to celebrate the organization's centenary (after reportedly securing a £100,000 appearance fee)
==Player profile==
===Style of play===
thumb|200px|Maradona exhibiting his ball control before a match against Lazio. [[Michel Platini stated, "Diego was capable of things no one else could match. The things I could do with a football, he could do with an orange." Maradona was a traditional playmaker who usually played in a free role, either as an attacking midfielder behind the forwards, or as a second striker in a front–two, although he was also deployed as an offensive–minded central midfielder in a 4–4–2 formation on occasion. A precocious talent, Maradona was given the nickname "El Pibe de Oro ("The Golden Boy"), a name that stuck with him throughout his career. He was renowned for his dribbling ability, vision, close ball control, passing and creativity, and is considered to have been one of the most skilful players in the sport. He had a compact physique, and with his strong legs, low center of gravity, and resulting balance, he could withstand physical pressure well while running with the ball, despite his small stature, while his acceleration, quick feet, and agility, combined with his dribbling skills and close control at speed, allowed him to change direction quickly, making him difficult for opponents to defend against.
On his dribbling ability, former Dutch player Johan Cruyff saw similarities between Maradona and Lionel Messi with the ball seemingly attached to their boot. His physical strengths were illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup. Although he was known for his penchant for undertaking individual runs with the ball, he was also a strategist and an intelligent team player, with excellent spatial awareness, as well as being highly technical with the ball. He was effective in limited spaces, and would attract defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second goal against England in 1986), or give an assist to a free teammate. Being short, but strong, he could hold the ball long enough with a defender on his back to wait for a teammate making a run or to find a gap for a quick shot. He showed leadership qualities on the field and captained Argentina in their World Cup campaigns of 1986, 1990 and 1994. While he was primarily a creative playmaker, Maradona was also known for his finishing and goalscoring ability. Former Milan manager Arrigo Sacchi also praised Maradona for his defensive work-rate off the ball in a 2010 interview with Il Corriere dello Sport.
The team leader on and off the field – he would speak up on a range of issues on behalf of the players – Maradona's ability as a player and his overpowering personality had a major positive effect on his team, with his 1986 World Cup teammate Jorge Valdano stating:
Lauding the "charisma" of Maradona, another of his Argentina teammates, prolific striker Gabriel Batistuta, stated, "Diego could command a stadium, have everyone watch him. I played with him and I can tell you how technically decisive he was for the team". Napoli's former president – Corrado Ferlaino – commented on Maradona's leadership qualities during his time with the club in 2008, describing him as "a coach on the pitch."
One of Maradona's trademark moves was dribbling full-speed on the right wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering accurate passes to his teammates. Another trademark was the rabona, a reverse-cross pass shot behind the leg that holds all the weight. This manoeuvre led to several assists, such as the cross for Ramón Díaz's header against Switzerland in 1980. Moreover, he was also a well–known proponent of the roulette, a feint which involved him dragging the ball back first with one foot and then the other, while simultaneously performing a 360° turn; due to his penchant for using this move, it has even occasionally been described as the "Maradona turn" in the media. He was also a dangerous free kick and penalty kick taker, who was renowned for his ability to bend the ball from corners and direct set pieces. Regarded as one of the best dead-ball specialists of all time, his free kick technique, which often saw him raise his knee at a high angle when striking the ball, thus enabling him to lift it high over the wall, allowed him to score free kicks even from close range, within 22 to 17 yards (20 to 16 metres) from the goal, or even just outside the penalty area. His style of taking free kicks influenced several other specialists, including Gianfranco Zola, and Lionel Messi.
Maradona was famous for his cunning personality. Some critics view his controversial "Hand of God" goal at the 1986 World Cup as a clever manoeuvre, with one of the opposition players, Glenn Hoddle, admitting that Maradona had disguised it by flicking his head at the same time as palming the ball. The goal itself has been viewed as an embodiment of the Buenos Aires shanty town Maradona was brought up in and its concept of viveza criolla—"cunning of the criollos". Although critical of the illegitimate first goal, England striker Gary Lineker conceded, "When Diego scored that second goal against us, I felt like applauding. It was impossible to score such a beautiful goal. He's the greatest player of all time, by a long way. A genuine phenomenon." Maradona used his hand in the 1990 World Cup, again without punishment, and this time on his own goal line, to prevent the Soviet Union from scoring. A number of publications have referred to Maradona as the Artful Dodger, the urchin pickpocket from Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist.
Maradona was dominantly left-footed, often using his left foot even when the ball was positioned more suitably for a right-footed connection. His first goal against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup semi-final is a worthy indicator of such; he had run into the inside right channel to receive a pass but let the ball travel across to his left foot, requiring more technical ability. During his run past several England players in the previous round for the "Goal of the Century" he did not use his right foot once, despite spending the whole movement on the right-hand side of the pitch. In the 1990 World Cup second-round tie against Brazil, he used his right foot to set up the winning goal for Claudio Caniggia due to two Brazilian markers forcing him into a position that made use of his left foot less practical.
===Reception===
Maradona is widely regarded as the best player of his generation. and by some as the best player ever. Known as one of the most skilful players in the game, he is regarded as one of the greatest dribblers Maradona's former Napoli manager – Ottavio Bianchi – also praised his discipline in training, commenting: "Diego is different to the one that they depict. When you got him on his own he was a very good kid. It was beautiful to watch him and coach him. They all speak of the fact that he did not train, but it was not true because Diego was the last person to leave the pitch, it was necessary to send him away because otherwise he would stay for hours to invent free kicks." However, although, as Bianchi noted, Maradona was known for making "great plays" and doing "unimaginable" and "incredible things" with the ball during training sessions, and would even go through periods of rigorous exercise, he was equally known for his limited work-rate in training without the ball, and even gained a degree of infamy during his time in Italy for missing training sessions with Napoli, while he often trained independently instead of with his team.
In a 2019 documentary film on his life, Diego Maradona, Maradona confessed that his weekly regime consisted of "playing a game on Sunday, going out until Wednesday, then hitting the gym on Thursday." Regarding his inconsistent training regimen, the film's director, Asif Kapadia, commented in 2020: "He had a metabolism. He would look so incredibly out of shape, but then he'd train like crazy and sweat it off by the time matchday came along. His body shape just didn't look like a footballer, but then he had this ability and this balance. He had a way of being, and that idea of talking to him honestly about how a typical week transpired was pretty amazing." He also revealed that Maradona was ahead of his time in the fact that he had a personal fitness coach – Fernando Signorini – who trained him in a variety of areas, in addition to looking after his physical conditioning, adding: "While he [Maradona] was in a football team he had his own regime. How many players would do that? How many players would even know to think like that? 'I'm different to anyone else so I need to train at what I'm good at and what I'm weak at.' Signorini is very well read and very intelligent. He would literally say, 'This is the way I'm going to train you, read this book.' He would help him psychologically, talk to him about philosophy, and things like that." Moreover, Maradona was notorious for his poor diet and extreme lifestyle off the pitch, including his use of illicit drugs and alcohol abuse, which along with personal issues, his metabolism, medication that he was prescribed, and periods of inactivity due to injuries and suspensions, led to his significant weight–gain and physical decline as his career progressed; his lack of discipline and difficulties in his turbulent personal life are thought by some in the sport to have negatively impacted his performances and longevity in the later years of his playing career.
A controversial figure in the sport, while he earned critical acclaim from players, pundits and managers over his playing style, he also drew criticism in the media for his temper and confrontational behaviour, both on and off the pitch. However, in 2005, Paolo Maldini described Maradona both as the greatest player he ever faced, and also as the most honest, stating: "He was a model of good behaviour on the pitch – he was respectful of everyone, from the great players down to the ordinary team member. He was always getting kicked around and he never complained – not like some of today's strikers." Franco Baresi stated when he was asked who was his greatest opponent: "Maradona; when he was on form, there was almost no way of stopping him," Zlatan Ibrahimović said that his off-field antics did not matter, and that he should only be judged for the impact he made on the field. "For me Maradona is more than football. What he did as a footballer, in my opinion, he will be remembered forever. When you see number 10 who do you think about? Maradona. It is a symbol, even today there are those who choose that number for him."
{{Blockquote|Today his skills would afford him greater protection. Back then they merely served as the red rag of provocation that would guarantee he would be the victim of brutal challenges wherever he played. The rules changed as a direct result of some of the injuries Maradona received. When I interviewed him a few years ago, he told me he thought players such as Lionel Messi owed him a great deal because some of the tackles he had endured would never be allowed today.|Guillem Balagué writing for the BBC in 2020 on 'the magician, the cheat, the god, the flawed genius'. Along with Pelé, Maradona was one of the two joint winners of the "FIFA Player of the Century" award in 2000, and also placed fifth in "IFFHS' Century Elections". and later that year, was ranked second in The Guardians list of the 100 greatest World Cup players of all time, ahead of the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, once again behind Pelé. In 2017, FourFourTwo ranked him in first place in their list of "100 greatest players", In May 2020, Sky Sports ranked Maradona as the best player never to have won the UEFA Champions League/European Cup.
==Retirement and tributes==
Hounded for years by the press, Maradona once fired a compressed-air rifle at reporters whom he claimed were invading his privacy. This quote from former teammate Jorge Valdano summarises the feelings of many:
In 1990, the Konex Foundation from Argentina granted him the Diamond Konex Award, one of the most prestigious culture awards in Argentina, as the most important personality in sports in the last decade in his country.
In April 1996, Maradona had a three-round exhibition boxing match with Santos Laciar for charity. In 2000, Maradona published his autobiography Yo Soy El Diego ("I am The Diego"), which became a bestseller in Argentina. Two years later, Maradona donated the Cuban royalties of his book to "the Cuban people and Fidel".
In 2000, he won FIFA Player of the Century award which was to be decided by votes on their official website, their official magazine and a grand jury. Maradona won the Internet-based poll, garnering 53.6% of the votes against 18.53% for Pelé. In spite of this, and shortly before the ceremony, FIFA added a second award and appointed a "Football Family" committee composed of football journalists that also gave to Pelé the title of best player of the century to make it a draw. Maradona also came fifth in the vote of the IFFHS (International Federation of Football History and Statistics). In 2001, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) asked FIFA for authorization to retire the jersey number 10 for Maradona. FIFA did not grant the request, even though Argentine officials have maintained that FIFA hinted that it would.
Maradona has topped a number of fan polls, including a 2002 FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the best goal ever scored in a World Cup; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team. On 22 March 2010, Maradona was chosen number 1 in 'The Greatest 10 World Cup Players of All Time' by the London-based newspaper The Times. Argentinos Juniors named its stadium after Maradona on 26 December 2003. In 2003, Maradona was employed by the Libyan footballer Al-Saadi Gaddafi, the third son of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, as a "technical consultant", while Al-Saadi was playing for the Italian club, Perugia, which was playing in Serie A at the time.
On 22 June 2005, it was announced that Maradona would return to former club Boca Juniors as a sports vice-president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disappointing 2004–05 season, which coincided with Boca's centenary). His contract began 1 August 2005, and one of his first recommendations proved to be very effective: advising the club to hire Alfio Basile as the new coach. With Maradona fostering a close relationship with the players, Boca won the 2005 Apertura, the 2006 Clausura, the 2005 Copa Sudamericana, and the 2005 Recopa Sudamericana.
On 15 August 2005, Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, La Noche del 10 ("The Night of the no. 10"). His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences. However, the show also included a cartoon villain with a clear physical resemblance to Pelé. In subsequent evenings, La Noche del 10 led the ratings on all occasions but one. Most guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business, including Ronaldo and Zinedine Zidane, but also included interviews with other notable friends and personalities such as Cuban leader Fidel Castro and boxers Roberto Durán and Mike Tyson. Maradona gave each of his guests a signed Argentina jersey, which Tyson wore when he arrived in Brazil, Argentina's biggest rivals. In November 2005, however, Maradona rejected an offer to work with Argentina's national football team.
In May 2006, Maradona agreed to take part in UK's Soccer Aid (a program to raise money for UNICEF). In September 2006, Maradona, in his famous blue and white number 10, was the captain for Argentina in a three-day World Cup of Indoor Football tournament in Spain. On 26 August 2006, it was announced that Maradona was quitting his position in the club Boca Juniors because of disagreements with the AFA, who selected Alfio Basile to be the new coach of the Argentina national team. In 2008, Serbian filmmaker Emir Kusturica made Maradona, a documentary about Maradona's life.
On 1 September 2014, Maradona, along with many current and former footballing stars, took part in the "Match for Peace", which was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, with the proceeds being donated entirely to charity. Maradona set up a goal for Roberto Baggio during the first half of the match, with a chipped through-ball over the defence with the outside of his left foot. On 17 August 2015, Maradona visited Ali Bin Nasser, the Tunisian referee of the Argentina–England quarter-final match at the 1986 World Cup where Maradona scored his Hand of God, and paid tribute to him by giving him a signed Argentine jersey.
==Managerial career==
===Club management===
Maradona began his managerial career alongside former Argentinos Juniors midfield teammate Carlos Fren. The pair led Mandiyú of Corrientes in 1994 and Racing Club in 1995, with little success. In May 2011 he became manager of Dubai club Al Wasl FC in the United Arab Emirates.
Maradona was sacked on 10 July 2012. In August 2013, Maradona moved on to become 'spiritual coach' at Argentine club Deportivo Riestra. Maradona departed this role in 2017 to become the head coach of Fujairah, in the UAE second division, before leaving at the end of the season upon failure to secure promotion at the club. In May 2018, Maradona was announced as the new chairman of Belarusian club Dynamo Brest. He arrived in Brest and was presented by the club to start his duties in July. In September 2018, he was appointed manager of Mexican second division side Dorados. He made his debut with Dorados on 17 September with a 4–1 victory over Cafetaleros de Tapachula. On 13 June 2019, after Dorados failed to clinch promotion to the Mexican top flight, Maradona's lawyer announced that he would be stepping down from the role, citing health reasons.
On 5 September 2019, Maradona was unveiled as the new head coach of Gimnasia de La Plata, signing a contract until the end of the season. After two months in charge he left the club on 19 November. However, two days later, Maradona rejoined the club as manager saying that "we finally achieved political unity in the club". Maradona insisted that Gabriel Pellegrino remain club president if he were to stay with Gimnasia de La Plata. Originally scheduled to be held on 23 November, Despite having a bad record during the 2019–20 season, Gimnasia renewed Maradona's contract on 3 June 2020 for the 2020–21 season. In November 2020, Maradona died in post. His coaching staff resigned from the club following his death.
===International management===
After the resignation of Argentina national team coach Alfio Basile in 2008, Maradona immediately proposed his candidacy for the vacant role. According to several press sources, his major challengers included; Diego Simeone, Carlos Bianchi, Miguel Ángel Russo, and Sergio Batista. On 29 October 2008, AFA chairman Julio Grondona confirmed that Maradona would be the head coach of the national team. On 19 November, Maradona managed Argentina for the first time when they played against Scotland at Hampden Park in Glasgow, which Argentina won 1–0.
After winning his first three matches as the coach of the national team, he oversaw a 6–1 defeat to Bolivia, equalling the team's worst ever margin of defeat. With two matches remaining in the qualification tournament for the 2010 World Cup, Argentina was in fifth place and faced the possibility of failing to qualify, but victory in the last two matches secured qualification for the finals. After Argentina's qualification, Maradona used abusive language at the live post-game press conference, telling members of the media to "suck it and keep on sucking it". FIFA responded with a two-month ban on all footballing activity, which expired on 15 January 2010, and a CHF 25,000 fine, with a warning as to his future conduct. The friendly match scheduled to take place at home to the Czech Republic on 15 December, during the period of the ban, was cancelled. The only match Argentina played during Maradona's ban was a friendly away to Catalonia, which they lost 4–2.
At the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Argentina started by winning 1–0 against Nigeria, followed by a 4–1 victory over South Korea on the strength of a Gonzalo Higuaín hat-trick. In the final match of the group stage, Argentina won 2–0 against Greece to win the group and advance to a second round, meeting Mexico. After defeating Mexico 3–1, however, Argentina was routed by Germany 4–0 in the quarter-finals to go out of the competition. Argentina was ranked fifth in the tournament. After the defeat to Germany, Maradona admitted that he was reconsidering his future as Argentina's coach, stating, "I may leave tomorrow." On 15 July, the AFA said that he would be offered a new four-year deal that would keep him in charge through to the summer of 2014 when Brazil staged the World Cup. On 27 July, however, the AFA announced that its board had unanimously decided not to renew his contract. Afterwards, on 29 July, Maradona claimed that AFA president Julio Grondona and director of national teams (as well as his former Argentine national team and Sevilla coach) Carlos Bilardo had "lied to", "betrayed", and effectively sacked him from the role. He said, "They wanted me to continue, but seven of my staff should not go on, if he told me that, it meant he did not want me to keep working."
==Personal life==
===Family===
Born to a Roman Catholic family, his parents were Diego Maradona Senior and Dalma Salvadora Franco. Maradona married long-time fiancée Claudia Villafañe on 7 November 1989 in Buenos Aires, and they had two daughters, Dalma Nerea (born 2 April 1987) and Gianinna Dinorah (born 16 May 1989), by whom he became a grandfather in 2009 after she married Sergio Agüero (now divorced).
Maradona and Villafañe divorced in 2004. Daughter Dalma has since asserted that the divorce was the best solution for all as her parents remained on friendly terms. They travelled together to Naples for a series of homages in June 2005 and were seen together on other occasions, including the Argentina games during 2006 World Cup. During the divorce proceedings, Maradona admitted that he was the father of Diego Sinagra (born in Naples on 20 September 1986). The Italian courts had already ruled so in 1993, after Maradona refused to undergo DNA tests to prove or disprove his paternity. Diego Junior met Maradona for the first time in May 2003 after tricking his way onto a golf course in Italy where Maradona was playing. Sinagra is now a footballer playing in Italy.
After the divorce, Claudia embarked on a career as a theatre producer, and Dalma sought an acting career; she previously had expressed her desire to attend the Actors Studio West in Los Angeles.
Maradona's relationship with his immediate family was a close one. In a 1990 interview with Sports Illustrated, he showed phone bills where he had spent a minimum of $15,000 US per month calling his parents and siblings. Maradona's mother, Dalma, died on 19 November 2011. He was in Dubai at the time, and desperately tried to fly back in time to see her, but was too late. She was 81 years old. His father, "Don" Diego, died on 25 June 2015 at age 87.
In 2014, Maradona was accused of assaulting his girlfriend, Rocío Oliva, allegations which he denied. In 2017, he gifted her a house in Bella Vista, but in December 2018 they split up. Maradona's great-nephew Hernán López is also a professional footballer.
===Drug abuse and health problems===
From the mid-1980s until 2004, Maradona was addicted to cocaine. He allegedly began using the drug in Barcelona in 1983. By the time he was playing for Napoli, he had a full-blown addiction, which interfered with his ability to play football. In the midst of his drug crisis in 1991, Maradona was asked by journalists if the hit song "Mi enfermedad" () was dedicated to him. Maradona was banned from football in both 1991 and 1994 for abusing drugs.
Maradona had a tendency to put on weight and suffered increasingly from obesity, at one point weighing . He was obese from the end of his playing career until undergoing gastric bypass surgery in a clinic in Cartagena, Colombia, on 6 March 2005. His surgeon said that Maradona would follow a liquid diet for three months in order to return to his normal weight. When Maradona resumed public appearances shortly thereafter, he displayed a notably thinner figure.
On 29 March 2007, Maradona was readmitted to a hospital in Buenos Aires. He was treated for hepatitis and effects of alcohol abuse and was released on 11 April, but readmitted two days later. In the following days, there were constant rumours about his health, including three false claims of his death within a month. After being transferred to a psychiatric clinic specializing in alcohol-related problems, Maradona was discharged on 7 May. On 8 May, Maradona appeared on Argentine television and stated that he had quit drinking and had not used drugs in two and a half years. During the 2018 World Cup match between Argentina and Nigeria, Maradona was shown on television cameras behaving extremely erratically, with an abundance of white residue visible on the glass in front of his seat in the stands. The smudges could have been fingerprints, and he later blamed his behaviour on consuming lots of wine. In January 2019, Maradona underwent surgery after a hernia caused internal bleeding in his stomach.
===Political views===
Maradona was ideologically left-wing. He became friends with Cuban president Fidel Castro while receiving treatment on the island, with Castro stating, "Diego is a great friend and very noble, too. There's also no question he's a wonderful athlete and has maintained a friendship with Cuba to no material gain of his own." In his autobiography, El Diego, he dedicated the book to various people, including Castro. He wrote: "To Fidel Castro and, through him, all the Cuban people." In 1990, he visited Lenin's Mausoleum in Red Square.
Maradona voiced support for Bolivia's president Evo Morales and was also a supporter of former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. In 2005, he came to Venezuela to meet Chávez, who received him in the presidential Miraflores Palace. After the meeting, Maradona said that he had come to meet a "great man" (un grande, which can also mean "a big man", in Spanish), but had instead met a gigantic man (un gigante). He also stated, "I believe in Chávez, I am a Chavista. Everything Fidel does, everything Chávez does, for me is the best." Maradona was Chávez's guest of honour at the opening game of the 2007 Copa América held in Venezuela. In a 2017 interview, Maradona praised Russian president Vladimir Putin and considered him, along with Chavez and Castro, to be among the best political leaders in the world, stating: "Putin is a man who can bring peace to many in this world. He’s a phenomenon; simply a phenomenon".
{{blockquote|Many sportsmen claim to be champions of the people, but Maradona's populism is underwritten by his itinerary — the proletarian strongholds of Buenos Aires, Naples, and now Havana.|Martin Amis writing for The Guardian, 2004. Maradona declared his opposition to what he identified as imperialism, particularly during the 2005 Summit of the Americas in Mar del Plata, Argentina. There he protested George W. Bush's presence in Argentina, wearing a T-shirt labelled "" (with the "s" in "Bush" being replaced with a swastika) and referring to Bush as "human garbage". In August 2007, Maradona went further, making an appearance on Chávez's weekly television show Aló Presidente and saying, "I hate everything that comes from the United States. I hate it with all my strength." By December 2008, Maradona seemed to adopt a more positive U.S. attitude and expressed admiration for Bush's successor, then-President-elect Barack Obama, for whom he had great expectations.
{{Quote box|width=27%|align=right|quote="I asked myself, 'Who is this man? Who is this footballing magician, this Sex Pistol of international football, this cocaine victim who kicked the habit, looked like Falstaff and was as weak as spaghetti?' If Andy Warhol had still been alive, he would have definitely put Maradona alongside Marilyn Monroe and Mao Tse-tung. I'm convinced that if he hadn't been a footballer, he'd've become a revolutionary."|source=—Emir Kusturica, film director In September 2014, Maradona met with Pope Francis in Rome, crediting Francis for inspiring him to return to religion after many years away; he stated: "We should all imitate Pope Francis. If each one of us gives something to someone else, no one in the world would be starving."
In December 2007, Maradona presented a signed shirt with a message of support to the people of Iran: it is displayed in the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs' museum. In April 2013, Maradona visited the tomb of Hugo Chávez and urged Venezuelans to elect the late leader's designated successor, Nicolás Maduro, to continue the socialist leader's legacy; "Continue the struggle," Maradona said on television. Maradona attended Maduro's final campaign rally in Caracas, signing footballs and kicking them to the crowd, and presented Maduro with an Argentina jersey. During the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis, the Mexican Football Federation fined him for violating their code of ethics and dedicating a team victory to Nicolás Maduro.
Maradona in his 2000 autobiography Yo Soy El Diego, linked the "Hand of God" goal against England at the 1986 World Cup to the Falklands War: "Although we had said before the game that football had nothing to do with the Malvinas [Falklands] War, we knew they had killed a lot of Argentine boys there, killed them like little birds. And this was revenge." In October 2015, Maradona thanked Queen Elizabeth II and the Houses of Parliament in London for giving him the chance to provide "true justice" as head of an organization designed to help young children.
===Failure to pay tax===
In March 2009, Italian officials announced that Maradona still owed the Italian government €37 million in local taxes, €23.5 million of which was accrued interest on his original debt. They reported that at that point, Maradona had paid only €42,000, two luxury watches and a set of earrings. He was posthumously cleared of the accusations in January 2024 by the Supreme Court of Cassation.
==Death==
On 2 November 2020, Maradona was admitted to a hospital in La Plata, supposedly for psychological reasons. A representative of the ex-footballer said his condition was not serious. A day later, he underwent emergency brain surgery to treat a subdural hematoma. He was released on 12 November after successful surgery and was supervised by doctors as an outpatient. On 25 November, at the age of 60, Maradona suffered cardiac arrest and died in his sleep at his home in Dique Luján, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Maradona's coffin – draped in Argentina's national flag and three Maradona number 10 shirts (Argentinos Juniors, Boca Juniors and Argentina) – lay in state at the Presidential Palace, the Casa Rosada, with mourners filing past his coffin. On 26 November, Maradona's wake, which was attended by tens of thousands of people, was cut short by his family as his coffin was relocated from the rotunda of the Presidential Palace after fans took over an inner courtyard and also clashed with police. The same day, a private funeral service was held and Maradona was buried next to his parents at the Jardín de Bella Vista cemetery in Bella Vista, Buenos Aires.
===Tributes===
{{quote box|width=27%|quote="I have lost a great friend and the world has lost a legend. There's still so much to be said, but for now, may God give strength to his relatives. One day I hope we can play football together in heaven."|source=— Pelé paying tribute following Maradona's death President Alberto Fernández announced three days of national mourning. UEFA and CONMEBOL announced that every match in the Champions League, Europa League, Copa Libertadores, and Copa Sudamericana would hold a moment of silence prior to kickoff. Boca Juniors' game was postponed in respect to Maradona. Subsequently, other confederations around the world followed suit, with every fixture observing a minute of silence, starting with the AFC Champions League's fixtures. In addition to the minute of silence in Serie A, an image of Maradona was projected on stadium screens in the 10th minute of play.
In Naples, the Stadio San Paolo—officially renamed Stadio Diego Armando Maradona on 4 December 2020—was illuminated at night in honour of Maradona, with numerous fans gathering outside the stadium placing murals and paintings as a tribute. Both Napoli owner Aurelio De Laurentiis and the mayor of Naples Luigi de Magistris expressed their desire to rename their stadium after Maradona, which was unanimously approved by Naples City Council. Figures in the sport from every continent around the world also paid tribute to him. Celebrities and other sports people outside football also paid tribute to Maradona.
On 27 November 2020, the Aditya School of Sports in Barasat, Kolkata, India named their cricket stadium after Maradona. Three years earlier Maradona had conducted a workshop with 100 kids in the stadium and played a charity match at the same venue with former Indian cricket captain, Sourav Ganguly. On 28 November, Pakistan Football Federation's main cup PFF National Challenge Cup honoured Maradona along with Wali Mohammad. In a rugby union test match between Argentina and New Zealand on 28 November, as the New Zealand team lined up to perform the haka their captain Sam Cane presented a black jersey with Maradona's name and his number 10. On 29 November, compatriot Lionel Messi scored in Barcelona's 4–0 home win over Osasuna in La Liga, dedicating his goal to Maradona by revealing a Newell's Old Boys shirt worn by the latter under his own, and subsequently pointing to the sky.
On 30 November, after Boca Juniors opened the scoring against Newell's Old Boys at La Bombonera, the club's players paid an emotional tribute by laying a Maradona jersey in front of his private suite where his daughter Dalma was present.
===Aftermath===
In May 2021, seven medical professionals were charged with homicide over Maradona's death, in violation of their duties, and could face between eight and 25 years in prison if convicted. On 25 June, psychiatrist Agustina Cosachov was summoned by the Prosecution Office of San Isidro and faced a formal questioning, where she agreed to answer more than 100 queries regarding the medical treatment given to Maradona in that medical field. After seven hours of questioning, Cosachov's lawyer Vadim Mischanchuk addressed the press and denied that Cosachov's prescription medication could have worsened Maradona's heart condition, and Cosachov further denied any responsibility in the death. On 28 June, multiple arrest warrants were requested by a plaintiff lawyer against Cosachov, personal doctor Leopoldo Luque, psychologist Carlos Díaz, and doctor Nancy Forlini in direct connection with Maradona's alleged negligent death. On 1 July, the prosecutors in the case refused to ask a judge to issue arrest warrants against all the aforementioned professionals, on the basis that they considered the request had been a media stunt ("incursión mediática") for the case, coinciding with personal doctor Luque's interrogation.
In June 2022, a judge ruled that eight medical personnel should face trial for criminal negligence and homicide in regards to Maradona's death.
On 18 April 2023, the Court of Appeals and Guarantees of San Isidro upheld the June 2022 ruling where eight medical personnel, including physician Luque and psychiatrist Cosachov, should face trial on the charge of "simple homicide with malice aforethought". The accused face between eight and 25 years in prison if found guilty.
In September 2024, a criminal court in San Isidro, set the trial date for Luque, Cosachov, and other medical personnel to start on 11 March 2025.
==In popular culture==
In Argentina, Maradona is considered an icon. Concerning the idolatry that exists in his country, former teammate Jorge Valdano said:
In leading his nation to the 1986 World Cup, and in particular his performance and two goals in the quarter-final against England, Guillem Balagué writes: "That Sunday in Mexico City, the world saw one man single-handedly – in more than one sense of the phrase – lift the mood of a depressed and downtrodden nation into the stratosphere. With two goals in the space of four minutes, he allowed them to dare to dream that they, like him, could be the best in the world. He did it first by nefarious and then spellbindingly brilliant means. In those moments, he went from star player to legend." In Argentina, Maradona is often talked about in terms reserved for legends. In the Argentine film El hijo de la novia ("Son of the Bride"), somebody who impersonates a Catholic priest says to a bar patron, "They idolized him and then crucified him." When a friend scolds him for taking the prank too far, the fake priest retorts, "But I was talking about Maradona." He is the subject of the film El camino de San Diego, though he himself only appears in archive footage.
Maradona was included in many cameos in the Argentine comic book El Cazador de Aventuras. After the closing of it, the authors started a new short-lived comic book titled El Die, using Maradona as the main character. Maradona has had several online Flash games that are entirely dedicated to his legacy. In Rosario, Argentina, locals organized the parody religion of the "Church of Maradona". The organization reformulates many elements from Christian tradition, such as Christmas or prayers, reflecting instead details from Maradona. It had 200 founding members, and tens of thousands more have become members via the church's official web site.
Many Argentine artists performed songs in tribute to Diego, such as "La Mano de Dios" by El Potro Rodrigo, "Maradona" by Andrés Calamaro, "Para siempre Diego" (Diego Forever) by Los Ratones Paranoicos, "Francotirador" (Sniper) by Attaque 77, "Maradona Blues" by Charly García, "Santa Maradona" (Saint Maradona) by Mano Negra, and "La Vida Tómbola" by Manu Chao, among others. There are also other films, such as: Maradona, La Mano de Dios (Maradona, the Hand of God), Amando a Maradona (Loving Maradona), and Maradona by Kusturica.
By 1982, Maradona had become one of the biggest sports stars in the world and had endorsements with many companies, including Puma and Coca-Cola, earning him an additional $1.5 million per year on top of his club salary. In 1984 he earned $7m a year at Napoli, and sponsorships included $5m from Hitachi. In 2010 he appeared in a commercial for French fashion house Louis Vuitton, indulging in a game of table football with fellow World Cup winners Pelé and Zinedine Zidane. Maradona featured in the music video to the 2010 World Cup song "Waka Waka" by Shakira, with footage shown of him celebrating Argentina winning the 1986 World Cup.
A 2006 television commercial for Brazilian soft drink Guaraná Antarctica portrayed Maradona as a member of the Brazil national team, including wearing the yellow jersey and singing the Brazilian national anthem with Brazilian players Ronaldo and Kaká. Later on in the commercial he wakes up realizing it was a nightmare after having too much of the drink. This generated some controversy in the Argentine media after its release (although the commercial was not supposed to air for the Argentine market, fans could see it online). Maradona replied that he had no problem wearing the Brazilian national squad jersey despite Argentina and Brazil's tense football rivalry, but that he would refuse to wear the shirt of River Plate, Boca Juniors' traditional rival. There is a documented phenomenon of Brazilians being named in honour of Maradona, an example being footballer Diego Costa.
In 2017, Maradona featured as a legendary player in the football video games FIFA 18 and Pro Evolution Soccer 2018. In 2019, a documentary film titled Diego Maradona was released by Academy Award and BAFTA Award winning filmmaker Asif Kapadia, director of Amy (on singer Amy Winehouse) and Senna (on motor racing driver Ayrton Senna). Kapadia stated that "
...Maradona is the third part of a trilogy about child geniuses and fame." He added, "...I was fascinated by his journey, wherever he went there were moments of incredible brilliance and drama. He was a leader, taking his teams to the very top, but also many lows in his career. He was always the little guy fighting against the system... and he was willing to do anything, to use all of his cunning and intelligence to win."
==Career statistics==
Maradona made 680 appearances and scored 345 goals for club and country combined, with a goalscoring average of .
===Club===
Notes
==Managerial statistics==
==Honours==
Boca Juniors
Argentine Primera División: 1981 Metropolitano
Barcelona
Individual
Argentine Primera División top scorers: 1978 Metropolitano, 1979 Metropolitano, 1979 Nacional, 1980 Metropolitano, 1980 Nacional
FIFA World Youth Championship Golden Ball: 1979
Guerin Sportivo World Player of the Year: 1979, 1986, 1987
Argentine Football Writers' Footballer of the Year: 1979, 1980, 1981, 1986
El Mundo South American Footballer of the Year: 1979, 1980, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992
El Gráfico Footballer of the Americas: 1980, 1981
Guerin Sportivo World All-star Team: 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985
Eric Batty's World XI: 1984, 1987
Serie A Team of The Year: 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988
Guerin d'Oro (Serie A Footballer of the Year): 1985
Onze de Onze: 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989
FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 1986
FIFA World Cup Most Assists: 1986
L'Équipe Champion of Champions: 1986
La Gazzetta dello Sport Athlete of the Year: 1986
Agence France-Presse Athlete of the Year: 1986
Corriere dello Sport Athlete of the Year: 1986
Onze d'Or: 1986, 1987
Capocannoniere (Serie A top scorer): 1987–88
FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball: 1990
FIFA World Cup All-Time Team: 1994
Ballon d'Or for services to football (France Football): 1995
World Team of the 20th Century: 1998
Marca Leyenda: 1999
Number 10 retired by Napoli football team as a recognition to his contribution to the club: 2000
FIFA Player of the Century: 2000
Golden Foot: 2003, as football legend
FIFA 100 Greatest Living Players: 2004
Greatest Footballers in World Cup History: No. 1, by The Times, 2010
Best Athlete in History: No. 1, by Corriere dello Sport – Stadio, 2012
Player of the 20th Century, by Globe Soccer Awards: 2012
World Soccer magazine's Greatest XI of All Time: 2013
Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2014
AFA Team of All Time: 2015
Greatest Football Players of All-Time: No. 1 by FourFourTwo magazine, 2017
Napoli all-time Top Scorer (1991–2017)
International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) Legends
Ballon d'Or Dream Team: 2020
IFFHS All-time Men's Dream Team: 2021
IFFHS South America Men's Team of All Time: 2021
Notes
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"The Atlantic",
"La Noche del 10",
"Rome",
"Argentine Primera División",
"Maradona by Kusturica",
"Al Wasl FC",
"Lionel Messi",
"Stadio Olimpico",
"swastika",
"Globe Soccer Awards",
"Pope John Paul II",
"Mike Tyson",
"The Los Angeles Times",
"The Times",
"Marilyn Monroe",
"Manchester United F.C.",
"Olympique de Marseille",
"Diego Simeone",
"Barack Obama",
"FIFA 100",
"cap (sport)",
"Bruno Giordano",
"internal bleeding",
"Franz Beckenbauer",
"alcohol abuse",
"Channel 4",
"Canadian National Soccer League",
"SPAL",
"La Prensa (Panama City)",
"Rosario",
"El País (Uruguay)",
"1983 Copa de la Liga",
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"Argentine Football Association",
"Clarín (Argentine newspaper)",
"Tottenham Hotspur F.C.",
"Zinedine Zidane",
"Guerin Sportivo",
"hepatitis",
"Miraflores Palace",
"England national football team",
"Donald Trump",
"Attaque 77",
"David Goldblatt (writer)",
"Toronto Star",
"Corrientes Province",
"BBC",
"cardiac arrest",
"Rudi Völler",
"Mao Tse-tung",
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"Dalma Maradona",
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"List of retired numbers in association football",
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"Konex Award",
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"FC Barcelona",
"Andrés Calamaro",
"IMG (company)",
"Dorados de Sinaloa",
"La Gazzetta dello Sport",
"Toronto Italia",
"1990 FIFA World Cup Final",
"Osvaldo Ardiles",
"France Football",
"The New Yorker",
"Inter Milan",
"Mario Kempes",
"George Best",
"FIFA 18",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Hugo Porta",
"Bolivia national football team",
"Giuseppe Bergomi",
"Marca Leyenda",
"Caracol Radio",
"1986 FIFA World Cup qualification",
"Peter Beardsley",
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"Faber and Faber",
"Asociación Atlética Argentinos Juniors",
"homicide",
"Argentina national rugby union team",
"Elizabeth II",
"Careca",
"Corner kick",
"2010 FIFA World Cup",
"Arrigo Sacchi",
"Konex Foundation",
"Ubaldo Fillol",
"Roberto Durán",
"1986 World Cup",
"Formation (association football)",
"Denmark national football team",
"European Cup",
"Charles Dickens",
"Granma (newspaper)",
"Sam Cane",
"Boston Herald",
"Gary Lineker",
"Santos Laciar",
"1990 FIFA World Cup",
"1987 Coppa Italia final",
"drug test",
"Néstor Kirchner",
"Copa América",
"1995–96 Boca Juniors season",
"S.S.C. Napoli",
"villa miseria",
"FIFA Player of the Century",
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"Dubai",
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"Association football",
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"Cuba",
"Red Square",
"Serie A",
"Perugia Calcio",
"hernia",
"second striker",
"Barcelona",
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"1984 Copa del Rey Final",
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"Olé (sports newspaper)",
"1979 Copa América",
"Goal of the Century",
"100 Greatest (TV series)",
"Martin Amis",
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"1989–90 SSC Napoli season",
"List of Argentine Primera División top scorers",
"Copa del Rey",
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"Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)",
"Los Ratones Paranoicos",
"Sergio Batista",
"Carlos Fren",
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"Retired numbers in association football",
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"Villa Fiorito",
"Supercopa Libertadores",
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"1986–87 Coppa Italia",
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"2014 Israel–Gaza conflict",
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"Eurosport",
"liquid diet",
"Puma SE",
"Giuseppe Bruscolotti",
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"Claudio Gentile",
"gastric bypass surgery",
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"Juventus FC",
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"2018 FIFA World Cup",
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"Steve Hodge",
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"Olimpia Award",
"Ronaldinho",
"Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)",
"Hitachi",
"Iglesia Maradoniana",
"Al-Saadi Gaddafi",
"Puebla",
"Mar del Plata Summit of the Americas",
"haka",
"Uruguay national football team",
"FIFA U-20 World Cup",
"AFC Champions League Elite",
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"imperialism",
"FIFA World Youth Championship",
"Club Atlético River Plate",
"Buenos Aires Province",
"1978 Argentine Primera División",
"Lothar Matthäus",
"The Times of India",
"Palace of Westminster",
"Santiago Bernabéu Stadium",
"Luigi de Magistris (politician)",
"The Observer",
"Italy national football team",
"Al-Wasl F.C.",
"Marca (newspaper)",
"Foxboro Stadium",
"Reuters",
"The Nation",
"Carlos Bianchi",
"2010 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)",
"Rivellino",
"Brazil national football team",
"1987–88 Serie A",
"Mexico City",
"UAE Pro-League",
"Vladimir Putin",
"Kaká",
"Silvio Marzolini",
"Golden Ball (FIFA)"
] |
8,487 |
David Brewster
|
Sir David Brewster KH PRSE FRS FSA Scot FSSA MICE (11 December 178110 February 1868) was a Scottish scientist, inventor, author, and academic administrator. In science he is principally remembered for his experimental work in physical optics, mostly concerned with the study of the polarization of light and including the discovery of Brewster's angle. He studied the birefringence of crystals under compression and discovered photoelasticity, thereby creating the field of optical mineralogy. For this work, William Whewell dubbed him the "father of modern experimental optics" and "the Johannes Kepler of optics."
Brewster was a pioneer in photography. He invented an improved stereoscope, which he called "lenticular stereoscope" and which became the first portable 3D-viewing device. He also invented the stereoscopic camera, two types of polarimeters, the polyzonal lens, the lighthouse illuminator, and the kaleidoscope.
Brewster was a devout Presbyterian and marched arm-in-arm with his brother during the events of the Disruption of 1843, which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. As a historian of science, Brewster focused on the life and work of his hero, Isaac Newton. Brewster published a detailed biography of Newton in 1831 and later became the first scientific historian to examine many of the papers in Newton's Nachlass. Brewster also wrote numerous works of popular science, and was one of the founders of the British Science Association, of which he was elected president in 1849. He became the public face of higher education in Scotland, serving as Principal of the University of St Andrews (1837–1859) and later of the University of Edinburgh (1859–1868). Brewster also edited the 18-volume Edinburgh Encyclopædia.
==Life==
David Brewster was born in the Canongate in Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, to Margaret Key (1753–1790) and James Brewster (c. 1735–1815), the rector of Jedburgh Grammar School and a teacher of high reputation. David was the third of six children, two daughters and four sons: James (1777–1847), minister at Craig, Ferryden; David; George (1784–1855), minister at Scoonie, Fife; and Patrick (1788–1859), minister at the abbey church, Paisley. By then, Brewster had already shown a strong inclination for the natural sciences and had established a close association with James Veitch of Inchbonny. Veitch, who enjoyed a local reputation as a man of science and was particularly skilled in making telescopes, was characterized by Sir Walter Scott as a "self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician".
Brewster is buried in the grounds of Melrose Abbey, in Roxburghshire.
==Career==
===Work on optics===
Though Brewster duly finished his theological studies and was licensed to preach, his other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession. In 1799 fellow-student Henry Brougham persuaded him to study the diffraction of light. The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the Philosophical Transactions of London and other scientific journals. The fact that other scientists – notably Étienne-Louis Malus and Augustin Fresnel – were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others. A lesser-known classmate of his, Thomas Dick, also went on to become a popular astronomical writer.
The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings:
The laws of light polarization by reflection and refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena;
The discovery of the polarising structure induced by heat and pressure;
The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms;
The laws of metallic reflection;
Experiments on the absorption of light.
In this line of investigation, the prime importance belongs to the discovery of
the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle;
biaxial crystals, and
the production of double refraction by irregular heating.
These discoveries were promptly recognised. As early as 1807 the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley Medal; and in 1816 the French Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years. In 1821, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1822 a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Among the non-scientific public, his fame spread more effectually by his invention in about 1815 of the kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. As a reflection of this fame, Brewster's portrait was later printed in some cigar boxes. Brewster chose renowned achromatic lens developer Philip Carpenter as the sole manufacturer of the kaleidoscope in 1817. Although Brewster patented the kaleidoscope in 1817 (GB 4136), a copy of the prototype was shown to London opticians and copied before the patent was granted. As a consequence, the kaleidoscope became produced in large numbers, but yielded no direct financial benefits to Brewster. It proved to be a massive success with two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months.
An instrument of more significance, the stereoscope, which – though of much later date (1849) – along with the kaleidoscope did more than anything else to popularise his name, was not as has often been asserted the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors. A dogged rival of Wheatstone's, Brewster was unwilling to credit him with the invention, however, and proposed that the true author of the stereoscope was a Mr. Elliot, a "Teacher of Mathematics" from Edinburgh, who, according to Brewster, had conceived of the principles as early as 1823 and had constructed a lensless and mirrorless prototype in 1839, through which one could view drawn landscape transparencies, since photography had yet to be invented. Brewster's personal contribution was the suggestion to use prisms for uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said to be his invention.
A much more valuable and practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system. Although Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation, perfected the dioptric apparatus independently, Brewster was active earlier in the field than Fresnel, describing the dioptric apparatus in 1812. Brewster pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two years before Fresnel suggested it, and it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly through Brewster's persistent efforts.
===Other work===
Although Brewster's own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science. He began writing in 1799 as a regular contributor to the Edinburgh Magazine, of which he acted as editor 1802–1803 at the age of twenty. In 1807, he undertook the editorship of the newly projected Edinburgh Encyclopædia, of which the first part appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica (seventh and eighth editions) writing, among others, the articles on electricity, hydrodynamics, magnetism, microscope, optics, stereoscope, and voltaic electricity. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816.
In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774–1854), the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, which took the place of the Edinburgh Magazine. The first ten volumes (1819–1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825–1826) being edited by Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1824, 16 volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years 1824–1832, with very many articles from his own pen.
He contributed around three hundred papers a short popular account of the philosopher's life, in Murray's Family Library, followed by an 1832 American edition in Harper's Family Library; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the much fuller Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, a work which embodied the results of more than 20 years' investigation of original manuscripts and other available sources.
Brewster's position as editor brought him into frequent contact with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognise the benefit that would accrue from regular communication among those in the field of science. In a review of Charles Babbage's book Decline of Science in England in John Murray's Quarterly Review, he suggested the creation of "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers". This was taken up by various Declinarians and found speedy realisation in the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along with Babbage and Sir John Herschel, had the chief part in shaping its constitution.
Of a high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character. In estimating his place among scientific discoverers, the chief thing to be borne in mind is that his genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws that he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy although he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light. Few would dispute the verdict of James David Forbes, an editor of the eighth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: "His scientific glory is different in kind from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry (1824); Treatise on Optics (1831); Letters on Natural Magic, addressed to Sir Walter Scott (1832) The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler (1841); More Worlds than One (1854). and he described for the first time the red fluorescence of chlorophyll.
===History of Scottish Freemasonry===
As well as his many scientific works and biographies of notable scientists, Brewster also wrote The History of Free Masonry, Drawn from Authentic Sources of Information; with an Account of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, from Its Institution in 1736, to the Present Time, published in 1804, when he was only 23. The work was commissioned by Alexander Lawrie, publisher to the Grand Lodge of Scotland, to whom the work has been, frequently, mis-attributed. Given that the book bears Lawrie's name and not Brewster's this is understandable. The book became one of the standard works on early Scottish freemasonry although it has been largely superseded by later works. There is no evidence that Brewster was a Freemason at the time he wrote the book, nor any that he became one later.
=== Opposition to evolution ===
Brewster's Christian beliefs stirred him to respond against the idea of the transmutation of species and the theory of evolution. His opinion was that "science and religion must be one since each dealt with Truth, which had only one and the same Author." In 1845 he wrote a highly critical review of the evolutionist work Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, in the North British Review. which he considered to be an insult to Christian revelation and a dangerous example of materialism.
In 1862, he responded to Darwin's On the Origin of Species and published the article The Facts and Fancies of Mr Darwin in Good Words. He stated that Darwin's book combined both "interesting facts and idle fancies" which made up a "dangerous and degrading speculation". He accepted adaptive changes, but he strongly opposed Darwin's statement about the primordial form, which he considered an offensive idea to "both the naturalist and the Christian."
==Family==
Brewster married twice. His first wife, Juliet Macpherson (c. 1776–1850), was a daughter of James Macpherson (1736–1796), a probable translator of Ossian poems. They married on 31 July 1810 in Edinburgh and had four sons and a daughter:
James (1812–)
Charles Macpherson (1813–1828), drowned.
Henry Craigie (1816–1905) became a military officer and photographer.
Margaret Maria Gordon (1823–1907) wrote a book on Brewster, which is considered the most comprehensive description of his life.
In 1833, Brewster's sister-in-law, Ann Macpherson, became laird of Belleville on the death of her half-brother, James. Brewster interested himself in the affairs of the estate with a view to promoting agricultural improvement. He gave the tenants the security of seven-year leases but his overbearing behaviour towards both them and their laird made him unpopular locally. Lady Brewster famously fainted at the Oxford evolution debate of 30 June 1860. Brewster died in 1868, and was buried at Melrose Abbey, next to his first wife and second son. The physics building at Heriot-Watt University is named in his honour.
==Recognition and modern references==
A bust of Brewster is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling.
Brewster's views on the possibility of evolution of intelligence on other planets, contrasted with the opinion of William Whewell, are cited in the novel Barchester Towers.
He appears as a minor antagonist in the 2015 video game Assassin's Creed Syndicate as a scientist working for the game's opposing faction. He is assassinated by one of the protagonists, Evie Frye. He features as a character in Ali Bacon's novel, In the Blink of an Eye (2018).
A street within the Kings Buildings complex (science buildings linked to Edinburgh University) was named in his memory in 2015.
|
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"Sir Alexander Grant, 10th Baronet",
"List of Principals of the University of Edinburgh",
"List of recipients of the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts",
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"Royal Society",
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"mathematics"
] |
8,488 |
DTMF signaling
|
Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling is a telecommunication signaling system using the voice-frequency band over telephone lines between telephone equipment and other communications devices and switching centers. The different beeps heard when pressing the number buttons on a telephone are the DTMF frequencies. On modern telephones like smartphones, these beeps do not serve a technical function anymore, but are for decorative purposes.
DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States,
and became known under the trademark Touch-Tone for use in push-button telephones, starting in 1963. The DTMF frequencies are standardized in ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. The signaling system is also known as MF4 in the United Kingdom, as MFV in Germany, and Digitone in Canada.
Touch-tone dialing with a telephone keypad gradually replaced the use of rotary dials and has become the industry standard in telephony to control automated equipment and signal user intent. Other multi-frequency systems are also used for signaling on trunks in the telephone network.
==Multifrequency signaling==
Before the development of DTMF, telephone numbers were dialed with rotary dials for loop-disconnect (LD) signaling, also known as pulse dialing. It functions by interrupting the current in the local loop between the telephone exchange and the calling party's telephone at a precise rate with a switch in the telephone that operates the dial spins back to its rest position after having been rotated to each desired digit. The exchange equipment responds to the dial pulses either directly by operating relays or by storing the digits in a register that records the dialed telephone number. Pulse dialing was possible only on direct metallic lines and was limited in physical distance by the amount of electrical distortions present. For signaling over trunks between switching systems, operators used a different type of multi-frequency signaling.
Multi-frequency signaling (MF) is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone (pure sine wave) sounds. Various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT. The earliest of these were for in-band signaling between switching centers, where long-distance telephone operators used a 16-digit keypad to input the next portion of the destination telephone number in order to contact the next downstream long-distance telephone operator. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness. Based on this prior success with using MF by specialists to establish long-distance telephone calls, dual-tone multi-frequency signaling was developed for end-user signaling without the assistance of operators.
The DTMF system uses two sets of four frequencies in the voice frequency range transmitted in pairs to represent sixteen signals, representing the ten digits, four and six additional signals identified as the letters A to D, and the symbols # and *. As the signals are audible tones they can be transmitted through line repeaters and amplifiers, and over radio and microwave links.
AT&T described the product as "a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the voice transmission path". To prevent consumer telephones from interfering with the MF-based routing and switching between telephone switching centers, DTMF frequencies differ from all of the pre-existing MF signaling protocols between switching centers: MF/R1, R2, CCS4, CCS5, and others that were later replaced by SS7 digital signaling. DTMF was known throughout the Bell System by the trademark Touch-Tone. The term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5, 1960, and was introduced to the public on November 18, 1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public. As a parent company of Bell Systems, AT&T held the trademark from September 4, 1962, to March 13, 1984. It is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23.
Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature tone dialing or DTMF. Automatic Electric (GTE) referred to it as "Touch-calling" in their marketing. Other trade names such as Digitone were used by the Northern Electric Company in Canada.
As a method of in-band signaling, DTMF signals were also used by cable television broadcasters as cue tones to indicate the start and stop times of local commercial insertion points during station breaks for the benefit of cable companies. Until out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere. Previously, terrestrial television stations used DTMF tones to control remote transmitters. In IP telephony, DTMF signals can also be delivered as either in-band or out-of-band tones, or even as a part of signaling protocols, as long as both endpoints agree on a common approach to adopt.
==Keypad==
The DTMF telephone keypad is laid out as a matrix of push buttons in which each row represents the low frequency component and each column represents the high frequency component of the DTMF signal. The commonly used keypad has four rows and three columns, but a fourth column is present for some applications. Pressing a key sends a combination of the row and column frequencies. For example, the 1 key produces a superimposition of a 697 Hz low tone and a 1209 Hz high tone. Initial pushbutton designs employed levers, enabling each button to activate one row and one column contact. The tones are decoded by the switching center to determine the keys pressed by the user.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips) They consulted with companies to determine the requirements. This led to the addition of the square sign which is typically approximated by the number sign (#), also "pound", "diamond", "hash", "gate" (UK), and "octothorpe") in the fourth row of the first column of keys, and the star (*) key, or asterisk (France) in the fourth row of the third column. In addition a fourth column of keys was added for menu selection: A, B, C and D. The lettered keys were dropped from most keypads and it was many years before the two symbol keys became widely used for vertical service codes such as *67 in the United States and Canada to suppress caller ID.
Public payphones that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip.
The AUTOVON telephone system of the United States Armed Forces used signals A, B, C, and D to assert certain privilege and priority levels when placing telephone calls. Precedence is still a feature of military telephone networks, but using number combinations. For example, entering 93 before a number is a priority call.
Present-day uses of the signals A, B, C and D are rare in telephone networks, and are exclusive to network control. For example, A is used in some networks for cycling through a list of carriers. The signals are used in radio phone patch and repeater operations to allow, among other uses, control of the repeater while connected to an active telephone line.
The signals star, square, A, B, C, and D are still widely used worldwide by amateur radio operators and commercial two-way radio systems for equipment control, repeater control, remote-base operations and some telephone communications systems.
DTMF signaling tones may also be heard at the start and/or end of some prerecorded VHS videocassettes. Information on the master version of the video tape is encoded in the DTMF tones. The encoded tones provide information to automatic duplication machines, such as format, duration and volume levels in order to replicate the original video as closely as possible.
DTMF tones are used in some caller ID systems to transfer the caller ID information, a function that is performed in the United States by Bell 202 modulated frequency-shift keying (FSK) signaling.
==Decoding==
DTMF was originally decoded by tuned electrical filter banks. By the end of the 20th century, digital signal processing became the predominant technology for decoding. DTMF decoding algorithms typically use the Goertzel algorithm although application of MUSIC (algorithm) to DTMF decoding has been shown to outperform Goertzel and being the only possibility in cases when number of available samples is limited. As DTMF signaling is often transmitted in-band with voice or other audio signals present simultaneously, the DTMF signal definition includes strict limits for timing (minimum duration and interdigit spacing), frequency deviations, harmonics, and amplitude relation of the two components with respect to each other (twist).
==Other multiple frequency signals==
National telephone systems define other tones, outside the DTMF specification, that indicate the status of lines, equipment, or the result of calls, and for control of equipment for troubleshooting or service purposes. Such call-progress tones are often also composed of multiple frequencies and are standardized in each country. The Bell System defined them in the Precise Tone Plan. Bell's multi-frequency signaling was exploited by blue box devices.
Some early modems were based on touch-tone frequencies,
such as Bell 400-style modems.
|
[
"Skeuomorph",
"call-progress tone",
"ITU-T",
"pulse dialing",
"vertical service code",
"Selective calling",
"frequency-shift keying",
"CCITT",
"National Weather Service",
"Ogg",
"cue tone",
"caller ID",
"Federal Communications Commission",
"filter bank",
"Model 500 telephone",
"calling party",
"out-of-band signaling",
"MUSIC (algorithm)",
"Washington, D.C.",
"IP telephony",
"payphone",
"Goertzel algorithm",
"number sign",
"Numerical digit",
"Communications protocol",
"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission",
"Emergency Alert System",
"Number sign",
"switchboard operator",
"long-distance calling",
"multi-frequency signaling",
"Signalling System No 7",
"Bell 202",
"telephone",
"telecommunication signaling",
"modem",
"Hz",
"cable television",
"magnetic strip",
"pure tone",
"VHS",
"Broadcasting",
"telephone keypad",
"digital signal processing",
"push-button telephone",
"Automatic telephone exchange",
"Cue tone",
"R2 signalling",
"local loop",
"AUTOVON",
"sine wave",
"keypad",
"asterisk",
"United States Armed Forces",
"blue box",
"Bell Laboratories",
"amateur radio",
"Precise Tone Plan",
"Bell System",
"multi-frequency",
"in-band",
"Northern Electric Company",
"in-band signaling",
"rotary dial",
"Beep (sound)"
] |
8,489 |
Deuterocanonical books
|
The deuterocanonical books, meaning 'of, pertaining to, or constituting a second canon', collectively known as the Deuterocanon (DC), are certain books and passages considered to be canonical books of the Old Testament by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Church of the East. In contrast, modern Rabbinic Judaism and Protestants regard the DC as Apocrypha.
Seven books are accepted as deuterocanonical by all the ancient churches: Tobit, Judith, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, First and Second Maccabees and also the Greek additions to Esther and Daniel.{{refn|"The protocanonical books of the Old Testament correspond with those of the Bible of the Hebrews, and the Old Testament as received by Protestants. The deuterocanonical (deuteros, "second") are those whose Scriptural character was contested in some quarters, but which long ago gained a secure footing in the Bible of the Catholic Church, though those of the Old Testament are classed by Protestants as the "Apocrypha". These consist of seven books: Tobias, Judith, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, First and Second Maccabees; also certain additions to Esther and Daniel." and they are regularly found in old manuscripts and cited frequently by the Church Fathers, such as Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Irenaeus, Tertullian, among others.
According to the Gelasian Decree, the Council of Rome (382 AD) defined a list of books of scripture as canonical. It included most of the deuterocanonical books. Patristic and synodal lists from the 200s, 300s and 400s usually include selections of the deuterocanonical books.
==List of deuterocanonicals==
Canonical for the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Church of the East:
Tobit
Judith
Baruch including the Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6)
Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
Wisdom
Greek additions to Esther
Greek additions to Daniel
Canonical only for the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Church:
The acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called deuterocanonical. Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after 100 AD, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries. Five fragments from the Book of Tobit have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos. 196–200). that the Qumran library of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran was not entirely produced at Qumran, but may have included part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, that may have been hidden in the caves for safekeeping at the time the Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 AD.
===Influence of the Septuagint===
Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Septuagint are:
The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX), editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha – both of which are called collectively ("readable, worthy of reading"). No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha.
Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament "psalms": the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Nunc dimittis from Luke's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the "Gloria in Excelsis". Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin.
In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees. For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11:37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference. Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature.
===Influence of early authors===
The Jewish historian Josephus () wrote that the Hebrew Bible contained 22 canonical books. The same number of 22 books was reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius, but they might differ on the exact content (see below for Athanasius), as Josephus did not provide a detailed list.
Origen of Alexandria (), cited by Eusebius, described the Hebrew Bible as containing 22 canonical books. Among these books he listed the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees.
Eusebius wrote in his Church History () that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of the Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians. On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: "In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called 'The Wisdom of Solomon'."
Cyril of Jerusalem () in his Catechetical Lectures cites as canonical books "Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and the Epistle (of Jeremiah)".
Epiphanius of Salamis () mentions that "there are 27 books given the Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five". He wrote in his that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book. While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity.
Augustine of Hippo (), in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8), cites a list of the canon of the Old Testament and the New Testament, including the deuterocanonical books as canonical:
According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia () the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books. In this category Rufinus includes the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees.
Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon.
In the 7th century Latin document the Muratorian fragment, which some scholars actually believe to be a copy of an earlier 170 AD Greek original, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon is counted by the church.
===Synods===
In later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding the other deuterocanonical books.
According to Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, the Council of Rome (382 AD) cites a list of books of scripture presented as having been made canonical. This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon:
{{blockquote|Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Kings IV books [1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings], Chronicles II books, 150 Psalms, three books of Solomon [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs], Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremiah with Cinoth i.e. his lamentations, Ezechiel, Daniel, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habbakuk Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Job, Tobit, Esdras II books [Ezra, Nehemiah], Ester, Judith, Maccabees II books. Athanasius, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Epiphanius of Salamis, the Book of Jeremiah forms a single book together with Baruch, Lamentations and the Letter of Jeremiah, also called the Epistle of Jeremiah.)
The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first councils that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes a selection of books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.
Canon XXIV from the Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD) records the scriptures which are considered canonical; the Old Testament books as follows:
On 28 August 397, the Council of Carthage confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part is stated:
In 419 AD, the Council of Carthage in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books as canonical scripture:
(According to the Council of Laodicea, and Epiphanius of Salamis,
The Council of Florence (1442) promulgated a list of the books of the Bible, including the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books:
The Council of Trent (1546) adopted an understanding of the canons of these previous councils as corresponding to its own list of deuterocanonical books:
===Influence of Jerome===
Jerome in one of his Vulgate prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books. In these prologues, Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or "not in the canon" except for Prayer of Manasses and Baruch. He mentions Baruch by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the "confirmation of the doctrine of the Church".
Jerome's Vulgate included the deuterocanonical books as well as apocrypha. Jerome referenced and quoted from some as scripture despite describing them as "not in the canon". Michael Barber asserts that, although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, he later viewed them as scripture. Barber argues that this is clear from Jerome's epistles; he cites Jerome's letter to Eustochium, in which Jerome quotes Sirach 13:2. Elsewhere Jerome apparently also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Henry Barker states that Jerome quotes the Apocrypha with marked respect, and even as "Scripture", giving them an ecclesiastical if not a canonical position and use. Luther also wrote introductions to the books of the Apocrypha, and occasionally quoted from some to support an argument.
In his prologue to Judith, without using the word canon, Jerome mentioned that Judith was held to be scriptural by the First Council of Nicaea.
In his reply to Rufinus, Jerome affirmed that he was consistent with the choice of the church regarding which version of the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel to use, which the Jews of his day did not include:
Thus Jerome acknowledged the principle by which the canon would be settled—the judgment of the Church (at least the local churches in this case) rather than his own judgment or the judgment of Jews; though concerning translation of Daniel to Greek, he wondered why one should use the version of a translator whom he regarded as a heretic and judaizer (Theodotion). This decree was clarified somewhat by Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927, who allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute.
The Council of Trent also ratified the Vulgate Bible as the official Latin version of the Bible for the Roman Catholic Church.
Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Latin Vulgate are:
===Masoretic Text===
The existence of the Septuagint, Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Peshitta versions of the Hebrew scriptures demonstrate that different versions of Judaism used different texts, and it is debated which is closest to the Urtext (a theoretical "original" text from which all of these emerged). The Dead Sea Scrolls contain some of the deuterocanonical books, while the Masoretic Text excludes them. Since the Enlightenment, it was wrongly believed that the Masoretic Text was the "original" Hebrew Bible when this was in fact a medieval version created by the Masoretes. The oldest nearly-complete manuscripts of the Old Testament include the Codex Vaticanus (4th century) and the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), while the oldest complete manuscript of the Masoretic text is the Codex Leningradensis from 1008.
The Septuagint was the version of the Hebrew Bible from which the early Christians emerged. The Christian Bible contained these deuterocanonical books until Martin Luther, assuming the Masoretic text to be the original, removed them to match this new Jewish canon. Rabbinic Judaism is a newer form of Judaism that created the Masoretic text in part to deter a Christian reading of the Old Testament.
==In Judaism==
Although there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed, some scholars hold that the Hebrew canon was established well before the 1st century AD – even as early as the 4th century BC, or by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–40 BC).
The canon of modern Rabbinic Judaism excludes the deuterocanonical books. Albert J. Sundberg writes that Judaism did not exclude from their scriptures the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here.
The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which the early Christian church used as its Old Testament, included all of the deuterocanonical books. The term distinguished these books from both the protocanonical books (the books of the Hebrew canon) and the biblical apocrypha (books of Jewish origin that were sometimes read in Christian churches as scripture but which were not regarded as canonical).
Some commentators see texts from these particular books being paraphrased, referred, or alluded to many times in the New Testament, depending in large measure on what is counted as a reference; other scholars point to a correspondence of thought.
==In the Catholic Church==
The Catholic Church considers that in the Council of Rome in 382 AD, under the Papacy of Damasus I, was defined the complete canon of the Bible, accepting 46 books for the Old Testament, including what the Reformed Churches consider as deuterocanonical books, and 27 books for the New Testament. Based in this first canon, Saint Jerome compiled and translated the 73 books of the Bible into Latin, later known as the Vulgate Bible version, which has been considered during many centuries as one of the official Bible translations of the Catholic Church.
The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), also explicitly accepted the first canon from the Council of Rome. These councils
Schaff says that this canon remained undisturbed till the 16th century, and was sanctioned by the Council of Trent at its fourth session,
Subsequent research qualifies this latter statement, in that a distinct tradition of large format pandect bibles has been identified as having been promoted by the 11th and 12th century reforming Papacy for presentation to monasteries in Italy; and now commonly termed 'Atlantic Bibles' on account of their very great size. While not all these bibles present a consistent reformed Vulgate text, they generally exclude the deuterocanonical books.
=== Baruch ===
According to the canon lists of the Council of Laodicea, Athanasius (367 AD), and Epiphanius of Salamis (),
=== Esdras ===
For the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant Churches, Greek Esdras is now considered apocryphal. The Orthodox Church considers it as canonical. The earlier canonical status of this book in the Western church can be less easy to track, as references to Esdras in canon lists and citations may refer either to this book, or to Greek Ezra–Nehemiah, or both together. In the surviving Greek pandect Bibles of the 4th and 5th centuries, Greek Esdras always stands as 'Esdras A' while the Greek translation of the whole of canonical Ezra–Nehemiah stands as 'Esdras B'. The same is found in the surviving witness of the Old Latin Bible. Consequently Gallagher and Meade conclude that "when the ancient canon lists, whether Greek or Latin, mention two books of Esdras, they must have in mind the books known in the LXX and Old Latin as Esdras A and Esdras B; i.e. our 1 Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah."
In his prologue to Ezra Jerome refers to four books of Ezra in the Latin tradition. Jerome's first and second Latin books of Ezra are those of the Old Latin Bible - corresponding to Greek Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah in the Septuagint. These two books he considers each to be a corrupt version of the single Hebrew book of Ezra, so he claims that his Vulgate version of Ezra from the Hebrew replaces both of them. Jerome condemns the third and fourth Latin books of Ezra as apocrypha. His third book must correspond to the Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra while the fourth book is likely to comprise other material from Latin Ezra.
From the 9th century, occasional Latin Vulgate manuscripts are found in which Jerome's single Ezra text is split to form the separate books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In the Paris Bibles of the 13th century this split has become universal, with Esdras A being reintroduced as '3 Esdras' and Latin Esdras being added as '4 Esdras'. At the Council of Trent neither '3 Esdras' nor '4 Esdras' were accepted as canonical books, but were eventually printed in the section of 'Apocrypha' in the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, along with the Prayer of Manasses.
The Council of Trent in 1546 stated the list of books included in the canon as it had been set out in the Council of Florence. In respect to the deuterocanonical books this list conformed with the canon lists of Western synods of the late 4th century, other than including Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6) as a single book. While the majority at Trent supported this decision there were participants in the minority who disagreed with accepting any other than the protocanonical books in the canon. Among the minority, at Trent, were Cardinals Seripando and Cajetan, the latter an opponent of Luther at Augsburg.
== In Eastern Orthodoxy ==
The Eastern Orthodox Churches have traditionally included all the books of the Septuagint in their Old Testaments. The Greeks use the word (, "readable, worthy to be read") to describe the books of the Greek Septuagint that are not present in the Hebrew Bible. When Eastern Orthodox theologians use the term "deuterocanonical", it is important to note that the meaning is not identical to the Roman Catholic usage. In Eastern Orthodox Christianity, deuterocanonical means that a book is part of the corpus of the Old Testament (i.e. is read during the services) but has secondary authority. In other words, deutero (second) applies to authority or witnessing power, whereas in Roman Catholicism, deutero applies to chronology (the fact that these books were confirmed later), not to authority.
The Eastern Orthodox Churches canon includes the deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church plus 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, and the Prayer of Manasseh, while Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are separated.
The Eastern Orthodox synod, the Synod of Jerusalem, held in 1672 receive as its canon the books found in the Septuagint, and in the Patristic, Byzantine, and liturgical tradition. The Synod declared the Eastern Orthodox canon as follows:
specifically, "The Wisdom of Solomon," "Judith," "Tobit," "The History of the Dragon" [Bel and the Dragon], "The History of Susanna," "The Maccabees," and "The Wisdom of Sirach." For we judge these also to be with the other genuine Books of Divine Scripture genuine parts of Scripture. For ancient custom, or rather the Catholic Church, which has delivered to us as genuine the Sacred Gospels and the other Books of Scripture, has undoubtedly delivered these also as parts of Scripture, and the denial of these is the rejection of those. And if, perhaps, it seems that not always have all of these been considered on the same level as the others, yet nevertheless these also have been counted and reckoned with the rest of Scripture, both by Synods and by many of the most ancient and eminent Theologians of the Universal Church. All of these we also judge to be Canonical Books, and confess them to be Sacred Scripture.
Other texts printed in Eastern Orthodox Bibles are included as an appendix, which is not the same in all churches; the appendix contains 4 Maccabees in Greek-language bibles, while it contains 2 Esdras in Slavonic-language and Russian-language.
The Book of Enoch is unusual as it was quoted in the New Testament. 1 Enoch 1:9 is directly and explicitly quoted in Jude 1:14-15 and may be alluded to in Galatians 5:19. It is not part of the canon of any other churches.
==In Protestantism==
For churches which espouse sola scriptura independent of ecclesiastical authorities or sacred Tradition, it is necessary and critical to have a clear and complete list of the canonical books.
The early Christian church largely relied upon the Septuagint in the canonization of the Christian Bible. In the 16th century, Martin Luther argued that many of the received texts of the New Testament lacked the authority of the Gospels, and therefore proposed removing a number of books from the New Testament, including Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Book of Revelation. While this proposal was not widely accepted among Protestants, the deuterocanonical books—which had previously been deprecated by Jewish scholars—were moved by Luther into an intertestamental section of the Bible called the apocrypha.
Lutherans and Anglicans do not consider these books to be canonical but do consider them worthy of reverence. As such, readings from the Protestant apocrypha are found in the lectionaries of these churches.
===Anabaptist Churches===
Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the Apocrypha as intertestamental books, which has much overlap with the Catholic deuterocanonical books; Amish wedding ceremonies include "the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha".
The fathers of Anabaptism, such as Menno Simons, quoted "them [the Apocrypha] with the same authority and nearly the same frequency as books of the Hebrew Bible" and the texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees are held in high esteem by the Anabaptists, who faced persecution in their history.
===Anglican Communion===
The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England lists the deuterocanonical books as suitable to be read for "example of life and instruction of manners, but yet doth not apply them to establish any doctrine". The early lectionaries of the Anglican Church (as included in the Book of Common Prayer of 1662) included the deuterocanonical books amongst the cycle of readings, and passages from them were used regularly in services (such as the Kyrie Pantokrator and the Benedicite).
Readings from the deuterocanonical books are now included in many modern lectionaries in the Anglican Communion, based on the Revised Common Lectionary (in turn based on the post-conciliar Roman Catholic lectionary), though alternative readings from protocanonical books are also provided.
There is a great deal of overlap between the Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible and the Catholic deuterocanon, but the two are distinct.
The Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible includes, in addition to the deuterocanonical books, the following three books, which were not included in the list of the canonical books by the Council of Trent:
1 Esdras (Vulgate 3 Esdras)
2 Esdras (Vulgate 4 Esdras)
Prayer of Manasseh
These books make up the Apocrypha section of the Clementine Vulgate: 3 Esdras (a.k.a. 1 Esdras); 4 Esdras (a.k.a. 2 Esdras); and the Prayer of Manasseh, where they are specifically described as "outside of the series of the canon". The 1609 Douai Bible includes them in an appendix, but they have not been included in English Catholic Bibles since the Challoner revision of the Douai Bible in 1750.
Using the word apocrypha (Greek: "hidden away") to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies that the writings in question should not be included in the canon of the Bible. This classification commingles them with certain non-canonical gospels and New Testament apocrypha. The Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical books instead of Apocrypha in academic writing.
===Lutheran Churches===
Luther termed the deuterocanonical books "Apocrypha, that is, books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read." These are included in copies of the Luther Bible as intertestamental books between the Old Testament and New Testament.
The Revised Common Lectionary, in use by most mainline Protestants including Methodists and Moravians, lists readings from the deuterocanonical books in the liturgical kalendar, although alternate Old Testament scripture lessons are provided.
===Presbyterian Churches===
The Westminster Confession of Faith, a Calvinist document that serves as a systematic summary of doctrine for the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian Churches worldwide, recognizes only the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon as authentic scripture. Chapter 1, Article 3 of the Confession reads: "The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the Canon of Scripture; and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings."
===Reformed Churches===
The Belgic Confession, used in Reformed churches, devotes a section (Article 6) to "the difference between the canonical and apocryphal books" and says of them: "All which the Church may read and take instruction from, so far as they agree with the canonical books; but they are far from having such power and efficacy as that we may from their testimony confirm any point of faith or of the Christian religion; much less to detract from the authority of the other sacred books."
==New Testament deuterocanonicals==
The term deuterocanonical is sometimes used to describe the canonical antilegomena, those books of the New Testament which, like the deuterocanonicals of the Old Testament, were not universally accepted by the early Church. The antilegomena or "disputed writings" were widely read in the Early Church and include:
The Epistle to the Hebrews
The Epistle of James
The Second Epistle of Peter
The Second Epistle of John
The Third Epistle of John
The Epistle of Jude
The Book of Revelation
The Apocalypse of Peter
The Acts of Paul
The Shepherd of Hermas
The Epistle of Barnabas
The Didache
|
[
"Peshitta",
"The Shepherd of Hermas",
"Catholic Church",
"Psalm 151",
"Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209",
"Epistle of Jeremiah",
"Origen",
"Nunc dimittis",
"Eastern Orthodox Churches",
"Eastern Orthodox Church",
"Comma Johanneum",
"Divine Liturgy",
"Presbyterian",
"Vulgate",
"early Christianity",
"Hebrew Bible",
"Augustine of Hippo",
"Holy Tradition",
"Prayer of Manasses",
"Book of Exodus",
"Against Apion",
"Epistle of Barnabas",
"Ezra",
"sacred Tradition",
"Biblical canon",
"Paternoster Press",
"Epistle to the Hebrews",
"Innocent I",
"Esdras",
"The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children",
"4 Esdras",
"Irenaeus",
"Menno Simons",
"Book of Joshua",
"Book of Numbers",
"Jerome",
"Catholic Encyclopedia",
"Codex Alexandrinus",
"Book of Tobit",
"Clement of Alexandria",
"Acts of Paul",
"heresy",
"Book of Jubilees",
"Pope Pius XI",
"Cyril of Jerusalem",
"Book of Sirach",
"Theodotion",
"Textus Receptus",
"Edmon L. Gallagher",
"Twelve Minor Prophets",
"Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children",
"Books of Kings",
"Book of Common Prayer",
"Prologus Galeatus",
"Masoretes",
"Apostolic Canons",
"Philip Schaff",
"Ezra–Nehemiah",
"Second Epistle of Peter",
"Book of Wisdom",
"Book of Genesis",
"Book of Job",
"Hagiographa",
"religious text",
"Eusebius",
"Development of the Hebrew Bible canon",
"Lectionary",
"Koine Greek",
"1 Maccabees",
"Benedicite",
"Roman See",
"Gelasian decree",
"Church of Scotland",
"Martin Luther",
"Synod of Hippo",
"Council of Rome",
"Early Christianity",
"New Testament",
"2 Esdras",
"Third Epistle of John",
"Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church",
"Council of Florence",
"Masada",
"Book of Lamentations",
"Amish",
"Books of Chronicles",
"Book of Ezekiel",
"Book of Enoch",
"Clement of Rome",
"Eustochium",
"Mark 16",
"Book of Judith",
"Christianity in the 4th century",
"Lamentations",
"Protestantism",
"Bede",
"Anglican Communion",
"The Sunday Service of the Methodists",
"Westminster Confession of Faith",
"Additions to Daniel",
"Books of the Maccabees",
"First Maccabees",
"EWTN",
"Epistle of James",
"Rufinus of Aquileia",
"Anabaptists",
"Biblical Hebrew",
"Muratorian fragment",
"Athanasius of Alexandria",
"Douay–Rheims Bible",
"7Q2",
"antilegomena",
"Susanna (Book of Daniel)",
"Christianity in the 5th century",
"Wisdom of Solomon",
"Paraleipomena",
"Google Books",
"Hasmonean dynasty",
"Septuagint",
"Wisdom of Sirach",
"Melito of Sardis",
"Anglicanism",
"Sirach",
"Council of Jamnia",
"Qumran",
"Samaritan Pentateuch",
"Leningrad Codex",
"Theodulf of Orleans",
"2 Maccabees",
"Seripando",
"kalendar",
"Council of Trent",
"Church Fathers",
"Old Testament",
"3 Esdras",
"Lutheranism",
"Cairo Geniza",
"Sixto-Clementine Vulgate",
"gospel",
"Synod of Jerusalem (1672)",
"First Council of Nicaea",
"Song of Songs",
"Book of Esther",
"Urtext (biblical studies)",
"Karen H. Jobes",
"Epistle of Jude",
"Belgic Confession",
"Book of Ruth",
"Thomas Cajetan",
"Richard Challoner",
"Bethlehem",
"protocanonical books",
"Book of Isaiah",
"4 Maccabees",
"Second Epistle of John",
"Ecclesiastes",
"Esther, Book of",
"sola scriptura",
"Apocalypse of Peter",
"Samuel Fallows",
"Methodist",
"Gregorian Reform",
"Prayer of Manasseh",
"Aramaic language",
"Revised Common Lectionary",
"Rabbinic Judaism",
"Bel and the Dragon",
"Moises Silva",
"Benedictus (Song of Zechariah)",
"William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company",
"Jewish Christian",
"lectionary",
"Books of the Bible",
"Roger T. Beckwith",
"3 Maccabees",
"Book of Proverbs",
"Dead Sea Scrolls",
"Masoretic Text",
"New Testament apocrypha",
"Clementine Vulgate",
"Didache",
"Book of Judges",
"Fourth Book of Esdras",
"Council of Carthage (397)",
"Epiphanius of Salamis",
"Assyrian Church of the East",
"1 Esdras",
"Council of Laodicea",
"Book of Jeremiah",
"Thirty-nine Articles",
"Vetus Latina",
"Letter of Jeremiah",
"Sixtus of Siena",
"Magnificat",
"Book of Leviticus",
"Oriental Orthodox Churches",
"judaizer",
"Gelasius I",
"Ezra-Nehemiah",
"Nehemiah",
"Meqabyan",
"Book of Deuteronomy",
"Septuagint manuscripts",
"Pseudepigrapha",
"Council of Carthage (419)",
"Psalms of Solomon",
"Athanasius",
"Apocrypha",
"Origen of Alexandria",
"Josephus",
"Decretum Gelasianum",
"Judaism",
"Damasus I",
"Tertullian",
"Paris Bible",
"Biblical apocrypha",
"Council in Trullo",
"Epistle to the Laodiceans",
"Ecclesiasticus",
"Book of Daniel",
"Western Christianity",
"Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church",
"Byzantine Rite",
"Church History (Eusebius)",
"Calvinist",
"Bible translations into Geʽez",
"Pope Innocent I",
"King James Bible",
"Gelasian Decree",
"Intertestamental period",
"Additions to Esther",
"Second Maccabees",
"scripture lesson",
"Reformed churches",
"Book of Revelation",
"Councils of Carthage",
"Book of Baruch",
"Luther Bible",
"Psalms",
"Church of England",
"Atlantic Bibles"
] |
8,490 |
Discus throw
|
The discus throw (), also known as disc throw, is a track and field sport in which the participant athlete throws an oblate spheroid weight called a discus in an attempt to mark a further distance than other competitors. It is an ancient sport, as demonstrated by the fifth-century-BC Myron statue Discobolus. Although not part of the current pentathlon, it was one of the events of the ancient Greek pentathlon, which can be dated back to at least 708 BC, and it is part of the modern decathlon.
==History==
The sport of throwing the discus traces back to it being an event in the original Olympic Games of Ancient Greece. The discus as a sport was resurrected in Magdeburg, Germany, by gymnastics teacher Christian Georg Kohlrausch and his students in the 1870s. Organized men's competition was resumed in the late 19th century, and has been a part of the modern Summer Olympic Games since the first modern competition, the 1896 Summer Olympics. Images of discus throwers figured prominently in advertising for early modern Games, such as fundraising stamps for the 1896 Games, and the main posters for the 1920 and 1948 Summer Olympics. Today the sport of discus is a routine part of modern track-and-field meets at all levels, and retains a particularly iconic place in the Olympic Games.
The first modern athlete to throw the discus while rotating the whole body was František Janda-Suk from Bohemia (the present Czech Republic). Janda-Suk invented this technique when studying the position of the statue of Discobolus. After a year of developing the technique, he earned a silver medal in the 1900 Olympics.
Women's competition began in the first decades of the 20th century. Following competition at national and regional levels, it was added to the Olympic program for the 1928 games.
==Regulations==
The event consists of throwing a heavy disc, with the weight or size depending on the competitor. Men and women throw different sized discs, with varying sizes and weights depending on age. The weight of the discus is either governed by World Athletics for international or USA Track & Field for the United States.
In the United States, Henry Canine advocated for a lighter-weight discus in high school competition. His suggestion was adopted by the National High School Athletic Association in 1938.
The typical discus has sides made of plastic, wood, fiberglass, carbon fiber or metal with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the weight. The rim must be smooth, with no roughness or finger holds. A discus with more weight in the rim produces greater angular momentum for any given spin rate, and thus more stability, although it is more difficult to throw. However, a higher rim weight, if thrown correctly, can lead to a longer throw. In some competitions, a solid rubber discus is used (see in the United States).
To make a throw, the competitor starts in a circle of diameter, which is recessed in a concrete pad by . The thrower typically takes an initial stance facing away from the direction of the throw. They then spin anticlockwise (for right-handers) times while staying within the circle to build momentum before releasing the discus. The discus must land within a 34.92º circular sector that is centered on the throwing circle. The rules of competition for discus are virtually identical to those of shot put, except that the circle is larger, a stop board is not used and there are no form rules concerning how the discus is to be thrown.
The basic motion is a fore-handed sidearm movement. The discus is spun off the index finger or the middle finger of the throwing hand. In flight the disc spins clockwise when viewed from above for a right-handed thrower, and anticlockwise for a left-handed thrower. As well as achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus' distance is also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well as the aerodynamic behavior of the discus. Generally, throws into a moderate headwind achieve the maximum distance. Also, a faster-spinning discus imparts greater gyroscopic stability. The technique of discus throwing is quite difficult to master and needs much experience to perfect; thus most top throwers are 30 years old or more.
The discus throw is sometimes contested indoors, but it is not included at the World Athletics Indoor Championships. World Athletics used to keep "world indoor best" discus records, but since 2023 they now combine both indoor and outdoor marks.
==Phases==
The discus technique can be broken down into phases. The purpose is to transfer from the back to the front of the throwing circle while turning through one and a half circles. The speed of delivery is high, and speed is built up during the throw (slow to fast). Correct technique involves the buildup of torque so that maximum force can be applied to the discus on delivery.
Initially, the thrower takes up their position in the throwing circle, distributing their body weight evenly over both feet, which are roughly shoulder width apart. They crouch in order to adopt a more efficient posture to start from whilst also isometrically preloading their muscles; this will allow them to start faster and achieve a more powerful throw. They then begin the wind-up, which sets the tone for the entire throw; the rhythm of the wind-up and throw is very important.
Focusing on rhythm can bring about the consistency to get in the right positions that many throwers lack. Executing a sound discus throw with solid technique requires perfect balance. This is due to the throw being a linear movement combined with a one and a half rotation and an implement at the end of one arm. Thus, a good discus thrower needs to maintain balance within the circle.
For a right handed thrower, the next stage is to move the weight over the left foot. From this position the right foot is raised, and the athlete 'runs' across the circle. There are various techniques for this stage where the leg swings out to a small or great extent, some athletes turn on their left heel (e.g. Ilke Wylluda) but turning on the ball of the foot is far more common.
The aim is to land in the 'power position', the right foot should be in the center and the heel should not touch the ground at any point. The left foot should land very quickly after the right. Weight should be mostly over the back foot with as much torque as possible in the body—so the right arm is high and far back. This is very hard to achieve.
The critical stage is the delivery of the discus, from this 'power position' the hips drive through hard, and will be facing the direction of the throw on delivery. Athletes employ various techniques to control the end-point and recover from the throw, such as fixing feet (to pretty much stop dead).
Sports scientist Richard Ganslen researched the Aerodynamics of the Discus, reporting the discus will stall at an angle of 29°.
==Culture==
The discus throw has been the subject of a number of well-known ancient Greek statues and Roman copies such as the Discobolus and Discophoros. The discus throw also appears repeatedly in ancient Greek mythology, featured as a means of manslaughter in the cases of Hyacinth, Crocus, Phocus, and Acrisius, and as a named event in the funeral games of Patroclus.
Discus throwers have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Discus commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. On the obverse of the coin a modern athlete is seen in the foreground in a half-turned position, while in the background an ancient discus thrower has been captured in a lively bending motion, with the discus high above his head, creating a vivid representation of the sport.
==All-time top 25==
===Men===
Correct as of April 2025.
====Notable series====
Mykolas Alekna had throws of 72.71, 72.89 and 74.35, initially measured as 74.41, at the Oklahoma Throws Series in Ramona on 14 April 2024, becoming the first man to produce three throws above 72 meters (and six throws above 70 meters) in a single competition.
Matthew Denny had throws of 71.03, 73.46, 72.93, 71.14 and 73.56 at the Oklahoma Throws Series in Ramona on 10 April 2025, becoming the second man to produce six throws above 70 meters in a single competition.
Kristjan Čeh had throws of 71.86, 71.70 and 71.19 in Jõhvi on 16 June 2023 becoming the first man to have three throws above 71 metres in a single competition.
====Annulled marks====
Ben Plucknett also threw a world record of 72.34 in Stockholm on 7 July 1981. This performance was annulled due to doping offences.
Kamy Keshmiri threw 70.84 in Salinas on 27 May 1992. This performance was annulled due to doping offences.
====Non-legal marks====
Rickard Bruch also threw 72.18 at an exhibition meeting in Piteå on 23 July 1974.
John Powell also threw 72.08 in Klagshamn on 11 September 1987, but the throw was made onto a sloping/downhill sector.
===Women===
Correct as of April 2025.
====Annulled marks====
Daniela Costian of Romania threw a best of 73.48 in Bucharest on 30 April 1988. This performance was annulled due to doping offences.
Darya Pishchalnikova of Russia threw a best of 70.69 in Cheboksary on 5 July 2012. This performance was annulled due to doping offences.
====Non-legal marks====
Martina Hellmann also threw 78.14 at an unofficial meeting in Berlin on 6 September 1988.
Ilke Wyludda also threw 75.36 at an unofficial meeting in Berlin on 6 September 1988.
==Olympic medalists==
===Men===
===Women===
==World Championships medalists==
===Men===
===Women===
==Season's bests==
===Men===
===Women===
|
[
"Zoltán Kővágó",
"Kristjan Čeh",
"Athens",
"Rabat",
"2003 in the sport of athletics",
"2005 in the sport of athletics",
"2019 in the sport of athletics",
"Salinas, California",
"Li Yanfeng",
"Romas Ubartas",
"Bohemia",
"Dresden",
"1983 in the sport of athletics",
"Larisa Mikhalchenko",
"Chula Vista",
"2009 in the sport of athletics",
"List of discus throw national champions (men)",
"Istanbul",
"Hyacinth (mythology)",
"Erfurt",
"Liesel Westermann",
"Imrich Bugár",
"Munich",
"Sandra Perković",
"Madrid",
"Smalininkai",
"Discophoros",
"2011 in the sport of athletics",
"Leningrad",
"track and field",
"Galina Savinkova",
"Denia Caballero",
"Piotr Małachowski",
"Reno, Nevada",
"Vera Cechlová",
"Prague",
"Malmö",
"Diana Gansky",
"Moscow",
"Budapest",
"Larisa Korotkevich",
"Fresno",
"sport",
"Myron",
"2004 Summer Olympics",
"Hilda Ramos",
"Christian Georg Kohlrausch",
"1997 in the sport of athletics",
"2020 in the sport of athletics",
"Lausanne",
"Jürgen Schult",
"Crocus (mythology)",
"Walnut, California",
"Kamy Keshmiri",
"Sofia",
"Turnov",
"Daniel Ståhl",
"Leselidze (town)",
"Shanghai",
"Darya Pishchalnikova",
"Nicoleta Grasu",
"Tula, Russia",
"2001 in the sport of athletics",
"2018 in the sport of athletics",
"Ramona, Oklahoma",
"Beijing",
"1991 in the sport of athletics",
"Stellenbosch",
"Galina Murašova",
"Constanța",
"shot put",
"Gateshead",
"Leipzig",
"Havana",
"Attila Horváth (discus thrower)",
"Denton, Texas",
"1896 Summer Olympics",
"Tsvetanka Khristova",
"1979 in the sport of athletics",
"Silvia Madetzky",
"Kazanlak",
"John Powell (discus thrower)",
"Nitra",
"Kharkiv",
"Tel Aviv",
"Doha",
"Schönebeck",
"1996 in the sport of athletics",
"Natalya Sadova",
"Jinan",
"Hengelo",
"Evelin Jahl",
"Ancient Olympic pentathlon",
"Martina Hellmann",
"Bucharest",
"Seville",
"Rethimno",
"John Godina",
"Art Burns",
"Cetniewo",
"Mac Wilkins",
"weight (object)",
"František Janda-Suk",
"oblate spheroid",
"Mykolas Alekna",
"Alex Rose (athlete)",
"1990 in the sport of athletics",
"Donetsk",
"1999 in the sport of athletics",
"Modesto, California",
"Ancient Olympic Games",
"Czech Republic",
"Eugene, Oregon",
"Gerd Kanter",
"Gisela Beyer",
"Eskilstuna",
"Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Greece)",
"manslaughter",
"1995 in the sport of athletics",
"Kohila",
"Walnut",
"2022 in the sport of athletics",
"2000 in the sport of athletics",
"Lars Riedel",
"Stendal",
"Aleksander Tammert",
"Zürich",
"Monaco",
"Stockholm",
"Acrisius",
"Ria Stalman",
"Edmonton",
"2007 in the sport of athletics",
"1989 in the sport of athletics",
"2014 in the sport of athletics",
"World Athletics",
"2013 in the sport of athletics",
"Allendale, Michigan",
"Xiao Yanling",
"Louvre Museum",
"Mike Buncic",
"Uppsala",
"Summer Olympic Games",
"Helsinki",
"1992 in the sport of athletics",
"Isometric exercise",
"Edinburgh",
"Yaime Pérez",
"Magdeburg",
"circular sector",
"World Athletics Indoor Championships",
"Sochi",
"Werdohl",
"Matthew Denny",
"Ricky Bruch",
"Bellinzona",
"Kaunas",
"Maritza Martén",
"Irina Meszynski",
"Halle (Saale)",
"2024 in the sport of athletics",
"Franka Dietzsch",
"Neubrandenburg",
"1920 Summer Olympics",
"Ben Plucknett",
"1998 in the sport of athletics",
"Róbert Fazekas",
"1928 Summer Olympics",
"Jay Silvester",
"Thessaloníki",
"Norden, Lower Saxony",
"Sotteville-lès-Rouen",
"throw",
"Potsdam",
"2006 in the sport of athletics",
"Florø",
"2017 in the sport of athletics",
"2015 in the sport of athletics",
"Auckland",
"Szombathely",
"Sollentuna Municipality",
"Hamburg",
"Rickard Bruch",
"San Diego",
"1980 in the sport of athletics",
"United States champions in women's discus throw",
"Berlin",
"Richard Ganslen",
"Ellina Zvereva",
"Robert Harting",
"Lancaster, California",
"Jöhvi",
"Vénissieux",
"National Federation of State High School Associations",
"Faina Melnik",
"Westwood, Los Angeles",
"USA Track & Field",
"San Jose, California",
"Helsingborg",
"pentathlon",
"Sam Mattis",
"1984 in the sport of athletics",
"Anthony Washington",
"Karl-Marx-Stadt",
"Skellefteå",
"Karin Illgen",
"Stall (fluid dynamics)",
"Minsk",
"Roje Stona",
"1985 in the sport of athletics",
"Jena",
"Mariya Petkova",
"Discobolus",
"Virgilijus Alekna",
"decathlon",
"Nadine Müller (athlete)",
"Clemens Prüfer",
"funeral games",
"University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden",
"Ilke Wyludda",
"Long Beach, California",
"Valarie Allman",
"1982 in the sport of athletics",
"1993 in the sport of athletics",
"Rathdrum, Idaho",
"Irina Yatchenko",
"1986 in the sport of athletics",
"athlete",
"Yuriy Dumchev",
"Jõhvi",
"2016 in the sport of athletics",
"2002 in the sport of athletics",
"2004 in the sport of athletics",
"Sabine Engel",
"1968 in the sport of athletics",
"2012 in the sport of athletics",
"1948 Summer Olympics",
"2008 in the sport of athletics",
"Henry Canine",
"Bottnaryd",
"Daniela Costian",
"Argentina Menis",
"Wolfgang Schmidt (athlete)",
"Luis Delís",
"Gabriele Reinsch",
"Zdeňka Šilhavá",
"2021 in the sport of athletics",
"Barcelona",
"Phocus",
"1987 in the sport of athletics",
"1988 in the sport of athletics",
"Bilbao",
"Mette Bergmann",
"Greek mythology",
"Patroclus",
"classical antiquity",
"2010 in the sport of athletics",
"2023 in the sport of athletics",
"1981 in the sport of athletics",
"Atlanta",
"Wiesbaden",
"1994 in the sport of athletics",
"Fedrick Dacres"
] |
8,492 |
Discrete mathematics
|
Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that can be considered "discrete" (in a way analogous to discrete variables, having a bijection with the set of natural numbers) rather than "continuous" (analogously to continuous functions). Objects studied in discrete mathematics include integers, graphs, and statements in logic. By contrast, discrete mathematics excludes topics in "continuous mathematics" such as real numbers, calculus or Euclidean geometry. Discrete objects can often be enumerated by integers; more formally, discrete mathematics has been characterized as the branch of mathematics dealing with countable sets (finite sets or sets with the same cardinality as the natural numbers). However, there is no exact definition of the term "discrete mathematics".
The set of objects studied in discrete mathematics can be finite or infinite. The term finite mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics that deals with finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to business.
Research in discrete mathematics increased in the latter half of the twentieth century partly due to the development of digital computers which operate in "discrete" steps and store data in "discrete" bits. Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are useful in studying and describing objects and problems in branches of computer science, such as computer algorithms, programming languages, cryptography, automated theorem proving, and software development. Conversely, computer implementations are significant in applying ideas from discrete mathematics to real-world problems.
Although the main objects of study in discrete mathematics are discrete objects, analytic methods from "continuous" mathematics are often employed as well.
In university curricula, discrete mathematics appeared in the 1980s, initially as a computer science support course; its contents were somewhat haphazard at the time. The curriculum has thereafter developed in conjunction with efforts by ACM and MAA into a course that is basically intended to develop mathematical maturity in first-year students; therefore, it is nowadays a prerequisite for mathematics majors in some universities as well. Some high-school-level discrete mathematics textbooks have appeared as well. At this level, discrete mathematics is sometimes seen as a preparatory course, like precalculus in this respect.
The Fulkerson Prize is awarded for outstanding papers in discrete mathematics.
==Topics==
===Theoretical computer science===
Theoretical computer science includes areas of discrete mathematics relevant to computing. It draws heavily on graph theory and mathematical logic. Included within theoretical computer science is the study of algorithms and data structures. Computability studies what can be computed in principle, and has close ties to logic, while complexity studies the time, space, and other resources taken by computations. Automata theory and formal language theory are closely related to computability. Petri nets and process algebras are used to model computer systems, and methods from discrete mathematics are used in analyzing VLSI electronic circuits. Computational geometry applies algorithms to geometrical problems and representations of geometrical objects, while computer image analysis applies them to representations of images. Theoretical computer science also includes the study of various continuous computational topics.
===Information theory===
Information theory involves the quantification of information. Closely related is coding theory which is used to design efficient and reliable data transmission and storage methods. Information theory also includes continuous topics such as: analog signals, analog coding, analog encryption.
===Logic===
Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and inference, as well as of consistency, soundness, and completeness. For example, in most systems of logic (but not in intuitionistic logic) Peirce's law (((P→Q)→P)→P) is a theorem. For classical logic, it can be easily verified with a truth table. The study of mathematical proof is particularly important in logic, and has accumulated to automated theorem proving and formal verification of software.
Logical formulas are discrete structures, as are proofs, which form finite trees or, more generally, directed acyclic graph structures (with each inference step combining one or more premise branches to give a single conclusion). The truth values of logical formulas usually form a finite set, generally restricted to two values: true and false, but logic can also be continuous-valued, e.g., fuzzy logic. Concepts such as infinite proof trees or infinite derivation trees have also been studied, e.g. infinitary logic.
===Set theory===
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects, such as {blue, white, red} or the (infinite) set of all prime numbers. Partially ordered sets and sets with other relations have applications in several areas.
In discrete mathematics, countable sets (including finite sets) are the main focus. The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is usually marked by Georg Cantor's work distinguishing between different kinds of infinite set, motivated by the study of trigonometric series, and further development of the theory of infinite sets is outside the scope of discrete mathematics. Indeed, contemporary work in descriptive set theory makes extensive use of traditional continuous mathematics.
===Combinatorics===
Combinatorics studies the ways in which discrete structures can be combined or arranged.
Enumerative combinatorics concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects - e.g. the twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions.
Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration (i.e., determining the number) of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae.
Topological combinatorics concerns the use of techniques from topology and algebraic topology/combinatorial topology in combinatorics.
Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties.
Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, partition theory is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field.
Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite.
===Graph theory===
Graph theory, the study of graphs and networks, is often considered part of combinatorics, but has grown large enough and distinct enough, with its own kind of problems, to be regarded as a subject in its own right. Graphs are one of the prime objects of study in discrete mathematics. They are among the most ubiquitous models of both natural and human-made structures. They can model many types of relations and process dynamics in physical, biological and social systems. In computer science, they can represent networks of communication, data organization, computational devices, the flow of computation, etc. In mathematics, they are useful in geometry and certain parts of topology, e.g. knot theory. Algebraic graph theory has close links with group theory and topological graph theory has close links to topology. There are also continuous graphs; however, for the most part, research in graph theory falls within the domain of discrete mathematics.
===Number theory===
Number theory is concerned with the properties of numbers in general, particularly integers. It has applications to cryptography and cryptanalysis, particularly with regard to modular arithmetic, diophantine equations, linear and quadratic congruences, prime numbers and primality testing. Other discrete aspects of number theory include geometry of numbers. In analytic number theory, techniques from continuous mathematics are also used. Topics that go beyond discrete objects include transcendental numbers, diophantine approximation, p-adic analysis and function fields.
=== Algebraic structures ===
Algebraic structures occur as both discrete examples and continuous examples. Discrete algebras include: Boolean algebra used in logic gates and programming; relational algebra used in databases; discrete and finite versions of groups, rings and fields are important in algebraic coding theory; discrete semigroups and monoids appear in the theory of formal languages.
===Discrete analogues of continuous mathematics===
There are many concepts and theories in continuous mathematics which have discrete versions, such as discrete calculus, discrete Fourier transforms, discrete geometry, discrete logarithms, discrete differential geometry, discrete exterior calculus, discrete Morse theory, discrete optimization, discrete probability theory, discrete probability distribution, difference equations, discrete dynamical systems, and discrete vector measures.
==== Calculus of finite differences, discrete analysis, and discrete calculus ====
In discrete calculus and the calculus of finite differences, a function defined on an interval of the integers is usually called a sequence. A sequence could be a finite sequence from a data source or an infinite sequence from a discrete dynamical system. Such a discrete function could be defined explicitly by a list (if its domain is finite), or by a formula for its general term, or it could be given implicitly by a recurrence relation or difference equation. Difference equations are similar to differential equations, but replace differentiation by taking the difference between adjacent terms; they can be used to approximate differential equations or (more often) studied in their own right. Many questions and methods concerning differential equations have counterparts for difference equations. For instance, where there are integral transforms in harmonic analysis for studying continuous functions or analogue signals, there are discrete transforms for discrete functions or digital signals. As well as discrete metric spaces, there are more general discrete topological spaces, finite metric spaces, finite topological spaces.
The time scale calculus is a unification of the theory of difference equations with that of differential equations, which has applications to fields requiring simultaneous modelling of discrete and continuous data. Another way of modeling such a situation is the notion of hybrid dynamical systems.
==== Discrete geometry ====
Discrete geometry and combinatorial geometry are about combinatorial properties of discrete collections of geometrical objects. A long-standing topic in discrete geometry is tiling of the plane.
In algebraic geometry, the concept of a curve can be extended to discrete geometries by taking the spectra of polynomial rings over finite fields to be models of the affine spaces over that field, and letting subvarieties or spectra of other rings provide the curves that lie in that space. Although the space in which the curves appear has a finite number of points, the curves are not so much sets of points as analogues of curves in continuous settings. For example, every point of the form V(x-c) \subset \operatorname{Spec} K[x] = \mathbb{A}^1 for K a field can be studied either as \operatorname{Spec} K[x]/(x-c) \cong \operatorname{Spec} K, a point, or as the spectrum \operatorname{Spec} K[x]_{(x-c)} of the local ring at (x-c), a point together with a neighborhood around it. Algebraic varieties also have a well-defined notion of tangent space called the Zariski tangent space, making many features of calculus applicable even in finite settings.
==== Discrete modelling ====
In applied mathematics, discrete modelling is the discrete analogue of continuous modelling. In discrete modelling, discrete formulae are fit to data. A common method in this form of modelling is to use recurrence relation. Discretization concerns the process of transferring continuous models and equations into discrete counterparts, often for the purposes of making calculations easier by using approximations. Numerical analysis provides an important example.
==Challenges==
The history of discrete mathematics has involved a number of challenging problems which have focused attention within areas of the field. In graph theory, much research was motivated by attempts to prove the four color theorem, first stated in 1852, but not proved until 1976 (by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, using substantial computer assistance). The Cold War meant that cryptography remained important, with fundamental advances such as public-key cryptography being developed in the following decades. The telecommunications industry has also motivated advances in discrete mathematics, particularly in graph theory and information theory. Formal verification of statements in logic has been necessary for software development of safety-critical systems, and advances in automated theorem proving have been driven by this need.
Computational geometry has been an important part of the computer graphics incorporated into modern video games and computer-aided design tools.
Several fields of discrete mathematics, particularly theoretical computer science, graph theory, and combinatorics, are important in addressing the challenging bioinformatics problems associated with understanding the tree of life.
Currently, one of the most famous open problems in theoretical computer science is the P = NP problem, which involves the relationship between the complexity classes P and NP. The Clay Mathematics Institute has offered a $1 million USD prize for the first correct proof, along with prizes for six other mathematical problems.
|
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] |
8,494 |
DDT
|
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and the results were promising, though there was a resurgence in developing countries afterwards. Along with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the United States ban on DDT is a major factor in the comeback of the bald eagle (the national bird of the United States) and the peregrine falcon from near-extinction in the contiguous United States.
The evolution of DDT resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use. DDT is one of many tools to fight malaria, which remains the primary public health challenge in many countries. WHO guidelines require that absence of DDT resistance must be confirmed before using it.
File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.svg|p,p-DDT(desired compound)
File:O,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.svg|o,p-DDT(isomeric impurity)
File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene.svg|p,p-DDE(impurity)
File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane.svg|p,p-DDD(impurity)
===Production and use===
DDT has been formulated in multiple forms, including solutions in xylene or petroleum distillates, emulsifiable concentrates, water-wettable powders, granules, aerosols, smoke candles and charges for vaporizers and lotions.
From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculturemore than 40,000 tonnes each year worldwideand it has been estimated that a total of 1.8 million tonnes have been produced globally since the 1940s. In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt, and Velsicol Chemical Corporation. Production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year.
China ceased production in 2007, leaving India the only country still manufacturing DDT; it is the largest consumer. In 2009, 3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control and visceral leishmaniasis. In recent years, in addition to India, just seven other countries, all in Africa, are still using DDT.
===Mechanism of insecticide action===
In insects, DDT opens voltage-sensitive sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death. Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides. as greater quantities of some enzymes of this group accelerate the toxin's metabolism into inactive metabolites. Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, involving multiple resistance mechanisms. In the absence of genetic adaptation, Roberts and Andre 1994 find behavioral avoidance nonetheless provides insects with some protection against DDT. The M918T mutation event produces dramatic kdr for pyrethroids but Usherwood et al. 2005 find it is entirely ineffective against DDT. Scott 2019 believes this test in Drosophila oocytes holds for oocytes in general. It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch and in two subsequent publications in 1930. The insecticide properties of "multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group" were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold. DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. Due to the potency of DDT, it was not long before America's War Production Board placed it on military supply lists in 1942 and 1943 and encouraged its production for overseas use. Enthusiasm regarding DDT became obvious through the American government's advertising campaigns of posters depicting Americans fighting the Axis powers and insects and through media publications celebrating its military uses.
In 1945, DDT was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide Despite concerns emerging in the scientific community, and lack of research, the FDA considered it safe up to 7 parts per million in food. There was a large economic incentive to push DDT into the market and sell it to farmers, governments, and individuals to control diseases and increase food production. The program eliminated the disease in "North America, Europe, the former Soviet Union", and dramatically reduced mortality in Sri Lanka and India. The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission".
DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure. It was applied in sub-Saharan Africa by various colonial states, but the 'global' WHO eradication program didn't include the region. Mortality rates in that area never declined to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the disease's resurgence as a result of resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.
===United States ban===
By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States, used both as an agricultural pesticide and as a household insecticide. and had become an important part of the local economy. Citing research performed by Michigan State University in 1946, Robinson, a past president of the local Conservation Club, opined that:
As its production and use increased, public response was mixed. At the same time that DDT was hailed as part of the "world of tomorrow", concerns were expressed about its potential to kill harmless and beneficial insects (particularly pollinators), birds, fish, and eventually humans. The issue of toxicity was complicated, partly because DDT's effects varied from species to species, and partly because consecutive exposures could accumulate, causing damage comparable to large doses. A number of states attempted to regulate DDT. In the 1950s the federal government began tightening regulations governing its use.
In 1957 The New York Times reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York, and the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author Rachel Carson when a friend, Olga Huckins, wrote to her including an article she had written in the Boston Globe about the devastation of her local bird population after DDT spraying. William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker, urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her 1962 book Silent Spring. The book argued that pesticides, including DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and were endangering human health. and recommended a phaseout of "persistent toxic pesticides". In 1965, the U.S. military removed DDT from the military supply system due in part to the development of resistance by body lice to DDT; it was replaced by lindane.
In the mid-1960s, DDT became a prime target of the burgeoning environmental movement, as concern about DDT and its effects began to rise in local communities. In 1966, a fish kill in Suffolk County, New York, was linked to a 5,000-gallon DDT dump by the county's mosquito commission, leading a group of scientists and lawyers to file a lawsuit to stop the county's further use of DDT. A year later, the group, led by Victor Yannacone and Charles Wurster, founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), along with scientists Art Cooley and Dennis Puleston, and brought a string of lawsuits against DDT and other persistent pesticides in Michigan and Wisconsin.
Around the same time, evidence was mounting further about DDT causing catastrophic declines in wildlife reproduction, especially in birds of prey like peregrine falcons, bald eagles, ospreys, and brown pelicans, whose eggshells became so thin that they often cracked before hatching. Toxicologists like David Peakall were measuring DDE levels in the eggs of peregrine falcons and California condors and finding that increased levels corresponded with thinner shells. Compounding the effect was DDT’s persistence in the environment, as it was unable to dissolve in water, and ended up accumulating in animal fat and disrupting hormone metabolism across a wide range of species.
In response to an EDF suit, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT. After an initial six-month review process, William Ruckelshaus, the Agency's first Administrator rejected an immediate suspension of DDT's registration, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff stating that DDT was not an imminent danger. Industry sought to overturn the ban, while the EDF wanted a comprehensive ban. The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT. DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported. although in practice it continued to be used through at least 1970. This was followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.
In contrast to West Germany, in the German Democratic Republic DDT was used until 1988. Especially of relevance were large-scale applications in forestry in the years 1982–1984, with the aim to combat bark beetle and pine moth. As a consequence, DDT-concentrations in eastern German forest soils are still significantly higher compared to soils in the former western German states.
By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986.
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control. The convention was ratified by more than 170 countries. Recognizing that total elimination in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible in the absence of affordable/effective alternatives, the convention exempts public health use within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines from the ban. Resolution 60.18 of the World Health Assembly commits WHO to the Stockholm Convention's aim of reducing and ultimately eliminating DDT. Malaria Foundation International states, "The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before."
Despite the worldwide ban, agricultural use continued in India, North Korea, and possibly elsewhere. DDT is applied to the inside walls of homes to kill or repel mosquitoes. This intervention, called indoor residual spraying (IRS), greatly reduces environmental damage. It also reduces the incidence of DDT resistance. For comparison, treating of cotton during a typical U.S. growing season requires the same amount of chemical to treat roughly 1,700 homes.
==Environmental impact==
DDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments, which can act both as sinks and as long-term sources of exposure affecting organisms.). Its breakdown products and metabolites, DDE and DDD, are also persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties.
Medical researchers in 1974 found a measurable and significant difference in the presence of DDT in human milk between mothers who lived in New Brunswick and mothers who lived in Nova Scotia, "possibly because of the wider use of insecticide sprays in the past".
Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT can bioaccumulate, especially in predatory birds. DDT is toxic to a wide range of living organisms, including marine animals such as crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. DDT, DDE and DDD magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptor birds concentrating more chemicals than other animals in the same environment. They are stored mainly in body fat. DDT and DDE are resistant to metabolism; in humans, their half-lives are 6 and up to 10 years, respectively. In the United States, these chemicals were detected in almost all human blood samples tested by the Centers for Disease Control in 2005, though their levels have sharply declined since most uses were banned. Estimated dietary intake has declined,
Despite being banned for many years, in 2018 research showed that DDT residues are still present in European soils and Spanish rivers.
===Eggshell thinning===
The chemical and its breakdown products DDE and DDD caused eggshell thinning and population declines in multiple North American and European bird of prey species. Both laboratory experiments and field studies confirmed this effect. The effect was first conclusively proven at Bellow Island in Lake Michigan during University of Michigan-funded studies on American herring gulls in the mid-1960s. DDE-related eggshell thinning is considered a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle, peregrine falcon and osprey. though DDT's role in the decline of the California condor is disputed. Other evidence indicates that o,p'-DDT disrupts female reproductive tract development, later impairing eggshell quality. Multiple mechanisms may be at work, or different mechanisms may operate in different species. It is considered likely to be a human carcinogen although the majority of studies suggest it is not directly genotoxic. DDE acts as a weak androgen receptor antagonist, but not as an estrogen. p,p-DDT, DDT's main component, has little or no androgenic or estrogenic activity. The minor component o,p-DDT has weak estrogenic activity.
===Acute toxicity===
DDT is classified as "moderately toxic" by the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) and "moderately hazardous" by WHO, based on the rat oral of 113 mg/kg. Indirect exposure is considered relatively non-toxic for humans.
=== Chronic toxicity ===
Primarily through the tendency for DDT to build up in areas of the body with high lipid content, chronic exposure can affect reproductive capabilities and the embryo or fetus.
Studies are inconsistent on whether high blood DDT or DDE levels increase time to pregnancy.
Indirect exposure of mothers through workers directly in contact with DDT is associated with an increase in spontaneous abortions.
Mothers with high levels of DDT circulating in their blood during pregnancy were found to be more likely to give birth to children who would go on to develop autism.
=== Carcinogenicity ===
In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified DDT as Group 2A "probably carcinogenic to humans". Previous assessments by the U.S. National Toxicology Program classified it as "reasonably anticipated to be a carcinogen" and by the EPA classified DDT, DDE and DDD as class B2 "probable" carcinogens; these evaluations were based mainly on animal studies.
A 2009 review, whose co-authors included persons engaged in DDT-related litigation, reached broadly similar conclusions, with an equivocal association with testicular cancer. Case–control studies did not support an association with leukemia or lymphoma. The United States Institute of Medicine reviewed data on the association of breast cancer with DDT exposure in 2012 and concluded that a causative relationship could neither be proven nor disproven.
A 2007 case-control study The National Toxicology Program notes that while the majority of studies have not found a relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer that positive associations have been seen in a "few studies among women with higher levels of exposure and among certain subgroups of women".
==Malaria control==
Malaria remains the primary public health challenge in many countries. In 2015, there were 214 million cases of malaria worldwide resulting in an estimated 438,000 deaths, 90% of which occurred in Africa. DDT is one of many tools to fight the disease. Its use in this context has been called everything from a "miracle weapon [that is] like Kryptonite to the mosquitoes", to "toxic colonialism".
Before DDT, eliminating mosquito breeding grounds by drainage or poisoning with Paris green or pyrethrum was sometimes successful. In parts of the world with rising living standards, the elimination of malaria was often a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation. such as larviciding with insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larvae and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides, possibly including DDT. IRS involves the treatment of interior walls and ceilings with insecticides. It is particularly effective against mosquitoes, since many species rest on an indoor wall before or after feeding. DDT is one of 12 WHO–approved IRS insecticides. Resistance was largely fueled by unrestricted agricultural use. Resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use in vector control and agriculture.
Once the mainstay of anti-malaria campaigns, as of 2019 only five countries used DDT for Indoor Residual Spraying
===Initial effectiveness===
When it was introduced in World War II, DDT was effective in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality. and 29 in 1964. Thereafter the program was halted to save money and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had evolved resistance in the interim, presumably because of continued agricultural use. The program switched to malathion, but despite initial successes, malaria continued its resurgence into the 1980s.
DDT remains on WHO's list of insecticides recommended for IRS. After the appointment of Arata Kochi as head of its anti-malaria division, WHO's policy shifted from recommending IRS only in areas of seasonal or episodic transmission of malaria, to advocating it in areas of continuous, intense transmission. WHO reaffirmed its commitment to phasing out DDT, aiming "to achieve a 30% cut in the application of DDT world-wide by 2014 and its total phase-out by the early 2020s if not sooner" while simultaneously combating malaria. WHO plans to implement alternatives to DDT to achieve this goal.
South Africa continues to use DDT under WHO guidelines. In 1996, the country switched to alternative insecticides and malaria incidence increased dramatically. Returning to DDT and introducing new drugs brought malaria back under control. Malaria cases increased in South America after countries in that continent stopped using DDT. Research data showed a strong negative relationship between DDT residual house sprayings and malaria. In a research from 1993 to 1995, Ecuador increased its use of DDT and achieved a 61% reduction in malaria rates, while each of the other countries that gradually decreased its DDT use had large increases.
===Mosquito resistance===
In some areas, resistance reduced DDT's effectiveness. WHO guidelines require that absence of resistance must be confirmed before using the chemical. Resistance is largely due to agricultural use, in much greater quantities than required for disease prevention.
Resistance was noted early in spray campaigns. Paul Russell, former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign, observed in 1956 that "resistance has appeared after six or seven years".
In many parts of India, DDT is ineffective. Agricultural uses were banned in 1989 and its anti-malarial use has been declining. Urban use ended. One study concluded that "DDT is still a viable insecticide in indoor residual spraying owing to its effectivity in well supervised spray operation and high excito-repellency factor."
Studies of malaria-vector mosquitoes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa found susceptibility to 4% DDT (WHO's susceptibility standard), in 63% of the samples, compared to the average of 87% in the same species caught in the open. The authors concluded that "Finding DDT resistance in the vector An. arabiensis, close to the area where we previously reported pyrethroid-resistance in the vector An. funestus Giles, indicates an urgent need to develop a strategy of insecticide resistance management for the malaria control programmes of southern Africa."
DDT can still be effective against resistant mosquitoes Others argue that the avoidance behavior slows eradication. Unlike other insecticides such as pyrethroids, DDT requires long exposure to accumulate a lethal dose; however its irritant property shortens contact periods. "For these reasons, when comparisons have been made, better malaria control has generally been achieved with pyrethroids than with DDT."
===Residents' concerns===
IRS is effective if at least 80% of homes and barns in a residential area are sprayed. Pyrethroid insecticides (e.g. deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin) can overcome some of these issues, increasing participation.
Illegal diversion to agriculture is also a concern as it is difficult to prevent and its subsequent use on crops is uncontrolled. For example, DDT use is widespread in Indian agriculture, particularly mango production and is reportedly used by librarians to protect books. Other examples include Ethiopia, where DDT intended for malaria control is reportedly used in coffee production, and Ghana where it is used for fishing. The residues in crops at levels unacceptable for export have been an important factor in bans in several tropical countries. These arguments were rejected as "outrageous" by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios.
Criticisms of a DDT "ban" often specifically reference the 1972 United States ban (with the erroneous implication that this constituted a worldwide ban and prohibited use of DDT in vector control). Reference is often made to Silent Spring, even though Carson never pushed for a DDT ban. John Quiggin and Tim Lambert wrote, "the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted".
Investigative journalist Adam Sarvana and others characterize these notions as "myths" promoted principally by Roger Bate of the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM).
===Alternatives===
====Insecticides====
Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, e.g. malathion and bendiocarb, respectively, are more expensive than DDT per kilogram and are applied at roughly the same dosage. Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin are also more expensive than DDT, but are applied more sparingly (0.02–0.3 g/m2 vs 1–2 g/m2), so the net cost per house per treatment is about the same.
In 2019, the related compound difluorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DFDT) was described as a potentially more effective and therefore potentially safer alternative to DDT.
====Non-chemical vector control====
Before DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or curtailed in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning mosquito breeding grounds and larva habitats, for example by eliminating standing water. These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century. According to CDC, such methods are not practical in Africa because "Anopheles gambiae, one of the primary vectors of malaria in Africa, breeds in numerous small pools of water that form due to rainfall ... It is difficult, if not impossible, to predict when and where the breeding sites will form, and to find and treat them before the adults emerge."
The relative effectiveness of IRS versus other malaria control techniques (e.g. bednets or prompt access to anti-malarial drugs) varies and is dependent on local conditions.
Vietnam has enjoyed declining malaria cases and a 97% mortality reduction after switching in 1991 from a poorly funded DDT-based campaign to a program based on prompt treatment, bednets and pyrethroid group insecticides.
In Mexico, effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies were so successful that the Mexican DDT manufacturing plant ceased production due to lack of demand.
A review of fourteen studies in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine and changing front–line drug treatment, found decision making limited by the lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the small number of cost-effectiveness analyses, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programs.
However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying (US$1.87) to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambda-cyhalothrin–treated nets (US$1.54), casting some doubt on the assumption that DDT was the most cost-effective measure. The director of Mexico's malaria control program found similar results, declaring that it was 25% cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with synthetic pyrethroids than with DDT.
A more comprehensive approach to measuring the cost-effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars, as well as the number of people saved, but would also consider ecological damage and negative human health impacts. One preliminary study found that it is likely that the detriment to human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in epidemics. It is similar to the earlier study regarding estimated theoretical infant mortality caused by DDT and subject to the criticism also mentioned earlier.
A study in the Solomon Islands found that "although impregnated bed nets cannot entirely replace DDT spraying without substantial increase in incidence, their use permits reduced DDT spraying".
A comparison of four successful programs against malaria in Brazil, India, Eritrea and Vietnam does not endorse any single strategy but instead states, "Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing."
DDT resistant mosquitoes may be susceptible to pyrethroids in some countries. However, pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes is on the rise with resistant mosquitoes found in multiple countries.
|
[
"Pyrethroid",
"Solubility",
"Solution (chemistry)",
"Distillations (magazine)",
"Norway",
"Central America",
"Annual Reviews (publisher)",
"hydrophobic",
"Claxton, Georgia",
"William Andrew (publisher)",
"Genotoxicity",
"tonnes",
"environmentalism",
"Endangered Species Act",
"WHO",
"Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine",
"Environmental impact of pesticides",
"Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene",
"Smoke bomb",
"half-life",
"soil",
"pancreatic cancer",
"insecticide resistance",
"oil",
"Nova Scotia",
"estrogen",
"Novartis",
"typhus",
"Michael Palmer (chemist)",
"Crystallinity",
"peregrine falcon",
"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences",
"chloroquine",
"St. Louis, Michigan",
"vector control",
"Prospect (magazine)",
"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry",
"Paul Hermann Müller",
"petroleum",
"gene",
"William Ruckelshaus",
"dicofol",
"United Nations Environment Programme",
"bald eagles",
"visceral leishmaniasis",
"Vector control",
"isomer",
"Environmental Defense Fund",
"Environmental hazard",
"The Periodic Table of Videos",
"Blackwell Publishing",
"aquatic ecosystem",
"apex predator",
"semen",
"Journal Register Company",
"Solomon Islands",
"lice",
"artemisinin",
"New Brunswick",
"bark beetle",
"dysentery",
"Soviet Union",
"economic entomologist",
"International Agency for Research on Cancer",
"liver cancer",
"mosquito net",
"bald eagle",
"indoor residual spraying",
"Evolutionary Applications",
"Montrose Chemical Corporation of California",
"Science History Institute",
"Taiwan",
"Annual Review of Entomology",
"environmental movement",
"food chain",
"carcinogen",
"Hydrophobe",
"aerobic organism",
"typhoid fever",
"National Pesticide Information Center",
"Friedel–Crafts reaction",
"cytochrome P450",
"Sri Lanka",
"solvent",
"Environmentalism",
"Bellow Island",
"neuron",
"Caribbean",
"cancer",
"European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization",
"Case–control studies",
"xylene",
"wettable powder",
"arthropods",
"predatory birds",
"United States Fish and Wildlife Service",
"Lymantria monacha",
"morbidity",
"biodegradation",
"bioaccumulate",
"Wiley Publishing",
"sub-Saharan Africa",
"Geneva",
"food web",
"shrimp",
"DDT in New Zealand",
"Africa Fighting Malaria",
"peregrine falcons",
"Pest control",
"organochloride",
"organophosphate",
"Hungarian People's Republic",
"Pesticide",
"University of Illinois",
"Othmar Zeidler",
"trade name",
"ospreys",
"Pacific Ocean",
"Herbert O. Calvery",
"Adsorption",
"passerine",
"chlorine",
"Arkema",
"M918T",
"EPPO Bulletin",
"American herring gull",
"persistent organic pollutant",
"Galliformes",
"KwaZulu-Natal Province",
"brown pelican",
"Vietnam",
"calcium ATPase",
"Turkey",
"fat",
"pesticide",
"lindane",
"Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants",
"international nonproprietary name",
"India",
"Barbara Cohn",
"mosquito",
"Catalysis",
"mutation",
"United Kingdom",
"World Health Assembly",
"Michigan",
"flea",
"Ziguinchor",
"Pesticide Data Program",
"Lipophilicity",
"calcium carbonate",
"blood",
"birds of prey",
"William Shawn",
"crayfish",
"Paris green",
"Nassau County, New York",
"California condor",
"mango",
"Life magazine",
"breast cancer",
"Vector (epidemiology)",
"Anaerobic digestion",
"The Lancet",
"pollinators",
"concentrate",
"ton",
"Properties of water",
"malaria",
"The New Yorker",
"May Berenbaum",
"spruce budworm",
"Silent Spring",
"Pakistan",
"The Economic Times",
"Roger Bate",
"lambda-cyhalothrin",
"University of Waterloo",
"Bald eagle",
"bubonic plague",
"fish",
"mortality rate",
"insecticide",
"Wisconsin",
"World Health Organization",
"androgen receptor",
"Arctic",
"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention",
"Arata Kochi",
"Index of pesticide articles",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Lake Michigan",
"brown pelicans",
"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine",
"Olga Huckins",
"David Peakall",
"Centers for Disease Control",
"aerosol",
"Tehelka",
"Allies of World War II",
"Swiss (people)",
"carbamate",
"Organophosphate",
"Mosquito control",
"University of Michigan",
"Malaria",
"John Quiggin",
"United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit",
"pyrethroid",
"Sardinia",
"World War II",
"acaricide",
"Velsicol Chemical Corporation",
"voltage-sensitive sodium channel",
"contiguous United States",
"equivalent (chemistry)",
"War Production Board",
"global distillation",
"arene substitution pattern",
"Balkans",
"Pesticide standard value",
"irrigation",
"WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme",
"Organic chemistry",
"Big Sur",
"Emulsion",
"West Germany",
"Risk factors for breast cancer",
"The Tyee",
"Suffolk County, New York",
"United States Department of Defense",
"Adolf von Baeyer",
"Biological membrane",
"avoidance response",
"public health",
"East Germany",
"Science (journal)",
"bendiocarb",
"knockdown resistance",
"South Africa",
"Kryptonite",
"raptor birds",
"Time (magazine)",
"chicken",
"Mosquito net",
"chlorobenzene",
"DFDT",
"endocrine disruptor",
"antimalarial drugs",
"dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane",
"United States Department of Agriculture",
"South America",
"oocyte",
"Axis powers",
"Michigan Chemical Corporation",
"bird of prey",
"sea lion",
"Charles Frederick Wurster",
"Art Cooley",
"sediment",
"Superfund",
"hepatocellular carcinoma",
"United States dollar",
"Breast milk",
"metabolite",
"Socrates Litsios",
"Victor Yannacone",
"methoxychlor",
"Drosophila melanogaster",
"osprey",
"larvacide",
"Plasmodium falciparum",
"John F. Kennedy",
"Pesticide residue",
"think tank",
"United States Environmental Protection Agency",
"Sweden",
"Dennis Puleston",
"Michigan State University",
"biomagnification",
"The New York Times",
"receptor antagonist",
"malathion",
"Competitive Enterprise Institute",
"agribusiness",
"deltamethrin",
"waterfowl",
"photolysis",
"Rachel Carson",
"daphnia",
"National Toxicology Program",
"Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency",
"North America",
"chloral",
"pyrethrum",
"Distillation",
"Bradbury Robinson",
"Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology",
"Operation Cat Drop",
"Monsanto"
] |
8,495 |
Data set
|
thumb|right|Various plots of the multivariate data set [[Iris flower data set|Iris flower data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936).
In the open data discipline, A dataset is a unit used to measure the amount of information released in a public open data repository. The European data.europa.eu portal aggregates more than a million data sets.
==Properties==
Several characteristics define a data set's structure and properties. These include the number and types of the attributes or variables, and various statistical measures applicable to them, such as standard deviation and kurtosis.
The values may be numbers, such as real numbers or integers, for example representing a person's height in centimeters, but may also be nominal data (i.e., not consisting of numerical values), for example representing a person's ethnicity. More generally, values may be of any of the kinds described as a level of measurement. For each variable, the values are normally all of the same kind. Missing values may exist, which must be indicated somehow.
In statistics, data sets usually come from actual observations obtained by sampling a statistical population, and each row corresponds to the observations on one element of that population. Data sets may further be generated by algorithms for the purpose of testing certain kinds of software. Some modern statistical analysis software such as SPSS still present their data in the classical data set fashion. If data is missing or suspicious an imputation method may be used to complete a data set.
== Classics ==
Several classic data sets have been used extensively in the statistical literature:
Iris flower data set – Multivariate data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936). Provided online by University of California-Irvine Machine Learning Repository.
MNIST database – Images of handwritten digits commonly used to test classification, clustering, and image processing algorithms
Categorical data analysis – Data sets used in the book, An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis, provided online by UCLA Advanced Research Computing.
Robust statistics – Data sets used in Robust Regression and Outlier Detection (Rousseeuw and Leroy, 1968). Provided online at the University of Cologne.
Time series – Data used in Chatfield's book, The Analysis of Time Series, are provided on-line by StatLib.
Extreme values – Data used in the book, An Introduction to the Statistical Modeling of Extreme Values are a snapshot of the data as it was provided on-line by Stuart Coles, the book's author.
Bayesian Data Analysis – Data used in the book are provided on-line (archive link) by Andrew Gelman, one of the book's authors.
The Bupa liver data – Used in several papers in the machine learning (data mining) literature.
Anscombe's quartet – Small data set illustrating the importance of graphing the data to avoid statistical fallacies.
==Example==
Loading datasets using Python:
pip install datasets
from datasets import load_dataset
dataset = load_dataset(NAME OF DATASET)
|
[
"Digital image processing",
"integer",
"Robust statistics",
"List of datasets in computer vision and image processing",
"MNIST database",
"Missing values",
"Peter Rousseeuw",
"Categorical data analysis",
"data",
"Variable (computer science)",
"kurtosis",
"Ronald Fisher",
"sampling (statistics)",
"Data blending",
"Number",
"algorithms",
"Sampling (statistics)",
"data.europa.eu",
"SPSS",
"Record (computer science)",
"Time series",
"statistics",
"table (database)",
"Data collection system",
"level of measurement",
"Anscombe's quartet",
"row (database)",
"World Bank",
"open data",
"statistical",
"List of datasets for machine-learning research",
"statistical measure",
"software",
"Data (computer science)",
"Robust Regression and Outlier Detection",
"real number",
"statistical population",
"machine learning",
"standard deviation",
"data sharing",
"United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs",
"column (database)",
"Data store",
"nominal data",
"imputation (statistics)",
"Andrew Gelman",
"Interoperability",
"Annals of Eugenics",
"Iris flower data set"
] |
8,496 |
DMA
|
DMA may refer to:
==Arts==
DMA (magazine), a defunct dance music magazine
Dallas Museum of Art, in Texas, US
BT Digital Music Awards, an annual event in the UK
Danish Music Awards
Detroit Music Awards
Doctor of musical arts, a degree
DMA's, an Australian alternative rock band
==Organisations==
DMA Design, now Rockstar North, a video game developer in Edinburgh, Scotland
Danish Medical Association
Derbyshire Miners' Association, England
Data & Marketing Association, formerly Direct Marketing Association
Durham Miners' Association, a trade union
Disney Movies Anywhere
===Education===
DMA eV, () an academic association for German and Moroccan graduates in Hanover, Germany
Delaware Military Academy, US
Digital Media Academy, US
===Government and military===
Davis–Monthan Air Force Base (IATA airport code), near Tucson, Arizona, US
Defense Mapping Agency, a former agency of the US Department of Defense
Defense Media Activity, an organization of the US Department of Defense
Department of Military Affairs, India
==Places==
Dominica (IOC code)
Dublin Metropolitan Area, an Irish jurisdiction
==Science and technology==
Dynamic mechanical analysis of a polymer's viscoelasticity
Differential mobility analyzer, an instrument to measure particle size distribution
===Chemistry===
Botiacrine, also known as (S)-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl] 9,9-dimethylacridine-10-carbothioate (DMA), an antiparkinsonian drug
Delmadinone acetate, a veterinary drug
Dimethandrolone, an anabolic–androgenic steroid
Dimethoxyamphetamine, a psychedelic phenethylamine
Dimethylacetamide, an organic solvent
Dimethylamine
Dimethylaniline
Distributed multipole analysis, a method to describe the charge distribution of a molecule
Dimethylarsinic acid
===Computing===
Direct memory access
Dynamic memory allocation
Dynamic Microprocessor Associates, developer of pcAnywhere
DragonFly Mail Agent, in the DragonFly BSD operating system
==Other uses==
Designated market area, a region whose population can receive the same media offerings
Digital Markets Act, a European Union regulation for digital platform fairness
Direct market access, used in financial markets
Peugeot DMA, a historical light van and pickup truck
Movies Anywhere, previously called Disney Movies Anywhere
|
[
"Disney Movies Anywhere",
"Direct market access",
"Dimethylaniline",
"Botiacrine",
"Delaware Military Academy",
"Dimethylarsinic acid",
"Dynamic mechanical analysis",
"Dallas Museum of Art",
"DMA's",
"Movies Anywhere",
"Digital Markets Act",
"Davis–Monthan Air Force Base",
"DragonFly BSD",
"Dynamic memory allocation",
"Digital Media Academy",
"Department of Military Affairs",
"Defense Mapping Agency",
"Durham Miners' Association",
"Designated market area",
"Danish Medical Association",
"Danish Music Awards",
"Peugeot DMA",
"Dimethandrolone",
"Derbyshire Miners' Association",
"DMA Design",
"Dimethoxyamphetamine",
"DMA eV",
"Defense Media Activity",
"Dominica",
"DMA (magazine)",
"Detroit Music Awards",
"Dimethylacetamide",
"Direct memory access",
"Data & Marketing Association",
"BT Digital Music Awards",
"Dublin Metropolitan Area",
"Doctor of musical arts",
"Distributed multipole analysis",
"Differential mobility analyzer",
"Delmadinone acetate",
"Dimethylamine",
"Dynamic Microprocessor Associates"
] |
8,498 |
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
|
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common language and standard criteria. It is an internationally accepted manual on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders, though it may be used in conjunction with other documents. Other commonly used principal guides of psychiatry include the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD), and the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. However, not all providers rely on the DSM-5 as a guide, since the ICD's mental disorder diagnoses are used around the world, and scientific studies often measure changes in symptom scale scores rather than changes in DSM-5 criteria to determine the real-world effects of mental health interventions.
It is used by researchers, psychiatric drug regulation agencies, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies, the legal system, and policymakers. Some mental health professionals use the manual to determine and help communicate a patient's diagnosis after an evaluation. Hospitals, clinics, and insurance companies in the United States may require a DSM diagnosis for all patients with mental disorders. Health-care researchers use the DSM to categorize patients for research purposes.
The DSM evolved from systems for collecting census and psychiatric hospital statistics, as well as from a United States Army manual. Revisions since its first publication in 1952 have incrementally added to the total number of mental disorders, while removing those no longer considered to be mental disorders.
Recent editions of the DSM have received praise for standardizing psychiatric diagnosis grounded in empirical evidence, as opposed to the theory-bound nosology (the branch of medical science that deals with the classification of diseases) used in DSM-III. However, it has also generated controversy and criticism, including ongoing questions concerning the reliability and validity of many diagnoses; the use of arbitrary dividing lines between mental illness and "normality"; possible cultural bias; and the medicalization of human distress. The APA itself has published that the inter-rater reliability is low for many disorders in the DSM-5, including major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder.
==Distinction from ICD==
An alternate, widely used classification publication is the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), produced by the World Health Organization (WHO). The ICD has a broader scope than the DSM, covering overall health as well as mental health; chapter 6 of the ICD specifically covers mental, behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders. Moreover, while the DSM is the most popular diagnostic system for mental disorders in the US, the ICD is used more widely in Europe and other parts of the world, giving it a far larger reach than the DSM. An international survey of psychiatrists in sixty-six countries compared the use of the ICD-10 and DSM-IV. It found the former was more often used for clinical diagnosis while the latter was more valued for research. This may be because the DSM tends to put more emphasis on clear diagnostic criteria, while the ICD tends to put more emphasis on clinician judgement and avoiding diagnostic criteria unless they are independently validated. That is, the ICD descriptions of psychiatric disorders tend to be more qualitative information, such as general descriptions of what various disorders tend to look like. The DSM focuses more on quantitative and operationalized criteria; e.g., to be diagnosed with X disorder, one must fulfill 5 of 9 criteria for at least 6 months.
Since 1980, every code that has been listed in the DSM has been an ICD-9 code. However, DSM-5, unlike previous versions of DSM, contains both ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes. Though recent editions of the DSM and ICD have become more similar due to collaborative agreements, each one contains information absent from the other. For instance, the two manuals contain overlapping but substantially different lists of recognized culture-bound syndromes. The ICD also tends to focus more on primary-care and low and middle-income countries, as opposed to the DSM's focus on secondary psychiatric care in high-income countries.
The Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane ("The Superintendents' Association") was formed in 1844.
In 1860, during the international statistical congress held in London, Florence Nightingale made a proposal that was to result in the development of the first international model of systematic collection of hospital data.
In 1872, the American Medical Association (AMA) published its Nomenclature of Diseases, which included various "Disorders of the Intellect". Its use was short-lived however.
Edward Jarvis and later Francis Amasa Walker helped expand the census, from two volumes in 1870 to twenty-five volumes in 1880.
In 1888, the Census Office published Frederick H. Wines' 582-page volume called Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States, As Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880). Wines used seven categories of mental illness, which were also adopted by the Superintendents: dementia, dipsomania (uncontrollable craving for alcohol), epilepsy, mania, melancholia, monomania, and paresis.
In 1892, the Superintendents' Association expanded its membership to include other mental health workers, and renamed to the American Medico-Psychological Association (AMPA).
In 1893, a French physician, Jacques Bertillon, introduced the Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death at a congress of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in Chicago. (The ISI had commissioned him to create it in 1891).
===APA Statistical Manual (1917) and AMA Standard (1933)===
In 1917, together with the National Commission on Mental Hygiene (now Mental Health America), the American Medico-Psychological Association developed a new guide for mental hospitals called the Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane. This guide included twenty-two diagnoses. It would be revised several times by the Association, and by the tenth edition in 1942, was titled Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases.
In 1921, the AMPA became the present American Psychiatric Association (APA).
The first edition of the DSM notes in its foreword: "In the late twenties, each large teaching center employed a system of its own origination, no one of which met more than the immediate needs of the local institution."
In 1933, the AMA's general medical guide the Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease, (referred to as the Standard), was released. Along with the New York Academy of Medicine, the APA provided the psychiatric nomenclature subsection. It became well adopted in the US within two years.
===Medical 203 (1945)===
World War II saw the large-scale involvement of U.S. psychiatrists in the selection, processing, assessment, and treatment of soldiers. This moved the focus away from mental institutions and traditional clinical perspectives. The U.S. armed forces initially used the Standard, but found it lacked appropriate categories for many common conditions that troubled troops. The United States Navy made some minor revisions but "the Army established a much more sweeping revision, abandoning the basic outline of the Standard and attempting to express present-day concepts of mental disturbance." a committee headed by psychiatrist Brigadier General William C. Menninger, with the assistance of the Mental Hospital Service, developed a new classification scheme in 1944 and 1945.
Issued in War Department Technical Bulletin, Medical, 203 (TB MED 203); Nomenclature and Method of Recording Diagnoses was released shortly after the war in October 1945 under the auspices of the Office of the Surgeon General. It was reprinted in the Journal of Clinical Psychology for civilian use in July 1946 with the new title Nomenclature of Psychiatric Disorders and Reactions. This system came to be known as "Medical 203".
This nomenclature eventually was adopted by all the armed forces, and "assorted modifications of the Armed Forces nomenclature [were] introduced into many clinics and hospitals by psychiatrists returning from military duty."
===ICD-6 (1948)===
In 1948, the newly formed World Health Organization took over the maintenance of the ILCD. They greatly expanded it, included non-fatal conditions for the first time, and renamed it the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD). The foreword to the DSM-I states the ICD-6 "categorized mental disorders in rubrics similar to those of the Armed Forces nomenclature." These included several categories of "personality disturbance", generally distinguished from "neurosis" (nervousness, egodystonic).
The foreword to this edition describes itself as being a continuation of the ''Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases. Within each class of mental disorder, classifying information is provided to differentiate conditions with similar symptoms. Under each broad class of disorder (e.g. "Psychoneurotic Disorders" or "Personality Disorders"), all possible diagnoses are listed, generally from least to most severe. In 1956, however, the psychologist Evelyn Hooker performed a study comparing the happiness and well-adjusted nature of self-identified homosexual men with heterosexual men and found no difference. but homosexuality remained in the DSM until May 1974.
===DSM-II (1968)===
In the 1960s, there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself. These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz, who argued mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman, who said mental illness was another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioural psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder.
The APA was closely involved in the next significant revision of the mental disorder section of the ICD (version 8 in 1968). It decided to go ahead with a revision of the DSM, which was published in 1968. DSM-II was similar to DSM-I, listed 182 disorders, and was 134 pages long. The term "reaction" was dropped, but the term "neurosis" was retained. Both the DSM-I and the DSM-II reflected the predominant psychodynamic psychiatry, although both manuals also included biological perspectives and concepts from Kraepelin's system of classification. Symptoms were not specified in detail for specific disorders. Many were seen as reflections of broad underlying conflicts or maladaptive reactions to life problems that were rooted in a distinction between neurosis and psychosis (roughly, anxiety/depression broadly in touch with reality, as opposed to hallucinations or delusions disconnected from reality). Sociological and biological knowledge was incorporated, under a model that did not emphasize a clear boundary between normality and abnormality. The idea that personality disorders did not involve emotional distress was discarded. Spitzer and Fleiss found that different practitioners using the DSM-II rarely agreed when diagnosing patients with similar problems. In reviewing previous studies of eighteen major diagnostic categories, Spitzer and Fleiss concluded that "there are no diagnostic categories for which reliability is uniformly high. Reliability appears to be only satisfactory for three categories: mental deficiency, organic brain syndrome (but not its subtypes), and alcoholism. The level of reliability is no better than fair for psychosis and schizophrenia and is poor for the remaining categories".
====Seventh printing of the DSM-II (1974)====
As described by Ronald Bayer, a psychiatrist and gay rights activist, specific protests by gay rights activists against the APA began in 1970, when the organization held its convention in San Francisco. The activists disrupted the conference by interrupting speakers and shouting down and ridiculing psychiatrists who viewed homosexuality as a mental disorder. In 1971, gay rights activist Frank Kameny worked with the Gay Liberation Front collective to demonstrate at the APA's convention. At the 1971 conference, Kameny grabbed the microphone and yelled: "Psychiatry is the enemy incarnate. Psychiatry has waged a relentless war of extermination against us. You may take this as a declaration of war against you."
This gay activism occurred in the context of a broader anti-psychiatry movement that had come to the fore in the 1960s and was challenging the legitimacy of psychiatric diagnosis. Anti-psychiatry activists protested at the same APA conventions, with some shared slogans and intellectual foundations as gay activists.
Taking into account data from researchers such as Alfred Kinsey and Evelyn Hooker, the seventh printing of the DSM-II, in 1974, no longer listed homosexuality as a category of disorder. After a vote by the APA trustees in 1973, and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974, the diagnosis was replaced with the category of "sexual orientation disturbance".
===DSM-III (1980)===
The emergence of DSM-III represented a "quantum leap" in terms of the scale and reach of the manual. In 1974, the decision to revise the DSM was made, and psychiatrist Robert Spitzer was selected as chair of the task force. The initial impetus was to make the DSM nomenclature consistent with that of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The revision took on a far wider mandate under the influence and control of Spitzer and his chosen committee members. One added goal was to improve the uniformity and validity of psychiatric diagnosis in the wake of a number of critiques, including the famous Rosenhan experiment. There was also felt a need to standardize diagnostic practices within the United States and with other countries, after research showed that psychiatric diagnoses differed between Europe and the United States. The establishment of consistent criteria was an attempt to facilitate the pharmaceutical regulatory process.
The criteria adopted for many of the mental disorders were influenced by the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) and Feighner Criteria, which had just been developed by a group of research-orientated psychiatrists based primarily at Washington University School of Medicine and the New York State Psychiatric Institute. However, the influence of clinical psychiatrists, themselves often working with psychoanalytic ideas, were still strong. A new "multiaxial" system attempted to yield a picture more amenable to a statistical population census, rather than a simple diagnosis. Spitzer argued "mental disorders are a subset of medical disorders", but the task force decided on this statement for the DSM: "Each of the mental disorders is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome." Field trials sponsored by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) were conducted between 1977 and 1979 to test the reliability of the new diagnoses. A controversy emerged regarding deletion of the concept of neurosis, a mainstream of psychoanalytic theory and therapy but seen as vague and unscientific by the DSM task force. Faced with enormous political opposition, DSM-III was in serious danger of not being approved by the APA Board of Trustees unless "neurosis" was included in some form; a political compromise reinserted the term in parentheses after the word "disorder" in some cases. Additionally, the diagnosis of ego-dystonic homosexuality replaced the DSM-II category of "sexual orientation disturbance". The gender identity disorder in children (GIDC) diagnosis was introduced in the DSM-III; prior to the DSM-III's publication in 1980, there was no diagnostic criteria for gender dysphoria.
Finally published in 1980, DSM-III listed 265 diagnostic categories and was 494 pages long. It rapidly came into widespread international use and has been termed a revolution, or transformation, in psychiatry. "Ego-dystonic homosexuality" was also removed and was largely subsumed under "sexual disorder not otherwise specified", which could include "persistent and marked distress about one's sexual orientation." Altogether, the DSM-III-R contained 292 diagnoses and was 567 pages long. Further efforts were made for the diagnoses to be purely descriptive, although the introductory text stated for at least some disorders, "particularly the Personality Disorders, the criteria require much more inference on the part of the observer"[page xxiii]. A major change from previous versions was the inclusion of a clinical-significance criterion to almost half of all the categories, which required symptoms causing "clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning". Some personality-disorder diagnoses were deleted or moved to the appendix. It also notes that "although this manual provides a classification of mental disorders it must be admitted that no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of 'mental disorder."
==== DSM-IV categorization ====
The DSM-IV is a categorical classification system. The categories are prototypes, and a patient with a close approximation to the prototype is said to have that disorder. DSM-IV states, "there is no assumption each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries" but isolated, low-grade, and non-criterion (unlisted for a given disorder) symptoms are not given importance. Qualifiers are sometimes used: for example, to specify mild, moderate, or severe forms of a disorder. For nearly half the disorders, symptoms must be sufficient to cause "clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning", although DSM-IV-TR removed the distress criterion from tic disorders and several of the paraphilias due to their egosyntonic nature. Each category of disorder has a numeric code taken from the ICD coding system, used for health service (including insurance) administrative purposes.
==== DSM-IV multi-axial system ====
The DSM-IV was organized into a five-part axial system:
==== DSM-IV sourcebooks ====
The DSM-IV does not specifically cite its sources, but there are four volumes of "sourcebooks" intended to be APA's documentation of the guideline development process and supporting evidence, including literature reviews, data analyses, and field trials. The sourcebooks have been said to provide important insights into the character and quality of the decisions that led to the production of DSM-IV, and the scientific credibility of contemporary psychiatric classification.
===DSM-IV-TR (2000)===
A text revision of DSM-IV, titled DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000. The diagnostic categories were unchanged as were the diagnostic criteria for all but nine diagnoses. The majority of the text was unchanged; however, the text of two disorders, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified and Asperger's disorder, had significant and/or multiple changes made. The definition of pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified was changed back to what it was in DSM-III-R and the text for Asperger's disorder was practically entirely rewritten. Most other changes were to the associated features sections of diagnoses that contained additional information such as lab findings, demographic information, prevalence, and course. Also, some diagnostic codes were changed to maintain consistency with ICD-9-CM.
==DSM-5 (2013)==
The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the DSM-5, was approved by the Board of Trustees of the APA on December 1, 2012. Published on May 18, 2013, the DSM-5 contains extensively revised diagnoses and, in some cases, broadens diagnostic definitions while narrowing definitions in other cases. The DSM-5 is the first major edition of the manual in 20 years. DSM-5, and the abbreviations for all previous editions, are registered trademarks owned by the American Psychiatric Association.
A significant change in the fifth edition is the deletion of the subtypes of schizophrenia: paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual. The deletion of the subsets of autistic spectrum disordernamely, Asperger's syndrome, classic autism, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specifiedwas also implemented, with specifiers regarding intensity: mild, moderate, and severe.
Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, with three levels:
requiring support
requiring substantial support
requiring very substantial support
During the revision process, the APA website periodically listed several sections of the DSM-5 for review and discussion.
The National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME), which is responsible for creating and publishing board exams for medical students around the United States, conforms to the use of DSM-5 criteria.
===Future revisions and updates===
After the release of the fifth edition, the APA communicated that they intended to add subsequent revisions more often, to keep up with research in the field. It is notable that DSM-5 uses Arabic rather than Roman numerals. Beginning with DSM-5, the APA planned to use decimals to identify incremental updates (e.g., DSM-5.1, DSM-5.2) and whole numbers for new editions (e.g., DSM-5, DSM-6), similar to the scheme used for software versioning.
=== DSM-5-TR (2022) ===
A revision of DSM-5, titled DSM-5-TR, was published in March 2022, updating diagnostic criteria and ICD-10-CM codes. The diagnostic criteria for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder was changed, along with adding entries for prolonged grief disorder, unspecified mood disorder and stimulant-induced mild neurocognitive disorder. Prolonged grief disorder, which had been present in the ICD-11, had criteria agreed upon by consensus in a one day in-person workshop sponsored by the APA.
Three review groups for sex and gender, culture and suicide, along with an "ethnoracial equity and inclusion work group" were involved in the creation of the DSM-5-TR which led to additional sections for each mental disorder discussing sex and gender, racial and cultural variations, and adding diagnostic codes for specifying levels of suicidality and nonsuicidal self-injury for mental disorders.
Autism spectrum disorder
Bipolar I disorder, Bipolar II disorder, and related bipolar disorders
Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder in the alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders
Depressive episodes with short-duration hypomania
Intellectual developmental disorder
Delusional disorder
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
Brief psychotic disorder
==DSM Library==
The APA have supplemented the DSM with supporting works, collectively forming the "DSM Library." As of 2022, the other books in the library are "DSM-5 Handbook of Differential Diagnosis", "DSM-5 Clinical Cases", "DSM-5 Handbook on the Cultural Formulation Interview" and "Guía De Consulta De Los Criterios Diagnósticos Del DSM-5".
In 2013, shortly before the publication of DSM-5, the director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Thomas R. Insel, declared that the agency would no longer fund research projects that relied exclusively on DSM diagnostic criteria, due to its lack of validity. Insel questioned the validity of the DSM classification scheme because "diagnoses are based on a consensus about clusters of clinical symptoms" as opposed to "collecting the genetic, imaging, physiologic, and cognitive data to see how all the data – not just the symptoms – cluster and how these clusters relate to treatment response."
Field trials of DSM-5 brought the debate of reliability back into the limelight, as the diagnoses of some disorders showed poor reliability. For example, a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, a common mental illness, had a poor reliability kappa statistic of 0.28, indicating that clinicians frequently disagreed on diagnosing this disorder in the same patients. The most reliable diagnosis was major neurocognitive disorder, with a kappa of 0.78.
===Diagnosis based on superficial symptoms===
By design, the DSM is primarily concerned with the signs and symptoms of mental disorders, rather than the underlying causes. It claims to collect these disorders based on statistical or clinical patterns. As such, it has been compared to a naturalist's field guide to birds, with similar advantages and disadvantages. The lack of a causative or explanatory basis, however, is not specific to the DSM, but rather reflects a general lack of pathophysiological understanding of psychiatric disorders. Proponents argue this absence of explanatory classification is necessary, but it presents a problem for researchers as it results in the grouping of individuals who may have little in common except superficial criteria. As DSM-III chief architect Robert Spitzer and DSM-IV editor Michael First outlined in 2005, "little progress has been made toward understanding the pathophysiological processes and cause of mental disorders. If anything, the research has shown the situation is even more complex than initially imagined, and we believe not enough is known to structure the classification of psychiatric disorders according to etiology."
While there is generally a lack of consensus on underlying causation for most psychiatric disorders, some proponents of specific psychopathological paradigms have faulted the DSM for failing to incorporate evidence from other disciplines. For instance, evolutionary psychology distinguishes between genuine cognitive malfunctions and malfunctions due to psychological adaptations (that is learned behaviors may be adaptive in one context but maladaptive in another). However, this distinction is one that is challenged within general psychology.
There is also criticism of the strong operationalist viewpoint of the DSM. The DSM relies on operational definitions, which means that intuitive concepts like depression are defined by specific measurable criteria (observable behavior, specific timelines). Some have argued that instead of replacing metaphysical terms like "desire" or "purpose" the DSM chose to legitimize them by giving them operational definitions. However, this may have served only to provide a "reassurance fetish" for mainstream methodological practice, rather than representing a substantial and meaningful alteration of mainstream psychiatric practice.
A central problem with the use of superficial symptoms is that psychiatry deals with the phenomena of consciousness, which adds much more complexity than the somatic symptoms and signs used by most of medicine. A 2013 review published in the European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience gives the example of the problem of superficial characterization of psychiatric signs and symptoms. If a patient says they "feel depressed, sad, or down" there are actually a wide variety of underlying experiences they could be referencing: "not only depressed mood but also, for instance, irritation, anger, loss of meaning, varieties of fatigue, ambivalence, ruminations of different kinds, hyper-reflectivity, thought pressure, psychological anxiety, varieties of depersonalization, and even voices with negative content, and so forth." This criticism is especially pertinent to the structured interview, as simple "yes or no" questions may not be specific enough to truly confirm or deny the diagnostic criterion at issue. That is, whether a patient says yes or no will rely on their own understanding of the meaning of the various words in the question as well as their own interpretation of their experience. There is thus danger in being overconfident in the face value of the answers. The authors of the 2013 review give an example: A patient who was being administered the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV Axis I Disorders denied thought insertion, but during a "conversational, phenomenological interview", a semi-structured interview tailored to the patient, the same patient admitted to experiencing thought insertion, along with a delusional elaboration. The authors suggested 2 reasons for this discrepancy: either the patient did not "recognize his own experience in the rather blunt, implicitly either/or formulation of the structured-interview question", or the experience did not "fully articulate itself" until the patient started talking about his experiences.
===Obscuring root causes===
==== Economic causes ====
The DSM-5 has been criticized for overlooking capitalism’s interconnectivity with pathology. One example is the development and treatment of diagnoses: around 69% of psychiatrists involved in the development of the DSM-5 were reported to have financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry. These ties situate many care services within the medical-industrial complex, a framework that prioritizes profit instead of the care of individuals. Lane found the medical-industrial complex intertwined with setting the parameters to diagnose conditions such as social anxiety disorder. Other authors have supported similar findings. Kincaid and Sullivan estimate that the cost of the industry surrounding diagnosis will rise to around six trillion dollars by 2030.
Scholars differ in the extent of capitalism's influence on diagnosis. Davies supports the social model of disability in explaining that diagnosis at present relies on considering conditions a consequence of a “broken brain.” His wider logic on mental illness in response to societal issues problematizes diagnosis as a tool of the medical-industrial complex.
Others find that the dependency of patients on their psychiatric care providers makes the industry vulnerable to economic exploitation under capitalism. These individuals argue that diagnosis is manipulated, but not caused, by capitalistic forces.
==== Institutional causes ====
Diagnoses of mental conditions have been used to obscure institutional practices of discrimination. Late nineteenth-century diagnoses of white women with hysteria, for instance, were said to be caused by “overcivilization,” shaped by racially discriminatory Social Darwinism. Similarly, American physician Samuel Cartwright coined "drapetomania" in 1851 as a mental condition which "caused" slaves to escape captivity. In the present day, Brinkmann finds that “contemporary diagnostic cultures,” whereby humans assess their conditions through a psychiatric lens, can “risk losing sight of the larger historical and social forces that affect [their] lives.” Contemporary diagnostic cultures help explain how diagnosis reflect larger historical biases.
Critics have argued that the DSM-5's criteria pathologize a wide range of people with distress or impairment. Chapman et al. discuss the implications for obscuring distress in the incarceration and confinement of "intellectually disabled" populations; they argue that "differentiation based on psychiatric and intellectual disability" is arbitrarily set and altered based on capitalism's needs for "mobile and free workers." Metzl demonstrates that the shifting diagnostic parameters of schizophrenia became a method for institutionalizing Black men during the Civil Rights Movement.
===Overdiagnosis===
Allen Frances, an outspoken critic of DSM-5, states that "normality is an endangered species," because of "fad diagnoses" and an "epidemic" of over-diagnosing, and suggests that the "DSM-5 threatens to provoke several more [epidemics]." Some researchers state that changes in diagnostic criteria, following each published version of the DSM, reduce thresholds for a diagnosis, which results in increases in prevalence rates for ADHD and autism spectrum disorder. Bruchmüller, et al. (2012) suggest that as a factor that may lead to overdiagnosis are situations when the clinical judgment of the diagnostician regarding a diagnosis (ADHD) is affected by heuristics.
In addition, it is argued that the current approach based on exceeding a threshold of symptoms does not adequately take into account the context in which a person is living, and to what extent there is internal disorder of an individual versus a psychological response to adverse situations. The DSM does include a step ("Axis IV") for outlining "Psychosocial and environmental factors contributing to the disorder" once someone is diagnosed with that particular disorder.
Because an individual's degree of impairment is often not correlated with symptom counts and can stem from various individual and social factors, the DSM's standard of distress or disability can often produce false positives. On the other hand, individuals who do not meet symptom counts may nevertheless experience comparable distress or disability in their life.
===Cultural bias===
Psychiatrists have argued that published diagnostic standards rely on an exaggerated interpretation of neurophysiological findings and so understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables. In addition, current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. Although these guidelines have been widely implemented, opponents argue that even when a diagnostic criterion-set is accepted across different cultures, it does not necessarily indicate that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can only demonstrate consistency, not legitimacy. Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV: the fact that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, is to Kleinman revelatory of an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal. Other cross-cultural critics largely share Kleinman's negative view toward the culture-bound syndrome, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out, and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented.
Mainstream psychiatrists have also been dissatisfied with these new culture-bound diagnoses, although not for the same reasons. Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of DSM-III, has held the opinion that the addition of cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics, and that they lack any scientific motivation or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used in practice, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, the mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are only significant to specific symptom presentations.
===Medicalization and financial conflicts of interest===
There was extensive analysis and comment on DSM-IV (published in 1994) in the years leading up to the 2013 publication of DSM-5. It was alleged that the way the categories of DSM-IV were structured, as well as the substantial expansion of the number of categories within it, represented increasing medicalization of human nature, very possibly attributable to disease mongering by psychiatrists and pharmaceutical companies, the power and influence of the latter having grown dramatically in recent decades. In 2005, then APA President Steven Sharfstein released a statement in which he conceded that psychiatrists had "allowed the biopsychosocial model to become the bio-bio-bio model". It was reported that of the authors who selected and defined the DSM-IV psychiatric disorders, roughly half had financial relationships with the pharmaceutical industry during the period 1989–2004, raising the prospect of a direct conflict of interest. The same article concluded that the connections between panel members and the drug companies were particularly strong involving those diagnoses where drugs are the first line of treatment, such as schizophrenia and mood disorders, where 100% of the panel members had financial ties with the pharmaceutical industry.
William Glasser referred to DSM-IV as having "phony diagnostic categories", arguing that "it was developed to help psychiatrists – to help them make money". A 2012 article in The New York Times commented sharply that DSM-IV (then in its 18th year), through copyrights held closely by the APA, had earned the Association over $100 million.
However, although the number of identified diagnoses had increased by more than 200% (from 106 in DSM-I to 365 in DSM-IV-TR), psychiatrists such as Zimmerman and Spitzer argued that this almost entirely represented greater specification of the forms of pathology, thereby allowing better grouping of similar patients. Others, however, question the accuracy of diagnosis, or feel they have been given a label that invites social stigma and discrimination (the terms "mentalism" and "sanism" have been used to describe such discriminatory treatment).
Diagnoses can become internalized and affect an individual's self-identity, and some psychotherapists have found that the healing process can be inhibited and symptoms can worsen as a result. Some members of the psychiatric survivors movement (more broadly the consumer/survivor/ex-patient movement) actively campaign against their diagnoses, or the assumed implications, or against the DSM system in general. Additionally, it has been noted that the DSM often uses definitions and terminology that are inconsistent with a recovery model, and such content can erroneously imply excess psychopathology (e.g. multiple "comorbid" diagnoses) or chronicity.
In a December 2012, blog post on Psychology Today, Frances provides his "list of DSM 5's ten most potentially harmful changes:"
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, for temper tantrums
Major Depressive Disorder, includes normal grief
Minor Neurocognitive Disorder, for normal forgetfulness in old age
Adult Attention Deficit Disorder, encouraging psychiatric prescriptions of stimulants
Binge Eating Disorder, for excessive eating
Autism, defining the disorder more specifically, possibly leading to decreased rates of diagnosis and the disruption of school services
First-time drug users will be lumped in with addicts
Behavioral Addictions, making a "mental disorder of everything we like to do a lot."
Generalized Anxiety Disorder, includes everyday worries
Post-traumatic stress disorder, changes "opened the gate even further to the already existing problem of misdiagnosis of PTSD in forensic settings."
Are they more like theoretical constructs or more like diseases?
How to reach an agreed definition?
Should the DSM-5 take a cautious or conservative approach?
What is the role of practical rather than scientific considerations?
How should it be used by clinicians or researchers?
Is an entirely different diagnostic system required?
In 2011, psychologist Brent Robbins co-authored a national letter for the Society for Humanistic Psychology that has brought thousands into the public debate about the DSM. Over 15,000 individuals and mental health professionals have signed a petition in support of the letter. Robbins has noted that under the new guidelines, certain responses to grief could be labeled as pathological disorders, instead of being recognized as being normal human experiences.
=== Cultural responses to the DSM ===
There are several works written in recent years by scholars of the disabled community that specifically critique the cultural impact of the DSM V. These pieces criticize the DSM V from different cultural perspectives, integrating the experiences of disabled people identifying as crip, feminists, Asian Americans, Black Americans and other marginalized viewpoints.
==== DSM CRIP ====
DSM CRIP is a collection of essays by various authors that explore the critiques of the DSM V from feminist and crip perspectives. These essays tackle the critiques of the DSM using specific diagnoses such as gender dysphoria, transvestic disorder, complex somatic symptom disorder, hypoactive sexual desire disorder, schizophrenia and autism. These are used as case studies to tackle the topics of the potential harm of labels, overmedicalization, overdiagnosis, pathologizing normality and various other critiques informed by the feminist and crip lens.
==== Open in Emergency ====
Open in Emergency is a multimedia collaborative project of the Asian American Literary Review that takes the lens of an Asian American Experience and redefines wellness in terms of care instead of focusing on diagnosis, unlike the original DSM V. This included mock versions of DSM diagnoses such as gender dysphoria, social anxiety disorder and cannabis use disorder that mean to recharacterize the disorders under the lens of wellness and care. The project was said to contextualize mental disorders with their relationship to structures of power like patriarchy, colonialism and violence (here).
==== The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia became a Black disease ====
The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia became a Black disease is a critically acclaimed book that was written to analyze the history of schizophrenia and how perceptions of the condition have changed. In this book, Metzl shows how the condition of schizophrenia was experienced against the backdrop of the Civil Rights Movement.
|
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] |
8,500 |
Dar es Salaam
|
Dar es Salaam (; from ) is the largest city and financial hub of Tanzania. It is also the capital of the Dar es Salaam Region. With a population of over ten million people, Dar es Salaam is the largest city in East Africa by population and the sixth-largest in Africa. Located on the Swahili coast, Dar es Salaam is an important economic center and one of the fastest-growing cities in the world.
The city was founded in the mid-19th century. It was the main administrative and commercial center of German East Africa, Tanganyika, and Tanzania. The decision was made in 1974 to move the capital to Dodoma which was officially completed in 1996.
Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's most prominent city for arts, fashion, media, film, television, and finance. It is the capital of the co-extensive Dar es Salaam Region, one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions, and consists of five districts: Kinondoni in the north; Ilala in the centre; Ubungo and Temeke in the south; and Kigamboni in the east across the Kurasini estuary.
==History==
In the 19th century, 'Mzizima (Swahili for "healthy town") was a coastal fishing village on the periphery of Indian Ocean trade routes. In 1865 or 1866, Sultan Majid bin Said of Zanzibar began building a new city very close to Mzizima
In the East African campaign of World War I, British and Empire forces captured German East Africa. The Royal Navy bombarded the city with the monitor on 21 July 1916 and battleship on 21 August. The German colonial authorities surrendered the city on 3 September. German East Africa became the British Tanganyika Territory.
Dar es Salaam remained the administrative and commercial centre. Under British indirect rule, European areas such as Oyster Bay and African areas (e.g., Kariakoo and Ilala) developed separately from the city centre. The city's population also included a large number of workers from British India, many of whom came to take advantage of trade and commercial opportunities. After World War II, Dar es Salaam experienced a period of rapid growth.
Political developments, including the formation and growth of the Tanganyika African National Union, led to Tanganyika's independence from colonial rule in December 1961. Dar es Salaam continued to serve as its capital, even when Tanganyika and the People's Republic of Zanzibar merged to form Tanzania in 1964. In 1973, provisions were made to relocate the capital to Dodoma, a more centrally located city in the interior. The relocation process to Dodoma was completed, although Dar es Salaam continued to be the location of most government offices.
In 1967, the Tanzanian government declared the ujamaa policy, which made Tanzania lean towards socialism. The move hampered the potential growth of the city as the government encouraged people not to move into cities and instead remain in Ujamaa socialist villages. By the 1980s, the policy failed to combat the increasing poverty and hunger that Tanzania faced, and had delayed necessary development. This situation led to the liberalization policy of the 1980s that essentially ended socialism and silenced its proponents within Tanzania's government through political repression.
Until the late 1990s, Dar es Salaam was not regarded in the same echelon as Africa's leading cities like Cairo, Nairobi, Johannesburg, Lagos, or Addis Ababa. During the 2000s, businesses opened and prospered; growth expanded in the construction sector, with new multi-storey buildings, bridges and roads; Tanzanian banks headquartered in the city became better regulated; and the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange expanded. The port is prominent for entrepot trade with landlocked countries like Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, and the eastern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The city's skyline features tall buildings, among them the 35-storey PSPF Tower (finished in 2015) and the Tanzania Ports Authority (TPA) Tower, the tallest in the country (completed in 2016).
A number of historical buildings and elements of urban planning, such as parts of the harbour and streets going back to colonial times, still exist. The Old Boma, one of the city's oldest buildings, was built in 1866–67 by Majid bin Said, sultan of Zanzibar, and enlarged under German rule. The Botanical Gardens now are close to the National Museum of Tanzania. The present-day State House goes back to Majid bin Said, and were the seat of the German and later the British colonial governments. Along with the Azania Front Lutheran Church, built between 1899 and 1902, and the Roman Catholic St. Joseph's Cathedral, constructed around the same period, Ocean Road Hospital are early historical buildings in Dar es Salaam.
==Geography==
Dar es Salaam is located at 6°48' S, 39°17' E (−6.8000, 39.2833), on a natural harbour on the coast of East Africa, with sandy beaches in some areas.
===Districts of Dar es Salaam region===
Dar es Salaam Region is divided into five administrative districts, four of which are governed by municipal councils that are affiliated with the city's suburbs or wards.
====Kinondoni====
Kinondoni is the most populated of the districts. It houses half of the city's population and several high-income suburbs.
Masaki, Oyster Bay and Ada Estate are the high-income suburbs located along the central beach. During the Colonial Era, they were the major European suburbs of the city. Diplomats and expatriates currently reside in these areas. Oyster Bay Beach (also known as Coco Beach) is the only white sandy beach east of Kinondoni.
Mikocheni and Regent Estate are also suburbs within the district. These are high and middle-income areas with Mikocheni B enjoying a higher population density than Mikocheni A and Regent Estate. According to the 2012 census, the Mikocheni ward had a population of 32,947.
Msasani is a peninsula to the northeast of the city center and home to expatriates from the United Kingdom and other western countries. It contains a mixture of traditional shops and western-oriented resorts and stores including the redevelopment of the former Msani Slipway shipyard by architect Antoni Folkers
Mbezi Beach is the beachfront suburb located along the northern Dar es Salaam Beach. It contains several tourist hotels, residences and a kite-surfing area by Upepo Avenue.
Sinza, Kijitonyama, Magomeni, Kinondoni and Mwenge are more ethnically mixed than the areas above and are located west of Dar es Salaam's Central Business District.
====Ilala====
The administrative district of Ilala contains almost all government offices, ministries, and the Central Business District. It is the transportation hub of the city, as the Julius Nyerere International Airport, Central Railway Station and Tazara Railway Station are all within the district's boundaries. The residential areas are mainly middle- to high-income, among them:
Upanga and Kisutu have the highest concentration of Asian communities within Dar es Salaam, with residents of Indian and Arabic descent. These areas contain colonial houses and mansions built in Indian, Arabic and European styles. Upanga is divided into Upanga East and Upanga West.
Kariakoo is the shopping district of the city: shops, bazaars, and merchants sell products from foodstuffs to hardware. The Kariakoo Market contains the only underground section of the city. It is the major supply point of the food consumed by all Dar es Salaam residents.
Tabata, Segerea and Ukonga are located slightly farther west from the city center.
Ilala, among the middle-income suburbs very near to the city center, is marked by the Askari Monument and suffers from gang activity.
====Temeke====
Temeke is the main industrial district of the city, where manufacturing (both heavy and light industry) is located. To the east is the Port of Dar es Salaam, the largest port in the country. Temeke is believed to have the largest concentration of low-income residents due to industry. It is home to military and police officers as well as port officials.
Kurasini, located on the harbour, contains Dar es Salaam Port, the Police College, the Mgulani Police Barracks and the Dar es Salaam International Trade Fair grounds. The main residents are police officers and port officials.
Chang'ombe is one of the few higher-income areas in Temeke. It has maintained this status due to the presence of African high colonial officers and some industry owners from the Colonial Era. Chang'ombe houses the Dar es Salaam University College of Education, the National Stadium and Uhuru Stadium.
Temeke, Mtoni, Tandika, Kijichi, and Mbagala are middle to low-income suburbs, of which the last is the largest suburb in the entire district.
====Ubungo====
The Ubungo terminal serves as a transportation link to most large Dar es Salaam urban nodes. The narrow-gauge commuter rail runs from there to the city centre, with ten level crossings along the route.
This district is characterised with a lot of potential social and economic centres such as industries i.e. Urafiki textile industry, bus station and various institutes and universities such as National Institute of Transport(NIT)
====Kigamboni====
Kigamboni (also known as South Beach), a beachfront suburb on a peninsula, is home to an economically diverse population. Access to the suburb is mainly by ferry, although the Kigamboni Bridge provides an alternative.
===Climate===
Dar es Salaam experiences tropical climatic conditions, typified by hot and humid weather throughout much of the year due to its proximity to the equator and the warm Indian Ocean. It has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw/As). Annual rainfall is approximately , and in a normal year there are two rainy seasons: the "long rains" in April and May, and the "short rains" in November and December.
==== Climate change ====
A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Dar es Salaam in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Barquisimeto in Venezuela. The annual temperature and temperatures of the warmest month would increase by , while the temperature of the coldest month would go down by . According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.
Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Dar es Salaam is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.
==Government==
In his 1979 journal A Modern History of Tanganyika, historian John Iliffe wrote, "In 1949 the town became a municipality...[with] four honourable nominated Town Councillors who elected a Mayor." According to Associational Life in African Cities: Popular Responses to the Urban Crisis, published in 2001: "Until June 1996, Dar es Salaam was managed by the Dar es Salaam City Council...the highest policy-making body in the city." As of 2017, Paul Makonda serves as the commissioner of Dar es Salaam Region.
==Demographics==
Dar es Salaam is the most populous city in Tanzania and the fifth most populous in Africa. In 2020, the population was estimated to be 8 million.
When the 2012 national census was taken, the city had a population of 4,364,541, about ten percent of the country's total. The average private household size was 3.9 persons compared to the national average of 4.7. Less than half of the city's residents were married, with a rate lower than any other region in the country. The literacy rate in the city was 96%, while the national average was 78%. Between the 2002 and 2012 censuses, the city's 5.6% average annual growth rate was the highest in the country.
More than three-quarters of the city's population live in informal settlements.
Dar es Salaam is the second-fastest-growing city in the world and could have a population as high as 15.9 million by 2030.
==Economy and infrastructure==
Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's most important city for both business and government. The city contains high concentrations of trade and other services and manufacturing compared to other parts of the country, which has about 65 percent of its population in rural areas. Downtown includes small businesses, many of which are run by traders and proprietors whose families originated in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent—areas of the world with which the settlements of the Tanzanian coast have had long-standing trading relations.
The Dar es Salaam Central Business District is the largest in Tanzania and comprises the Kisutu, Kivukoni, Upanga and Kariakoo areas. The downtown area is located in the Ilala district. Kivukoni is home to the Tanzania Central Bank, The Bank of Tanzania, the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange and the city's important Magogoni fish market. The city has major infrastructural challenges, including an outdated transport system and occasional power rationing.
===Financial services===
The Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange (DSE) is the country's first stock market. The headquarters of the Natural Gas Revenue Fund is also here.
===Retail===
Dar es Salaam hosts the Mlimani City shopping mall, the City Mall in the Kisutu area, Quality Center Mall, GSM Pugu Shopping Mall, GSM Msasani Mall, and Dar Free Market Mall.
==Transportation==
On a natural harbour on the Indian Ocean, Dar es Salaam is one of the hubs of the Tanzanian transportation system, as the main railways and several highways originate in or near the city to provide convenient transportation for commuters.
===Local public transport===
Public minibus share taxis (dala dala) are the most common form of transport in Dar es Salaam and are often found at the major bus terminals of Makumbusho, Ubungo and other areas of the city. However, since the introduction of the motorcycle transit business known as "bodaboda", most people prefer it, allowing them to get into the city faster as compared with the minibuses, which encounter heavy traffic. Other types of transport include motorcycles and bajaj (auto rickshaws).
====Bus====
The government has been introducing a metro bus system, Dar es Salaam bus rapid transit (mwendo kasi in Kiswahili). The metro buses are managed by UDA-RT, a partnership between Usafiri Dar es Salaam (UDA) and the government.
The bus rapid-transit system Phase 1 has been completed by UDA-RT and began operation on 10 May 2016. The first section runs between Kimara in the northwest to Kivukoni on the northern headland of the harbour. Phase 1 was funded by the World Bank, African Development Bank and the Tanzanian government.
====Metro====
Dar es Salaam will have a metro system, currently undergoing a feasibility study conducted by Mota-Engil and Dar Rapid Transit Agency.
===Maritime transport===
====Port====
The Port of Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's busiest, handling 90% of the country's cargo. It is located in the Kurasini administrative ward of Temeke District southeast of the city's central business district. Due to a huge influx of cargo and the slow pace of expansion, a new cargo port northwest of Dar es Salaam is proposed at Bagamoyo.
====Ferry====
MV Kigamboni ferries run between southeast of Kivukoni and northwest of Kigamboni in Dar es Salaam.
===Railway===
====Dar es Salaam commuter rail====
Travel to urban and suburban parts of the city is provided by the Dar es Salaam commuter rail.
====Intra-city railway====
Tanzania Railways operates the Central Line from Dar es Salaam west to Kigoma.
====International railway====
The city also hosts the head office of Tanzania–Zambia Railways Authority (TAZARA) built in the late 1960s to early 1970s. The main terminal is located west of Dar es Salaam's central business district in north Yombo Vituka along the Nelson Mandela Road. The TAZARA Railway connects Dar es Salaam to Zambia.
====SGR====
Tanzania Standard Gauge Railway is a new railway station currently under construction. It will link the country to Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi and Congo.
===Airport===
The Julius Nyerere International Airport is the principal airport serving the country, with three operating terminals. Terminal Three is located at Kipawa in Ilala Municipality. The airport is located west of Dar es Salaam's central business district.
==Culture==
===Art===
The Tingatinga painting style originates from Dar es Salaam. The Nyumba ya sanaa ("House of Art") is a cultural centre, workshop and retail outlet dedicated to Tanzanian art, showcasing and promoting Tanzanian craftsmanship. Prominent Tanzanian sculptor George Lilanga has donated some of his works to the centre, including decorations of the building's main entrance.
===Music===
The music scene in Dar es Salaam is divided among several styles. The longest-standing style is live dance music (muziki wa dansi) played by bands such as DDC Mlimani Park Orchestra and Malaika Musical Band. Taarab, which was traditionally popular in Zanzibar has also found a niche. However, it remains small compared both to dance music and "Bongo Flava", a broad category representing the Tanzanian take on hip hop and rhythm and blues that has quickly become the most popular locally produced music. The rap music scene is also present. Traditional music, which locally refers to tribal music, is still performed, but typically only on family-oriented occasions such as weddings.
In the 1970s, the Ministry of National Youth Culture aimed to create a national culture stressing the importance of music. Dar es Salaam became the music center in Tanzania, with the local radio showcasing new bands and dominating the music and cultural scene. With this ujamaa (family) mentality governing culture and music, a unified people's culture was created, leading to the rise of hip hop culture. located in the outskirts of the city on the road to Bagamoyo, showcases traditional huts from 16 different Tanzanian ethnic groups. There are also examples of traditional cultivation, as well as daily traditional music and dance shows. Close to the National Museum are also the botanical gardens, with tropical plants and trees.
There are beaches on the Msasani peninsula north of Dar es Salaam and in Kigamboni to the south. Bongoyo Island can be reached by boat from the Msasani Slipway.
==Places of worship==
The city is home to several churches and mosques. The churches in the city belong to various denominations; for example, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dar es Salaam (Catholic Church), Anglican Church of Tanzania (Anglican Communion), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania (Lutheran World Federation), Baptist Convention of Tanzania (Baptist World Alliance), Ilala Seventh Day Adventist Church and Assemblies of God. There is a Hindu temple like Shree Shankarashram temple, Shree Sanatan Dharma Sabha temple, Swaminarayan temple. Muslims make up 70% of the population in Dar es Salaam.
==Sports==
===Stadium===
Dar es Salaam is the sports center of Tanzania and hosts the second-largest stadium in East and Central Africa, the National Stadium, which can accommodate up to 60,000 people.
===Association football===
The Tanzanian National Stadium hosts football clubs based in Dar es Salaam: Young Africans and Simba. It also hosts other Tanzanian football clubs and international matches. A new stadium in Dodoma with a much larger capacity has been proposed by the government as a donation from Morocco.
Apart from the National Stadium, the city is home to two other stadiums: the Uhuru Stadium, the Karume Memorial Stadium and Chamazi Stadium. The Uhuru Stadium is used mainly for local tournaments and political gatherings, whilst the Karume Memorial Stadium is situated west of Kurasini and home to the Tanzania Football Federation. Azam Complex Chamazi is owned by Azam Football Club.
===Golf===
The Gymkhana Golf Courses located northwest of the Kivukoni area (between the city centre overlooking the shores of the Indian Ocean in the east and Barack Obama Drive), also have tennis courts, squash courts, and a fitness club. Outside of the metropolitan districts is Lugalo Military Golf Course located in the Lugalo Military Barracks.
===Acrobatics===
Founded in 2003, Mama Africa is a school known for training some of Africa's professional acrobats.
===Boxing===
Boxing is a popular sport in Tanzania and Dar es Salaam hosts numerous boxing galas organised throughout the year. Tanzanian professional boxer Francis Checka is the current World Boxing Federation (WBF) Super Middleweight Champion.
==Media==
===Newspapers===
Newspapers in Dar es Salaam are often sold by vendors weaving through stationary traffic at road intersections. English-language newspapers, with online versions, include The Citizen and The Guardian. Swahili dailies Tanzania Daima and Mwananchi are also available. Business Times is the only financial and economic newspaper in the city; it was established in 1988 and became the first private newspaper in Tanzania. Business Times owns Majira, another Swahili newspaper.
===Television stations===
Dar es Salaam is home to ITV, Sibuka, Channel Ten Television Station (formerly Dar es Salaam Television [DTV]) and Azam TV, a subscription-based service from the Azam group of companies.
Television station Ayo TV is based in Ubungo, Dar es Salaam, as is the Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation.
===Internet access===
Installation of the trans-Indian Ocean backbone cable (SEACOM) in 2009 has, in theory, made Internet access much more readily available in Dar es Salaam in particular and in East Africa in general. However, roll-out to end-users is currently slow. Telephone-line coverage provided by the Tanzania Telecommunications Company Limited is limited, prices are high, and long contracts are required for purchase of bandwidth for small Internet service providers. The expressed aim of the SEACOM cable is to enable East Africa to develop economically through increased online trading.
Internet cafés are found in the city centre, and free Wi-Fi hotspots are available in various government and nongovernment institutions as well as public transport.
Mobile-telephone access to the Internet via 4G is still relatively expensive, though 5G is making its way through major cities and towns with plans to go nationwide in the advanced stages.
===Radio===
Dar es Salaam's first radio station began operation in the early 1950s with "little more equipment than a microphone and a blanket hung over a wall..." This project was overseen by Edward Twining.
==Environment==
Since the 1990s, Dar es Salaam has experienced heavy and frequent flooding due to intense rainfall. The city is especially vulnerable to flooding, due to its lowland coastal orientation and the fact that the Msimbazi River flows through the city. The situation has worsened over the years, both due to climate change and the expansion of city pavement, which increases surface runoff.
In 2019, flooding displaced 1,215 households. Between 2017 and 2018, the city experienced seven floods. compared to the national average of 77.9%. The city's GER is lacks in comparison to the rest of the country with 96.1%, which is however still sufficient. On the other hand, its secondary GER is one of the highest in the country (61.8%). It is located in the western part of the city in north-east Ubungo, and occupies on Observation Hill, from the city centre. The university has 16,400 undergraduate and 2,700 postgraduate students.
Ardhi University (ARU) was established on 1 July 1996 after transforming the former University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), which was then a Constituent College of the University of Dar es Salaam. Historically, Ardhi University, dates back to 1956 when it started as Surveying Training School offering land surveying technician certificate courses at the present location of Mgulani Salvation Army Camp in Dar es Salaam. In 1958, the school was moved to the present location on Observation Hill. At present, there are over 80 PhD holders who have graduated from over 25 universities worldwide. The university comprises four schools, one institute and several centres, and offers undergraduate and postgraduate studies with postgraduate, bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in various disciplines.
The Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences consists of Muhimbili Campus and Mloganzila Campus. Muhimbili Campus is situated in Upanga, Ilala Municipality, along United Nations Road. Mloganzila Campus occupies and is located off the Dar es Salaam-Morogoro highway, from Dar es Salaam.
The Open University of Tanzania is a full-fledged, accredited public institution of higher learning, featuring programmes leading to certificates, diplomas, undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications. Since it was founded, the university has enrolled students from Malawi, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, Hungary, Burundi, Libya, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Lesotho, Botswana and most of Tanzania. , total enrollment was 44,099, the majority of which was Tanzanian.
Hubert Kairuki Memorial University is a private institution located on plot No. 322 Regent Estate in the Mikocheni area, about from Dar es Salaam's city centre, off Ali Hassan Mwinyi and Old Bagamoyo Roads.
International Medical and Technological University is a privately owned institute of higher education.
Kampala International University began operations in 2009. The University Centre is situated on of land in the Gongo la Mboto area, Ilala District, from Mwalimu Julius Nyerere International Airport along Pugu Road.
==Notable people==
Sir David Frank Adjaye (born 1966), London-based architect born in Dar es Salaam
C.A. "Peter" Bransgrove (1914–1966), architect in Dar es Salaam from 1947 to 1966
Joaquim Chissano (born 1939), the second President of Mozambique, from 1986 to 2005; headed the FRELIMO headquarters in Dar es Salaam
Kanyama Chiume (1929–2007), a leading nationalist in the struggle for Malawi's independence in the 1950s and 1960s and Minister
Roald Dahl (1916–1990) a British novelist, short-story writer and poet; he lived in Dar es Salaam from 1934 to 1939
Jane Goodall (born 1934), scientist and primatologist
Gertrud von Hassel (1908–1999) a German teacher and painter
Marin Hinkle (born 1966), actress, Two and a Half Men TV show
Rachel Luttrell (born 1971), actress, Stargate Atlantis, born in Dar es Salaam
Nairn McEwan (1941–2018), rugby union player and second national coach, born in Dar es Salaam.
Bibi Titi Mohammed (1926–2000), politician and chair of the women's branch of TANU
Yoweri Museveni (born 1944), president of Uganda since 1986
Godfrey Mwakikagile (born 1949), prominent Tanzanian author, Africanist scholar and journalist
Juma Mwapachu (1942–2025), Tanzanian diplomat, lawyer and author of books on African politics and economics; served as secretary-general of the East African Community (EAC)
Herieth Paul (born 1995), fashion model
Walter Rodney (1942–1980) Guyanese historian, political activist; author of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa
Justinian Rweyemamu (1942–1982), Tanzanian economist, author and professor of economics at the University of Dar es Salaam; worked at the United Nations; economic adviser to Tanzania's first president, Julius Nyerere
Mbwana Samatta (born 1992), footballer, 2015 CAF African Player of the Year; 68 caps for Tanzania
Issa G. Shivji (born 1946), Tanzanian scholar, and expert on constitutional law and development issues
Ally Sykes (1926–2013), politician and leading figure in Tanzania's independence movement
Hasheem Thabeet (born 1987), basketball player in the US
Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck (1870–1964), commander of the German East Africa Army
Kontawa ( born 1996) Musician and actor
==International relations==
Dar es Salaam is sister cities with:
Hamburg, Germany
Mumbai, India
Samsun, Turkey
Changzhou, Jiangsu, China
Sari, Iran
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"National Geographic",
"Internet café",
"Jiangsu",
"Venezuela",
"Temeke",
"Paul Makonda",
"International Medical and Technological University",
"Tropical savanna climate",
"Azania Front Lutheran Church",
"Algiers",
"East African Community",
"Uhuru Stadium",
"Young Africans S.C.",
"Francis Cheka",
"African studies",
"Zanzibar",
"Upanga West",
"Baptist World Alliance",
"Auto rickshaw"
] |
8,501 |
Distributed computing
|
Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems, defined as computer systems whose inter-communicating components are located on different networked computers.
The components of a distributed system communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the lack of a global clock, and managing the independent failure of components. Also, distributed systems are prone to fallacies of distributed computing. On the other hand, a well designed distributed system is more scalable, more durable, more changeable and more fine-tuned than a monolithic application deployed on a single machine. According to Marc Brooker: "a system is scalable in the range where marginal cost of additional workload is nearly constant." Serverless technologies fit this definition but the total cost of ownership, and not just the infra cost must be considered.
A computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues.
Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other via message passing.
==Introduction==
The word distributed in terms such as "distributed system", "distributed programming", and "distributed algorithm" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area. The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing. the following defining properties are commonly used as:
There are several autonomous computational entities (computers or nodes), each of which has its own local memory.
The entities communicate with each other by message passing.
A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.
Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following:
The system has to tolerate failures in individual computers.
The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.
Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.
== Patterns ==
Here are common architectural patterns used for distributed computing:
Saga interaction pattern
Microservices
Event driven architecture
== Events vs. Messages ==
In distributed systems, events represent a fact or state change (e.g., OrderPlaced) and are typically broadcast asynchronously to multiple consumers, promoting loose coupling and scalability. While events generally don’t expect an immediate response, acknowledgment mechanisms are often implemented at the infrastructure level (e.g., Kafka commit offsets, SNS delivery statuses) rather than being an inherent part of the event pattern itself.
In contrast, messages serve a broader role, encompassing commands (e.g., ProcessPayment), events (e.g., PaymentProcessed), and documents (e.g., DataPayload). Both events and messages can support various delivery guarantees, including at-least-once, at-most-once, and exactly-once, depending on the technology stack and implementation. However, exactly-once delivery is often achieved through idempotency mechanisms rather than true, infrastructure-level exactly-once semantics. The same system may be characterized both as "parallel" and "distributed"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel. Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing.
In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (distributed memory). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.
The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.
The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see below for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.
==History==
The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in the 1960s. The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet, which was invented in the 1970s.
ARPANET, one of the predecessors of the Internet, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application. In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.
The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.
==Architectures==
Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.
Whether these CPUs share resources or not determines a first distinction between three types of architecture:
Shared memory
Shared disk
Shared nothing.
Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client–server, three-tier, n-tier, or peer-to-peer; or categories: loose coupling, or tight coupling.
Client–server: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.
Three-tier: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.
n-tier: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers.
Peer-to-peer: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers. Examples of this architecture include BitTorrent and the bitcoin network.
Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a main/sub relationship. Alternatively, a "database-centric" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database. Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database.
=== Cell-Based Architecture ===
Cell-based architecture is a distributed computing approach in which computational resources are organized into self-contained units called cells. Each cell operates independently, processing requests while maintaining scalability, fault isolation, and availability.
A cell typically consists of multiple services or application components and functions as an autonomous unit. Some implementations replicate entire sets of services across multiple cells, while others partition workloads between cells. In replicated models, requests may be rerouted to an operational cell if another experiences a failure. This design is intended to enhance system resilience by reducing the impact of localized failures.
Some implementations employ circuit breakers within and between cells. Within a cell, circuit breakers may be used to prevent cascading failures among services, while inter-cell circuit breakers can isolate failing cells and redirect traffic to those that remain operational.
Cell-based architecture has been adopted in some large-scale distributed systems, particularly in cloud-native and high-availability environments, where fault isolation and redundancy are key design considerations. Its implementation varies depending on system requirements, infrastructure constraints, and operational objectives.
==Applications==
Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:
The very nature of an application may require the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.
There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is beneficial for practical reasons. For example:
It can allow for much larger storage and memory, faster compute, and higher bandwidth than a single machine.
It can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no single point of failure. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.
It may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer.
==Examples==
Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:
telecommunications networks:
telephone networks and cellular networks,
computer networks such as the Internet,
wireless sensor networks,
routing algorithms;
network applications:
World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks,
massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,
distributed databases and distributed database management systems,
network file systems,
distributed cache such as burst buffers,
distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;
real-time process control:
aircraft control systems,
industrial control systems;
parallel computation:
scientific computing, including cluster computing, grid computing, cloud computing, and various volunteer computing projects,
distributed rendering in computer graphics.
peer-to-peer
==Reactive distributed systems==
According to Reactive Manifesto, reactive distributed systems are responsive, resilient, elastic and message-driven. Subsequently, Reactive systems are more flexible, loosely-coupled and scalable. To make your systems reactive, you are advised to implement Reactive Principles. Reactive Principles are a set of principles and patterns which help to make your cloud native application as well as edge native applications more reactive.
==Theoretical foundations==
===Models===
Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In theoretical computer science, such tasks are called computational problems. Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with a solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.
Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output. Formalisms such as random-access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.
The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by "solving a problem" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?
The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.
Three viewpoints are commonly used:
Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model
All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.
One theoretical model is the parallel random-access machines (PRAM) that are used. However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.
Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.
A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as Compare-and-swap (CAS), is that of asynchronous shared memory. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.
Parallel algorithms in message-passing model
The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.
Models such as Boolean circuits and sorting networks are used. A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.
Distributed algorithms in message-passing model
The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.
A commonly used model is a graph with one finite-state machine per node.
In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.
===An example===
Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G. Different fields might take the following approaches:
Centralized algorithms was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.
Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing). The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).
===Complexity measures===
In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup). If a decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC. The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.
In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each communication round, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.
This complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (D rounds).
On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their local D-neighbourhood. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field. Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.
Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. communication complexity). The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits.
===Other problems===
Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur.
There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to fault-tolerance. Examples of related problems include consensus problems, Byzantine fault tolerance, and self-stabilisation.
Much research is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems:
Synchronizers can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.
Logical clocks provide a causal happened-before ordering of events.
Clock synchronization algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.
Note that in distributed systems, latency should be measured through "99th percentile" because "median" and "average" can be misleading.
===Election===
Coordinator election (or leader election) is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the "coordinator" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.
The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the "coordinator" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.
Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing.
Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network graphs, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.
In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.
===Properties of distributed systems===
So far the focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system.
The halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is undecidable in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.
However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is PSPACE-complete, i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.
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