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8,699	Dewey Decimal Classification	The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) (Dewey pronounced: /do-e/), colloquially known as the Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system which allows new books to be added to a library in their appropriate location based on subject. It was first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. Originally described in a 44-page pamphlet, it has been expanded to multiple volumes and revised through 23 major editions, the latest printed in 2011. It is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. OCLC, a non-profit cooperative that serves libraries, currently maintains the system and licenses online access to WebDewey, a continuously updated version for catalogers. The decimal number classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic. The classification's notation makes use of three-digit numbers for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Numbers are flexible to the degree that they can be expanded in linear fashion to cover special aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a classification number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library, on the basis of its subject. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its proper place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries. ==History== ===1873–1885: early development=== Melvil Dewey (1851–1931) was an American librarian and self-declared reformer. He was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his library classification system in 1873 while working at the Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in that library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. He used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, that of Ernest Cushing Richardson. His classification system was mentioned in an article in the first issue of the Library Journal and in an article by Dewey in the Department of Education publication Public Libraries in America in 1876. In March 1876, he applied for, and received, copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, and was printed in 200 copies. ===1885–1942: period of adoption=== The second edition of the Dewey Decimal system, published in 1885 with the title , comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Five hundred copies were produced. Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that "nearly 100 persons hav [spelling of 'have' per English-language spelling reform, which Dewey championed] contributed criticisms and suggestions". One of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics. When the system was first introduced, most libraries in the US used fixed positioning: each book was assigned a permanent shelf position based on the book's height and date of acquisition. New editions were readied as supplies of previously published editions were exhausted, even though some editions provided little change from the previous, as they were primarily needed to fulfill demand. In the next decade, three editions followed closely on: the 3rd (1888), 4th (1891), and 5th (1894). Editions 6 through 11 were published from 1899 to 1922. The 6th edition was published in a record 7,600 copies, although subsequent editions were much lower. During this time, the size of the volume grew, and edition 12 swelled to 1,243 pages, an increase of 25% over the previous edition. In response to the needs of smaller libraries which were finding the expanded classification schedules difficult to use, in 1894, the first abridged edition of the Dewey Decimal system was produced. In 1895, the International Institute of Bibliography, located in Belgium and led by Paul Otlet, contacted Dewey about the possibility of translating the classification into French, and using the classification system for bibliographies (as opposed to its use for books in libraries). This would have required some changes to the classification, which was under copyright. Dewey gave permission for the creation of a version intended for bibliographies, and also for its translation into French. Dewey did not agree, however, to allow the International Institute of Bibliography to later create an English version of the resulting classification, considering that a violation of their agreement, as well as a violation of Dewey's copyright. Shortly after Dewey's death in 1931, however, an agreement was reached between the committee overseeing the development of the Decimal Classification and the developers of the French Classification Decimal. The English version was published as the Universal Decimal Classification and is still in use today. According to a study done in 1927, the Dewey system was used in the US in approximately 96% of responding public libraries and 89% of the college libraries. After the death of Melvil Dewey in 1931, administration of the classification was under the Decimal Classification Committee of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, and the editorial body was the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee with participation of the American Library Association (ALA), Library of Congress, and Forest Press. ===1942–present: forging an identity=== The growth of the classification to date had led to significant criticism from medium and large libraries which were too large to use the abridged edition but found the full classification overwhelming. Dewey had intended issuing the classification in three editions: the library edition, which would be the fullest edition; the bibliographic edition, in English and French, which was to be used for the organization of bibliographies rather than of books on the shelf; and the abridged edition. In 1933, the bibliographic edition became the Universal Decimal Classification, which left the library and abridged versions as the formal Dewey Decimal Classification editions. The 15th edition, edited by Milton Ferguson, implemented the growing concept of the "standard edition", designed for the majority of general libraries but not attempting to satisfy the needs of the very largest or of special libraries. It also reduced the size of the Dewey system by over half, from 1,900 to 700 pages. This revision was so radical that an advisory committee was formed right away for the 16th and 17th editions. The 16th and 17th editions, under the editorship of the Library of Congress, grew again to two volumes. However, by then, the Dewey Decimal system had established itself as a classification for general libraries, with the Library of Congress Classification having gained acceptance for large research libraries. The first electronic version of "Dewey" was created in 1993. Hard-copy editions continue to be issued at intervals; the online WebDewey and Abridged WebDewey are updated quarterly. == Administration and publication == Dewey and a small editorial staff managed the administration of the very early editions. Beginning in 1922, the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a not-for-profit organization founded by Melvil Dewey, managed administrative affairs. The ALA set up a Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification as part of the Cataloging and Classification division of ALA in 1952. The previous Decimal Classification Committee was changed to the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, with participation of the ALA Division of Cataloging and Classification, and of the Library of Congress. Melvil Dewey edited the first three editions of the classification system and oversaw the revisions of all editions until his death in 1931. May Seymour became editor in 1891 and served until her death in 1921. She was followed by Dorcas Fellows, who was editor until her death in 1938. Constantin J. Mazney edited the 14th edition. Milton Ferguson functioned as editor from 1949 to 1951. The 16th edition in 1958 was edited under an agreement between the Library of Congress and Forest Press, with David Haykin as director. Editions 16–19 were edited by Benjamin A. Custer and the editor of edition 20 was John P. Comaromi. Joan Mitchell was editor until 2013, covering editions 21 to 23. In 2013 Michael Panzer of OCLC became Editor-in-Chief. The Dewey Editorial Program Manager since 2016 has been Rebecca Green. Dewey himself held copyright in editions 1 to 6 (1876–1919). Copyright in editions 7–10 was held by the publisher, The Library Bureau. On the death of May Seymour, Dewey conveyed the "copyrights and control of all editions" to the Lake Placid Club Educational Foundation, a non-profit chartered in 1922. The Online Computer Library Center of Dublin, Ohio, U.S., acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification system when it bought Forest Press in 1988. In 2003 the Dewey Decimal Classification came to the attention of the U.S. press when OCLC sued the Library Hotel for trademark infringement for using the classification system as the hotel theme. The case was settled shortly thereafter. The OCLC has maintained the classification since 1988, and also publishes new editions of the system. The editorial staff responsible for updates is based partly at the Library of Congress and partly at OCLC. Their work is reviewed by the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, a ten-member international board which meets twice each year. The four-volume unabridged edition was published approximately every six years, with the last edition (DDC 23) published in mid-2011. In 2017 the editorial staff announced that the English edition of DDC will no longer be printed, in favor of using the frequently updated WebDewey. An experimental version of Dewey in RDF was available at dewey.info beginning in 2009, but has not been available since 2015. In addition to the full version, a single-volume abridged edition designed for libraries with 20,000 titles or fewer has been made available since 1895. The last printed English abridged edition, Abridged Edition 15, was published in early 2012. ==Design== The Dewey Decimal Classification organizes library materials by discipline or field of study. The scheme comprises ten classes, each divided into ten divisions, each having ten sections. The system's notation uses Indo-Arabic numbers, with three whole numbers making up the main classes and sub-classes and decimals designating further divisions. The classification structure is hierarchical and the notation follows the same hierarchy. Libraries not needing the full level of detail of the classification can trim right-most decimal digits from the class number to obtain more general classifications. For example: 500 Natural sciences and mathematics 510 Mathematics 516 Geometry 516.3 Analytic geometries 516.37 Metric differential geometries 516.375 Finsler geometry The classification was originally enumerative, meaning that it listed all of the classes explicitly in the schedules. Over time it added some aspects of a faceted classification scheme, allowing classifiers to construct a number by combining a class number for a topic with an entry from a separate table. Tables cover commonly used elements such as geographical and temporal aspects, language, and bibliographic forms. For example, a class number could be constructed using 330 for economics + .9 for geographic treatment + .04 for Europe to create the class 330.94 European economy. Or one could combine the class 973 (for the United States) + .05 (for periodical publications on the topic) to arrive at the number 973.05 for periodicals concerning the United States generally. The classification also makes use of mnemonics in some areas, such that the number 5 represents the country Italy in classification numbers like 945 (history of Italy), 450 (Italian language), and 195 (Italian philosophy). The combination of faceting and mnemonics makes the classification synthetic in nature, with meaning built into parts of the classification number. The Dewey Decimal Classification has a number for all subjects, including fiction, although many libraries maintain a separate fiction section shelved by alphabetical order of the author's surname. Each assigned number consists of two parts: a class number (from the Dewey system) and a book number, which "prevents confusion of different books on the same subject". ===Classes=== (From DDC 23) 000 – Computer science, information and general works 100 – Philosophy and psychology 200 – Religion 300 – Social sciences 400 – Language 500 – Pure science 600 – Technology 700 – Arts and recreation 800 – Literature 900 – History and geography ===Tables=== (From DDC 23 == Influence and criticism == Dewey Decimal Classification numbers formed the basis of the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses, etc.). Adaptations of the system for specific regions outside the English-speaking world include the Korean Decimal Classification, the New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries, and the Nippon Decimal Classification in Japan. Despite its widespread use, the classification has been criticized for its complexity and its limited capability for amendment. This is particularly demonstrated with the literature section (800s): literature in European languages takes the entire range from 810 through 889, while the entire rest of the world's literature is relegated to the 890s. In 2007–08, the Maricopa County Library District in Arizona abandoned the DDC in favor of the Book Industry Standards and Communications (BISAC) system commonly used by commercial bookstores, in an effort to make its libraries more accessible for their users. Several other libraries across the United States and other countries (including Canada and the Netherlands) followed suit. In 1996, homosexuality was added to 306.7 (sexual relations); this remains the preferred location in the current edition. Although books can also be found under 616.8583 (sexual practices viewed as medical disorders), the official direction states: For example, Islam is under just DDC 297. The entire 200 section has remained largely unchanged since DDC 1, since restructuring would pose a significant amount of work for existing libraries. The motivation for this change is ideological rather than technical, as appending significant figures can add space as needed. === Treatment of women === It has also been argued by Hope A. Olson that the placement of topics related to women shows implicit bias, but this has been simpler to address than the religion schema. Some changes made so far have been in numerical proximity, altering the placement of topics relative to each other. For example, in older versions of the DDC, some categories regarding women were adjacent to categories on etiquette; the placement of these categories next to each other imposed an association of etiquette with women, rather than treating it as gender-neutral. This was changed in DDC version 17, in 1965.	[ "Paul Otlet", "social problems", "List of Dewey Decimal classes", "American Library Association", "faceted classification", "Library catalog", "Cutter Expansive Classification", "Library Hotel", "Library of Congress Classification", "Hong Kong", "Milton J. Ferguson", "homosexuality", "hierarchical", "Christianity", "Project Gutenberg", "BISAC Subject Headings", "sexual relations", "periodical", "Cataloging & Classification Quarterly", "Hope A. Olson", "New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries", "English-language spelling reform", "Cutter number", "Benjamin A. Custer", "Resource Description Framework", "OCLC", "Online Computer Library Center", "Jennie Dorcas Fellows", "Library Journal", "abnormal psychology", "Library of Congress", "Mental disorder", "Lake Placid Club", "etiquette", "decimal", "implicit bias", "Cataloging (library science)", "library classification", "Charles Ammi Cutter", "Dublin, Ohio", "Amherst College", "Nippon Decimal Classification", "Melvil Dewey", "Ernest Cushing Richardson", "Maricopa County Library District", "Arizona", "INFLIBNET Centre", "Korean Decimal Classification", "sexes", "Internet Archive", "Comparison of Dewey and Library of Congress subject classification", "Universal Decimal Classification", "gender-neutral" ]
8,702	Duḥkha	Duḥkha (; , ) "suffering", "pain", "unease", or "unsatisfactoriness", is an important concept in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Its meaning depends on the context, and may refer more specifically to the "unsatisfactoriness" or "unease" of craving for and grasping after transient 'things' (sense objects, including thoughts), expecting pleasure from them while ignorant of this transientness. In Buddhism, dukkha is part of the first of the Four Noble Truths and one of the three marks of existence. The term also appears in scriptures of Hinduism, such as the Upanishads, in discussions of moksha (spiritual liberation). Dukkha-dukkha, aversion to physical suffering this includes the physical and mental sufferings of birth, aging, illness, dying; distress due to what is not desirable. Viparinama-dukkha, the frustration of disappearing happiness this is the duḥkha of pleasant or happy experiences changing to unpleasant when the causes and conditions that produced the pleasant experiences cease. Sankhara-dukkha, the unsatisfactoriness of changing and impermanent "things" the incapability of conditioned things to give us lasting happiness. This includes "a basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all existence, all forms of life, because all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance." On this level, the term indicates a lack of lasting satisfaction, or a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards. ===Chinese Buddhism=== Chinese Buddhist tradition has been influenced by Taoism and Confucian theory that advocates that duhkha (古:十Ten directions, 口 hole or opening) is associated to the theory of seven emotions of endogenous disease through the formation of the spirit of the po a term that relates to the Western psychological notion of ego or the theological reference to the human soul. This theory is expounded in the application of traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and prevention of pain and suffering from illness, disease and ignorance. ===Literal suffering and awakening=== Awakening, that is, awakening to one's true mind of emptiness and compassion, does not necessarily end physical suffering. In the Buddhist tradition, suffering after awakening is often explained as the working-out or untangling of karma of one's previous present life. ==Hinduism== In Hinduism, duḥkha encompasses many meanings such as the phenomenological senses of pain and grief, a deep-seated dissatisfaction with the limitations of worldly existence, and the devastation of impermanence. In Hindu scriptures, the earliest Upaniads — the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad\| and the Chandogya Upanishad\| — in all likelihood predate the advent of Buddhism. In these scriptures of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word dukha (दुःख) appears in the sense of "suffering, sorrow, distress", and in the context of a spiritual pursuit and liberation through the knowledge of Atman ('essence'). The concept of sorrow and suffering, and self-knowledge as a means to overcome it, appears extensively with other terms in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads. The term Duhkha also appears in many other middle and later post-Buddhist Upanishads such as the verse 6.20 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, as well as in the Bhagavad Gita, all in the contexts of moksha and bhakti. The term also appears in the foundational Sutras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, such as the opening lines of Samkhya karika of the Samkhya school. The Samkhya school identifies three types of suffering. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali state that "for one who has discrimination, everything is suffering" (duḥkham eva sarvaṁ vivekinaḥ). Some of the Hindu scripture verses referring to duhkha are: == Jainism == Duḥkha is explained in the Tattvartha Sutra, an authoritative Jain scripture from the 2nd century.	[ "Ego (psychology)", "Four Noble Truths", "wikt:स्था", "Pyrrhonism", "Pali", "Yoga Sutras of Patanjali", "Existential despair", "Noble Eightfold Path", "Princeton University Press", "Joseph Goldstein (writer)", "wikt:dukkha", "Max Muller", "Winthrop Sargeant", "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad", "Patrick Olivelle", "Atman (Hinduism)", "bhakti", "Jainism", "Tattvartha Sutra", "Wylie transliteration", "Walpola Rahula", "Hinduism", "Jāti (Buddhism)", "Taṇhā", "Byādhi (Buddhism)", "Sankhara", "Monier Monier-Williams", "similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism", "Digital Dictionary of Buddhism", "Pre-sectarian Buddhism", "Suffering", "sukha", "saṃsāra", "soul", "Christopher I. Beckwith", "THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription", "Hindu", "anitya", "Prakrit", "vedana", "Pyrrho", "skandhas", "Buddhist paths to awakening", "Bhagavad Gita", "Nirodha", "Theology", "anatman", "Samkhya", "Buddhism", "Sanskrit", "Pathos", "Hun and po", "Sukha", "Upanishads", "vipassana", "Ātman (Hinduism)", "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta", "Samyutta Nikaya", "Samudaya", "three marks of existence", "The Sickness Unto Death", "Hindu philosophy", "Ajahn Chah", "moksha", "Thanissaro Bhikkhu", "Shvetashvatara Upanishad", "Jarāmaraṇa", "Chandogya Upanishad", "Awakening (Buddhism)", "wikt:दुस्-" ]
8,703	Darwin Awards	The Darwin Awards are a rhetorical tongue-in-cheek honor that originated in Usenet newsgroup discussions around 1985. They recognize individuals who have supposedly contributed to human evolution by selecting themselves out of the gene pool by dying or becoming sterilized by their own actions. The project became more formalized with the creation of a website in 1993, followed by a series of books starting in 2000 by Wendy Northcutt. The criterion for the awards states: "In the spirit of Charles Darwin, the Darwin Awards commemorate individuals who protect our gene pool by making the ultimate sacrifice of their own lives. Darwin Award winners eliminate themselves in an extraordinarily idiotic manner, thereby improving our species' chances of long-term survival." Accidental self-sterilization also qualifies, but the site notes: "Of necessity, the award is usually bestowed posthumously." The candidate is disqualified, though, if "innocent bystanders" are killed in the process, as they might have contributed positively to the gene pool. The logical problem presented by award winners who may have already reproduced is not addressed in the selection process owing to the difficulty of ascertaining whether or not a person has children; the Darwin Award rules state that the presence of offspring does not disqualify a nominee. ==History== The origin of the Darwin Awards can be traced back to posts on Usenet group discussions as early as 1985. A post on August 7, 1985, describes the awards as being "given posthumously to people who have made the supreme sacrifice to keep their genes out of our pool. Style counts, not everyone who dies from their own stupidity can win." This early post cites an example of a person who tried to break into a vending machine and was crushed to death when he pulled it over on himself. Wendy Northcutt says the official Darwin Awards website run by Northcutt does its best to confirm all stories submitted, listing them as, "confirmed true by Darwin". Many of the viral emails circulating the Internet, however, are hoaxes and urban legends. The website and collection of books were started in 1993 by Wendy Northcutt, who at the time was a graduate in molecular biology from the University of California, Berkeley. By 2002, the website received 7 million page hits per month. Northcutt encountered some difficulty in publishing the first book, since most publishers would only offer her a deal if she agreed to remove the stories from the Internet, but she refused: "It was a community! I could not do that. Even though it might have cost me a lot of money, I kept saying no." She eventually found a publisher who agreed to print a book containing only 10% of the material gathered for the website. The first book turned out to be a success, and was listed on The New York Times best-seller list for 6 months. Not all of the feedback from the stories Northcutt published was positive, and she occasionally received email from people who knew the deceased. One such person advised: "This is horrible. It has shocked our community to the core. You should remove this." Northcutt demurred: "I can't. It's just too stupid." Northcutt kept the stories on the website and in her books, citing them as a "funny-but-true safety guide", and mentioning that children who read the book are going to be much more careful around explosives. The website also awards Honorable Mentions to individuals who survive their misadventures with their reproductive capacity intact. One example of this is Larry Walters, who attached helium-filled weather balloons to a lawn chair and floated far above Long Beach, California, in July 1982. He reached an altitude of , but survived, to be later fined for crossing controlled airspace. (Walters later fell into depression and died by suicide.) Another notable honorable mention was given to the two men who attempted to burgle the home of footballer Duncan Ferguson (who had an infamous reputation for physical aggression on and off the pitch, including four convictions for assault and who had served six months in Glasgow's Barlinnie Prison) in 2001, with one burglar requiring three days' hospitalisation after being confronted by the player. {{stack\|thumb\|alt=Figure charting sex differences between Darwin Award winners, 1995–2014 \|"Male and female Darwin Award winners: Line H0 indicates expected percentages under the null hypothesis that males and females are equally idiotic." The comedy film [[The Darwin Awards (film)\|The Darwin Awards (2006), written and directed by Finn Taylor, was based on the website and many of the Darwin Awards stories. ==Rules== Northcutt has stated five requirements for a Darwin Award: Two of them are that the event must be verified to have happened, and that the nominee themselves were responsible for the activity. The others are: === Nominee must be dead or rendered sterile === This may be subject to dispute. Potential awardees may be out of the gene pool because of age; others have already reproduced before their deaths. To avoid debates about the possibility of in vitro fertilization, artificial insemination, or cloning, the original Darwin Awards book applied the following "deserted island" test to potential winners: If the person were unable to reproduce when stranded on a deserted island with a fertile member of the opposite sex, he or she would be considered sterile. Winners of the award, in general, either are dead or have become unable to use their sexual organs. === Astoundingly stupid judgment === The candidate's foolishness must be unique and sensational, likely because the award is intended to be funny. A number of foolish but common activities, such as smoking in bed, are excluded from consideration. In contrast, self-immolation caused by smoking after being administered a flammable ointment in a hospital and specifically told not to smoke is grounds for nomination. One "Honorable Mention" (a man who attempted suicide by swallowing nitroglycerin pills, and then tried to detonate them by running into a wall) is noted to be in this category, despite being intentional and self-inflicted (i.e. attempted suicide), which would normally disqualify the inductee. === Capable of sound judgment === In 2011, however, the awards targeted a 16-year-old boy in Leeds who died stealing copper wiring (he was underage at the time of his death; the standard minimum driving age in Great Britain being 17). In 2012, Northcutt made similar light of a 14-year-old girl in Brazil who was killed while leaning out of a school bus window, but she was "disqualified" for the award itself because of the likely public objection owing to the girl's age, which Northcutt asserts is based on "magical thinking". Under this rule, and for reasons of good taste, individuals whose misfortune was caused by mental impairment or disability are not eligible for a Darwin Award, primarily to avoid mocking or making light of the disabled, and to ensure that the awards do not celebrate or trivialize tragedies involving vulnerable individuals. == Reception == The Darwin Awards have received varying levels of scrutiny from the scientific community. In his book Encyclopedia of Evolution, biology professor Stanley A. Rice comments: "Despite the tremendous value of these stories as entertainment, it is unlikely that they represent evolution in action", citing the nonexistence of "judgment impairment genes". On an essay in the book The Evolution of Evil, professor Nathan Hallanger acknowledges that the Darwin Awards are meant as black humor, but associates them with the eugenics movement of the early 20th century. University of Oxford biophysicist Sylvia McLain, writing for The Guardian, says that while the Darwin Awards are "clearly meant to be funny", they do not accurately represent how genetics work, further noting that smart' people do stupid things all the time". Geologist and science communicator Sharon A. Hill has criticized the Darwin Awards on both scientific and ethical grounds, claiming that no genetic traits impact personal intelligence or good judgment to be targeted by natural selection, and calling them an example of "ignorance" and "heartlessness". However, studies have found hundreds of genes that influence intelligence and the majority of twin studies have found that the heritability of IQ due to genetic variation is greater than 57% and potentially up to 80%. A large study found direct links between genetics and risky behavior. ==Notable recipients== The driver of the JATO Rocket Car in the well-known urban legend. Garry Hoy who fell from the 24th story of the Toronto-Dominion Centre whilst attempting to demonstrate to a group of students that the windows were unbreakable. His death has been featured in television programs such as 1000 Ways to Die and MythBusters. Charles Stephens, the first person to die while attempting to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel. Larry Walters was awarded an 'Honorable Mention' for his lawn chair balloon flight into controlled airspace. John Allen Chau who tried to convert an isolated indigenous group on North Sentinel Island to Christianity, and was killed by them. ==Books==	[ "chain letter", "Charles Darwin", "molecular biology", "weather balloon", "eugenics", "Stanford University", "helium", "in-vitro fertilization", "Finn Taylor", "gene pool", "Larry Walters", "artificial insemination", "JATO", "Snopes", "Usenet", "human cloning", "Chevrolet Impala", "magical thinking", "Long Beach, California", "tongue-in-cheek", "Salon (website)", "Biophysics", "Death by vending machine", "Geology", "List of unusual deaths", "heritability of IQ", "North Sentinel Island", "sterilization (medicine)", "Death by misadventure", "Culling", "telomerase", "CNN", "Lawnchair Larry", "University of Oxford", "MythBusters", "Charles Stephens (daredevil)", "Schadenfreude", "Toronto-Dominion Centre", "Ig Nobel Prize", "List of selfie-related injuries and deaths", "Garry Hoy", "The Guardian", "viral email", "Age of majority", "Arizona Department of Public Safety", "The Spokesman-Review", "The Darwin Awards (film)", "British Medical Journal", "self-immolation", "Black comedy", "The New York Times", "University of California, Berkeley", "JATO Rocket Car", "List of inventors killed by their own inventions", "Duncan Ferguson", "neurobiology", "Barlinnie Prison", "Sharon A. Hill", "Niagara Falls", "John Allen Chau", "Herman Cain Award", "sexual organs", "1000 Ways to Die", "Glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)", "Arizona", "Google groups", "controlled airspace", "natural selection", "Science communication" ]
8,704	Outline of dance	The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to dance: Dance – human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting. Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer. Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. A great many dances and dance styles are performed to dance music. ==What type of thing is dance?== Dance (also called "dancing") can fit the following categories: an activity or behavior one of the arts – a creative endeavor or discipline. one of the performing arts. Hobby – regular activity or interest that is undertaken for pleasure, typically done during one's leisure time. Exercise – bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. Sport—bodily activity that displays physical exertion Recreation – leisure time activity Ritual Some other things can be named "dance" metaphorically; see dance (disambiguation) == Types of dance == Type of dance – a particular dance or dance style. There are many varieties of dance. Dance categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, tango is traditionally a partner dance. While it is mostly social dance, its ballroom form may be competitive dance, as in DanceSport. At the same time it is enjoyed as performance dance, whereby it may well be a solo dance. List of dances List of dance style categories List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances by origin List of folk dances sorted by origin List of national dances List of DanceSport dances === Dance genres === Acro dance B-boying Ballet Bollywood dance Ballroom dance Baroque dance Belly dance Glossary of belly dance terms Bharatanatyam Casino (Cuban salsa) Cha-cha-cha Chicago stepping Circle dance Competitive dance Dance squad Contemporary dance Contra dance Country-western dance Disco Hustle Erotic dancing Fandango Flamenco Folk dance Hip-hop dance Indian classical dance Jazz dance Jig Jive Krumping Lambada Lap dance Limbo Line dance Mambo Modern dance Pole dance Polka Quickstep Salsa Sequence dance Street dance Swing Tango Tap dance Twist Two-step Thai classical dance Waltz War dance Zamba === Dance styles by number of interacting dancers === Solo dance – a dance danced by an individual dancing alone. Partner dance – dance with just 2 dancers, dancing together. In most partner dances, one, typically a man, is the leader; the other, typically a woman, is the follower. As a rule, they maintain connection with each other. In some dances the connection is loose and called dance handhold. In other dances the connection involves body contact. Glossary of partner dance terms Group dance – dance danced by a group of people simultaneously. Group dances are generally, but not always, coordinated or standardized in such a way that all the individuals in the group are dancing the same steps at the same time. Alternatively, various groups within the larger group may be dancing different, but complementary, parts of the larger dance. === Dance styles by main purpose === Ceremonial dance – Competitive dance – Erotic dance – Participation dance – Performance dance – Social dance – Concert dance – == Geography of dance (by region) == Africa West Africa Benin • Burkina Faso • Cape Verde • Côte d'Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinea • Guinea-Bissau • Liberia • Mali • Mauritania • Niger • Nigeria • Senegal • Sierra Leone • Togo North Africa Algeria • Egypt (Ancient Egypt) • Libya • Mauritania • Morocco • Sudan • South Sudan •Tunisia • Western Sahara Central Africa Angola • Burundi • Cameroon • Central African Republic • Chad • The Democratic Republic of the Congo • Equatorial Guinea • Gabon • Republic of the Congo • Rwanda • São Tomé and Príncipe East Africa Burundi • Comoros • Djibouti • Eritrea • Ethiopia • Kenya • Madagascar • Malawi • Mauritius • Mozambique • Rwanda • Seychelles • Somalia • Tanzania • Uganda • Zambia • Zimbabwe Southern Africa Botswana • Eswatini • Lesotho • Namibia • South Africa Dependencies Mayotte (France) • St. Helena (UK) • Puntland • Somaliland • Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Antarctica None Asia Central Asia Kazakhstan • Kyrgyzstan • Tajikistan • Turkmenistan • Uzbekistan East Asia China Tibet Hong Kong • Macau Japan • North Korea • South Korea • Mongolia • Taiwan North Asia Russia Southeast Asia Brunei • Burma (Myanmar) • Cambodia • East Timor (Timor-Leste) • Indonesia • Laos • Malaysia • Philippines • Singapore • Thailand • Vietnam South Asia Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • Iran • Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka India West Asia Armenia • Azerbaijan • Bahrain • Cyprus (including disputed Northern Cyprus) • Georgia • Iraq • Israel • Jordan • Kuwait • Lebanon • Oman • Palestinian territories Qatar • Saudi Arabia • Syria • Turkey • United Arab Emirates • Yemen Caucasus (a region considered to be in both Asia and Europe, or between them) North Caucasus Parts of Russia (Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adyghea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachai-Cherkessia, North Ossetia, Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai) South Caucasus Georgia (including disputed Abkhazia, South Ossetia) • Armenia • Azerbaijan (including disputed Nagorno-Karabakh Republic) Europe Akrotiri and Dhekelia • Åland • Albania • Andorra • Armenia • Austria • Azerbaijan • Belarus • Belgium • Bosnia and Herzegovina • Bulgaria • Croatia • Cyprus • Czech Republic • Denmark • Estonia • Faroe Islands • Finland • France • Georgia • Germany • Gibraltar • Greece • Guernsey • Hungary • Iceland • Ireland • Isle of Man • Italy • Jersey • Kazakhstan • Kosovo • Latvia • Liechtenstein • Lithuania • Luxembourg • Macedonia • Malta • Moldova (including disputed Transnistria) • Monaco • Montenegro • Netherlands • Poland • Portugal • Romania • Russia • San Marino • Serbia • Slovakia • Slovenia • Norway Svalbard Spain Autonomous communities of Spain: Catalonia Sweden • Switzerland • Turkey • Ukraine United Kingdom England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales Vatican City European Union North America Canada Provinces of Canada: • Alberta • British Columbia • Manitoba • New Brunswick • Newfoundland and Labrador • Nova Scotia • Ontario (Toronto) • Prince Edward Island • Quebec • Saskatchewan Territories of Canada: Northwest Territories • Nunavut • Yukon Greenland • Saint Pierre and Miquelon United States Mexico Central America Belize • Costa Rica • El Salvador • Guatemala • Honduras • Nicaragua • Panama Caribbean Anguilla • Antigua and Barbuda • Aruba • Bahamas • Barbados • Bermuda • British Virgin Islands • Cayman Islands • Cuba • Dominica • Dominican Republic • Grenada • Haiti • Jamaica • Montserrat • Netherlands Antilles • Puerto Rico • Saint Barthélemy • Saint Kitts and Nevis • Saint Lucia • Saint Martin • Saint Vincent and the Grenadines • Trinidad and Tobago • Turks and Caicos Islands • United States Virgin Islands Oceania (includes the continent of Australia) Australasia Australia Dependencies/Territories of Australia Christmas Island • Cocos (Keeling) Islands • Norfolk Island New Zealand Melanesia Fiji • Indonesia (Oceanian part only) • New Caledonia (France) • Papua New Guinea • Rotuma • Solomon Islands • Vanuatu Micronesia Federated States of Micronesia • Guam (United States) • Kiribati • Marshall Islands • Nauru • Northern Mariana Islands (United States) • Palau • Wake Island (United States) Polynesia American Samoa (United States) • Chatham Islands (NZ) • Cook Islands (NZ) • Easter Island (Chile) • French Polynesia (France) • Hawaii (United States) • Loyalty Islands (France) • Niue (NZ) • Pitcairn Islands (UK) • Adamstown • Samoa • Tokelau (NZ) • Tonga • Tuvalu • Wallis and Futuna (France) South America Argentina • Bolivia • Brazil • Chile • Colombia • Ecuador • Falkland Islands • Guyana • Paraguay • Peru • Suriname • Uruguay • Venezuela South Atlantic Ascension Island • Saint Helena • Tristan da Cunha == History of dance == History of dance Dance in ancient Egypt Dance in mythology and religion Dance styles throughout history Medieval dance Masque English country dance Baroque dance Renaissance dance Regency dance Vintage dance Historical dance Modern dance Contemporary dance == Dance technique == Choreography Dance notation Connection Dance moves Glossary of dance moves Dance partnering Dance theory Lead and follow Musicality == Dance culture == Dance and health Dance competition Dance costume Dance critique Dance education Dance studio Dance etiquette Dance in film Dance double Dance film Dance marathon Dance music Dance party Ball (dance party) Prom Rave Dance radio Dance troupe Dance on television Nightclub Performance Performance surface (dance floor) Physically integrated dance (disability and dance) Women in dance == Dance science == Dance science Dance history – (see History of dance, above) Dance and health Dance theory Dance technology Ethnochoreology (dance anthropology) == Dance organizations == List of dance organizations == Dance-related media == Dance film Dance music Musical film === Books about dance === List of dance wikibooks == Dancers == List of dancers List of dance personalities	[ "Folk dance", "Dance in Nauru", "Dance in Mali", "Dance in Djibouti", "Bollywood dance", "Dance in Mozambique", "Dance in Somaliland", "Dance in Martinique", "Disco", "Dance in Trinidad", "Dance in Angola", "Performance", "Dance in Costa Rica", "Dance in Nigeria", "Zamba (artform)", "Chicago stepping", "Dance in Saskatchewan", "performing arts", "Dance in Fiji", "Tap dance", "Dance in Panama", "Dance in Puerto Rico", "Dance in Norway", "Dance in Sweden", "Dance in Guinea", "Dance in Jersey", "Dance in North Korea", "Women in dance", "Dance troupe", "Dance in Serbia", "Physically integrated dance", "Dance in the Dominican Republic", "Dance in Navassa Island", "Dance in Abkhazia", "Dance in Cameroon", "Dance in Mongolia", "Dance in Botswana", "Dance in Zambia", "Croatian dances", "Dance in Tristan da Cunha", "Rave", "Dance double", "Dance in Tonga", "Street dance", "Dance in South Africa", "Dance in Tanzania", "Historical dance", "Glossary of belly dance terms", "Dance in Austria", "Dance in Iceland", "Glossary of partner dance terms", "Dance in Nagorno-Karabakh", "Dance in Guernsey", "Dance in Adamstown, Pitcairn Islands", "International folk dance", "History of dance", "Dance in India", "Dance in Puntland", "Dance in Benin", "Danish folk dance", "Dance in Georgia (country)", "Dance history", "Dance in Vatican City", "Dance in Gibraltar", "Two-step (dance move)", "Dance in Paraguay", "Dance in Côte d'Ivoire", "Dance in Tibet", "Dance in Grenada", "Dance in Scotland", "Dance in Monaco", "Dance in the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "performance", "Musical terminology", "Dance education", "Dance in Australia", "Dance in film", "artistic", "Fandango", "Dance in Jamaica", "Dance in the Central African Republic", "Culture", "Dance in El Salvador", "Dance in Moldova", "Dance in Malawi", "Dance in Brazil", "Dance in the Northern Mariana Islands", "Dance in Alberta", "Dance in the Republic of the Congo", "Dance in Manitoba", "War dance", "Dance in the Northwest Territories", "Dance in Lithuania", "Dance in Andorra", "Dance in Barbados", "Dance technology", "Quickstep", "Dance in Greece", "Thai classical dance", "Dance in Ethiopia", "Dance in the Chatham Islands", "Dance in Liberia", "Jig", "Choreography", "Dance in the European Union", "Pole dance", "Dance in Montenegro", "Dance critique", "Dance in Bermuda", "Dance in mythology and religion", "Swing (dance)", "Outline of music", "Dance in Saint Martin", "Bharatanatyam", "DanceSport", "Dance in Latvia", "Dance in Niger", "Dance in Eritrea", "Dance in Switzerland", "Dance in China", "Dance in the Netherlands", "Dance in Cambodia", "Dance in Lebanon", "Dance in Quebec", "Dance in Namibia", "Dance in Albania", "Dance in Venezuela", "Dance in Germany", "Dance in Akrotiri and Dhekelia", "Dance in Aruba", "Dance in Madagascar", "Peruvian dances", "Hobby", "Dance in the Czech Republic", "Dance in Rwanda", "Dance in Norfolk Island", "Dance in Qatar", "Dance in Guadeloupe", "Dance in Antigua and Barbuda", "Dance in Mauritania", "Dance in Palau", "Dance squad", "Dance in Equatorial Guinea", "Dance in Bahrain", "List of dance organizations", "Dance in Turkey", "Society", "Dance in ancient Egypt", "Dance in Sudan", "Dance in Trinidad and Tobago", "Dance in Hawaii", "Twist (dance)", "Dance in Catalonia", "Dance in Algeria", "Dance science", "Dance in South Ossetia", "Dance in Israel", "Dance in Ghana", "Jazz dance", "Dance in Nepal", "Dance in Kosovo", "Dance in Guatemala", "Dance in Canada", "Connection (dance)", "virtuoso", "Dance in Greenland", "Dance in Saint Kitts and Nevis", "Dance in Belgium", "Dance in Niue", "Dance in the Petrel Islands", "Dance in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands", "Circle dance", "Dance in Wales", "Dance in Azerbaijan", "List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances by origin", "Dance in Kenya", "Dance in Armenia", "Dance in Suriname", "Dance in Finland", "Ballroom dance", "Dance in East Timor", "Dance in the Marshall Islands", "Dance in Samoa", "Dance on television", "Dance in Iran", "Dance in Japan", "Dance in Slovenia", "Lambada", "Dance in the Turks and Caicos Islands", "Dance in Western Sahara", "Dance in Luxembourg", "Dance in Colombia", "Dance in Prince Edward Island", "Dance in Wake Island", "Dance etiquette", "Dance in Pakistan", "Country-western dance", "Participation dance", "Dance theory", "Dance in Eswatini", "Dance in Poland", "Dance music", "Lap dance", "Dance in Bhutan", "Dance in Bangladesh", "Philippine dance", "Dance in Taiwan", "Music", "Dance in Åland", "Dance in Tunisia", "Dance in American Samoa", "Dance costume", "Dance in Toronto", "Dance in Burkina Faso", "Dances of Sri Lanka", "Dance in Nova Scotia", "Medieval dance", "Dance in Sierra Leone", "Breakdancing", "Dance in Nicaragua", "Modern dance", "the arts", "Acro dance", "Dance in Hong Kong", "Dance in Vanuatu", "Dance in Uzbekistan", "Dance in Ecuador", "Project Gutenberg", "Dance in Syria", "Krumping", "Dance in Turkmenistan", "ballet", "Dance in Ascension Island", "Vintage dance", "Dance in Northern Cyprus", "Dance in Gabon", "Human behavior", "Limbo (dance)", "Hustle (dance)", "Dance in Libya", "Index of dance articles", "Baroque dance", "Dance in Oceania", "List of dance wikibooks", "Dance in French Polynesia", "Glossary of dance moves", "Ball (dance party)", "Dance in Africa", "Dance in the Pitcairn Islands", "Dance in Nunavut", "Dance in Tuvalu", "Dance in Uruguay", "Concert dance", "Dance in Easter Island", "Competitive dance", "List of DanceSport dances", "Assyrian folk dance", "Dance in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Dance in Comoros", "Dance in Transnistria", "social environment", "Dance in Oman", "Dance in Togo", "Salsa (dance)", "Dance in Saudi Arabia", "Dance in Yemen", "Dance in Cape Verde", "Dance in Lesotho", "List of folk dances sorted by origin", "Dance in Malaysia", "Dance in Newfoundland and Labrador", "Dance in the United States", "Dance in the Isle of Man", "Dance in Thailand", "Dance party", "Physical exercise", "Dance in Kiribati", "Erotic dance", "List of dance style categories", "Dance in England", "Dance in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "Belly dance", "Dance in the United Kingdom", "Dance in the Cook Islands", "spirituality", "Dance in Guinea-Bissau", "dance (disambiguation)", "Dance in Burma", "Dance in Mayotte", "Dance in Macau", "Dance notation", "English country dance", "Dance partnering", "Dance in the Bahamas", "Dance in Spain", "Polka", "Nightclub", "Waltz", "Dance film", "Dance in Italy", "Musical film", "Regency dance", "Dance in San Marino", "Dance in Papua New Guinea", "Folk dance of Mexico", "Dance in Seychelles", "Dance in the Falkland Islands", "Dance radio", "Dance in Rotuma", "Dance in Hungary", "Dance in Mauritius", "Dance in Tajikistan", "Ethnochoreology", "Dance in the Gambia", "Dance in French Guiana", "Dance in São Tomé and Príncipe", "List of national dances", "Recreation", "Dance from Cuba", "Dance in Russia", "Dance in Haiti", "Dance in the Republic of Ireland", "Dance in Saint Barthélemy", "Dance in Romania", "Dance in Saint Lucia", "Dance move", "Dance in Serranilla Bank", "Ceremonial dance", "Dance in Tokelau", "Erotic dancing", "Dance in British Columbia", "Dance in South Sudan", "Social dance", "Dance marathon", "Dance in North America", "Dance in South Korea", "Dance in Ukraine", "Dance in New Brunswick", "Dance in Anguilla", "Lead and follow (dance)", "Sequence dance", "Faroese dance", "Hip-hop dance", "Casino (Cuban salsa)", "Dance in Bolivia", "Dance in Guam", "Dance in Maldives", "Dance in New Zealand", "List of dancers", "Solo dance", "Dance in Kuwait", "Dance in the United States Virgin Islands", "Dance in Dominica", "Dance in Cyprus", "Dance in Singapore", "Indian classical dance", "Dance in Burundi", "Masque", "Dance in Slovakia", "Ritual", "List of dance personalities", "Dance in Zimbabwe", "Dance in the Solomon Islands", "Dance in the Federated States of Micronesia", "Dance in Asia", "Dance in Malta", "Dance in Somalia", "Jive (dance)", "Dance in Belize", "Dance studio", "Dance in Indonesia", "Contemporary dance", "Dance in Argentina", "Flamenco", "Partner dance", "Dance in Saint Pierre and Miquelon", "Dance in Morocco", "Renaissance dance", "List of dances", "Dance in Ontario", "Turkish Cypriot folk dances", "Dance in Belarus", "Musicality (dance)", "Dance in Kazakhstan", "Dance in Wallis and Futuna", "Tango", "Dance in the Cayman Islands", "Contra dance", "Outline (list)", "Dance in Kyrgyzstan", "Dance in Jordan", "Dance in Saint Helena", "Performance dance", "Cha-cha-cha (dance)", "Dance in Svalbard", "Dance in France", "Sport", "Dance in Chile", "moral", "Dance in Afghanistan", "Prom", "Line dance", "Dance in the Loyalty Islands", "Dance in Macedonia", "Dance in Egypt", "Dance in the British Virgin Islands", "Dance in Northern Ireland", "Dance in Portugal", "Dance in Senegal", "Mambo (dance)", "Dance in the Palestinian territories", "Dance in the United Arab Emirates", "Emotional expression", "Dance in the Netherlands Antilles", "Dance in Uganda", "Dance in Brunei", "Dance in Laos", "Performance surface", "Dance in Yukon", "Dance in Guyana", "Dance competition", "Dance and health", "Dance in Christmas Island", "dance music", "Dance in Chad", "Dance in Liechtenstein", "Dance in Europe", "Dance in New Caledonia", "Dance in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic", "Ballet", "Traditional Vietnamese dance", "Dance in Estonia", "tango (dance)", "aesthetic", "Bulgarian dances", "Dance in South America", "Dance", "Dance in Montserrat" ]
8,706	DCM	DCM may refer to: ==Science and technology== Dichloromethane, a common solvent in organic chemistry Deep chlorophyll maximum, subsurface maximum in the concentration of chlorophyll Dynamic causal modelling, a method for the interpretation of functional neuroimaging data Docking Cargo Module, A Russian module of the International Space Station Dilated cardiomyopathy, a heart condition ===Computing=== Digital clock manager, in field-programmable gate arrays .dcm, a filename extension for Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine Desired Configuration Management, in Microsoft's System Center Configuration Manager ==Organisations== DCM textiles, formerly Delhi Cloth & General Mills DCM Ventures, a venture capital company Digital Cinema Media, an advertising company NTT DoCoMo (NYSE symbol), a mobile phone operator in Japan Doll Capital Management, a US venture capital firm which funded SandForce, BitTorrent and others Dunbee-Combex-Marx, a former British toy manufacturer which purchased Lines Bros and Schuco Modell DoubleClick Campaign Manager, online ad management and ad serving solution. ==Other uses== IATA code for Castres–Mazamet Airport, an airport in France Demand Chain Management Deputy Chief of Mission Director of Civilian Marksmanship, by U.S. Civilian Marksmanship Program Debt capital markets in finance Distinguished Conduct Medal, British and Commonwealth medal for extreme bravery	[ "DCM Ventures", "Dilated cardiomyopathy", "Demand chain management", "Dichloromethane", "Debt capital markets", "Docking Cargo Module", "Digital clock manager", "NTT DoCoMo", "Deputy chief of mission", "Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine", "DoubleClick", "DCM textiles", "Digital Cinema Media", "SandForce", "Castres–Mazamet Airport", "Lines Bros", "Director of Civilian Marksmanship", "Deep chlorophyll maximum", "System Center Configuration Manager", "Distinguished Conduct Medal", "Dynamic causal modelling" ]
8,707	DKW	DKW (Dampfkraftwagen, – the same initials later also used for Des Knaben Wunsch, ; Das Kleine Wunder, and Deutsche Kinderwagen, ) was a German car- and motorcycle-marque. DKW was one of the four companies that formed Auto Union in 1932 and thus became an ancestor of the modern-day Audi company. In 1916, Danish engineer Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen founded a factory in Zschopau, Saxony, Germany, to produce steam fittings. That year he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, which he called the DKW. That steam car was unsuccessful, and in 1919 he made toy two-stroke engines under the name Des Knaben Wunsch – "the boy's wish". He put a slightly modified version of the toy engine into a motorcycle and called it Das Kleine Wunder In 1932, DKW merged with Audi, Horch and Wanderer to form Auto Union. and the model continued to be built at the company's Spandau (Berlin) plant, first as a roadster and later as a stylish if basic sports car, until 1931. More significant was a series of inexpensive cars built 300 km (185 miles) to the south in Zwickau in the plant acquired by the company's owner Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen in 1928 when he had become the majority owner in Audi Werke AG. Models F1 to F8 (F for Front) were built between 1931 and 1942, with successor models reappearing after the end of the war in 1945. They were the first volume production cars in Europe with front wheel drive, and were powered by transversely mounted two-cylinder two-stroke engines. Displacement was 584 or 692 cc: claimed maximum power was initially 15 PS, and from 1931 a choice between 18 or . These models had a generator that doubled as a starter, mounted directly on the crankshaft, known as a Dynastart. DKW in Zwickau produced approximately 218,000 units between 1931 and 1942. Between 1929 and 1940, DKW produced a less well remembered but technically intriguing series of rear-wheel drive cars called (among other names) Schwebeklasse and Sonderklasse with two-stroke V4 engines. Engine displacement was 1,000 cc, later 1,100 cc. The engines had two extra cylinders that acted as air compressors for forced induction, so they had the external appearance of a V6 engine but without spark plugs on the front cylinder pair. In 1939, DKW made a prototype with the first three-cylinder engine, with a displacement of 900 cc and producing . With a streamlined body, the car could run at . It was put into production after World War II, first as an Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau (IFA) F9 (later Wartburg) in Zwickau, East Germany, and shortly afterwards in DKW-form from Düsseldorf as the 3=6 or F91. Saab used DKW engines as a model for the Saab two-stroke in their first production car, the Saab 92. ==Automobiles made after 1945== As Auto Union was based in Saxony in what became the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), it took some time for it to regroup after the war. The company was registered in West Germany as Auto Union GmbH in 1949, first as a spare-part provider, but soon to take up production of the RT 125 motorcycle and a new delivery van, called a Schnellaster F800. Their first line of production took place in Düsseldorf. This van used the same engine as the last F8 made before the war. Their first car was the F89 using the body from the prototype F9 made before the war and the two-cylinder two-stroke engine from the last F8. Production went on until it was replaced by the successful three-cylinder engine that came with the F91. The F91 was in production 1953–1955, and was replaced by the larger F93 in 1956. The F91 and F93 had 900 cc three-cylinder two-stroke engines, the first ones delivering , the last . The ignition system comprised three independent sets of points and coils, one for each cylinder, with the points mounted in a cluster around a single lobed cam at the front end of the crankshaft. The cooling system was of the free convection type assisted by a fan driven from a pulley mounted at the front end of the crankshaft. The F93 was produced until 1959, and was replaced by the Auto-Union 1000. These models were produced with a 1,000 cc two-stroke engine, with a choice between or S versions until 1963. During this transition, production was moved from Düsseldorf to Ingolstadt, where Audi still has its production. From 1957, the cars could be fitted with a saxomat, an automatic clutch, the only small car then offering this feature. The last versions of the Auto-Union 1000S had disc brakes as option, an early development for this technology. A sporting 2+2 seater version was available as the Auto-Union 1000 SP from 1957 to 1964, the first years only as a coupé and from 1962 also as a convertible. In 1956, the very rare DKW Monza was put into small-scale production on a private initiative, with a sporting two-seater body of glassfiber on a standard F93 frame. It was first called Solitude, but got its final name from the long-distance speed records it made on the Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Italy in December 1956. Running in Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) class G, it set records including 48 hours at an average speed of , 10,000 km at and 72 hours at . The car was first produced by in Stuttgart, then by Massholder in Heidelberg and lastly by Robert Schenk in Stuttgart. The number produced is said to be around 75, 50 survived. Production finished by the end of 1958. A more successful range of cars was sold from 1959, the Junior/F12 series based on a modern concept from the late 1950s. The range consists of Junior (basic model) made from 1959 to 1961, Junior de Luxe (a little enhanced) from 1961 to 1963, F11 (a little larger) and F12 (larger and bigger engine) from 1963 to 1965, and F12 Roadster from 1964 to 1965. The Junior/F12 series became quite popular, and many cars were produced. An assembly plant was licensed in Ballincollig, County Cork, Ireland between 1952 and c.1964 and roughly 4,000 vehicles were assembled, ranging from saloons, vans and motorbikes to commercial combine harvesters. This was the only DKW factory outside Germany in Europe and for many years after its closure its large DKW sign could be visible on the wall of the factory. The building was demolished in the late 2000s and was redeveloped into a German Aldi store and a McDonald's drive-thru. All the three-cylinder two-stroke post-war cars had some sporting potential and formed the basis for many rally victories in the 1950s and early 1960s. This made DKW the most winning car brand in the European rally league for several years during the fifties. In 1960, DKW developed a V6 engine by combining two three-cylinder two-stroke engines, with a capacity of 1,000 cc. The capacity was increased and the final V6 in 1966 had a capacity of 1,300 cc, which developed at 5,000 rpm using the standard configuration with two carburettors. A four-carburettor version produced , a six-carburettor one . It weighed only . The V6 was planned to be used in the DKW Munga and the F102. About 100 engines were built for testing purposes and 13 DKW F102 and some Mungas were fitted with the V6 engine in the 1960s. The last DKW was the F102, coming into production in 1964 as a replacement for the old-looking AU1000. However, the F102 sold poorly, largely due to its two-stroke engine technology which was at the limit of its development. Auto Union's parent, Daimler-Benz, decided to offload the company to Volkswagen. The car was re-engineered with a four-stroke engine and relaunched as the Audi F103. This marked the end of the DKW marque for cars, and the rebirth of the Audi name. From 1956 to 1961, Dutch importer Hart, Nibbrig & Greve assembled cars in an abandoned asphalt factory in Sassenheim, where they employed about 120 workers, two transporter, that collected SKD kits from Duesseldorf and built about 13.500 cars. When the DKW plant moved the import of SKD kits stopped, as it became too expensive. ==DKW in South America== From 1956 to 1967, DKW cars were made in Brazil by the local company Vemag (Veículos e Máquinas Agrícolas S.A., "Vehicles and Agricultural Machinery Inc."). Vemag was assembling Scania-Vabis trucks, but Scania Vabis became an independent company in July 1960. The original plans were to build the Candango off-roader (Munga), a utility vehicle and a four-door sedan, called Vemaguet and Belcar respectively. The first model built was the 900 cc F91 Universal but the Belcar and Vemaguet names were applied later. In 1958, the F94 four-door sedan and station wagon were launched, in the early 1960s renamed Belcar and Vemaguet. The company also produced a luxury coupe (the DKW Fissore) and the off-road Munga (locally called Candango). In 1960 Vemag cars received the larger one-litre, engine from the Auto Union 1000. Vemag had a successful official racing team, with the coupe GT Malzoni, with fiberglass body. This project was the foundation of the long-lasting Brazilian sports car brand Puma. The Brazilian F94 line has been improved with several cosmetic changes and became more and more different from the German and Argentine models. Vemag had no capital to invest in new products and came under governmental pressure to merge. In 1964–1965 Volkswagen gradually took over Auto Union, a minority holder in Vemag, and in 1967 Volkswagen bought the remainder of the stock. VW quickly began phasing out DKW-Vemag production and introduced the Volkswagen 1600 sedan to the old Vemag plant, after a total of 109,343 DKW-Vemag cars had been built. DKW vehicles were made in Argentina from 1960 to 1969 by IASF S.A. (Industria Automotriz Santa Fe Sociedad Anónima) in Sauce Viejo, Santa Fe. The most beautiful were the Cupé Fissore, which had many famous owners (Julio Sosa, César Luis Menotti, and others). Other models are the Auto Union 1000 S Sedán (21,797 made until 1969) and the Auto Union 1000 Universal S (6,396 made until 1969). and the Auto Union Combi/Pick-up. The last version of the Auto Union Combi/Pick-up (DKW F1000 L), launched in 1969, survived a few months and was bought out by IME, which continued production until 1979. ==Vans and utility vehicles== The DKW Munga was built by Auto Union in Ingolstadt. Production began in October 1956 and ended in December 1968, with 46,750 cars built. From 1949 to 1962, DKW produced the Schnellaster with a trailing-arm rear suspension system with springs in the cross bar assembly. Spanish subsidiary IMOSA produced a modern successor introduced in 1963, the DKW F 1000 L. This van started with the three-cylinder 1,000 cc engine, but later received a Mercedes-Benz Diesel engine and was renamed a Mercedes-Benz in 1975. ==Motorcycles== During the late 1920s and until WWII broke out, DKW was both the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer, as well as Europe's pioneer of front-wheel drive automobiles with their successful 1931 and later DKW Front models, before the 1932 Adler Trumpf and the 1934 Citroen Traction Avant. In 1931, Arnold Zoller started building split-singles and this concept made DKW the dominant racing motorcycle in the Lightweight and Junior classes between the wars. This included off-road events like the International Six Days Trial where the marque scored some considerable inter-war year successes alongside Bavarian Motor Works At the same time, the company also had some success with super-charged racing motorcycles which because of their light weight were particularly successful in the ISDT The motorcycle branch produced famous models such as the RT 125 pre- and post-World War II, and after the war with production at the original factory in GDR becoming MZ DKW F102 (1963–1966) ==Motorcycles and scooters== File:DKW E 206, Bj. 1927 (museum mobile 2013-09-03).JPG\|DKW E 206, 1927 File:DKW 97ccm 1939.JPG\|DKW (1939) File:DKW 198ccm 1940.jpg\|DKW (1940) File:DKW 1950-1.jpg\|DKW RT 125 W (1950) File:DKW RT200 9,2PS 1952.jpg\|DKW RT 200 (1952) File:DKW RT 350 S, Bj. 1956 (links) im museum mobile.JPG\|RT 350 S, 1956 File:DKW RT175-1 174ccm 1955.JPG\|DKW RT 175 S (1955) File:DKW Hummel.JPG\|DKW Hummel File:Express T.Sport DKW.JPG\|Express T. Sport (DKW-Motor) File:ZweiRadMuseumNSU DKW Hobby.JPG\|DKW Motorroller Hobby of 1954 in the Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum	[ "Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau", "Ingolstadt", "front-wheel drive", "Adler Trumpf", "DKW F9", "four-stroke", "Hercules (motorcycle)", "automobile", "Scania-Vabis", "Hart, Nibbrig & Greve", "DKW F89", "Stuttgart", "rear suspension", "Citroen Traction Avant", "Zschopau", "DKW Schnellaster", "marque", "The Motor Cycle", "German Democratic Republic", "Horch", "DKW F1", "DKW F2", "crankshaft", "DKW Munga", "Yamaha Motor Company", "DKW RT 125", "Dynastart", "Convertible (car)", "two-stroke engine", "DKW F8", "straight-three engine", "Ignition coil", "Saab 92", "coupé", "Argentina", "GDR", "Sassenheim", "International Six Days Enduro", "Mercedes-Benz", "Düsseldorf", "Voskhod motorcycle", "motorcycle", "disc brakes", "Spandau", "convection", "split-single", "Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen", "DKW Typ 4=8", "spark plug", "MZ Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk", "Wartburg (car)", "Santa Fe Province", "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile", "Audi F103", "DKW F4", "Ballincollig", "DKW 3=6", "Puma (car manufacturer)", "Auto Union", "prototype", "Wankel engine", "Sauce Viejo, Argentina", "wikt:lobe", "County Cork", "DKW Typ P", "hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic", "BSA Bantam", "front wheel drive", "Cam (mechanism)", "Chemnitz", "Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze", "Eucort", "BMW", "Volkswagen Type 3", "Peter Kurze", "DKW F102", "Aldi", "DKW Junior", "Harley-Davidson", "World War II", "carburettor", "RT 125", "Volkswagen Group", "Circuit breaker", "V4 engine", "West Germany", "DKW F7", "East Germany", "Automobiles", "Saab two-stroke", "Second World War", "delivery van", "engineer", "Auto Union 1000", "transversely mounted engine", "Daimler-Benz", "Maserati (motorcycle)", "glassfiber", "Engine displacement", "saxomat", "DKW F5", "forced induction", "Saab Automobile", "Diesel engine", "DKW F1000 L", "Automotive", "combine harvester", "Witzschdorf", "DKW Monza", "Saxony", "Autodromo Nazionale Monza", "Zwickau", "Ireland", "Industrias Aeronáuticas y Mecánicas del Estado", "Harley-Davidson Hummer", "Audi", "Heidelberg", "rallying", "Spring (device)", "Wanderer (car)", "V6 engine", "DKW F10", "List of automobile manufacturers of Germany", "Birmingham Small Arms Company" ]
8,708	Doctor Syn	The Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn is the smuggler hero of a series of novels by Russell Thorndike. The first book, Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh was published in 1915. The story idea came from legendary coastal smuggling in the 18th century around well-known Romney Marsh, where brandy and tobacco were brought in at night by boat from France to avoid the tax. Minor battles were fought, sometimes at night, between gangs of smugglers, such as the Hawkhurst Gang, and His Majesty's Customs and Excise / Revenue, supported by the British Army, Royal Navy and local militias in the counties of the South Kent and Sussex. ==Character biography== Christopher Syn, born 1729, is portrayed as a brilliant scholar from Queen's College, Oxford, possessing swashbuckling skills such as riding, fencing, and seamanship. He was content to live the quiet life of a Church of England / Anglican country priest / vicar in Dymchurch-under-the-Wall under the patronage of Sir Charles Cobtree, the father of his best friend Anthony Cobtree, until his beautiful young Spanish wife Imogene was seduced by and eloped with Nicholas Tappitt, whom Dr Syn had considered a close friend. Christopher Syn set out on a quest for revenge, always managing to reach the eloped pair's destinations ahead of them just in time to terrify them against landing and facing him in a deliberate campaign of terror. While sailing from Spain to the Americas in pursuit, his ship was captured by the pirate ship The Sulphur Pit, commanded by Captain Satan. In a one-on-one fight, Syn defeated and killed Captain Satan to take command of his ship and crew; among them was Mr. Mipps, a former British Royal Navy carpenter with whom Syn had become friends in England after rescuing him from the His Majesty's Customs and Excise / Revenue men. Mipps swore loyalty to Syn from that time onward. With Mipps at his side, Syn turned to piracy and became a great success. Later, when his crew refused to let Syn leave, Syn and Mipps slipped away in one of the ship's boats; unknown to Syn, Mipps had arranged a convenient "accident" in the ship's powder magazine with an exploding barrel of gunpowder, eliminating witnesses of Syn's piratical acts. Mipps then joined Syn in his quest for revenge, pursuing Tappitt and Imogene throughout the thirteen American colonies of British America (supposedly preaching the gospel to the Indians) and around the world (as part of a whaling voyage) afterwards. Mipps was with him in the Caribbean when Dr. Syn turned again to piracy, assuming the name of Captain Clegg (taking the name "Clegg" from a certain vicious biting fly he had encountered in America). "Clegg" hijacked his enemy Tappitt's own ship and crew and sailed off with them (renaming the ship the Imogene) to become the most infamous pirate of the day. However, a mulatto who escaped the destruction of Syn's previous ship stowed away in Clegg's ship and accused him before the crew; Clegg quelled the potential mutiny by having the mulatto's tongue cut out, marooning him on a coral reef and violently killing Yellow Pete, the ship's Chinese cook, who represented the crew in their wish to rescue the mulatto. Afterwards, realizing that Clegg had become too notorious, Syn decided to abandon his quest and return to England, and Mipps set up a second "accidental" explosion to destroy the Imogene and her crew.) that wrecked his brig off the English coast in sight of Dymchurch. That night he went to the house of his old friend (and now squire) Anthony Cobtree. When news came that the local vicar had drowned while trying to save victims of the shipwreck, Squire Cobtree offered the post to Christopher Syn. Syn accepted and settled down to a more respectable life as the vicar of Dymchurch and Dean of Peculiars in Romney Marsh, Kent, resuming his original name. Mipps arrived in Dymchurch with the intent of settling down. Syn made him the village sexton upon condition that Mipps "remember to forget" (that Syn had been Clegg and that they had known each other before), and that Mipps never get involved with the local smugglers. Syn soon became aware that his parishioners were smuggling goods from France to avoid the excessive customs duties the government charged. Learning from Mipps (who, contrary to Syn's orders, had become a leader of the smugglers) that certain townsfolk had been ambushed and captured during a smuggling run, Syn purchased the great black stallion Gehenna from gypsy horse-traders and raced to their rescue. A suit of clothing borrowed from a scarecrow made an improvised disguise, and Syn and Mipps were able to rescue the townsfolk from the Dragoons. After this, Syn decided that he could only protect his people by becoming their leader. He created a more elaborate scarecrow costume, with eerie luminous paint. Riding Gehenna at night, the respectable Dr. Syn became "The Scarecrow", the feared head of the smugglers. Together with Mipps, he organized the smugglers into a well-organized band of "Night Riders", also called "The Devil Riders", with macabre disguises and code-names. Syn's cunning was so great that the smugglers outwitted the government forces for many years. A hidden stable watched over by Mother Handaway, the local "witch" (who believed the Scarecrow to be The Devil in living form), was the hiding place for the horses of the Scarecrow and his lieutenants, Mipps and the local highwayman Jimmie Bone (who, being as good a horseman as Syn and of similar build, was sometimes called upon to impersonate the Scarecrow when Syn either had to be elsewhere or seen in the same place). Shortly after the first appearances of the Scarecrow, Nicholas Tappitt (using the name "Colonel Delacourt") and the ailing Imogene returned to England, ending up in Dymchurch. Recognizing Syn as Clegg, Tappitt realized that Syn and the Scarecrow were one and the same person, and helped the authorities set a trap for him, hoping to both rid himself of his enemy and claim the reward for his capture. The trap was sprung, but Squire Cobtree's daughter Charlotte, who had fallen in love with Syn and also learned his secret identities as both Clegg and the Scarecrow, was the tragic victim when she dressed in the Scarecrow's disguise and was fatally wounded as a result. Tappitt was then suspected of being the Scarecrow, and a Customs officer and three constables came to arrest him. In the ensuing fight, Tappitt killed the Customs man and the constables subdued and arrested Tappitt for murdering the Customs officer. After Imogene's death in Syn's arms (during which she revealed to him that he had a son by her who was missing somewhere in North America), Syn fought a final duel with Tappitt in his jail cell, defeating him. Syn then struck a bargain with Tappitt: if Tappitt confessed to being the notorious pirate Clegg, then Syn would look after and care for Tappitt and Imogene's new-born infant daughter (also named Imogene). Tappitt agreed, and "Captain Clegg" was hanged and later "buried without benefit of clergy at a cross-roads hard by the Kent Ditch". Many years later, Captain Collyer, a Royal Navy officer assigned to smash the local smuggling ring, uncovered the deception and Dr. Syn's true identity, thanks in part to the tongueless mulatto (who had been rescued by Collyer years before and who had been serving Collyer as a "ferret" seeking out hidden contraband) who recognized Syn as Clegg. Syn evaded capture while at the same time making sure that Imogene and Squire Cobtree's son Denis (who had fallen in love with Imogene) would have a happy life together (they were eventually married), but was murdered in revenge by the mulatto, who then mysteriously managed to escape, leaving Syn harpooned through the neck. As a last mark of respect, Collyer ordered that Syn be buried at sea, rather than have his body hung in chains. Mipps escaped in the confusion of Syn's death and disappeared from England, but it is said that a little man very much like him is living out his days in a Buddhist Monastery somewhere in the Malay Peninsula / Malaya, delighting the monks with recounting the adventures of Doctor Syn and the eerie stories of the Romney Marsh and the mysterious Scarecrow and his Night Riders. ==Publication history== The Dr. Syn books detail his adventures and attempts to help the people of Dymchurch and the surrounding area evade the Excise tax. There are seven novels in the series: Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh (1915) Doctor Syn on the High Seas (1935) Doctor Syn Returns (1935) Further Adventures of Doctor Syn (1936) Amazing Quest of Doctor Syn (1938) Courageous Exploits of Doctor Syn (1939) Shadow of Doctor Syn (1944) Note: the "first" book, Doctor Syn, is actually the final story chronologically; the others proceed in published sequence. An expanded version of Doctor Syn Returns titled The Scarecrow Rides was published for the U.S. market by The Dial Press in 1935; years later in 2013 it was re-printed in paperback by Black Curtain Press. (). In 1960, American author William Buchanan reworked Thorndike's Further Adventures of Doctor Syn under the title Christopher Syn (New York, Abelard Schuman), giving Thorndike co-authorship credit; this version provides a different conclusion and some conflation, renaming and even removal of the supporting characters. Christopher Syn became the basis for the 1962 Disney production; there was also a novelization of the Disney theatrical version titled Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow written by Vic Crume. ==In other media== ===Films=== Three film adaptations have been made of Dr. Syn's exploits. ====Doctor Syn (1937)==== The first, Doctor Syn (1937), starred the actor George Arliss in the title role and was his last film. ====Captain Clegg (1962)==== Captain Clegg (1962), (known as Night Creatures when released in the United States), was produced by Hammer Film Productions with actor Peter Cushing in the lead role, directed by Peter Graham Scott. In the screenplay by Anthony Hinds, the main character's name was changed from "Doctor Syn" to "Parson Blyss" to avoid copyrights problems with Disney's forthcoming version, and Captain Clegg's screenplay follows the novel Doctor Syn and the screenplay of the 1937 film closely with the exception of a tightening of the plot. In the Arliss film Doctor Syn, Syn escapes to sea with Mipps and the rest of the Dymchurch smugglers, whereas Captain Clegg ends more faithfully to the novel, with Parson Blyss being killed by the mulatto (who is then killed by Mipps) and then being carried to and buried in Captain Clegg's empty grave by Mipps. Captain Clegg was released in the United Kingdom / Great Britain on DVD and Blu-ray in 2014; Night Creatures was never released on videotape in the United States, but is included in the 2014 two-disc DVD collection The Hammer Horror Series. In North America, the film was released on 6 September 2005 along with seven other Hammer horror films on the 4-DVD set The Hammer Horror Series , part of MCA-Universal's "Franchise Collection". This set was re-released on Blu-ray 13 September 2016. A Blu-ray was released in the UK on 23 June 2014 by Final Cut Entertainment. In 2021, Powerhouse Films re-released the film on Blu-Ray, along with The Shadow of the Cat, The Phantom of the Opera, and Nightmare, as part of Hammer Volume Six: Night Shadows boxset. ====The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh (1963)==== The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh (1963) was produced for the Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color weekly TV series on Sunday evenings on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC-TV network). It was shot on location in Kent, England (United Kingdom / Great Britain) and was directed by James Neilson. It stars British actor Patrick McGoohan in the title role of the meek, mild, intellectual country priest / vicar of "Doctor Syn", with George Cole as Mipps and Australian actor Sean Scully, as young John Banks, the younger son of nearby country estate nobleman, Squire Thomas Banks (Michael Hordern). In the 18th century, the local Church of England / Anglican parish of St Clement's Church in Old Romney in Kent doubled as priest / vicar plus an additional secret life and career. Dr Syn's fictional Dymchurch parish church in the production, and the Disney studio funded the additional repair of the building to use it as a filming location. Part One dealt with the arrival of General Pugh (Geoffrey Keen), who had been ordered by the British Royal government's War Office in London, to smash the smuggling ring along that part of the marshy coast of the North Sea and English Channel, of Kent and Sussex in southeastern England, and prevent the Scarecrow from rescuing a Dymchurch man captured by a Royal Navy press gang (drafting / shanghaiing unlucky merchant ships seamen out on the town as forced recruits/sailors on British warships in port), as bait to trap the infamous smuggler gang leader Scarecrow. Part Two of the series depicted The Scarecrow dealing with the traitorous Joe Ransley (Patrick Wymark. Part Three showed how the Scarecrow rescued Harry Banks (David Buck) and American colonialist Simon Bates (Tony Britton) from British Army General Pugh's (Geoffrey Keen), clutches in Dover Castle. While originally conceived and edited for American television (and announced in an advertisement by the NBC network in the Tuesday, 9 July 1963, issue of the noted entertainment industry newspaper The Hollywood Reporter, published in Los Angeles, California), The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh was re-edited for first, a 1963 British theatrical release several months before the American prime-time television debut. Retitled as Dr Syn, Alias the Scarecrow, the British theatrical version was released on a double bill with the animated The Sword in the Stone a children's historical film about legendary young King Arthur. They both ran during the December 1963 Christmas season (advertised in the January 1964 issue of Photoplay magazine). This version was shown in continental Europe as well, plus also later in Latin America of Central and South America's television networks through three years later in 1966. In the following decade of the 1970s, the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh production was re-edited again for its first American theatrical release by the Disney studios, on double bills with both the four-decade old classic of 1937 of the color animated Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs old feature film and also Treasure Island (1950, starring Robert Newton, of author Robert Louis Stevenson's classic sea-faring treasure hunt saga to a distant island, in the original novel published 1883). Both involving British ships and seamen. The VHS format of video cassette tape release of the 1980s, sharing the removal of the Scarecrow's laugh from Terry Gilkyson's memorable title theme song, was expanded to include the story material from all three original broadcast NBC television episodes, while retaining the feature film structure and credits; it was available for a relatively short amount of time. Shortly after the theatrical run in the United States, it was re-edited once more for a two-part presentation and rebroadcast on Disney's television series a decade later in the 1970s, simply omitting the middle episode. The original three-part series was first shown as part of Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color on three successive Sunday evenings on 9, 16 and 23 February 1964. Twenty years later, it was included in another broadcast late 1980s Wonderful World of Disney syndication rerun package, and cablecast in 1990s on the cable television Disney Channel. This version generally followed the storyline of The Further Adventures of Dr. Syn and made it clear that the good Doctor Syn did not die or stage his own death: at the film's end, he is seen having a cup of tea with the local Squire, (still totally unaware of his true identity and political opinions!!) who admits to now owing a debt of gratitude to the criminal smuggler, outlaw and rebel "Scarecrow". On 11 November 2008 The Walt Disney Company released a limited pressing of 39,500 copies of The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh on the DVD format of video disc for the first time, in a collector's metal tin case. This was a part of the newly issued Disney Treasures collection and was now titled Dr. Syn: The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh. This release sold out in only three weeks. The DVD was made available again for the members of the Disney Movie Club on 17 February 2009. This two-disc set includes the American television version and the original British theatrical release version Dr Syn, Alias the Scarecrow in a widescreen format. It also includes the original televised introductions by famed artist / cartoonist and studio founder/owner Walt Disney himself, as was then traditional for the regular Sunday night program of 1963–1964 (in which he erroneously states that Dr. Syn was an actual historical figure, although English smuggling rings along the coasts were a historical fact in those earlier centuries) and also contains a documentary feature on Disney's interest in filming the historical fiction story. In October 2019, the recently established Disney Movie Club released it on the superior Blu-ray format, this time entitling it as The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh. Its single disc of advanced technology contains all three episodes originally broadcast on television in 1964. It also includes Walt Disney's taped introductions, but unfortunately, none of the supplemental features that appeared on the earlier 2009 released copy. ====Other adaptations==== Made in 1974, Carry On Dick, of the Carry On series of films, followed the same premise of a country vicar (Sid James) who is secretly an outlaw, in this case the highwayman Dick Turpin. ===Theatre=== In 2001 a stage adaptation titled Doctor Syn was performed at churches throughout the Romney Marsh, the final night being performed in Dymchurch. The cast featured Daniel Thorndike (the author's son), Michael Fields, Steven Povey and Ben Barton, along with various amateurs from the area. British composer Adam Pounds has written an opera, Syn, based on the character of Doctor Syn, excerpts of which were performed at the Mumford Theatre in Cambridge, in 2021. ===Audio adaptations=== Doctor Syn Rufus Sewell read a 10-part audio adaptation combining and abridging Doctor Syn on the High Seas and Doctor Syn Returns for BBC Radio, broadcast on BBC Radio 7 in December 2006 and repeated in June 2007. The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn A 10-part audio adaptation of The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn (combining and abridging The Further Adventures of Doctor Syn and The Shadow of Doctor Syn) read by Rufus Sewell was performed on BBC Radio 7 in December 2007. The Last of Doctor Syn BBC Radio 7 broadcast the six-part series, an abridged reading by Rufus Sewell of the original Doctor Syn novel, from 4–11 January 2010. No Quarter John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin reinterpreted elements of the Doctor Syn story as his "No Quarter" fantasy sequence in Led Zeppelin's concert film The Song Remains the Same. ===Comic books=== A three-issue adaptation of the Disney production was published by Gold Key Comics under the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh title, spanning April 1964 through October 1965. A much abridged revision of the adventures of Dr. Syn appeared as a short comic serialized in the monthly publication Disney Adventures. The new story features the heroic Doctor and his young sidekick protecting innocent villagers from corrupt government officials and soldiers. Disney Adventures would also produce a crossover story with the Pirates of the Caribbean film franchise, where coincidentally the meek, mild intellectual country priest / vicar "Dr. Syn" (secretly infamous English smuggler gang leader and rebel in the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh), meets up with Captain Jack Sparrow. Doctor Syn appears in the League of Extraordinary Gentlemen series as a member of the league gathered by Lemuel Gulliver. His alter ego, Captain Clegg, also makes appearances, where he is mentioned to have had a brief romantic liaison with future teammate Fanny Hill. In the 2003 film adaptation of League, Dr. Syn can be spotted in one of the portraits hanging on the wall in M's library. == Cultural legacy == A "Days of Syn" festival is held even-numbered years by Dymchurch residents for fund-raising. The 2006 "Days of Syn" was on 26–28 August (UK August Bank Holiday weekend) and featured a talk on Dr. Syn at the Anglican church at 6:30 pm. On Sunday at 3 p.m. there was a church service where Dr. Syn and the cast appeared in period costume. On Monday, starting at the Bowery Hall, scenes were reenacted from Doctor Syn, and again during the day along the Dymchurch shoreline and in the Ocean pub. In 2009, discussions took place to build a 100 ft high statue of "The Scarecrow" on a site in the centre of Romney Marsh. This had not been done by 2016. Doctor Syn is also the name given to one of the locomotives on the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway. Doctor Syn also inspired novelist George Chittenden, who captured smuggling on the Kent coast in his debut novel The Boy Who Led Them, which follows the rise and fall of a smuggling gang leader further down the coast in the town of Deal. In 2009, an playfully erotic Afrikaans-language novel, Dagtaak, was published pseudonymously by D R Syn. The author's name and some of the traits of the main character in this novel, allude to the Dr Syn series. Initial advances to produce an arthouse circuit movie from the novel did not come to fruition. Two rooms in the Mermaid Inn, Rye (Dr. Syn's Bed Chamber and Dr. Syn's Lounge) are named after the character.	[ "coral reef", "sexton (office)", "English Channel", "Queen's College, Oxford", "Central America", "Pirates of the Caribbean (franchise)", "Dick Turpin", "Dymchurch", "Gold Key Comics", "Walt Disney Treasures: Wave Eight", "BBC Radio", "Doctor Syn Returns", "Blu-ray", "George Cole (actor)", "VHS", "The Sword in the Stone (1963 film)", "Thirteen Colonies", "Carry On (film series)", "Shadow of Doctor Syn", "League of Extraordinary Gentlemen", "Courageous Exploits of Doctor Syn", "British Malaya", "Carry On Dick", "Malay Peninsula", "Lemuel Gulliver", "National Broadcasting Company", "Kingdom of England", "Walt Disney anthology television series", "The Phantom of the Opera (1962 film)", "Caribbean", "North Sea", "Patrick Wymark", "The Shadow of the Cat", "Dragoons", "Rye, East Sussex", "The Walt Disney Company", "customs (tax)", "Sid James", "Treasure Island", "Disney Channel", "Nightmare (1964 film)", "swashbuckler", "Michael Hordern", "George Arliss", "Geoffrey Keen", "mulatto", "The Song Remains the Same (film)", "King Arthur", "Robert Newton", "British Army", "Anglicanism", "HM Customs and Excise", "Buddhist", "Photoplay", "No Quarter (song)", "Disney Adventures", "brig", "Anthony Hinds", "Fanny Hill", "Captain Jack Sparrow", "Sussex", "The Hollywood Reporter", "The Dial Press", "James Neilson (director)", "Amazing Quest of Doctor Syn", "Peter Cushing", "Royal Navy", "Tony Britton", "Rufus Sewell", "video cassette tape", "Deal, Kent", "John Paul Jones (musician)", "Further Adventures of Doctor Syn", "Robert Louis Stevenson", "Monastery", "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)", "Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh", "Doctor Syn on the High Seas", "Sean Scully (actor)", "Peter Graham Scott", "Russell Thorndike", "Led Zeppelin", "Hammer Film Productions", "Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway", "St Clement's Church, Old Romney", "Old Romney", "Adam Pounds", "double bill", "Hawkhurst Gang", "Scarecrow of Romney Marsh", "highwayman", "Doctor Syn (film)", "David Buck", "Walt Disney", "Patrick McGoohan", "British America", "Equestrianism", "Romney Marsh", "fencing (sport)", "vicar", "seamanship", "BBC Radio 7", "NBC", "Treasure Island (1950 film)", "HM Custom and Excise", "Gehenna", "Kent", "The Mermaid Inn, Rye", "Church of England", "Captain Clegg (film)" ]
8,709	Dhrystone	Dhrystone is a synthetic computing benchmark program developed in 1984 by Reinhold P. Weicker intended to be representative of system (integer) programming. The Dhrystone grew to become representative of general processor (CPU) performance. The name "Dhrystone" is a pun on a different benchmark algorithm called Whetstone, which emphasizes floating point performance. With Dhrystone, Weicker gathered meta-data from a broad range of software, including programs written in FORTRAN, PL/1, SAL, ALGOL 68, and Pascal. He then characterized these programs in terms of various common constructs: procedure calls, pointer indirections, assignments, etc. From this he wrote the Dhrystone benchmark to correspond to a representative mix. Dhrystone was published in Ada, with the C version for Unix developed by Rick Richardson ("version 1.1") greatly contributing to its popularity. ==Dhrystone vs. Whetstone == The Dhrystone benchmark contains no floating point operations, thus the name is a pun on the then-popular Whetstone benchmark for floating point operations. The output from the benchmark is the number of Dhrystones per second (the number of iterations of the main code loop per second). Both Whetstone and Dhrystone are synthetic benchmarks, meaning that they are simple programs that are carefully designed to statistically mimic the processor usage of some common set of programs. Whetstone, developed in 1972, originally strove to mimic typical Algol 60 programs based on measurements from 1970, but eventually became most popular in its Fortran version, reflecting the highly numerical orientation of computing in the 1960s. ==Issues addressed by Dhrystone== Dhrystone's eventual importance as an indicator of general-purpose ("integer") performance of new computers made it a target for commercial compiler writers. Various modern compiler static code analysis techniques (such as elimination of dead code: for example, code which uses the processor but produces internal results which are not used or output) make the use and design of synthetic benchmarks more difficult. Version 2.0 of the benchmark, released by Weicker and Richardson in March 1988, had a number of changes intended to foil a range of compiler techniques. Yet it was carefully crafted so as not to change the underlying benchmark. This effort to foil compilers was only partly successful. Dhrystone 2.1, released in May of the same year, had some minor changes and remains the current definition of Dhrystone. Other than issues related to compiler optimization, various other issues have been cited with the Dhrystone. Most of these, including the small code size and small data set size, were understood at the time of its publication in 1984. More subtle is the slight over-representation of string operations, which is largely language-related: both Ada and Pascal have strings as normal variables in the language, whereas C does not, so what was simple variable assignment in reference benchmarks became buffer copy operations in the C library. Another issue is that the score reported does not include information which is critical when comparing systems such as which compiler was used, and what optimizations. Dhrystone remains remarkably resilient as a simple benchmark, but its continuing value in establishing true performance is questionable. It is easy to use, well documented, fully self-contained, well understood, and can be made to work on almost any system. In particular, it has remained in broad use in the embedded computing world, though the recently developed EEMBC benchmark suite, the CoreMark standalone benchmark, HINT, Stream, and even Bytemark are widely quoted and used, as well as more specific benchmarks for the memory subsystem (Cachebench), TCP/IP (TTCP), and many others. ==Results == Dhrystone may represent a result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second) because instruction count comparisons between different instruction sets (e.g. RISC vs. CISC) can confound simple comparisons. For example, the same high-level task may require many more instructions on a RISC machine, but might execute faster than a single CISC instruction. Thus, the Dhrystone score counts only the number of program iteration completions per second, allowing individual machines to perform this calculation in a machine-specific way. Another common representation of the Dhrystone benchmark is the DMIPS (Dhrystone MIPS) obtained when the Dhrystone score is divided by 1757 (the number of Dhrystones per second obtained on the VAX 11/780, nominally a 1 MIPS machine). Another way to represent results is in DMIPS/MHz, where DMIPS result is further divided by CPU frequency, to allow for easier comparison of CPUs running at different clock rates. ==Shortcomings== Using Dhrystone as a benchmark has pitfalls: It features unusual code that is not usually representative of modern real-life programs. It is susceptible to compiler optimizations. For example, it does a lot of string copying in an attempt to measure string copying performance. However, the strings in Dhrystone are of known constant length and their starts are aligned on natural boundaries, two characteristics usually absent from real programs. Therefore, an optimizer can replace a string copy with a sequence of word moves without any loops, which will be much faster. This optimization consequently overstates system performance, sometimes by more than 30%. Dhrystone's small code size may fit in the instruction cache of a modern CPU, so that instruction fetch performance is not rigorously tested. Similarly, Dhrystone may also fit completely in the data cache, thus not exercising data cache miss performance. To counter fits-in-the-cache problem, the SPECint benchmark was created in 1988 to include a suite of (initially 8) much larger programs (including a compiler) which could not fit into L1 or L2 caches of that era.	[ "Communications of the ACM", "ALGOL 68", "integer", "floating point", "Geekbench", "million instructions per second", "SPECint", "FORTRAN", "Benchmark (computing)", "CPU", "VAX 11/780", "PL/1", "dead code elimination", "Pun", "C (programming language)", "static code analysis", "indirection", "EEMBC", "Reinhold P. Weicker", "Unix", "RISC", "General-purpose macro processor", "Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation", "Whetstone (benchmark)", "sharpening stone", "instruction fetch", "CoreMark", "instruction cache", "Pascal (programming language)", "Ada (programming language)", "Complex instruction set computer", "clock rate", "data cache" ]
8,713	Dave Winer	Dave Winer (born May 2, 1955, in Queens, New York City) is an American software developer, entrepreneur, and writer who resides in New York City. Winer is noted for his contributions to outliners, scripting, content management, and web services, as well as blogging and podcasting. He is the founder of the software companies Living Videotext, Userland Software and Small Picture Inc., a former contributing editor for the Web magazine HotWired, the author of the Scripting News weblog, a former research fellow at Harvard Law School, and current visiting scholar at New York University's Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute. ==Early life and education== Winer was born on May 2, 1955, in Queens, New York City, the son of Eve Winer, PhD, a school psychologist, and Leon Winer, PhD, a former professor of the Columbia University Graduate School of Business. Winer is also the grandnephew of German novelist Arno Schmidt and a relative of Hedy Lamarr. He graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1972. Winer received a BA in Mathematics from Tulane University in New Orleans in 1976. ==Career== ===Early work in outliners=== In 1979 Dave Winer became an employee of Personal Software, where he worked on his own product idea named VisiText, which was his first attempt to build a commercial product around an "expand and collapse" outline display and which ultimately established outliners as a software product. In 1981 he left the company and founded Living Videotext to develop this still-unfinished product. The company was based in Mountain View, CA, and grew to more than 50 employees. It became the "first popular outline processor, the one that made the term generic." A ThinkTank release for the IBM PC followed in 1984, as well as releases for the Macintosh 128K and 512K. Ready, a RAM resident outliner for the IBM PC released in 1985, was commercially successful but soon succumbed to the competing Sidekick product by Borland. MORE, released for Apple's Macintosh in 1986, combined an outliner and a presentation program. It became "uncontested in the marketplace" and won the MacUser's Editor's Choice Award for "Best Product" in 1986. In 1987, at the height of the company's success, Winer sold Living Videotext to Symantec for an undisclosed but substantial transfer of stock that "made his fortune." Winer continued to work at Symantec's Living Videotext division, but after six months he left the company in pursuit of other challenges. According to Newsweek, through this experience, he "revolutionized Net publishing." Winer subsequently shifted the company's focus to online publishing products, enthusiastically promoting and experimenting with these products while building his websites and developing new features. One of these products was Frontier's NewsPage Suite of 1997, which supported the publication of Winer's Scripting News and was adopted by a handful of users who "began playing around with their own sites in the Scripting News vein." Winer was named a Seybold Fellow in 1997, to assist the executives and editors that comprised the Seybold Institute in ensuring "the highest quality and topicality" in their educational program, the Seybold Seminars; the honor was bestowed for his "pioneering work in web-based publishing systems." Keen to enter the "competitive arena of high-end Web development," Winer then came to collaborate with Microsoft and jointly developed the XML-RPC protocol. This led to the creation of SOAP, which he co-authored with Microsoft's Don Box, Bob Atkinson, and Mohsen Al-Ghosein. In December 1997, acting on the desire to "offer much more timely information," Winer designed and implemented an XML syndication format for use on his Scripting News weblog, thus making an early contribution to the history of web syndication technology. By December 2000, competing dialects of RSS included several varieties of Netscape's RSS, Winer's RSS 0.92, and an RDF-based RSS 1.0. Winer continued to develop the branch of the RSS fork originating from RSS 0.92, releasing in 2002 a version called RSS 2.0. Winer's advocacy of web syndication in general and RSS 2.0 in particular convinced many news organizations to syndicate their news content in that format. For example, in early 2002 The New York Times entered an agreement with UserLand to syndicate many of their articles in RSS 2.0 format. Winer resisted calls by technologists to have the shortcomings of RSS 2.0 improved. Instead, he froze the format and turned its ownership over to Harvard University. With products and services based on UserLand's Frontier system, Winer became a leader in blogging tools from 1999 onward, as well as a "leading evangelist of weblogs." In June 2002 Winer underwent life-saving bypass surgery to prevent a heart attack and as a consequence stepped down as CEO of UserLand shortly after. He remained the firm's majority shareholder, however, and claimed personal ownership of Weblogs.com. ===Writer=== As "one of the most prolific content generators in Web history," Winer has enjoyed a long career as a writer and has come to be counted among Silicon Valley's "most influential web voices." Winer started DaveNet, "a stream-of-consciousness newsletter distributed by e-mail" in November 1994 and maintained Web archives of the "goofy and informative" 800-word essays since January 1995, which earned him a Cool Site of the Day award in March 1995. From the start, the "Internet newsletter" DaveNet was widely read among industry leaders and analysts, who experienced it as a "real community." Dissatisfied with the quality of the coverage that the Mac and, especially, his own Frontier software received in the trade press, Winer saw DaveNet as an opportunity to "bypass" the conventional news channels of the software business. Satisfied with his success, he "reveled in the new direct email line he had established with his colleagues and peers, and in his ability to circumvent the media." launched in February 1997 and earned him titles such as "protoblogger" and "forefather of blogging." Scripting News started as "a home for links, offhand observations, and ephemera" While there, he launched Weblogs at Harvard Law School using UserLand software, and held the first BloggerCon conferences. Winer's fellowship ended in June 2004. In 2010 Winer was appointed visiting scholar at New York University's Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute. ===Return to outliners=== On December 19, 2012, Winer co-founded Small Picture, Inc. with Kyle Shank; Small Picture is a corporation that builds two outlining products, Little Outliner and Fargo. Little Outliner, an entry-level outliner designed to teach new users about outliners, which launched on March 25, 2013. Fargo, the company's "primary product", Small Picture has stated that in future it may offer paid-for services to Fargo users. ==Projects and activities== ===24 Hours of Democracy=== In February 1996, while working as a columnist for HotWired, Winer organized 24 Hours of Democracy, an online protest against the recently passed Communications Decency Act. As part of the protest, over 1,000 people, among them Microsoft chairman Bill Gates, posted essays to the Web on the subject of democracy, civil liberty and freedom of speech. ===Edit This Page=== In December 1999, Winer became the "proprietor of a growing free blog service" hosting "approximately 20,000 sites" in February 2001. The service closed in December 2005. ===Podcasting=== Winer has been given "credit for the invention of the podcasting model." Having received user requests for audioblogging features since October 2000, especially from Adam Curry, Winer decided to include new functionality in RSS 0.92 by defining a new element called "enclosure," which would pass the address of a media file to the RSS aggregator. He demonstrated the RSS enclosure feature on January 11, 2001, by enclosing a Grateful Dead song in his Scripting News weblog. Winer's weblogging product, Radio Userland, the program favored by Curry, had a built-in aggregator and thus provided both the "send" and "receive" components of what was then called audioblogging. In July 2003 Winer challenged other aggregator developers to provide support for enclosures. In October 2003, Kevin Marks demonstrated a script to download RSS enclosures and pass them to iTunes for transfer to an iPod. Curry then offered an RSS-to-iPod script that moved MP3 files from Radio UserLand to iTunes. The term "podcasting" was suggested by Ben Hammersley in February 2004. Winer also has an occasional podcast, Morning Coffee Notes, which has featured guests such as Doc Searls, Mike Kowalchik, Jason Calacanis, Steve Gillmor, Peter Rojas, Cecile Andrews, Adam Curry, Betsy Devine and others. === BloggerCon === BloggerCon is a user-focused conference for the blogger community. BloggerCon I (October 2003) and II (April 2004), were organized by Dave Winer and friends at Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for the Internet and Society in Cambridge, Mass. BloggerCon III met at Stanford Law School on November 6, 2004. A swift and orderly migration off Winer's server was facilitated by Rogers Cadenhead, whom Winer then hired to port the server to a more stable platform. In October 2005, VeriSign bought the Weblogs.com ping-server from Winer and promised that its free services would remain free. The podcasting-related web site audio.weblogs.com was also included in the $2.3 million deal. ===Share your OPML=== Winer opened his self-described "commons for sharing outlines, feeds, and taxonomy" in May 2006. The site allowed users to publish and syndicate blogrolls and aggregator subscriptions using OPML. Winer suspended its service in January 2008. ===Rebooting the News=== Since 2009, Winer has collaborated with New York University's associate professor of journalism Jay Rosen on Rebooting the News, a weekly podcast on technology and innovation in journalism. It was announced on July 1, 2011, that the show would be on break, as NYU itself was, from June to September. However, no new episodes have been released since, making show #94 released on May 23, 2011, the last.	[ "New Orleans", "HotWired", "Personal Software", "Don Box", "Jorn Barger", "Personal computer", "feed aggregator", "IBM", "XML-RPC", "Doc Searls", "blog", "InfoWorld", "Podcast", "Adam Curry", "Master of Science", "Resource Description Framework", "social networking service", "Simple Object Access Protocol", "Apple Inc", "coronary artery bypass surgery", "XML", "Jason Calacanis", "Apple II", "Mac (computer)", "Communications Decency Act", "history of web syndication technology", "Ben Hammersley", "Cool Site of the Day", "presentation program", "web feeds", "outliner", "Borland Sidekick", "Userland Software", "San Francisco newspaper strike of 1994", "Seybold Seminars", "civil liberty", "Tulane University", "iTunes", "Jay Rosen", "Harvard University", "Kevin Marks", "Hedy Lamarr", "VeriSign", "BloggerCon", "MP3", "Peter Rojas", "MacUser (US edition)", "NortonLifeLock", "Microsoft", "Living Videotext", "Bachelor of Arts", "iPod", "University of Wisconsin-Madison", "content management", "Computer Science", "RSS", "California", "Cecile Andrews", "Outline (summary)", "OPML", "Scripting News", "Chris Gulker", "Radio Userland", "Netscape", "Borland", "weblog", "history of podcasting", "Grateful Dead", "Stanford Law School", "MORE (application)", "Queens", "UserLand Software", "web service", "freedom of speech", "Silicon Valley", "podcast", "scripting language", "blogroll", "Ping blog", "ping-server", "RAM resident", "Outliner", "Harvard Law School", "Radio UserLand", "Weblogs.com", "Classic Mac OS", "Bronx High School of Science", "Arno Schmidt", "The New York Times", "Mike Kowalchik", "Rogers Cadenhead", "New York University", "Berkman Center for Internet & Society", "Betsy Devine", "Mountain View, California", "Newsweek", "eWeek", "University of Wisconsin–Madison", "Bill Gates", "Steve Gillmor" ]
8,714	December 10	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 1317 – The Nyköping Banquet: King Birger of Sweden treacherously seizes his two brothers, dukes Valdemar and Erik, who are subsequently starved to death in the dungeon of Nyköping Castle. 1508 – The League of Cambrai is formed by Pope Julius II, Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Ferdinand II of Aragon as an alliance against Venice. 1520 – Martin Luther burns his copy of the papal bull Exsurge Domine outside Wittenberg's Elster Gate. 1541 – Thomas Culpeper and Francis Dereham are executed for having affairs with Catherine Howard, Queen of England and wife of Henry VIII. ===1601–1900=== 1652 – Defeat at the Battle of Dungeness causes the Commonwealth of England to reform its navy. 1665 – The Royal Netherlands Marine Corps is founded by Michiel de Ruyter. 1684 – Isaac Newton's derivation of Kepler's laws from his theory of gravity, contained in the paper De motu corporum in gyrum, is read to the Royal Society by Edmond Halley. 1768 – The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica is published. 1799 – France adopts the metre as its official unit of length. 1817 – Mississippi becomes the 20th U.S. state. 1861 – American Civil War: The Confederate States of America accept a rival state government's pronouncement that declares Kentucky to be the 13th state of the Confederacy. 1861 – Forces led by Nguyễn Trung Trực, an anti-colonial guerrilla leader in southern Vietnam, sink the French lorcha L'Esperance. 1864 – American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea: Major General William Tecumseh Sherman's Union Army troops reach the outer Confederate defenses of Savannah, Georgia. 1877 – Russo-Turkish War: The Russian Army captures Plevna after a 5-month siege. The garrison of 25,000 surviving Turks surrenders. The Russian victory is decisive for the outcome of the war and the Liberation of Bulgaria. 1896 – Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi premieres in Paris. A riot breaks out at the end of the performance. 1898 – Spanish–American War: The Treaty of Paris is signed, officially ending the conflict. Spain cedes administration of Cuba to the United States, and the United States agrees to pay Spain $20 million for the Philippines. ===1901–present=== 1901 – The first Nobel Prize ceremony is held in Stockholm on the fifth anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death. 1902 – The opening of the reservoir of the Aswan Dam in Egypt. 1906 – U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the mediation of the Russo-Japanese War, becoming the first American to win a Nobel Prize in any field. 1907 – The worst night of the Brown Dog riots in London, when 1,000 medical students, protesting against the existence of a memorial for animals that have been vivisected, clash with 400 police officers. 1909 – Selma Lagerlöf becomes the first female writer to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1932 – Thailand becomes a constitutional monarchy. 1936 – Abdication Crisis: Edward VIII signs the Instrument of Abdication. 1941 – World War II: The Royal Navy capital ships and are sunk by Imperial Japanese Navy torpedo bombers near British Malaya. 1941 – World War II: Battle of the Philippines: Imperial Japanese forces under the command of General Masaharu Homma land on Luzon. 1942 – World War II: Government of Poland in exile send Raczyński's Note (the first official report on the Holocaust) to 26 governments who signed the Declaration by United Nations. 1948 – The Human Rights Convention is signed by the United Nations. 1949 – Chinese Civil War: The People's Liberation Army begins its siege of Chengdu, the last Kuomintang-held city in mainland China, forcing President of the Republic of China Chiang Kai-shek and his government to retreat to Taiwan. 1953 – British Prime Minister Winston Churchill receives the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1963 – Zanzibar gains independence from the United Kingdom as a constitutional monarchy, under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. 1963 – An assassination attempt on the British High Commissioner in Aden kills two people and wounds dozens more. 1968 – Japan's biggest heist, the still-unsolved "300 million yen robbery", is carried out in Tokyo. 1978 – Arab–Israeli conflict: Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin and President of Egypt Anwar Sadat are jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1979 – Kaohsiung Incident: Taiwanese pro-democracy demonstrations are suppressed by the KMT dictatorship, and organizers are arrested. 1983 – Democracy is restored in Argentina with the inauguration of President Raúl Alfonsín. 1984 – United Nations General Assembly recognizes the Convention against Torture. 1989 – Mongolian Revolution: At the country's first open pro-democracy public demonstration, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announces the establishment of the Mongolian Democratic Union. 1991 – Nursultan Nazarbayev is sworn in as the 1st President of Kazakhstan. 1991 – The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic is renamed into the Republic of Kazakhstan. 1993 – The last shift leaves Wearmouth Colliery in Sunderland. The closure of the 156-year-old pit marks the end of the old County Durham coalfield, which had been in operation since the Middle Ages. 1994 – Rwandan genocide: Maurice Baril, military advisor to the U.N. Secretary-General and head of the Military Division of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, recommends that UNAMIR stand down. 1995 – The Israeli army withdraws from Nablus pursuant to the terms of Oslo Accord. 1996 – The new Constitution of South Africa is promulgated by Nelson Mandela. 1999 – Helen Clark is sworn in as Prime Minister of New Zealand, the second woman to hold the post and the first following an election. 2005 – Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145 crashes at Port Harcourt International Airport in Nigeria, killing 108 people. 2014 – Palestinian minister Ziad Abu Ein is killed after the suppression of a demonstration by Israeli forces in the village (Turmus'ayya) in Ramallah. 2015 – Rojava conflict: The Syrian Democratic Council is established in Dêrik, forming the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeast Syria. 2016 – Two explosions outside a football stadium in Istanbul, Turkey, kill 38 people and injure 166 others. 2017 – ISIL is defeated in Iraq. 2019 – The Ostrava hospital attack in the Czech Republic results in eight deaths, including the perpetrator. 2021 – A widespread, deadly, and violent tornado outbreak slams the Central, Midwestern, and Southern regions of the United States. Eighty-nine people are killed by the tornadoes, with most of the fatalities occurring in Kentucky, where a single tornado kills 57 people, and injures hundreds of others. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 553 – Houzhu, emperor of the Chen dynasty (d. 604) 1376 – Edmund Mortimer, English nobleman and rebel (d. 1409) 1452 – Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1531) 1472 – Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk (d. 1481) 1489 – Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours (d. 1512) 1588 – Isaac Beeckman, Dutch scientist and philosopher (d. 1637) ===1601–1900=== 1610 – Adriaen van Ostade, Dutch painter (d. 1685) 1654 – Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole, Italian painter (d. 1719) 1658 – Lancelot Blackburne, Archbishop of York (d. 1743) 1713 – Johann Nicolaus Mempel, German cantor and organist (d. 1747) 1751 – George Shaw, English botanist and zoologist (d. 1813) 1776 – Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este (d. 1848) 1783 – María Bibiana Benítez, Puerto Rican poet and playwright (d. 1873) 1787 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, American educator, founded the American School for the Deaf (d. 1851) 1804 – Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, German mathematician and academic (d. 1851) 1805 – William Lloyd Garrison, American journalist and activist, founded The Liberator (d. 1879) 1805 – Joseph Škoda, Czech physician, dermatologist, and academic (d. 1881) 1811 – Caroline Mehitable Fisher Sawyer, American poet, biographer, and editor (d. 1894) 1815 – Ada Lovelace, English mathematician and computer scientist (d. 1852) 1821 – Nikolay Nekrasov, Russian poet and critic (d. 1877) 1822 – César Franck, Belgian organist and composer (d. 1890) 1824 – George MacDonald, Scottish minister, author, and poet (d. 1905) 1827 – Eugene O'Keefe, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1913) 1830 – Emily Dickinson, American poet (d. 1886) 1851 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian, created the Dewey Decimal System (d. 1931) 1866 – Louis Bolk, Dutch anatomist and biologist (d. 1930) 1870 – Jadunath Sarkar, Indian historian (d. 1958) 1870 – Adolf Loos, Austrian architect and theoretician (d. 1933) 1870 – Pierre Louÿs, Belgian-French author and poet (d. 1925) 1878 – C. Rajagopalachari, Indian lawyer and politician, 45th Governor-General of India (d. 1972) 1878 – Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Indian Muslim activist (d. 1931) 1882 – Otto Neurath, Austrian sociologist and philosopher (d. 1945) 1882 – Shigenori Tōgō, Japanese politician, 37th Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1950) 1883 – Giovanni Messe, Italian field marshal and politician (d. 1968) 1885 – Elizabeth Baker, American economist and academic (d. 1973) 1885 – Marios Varvoglis, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1967) 1886 – Victor McLaglen, English-American actor (d. 1959) 1889 – Ray Collins, American actor (d. 1965) 1890 – László Bárdossy, Hungarian politician and diplomat, 33rd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1946) 1891 – Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, English field marshal and politician, 17th Governor General of Canada (d. 1969) 1891 – Arlie Mucks, American discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1967) 1891 – Nelly Sachs, German-Swedish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970) 1896 – Torsten Bergström, Swedish actor and director (d. 1948) ===1901–present=== 1903 – Una Merkel, American actress (d. 1986) 1904 – Antonín Novotný, Czechoslovak politician, President of Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (d. 1975) 1906 – Harold Adamson, American lyricist (d. 1980) 1906 – Jules Ladoumègue, French runner (d. 1973) 1907 – Rumer Godden, English author and poet (d. 1998) 1907 – Lucien Laurent, French footballer and coach (d. 2005) 1907 – Amedeo Nazzari, Italian actor (d. 1979) 1908 – Olivier Messiaen, French composer and ornithologist (d. 1992) 1909 – Hermes Pan, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1990) 1910 – Ambrosio Padilla, Filipino basketball player and politician (d. 1996) 1911 – Chet Huntley, American journalist (d. 1974) 1912 – Philip Hart, American lawyer and politician, 49th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (d. 1976) 1912 – Tetsuji Takechi, Japanese theatrical and film director, critic, and author (d. 1988) 1912 – René Toribio, Guadeloupean politician (d. 1990) 1913 – Pannonica de Koenigswarter, English-American jazz patron and writer (d. 1988) 1913 – Morton Gould, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1996) 1913 – Harry Locke, English actor (d. 1987) 1913 – Ray Nance, American trumpeter, violinist, and singer (d. 1976) 1914 – Dorothy Lamour, American actress and singer (d. 1996) 1915 – Nicky Barr, Australian rugby player, soldier, and pilot (d. 2006) 1916 – Walt Arfons, American race car driver (d. 2013) 1918 – Anne Gwynne, American actress (d. 2003) 1918 – Anatoli Tarasov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1995) 1919 – Alexander Courage, American composer and conductor (d. 2008) 1920 – Clarice Lispector, Ukrainian-Brazilian journalist and author (d. 1977) 1920 – Reginald Rose, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2002) 1921 – Toh Chin Chye, Singaporean academic and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore (d. 2012) 1922 – Agnes Nixon, American television writer and director (d. 2016) 1923 – Harold Gould, American actor (d. 2010) 1923 – Clorindo Testa, Italian-Argentinian architect, designed the National Library of the Argentine Republic and Marriott Plaza Hotel (d. 2013) 1924 – Ken Albers, American singer and musician (d. 2007) 1924 – Michael Manley, Jamaican pilot and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 1997) 1925 – Carolyn Kizer, American poet and academic (d. 2014) 1926 – Guitar Slim, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1959) 1927 – Bob Farrell, American businessman, founded Farrell's Ice Cream Parlour (d. 2015) 1927 – Danny Matt, German-Israeli general (d. 2013) 1928 – Barbara Nichols, American actress (d. 1976) 1930 – Wayne D. Anderson, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013) 1930 – Ray Felix, American basketball player (d. 1991) 1930 – Michael Jopling, Baron Jopling, English farmer and politician, Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1931 – Peter Baker, English-South African footballer and manager (d. 2016) 1933 – Philip R. Craig, American author (d. 2007) 1933 – Mako Iwamatsu, Japanese actor (d. 2006) 1934 – Howard Martin Temin, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994) 1935 – Terry Allcock, English footballer and cricketer (d. 2024) 1935 – Jaromil Jireš, Czech director and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1936 – Howard Smith, American journalist, director, and producer (d. 2014) 1938 – Bill Dunk, Australian golfer 1938 – Yuri Temirkanov, Russian viola player and conductor (d. 2023) 1939 – Dick Bavetta, American basketball player and referee 1939 – Barry Cunliffe, English archaeologist and academic 1941 – Ken Campbell, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1941 – Fionnula Flanagan, Irish actress and producer 1941 – Tommy Kirk, American actor (d. 2021) 1941 – Tommy Rettig, American child actor (d. 1996) 1941 – Kyu Sakamoto, Japanese singer and actor (d. 1985) 1942 – Ann Gloag, Scottish nurse and businesswoman 1944 – Andris Bērziņš, Latvian businessman and politician, 8th President of Latvia 1944 – John Birt, Baron Birt, English businessman 1944 – Steve Renko, American baseball player 1945 – Mukhtar Altynbayev, Kazakhstani general and politician, 3rd Defence Minister of Kazakhstan 1946 – Douglas Kenney, American satirist (d. 1980) 1947 – Rasul Guliyev, Azerbaijani engineer and politician, 22nd Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan 1948 – Dušan Bajević, Bosnian footballer and manager 1948 – Jessica Cleaves, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1948 – Jasuben Shilpi, Indian sculptor (d. 2013) 1949 – Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, Ugandan-English journalist and author 1949 – David Perdue, American politician 1950 – John Boozman, American football player, lawyer, and politician 1950 – Simon Owen, New Zealand golfer 1951 – Johnny Rodriguez, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Clive Anderson, English lawyer and television host 1952 – Susan Dey, American actress 1952 – Greg Mortimer, Australian geologist and mountaineer 1952 – Greg Laurie, American author and pastor 1952 – Paul Varul, Estonian lawyer and politician, 6th Estonian Minister of Justice 1953 – Chris Bury, American journalist and academic 1954 – Eudine Barriteau, Barbadian economist and academic 1954 – Price Cobb, American race car driver and manager 1954 – Jack Hues, English singer-songwriter and musician 1956 – Rod Blagojevich, American lawyer and politician, 40th Governor of Illinois 1956 – Roberto Cassinelli, Italian lawyer and politician 1956 – Jan van Dijk, Dutch footballer and manager 1957 – Michael Clarke Duncan, American actor (d. 2012) 1957 – Paul Hardcastle, English composer and producer 1957 – Prem Rawat, Indian-American guru and educator 1958 – Cornelia Funke, German-American author 1958 – Kathryn Stott, English pianist and academic 1959 – Mark Aguirre, American basketball player and coach 1959 – Udi Aloni, American-Israeli director and author 1959 – Kevin Ash, English journalist and author (d. 2013) 1959 – Wolf Hoffmann, German guitarist 1960 – Kenneth Branagh, British actor director, producer, and screenwriter 1960 – Kōichi Satō, Japanese actor 1961 – Mark McKoy, Canadian hurdler and sprinter 1961 – Nia Peeples, American singer and actress 1962 – Rakhat Aliyev, Kazakh politician and diplomat (d. 2015) 1962 – John de Wolf, Dutch footballer and manager 1963 – Jahangir Khan, Pakistani squash player 1964 – Stephen Billington, English actor 1964 – Stef Blok, Dutch banker and politician, Dutch Minister of the Interior 1964 – Bobby Flay, American chef and author 1964 – Edith González, Mexican actress (d. 2019) 1965 – Greg Giraldo, American lawyer, comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1965 – J Mascis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Stephanie Morgenstern, Swiss-Canadian actress, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Rein Ahas, Estonian geographer and academic 1966 – Robin Brooke, New Zealand rugby player 1966 – Mel Rojas, Dominican baseball player 1966 – Penelope Trunk, American writer 1968 – Yōko Oginome, Japanese singer, actress, and voice actress 1969 – Darren Berry, Australian cricketer and coach 1969 – Rob Blake, Canadian ice hockey player and executive 1970 – Kevin Sharp, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1970 – Bryant Stith, American basketball player and coach 1972 – Donavon Frankenreiter, American surfer, singer-songwriter, and guitarist 1972 – Brian Molko, British-Belgian singer-songwriter 1973 – Rusty LaRue, American basketball player and coach 1973 – Gabriela Spanic, Venezuelan actress 1974 – Meg White, American drummer 1975 – Steve Bradley, American wrestler (d. 2008) 1975 – Emmanuelle Chriqui, Canadian actress 1975 – Josip Skoko, Australian footballer 1976 – Shane Byrne, English motorcycle racer 1978 – Anna Jesień, Polish hurdler 1978 – Summer Phoenix, American actress 1979 – Matt Bentley, American wrestler 1979 – Iain Brunnschweiler, English cricketer 1979 – Yang Jianping, Chinese recurve archer 1980 – Sarah Chang, American violinist 1981 – Taufik Batisah, Singaporean singer 1981 – Rene Bourque, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Fábio Rochemback, Brazilian footballer 1982 – Claudia Hoffmann, German sprinter 1982 – Sultan Kösen, Turkish farmer, tallest living person 1983 – Patrick Flueger, American actor 1983 – Xavier Samuel, Australian actor 1984 – JTG, American wrestler 1985 – Charlie Adam, Scottish footballer 1985 – Roman Červenka, Czech ice hockey player 1985 – Matt Forte, American football player 1985 – Trésor Mputu, Congolese footballer 1985 – Raven-Symoné, American actress, singer, and dancer 1985 – Lê Công Vinh, Vietnamese footballer 1986 – Kahlil Bell, American football player 1987 – Gonzalo Higuaín, French-Argentinian footballer 1988 – Wilfried Bony, Ivorian footballer 1988 – Neven Subotić, Serbian footballer 1989 – Marion Maréchal-Le Pen, French politician 1989 – Tom Sexton, Australian-Irish rugby player 1990 – Kazenga LuaLua, Congolese-English footballer 1990 – Sakiko Matsui, Japanese singer and actress 1990 – Wil Myers, American baseball player 1990 – Teyana Taylor, American singer, songwriter, choreographer, and actress 1990 – Shoya Tomizawa, Japanese motorcycle racer (d. 2010) 1991 – KiKi Layne, American actress 1991 – Eric Reid, American football player 1991 – Dion Waiters, American basketball player 1992 – Carlos Rodón, American baseball player 1992 – Melissa Roxburgh, Canadian-American actress 1994 – Richard Kennar, Samoan rugby league player 1994 – Matti Klinga, Finnish footballer 1995 – Tacko Fall, Senegalese basketball player 1996 – Joe Burrow, American football player 1996 – Kang Daniel, South Korean singer and entrepreneur 1997 – Viktoriia Savtsova, Ukrainian Paralympic swimmer 1998 – Lucia Bronzetti, Italian tennis player 1999 – Reiss Nelson, English footballer 2000 – Jeremie Frimpong, Dutch footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 925 – Sancho I, king of Pamplona 949 – Herman I, Duke of Swabia 990 – Folcmar, bishop of Utrecht 1041 – Michael IV the Paphlagonian, Byzantine emperor (b. 1010) 1081 – Nikephoros III Botaneiates, deposed Byzantine Emperor (b. c.1002) 1113 – Radwan, ruler of Aleppo 1310 – Stephen I, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1271) 1454 – Ignatius Behnam Hadloyo, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch. 1475 – Paolo Uccello, Italian painter (b. 1397) 1508 – René II, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1451) 1541 – Thomas Culpeper, English courtier (b. 1514) 1541 – Francis Dereham, English courtier (b. c. 1513) 1561 – Caspar Schwenckfeld, German theologian and writer ===1601–1900=== 1618 – Giulio Caccini, Italian composer and educator (b. 1551) 1626 – Edmund Gunter, English mathematician and academic (b. 1581) 1665 – Tarquinio Merula, Italian organist, violinist, and composer (b. 1594) 1736 – António Manoel de Vilhena, Portuguese soldier and politician (b. 1663) 1791 – Jacob Frank, Polish religious leader (b. 1726) 1831 – Thomas Johann Seebeck, German physicist and academic (b. 1770) 1850 – Józef Bem, Polish general and physicist (b. 1794) 1850 – François Sulpice Beudant, French mineralogist and geologist (b. 1787) 1865 – Leopold I of Belgium (b. 1790) 1867 – Sakamoto Ryōma, Japanese samurai and politician (b. 1836) 1896 – Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer, invented Dynamite and founded the Nobel Prize (b. 1833) ===1901–present=== 1909 – Red Cloud, American tribal chief (of the Oglala nation) (b. 1822) 1911 – Joseph Dalton Hooker, English botanist and explorer (b. 1817) 1917 – Mackenzie Bowell, English-Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1823) 1920 – Horace Elgin Dodge, American businessman, co-founded Dodge (b. 1868) 1922 – Clement Lindley Wragge, English meteorologist and author (b. 1852) 1926 – Nikola Pašić, Serbian politician, 46th Prime Minister of Serbia (b. 1845) 1928 – Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Scottish architect and painter (b. 1868) 1929 – Harry Crosby, American publisher and poet (b. 1898) 1932 – Joseph Carruthers, Australian politician, 16th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1857) 1936 – Bobby Abel, English cricketer (b. 1857) 1936 – Luigi Pirandello, Italian dramatist, novelist, and poet Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1867) 1939 – John Grieb, American gymnast and triathlete (b. 1879) 1941 – Colin Kelly, American captain and pilot (b. 1915) 1944 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1922) 1945 – Theodor Dannecker, German captain (b. 1913) 1946 – Walter Johnson, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster (b. 1887) 1946 – Damon Runyon, American newspaperman and short story writer (b. 1884) 1948 – Na Hye-sok, South Korean journalist, poet, and painter (b. 1896) 1951 – Algernon Blackwood, English author and playwright (b. 1869) 1953 – Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Indian-English scholar and translator (b. 1872) 1956 – David Shimoni, Russian-Israeli poet and translator (b. 1891) 1957 – Napoleon Zervas, Greek general (b. 1891) 1958 – Adolfo Camarillo, American horse breeder, rancher, and philanthropist (b. 1864) 1963 – K. M. Panikkar, Indian historian and diplomat (b. 1894) 1967 – Otis Redding, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1941) 1968 – Karl Barth, Swiss theologian and author (b. 1886) 1968 – George Forrest, Northern Irish lawyer and politician (b. 1921) 1968 – Thomas Merton, American monk and author (b. 1915) 1970 – Chen Qiyou, Chinese politician and revolutionary (b. 1892) 1972 – Mark Van Doren, American poet, critic, and academic (b. 1894) 1973 – Wolf V. Vishniac, German-American microbiologist and academic (b. 1922) 1974 – Toshinari Shōji, Japanese general (b. 1890) 1977 – Adolph Rupp, American basketball player and coach (b. 1901) 1978 – Ed Wood, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1924) 1979 – Ann Dvorak, American actress (b. 1911) 1982 – Freeman Gosden, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1899) 1987 – Jascha Heifetz, Lithuanian-American violinist and educator (b. 1901) 1988 – Richard S. Castellano, American actor (b. 1933) 1988 – Johnny Lawrence, English cricketer and coach (b. 1911) 1988 – Dorothy de Rothschild, English philanthropist and activist (b. 1895) 1990 – Armand Hammer, American businessman, founded Occidental Petroleum (b. 1898) 1991 – Greta Kempton, Austrian-American painter and academic (b. 1901) 1992 – Dan Maskell, English tennis player and sportscaster (b. 1908) 1993 – Alice Tully, American soprano (b. 1902) 1994 – Keith Joseph, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (b. 1918) 1994 – Alex Wilson, Canadian-American sprinter (b. 1905) 1995 – Darren Robinson, American rapper (b. 1967) 1996 – Faron Young, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b. 1932) 1999 – Rick Danko, Canadian singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (b. 1943) 1999 – Franjo Tuđman, Croatian general and politician, 1st President of Croatia (b. 1922) 1999 – Woodrow Borah, American historian of Spanish America (b. 1912) 2000 – Marie Windsor, American actress (b. 1919) 2001 – Ashok Kumar, Indian actor, singer, and producer (b. 1911) 2002 – Andres Küng, Swedish journalist and politician (b. 1945) 2002 – Ian MacNaughton, Scottish actor, director, and producer (b. 1925) 2003 – Sean McClory, Irish actor and director (b. 1924) 2004 – Gary Webb, American journalist and author (b. 1955) 2005 – Mary Jackson, American actress (b. 1910) 2005 – Eugene McCarthy, American poet, academic, and politician (b. 1916) 2005 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1940) 2006 – Olivia Coolidge, English-American author and educator (b. 1908) 2006 – Augusto Pinochet, Chilean general and dictator, 30th President of Chile (b. 1915) 2007 – Vitali Hakko, Turkish businessman, founded Vakko (b. 1913) 2009 – Vladimir Teplyakov, Russian soldier and physicist (b. 1925) 2010 – John Fenn, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) 2010 – J. Michael Hagopian, Armenian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1913) 2010 – MacKenzie Miller, American horse trainer and breeder (b. 1921) 2012 – Iajuddin Ahmed, Bangladeshi academic and politician, 13th President of Bangladesh (b. 1931) 2012 – Antonio Cubillo, Spanish lawyer and politician (b. 1930) 2012 – Tommy Roberts, English fashion designer (b. 1942) 2013 – Alan Coleman, English-Australian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1936) 2013 – Jim Hall, American guitarist and composer (b. 1930) 2013 – Don Lund, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923) 2013 – Srikanta Wadiyar, Indian politician and the titular Maharaja of Mysore(b. 1946) 2014 – Ralph Giordano, German author and publicist (b. 1923) 2014 – Robert B. Oakley, American diplomat, 19th United States Ambassador to Pakistan (b. 1931) 2014 – Bob Solinger, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1925) 2014 – Judy Baar Topinka, American journalist and politician (b. 1944) 2014 – Gerard Vianen, Dutch cyclist (b. 1944) 2015 – Ron Bouchard, American race car driver and businessman (b. 1948) 2015 – Denis Héroux, Canadian director and producer (b. 1940) 2015 – Arnold Peralta, Honduran footballer (b. 1989) 2015 – Dolph Schayes, American basketball player and coach (b. 1928) 2017 – Bruce Brown, American filmmaker (b. 1937) 2017 – Max Clifford, British publicist (b. 1943) 2017 – Charles M. Green Jr., American Internet personality (b. 1950) 2017 – Curtis W. Harris, American minister (b. 1924) 2019 – Philip McKeon, American actor (b. 1964) 2019 – Gershon Kingsley, American composer and musician (b. 1922) 2019 – Emily Mason, American painter (b. 1932) 2020 – Tommy "Tiny" Lister Jr., American actor and wrestler (b. 1958) 2020 – Joseph Safra, Lebanese-Brazilian financier (b.1938) 2020 – Carol Sutton, American actress (b. 1944) 2020 – Barbara Windsor, English actress (b. 1937) 2021 – Michael Nesmith, American musician (The Monkees), songwriter, actor, producer, and novelist (b. 1942) 2023 – Julian Carroll, American politician, 54th Governor of Kentucky (b. 1931) 2024 – Rocky Colavito, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1933) 2024 – Michael Cole, American actor (b. 1940) 2024 – Kreskin, American mentalist (b. 1935) 2024 – S. M. Krishna, Indian politician and statesman, Minister of External Affairs, 10th Chief Minister of Karnataka, 19th Governor of Maharashtra (b. 1932) ==Holidays and observances== Alfred Nobel Day or Nobeldagen (Sweden) Christian feast day: Behnam, Sarah, and the Forty Martyrs (Syriac Orthodox Church) Eulalia of Mérida Karl Barth (Episcopal Church (USA)) Thomas Merton (Episcopal Church (USA)) Translation of the Holy House of Loreto December 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Constitution Day (Thailand) Human Rights Day (International)	[ "Mark Van Doren", "Jahangir Khan", "1921", "Thomas Culpeper", "Constitution of Thailand", "1886", "Shane Byrne (motorcycle racer)", "List of chief ministers of Karnataka", "Curtis W. Harris", "1982", "Konnect Entertainment", "S. M. Krishna", "Helen Clark", "Michiel de Ruyter", "Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan", "American School for the Deaf", "Ottoman Empire", "Richard S. Castellano", "Constitution Day (Thailand)", "Sherman's March to the Sea", "Midwestern United States", "Dewey Decimal Classification", "Una Merkel", "The Plain Dealer", "Matt Forte", "Confederate States of America", "1850", "Jim Hall (musician)", "Morton Gould", "J. Michael Hagopian", "John Boozman", "1910", "Greg Giraldo", "Rasul Guliyev", "Bob Farrell (motivational speaker)", "Mukhtar Altynbayev", "Srikanta Wadiyar", "Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145", "Barbara Windsor", "Simon Owen", "Guitar Slim", "Jaromil Jireš", "Rwandan genocide", "Stef Blok", "2015", "William Tecumseh Sherman", "Republic of Venice", "1924", "Ada Lovelace", "Giovanni Messe", "Sakamoto Ryōma", "César Franck", "Imperial Japan", "Matt Bentley", "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic", "Herman I, Duke of Swabia", "Kuomintang", "Mackenzie Bowell", "1768", "Joseph Dalton Hooker", "National Hockey League", "Angry Grandpa", "Reginald Rose", "Joseph Škoda", "1964", "Michael Clarke Duncan", "Napoleon Zervas", "List of Ministers of the Interior of the Netherlands", "Battle of the Philippines (1941-42)", "Prime Minister of New Zealand", "John Brunt", "K. M. Panikkar", "Chet Huntley", "Robin Brooke", "1626", "Thomas Johann Seebeck", "Ed Wood", "Stephen I, Duke of Bavaria", "1898", "Eulalia of Mérida", "Jascha Heifetz", "2020", "Victoria Cross", "mainland China", "Dodge", "Oglala", "Stephen Billington", "Nguyễn Trung Trực", "Victor McLaglen", "1928", "1915", "1981", "Freeman Gosden", "Caspar Schwenckfeld", "Torsten Bergström", "Tommy Roberts (designer)", "1946", "Nelson Mandela", "President of Bangladesh", "Olivia Coolidge", "1950", "Cornelia Funke", "The Oxford History of Christian Worship", "1783", "Augusto Pinochet", "feast day", "De motu corporum in gyrum", "Sultan Kösen", "1979", "Fábio Rochemback", "Governor of Kentucky", "Syrian Democratic Forces", "1520", "Battle of Dungeness", "1658", "War of the League of Cambrai", "1994", "1113", "Darren Robinson (rapper)", "Israel Defense Forces", "1906", "List of Governors-General of India", "2016", "1916", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Kyu Sakamoto", "1972", "Nigeria", "Nursultan Nazarbayev", "François Sulpice Beudant", "Jacob Frank", "United Nations", "Anatoli Tarasov", "Holocaust", "1954", "René II, Duke of Lorraine", "Dorothy Lamour", "Douglas Kenney", "Associated Press", "Antonín Novotný", "Iraq", "Ralph Giordano (writer)", "JTG", "Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar", "1851", "Secretary-General of the United Nations", "County Durham", "1454", "Yasmin Alibhai-Brown", "Kathryn Stott", "Antonio Cubillo", "1811", "1977", "Andres Küng", "Nablus", "Pannonica de Koenigswarter", "Democracy", "Minister of External Affairs (India)", "Algernon Blackwood", "Danny Matt", "Rocky Colavito", "Spanish–American War", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Summer Phoenix", "Oslo I Accord", "Louis Bolk", "MacKenzie Miller", "1922", "1791", "Rein Ahas", "The New York Times", "1920", "Meg White", "949", "990", "1931", "Amedeo Nazzari", "Lucia Bronzetti", "1992", "Susan Dey", "Alfred Nobel Day", "2013", "Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk", "Udi Aloni", "constitutional monarchy", "Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan", "Bobby Flay", "Johnny Lawrence (cricketer)", "1953", "Alex Wilson (Canadian sprinter)", "Al-Malikiyah", "Prem Rawat", "1933", "Episcopal Church (USA)", "Caroline Mehitable Fisher Sawyer", "Ian MacNaughton", "Istanbul", "Melissa Roxburgh", "Bill Dunk", "1665", "Declaration by United Nations", "Prime Minister of Hungary", "Kentucky", "lorcha (boat)", "1932", "Joseph Safra", "Jan van Dijk (footballer)", "Syriac Orthodox Church", "Claudia Hoffmann", "1951", "Gary Webb", "Judy Baar Topinka", "1935", "1970", "Kazenga LuaLua", "David Shimoni", "2009", "2021", "Colin Kelly", "1883", "1985", "2010", "Sean McClory", "Carolyn Kizer", "Philip R. Craig", "Henry VIII of England", "1870", "1990", "Mongolian Democratic Union", "Communist Party of Czechoslovakia", "Arlie Mucks", "Rojava conflict", "Isaac Newton", "Birger, King of Sweden", "United Nations Convention against Torture", "1652", "Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food", "Shigenori Tōgō", "1961", "George MacDonald", "1489", "1926", "Union Army", "1966", "Edmund Mortimer (1376-1409)", "Bryant Stith", "Martin Luther", "Wil Myers", "Maurice Baril", "Kevin Ash", "Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis", "1472", "1508", "Wearmouth Colliery", "Michael Manley", "1310", "Ambrosio Padilla", "2023", "Mako Iwamatsu", "1938", "Yuri Temirkanov", "Tacko Fall", "Vodafone Park", "René Toribio", "Basilica della Santa Casa", "1999", "1925", "Edmond Halley", "2019", "1452", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Vietnam", "International observance", "Don Lund", "Woodrow Borah", "1830", "Johannes Stöffler", "Peter Baker (footballer, born 1931)", "Rene Bourque", "Walt Arfons", "1978", "Occidental Petroleum", "1475", "Walter Johnson", "Premier of New South Wales", "Faron Young", "Clorindo Testa", "1877", "William Lloyd Garrison", "Sakiko Matsui", "Richard Pryor", "Marie Windsor", "Arab–Israeli conflict", "1965", "Tommy Lister Jr.", "1987", "Xavier Samuel", "Dan Maskell", "Ann Gloag", "Ignatius Behnam Hadloyo", "Karl Barth", "Nobel Peace Prize", "1919", "Howard Smith (director)", "1939", "1804", "Vladimir Teplyakov", "Steve Bradley", "Alan Coleman", "2002", "Edith González", "President of Croatia", "2001", "Joe Burrow", "Eric Reid", "Bob Solinger", "1827", "Jack Hues", "Sarah Chang", "1993", "Barry Cunliffe", "Mark McKoy", "Kepler's laws", "1824", "ESPN", "1815", "Tommy Rettig", "Exsurge Domine", "KiKi Layne", "Fionnula Flanagan", "1787", "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi", "Imperial Japanese Navy", "Chen Shubao", "2003", "Ken Campbell", "Emily Dickinson", "1976", "Taufik Batisah", "Józef Bem", "Adolph Rupp", "Adolfo Camarillo", "Franjo Tuđman", "2012", "Roman Červenka", "John Fenn (chemist)", "Abdullah Yusuf Ali", "Nyköping Banquet", "Lancelot Blackburne", "Chengdu", "Arnold Peralta", "Stephanie Morgenstern", "John Grieb", "Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)", "John Birt, Baron Birt", "1989", "Aswan Low Dam", "Harold Adamson", "2000", "KMT", "1927", "1967", "Jessica Cleaves", "Russo-Japanese War", "Chris Bury", "Ferdinand II of Aragon", "Darren Berry", "Andris Bērziņš (Latvian President)", "George Saunders", "Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse", "Terry Allcock", "Harold Gould", "1904", "Dion Waiters", "Prime Minister of Serbia", "1952", "Greta Kempton", "1751", "Penelope Trunk", "Clive Anderson", "Denis Héroux", "Liberation of Bulgaria", "Vakko", "Prime Minister of Israel", "Clement Lindley Wragge", "1984", "Mel Rojas", "Gershon Kingsley", "Charles Rennie Mackintosh", "Syrian Democratic Council", "Turmus Ayya", "Reiss Nelson", "1907", "Savannah, Georgia", "1736", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "Matti Klinga", "Vitali Hakko", "Francis Dereham", "1913", "High Commissioner attack", "1996", "1963", "1081", "David Perdue", "1541", "President of the Republic of China", "Polish government-in-exile", "Marion Maréchal-Le Pen", "Ziad Abu Ein", "1975", "Alexander Courage", "Prime Minister of Canada", "María Bibiana Benítez", "1958", "Tarquinio Merula", "Johann Nicolaus Mempel", "Eugene O'Keefe", "Anne Gwynne", "1941", "Mongolian Revolution of 1990", "Nicky Barr", "Catherine Howard", "1908", "President of Egypt", "Shoya Tomizawa", "George Forrest (Northern Ireland politician)", "Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Gerard Vianen", "Theodore Roosevelt", "1867", "UNAMIR", "1376", "Marios Varvoglis", "1949", "Donavon Frankenreiter", "Robert B. Oakley", "Republic of Kazakhstan", "Price Cobb", "Eudine Barriteau", "Folcmar (bishop)", "Dolph Schayes", "1969", "BBC", "1799", "1934", "Taiwan", "1962", "Emily Mason (painter)", "1912", "1889", "Edward VIII abdication crisis", "Argentina", "President of Latvia", "Pope Julius II", "300 million yen robbery", "Abdication Crisis", "U.S. state", "President of Chile", "2007", "Harry Crosby", "Viktoriia Savtsova", "1891", "Nikephoros III Botaneiates", "Toshinari Shōji", "Sunderland, Tyne and Wear", "Port Harcourt International Airport", "United States", "Neven Subotić", "1885", "Farrell's Ice Cream Parlour", "1957", "925", "1317", "Julian Carroll", "Emmanuelle Chriqui", "Defence Minister of Kazakhstan", "United Nations Commission on Human Rights", "CageSide Seats", "Giulio Caccini", "Episcopal principality of Utrecht", "Kevin Sharp", "Alfred Nobel", "December 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Marriott Plaza Hotel, Buenos Aires", "Royal Society", "Jasuben Shilpi", "Paolo Uccello", "1822", "United Kingdom", "Egypt", "Premier League", "coalfield", "Keith Joseph", "László Bárdossy", "Lucien Laurent", "Paul Varul", "Dušan Bajević", "Lê Công Vinh", "Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj", "Southern United States", "Brian Molko", "Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Johnny Rodriguez", "Siege of Plevna", "2004", "Mohammad Ali Jauhar", "Rumer Godden", "1929", "Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole", "C. Rajagopalachari", "1654", "Treaty of Paris (1898)", "List of tallest people", "1896", "Pierre Louÿs", "1995", "Melvil Dewey", "Na Hye-sok", "Thailand", "Byzantine Emperor", "Prime Minister of Jamaica", "United States Ambassador to Pakistan", "Nia Peeples", "President of Kazakhstan", "Major League Baseball", "Toh Chin Chye", "1942", "1903", "Jules Ladoumègue", "torpedo bomber", "December 2016 Istanbul bombings", "Women's Tennis Association", "Barbara Nichols", "Yang Jianping", "1805", "1909", "Ramallah", "Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore", "Bobby Abel", "Wolf Hoffmann", "Josip Skoko", "Royal Netherlands Marine Corps", "Ostrava hospital attack", "Cuba", "1864", "Howard Martin Temin", "Lieutenant Governor of Michigan", "2006", "Greg Laurie", "Maharaja of Mysore", "Wilfried Bony", "American Civil War", "1561", "Mary Jackson (actress)", "Horace Elgin Dodge", "Raúl Alfonsín", "Tommy Kirk", "Max Clifford", "1865", "Agnes Nixon", "Rod Blagojevich", "Dorothy de Rothschild", "Zanzibar", "1998", "Carlos Rodón", "1917", "1866", "Isaac Beeckman", "1983", "1878", "1890", "1776", "1986", "Ray Nance", "António Manoel de Vilhena", "2024", "Theodor Dannecker", "Roberto Cassinelli", "Israeli army", "Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet", "UPI", "Hermes Pan", "Philippines", "Ray Felix", "Leopold I of Belgium", "Rob Blake", "Michael Cole (actor)", "Raczyński's Note", "J Mascis", "Anna Jesień", "Sancho I of Pamplona", "Clarice Lispector", "Kenneth Branagh", "Erik Magnusson (duke)", "1041", "Michael IV the Paphlagonian", "Kahlil Bell", "Ministry of Justice (Estonia)", "Joseph Carruthers", "Philip McKeon", "British Malaya", "Alfred Jarry", "Nikolay Nekrasov", "Otto Neurath", "2005", "Ashok Kumar", "Eugene McCarthy", "Olivier Messiaen", "Iain Brunnschweiler", "Gabriela Spanic", "1901", "1956", "Damon Runyon", "The Monkees", "Paul Hardcastle", "1821", "Ubu Roi", "1588", "Raven-Symoné", "Jadunath Sarkar", "Michael Jopling, Baron Jopling", "List of presidents of Czechoslovakia", "Elizabeth Baker (economist)", "1882", "1991", "Wayne D. Anderson", "1930", "Kreskin", "2014", "Kang Daniel", "1968", "Jeremie Frimpong", "Charlie Adam", "Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)", "Armand Hammer", "Turkey", "Rakhat Aliyev", "1902", "Gonzalo Higuaín", "Bruce Brown (director)", "Thomas Merton", "1817", "Yōko Oginome", "1831", "Behnam, Sarah, and the Forty Martyrs", "Luzon", "Constitution of South Africa", "1936", "Nobel Prize", "1973", "Kōichi Satō (actor)", "Luigi Pirandello", "Winston Churchill", "United Nations General Assembly", "Adriaen van Ostade", "Trésor Mputu", "Commonwealth of England", "Brown Dog affair", "Bundesliga", "Alice Tully", "Dynamite", "1944", "1997", "Steve Renko", "Edward VIII", "Greg Mortimer", "Valdemar Magnusson", "Kingdom of Navarra", "Nelly Sachs", "Edmund Gunter", "Royal Navy", "Department of Peacekeeping Operations", "Patrick Flueger", "1918", "1861", "Secretary of State for Education", "Rick Danko", "1911", "Red Cloud", "553", "Harry Locke", "John de Wolf", "Ron Bouchard", "1618", "Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este", "Dick Bavetta", "Iajuddin Ahmed", "World War II", "Aviation Safety Network", "Chiang Kai-shek", "Wolf V. Vishniac", "1713", "The Liberator (anti-slavery newspaper)", "1960", "1948", "Philip Hart", "Tom Sexton (rugby union)", "Anwar Sadat", "Nikola Pašić", "Mississippi", "Richard Kennar", "Chinese Civil War", "Adolf Loos", "1945", "Michael Nesmith", "People's Liberation Army", "2021 Western Kentucky tornado", "Selma Lagerlöf", "National Library of the Argentine Republic", "papal bull", "Otis Redding", "Rusty LaRue", "2017", "1980", "1684", "1974", "George Shaw (biologist)", "Tornado outbreak of December 10–11, 2021", "Ken Albers", "1988", "Masaharu Homma", "Governor General of Canada", "Human Rights Day", "Ann Dvorak", "Kaohsiung Incident", "List of governors of Maharashtra", "Menachem Begin", "Louis XII of France", "Chen dynasty", "unit of length", "Governor of Illinois", "Chen Qiyou", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "Wittenberg", "Central United States", "Mark Aguirre", "1959", "1610", "1914", "Teyana Taylor", "Tetsuji Takechi", "Carol Sutton (actress)", "Ray Collins (actor)", "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic" ]
8,715	Taiko	are a broad range of Japanese percussion instruments. In Japanese, the term refers to any kind of drum, but outside Japan, it is used specifically to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called and to the form of ensemble drumming more specifically called . The process of constructing varies between manufacturers, and the preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on the method. have a mythological origin in Japanese folklore, but historical records suggest that were introduced to Japan through Chinese and Korean cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE; pottery from the Haniwa period depicting drums has also been found. Some are similar to instruments originating from India. Archaeological evidence also supports the view that were present in Japan during the 6th century in the Kofun period. Their function has varied throughout history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, religious ceremony and concert performances. In modern times, have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan. performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and later in 1961 by the Ondekoza, and was made later popular with many other groups copying the format of Ondekoza such as Kodo, Yamato, Tao, Taikoza, Fuun No Kai, Sukeroku Taiko, etc. Other performance styles, such as , have also emerged from specific communities in Japan. performance groups are active not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and Brazil. Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm, form, stick grip, clothing, and the particular instrumentation. Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped as well as smaller . Many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments. ==History== ===Origin=== The origin of the and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the , a drum that originated in South China. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of . Certain court music styles, especially and , arrived in Japan through both China and Korea. In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to . Certain percussive patterns and terminology in , an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the , also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in performance. Archaeological evidence shows that were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE, during the latter part of the Kofun period, and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals. This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums; one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height. This statue is titled "Man Beating the " and is considered the oldest evidence of performance in Japan. They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In , a category of music and dances stemming from Shinto practices, frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, are used for ritual dances as part of the Bon Festival. , along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers. ====== In addition to the instruments, the term also refers to the performance itself, and commonly to one style called , or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums). was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951. He is considered a master performer and helped transform performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines. Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in Nagano, and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written music. Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation, Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments. Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in performance. Oguchi's ensemble, Osuwa Daiko, incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances. Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in Tokyo in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi, and has been referred to as the first group who toured professionally. Globally, performance became more visible during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event. was also developed through the leadership of , who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to playing and took them to Sado Island for training where Den and his family had settled in 1968. Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly ; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called that required considerable strength to play well. Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or Ondekoza for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running. In 1975, Ondekoza was the first group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the Boston Marathon while wearing their traditional uniforms. In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called Kodo under the leadership of Eitetsu Hayashi. Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers. Kodo is one of the most recognized groups both in Japan and worldwide. Estimates of the number of groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan, but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of groups. Some pieces that have emerged from early groups that continue to be performed include Yatai-bayashi from Ondekoza, from Osuwa Daiko, and from Kodo. ==Categorization== Taiko have been developed into a broad range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions. An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by Francis Taylor Piggott in 1909. Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process, or the specific context in which the drum is used, but some are not classified, such as the toy den-den daiko. With few exceptions, taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body, and a sealed resonating cavity. The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems, such as using ropes. Taiko may be either tunable or non-tunable depending on the system used. Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process. Byō-uchi-daiko are constructed with the drumhead nailed to the body. Shime-daiko are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings, which are then tightened with ropes. Contemporary shime-daiko are tensioned using bolts or turnbuckles systems attached to the drum body. Tsuzumi are also rope-tensioned drums, but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin. Byō-uchi-daiko were historically made only using a single piece of wood; they continue to be made in this manner, but are also constructed from staves of wood. Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood, but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees. The preferred wood is the Japanese zelkova or keyaki, but a number of other woods, and even wine barrels, have been used to create taiko. an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel. Nagadō-daiko are available in a variety of sizes, and their head diameter is traditionally measured in shaku (units of roughly 30 cm). Head diameters range from . are the smallest of these drums and are usually about in diameter. The is a medium-sized nagadō-daiko ranging from , Ō-daiko means "large drum" and for a given ensemble, the term refers to their largest drum. have a tube-shaped frame. Like other shime-daiko, drum heads are attached by metal hoops and fastened by rope or cords. The family-owned business started in Mattō, Ishikawa, and, aside from military equipment, made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the Meiji period. Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village, and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year. As of 2012, there is approximately one major taiko production company in each prefecture of Japan, with some regions having several companies. Of the manufacturers in Naniwa, Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there. Umetsu Daiko, a company that operates in Hakata, has been producing taiko since 1821. ==Performance== Taiko performance styles vary widely across groups in terms of the number of performers, repertoire, instrument choices, and stage techniques. Nevertheless, a number of early groups have had broad influence on the tradition. For instance, many pieces developed by Ondekoza and Kodo are considered standard in many taiko groups. ===Form=== Kata is the posture and movement associated with taiko performance. The notion is similar to that of kata in martial arts: for example, both traditions include the idea that the hara is the center of being. Author Shawn Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance. For this reason, many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players. An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing and can be accomplished by keeping a wide, low stance with the legs, with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight. It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed. Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance. Some groups in Japan, particularly those active in Tokyo, also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited iki aesthetic. In taiko, it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the Edo period (1603–1868). The sticks for playing taiko are called bachi, and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as white oak, bamboo, and Japanese magnolia. Bachi are also held in a number of different styles. In kumi-daiko, it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V-shape of the index finger and thumb, which points to the player. There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms, such as the shime grip, which is similar to a matched grip: the bachi are gripped at the back end, and the fulcrum rests between the performer's index finger and thumb, while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick. Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on Zen Buddhism. For instance, among other concepts, the San Francisco Taiko Dojo is guided by emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony. The way the bachi are held can also be significant; for some groups, bachi represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky. Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism. ===Instrumentation=== Kumi-daiko groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role. Of the different kinds of taiko, the most common in groups is the nagadō-daiko. Chū-daiko are common in taiko groups and represent the main rhythm of the group, whereas shime-daiko set and change tempo. A shime-daiko often plays the Jiuchi, a base rhythm holding together the ensemble. Ō-daiko provide a steady, underlying pulse and serve as a counter-rhythm to the other parts. It is common for performances to begin with a single stroke roll called an . The player starts slowly, leaving considerable space between strikes, gradually shortening the interval between hits, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits. Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance, such as in Noh theater. Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble; other Japanese instruments are also used. Other kinds of percussion instruments include the , a hand-sized gong played with a small mallet. In kabuki, the shamisen, a plucked string instrument, often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance. Kumi-daiko performances can also feature woodwinds such as the shakuhachi and the shinobue. Voiced calls or shouts called kakegoe and kiai are also common in taiko performance. They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo. In contrast, the philosophical concept of ma, or the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast. ===Clothing=== There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance. Common in many kumi-daiko groups is the use of the happi, a decorative, thin-fabric coat, and traditional headbands called hachimaki. Tabi, , and are also typical. During his time with the group Ondekoza, Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a fundoshi be worn when performing for French fashion designer Pierre Cardin, who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975. The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances. ==Education== Taiko performance is generally taught orally and through demonstration. Historically, general patterns for taiko were written down, such as in the 1512 encyclopedia called the Taigensho, but written scores for taiko pieces are generally unavailable. One reason for the adherence to an oral tradition is that, from group to group, the rhythmic patterns in a given piece are often performed differently. Furthermore, ethnomusicologist William P. Malm observed that Japanese players within a group could not usefully predict one another using written notation, and instead did so through listening. In Japan, printed parts are not used during lessons. Orally, patterns of onomatopoeia called kuchi shōga are taught from teacher to student that convey the rhythm and timbre of drum strikes for a particular piece. For example, represents a single strike to the center of the drum, where as represents two successive strikes, first by the right and then the left, and lasts the same amount of time as one don strike. Some taiko pieces, such as Yatai-bayashi, include patterns that are difficult to represent in Western musical notation. The exact words used can also differ from region to region. More recently, Japanese publications have emerged in an attempt to standardize taiko performance. The Nippon Taiko Foundation was formed in 1979; its primary goals were to foster good relations among taiko groups in Japan and to both publicize and teach how to perform taiko. Daihachi Oguchi, the leader of the Foundation, wrote Japan Taiko with other teachers in 1994 out of concern that correct form in performance would degrade over time. The instructional publication described the different drums used in kumi-daiko performance, methods of gripping, correct form, and suggestions on instrumentation. The book also contains practice exercises and transcribed pieces from Oguchi's group, Osuwa Daiko. While there were similar textbooks published before 1994, this publication had much more visibility due to the Foundation's scope. The system of fundamentals Japan Taiko put forward was not widely adopted because taiko performance varied substantially across Japan. An updated 2001 publication from the Foundation, called the , describes regional variations that depart from the main techniques taught in the textbook. The creators of the text maintained that mastering a set of prescribed basics should be compatible with learning local traditions. ==Regional styles== Aside from kumi-daiko performance, a number of folk traditions that use taiko have been recognized in different regions in Japan. Some of these include from Sado Island, ' from the town of Kokura, and ' from Iwate Prefecture. ===Eisa=== A variety of folk dances originating from Okinawa, known collectively as eisa, often make use of the taiko. Some performers use drums while dancing, and generally speaking, perform in one of two styles: groups on the Yokatsu Peninsula and on Hamahiga Island use small, single-sided drums called whereas groups near the city of Okinawa generally use shime-daiko. Use of shime-daiko over pāranku has spread throughout the island, and is considered the dominant style. Small nagadō-daiko, referred to as ō-daiko within the tradition, are also used and are worn in front of the performer. These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in São Paulo, Hawaii, and large cities on the Japanese mainland. ===Hachijō-daiko=== is a taiko tradition originating on the island of Hachijō-jima. Two styles of Hachijō-daiko emerged and have been popularized among residents: an older tradition based on a historical account, and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders. The Hachijō-daiko tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named Kakuso Kizan. He mentioned some of its unique features, such as "a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around", and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing. Illustrations from Kizan's journal show features of Hachijō-daiko. These illustrations also featured women performing, which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men. Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one. The first style of Hachijō-daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan. This style is called Kumaoji-daiko, named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji, a central performer of the style. Kumaoji-daiko has two players on a single drum, one of whom, called the , provides the underlying beat. The other player, called the , builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms. While there are specific types of underlying rhythms, the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat. Kumaoji-daiko also features an unusual positioning for taiko: the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes, and historically, sometimes drums were suspended from trees. The contemporary style of Hachijō-daiko is called , which differs from Kumaoji-daiko in multiple ways. For instance, while the lead and accompanying roles are still present, shin-daiko performances use larger drums exclusively on stands. Shin-daiko emphasizes a more powerful sound, and consequently, performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood. Looser clothing is worn by shin-daiko performers compared to kimono worn by Kumaoji-daiko performers; the looser clothing in shin-daiko allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms. Rhythms used for the accompanying shita-byōshi role can also differ. One type of rhythm, called yūkichi, consists of the following: This rhythm is found in both styles, but is always played faster in shin-daiko. Another type of rhythm, called honbadaki, is unique to shin-daiko and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese. ===Miyake-daiko=== is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo, and is formally known as . The word miyake comes from Miyake-jima, part of the Izu Islands, and the word Kamitsuki refers to the village where the tradition came from. Miyake-style taiko came out of performances for — a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity Gozu Tennō. In this festival, players perform on taiko while portable shrines are carried around town. The style itself is characterized in a number of ways. A nagadō-daiko is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers, one on each side; instead of sitting, performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground, almost to the point of kneeling. The Brazilian Association of Taiko (ABT) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10–15% of players are non-Japanese; Izumo Honda, coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo, estimated that about 60% of all taiko performers in Brazil are women. A year later, a few members of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called Kinnara Taiko. San Jose Taiko later formed in 1973 in Japantown, San Jose, under Roy and PJ Hirabayashi. Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s. This included formation of Denver Taiko in 1976, and Soh Daiko in New York City in 1979. Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels. Japanese-Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko, and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group. Its early membership was predominantly female. Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger, third-generation Japanese Canadians to explore their roots, redevelop a sense of ethnic community, and expand taiko into other musical traditions. There are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada, as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country. Unofficial estimates have been made. In 1989, there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada, seven of which were in California. One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001, many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo; later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone. The Cirque du Soleil shows Mystère in Las Vegas and Dralion have featured taiko performance. Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005 Mitsubishi Eclipse ad campaign, and in events such as the 2009 Academy Awards and 2011 Grammy Awards. From 2005 to 2006, the Japanese American National Museum held an exhibition called Big Drum: Taiko in the United States. The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States, such as the formation of performance groups, their construction using available materials, and social movements. Visitors were able to play smaller drums. North America hosts the North American Taiko Conference (NATC) which has been ongoing since its inaugural conference in Los Angeles in 1997. In 2013, the Taiko Community Alliance (TCA) formed as virtual nonprofit 501(c)3 organization with a mission to empower the people and advance the art of taiko. The Taiko Community Alliance has been responsible for helping organize the NATC conferences to help further its mission of educating and raising awareness of taiko through the taiko community. ===Italy=== The first group, called Quelli del Taiko, was formed in 2000 by Pietro Notarnicola. They played in World Premiere - 2017 - "On Western Terror 8" - Concerto for Taiko Ensemble and Orchestra of the Italian composed Luigi Morleo === United Kingdom === Kagemusha Taiko based in the south-west were formed in 1999 by Jonathan Kirby and perform original pieces of their own creation. They are known for their work in schools and have performed in several UK venues as well as the USA and Japan. ==Related cultural and social movements== Certain peoples have used taiko to advance social or cultural movements, both within Japan and elsewhere in the world. ===Gender conventions=== Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men. Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions. Those who developed ensemble-style taiko in Japan were men, and through the influence of Ondekoza, the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class, particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film Rickshaw Man. Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for "spectacular bodily performance" where women's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing. Before the 1980s, it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments, including taiko, as their participation had been systematically restricted; an exception was the San Francisco Taiko Dojo under the guidance of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka, who was the first to admit women to the art form. In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo, women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances. Thereafter, female participation in kumi-daiko started to rise dramatically, and by the 1990s, women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men. While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial, some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male-dominated profession. For instance, a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group's apprentice program that women were permitted to play, but could only play "as women". Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles, such as what pieces they were allowed to perform, or in physical terms based on a male standard. Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet, subservient, or a femme fatale. Through performance, some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko, but how women are perceived more generally. Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class. The , representing the contributions of burakumin, is found in Naniwa Ward in Osaka, home to a large proportion of burakumin. Among other features, the road contains taiko-shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking, and their influence on national culture. Kobayashi founded the group in 1959 and was the first group to tour professionally. Kobayashi is considered a master performer of taiko. He is also known for asserting intellectual control of the group's performance style, which has influenced performance for many groups, particularly in North America. In 1968, Seiichi Tanaka founded the San Francisco Taiko Dojo and is regarded as the Grandfather of Taiko and primary developer of taiko performance in the United States. He was a recipient of a 2001 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts In 1969, founded Ondekoza, a group well known for making taiko performance internationally visible and for its artistic contributions to the tradition. Den was also known for developing a communal living and training facility for Ondekoza on Sado Island in Japan, which had a reputation for its intensity and broad education programs in folklore and music. Performers and groups beyond the early practitioners have also been noted. Eitetsu Hayashi is best known for his solo performance work. When he was 19, Hayashi joined Ondekoza, a group later expanded and re-founded as Kodo, one of the best known and most influential taiko performance groups in the world. Hayashi soon left the group to begin a solo career ==Glossary==	[ "Luigi Morleo", "Japanese folklore", "Buraku Liberation League", "The Japan Times", "dowel", "kimono", "Nihon Shoki", "Mattō, Ishikawa", "civil rights movement", "trunk (botany)", "Yatai-bayashi", "Zelkova serrata", "shinobue", "Kata", "Osuwa Daiko", "Okinawa Prefecture", "single stroke roll", "dynamics (music)", "Amaterasu", "plucked string instrument", "tempo", "Izu Islands", "Ma (negative space)", "Iwate Prefecture", "Burakumin", "kata", "Prefectures of Japan", "drumskin", "Chicago Tribune", "Kokura", "Soh Daiko", "instrumentation (music)", "Riley Lee", "Emperor of Japan", "shaku (unit)", "sumo", "Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten", "Sengoku period", "femme fatale", "timbre", "Seiichi Tanaka", "Los Angeles Times", "New York City", "Hakata-ku, Fukuoka", "Japanese American National Museum", "tomoe", "Denver Taiko", "São Paulo", "Internment of Japanese Americans", "Buddhist temples in Japan", "Oedo Sukeroku Taiko", "drum stick", "snare drum", "Museu de la Música de Barcelona", "shamisen", "happi", "Hawaii", "Japanese Canadian internment", "Music of Japan", "Japanese magnolia", "Noh", "Shinto", "horse", "Tabi", "TaikOz", "Holstein cattle", "kuchi shōga", "School", "turnbuckle", "List of musical symbols", "lathe", "Eisa (dance)", "Iki (aesthetics)", "San Francisco Taiko Dojo", "Jiuchi", "Screw", "gagaku", "Yūkaku", "The Daily Telegraph", "South China", "kakegoe", "United States", "burakumin", "drumhead", "kakko (instrument)", "PhD", "Rickshaw Man", "Emperor Keitai", "lilac (color)", "Uruma, Okinawa", "Japanese Canadians", "Taiko: Drum Master", "Traditional Japanese musical instruments", "Kinnara Taiko", "nisei", "portable shrine", "Asano Taiko Corporation", "National Heritage Fellowship", "fulcrum (drumming)", "kagura", "wyverns", "Tangue Setsuko", "den-den daiko", "bugaku", "Taiko Community Alliance", "pitch (music)", "onomatopoeia", "sansei", "Meiji period", "Japan Arts Foundation", "The Seattle Times", "bachi", "Pierre Cardin", "Kofun period", "Korea", "hachimaki", "Bon Festival", "bamboo", "Kodo (taiko group)", "California", "Roy Hirabayashi", "Gunma Prefecture", "Francis Taylor Piggott", "accent (music)", "Shime-daiko", "Academy Awards", "China", "Boston Marathon", "Naniwa-ku, Osaka", "Osaka Human Rights Museum", "kabuki", "Noh theater", "Miyake-jima", "Oedo Sukeroku Daiko", "Kuchi shōga", "Yashima Gakutei", "Tokugawa period", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Agency for Cultural Affairs", "haniwa", "matched grip", "Grammy Award", "Taiko no Tatsujin", "Japan International Cooperation Agency", "Eitetsu Hayashi", "Edo period", "World War II", "Senshin Buddhist Temple", "drum skin", "Associated Press", "drum sticks", "Beat (music)", "wine barrel", "Seidō Kobayashi", "Hachijō-jima", "Okinawa, Okinawa", "Haniwa", "Quercus alba", "tsuri-daiko", "Kakko (instrument)", "Sado Island", "Carnegie Hall", "shime-daiko", "Ondekoza", "Kakuso Kizan", "Tokyo Imperial Palace", "hydraulic jack", "Honshu", "Japantown, San Jose", "PJ Hirabayashi", "shakuhachi", "National Endowment for the Arts", "percussion instrument", "wood splitting", "Japanese language", "Daihachi Oguchi", "wikt:太鼓", "togaku", "Gozu Tennō", "Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto", "hara (tanden)", "percussion", "sake", "Nagano Prefecture", "fundoshi", "Setsuo Kinoshita", "cowhide", "Cirque du Soleil", "1964 Summer Olympics", "Taigensho", "bull", "Mitsubishi Eclipse", "San Jose Taiko", "unpitched percussion", "Nippon Taiko Foundation", "gigaku", "The New York Times", "Osaka", "kiai", "Japanese archipelago", "Den Tagayasu", "Sado, Niigata", "Japan", "Zen Buddhism", "Rhythm in Sub-Saharan Africa", "Sawa District, Gunma", "Tokyo", "Dralion", "Mystère (Cirque du Soleil)" ]
8,716	Dolly Parton	Dolly Rebecca Parton (born January 19, 1946) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, actress, and philanthropist, known primarily as a country musician. After achieving success as a songwriter for others, Parton released her debut album in 1967 with Hello, I'm Dolly, commencing a career spanning 60 years and 49 studio albums, including 2023's Rockstar, which became her highest-charting Billboard 200 album, peaking at number-three. Described as a "country legend", Parton has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time. Her music includes Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)-certified gold, platinum and multi-platinum awards. She has had 25 singles reach No.1 on the Billboard country music charts, a record for a female artist (tied with Reba McEntire). She has 44 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and she has 110 career-charted singles over the past 40 years. Parton has composed over 3,000 songs, including "I Will Always Love You" (a two-time U.S. country chart-topper, and an international hit for Whitney Houston), "Jolene", "Coat of Many Colors", and "9to5". As an actress, she has starred in the films 9to5 (1980) and The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982), for each of which she earned Best Actress Golden Globe nominations, as well as Rhinestone (1984), Steel Magnolias (1989), Straight Talk (1992), and Joyful Noise (2012). Parton has received various accolades, including 11 Grammy Awards from 50 nominations. She has won ten Country Music Association Awards, including Entertainer of the Year, being one of seven female artists to achieve it. Parton has five Academy of Country Music Awards (including Entertainer of the Year), four People's Choice Awards, and three American Music Awards. She is also in a select group to have received at least one nomination from the Academy Awards, Grammy Awards, Tony Awards, and Emmy Awards. In 2005, Parton received the National Medal of Arts. She was the second woman to be inducted into both the Country Music Hall of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Outside of her work in the music and film industries, she also co-owns The Dollywood Company, which manages a number of entertainment venues including the Dollywood theme park, the Splash Country water park, and a number of dinner theatre venues such as The Dolly Parton Stampede and Pirates Voyage. She has founded a number of charitable and philanthropic organizations, chief among them being the Dollywood Foundation, who manage a number of projects to bring education and poverty relief to East Tennessee, where she was raised. ==Early life== Dolly Rebecca Parton was born on January 19, 1946, in a one-room cabin on the banks of the Little Pigeon River in Pittman Center, Tennessee. She is the fourth of 12 children born to Avie Lee Caroline (née Owens; 1923–2003) and Robert Lee Parton Sr. (1921–2000). Parton's middle name comes from her maternal great-great-grandmother Rebecca (née Dunn) Whitted. Parton's father, known as "Lee", worked in the mountains of East Tennessee, first as a sharecropper and later tending his own small tobacco farm and acreage. He also worked construction jobs to supplement the farm's small income. Despite her father's illiteracy, Parton has often commented that he was one of the smartest people she has ever known with regard to business and making a profit. Parton's mother cared for their large family. Her 11 pregnancies (the tenth being twins) in 20 years made her a mother of 12 by age 35. Parton attributes her musical abilities to the influence of her mother; often in poor health, she still managed to keep house and entertain her children with Smoky Mountain folklore and ancient ballads. Having Welsh ancestors, Avie Lee knew many old ballads that immigrants from the British Isles brought to southern Appalachia in the 18th and 19th century. Avie Lee's father, Jake Owens, was a Pentecostal preacher, and Parton and her siblings all attended church regularly. Parton has long credited her father for her business savvy, and her mother's family for her musical abilities. When Parton was a young girl, her family moved from the Pittman Center area to a farm up on nearby Locust Ridge. Most of her cherished memories of youth happened there. Today, a replica of the Locust Ridge cabin resides at Parton's namesake theme park Dollywood. The farm acreage and surrounding woodland inspired her to write the song "My Tennessee Mountain Home" in the 1970s. Years after the farm was sold, Parton bought it back in the late 1980s. Her brother Bobby helped with building restoration and new construction. Parton has described her family as being "dirt poor". Parton's father paid missionary Dr. Robert F. Thomas with a sack of cornmeal for delivering her. Parton would write a song about Dr. Thomas when she was grown. She also outlined her family's poverty in her early songs "Coat of Many Colors" and "In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)". For six or seven years, Parton and her family lived in their rustic, one-bedroom cabin on their small subsistence farm on Locust Ridge. This was a predominantly Pentecostal area located north of the Greenbrier Valley of the Great Smoky Mountains. Music played an important role in her early life. She was brought up in the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), in a congregation her grandfather, Jake Robert Owens, pastored. Her earliest public performances were in the church, beginning at age six. At seven, she started playing a homemade guitar. When she was eight, her uncle bought her first real guitar. The Parton family was well-fed despite their poverty, and her 2024 cookbook Good Lookin' Cookin' (co-written with her sister Rachel) recalls numerous family meals. After graduating from Sevier County High School in 1964, Parton moved to Nashville the next day. singing on local radio and television programs in the East Tennessee area. By ten, she was appearing on The Cas Walker Show on both WIVK Radio and WBIR-TV in Knoxville, Tennessee. At 13, she was recording (the single "Puppy Love") on a small Louisiana label, Goldband Records, and appeared at the Grand Ole Opry, where she first met Johnny Cash, who encouraged her to follow her own instincts regarding her career. Parton's initial success came as a songwriter, having signed with Combine Publishing shortly after her arrival; with her frequent songwriting partner, her uncle Bill Owens, she wrote several charting singles during this time, including two Top10 hits for Bill Phillips: "Put It Off Until Tomorrow", and "The Company You Keep" (1966), and Skeeter Davis's number 11 hit "Fuel to the Flame" (1967). Her songs were recorded by many other artists during this period, including Kitty Wells and Hank Williams Jr. She signed with Monument Records in 1965, at age 19; she initially was pitched as a bubblegum pop singer. She released a string of singles, but the only one that charted, "Happy, Happy Birthday Baby", did not crack the Billboard Hot 100. Although she expressed a desire to record country material, Monument resisted, thinking her unique, high soprano voice was not suited to the genre. After her composition "Put It Off Until Tomorrow", as recorded by Bill Phillips (with Parton, uncredited, on harmony), went to number six on the country chart in 1966, the label relented and allowed her to record country. Her first country single, "Dumb Blonde" (composed by Curly Putman, one of the few songs during this era that she recorded but did not write), reached number 24 on the country chart in 1967, followed by "Something Fishy", which went to number 17. The two songs appeared on her first full-length album, Hello, I'm Dolly. ===1967–1975: Country music success=== In 1967, musician and country music entertainer Porter Wagoner invited Parton to join his organization, offering her a regular spot on his weekly syndicated television program The Porter Wagoner Show, and in his road show. As documented in her 1994 autobiography, With Wagoner's assistance, however, Parton was eventually accepted. Wagoner convinced his label, RCA Victor, to sign her. RCA decided to protect their investment by releasing her first single as a duet with Wagoner. That song, a remake of Tom Paxton's "The Last Thing on My Mind", released in late 1967, reached the country Top10 in January 1968, launching a six-year streak of virtually uninterrupted Top10 singles for the pair. Parton's first solo single for RCA Victor, "Just Because I'm a Woman", was released in the summer of 1968 and was a moderate chart hit, reaching number 17. For the next two years, none of her solo effortseven "In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)", which later became a standardwere as successful as her duets with Wagoner. The duo was named Vocal Group of the Year in 1968 by the Country Music Association, but Parton's solo records were continually ignored. Wagoner had a significant financial stake in her future; as of 1969, he was her co-producer and owned nearly half of Owe-Par, the publishing company Parton had founded with Bill Owens. By 1970, both Parton and Wagoner had grown frustrated by her lack of solo chart success. Wagoner persuaded Parton to record Jimmie Rodgers' "Mule Skinner Blues", a gimmick that worked. The record shot to number three, followed closely, in February 1971, by her first number-one single, "Joshua". For the next two years, she had numerous solo hitsincluding her signature song "Coat of Many Colors" (number four, 1971)in addition to her duets. Top20 singles included "The Right Combination" and "Burning the Midnight Oil" (both duets with Wagoner, 1971); "Lost Forever in Your Kiss" (with Wagoner), "Touch Your Woman" (1972), "My Tennessee Mountain Home" and "Travelin' Man" (1973). Although her solo singles and the Wagoner duets were successful, her biggest hit of this period was "Jolene". Released in late 1973, the song topped the country chart in February 1974 and reached the lower regions of the Hot 100 (it eventually also charted in the U.K., reaching number seven in 1976, representing Parton's first U.K. success). Parton, who had always envisioned a solo career, made the decision to leave Wagoner's organization; the pair performed their last duet concert in April 1974, and she stopped appearing on his TV show in mid-1974, although they remained affiliated. He helped produce her records through 1975. The pair continued to release duet albums, their final release being 1975's Say Forever You'll Be Mine. In 1974, her song, "I Will Always Love You", written about her professional break from Wagoner, went to number one on the country chart. Around the same time, Elvis Presley indicated that he wanted to record the song. Parton was interested until Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, told her that it was standard procedure for the songwriter to sign over half of the publishing rights to any song recorded by Presley. Parton refused. That decision has been credited with helping to make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years. Parton had three solo singles reach number one on the country chart in 1974 ("Jolene", "I Will Always Love You" and "Love Is Like a Butterfly"), as well as the duet with Porter Wagoner, "Please Don't Stop Loving Me". In a 2019 episode of the Sky Arts music series Brian Johnson: A Life on the Road, Parton described finding old cassette tapes and realizing that she had composed both "Jolene" and "I Will Always Love You" in the same songwriting session, telling Johnson "Buddy, that was a good night." Parton again topped the singles chart in 1975 with "The Bargain Store". ===1976–1986: Pop transition=== Between 1974 and 1980, Parton had a series of country hits, with eight singles reaching number one. Her influence on pop culture is reflected by the many performers covering her songs, including mainstream and crossover artists such as Olivia Newton-John, Emmylou Harris, and Linda Ronstadt. Though the album was well received and topped the U.S. country albums chart, neither it nor its single "Light of a Clear Blue Morning" made much of an impression on the pop charts. After New Harvest disappointing crossover performance, Parton turned to high-profile pop producer Gary Klein for her next album. The result, 1977's Here You Come Again, became her first million-seller, topping the country album chart and reaching number 20 on the pop chart. The Barry Mann-Cynthia Weil-penned title track topped the country singles chart, and became Parton's first Top10 single on the pop chart (no.3). A second single, the double A-sided "Two Doors Down"/"It's All Wrong, But It's All Right" topped the country chart and crossed over to the pop Top20. For the remainder of the 1970s and into the early 1980s, many of her subsequent singles moved up on both charts simultaneously. Her albums during this period were developed specifically for pop-crossover success. In 1978, Parton won a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for her Here You Come Again album. She continued to have hits with "Heartbreaker" (1978), "Baby I'm Burning" (1979) and "You're the Only One" (1979)all of which charted in the pop Top 40 and topped the country chart. "Sweet Summer Lovin'" (1979) became the first Parton single in two years to not top the country chart (though it did reach the Top10). During this period, her visibility continued to increase, with multiple television appearances. A highly publicized candid interview on a Barbara Walters Special in 1977 (timed to coincide with Here You Come Again release) was followed by appearances in 1978 on Cher's ABC television special, and her own joint special with Carol Burnett on CBS, Dolly & Carol in Nashville. Parton served as one of three co-hosts (along with Roy Clark and Glen Campbell) on the CBS special Fifty Years of Country Music. In 1979, Parton hosted the NBC special The Seventies: An Explosion of Country Music, performed live at the Ford Theatre in Washington, D.C., and whose audience included President Jimmy Carter. Her commercial success grew in 1980, with three consecutive country chart number-one hits: the Donna Summer-written "Starting Over Again", "Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You", and "9to5", which topped the country and pop charts in early 1981. released as part of a lawsuit settlement between the pair. The theme song to the 1980 feature film 9to5, in which she starred along with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin, not only reached number one on the country chartin February 1981 it reached number one on the pop and the adult-contemporary charts, giving her a triple number-one hit. Parton became one of the few female country singers to have a number-one single on the country and pop charts simultaneously. It also received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Her singles continued to appear consistently in the country Top10. Between 1981 and 1985, she had twelve Top10 hits; half of them hit number one. She continued to make inroads on the pop chart as well. A re-recorded version of "I Will Always Love You", from the feature film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982) scraped the Top50 that year and her duet with Kenny Rogers, "Islands in the Stream" (written by the Bee Gees and produced by Barry Gibb), spent two weeks at number one in 1983. She recorded "The Day I Fall in Love" as a duet with James Ingram for the feature film Beethoven's 2nd (1993). The songwriters (Ingram, Carole Bayer Sager, and Clif Magness) were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and Parton and Ingram performed the song at the awards telecast. Similar to her earlier collaborative album with Harris and Ronstadt, Parton released Honky Tonk Angels in the fall of 1993 with Loretta Lynn and Tammy Wynette. It was certified as a gold album by the Recording Industry Association of America and helped revive both Wynette and Lynn's careers. Also in 1994, Parton contributed the song "You Gotta Be My Baby" to the AIDS benefit album Red Hot + Country produced by the Red Hot Organization. A live acoustic album, Heartsongs: Live from Home, featuring stripped-down versions of some of her hits, as well as some traditional songs, was released in late 1994. Parton's recorded music during the mid-to-late-1990s remained steady and somewhat eclectic. Her 1995 re-recording of "I Will Always Love You" (performed as a duet with Vince Gill), from her album Something Special won the Country Music Association's Vocal Event of the Year Award. The following year, Treasures, an album of covers of 1960s/70s hits was released, and featured a diverse collection of material, including songs by Mac Davis, Pete Seeger, Kris Kristofferson, Cat Stevens, and Neil Young. Her recording of Stevens' "Peace Train" was later re-mixed and released as a dance single, reaching Billboard's dance singles chart. Her 1998 country-rock album Hungry Again was made up entirely of her own compositions. Although neither of the album's two singles, "(Why Don't More Women Sing) Honky Tonk Songs" and "Salt in my Tears", charted, videos for both songs received significant airplay on CMT. A second and more contemporary collaboration with Harris and Ronstadt, Trio II, was released in early 1999. Its cover of Neil Young's song "After the Gold Rush" won a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Parton also was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1999. She returned to number one on the country chart later in 2005 by lending her distinctive harmonies to the Brad Paisley ballad, "When I Get Where I'm Going". Backwoods Barbie produced four additional singles, including the title track, written as part of her score for 9to5: The Musical, an adaptation of her feature film. After the death of Michael Jackson, whom Parton knew personally, she released a video in which she somberly told of her feelings on Jackson and his death. On October 27, 2009, Parton released a four-CD box set, Dolly, which featured 99 songs and spanned most of her career. She released her second live DVD and album, Live From London in October 2009, which was filmed during her sold-out 2008 concerts at London's The O2 Arena. On August 10, 2010, with longtime friend Billy Ray Cyrus, Parton released the album Brother Clyde. Parton is featured on "The Right Time", which she co-wrote with Cyrus and Morris Joseph Tancredi. On January 6, 2011, Parton announced that her new album would be titled Better Day. In February 2011, she announced that she would embark on the Better Day World Tour on July 17, 2011, with shows in northern Europe and the U.S. The album's lead-off single, "Together You and I", was released on May 23, 2011, and Better Day was released on June 28, 2011. In 2011, Parton voiced the character Dolly Gnome in the animated film Gnomeo & Juliet. On February 11, 2012, after the sudden death of Whitney Houston, Parton stated, "Mine is only one of the millions of hearts broken over the death of Whitney Houston. I will always be grateful and in awe of the wonderful performance she did on my song, and I can truly say from the bottom of my heart, 'Whitney, I will always love you. You will be missed. In 2013, Parton joined Lulu Roman for a re-recording of "I Will Always Love You" for Roman's album, At Last. In 2013, Parton and Kenny Rogers reunited for the title song of his album You Can't Make Old Friends. For their performance, they were nominated at the 2014 Grammy Awards for Grammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance. In 2014, Parton embarked on the Blue Smoke World Tour in support of her 42nd studio album, Blue Smoke. The album was first released in Australia and New Zealand on January 31 to coincide with tour dates there in February, and reached the Top10 in both countries. It was released in the United States on May 13, and debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 chart, making it her first Top10 album and her highest-charting solo album ever; it also reached the number two on the U.S. country chart. The album was released in Europe on June 9, and reached number two on the UK album chart. On June 29, 2014, Parton performed for the first time at the UK Glastonbury Festival, singing songs such as "Jolene", "9to5" and "Coat of Many Colors" to a crowd of more than 180,000. On March 6, 2016, Parton announced that she would be embarking on a tour in support of her new album, Pure & Simple. The tour was one of Parton's biggest tours within the United States in more than 25 years. 64 dates were planned in the United States and Canada, visiting the most requested markets missed on previous tours. In the fall of 2016 she released "Jolene" as a single with the a cappella group Pentatonix and performed on The Voice with Pentatonix and Miley Cyrus in November 2016. Also in 2016, Parton was one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country", a mash-up of the songs, "Take Me Home, Country Roads", "On the Road Again" and her own "I Will Always Love You". The song celebrates fifty years of the CMA Awards. At the ceremony itself, Parton was honored with the Willie Nelson Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented by Lily Tomlin and preceded by a tribute featuring Jennifer Nettles, Pentatonix, Reba McEntire, Kacey Musgraves, Carrie Underwood and Martina McBride. In 2017, Parton appeared on Rainbow, the third studio album by Kesha performing a duet of "Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You". The track had been co-written by Kesha's mother Pebe Sebert. It was previously a hit for Parton and was included on her 1980 album Dolly, Dolly, Dolly. She also co-wrote and provided featuring vocals on the song "Rainbowland" on Younger Now, the sixth album by her goddaughter Miley Cyrus. In July 2019, Parton made an unannounced appearance at the Newport Folk Festival in Rhode Island, and performed several songs accompanied by the Highwomen and Linda Perry. In 2020, Parton received worldwide attention after posting four pictures, in which she showed how she would present herself on social media platforms LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. The original post on Instagram went viral after celebrities posted their own versions of the so-called Dolly Parton challenge on social media. On April 10, 2020, Parton re-released 93 songs from six of her classic albums: Little Sparrow, Halos & Horns, For God and Country, Better Day, Those Were The Days, and Live and Well. On May 27, 2020, Parton released a brand new song called "When Life Is Good Again". This song was released to help keep the spirits up of those affected by the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. She also released a music video for "When Life Is Good Again", which premiered on Time 100 talks on May 28, 2020. In 2019, Parton collaborated with Christian alternative rock duet For King and Country and released a version of their hit "God Only Knows". She followed this by recording a duet with Christian music artist Zach Williams in the song "There Was Jesus". In October 2020, Parton was featured on the single "Pink" alongside Monica, Jordin Sparks, Sara Evans and Rita Wilson. The single was released in aid of Breast Cancer Research. Parton released A Holly Dolly Christmas in October 2020. On December 6, CBS aired a Christmas special, "A Holly Dolly Christmas", where Parton performed songs from her album. ===2022–present: Rockstar=== In early 2022, Parton was nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Parton initially declined the nomination believing that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame was "for the people in rock music", but after learning that this was not the case Parton said she would accept her induction if she were chosen for the honor. In October 2022, Parton stated in an interview that she would no longer tour, but would continue to play live shows occasionally. On December 31, 2022, Parton co-hosted NBC's New Year's special Miley's New Year's Eve Party. On January 17, 2023, Parton announced she would release her first rock album, titled Rockstar, later that year, during an interview on The View. Lead single "World on Fire" was released on May 11, 2023. It went on to peak at number 1 a week later. The album was released on November 17, 2023, and features collaborations with Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Sting, Elton John, Sheryl Crow, Miley Cyrus, and Lizzo, amongst others. The album received generally positive reviews from critics and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, becoming Parton's highest-charting solo studio album as well as topping the Country and Rock Albums charts. The soundtrack single "Gonna Be You" from the movie 80 for Brady was released January 20, 2023. The song was written by Diane Warren, and performed by Dolly Parton, Belinda Carlisle, Cyndi Lauper, Debbie Harry and Gloria Estefan. The official music video shows Parton, Carlisle, Lauper, and Estefan performing while wearing football jerseys similar to the ones worn by the women in the film, interspersed with clips from the film. On February 14, 2025, Parton featured on Sabrina Carpenter's song "Please Please Please" on the deluxe edition of her album Short n' Sweet and its accompanying music video. On March 7, 2025, Parton released the single "If You Hadn't Been There", as a tribute to her husband, who had died a week before; in the United Kingdom, single peaked at number 21 on the sales and downloads chart components. ==Public image== Parton had turned down several offers to pose nude for Playboy magazine, but did appear on the cover of the October 1978 issue wearing a Playboy bunny outfit, complete with ears (the issue featured Lawrence Grobel's extensive and candid interview with Parton, representing one of her earliest high-profile interviews with the mainstream press). The association of breasts with Parton's public image is illustrated in the naming of Dolly the sheep after her, since the sheep was cloned from a cell taken from an adult ewe's mammary gland. In Mobile, Alabama, the General W.K. Wilson Jr. Bridge is commonly called "the Dolly Parton Bridge" due to its arches resembling her bust. The thickened appearance of the turret frontal armor of the T-72A main battle tank led to the unofficial Army nickname "Dolly Parton" – and later the T-72BIs got the "Super Dolly Parton" nickname. Parton is known for having undergone considerable plastic surgery. On a 2003 episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show, Winfrey asked what kind of cosmetic surgery Parton had undergone. Parton replied that cosmetic surgery was imperative in keeping with her famous image. Parton has repeatedly joked about her physical image and surgeries, saying, "It takes a lot of money to look this cheap." Her breasts have garnered her mentions in several songs, including "Dolly Parton's Hits" by Bobby Braddock, "Marty Feldman Eyes" by Bruce Baum (a parody of "Bette Davis Eyes"), "No Show Jones" by George Jones and Merle Haggard, and "Make Me Proud" by Drake, featuring Nicki Minaj. When asked about future plastic surgeries, she famously said, "If I see something sagging, bagging or dragging, I'll get it nipped, tucked or sucked." Parton's feminine escapism is acknowledged in her words, "Womanhood was a difficult thing to get a grip on in those hills, unless you were a man." Parton said in 2012 that she had entered a Dolly Parton drag queen lookalike contest and lost. ==Artistry== ===Influences=== Parton, though influenced by big name stars, often credits much of her inspiration to her family and community. On her own mother Parton, in her 2020 book Songteller: My Life in Lyrics, wrote "So it was just natural for my mom to always be singing. My mother had that old-timey voice, and she used to sing all these songs that were brought over from the Old World. They were English, Irish, Welsh, folk songs where people tell stories." Parton calls her mother's voice "haunting". "Lord you would feel it", she wrote. Her biggest influence however was her Aunt Dorothy Jo: "People often ask me who my influences were, they think I'm going to say some big names, and there were a few 'stars' I was impressed with. But my hero was my aunt Dorothy Jo. Mama's baby sister. She was not only an evangelist, she played banjo, she played guitar, and she wrote some great songs." and recognizing her love for other artists such as Kitty Wells, Roy Acuff, and Rose Maddox. ===Musicianship=== Though unable to read sheet music, Parton can play many instruments, including: the dulcimer, autoharp, banjo, guitar, electric guitar, fiddle, piano, recorder, and the saxophone. Reflecting on her multi-instrumental abilities, Parton said, "I play some of everything. I ain't that good at none of it, but I try to sell it. I really try to lay into it." Parton has also used her fingernails as an instrument, most evident on her 1980 song "9 to 5", which she derived the beat from clacking her nails together while backstage on the set of the film 9 to 5. ==Other ventures== In 1998, Nashville Business ranked her the wealthiest country music star. , her net worth is estimated at $500million. ===Songwriting=== Parton is a prolific songwriter, having begun by writing country music songs with strong elements of folk music, based on her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings and reflecting her family's Christian background. Her songs "Coat of Many Colors", "I Will Always Love You", and "Jolene", among others, have become classics. On November 4, 2003, Parton was honored as a BMI Icon at the 2003 BMI Country Awards. Parton has earned over 35 BMI Pop and Country Awards. In 2001, she was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In a 2009 interview on CNN's Larry King Live, she said she had written "at least 3,000" songs, having written seriously since the age of seven. Parton also said she writes something every day, be it a song or an idea. Parton's songwriting has been featured prominently in several films. In addition to the title song for 9to5, she also recorded a second version of "I Will Always Love You" for The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982). The second version was a number one country hit and also reached number 53 on the pop charts. "I Will Always Love You" has been covered by many country artists, including Ronstadt on Prisoner In Disguise (1975), Kenny Rogers on Vote for Love (1996), and LeAnn Rimes on Unchained Melody: The Early Years (1997). Whitney Houston performed it on The Bodyguard soundtrack and her version became the best-selling hit both written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of over twelve million copies. In addition, the song has been translated into Italian and performed by the Welsh opera singer Katherine Jenkins. As a songwriter, Parton has twice been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, for "9 to 5" and "Travelin' Thru" (2005) from the film Transamerica. "Travelin' Thru" won Best Original Song at the 2005 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards. It was also nominated for both the 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the 2005 Broadcast Film Critics Association Award (also known as the Critics' Choice Awards) for Best Song. A cover of "Love Is Like A Butterfly" by Clare Torry was used as the theme music for the British TV show Butterflies. ===Stage musicals=== ==== 9 to 5: The Musical ==== Parton wrote the score (and Patricia Resnick the book) for 9 to 5: The Musical, a musical-theater adaptation of Parton's feature film 9 to 5 (1980). The musical ran at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, in late 2008. It opened on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre in New York on April 30, 2009, to mixed reviews. The title track of her 2008 album Backwoods Barbie was written for the musical's character Doralee. Although her score (as well as the musical debut of actress Allison Janney) was praised, the show struggled, closing on September 6, 2009, after 24 previews and 148 performances. Parton received nominations for Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics as well as a nomination for Tony Award for Best Original Score. Developing the musical was not a quick process. According to the public-radio program Studio 360 (October 29, 2005), in October 2005 Parton was in the midst of composing songs for a Broadway musical theater adaptation of the film. In late June 2007, 9 to 5: The Musical was read for industry presentations. The readings starred Megan Hilty, Allison Janney, Stephanie J. Block, Bebe Neuwirth, and Marc Kudisch. Ambassador Theatre Group announced a 2012 UK tour for Dolly Parton's 9to5: The Musical, commencing at Manchester Opera House, on October 12, 2012. ==== Dolly: An Original Musical ==== In June 2024, Parton announced an autobiographical musical about her life and career initially titled Hello, I'm Dolly (named after her debut album and also a play on Hello, Dolly!), with a goal of opening on Broadway in 2026 with direction by Bartlett Sher. The musical, with a co-written book by Parton and Maria S. Schlatter which would feature original songs as well as her more well-known hits. Parton also revealed that she has been working on the musical for the last decade. On December 6 of the same year, a new title, Dolly: An Original Musical, was revealed. On the same day, Parton launched a nationwide casting call for an actress to play her through different stages of her life by posting videos on social media with the hashtag #SearchForDolly. ===The Dollywood Company=== Parton invested much of her earnings into business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notably Pigeon Forge. She is a co-owner of The Dollywood Company, which operates the theme park Dollywood (a former Silver Dollar City), a dinner theater, Dolly Parton's Stampede, the waterpark Dollywood's Splash Country, and the Dream More Resort and Spa, all in Pigeon Forge. Dollywood is the 24th-most-popular theme park in the United States, with three million visitors per year. The Dolly Parton's Stampede business has venues in Branson, Missouri, and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. A former location in Orlando, Florida, closed in January 2008 after the land and building were sold to a developer. Starting in June 2011, the Myrtle Beach location became Pirates Voyage Fun, Feast and Adventure; Parton appeared for the opening, and the South Carolina General Assembly declared June 3, 2011, as Dolly Parton Day. On January 19, 2012, Parton's 66th birthday, Gaylord Opryland and Dollywood announced plans to open a $50million water and snow park, a family-friendly destination in Nashville that is open all year. On September 29, 2012, Parton officially withdrew her support for the Nashville park due to the restructuring of Gaylord Entertainment Company after its merger with Marriott International. On June 12, 2015, it was announced that the Dollywood Company had purchased the Lumberjack Feud Dinner Show in Pigeon Forge. The show, which opened in June 2011, was owned and operated by Rob Scheer until the close of the 2015 season. The new, renovated show by the Dollywood Company opened in 2016. ===Production work=== Parton was a co-owner of Sandollar Productions, with Sandy Gallin, her former manager. A film and television production company, it produced the documentary Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989), which won an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature; the television series Babes (1990–91) and Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003); and the feature films Father of the Bride (1991), Father of the Bride: Part II (1995) Straight Talk (1992) (in which Parton starred), and Sabrina (1995), among other shows. In a 2009 interview, singer Connie Francis revealed that Parton had been contacting her for years in an attempt to film the singer's life story. Francis turned down Parton's offers, as she was already in negotiations with singer Gloria Estefan to produce the film, a collaboration now ended. After the retirement of her partner, Sandy Gallin, Parton briefly operated Dolly Parton's Southern Light Productions and in 2015 she announced her new production company would be called Dixie Pixie Productions and produce the movies-of-week in development with NBC Television and Magnolia Hill Productions. === Acting === ==== Breakthrough ==== In addition to her performing appearances on The Porter Wagoner Show in the 1960s and into the 1970s, her two self-titled television variety shows in the 1970s and 1980s, and on American Idol in 2008 and other guest appearances, Parton has had television roles. In 1979, she received an Emmy award nomination as "Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Variety Program" for her guest appearance in a Cher special. During the mid-1970s, Parton wanted to expand her audience base. Although her first attempt, the television variety show Dolly! (1976–77), had high ratings, it lasted only one season, with Parton requesting to be released from her contract because of the stress it was causing on her vocal cords. (She later tried a second television variety show, also titled Dolly (1987–88); it too lasted only one season). In her first feature film, Parton portrayed a secretary in a leading role with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the comedy film 9to5 (1980). The movie highlights discrimination against women in the workplace and created awareness of the National Association of Working Women (9–5). She received nominations for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Musical or Comedy and a Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress. Parton wrote and recorded the film's title song. It received nominations for an Academy Award for Best Song and a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. In late 1981, Parton began filming her second film, the musical film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982). Parton's 1987 variety show Dolly lasted only one season. She made a cameo appearance as herself in The Beverly Hillbillies (1993), an adaptation of the long-running TV sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–1971). She made a guest appearance on Reba (episode "Reba's Rules of Real Estate") portraying a real-estate agency owner and on The Simpsons (episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday", 1999). She appeared as herself in 2000 on the Halloween episode of Bette Midler's short-lived sitcom Bette, and on episode 14 of Babes (produced by Sandollar Productions, Parton and Sandy Gallin's joint production company). She made cameo appearances on the Disney Channel as "Aunt Dolly", visiting Hannah and her family in fellow Tennessean and real-life goddaughter Miley Cyrus's series Hannah Montana (episodes "Good Golly, Miss Dolly", 2006, "I Will Always Loathe You", 2007, and "Kiss It All Goodbye", 2010). She was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. Parton appeared as an overprotective mother in the comedy Frank McKlusky, C.I.. (2002) She made a cameo appearance in the comedy film Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous, starring Sandra Bullock. She was featured in The Book Lady (2008), a documentary about her campaign for children's literacy. Parton expected to reprise her television role as Hannah's godmother in the musical comedy film Hannah Montana: The Movie (2009), but the character was omitted from the screenplay. ==== Since 2010 ==== Parton had a voice role in the comedy family film Gnomeo & Juliet (2011), an animated film with garden gnomes about William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. She co-starred with Queen Latifah in the musical film Joyful Noise (2012), playing a choir director's widow who joins forces with Latifah's character, a mother of two teens, to save a small Georgia town's gospel choir. Dolly Parton's Coat of Many Colors, a made-for-TV film based on Parton's song "Coat of Many Colors", and featuring narration by Parton, aired on NBC in December 2015, with child actress Alyvia Alyn Lind portraying the young Parton. Parton also had a cameo in the sequel, which aired in November 2016. In June 2018, Parton announced an eight-part Netflix series, featuring her music career. She is its executive producer and co-star. The series, called Dolly Parton's Heartstrings, aired in November 2019. Parton is the subject of the NPR podcast Dolly Parton's America. It is hosted by Jad Abumrad, who also hosts Radiolab. In December 2019, the biographical documentary Here I Am was added to the catalog of the Netflix streaming service. The documentary, a co-production of Netflix and the BBC, takes its name from Parton's 1971 song. In November 2020, Parton produced and starred in the Netflix musical film Dolly Parton's Christmas on the Square, which won her a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie. In November 2021, Parton was confirmed to be appearing in the final season of Grace and Frankie in a guest-starring role, reuniting with her 9 to 5 co-stars Lily Tomlin and Jane Fonda. In July 2022, Parton appeared as a simulation of herself on sci-fi show The Orville in the episode "Midnight Blue". In December 2022, Parton appeared in an NBC special titled Dolly Parton's Mountain Magic Christmas. On Thanksgiving 2023, Parton performed songs during halftime at the Washington Commanders and Dallas Cowboys NFL football game. ==Personal life== ===Family=== Parton is the fourth of 12 children. Her siblings are Willadeene, David Wilburn (1942–2024), Coy Denver, Robert Lee (Bobby), Stella Mae, Cassie Nan, Randle Huston (Randy; 1953–2021), Larry Gerald (1955), twins Floyd Estel (1957–2018) and Frieda Estelle, and Rachel Ann. ===Faith=== Parton is a committed Christian, which has influenced many of her musical releases. She talked about her liberal approach to faith in the January 2024 issue of New Humanist magazine. "I wouldn't even say I'm religious, though I grew up with that background. But I have a lot of faith in myself and I've been so blessed to have been around great people my whole life, my Uncle Bill and my family being supportive, and all the people I met along the way." ===Carl Dean=== On May 30, 1966, Parton and Carl Thomas Dean (1942–2025) were married in Ringgold, Georgia. Although Parton does not use Dean's surname professionally, she has stated that her passport reads "Dolly Parton Dean", and she sometimes uses Dean when signing contracts. Dean, who ran an asphalt road and driveway-paving business in Nashville for decades, always shunned publicity and rarely accompanied his wife to public events. According to Parton, he only saw her perform once. However, she would also state in interviews that even though it appeared they spent little time together, it was because nobody saw him publicly. Dean would often visit Dollywood unrecognized. She commented on Dean's romantic side, saying that he did spontaneous things to surprise her, and sometimes even wrote poems for her. In 2011, Parton said, "We're really very proud of our marriage. It's the first for both of us. And the last." On May 6, 2016, Parton announced that she and Dean would renew their vows in honor of their 50th wedding anniversary later in the month. On March 3, 2025, she announced on her social media that Dean had died in Nashville at the age of 82. While Parton and Dean never had children, they helped raise several of her younger siblings in Nashville, leading her nieces and nephews to refer to them as "Uncle Peepaw" and "Aunt Granny"; the latter a moniker that later lent its name to one of Parton's Dollywood restaurants. Parton is also the godmother of singer-songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus. ==Philanthropy== Since the mid-1980s, Parton has supported many charitable efforts, particularly in the area of literacy, primarily through her Dollywood Foundation. Her literacy program, Dolly Parton's Imagination Library, which is a part of the Dollywood Foundation, was founded in honor of her father, who never learned to read or write. It mails one book per month to each enrolled child from the time of their birth until they enter kindergarten. Currently, over 1600 local communities provide the Imagination Library to almost 850,000 children each month across the U.S., Canada, the UK, Australia, and the Republic of Ireland. and was honored by the Library of Congress on account of the "charity sending out its 100 millionth book". In February 2025, Indiana governor Mike Braun declined to support a state 50% match for Parton's Imagination Library. Dollywood Foundation President Jeff Conyers said, "We are hopeful that Governor Braun and the Indiana Legislature will continue this vital investment by restoring the state's funding match for local Imagination Library programs." Braun would soon afterwards task his wife Maureen with finding ways to keep the Imagination Library's Indiana chapter alive. For her work in literacy, Parton has received various awards, including Association of American Publishers Honors Award (2000), Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval (2001) (the first time the seal had been awarded to a person), American Association of School AdministratorsGalaxy Award (2002), National State Teachers of the YearChasing Rainbows Award (2002), and Parents as Teachers National CenterChild and Family Advocacy Award (2003). On May 8, 2009, Parton gave the commencement speech at the graduation ceremony for the University of Tennessee, Knoxville's College of Arts and Sciences. During the ceremony, she received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the university. It was only the second honorary degree given by the university, and in presenting the degree, the university's Chancellor, Jimmy Cheek, said, "Because of her career not just as a musician and entertainer, but for her role as a cultural ambassador, philanthropist and lifelong advocate for education, it is fitting that she be honored with an honorary degree from the flagship educational institution of her home state." In 2006, Parton published a cookbook, Dolly's Dixie Fixin's: Love, Laughter and Lots of Good Food. The Dollywood Foundation, funded from Parton's profits, has been noted for bringing jobs and tax revenues to a previously depressed region. Parton also has worked to raise money for several other causes, including the American Red Cross and HIV/AIDS-related charities. In December 2006, Parton pledged $500,000 toward a proposed $90million hospital and cancer center to be constructed in Sevierville in the name of Robert F. Thomas, the physician who delivered her. She announced a benefit concert to raise additional funds for the project. The concert played to about 8,000 people. That same year, Parton and Emmylou Harris allowed use of their music in a PETA ad campaign that encouraged pet owners to keep their dogs indoors rather than chained outside. In 2003, her efforts to preserve the bald eagle through the American Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Parton received the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution at a ceremony in Nashville on November 8, 2007. In response to the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, Parton was one of a number of country music artists who participated in a telethon to raise money for victims of the fires. This was held in Nashville on December 9. In addition, Parton hosted her own telethon for the victims on December 13 and reportedly raised around $9million. Her fund, the "My People Fund", provided $1,000 a month for six months to over 900 families affected by the wildfires, finally culminating with $5,000 to each home in the final month due to increased fundraising, for a total of $10,000 per family. In 2018, the FBI honored Parton for her wildfire aid work, awarding her the 2018 Director's Community Leadership Award at a ceremony at FBI Headquarters in Washington. The honor was bestowed by Director Christopher Wray and was accepted on Parton's behalf by David Dotson, the CEO of the Dollywood Foundation. West surveyed 100 recipients of the emergency relief funds in April 2017 on topics including questions on housing, financial impact, physical and emotional health, and sources of support, with a follow-up survey conducted in December 2017. West found that the "My People Fund", in tandem with traditional disaster response, gave families the ability to make decisions that were most beneficial to them, and concluded that unconditional cash support may be more beneficial for disaster relief than conditional financial support. The report cited the impact of the monthly financial disbursements from the "My People Fund" on residents' emergency savings: "Following the monthly disbursements of unconditional cash assistance, participants were able to return to baseline financial stability reported prior to the wildfire, and improve their ability to set aside savings for hypothetical future emergencies." Parton has been a generous donor to Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC). Among her gifts was a contribution to the Monroe Carell Jr. Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt Pediatric Cancer Program in honor of a friend, Naji Abumrad, and her niece, Hannah Dennison, who was successfully treated for leukemia as a child at the Children's Hospital. In the aftermath of 2024's Hurricane Helene, Parton announced a donation of $2 million to relief efforts, $1 million personally and another $1 million through her various businesses and the Dollywood Foundation. ===LGBTQ+ rights=== Though often politically neutral, Parton is known for her long history of openly supporting the gay community and publicly came out in support of same-sex marriage in 2009. ===Moderna COVID-19 vaccine=== In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Parton donated $1million towards research at Vanderbilt University Medical Center and encouraged those who can afford it to make similar donations. She said "I'm a very proud girl today to know I had anything at all to do with something that's going to help us through this crazy pandemic." Her donation funded the critical early stages of development of the Moderna vaccine. In March 2021, Parton was vaccinated against COVID-19 at Vanderbilt University. She labeled social media accounts of the occasion "Dolly gets a dose of her own medicine." Parton strongly encouraged everyone to get vaccinated when eligible and performed a song celebrating her vaccination, set to the tune of her song "Jolene". ==Awards and honors== Dolly Parton is one of the most-honored female country performers of all time. The Record Industry Association of America has certified 25 of her single or album releases as either Gold Record, Platinum Record or Multi-Platinum Record. She has had 26 songs reach no.1 on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist. She has 42 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career-charted singles over the past 40 years. As of 2012 she had written more than 3,000 songs and sold more than 100 million records, making her one of the best-selling female artists of all time. As of 2021, she had appeared on the country music charts in each of seven decades, the most of any artist. Dolly Parton has earned 11 Grammy Awards (including her 2011 Lifetime Achievement Grammy) and a total of 55 Grammy Award nominations, the third-most nominations of any female artist in the history of the prestigious awards. At the American Music Awards, she has won three awards out of 18 nominations. At the Country Music Association, she has won ten awards out of 42 nominations. At the Academy of Country Music, she has won seven awards and 39 nominations. She is one of only six female artists (including Reba McEntire, Barbara Mandrell, Shania Twain, Loretta Lynn, and Taylor Swift), to win the Country Music Association's highest honor, Entertainer of the Year (1978). She also has been nominated for two Academy Awards and a Tony Award. She was nominated for an Emmy Award for her appearance in a 1978 Cher television special. She was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her music in 1984, located at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California; a star on the Nashville StarWalk for Grammy winners; and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville. She has called that statue of herself in her hometown "the greatest honor", because it came from the people who knew her. Parton was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969, and in 1986 was named one of Ms. Magazine Women of the Year. In 1986, she was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, an induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame. She received an honorary doctorate degree from Carson-Newman College (Jefferson City, Tennessee) in 1990. This was followed by induction into the National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2001. In 2002, she ranked no.4 in CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music. Parton was honored in 2003 with a tribute album called Just Because I'm a Woman: Songs of Dolly Parton. The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs included Melissa Etheridge ("I Will Always Love You"), Alison Krauss ("9 to 5"), Shania Twain ("Coat of Many Colors"), Meshell Ndegeocello ("Two Doors Down"), Norah Jones ("The Grass is Blue"), and Sinéad O'Connor ("Dagger Through the Heart"). Parton herself contributed a re-recording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968. Parton was awarded the Living Legend Medal by the U.S. Library of Congress on April 14, 2004, for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States. She is also the focus of a Library of Congress collection exploring the influences of country music on her life and career. The collection contains images, articles, sheet music, and more. In 2005, she was honored with the National Medal of Arts, the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts. The award is presented by the U.S. President. On December 3, 2006, Parton received the Kennedy Center Honors from the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts for her lifetime of contributions to the arts. During the show, some of country music's biggest names came to show their admiration. Carrie Underwood performed "Islands in the Stream" with Rogers, Parton's original duet partner. Krauss performed "Jolene" and duetted "Coat of Many Colors" with Twain. McEntire and Reese Witherspoon also came to pay tribute. On November 16, 2010, Parton accepted the Liseberg Applause Award, the theme park industry's most prestigious honor, on behalf of Dollywood theme park during a ceremony held at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 in Orlando, Florida. In 2015, a newly discovered species of lichen found growing in the southern Appalachians was named Japewiella dollypartoniana in honor of Parton's music and her efforts to bring national and global attention to that region. In 2018, Parton received a second star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, inducted alongside Linda Ronstadt and Emmylou Harris in recognition of their work as a trio. Parton was also recognized in the Guinness World Records 2018 Edition for holding records for the Most Decades with a Top20 hit on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart and Most Hits on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart by a Female Artist. In 2020, Parton received a Grammy award for her collaboration with For King & Country on their song, "God Only Knows". In 2021, she was included on the Time 100, Times annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. The New York Times called her among the three of America's Most Beloved Divas (alongside Patti LaBelle and Barbra Streisand). During the Trump presidency, Parton turned down the Presidential Medal of Freedom twice due to her husband's illness and the ongoing pandemic. Parton turned down the Presidential Medal of Freedom a third time during the Biden presidency to avoid the appearance of politics. In response to a 2021 proposal by the Tennessee legislature to erect a statue of Parton, she released a statement asking the legislature to remove the bill from consideration, saying "Given all that is going on in the world, I don't think putting me on a pedestal is appropriate at this time." In late 2022, Parton received a $100-million Courage and Civility Award from the founder of Amazon, Jeff Bezos. According to Bezos, the award was given to Parton because of her charity work focused on improving children's literacy around the world. In 2023, Parton was awarded American Library Association Honorary Membership. Parton is a Kentucky Colonel, awarded to her by the governor of Kentucky. She was ranked at No. 27 on Rolling Stone′s 2023 list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. Asteroid (10731) Dollyparton, the former 1998 BL3, was named in her honor in 2022. ===Hall of Fame honors=== During her career, Parton has gained induction into numerous Halls of Fame. Those honors include: Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame (1986) Small Town of America Hall of Fame (1988) East Tennessee Hall of Fame (1988) Country Music Hall of Fame (1999) Songwriters Hall of Fame (2001) Junior Achievement of East Tennessee Business Hall of Fame (2003) The Americana Highway Hall of Fame (2006) Grammy Hall of Fame – "I Will Always Love You – 1974 Recording" (2007) Blue Ridge Music Hall of Fame – Songwriter Category (2008) Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2009) Music City Walk of Fame (2009) Country Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2010) Grammy Hall of Fame – "Jolene – 1974 Recording" (2014) The National Hall of Fame for Mountain Artisans (2014) The Happiness Hall of Fame (2016) East Tennessee Writers Hall of Fame (2019) Grammy Hall of Fame – "Coat of Many Colors – 1971 Recording" (2019) Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (2022) (2024) ==Filmography== Theatrical releases 9 to 5 (1980) The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982) Rhinestone (1984) Steel Magnolias (1989) Straight Talk (1992) Frank McKlusky, C.I. (2002) Gnomeo & Juliet (2011) Joyful Noise (2012) ==Published works==	[ "Jennifer Nettles", "George Jones", "Father of the Bride II", "Curly Putman", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "Rockstar (Dolly Parton album)", "Billboard 200", "Grammy Awards", "Washington, D.C.", "Ricky Van Shelton", "governor of Kentucky", "Loretta Lynn", "Radiolab", "Trio (1987 album)", "Halos & Horns", "East Tennessee", "Lizzo", "Guinness World Records", "Unchained Melody: The Early Years", "Smithsonian Institution", "Academy Award for Best Song", "lichen", "The Beverly Hillbillies (film)", "Country music", "Miley Cyrus", "Kesha", "Broadcast Film Critics Association Award", "American Red Cross", "Emmylou Harris", "On the Road Again (Willie Nelson song)", "Billboard (magazine)", "Jad Abumrad", "Here I Am (Dolly Parton song)", "autoharp", "dinner theatre", "Dolly Parton's Stampede", "Andrew Lloyd Webber", "I Believe in You (Dolly Parton album)", "The Fairest of Them All (album)", "Bette (TV series)", "William Shakespeare", "Reese Witherspoon", "RCA Victor", "Zach Williams (musician)", "cornmeal", "Carole Bayer Sager", "Christians", "Carson-Newman College", "Goldband Records", "Shine (Collective Soul song)", "Please Don't Stop Loving Me", "Queen Latifah", "Rockin' Years", "Think About Love", "If You Hadn't Been There", "Younger Now", "Little Pigeon River (Tennessee)", "Michael Jackson", "Unlikely Angel", "family film", "Knoxville News Sentinel", "Playboy bunny", "Dallas Cowboys", "Better Day (album)", "Grammy Award for Best Country Song", "guitar", "Steel Magnolias (play)", "waterpark", "Academy of Country Music", "Rachel Parton George", "Belinda Carlisle", "President of the United States", "single (music)", "Something Special (Dolly Parton album)", "cameo appearance", "Tennessee Homesick Blues", "Playboy", "Porter Wayne and Dolly Rebecca", "duet", "Emmy Award", "Islands in the Stream (song)", "Vince Gill", "banjo", "Dolly Parton's America", "Newspapers.com", "Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)", "Marty Feldman", "Butterflies (TV series)", "Academy Awards", "Why'd You Come in Here Lookin' Like That", "Roy Acuff", "transgender", "Reba McEntire", "Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals", "Bubbling Over (album)", "Dolly Parton: Here I Am", "Bruce Baum", "Short n' Sweet", "For God and Country (Dolly Parton album)", "Hello, Dolly! (musical)", "Joyful Noise (film)", "Real Love (Dolly Parton album)", "Dolly Parton singles discography", "Grammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance", "Recorder (musical instrument)", "Sabrina (1995 film)", "Put It Off Until Tomorrow", "Two of a Kind (Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton album)", "Entertainment Weekly", "Tony Award", "God Only Knows (For King & Country song)", "Rhinestone (film)", "Top Rock Albums", "Porter & Dolly", "9 to 5: The Musical", "Gospel music", "Rainbow (Dolly Parton album)", "The River Unbroken", "Dolly Parton albums discography", "LeAnn Rimes", "Barbara Mandrell", "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (film)", "Academy of Television Arts & Sciences", "Coat of Many Colors", "Martina McBride", "Billboard charts", "Transamerica (soundtrack)", "Touch Your Woman", "same-sex marriage", "The Orville", "The Magic School Bus", "Pittman Center, Tennessee", "The Washington Post", "Hank Williams Jr.", "The Simpsons", "Pure & Simple (Dolly Parton album)", "Billy Ray Cyrus", "Academy Award for Best Original Song", "Songwriters Hall of Fame", "9 to 5 (film)", "Ringgold, Georgia", "NPR", "Stairway to Heaven", "Mule Skinner Blues", "Sweet Summer Lovin'", "Barry Gibb", "The Book Lady", "The New York Times", "Provisional designation in astronomy", "Coronavirus disease 2019", "John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts", "Jane Fonda", "Starting Over Again (Donna Summer song)", "leukemia", "List of music artists by net worth", "Bill Phillips (singer)", "Daily Beast", "LinkedIn", "country music", "The Sun News", "COVID-19 pandemic", "I Will Always Love You", "Barbra Streisand", "Prisoner In Disguise", "Merle Haggard", "Romeo and Juliet", "Top Country Albums", "Hollywood, California", "CBS News", "Sterling Publishing", "Orlando, Florida", "Where Do the Children Play?", "ballad", "Steven Spielberg", "goddaughter", "Designing Women", "Pete Seeger", "Dollywood's Splash Country", "Branson, Missouri", "White Limozeen", "chancellor (education)", "People (magazine)", "Country Music Hall of Fame", "Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt", "William \"Smokey\" Robinson", "Burlap & Satin", "broadcast syndication", "HarperCollins", "public broadcasting", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music", "Ringo Starr", "rock music", "James Woods", "folk-rock", "My Blue Ridge Mountain Boy", "saxophone", "Bobby Braddock", "New Harvest...First Gathering", "List of American film actresses", "American Music Award", "National Medal of Arts", "56th Annual Grammy Awards", "Dollywood", "Mac Davis", "AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs", "Katherine Jenkins", "Cher... Special", "Bartlett Sher", "Stephanie J. Block", "Love and Music", "CNN", "gimmick", "Steel Magnolias", "Where Have All the Flowers Gone?", "Academy of Country Music Awards", "electric guitar", "Bee Gees", "Once More (Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton album)", "University of Tennessee, Knoxville", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical", "Sylvester Stallone", "Combine Music", "T-72", "Mike Braun", "Alyvia Alyn Lind", "Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song", "Fuel to the Flame", "When I Get Where I'm Going", "Father of the Bride (1991 film)", "Jimmy Carter", "Welsh people", "Sting (musician)", "autobiographical", "garden gnomes", "The Bargain Store", "Cynthia Weil", "Mobile, Alabama", "Just the Two of Us (Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton album)", "O, The Oprah Magazine", "Library of Congress Living Legend", "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee)", "Honky Tonk Angels", "Once Upon a Christmas (Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton album)", "Elvis Presley", "80 for Brady", "For King & Country (band)", "Tony Awards", "Magnolia Hill Productions", "The Grass Is Blue", "To Know Him Is to Love Him", "The Voice (U.S. season 11)", "Daily News (New York)", "Woodrow Wilson Awards", "Asphalt concrete", "List of composers of musicals", "Alison Krauss", "Cyndi Lauper", "Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars", "The Guardian", "Bluegrass music", "bluegrass music", "musical film", "Hello, I'm Dolly", "Hannah Montana: The Movie", "Mercury Records", "Moderna", "Zubin Mehta", "Phil Spector", "Toronto Sun", "Facebook", "Better Day World Tour", "American Film Institute", "Save the Last Dance for Me", "Billboard Hot 100", "The Last Thing on My Mind", "Precious Memories (Dolly Parton album)", "Led Zeppelin", "Home for Christmas (Dolly Parton album)", "My Tennessee Mountain Home", "Marc Kudisch", "Porter 'n' Dolly", "Dolly Parton's Heartstrings (TV series)", "List of American television actresses", "commencement speech", "Pigeon Forge, Tennessee", "Gloria Estefan", "Cher", "Carol Burnett", "Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame", "StarWalk", "Kitty Wells", "Treasures (Dolly Parton album)", "Better Get to Livin'", "List of singer-songwriters", "Say Forever You'll Be Mine", "List of awards and nominations received by Dolly Parton", "mammary gland", "Debbie Harry", "Larry King Live", "Hollywood Foreign Press Association", "People's Choice Awards", "The Oprah Winfrey Show", "literacy", "Always, Always", "American Eagle Foundation", "Dolly, Dolly, Dolly", "Pentecostal", "Bill Owens (songwriter)", "Knoxville, Tennessee", "The O2 Arena", "Dolly (album)", "the Highwomen", "Just Because I'm a Woman (1968 album)", "Pentatonix", "Stella Parton", "Kacey Musgraves", "Rising Tide Records", "godparent", "Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance", "Here You Come Again (song)", "Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series)", "Kennedy Center Honors", "NBC", "Ford Theatre", "Rainbow (Kesha album)", "television movie", "sharecropper", "adult contemporary music", "bubblegum pop", "Blue Smoke (album)", "WBIR", "folklore", "Randy Parton", "Florida Today", "Sara Evans", "The Right Combination • Burning the Midnight Oil", "Eagle When She Flies", "Cat Stevens", "CBS", "Yellow Roses (Dolly Parton song)", "Blue Smoke World Tour", "gospel choir", "Jordin Sparks", "Consequence of Sound", "Rolling Stone", "All I Can Do (album)", "The Bodyguard (1992 film)", "Trio II", "Diane Warren", "Maiden and married names", "Newport Folk Festival", "The Porter Wagoner Show", "Take Me Home, Country Roads", "Lulu Roman", "Manchester Opera House", "Collective Soul", "Real Love (Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers song)", "vocal cords", "real estate", "9 to 5 and Odd Jobs", "Hungry Again", "Washington Commanders", "It's All Wrong, But It's All Right", "Decca Records", "Marquis Theatre", "fiddle", "Emmy Awards", "BBC", "Doctor of Humane Letters", "Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You", "My Tennessee Mountain Home (song)", "WCQS", "Herschend Family Entertainment Corporation", "dinner theater", "The Gettysburg Times", "University of Tennessee", "Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal", "Ahmanson Theatre", "subsistence agriculture", "Great Smoky Mountains National Park", "Rock music", "Tammy Wynette", "Joshua (song)", "The Bryan Times", "The Beverly Hillbillies", "Sandra Bullock", "Cas Walker", "Country Music Association Awards", "AllMusic", "Bebe Neuwirth", "Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature", "Frank McKlusky, C.I.", "Little Sparrow", "rural area", "Slow Dancing with the Moon", "Yahoo! Music", "Heartbreaker (Dolly Parton song)", "Roy Clark", "Miley's New Year's Eve Party", "doctorate degree", "Babes (TV Series)", "Patti LaBelle", "A Holly Dolly Christmas", "You're the Only One (Dolly Parton song)", "Heartsongs: Live from Home", "Johnny Cash", "Musical theatre", "List of country music performers", "soprano", "Linda Ronstadt", "Rose Maddox", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics", "Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress", "Clare Torry", "Reba (TV series)", "Ms. Magazine", "Breast Cancer Research", "folk music", "Monument Records", "Forever Country", "crossover (music)", "Naji Abumrad", "Barbara Walters Special", "Elton John", "cosmetic surgery", "Dolly (1987 TV series)", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy", "Wild Texas Wind", "Broadway theatre", "Myrtle Beach, South Carolina", "Drake (rapper)", "Alvin and the Chipmunks (1983 TV series)", "Grace and Frankie", "Porter Wagoner", "Lily Tomlin", "dulcimer", "Grammy Hall of Fame", "Laura Bush", "Coat of Many Colors (song)", "Warner Bros. 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Wilson Jr. Bridge", "The Dollywood Company", "Time 100", "Imagine (John Lennon song)", "Greenbrier (Great Smoky Mountains)", "Courage and Civility Award", "Business Wire", "Chasing Rainbows Museum", "Brad Paisley" ]
8,717	Diprotodon	so they assumed the same would have been true for extinct relatives, including Diprotodon. These other species are: D. annextans was erected in 1861 by Irish palaeontologist Frederick McCoy based on some teeth and a partial mandible found near Colac, Victoria; the name may be a typo of annectens, which means linking or joining, because he characterised the species as combining traits from Diprotodon and Nototherium; D. minor was erected in 1862 by Thomas Huxley based on a partial palate; ==Classification== ===Phylogeny=== Diprotodon is a marsupial in the order Diprotodontia, suborder Vombatiformes (wombats and koalas), and infraorder Vombatomorphia (wombats and allies). It is unclear how different groups of vombatiformes are related to each other because the most-completely known members—living or extinct—are exceptionally derived (highly specialised forms that are quite different from their last common ancestor). New species were later added to both groups; by the 1960s, the first diprotodontoids dating to before the Pliocene were discovered, better clarifying their relationship to each other. Because of this, in 1967, American palaeontologist Ruben A. Stirton subdivided Diprotodontoidea into one family, Diprotodontidae, with four subfamilies; Diprotodontinae (containing Diprotodon among others), Nototheriinae, Zygomaturinae, and Palorchestinae. In 1977, Australian palaeontologist Michael Archer synonymised Nototheriinae with Diprotodontinae and in 1978, Archer and Australian palaeontologist Alan Bartholomai elevated Palorchestinae to family level as Palorchestidae, leaving Diprotodontoidea with families Diprotodontidae and Palorchestidae; and Diprotodontidae with subfamilies Diprotodontinae and Zygomaturinae. Below is the Diprotodontoidea family tree according to Australian palaeontologists Karen H. Black and Brian Mackness, 1999 (top), Diprotodon has been found in every Australian state, making it the most-widespread Australian megafauna in the fossil record. Both diprotodontines and zygomaturines were both apparently quite diverse over the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene, roughly 23 million years ago, though the familial and subfamilial classifications of diprotodontoids from this period is debated. Compared to zygomaturines, diprotodontines were rare during the Miocene, the only identified genus being Pyramios. coinciding with the spread of open forests. Price and Australian palaeontologist Katarzyna Piper reported the earliest, indirectly dated Diprotodon fossils from the Nelson Bay Formation at Nelson Bay, New South Wales, which dates to 1.77 million to 780,000 years ago during the Early Pleistocene. These remains are 8–17% smaller than those of Late Pleistocene Diprotodon but are otherwise indistinguishable.{{efn\|They were unsure if it was appropriate to classify the Nelson Bay material into a new species based on the size and temporal difference, so they tentatively designated them as D. ?optatum. The oldest directly dated Diprotodon fossils come from the Boney Bite site at Floraville, New South Wales; they were deposited approximately 340,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene based on U-series dating and luminescence dating of quartz and orthoclase. Floraville is the only-identified Middle Pleistocene site in tropical northern Australia. They may also have helped dissipate stresses produced by biting more efficiently across the skull. The occipital bone, the back of the skull, slopes forward at 45 degrees unlike most modern marsupials, where it is vertical. The base of the occipital is significantly thickened. The occipital condyles, a pair of bones that connect the skull with the vertebral column, are semi-circular and the bottom half is narrower than the top. The inner border, which forms the foramen magnum where the spinal cord feeds through, is thin and well-defined. The top margin of the foramen magnum is somewhat flattened rather than arched. The foramen expands backwards towards the inlet, especially vertically, and is more-reminiscent of a short neural canal—the tube running through a vertebral centrum where the spinal cord passes through—than a foramen magnum. A sagittal crest extends across the midline of the skull from the supraoccipital—the top of the occipital bone—to the region between the eyes on the top of the head. The orbit (eye socket) is small and vertically oval-shaped. The nasal bones slightly curve upwards until near their endpoint, where they begin to curve down, giving the bones a somewhat S-shaped profile. Like many marsupials, most of the nasal septum is made of bone rather than cartilage. The nose would have been quite mobile. The height of the skull from the peak of the occipital bone to the end of the nasals is strikingly almost uniform; the end of the nasals is the tallest point. The zygomatic arch (cheek bone) is strong and deep as in kangaroos but unlike those of koalas and wombats, and extends all the way from the supraoccipital. ====Jaws==== As in kangaroos and wombats, there is a gap between the jointing of the palate (roof of the mouth) and the maxilla (upper jaw) behind the last molar, which is filled by the medial pterygoid plate. This would have been the insertion for the medial pterygoid muscle that was involved in closing the jaw. Like many grazers, the masseter muscle, which is also responsible for closing the jaw, seems to have been the dominant jaw muscle. A probable large temporal muscle compared to the lateral pterygoid muscle may indicate, unlike in wombats, a limited range of side-to-side jaw motion means Diprotodon would have been better at crushing rather than grinding food. The insertion of the masseter is placed forwards, in front of the orbits, which could have allowed better control over the incisors. Diprotodon chewing strategy appears to align more with kangaroos than wombats: a powerful vertical crunch was followed by a transverse grinding motion. As in other marsupials, the ramus of the mandible, the portion that goes up to connect with the skull, angles inward. The condyloid process, which connects the jaw to the skull, is similar to that of a koala. The ramus is straight and extends almost vertically, thickening as it approaches the body of the mandible where the teeth are. The depth of the body of the mandible increases from the last molar to the first. The strong mandibular symphysis, which fuses the two halves of the mandible, begins at the front-most end of the third molar; this would prevent either half of the mandible from moving independently of the other, unlike in kangaroos which use this ability to better control their incisors. As in kangaroos, the necks of the lophs are coated in cementum. Unlike in kangaroos, there is no connecting ridge between the lophs. The peaks of these lophs have a thick enamel coating that thins towards the base; this could wear away with use and expose the dentine layer, and beneath that osteodentine. Like the first premolar of other marsupials, the first molar of Diprotodon and wombats is the only tooth that is replaced. D. optatum premolars were highly morphologically variable even within the same individual. ===Vertebrae=== Diprotodon had seven cervical (neck) vertebrae. The atlas, the first cervical (C1), has a pair of deep cavities for insertion of the occipital condyles. The diaphophyses of the atlas, an upward-angled projection on either the side of the vertebra, are relatively short and thick, and resemble those of wombats and koalas. The articular surface of the axis (C2), the part that joints to another vertebra, is slightly concave on the front side and flat on the back side. As in kangaroos, the axis has a low subtriangular hypophysis projecting vertically from the underside of the vertebra and a proportionally long odontoid—a projection from the axis which fits into the atlas—but the neural spine, which projects vertically the topside of the vertebra, is more forwards. The remaining cervicals lack a hypophysis. As in kangaroos, C3 and C4 have a shorter and more-compressed neural spine, which is supported by a low ridge along its midline in the front and the back. The neural spine of C5 is narrower but thicker, and is supported by stronger-but-shorter ridges. C7 had a forked shape on top of the neural spine. Diprotodon probably had 13 dorsal vertebrae and 14 pairs of closely spaced ribs. Like many other mammals, the dorsals initially decrease in breadth and then expand before connecting to the lumbar vertebrae. Unusually, the front dorsals match the short proportions of the cervicals, and the articular surface is flat. At the beginning of the series, the neural spine is broad and angled forward, and is also supported by a low ridge along its midline in the front and the back. In later examples, the neural spine is angled backwards and bifurcates (splits into two). Among mammals, bifurcation of the neural spine is only seen in elephants and humans, and only in a few of the cervicals and not in the dorsals. Compared to those of wombats and kangaroos, the neural arch is proportionally taller. As in elephants, the epiphysial plates (growth plates) and the neural arch, to which the neural spine is attached, are anchylosed—very rigid in regard to the vertebral centrum—which served to support the animal's immense weight. Like most marsupials, Diprotodon likely had six lumbar vertebrae. They retain a proportionally tall neural arch but not the diapophyses, though L1 can retain a small protuberance on one side where a diapophysis would be in a dorsal vertebra; this has been documented in kangaroos and other mammals. The length of each vertebra increases along the series so the lumbar series may have bent downward. Like other marsupials, Diprotodon had two sacral vertebrae. The base of the neural spines of these two were ossified (fused) together. ===Limbs=== ====Girdles==== The general proportions of the scapula (shoulder blade) align more closely with more-basal vertebrates such as monotremes, birds, reptiles, and fish rather than marsupials and placental mammals. It is triangular and proportionally narrow but unlike most mammals with a triangular scapula, the arm attaches to top of the scapula and the subspinous fossa (the fossa, a depression below the spine of the scapula) becomes bigger towards the arm joint rather than decreasing. The glenoid cavity where the arm connects is oval shaped as in most mammals. Unlike other marsupials, the ilia, the large wings of the pelvis, are lamelliform (short and broad, with a flat surface instead of an iliac fossa). Lamelliform ilia have only been recorded in elephants, sloths, and apes, though these groups all have a much-longer sacral vertebra series whereas marsupials are restricted to two sacral vertebrae. The ilia provided strong muscle attachments that were probably oriented and used much the same as those in an elephant. The sacroiliac joint where the pelvis connects to the spine is at 35 degrees in reference to the long axis of the ilium. The ischia, which form part of the hip socket, are thick and rounded tailwards but taper and diverge towards the socket, unlike those in kangaroos, where the ischia proceed almost parallel to each other. They were not connected to the vertebra. The hip socket itself is well-rounded and almost hemispherical. ====Long bones==== Unlike those of most marsupials, the humerus of Diprotodon is almost straight rather than S-shaped, and the trochlea of the humerus at the elbow joint is not perforated. The ridges for muscle attachments are poorly developed, which seems to have been compensated for by the powerful forearms. Similarly, the condyles where the radius and ulna (the forearm bones) connect maintain their rounded shape and are quite-similarly sized, and unusually reminiscent of the condyles between the femur and the tibia and fibula in the leg of a kangaroo. Like elephants, the femur of Diprotodon is straight and compressed anteroposteriorly (from headside to tailside). The walls of the femur are prodigiously thickened, strongly constricting the medullary cavity where the bone marrow is located. The proximal end (part closest to the hip joint) is notably long, broad, and deep. The femoral head projects up far from the greater trochanter. As in kangaroos, the greater trochanter is split into two lobes. The femoral neck is roughly the same diameter as the femoral head. Also as in kangaroos, the condyle for the fibula is excavated out but the condyle for the tibia is well-rounded and hemispherical. Like those of many other marsupials, the tibia is twisted and the tibial malleolus (on the ankle) is reduced. ====Paws==== Diprotodon has five digits on either paw. Like other plantigrade walkers, where the paws were flat on the ground, the wrist and ankle would have been largely rigid and inflexible. The enlarged pisiform bone takes up half the jointing surface of the ulna. The fifth digit on the forepaw is the largest. The digits of the hindpaws turn inwards from the ankle at 130 degrees. The second and third metatarsals (the metatarsals connect the toes to the ankle) are significantly reduced, which may mean these digits were syndactylous (fused) like those of all modern diprotodontians. The first, fourth, and fifth digits are enlarged. The toes are each about the same length, except the fifth which is much stouter. ===Size=== Diprotodon is the largest-known marsupial to ever have lived. As researchers were formulating predictive body-mass equations for fossil species, efforts were largely constrained to eutherian mammals rather than marsupials. In 2003, Australian palaeontologist Stephen Wroe and colleagues took a more-sophisticated approach to body mass than Murray's estimate. They made a regression between the minimum circumference of the femora and humeri of 18 quadrupedal marsupials and 32 placentals against body mass, and then inputted 17 Diprotodon long bones into their predictive model. The results ranged from , for a mean of , though Wroe said reconstructing the weight of extinct creatures that far outweighed living counterparts is problematic. For comparison, an American bison they used in their study weighed and a hippo weighed . Carbon isotope analysis suggests Diprotodon fed on a broad range of foods and, like kangaroos, was consuming both C3—well-watered trees, shrubs, and grasses—and C4 plants—arid grasses, a finding replicated by calcium isotope analysis showing Diprotodon to have been a mixed feeder. Carbon isotope analyses on Diprotodon excavated from the Cuddie Springs site in units SU6 (possibly 45,000 years old) and SU9 (350,000 to 570,000 years old) indicate Diprotodon adopted a somewhat-more-varied seasonal diet as Australia's climate dried but any change was subtle. In contrast, contemporary kangaroos and wombats underwent major dietary shifts or specialisations towards, respectively, C3 and C4 plants. The fossilised, incompletely digested gut contents of one 53,000-year-old individual from Lake Callabonna show its last meal consisted of young leaves, stalks, and twigs. The molars of Diprotodon are a simple bilophodont shape. Kangaroos use their bilophodont teeth to grind tender, low-fibre plants as a browser as well as grass as a grazer. Kangaroos that predominantly graze have specialised molars to resist the abrasiveness of grass but such adaptations are not exhibited in Diprotodon, which may have had a mixed diet similar to that of a browsing wallaby. It may also have chewed like wallabies, beginning with a vertical crunch before grinding transversely, as opposed to wombats, which only grind transversely. Similarly to many large ungulates (hoofed mammals), the jaws of Diprotodon were better suited for crushing rather than grinding, which would have permitted it to process vegetation in bulk. Though these are likely overestimates, This specimen became one of the most-cited pieces of evidence humans and megafauna directly interacted until a 2020 re-analysis by Australian palaeoanthropologist Michelle Langley identified the engraver as most-likely a tiger quoll. In 2016, Australian archaeologist Giles Hamm and colleagues unearthed a partial right radius belonging to a young Diprotodon in the Warratyi rock shelter. Because it lacks carnivore damage and the rock shelter is up a sheer face Diprotodon is unlikely to have climbed, they said humans were responsible for taking the Diprotodon to the site. ===Mythology=== left\|thumb\|Diprotodon, soon after discovery, was associated with the [[bunyip (above drawn by J. Mcfarlane, 1890). If Pleistocene megafauna are the basis of some aboriginal mythology, it is unclear if the stories were based on the creatures when they were alive or their fossils being discovered long after their extinction. ===Rock art representations=== Aboriginal Australians decorated caves with paintings and drawings of several creatures but the identities of the subjects are often unclear. In 1907, Australian anthropologist Herbert Basedow found footprint petroglyphs in Yunta Springs and Wilkindinna, South Australia, which he believed were those of Diprotodon. In 1988, Australian historian Percy Trezise presented what he thought was a Quinkan depiction of Diprotodon to the First Congress of the Australian Rock Art Research Association. Both of these claims have their faults because the depictions bear several features that are inconsistent with what is known about Diprotodon. Unlike the more-naturalistic artwork of Early European modern humans, which are more easily identifiable as various animals, aboriginal artwork is much more stylistic and is mostly uninterpretable by an outsider. The subjects of aboriginal paintings can be mythological beings from the Dreaming rather than a corporeal subject.	[ "theria", "Plaisiodon", "sexual dimorphism", "Paludirex", "Hulitherium", "finite element analysis", "deciduous teeth", "fire-stick farming", "canine (tooth)", "Cuddie Springs", "Sahara", "Quaternary extinction event", "second metatarsal", "Kolopsoides", "Percy Trezise", "Colac, Victoria", "Sexual segregation (biology)", "Kolopsis", "rhino", "red kangaroo", "sacrum", "sand bar", "medial pterygoid muscle", "Muridae", "monotreme", "oral tradition", "ossified", "Australian megafauna", "Kings Creek, Queensland", "Quinkana", "rodent", "C3 carbon fixation", "syndactyly", "African elephant", "tooth enamel", "tarsus (skeleton)", "stress (mechanics)", "epiphysial plate", "estrous cycle", "Procoptodon", "tapir", "Rainbow Serpent", "petroglyph", "Young's modulus", "Zygomaturinae", "glacial period", "Euowenia", "megalania", "Diprotodontinae", "frontal bone", "foramen magnum", "pelvis", "Royal Society Open Science", "Early Miocene", "Maokopia", "natural selection", "reptile", "zygomatic arch", "dentine", "Lake Callabonna", "ulna", "carpus", "order (biology)", "kangaroo", "American bison", "dorsal vertebra", "bunyip", "Floraville, New South Wales", "sloth", "spine of scapula", "hippo", "intervertebral disc", "William Branwhite Clarke", "body of the mandible", "glenoid cavity", "temporal muscle", "Vombatidae", "ape", "Palorchestes", "lumbar vertebra", "generation time", "mandible", "Meniscolophus", "last common ancestor", "maxilla", "Warratyi", "Lake Eyre", "Early European modern humans", "apomorphy and synapomorphy", "radius (bone)", "Vombatomorphia", "Quinkan rock art", "placental mammal", "Gerard Krefft", "pouch (marsupial)", "orbit (anatomy)", "tibia", "thylacine", "marsupial", "Henry Yorke Lyell Brown", "Condamine River", "Palorchestidae", "medial pterygoid plate", "Kudjal Yolgah Cave", "Richard Owen", "ilium (bone)", "Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology", "Andrew Loder", "Pyramios", "Murrurundi", "Phascolonus", "Ned's Gully", "orthoclase", "Ancient Greek", "iliac fossa", "metatherian", "Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions", "hip socket", "Simosthenurus", "Oligocene", "Darling Downs", "aboriginal rock art", "Frederick McCoy", "Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology", "nasal bone", "Protemnodon", "Isotopes of carbon", "type species", "femoral neck", "sagittal crest", "Nelson Bay, New South Wales", "vombatid", "medullary cavity", "plantigrade", "sinus (anatomy)", "superfamily (taxonomy)", "bite force", "Pitikantia", "trochlea of humerus", "Mastodon", "Nelson Bay Formation", "C4 carbon fixation", "Meiolania", "insertion (anatomy)", "dry season", "Genesis flood narrative", "Science (journal)", "Cenozoic", "South Australia", "sexual maturity", "Isotopes of strontium", "femoral head", "diastema", "suborder", "eutherian", "Charles Darwin", "Victorian Volcanic Plain grasslands", "William Sheridan Wall", "Boreas (journal)", "New South Wales", "South Australian Museum", "Ngapakaldia", "cementum", "American alligator", "European land exploration of Australia", "Thylacoleonidae", "greater trochanter", "occipital condyle", "Euryzygoma", "infraorder", "nasal septum", "Yunta, South Australia", "Middle Pleistocene", "Diprotodontia", "Herbert Basedow", "dugong", "grazing (behaviour)", "endemism", "Gallery of Paleontology and Comparative Anatomy", "bilophodont", "ungulate", "occipital bone", "Mukupirna", "luminescence dating", "third metatarsal", "progressive creationism", "browsing (herbivory)", "U-series dating", "bone marrow", "Nimbadon", "jaguar", "Thomas Huxley", "Silvabestius", "subfamily", "thermoregulate", "wallaby", "premolar", "the Dreaming", "Thylacoleo carnifex", "Benjamin Boyd", "Phascolarctidae", "Pleistocene", "ramus of the mandible", "fish", "Theodore Gill", "quoll", "linear regression", "anchylosis", "Finite element analysis", "Namba Formation", "bachelor herd", "elephant", "Late Oligocene", "folk memory", "scapula", "frontal sinus", "Madjedbebe", "mandibular symphysis", "Brain–body mass ratio", "controlled burn", "Vombatiformes", "Quaternary glaciation", "fossa (anatomy)", "Wilkindinna", "geochronology", "vertebral column", "Australian Rock Art Research Association", "Henry Hurst (geologist)", "sulphur-crested cockatoo", "malleolus", "atlas (anatomy)", "bird", "lactation", "Zygomaturus", "tiger quoll", "Bematherium", "polygyny in animals", "placental", "family (biology)", "Australian Museum", "fibula", "Diprotodontidae", "masseter muscle", "Wellington Caves", "femur", "neural canal", "koala", "interglacial period", "species description", "unit (geology)", "lateral pterygoid muscle", "braincase", "metatarsal", "palate bone", "Sthenurinae", "sacroiliac joint", "Ludwig Leichhardt", "body temperature", "Neohelos", "axis (anatomy)", "rib", "Genyornis", "Mammoth Cave (Western Australia)", "Pliocene", "Diprotodontoidea", "Sydney", "Poisson's ratio", "Marine Isotope Stage 5", "Aboriginal Australian", "incisor", "Alkwertatherium", "ischium", "Varanus priscus", "Polyprotodontia", "metacarpal", "condyloid process", "Late Miocene", "cartilage", "Deinotherium", "wombat", "metatheria", "palate", "List of extinct New Zealand animals", "Late Pleistocene", "species", "metabolic rate", "George Bennett (naturalist)", "Bacchus Marsh", "Sussex", "Early Pleistocene", "pisiform bone", "William David Lindsay Ride", "Karen H. Black", "John Walter Gregory", "quartz", "Gowrie, New South Wales", "spinal cord", "Thylacoleo", "genus", "List of mammals that perform mass migrations", "Nototherium", "Latin", "temporalis muscle", "Richard H. Tedford", "dental formula", "section modulus", "monsoon", "synonym (taxonomy)", "saltwater crocodile", "fossil trackway", "gigantism", "molar (tooth)", "Thomas Mitchell (explorer)", "El Niño–Southern Oscillation", "Ruben A. Stirton" ]
8,718	Dirk Benedict	Dirk Benedict (born Dirk Niewoehner; March 1, 1945) is an American actor and author. He is best known for playing the characters Lieutenant Starbuck in the original Battlestar Galactica film and television series and Templeton "Face" Peck in The A-Team television series. He is the author of Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy and And Then We Went Fishing. ==Early life== Benedict was born Dirk Niewoehner on March 1, 1945, in Helena, Montana, the son of George Edward Niewoehner, a lawyer, and his wife Priscilla Mella (née Metzger), an accountant. He grew up in White Sulphur Springs, Montana. He graduated from Whitman College in 1967. Benedict allegedly chose his stage name from a serving of Eggs Benedict he had prior to his acting career. He is of German extraction. ==Career== Benedict's film debut was in the 1972 film Georgia, Georgia. When the New York run for Butterflies Are Free ended, he received an offer to repeat his performance in Hawaii, opposite Barbara Rush. While there, he appeared as a guest lead on Hawaii Five-O. The producers of a horror film called Sssssss (1973) saw Benedict's performance in Hawaii Five-O and promptly cast him as the lead in that movie. He next played the psychotic wife-beating husband of Twiggy in her American film debut, W (1974). Benedict starred in the television series Chopper One, which aired for one season in 1974. He made two appearances in Charlie's Angels. He also appeared on the Donny & Marie variety show. Benedict's career break came in 1978 when he appeared as Lieutenant Starbuck in the movie and television series Battlestar Galactica. The same year, Benedict starred in the TV film, Cruise into Terror, and appeared in the ensemble movie, Scavenger Hunt the following year. ===1980s and 1990s=== In 1980, Benedict starred alongside Linda Blair in an action-comedy movie called Ruckus. In 1983, Dirk gained further popularity as con man Templeton "Faceman" Peck in 1980s action television series The A-Team. He played "Face" from to , although the series didn't air until January 1983, and the final episode wasn't shown until 1987 rebroadcasts. The second season episode "Steel" includes a scene at Universal Studios where Face is seen looking bemused as a Cylon walks by him as an in-joke to his previous role in Battlestar Galactica. The clip is incorporated into the series' opening credit sequence from season 3 onward. In 1986, Benedict starred as low-life band manager Harry Smilac in the movie Body Slam along with Lou Albano, Roddy Piper, and cameo appearances by Freddie Blassie, Ric Flair, and Bruno Sammartino. His character Smilac ends up managing the pro-wrestler "Quick Rick" Roberts (Piper) and faces opposition by Captain Lou Murano (Albano) and his wrestling tag-team "the Cannibals". In 1987, Benedict took the title role of Shakespeare's Hamlet at the Abbey Theatre in Manhattan. Both his performance and the entire production were lambasted by critics. Benedict starred in the 1989 TV film Trenchcoat in Paradise. In 1991, Benedict starred in Blue Tornado, playing Alex, call sign Fireball, an Italian Air Force fighter pilot. Benedict published an autobiography, Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy: A True Story of Discovery, Acting, Health, Illness, Recovery, and Life (Avery Publishing ). In 1993, Benedict starred in Shadow Force. Benedict also appeared as Jake Barnes in the 1996 action-adventure film Alaska. ===2000s and 2010s=== In 2000, Benedict wrote and directed his first screenplay, Cahoots. Benedict appeared in the 2006 German film Goldene Zeiten ("Golden Times") in a dual role, playing an American former TV star as well as a German lookalike who impersonates him. In 2006, he wrote an online essay criticizing the then-airing Battlestar Galactica re-imagined series and, especially, its casting of a woman as his character, Starbuck, writing that "the war against masculinity has been won" and that "a television show based on hope, spiritual faith, and family is unimagined and regurgitated as a show of despair, sexual violence and family dysfunction". He appeared as a contestant on the 2007 UK series of Celebrity Big Brother 5, in which he placed third. He arrived on launch night in a replica of the A-Team van, smoking a cigar and accompanied by the A-Team theme tune. In 2010, Benedict starred in a stage production of Prescription: Murder playing Lieutenant Columbo for the Middle Ground Theatre Company in the UK. Benedict also made a cameo appearance in the 2010 film adaptation of The A-Team as Pensacola Prisoner Milt. In 2019, Benedict took on the role of Jack Strange in the B movie Space Ninjas, written and directed by Scott McQuaid. Dirk plays an eccentric TV host of a show called Stranger Than Fiction, which is like a hybrid of The Twilight Zone and The X-Files. The movie is a sci-fi comedy horror that follows a bunch of high school students trying to survive the night of a Space Ninja invasion. ==Personal life== ===Cancer=== In the 1970s, Benedict survived a prostate tumor, which he refused to have tested for malignancy. Having rejected conventional medical treatment, he credited his survival to the adoption of a macrobiotic diet recommended to him by actress Gloria Swanson. ===Marriage and family=== In 1986, he married Toni Hudson, an actress with whom he has two sons, George and Roland. Hudson had previously appeared as Dana in the fourth season A-Team episode titled "Blood, Sweat and Cheers". They divorced in 1995. In 1998, Benedict learned that he also has another son from an earlier relationship, who was placed for adoption. ==Filmography== ===Film=== === Television === == Video Games ==	[ "Columbo", "Earthstorm (2006 film)", "Underground Aces", "Sssssss", "Butterflies Are Free", "W (1974 film)", "Cylon (1978)", "Lou Albano", "Amazing Stories (1985 TV series)", "The Georgia Peaches", "Murder, She Wrote", "Official Denial", "Italian Air Force", "Goldene Zeiten", "Demon Keeper", "Twiggy", "People (magazine)", "Body Slam (film)", "Classic Stage Company", "call sign", "fighter pilot", "Barbara Rush", "Hotel (American TV series)", "The Wild Samoans", "Walker, Texas Ranger", "Linda Blair", "Battlestar Galactica (1978 TV series)", "Universal Pictures", "Galactica 1980", "Parade (magazine)", "Georgia, Georgia", "The Commish", "Hammer House of Mystery and Suspense", "Alaska (1996 film)", "Hamlet", "Scavenger Hunt", "Columbo (character)", "Space Ninjas", "macrobiotic diet", "Saga of a Star World", "List of The A-Team episodes", "The Love Boat", "Jim McMullan", "The Feminine Touch (1995 film)", "Roddy Piper", "cameo appearance", "Chopper One", "Toni Hudson", "Whitman College", "The X-Files", "Lieutenant Starbuck", "Gloria Swanson", "Shadow Force (1992 film)", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1985 TV series)", "Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series)", "Helena, Montana", "The A-Team", "Donny & Marie (1976 TV series)", "Ruckus (film)", "Middle Ground Theatre Company", "Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)", "Celebrity Big Brother (British series 5)", "List of Battlestar Galactica video games", "Zork: Grand Inquisitor", "Blue Tornado (film)", "The A-Team season 4", "Eggs Benedict", "White Sulphur Springs, Montana", "Lucca Comics & Games", "Charlie's Angels", "All Movie Guide", "Cruise Into Terror", "The A-Team (film)", "Templeton Peck", "Bruno Sammartino", "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)", "Baseline (database)", "Trenchcoat in Paradise", "tumor", "Ric Flair", "Freddie Blassie", "The New York Times", "Ted Hartley", "Baywatch", "Avery Publishing" ]
8,724	Doppler effect	The Doppler effect (also Doppler shift) is the change in the frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave. The Doppler effect is named after the physicist Christian Doppler, who described the phenomenon in 1842. A common example of Doppler shift is the change of pitch heard when a vehicle sounding a horn approaches and recedes from an observer. Compared to the emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the instant of passing by, and lower during the recession. When the source of the sound wave is moving towards the observer, each successive cycle of the wave is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous cycle. Hence, from the observer's perspective, the time between cycles is reduced, meaning the frequency is increased. Conversely, if the source of the sound wave is moving away from the observer, each cycle of the wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous cycle, so the arrival time between successive cycles is increased, thus reducing the frequency. For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by Buys Ballot in 1845. He confirmed that the sound's pitch was higher than the emitted frequency when the sound source approached him, and lower than the emitted frequency when the sound source receded from him. Hippolyte Fizeau discovered independently the same phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in 1848 (in France, the effect is sometimes called "effet Doppler-Fizeau" but that name was not adopted by the rest of the world as Fizeau's discovery was six years after Doppler's proposal). In Britain, John Scott Russell made an experimental study of the Doppler effect (1848). ==General== In classical physics, where the speeds of the source and the receiver relative to the medium are lower than the speed of waves in the medium, the relationship between observed frequency f and emitted frequency f_\text{0} is given by: f = \left( \frac{c \pm v_\text{r}}{c \mp v_\text{s}} \right) f_0 where c is the propagation speed of waves in the medium; v_\text{r} is the speed of the receiver relative to the medium. In the formula, v_\text{r} is added to c if the receiver is moving towards the source, subtracted if the receiver is moving away from the source; v_\text{s} is the speed of the source relative to the medium. v_\text{s} is subtracted from c if the source is moving towards the receiver, added if the source is moving away from the receiver. Note this relationship predicts that the frequency will decrease if either source or receiver is moving away from the other. Equivalently, under the assumption that the source is either directly approaching or receding from the observer: \frac{f}{v_{wr}} = \frac{f_0}{v_{ws}} = \frac{1}{\lambda} where v_{wr} is the wave's speed relative to the receiver; v_{ws} is the wave's speed relative to the source; \lambda is the wavelength. If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a constant speed), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than the object's emitted frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through equality when it is coming from a direction perpendicular to the relative motion (and was emitted at the point of closest approach; but when the wave is received, the source and observer will no longer be at their closest), and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the observer. When the observer is very close to the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt. When the observer is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is gradual. If the speeds v_\text{s} and v_\text{r} \, are small compared to the speed of the wave, the relationship between observed frequency f and emitted frequency f_\text{0} is approximately ==Applications== ===Sirens=== A siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus: In other words, if the siren approached the observer directly, the pitch would remain constant, at a higher than stationary pitch, until the vehicle hit him, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch. Because the vehicle passes by the observer, the radial speed does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle between his line of sight and the siren's velocity: v_\text{radial} = v_\text{s} \cos(\theta) where \theta is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer. ===Astronomy=== The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of widespread use in astronomy to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us, resulting in so called blueshift or redshift, respectively. This may be used to detect if an apparently single star is, in reality, a close binary, to measure the rotational speed of stars and galaxies, or to detect exoplanets. This effect typically happens on a very small scale; there would not be a noticeable difference in visible light to the unaided eye. The use of the Doppler effect in astronomy depends on knowledge of precise frequencies of discrete lines in the spectra of stars. Among the nearby stars, the largest radial velocities with respect to the Sun are +308 km/s (BD-15°4041, also known as LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and −260 km/s (Woolley 9722, also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years away). Positive radial speed means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching. The relationship between the expansion of the universe and the Doppler effect is not simple matter of the source moving away from the observer. In cosmology, the redshift of expansion is considered separate from redshifts due to gravity or Doppler motion. Distant galaxies also exhibit peculiar motion distinct from their cosmological recession speeds. If redshifts are used to determine distances in accordance with Hubble's law, then these peculiar motions give rise to redshift-space distortions. ===Radar=== The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target – e.g. a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists – as it approaches or recedes from the radar source. Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength. In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's speed. Moreover, the proximity fuze, developed during World War II, relies upon Doppler radar to detonate explosives at the correct time, height, distance, etc. Because the Doppler shift affects the wave incident upon the target as well as the wave reflected back to the radar, the change in frequency observed by a radar due to a target moving at relative speed \Delta v is twice that from the same target emitting a wave: \Delta f=\frac{2\Delta v}{c}f_0. ===Medical=== An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce an accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect. One of the limitations is that the ultrasound beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible. Velocity measurements allow assessment of cardiac valve areas and function, abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the cardiac output. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements. Although "Doppler" has become synonymous with "velocity measurement" in medical imaging, in many cases it is not the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (when the received signal arrives). Velocity measurements of blood flow are also used in other fields of medical ultrasonography, such as obstetric ultrasonography and neurology. Velocity measurement of blood flow in arteries and veins based on Doppler effect is an effective tool for diagnosis of vascular problems like stenosis. ===Flow measurement=== Instruments such as the laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), and acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure velocities in a fluid flow. The LDV emits a light beam and the ADV emits an ultrasonic acoustic burst, and measure the Doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow. The actual flow is computed as a function of the water velocity and phase. This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and high frequency. ===Velocity profile measurement=== Developed originally for velocity measurements in medical applications (blood flow), Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) can measure in real time complete velocity profile in almost any liquids containing particles in suspension such as dust, gas bubbles, emulsions. Flows can be pulsating, oscillating, laminar or turbulent, stationary or transient. This technique is fully non-invasive. ===Satellites=== ====Satellite navigation==== The Doppler shift can be exploited for satellite navigation such as in Transit and DORIS. ====Satellite communication==== Doppler also needs to be compensated in satellite communication. Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground station. The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature. Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a signal is changed progressively during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal. After realizing that the Doppler shift had not been considered before launch of the Huygens probe of the 2005 Cassini–Huygens mission, the probe trajectory was altered to approach Titan in such a way that its transmissions traveled perpendicular to its direction of motion relative to Cassini, greatly reducing the Doppler shift. Doppler shift of the direct path can be estimated by the following formula: f_{\rm D, dir} = \frac{v_{\rm mob}}{\lambda_{\rm c}}\cos\phi \cos\theta where v_\text{mob} is the speed of the mobile station, \lambda_{\rm c} is the wavelength of the carrier, \phi is the elevation angle of the satellite and \theta is the driving direction with respect to the satellite. The additional Doppler shift due to the satellite moving can be described as: f_{\rm D,sat} = \frac{v_{\rm rel,sat}}{\lambda_{\rm c}} where v_{\rm rel,sat} is the relative speed of the satellite. ===Audio=== The Leslie speaker, most commonly associated with and predominantly used with the famous Hammond organ, takes advantage of the Doppler effect by using an electric motor to rotate an acoustic horn around a loudspeaker, sending its sound in a circle. This results at the listener's ear in rapidly fluctuating frequencies of a keyboard note. ===Vibration measurement=== A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is a non-contact instrument for measuring vibration. The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of interest, and the vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to the motion of the surface. ===Robotics=== Dynamic real-time path planning in robotics to aid the movement of robots in a sophisticated environment with moving obstacles often take help of Doppler effect. Such applications are specially used for competitive robotics where the environment is constantly changing, such as robosoccer. ==Inverse Doppler effect== Since 1968 scientists such as Victor Veselago have speculated about the possibility of an inverse Doppler effect. The size of the Doppler shift depends on the refractive index of the medium a wave is traveling through. Some materials are capable of negative refraction, which should lead to a Doppler shift that works in a direction opposite that of a conventional Doppler shift. The first experiment that detected this effect was conducted by Nigel Seddon and Trevor Bearpark in Bristol, United Kingdom in 2003. Later, the inverse Doppler effect was observed in some inhomogeneous materials, and predicted inside a Vavilov–Cherenkov cone.	[ "echocardiogram", "radial velocities", "Redshift", "Hubble's law", "galaxy", "velocity", "Christian Doppler", "Dopplergraph", "Woolley 9722", "cardiac output", "BD-15°4041", "DORIS (satellite system)", "frequency", "radiating", "electromagnetic spectroscopy", "John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh", "Doppler spectroscopy", "National Center for Supercomputing Applications", "siren (alarm)", "star", "John Dobson (astronomer)", "neurology", "Sun", "Rayleigh fading", "Hippolyte Fizeau", "Differential Doppler effect", "Pitch (music)", "electromagnetic waves", "shock wave", "vehicle", "Binary star", "emergency vehicle", "Cassini–Huygens", "Titan (moon)", "transmission medium", "satellite navigation", "Doppler cooling", "laser Doppler vibrometer", "Leslie speaker", "laser Doppler velocimetry", "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels", "blueshift", "medical ultrasonography", "Transit (satellite)", "peculiar motion", "acoustic Doppler velocimetry", "United Kingdom", "Bistatic Doppler shift", "astronomy", "pitch (music)", "C. H. D. Buys Ballot", "stenosis", "Contrast-enhanced ultrasound", "ultrasound", "wave", "spectral line", "redshift-space distortions", "obstetric ultrasonography", "Huygens (spacecraft)", "Philomatic Society", "sonic boom", "redshift", "gravitational wave", "IEEE Spectrum", "Laser Doppler imaging", "John Scott Russell", "sound", "Fading", "Bristol", "Cambridge University Press", "Taylor's series", "Relativistic Doppler effect", "Range rate", "English language", "List of nearest stars", "optical spectrum", "radar", "satellite communication", "negative refraction", "electromagnetic wave", "vacuum", "Fizeau experiment", "binary stars", "Photoacoustic Doppler effect", "wavefront", "Hammond organ", "Victor Veselago", "monotonic", "proximity fuze" ]
8,727	ΔT (timekeeping)	In precise timekeeping, ΔT (Delta T, delta-T, deltaT, or DT) is a measure of the cumulative effect of the departure of the Earth's rotation period from the fixed-length day of International Atomic Time (86,400 seconds). Formally, ΔT is the time difference between Universal Time (UT, defined by Earth's rotation) and Terrestrial Time (TT, independent of Earth's rotation). The value of ΔT for the start of 1902 was approximately zero; for 2002 it was about 64 seconds. So Earth's rotations over that century took about 64 seconds longer than would be required for days of atomic time. As well as this long-term drift in the length of the day there are short-term fluctuations in the length of day () which are dealt with separately. Since early 2017, the length of the day has happened to be very close to the conventional value, and ΔT has remained within half a second of 69 seconds. ==Calculation== Earth's rotational speed is , and a day corresponds to one period . A rotational acceleration gives a rate of change of the period of , which is usually expressed as . This has dimension of reciprocal time and is commonly reported in units of milliseconds-per-day per century, symbolized as ms/day/cy (understood as (ms/day)/cy). Integrating gives an expression for ΔT against time. ===Universal time=== Universal Time is a time scale based on the Earth's rotation, which is somewhat irregular over short periods (days up to a century), thus any time based on it cannot have an accuracy better than 1 in 108. However, a larger, more consistent effect has been observed over many centuries: Earth's rate of rotation is inexorably slowing down. This observed change in the rate of rotation is attributable to two primary forces, one decreasing and one increasing the Earth's rate of rotation. Over the long term, the dominating force is tidal friction, which is slowing the rate of rotation, contributing about ms/day/cy or ms/cy, which is equal to the very small fractional change day/day. The most important force acting in the opposite direction, to speed up the rate, is believed to be a result of the melting of continental ice sheets at the end of the last glacial period. This removed their tremendous weight, allowing the land under them to begin to rebound upward in the polar regions, an effect that is still occurring today and will continue until isostatic equilibrium is reached. This "post-glacial rebound" brings mass closer to the rotational axis of the Earth, which makes the Earth spin faster, according to the law of conservation of angular momentum, similar to an ice skater pulling their arms in to spin faster. Models estimate this effect to contribute about −0.6 ms/day/cy. Combining these two effects, the net acceleration (actually a deceleration) of the rotation of the Earth, or the change in the length of the mean solar day (LOD), is +1.7 ms/day/cy or +62 s/cy2 or +46.5 ns/day2. This matches the average rate derived from astronomical records over the past 27 centuries. ===Terrestrial time=== Terrestrial Time is a theoretical uniform time scale, defined to provide continuity with the former Ephemeris Time (ET). ET was an independent time-variable, proposed (and its adoption agreed) in the period 1948–1952 with the intent of forming a gravitationally uniform time scale as far as was feasible at that time, and depending for its definition on Simon Newcomb's Tables of the Sun (1895), interpreted in a new way to accommodate certain observed discrepancies. Newcomb's tables formed the basis of all astronomical ephemerides of the Sun from 1900 through 1983: they were originally expressed (and published) in terms of Greenwich Mean Time and the mean solar day, but later, in respect of the period 1960–1983, they were treated as expressed in terms of ET, in accordance with the adopted ET proposal of 1948–52. ET, in turn, can now be seen (in light of modern results) as close to the average mean solar time between 1750 and 1890 (centered on 1820), because that was the period during which the observations on which Newcomb's tables were based were performed. While TT is strictly uniform (being based on the SI second, every second is the same as every other second), it is in practice realised by International Atomic Time (TAI) with an accuracy of about 1 part in 1014. ==Earth's rate of rotation== Earth's rate of rotation must be integrated to obtain time, which is Earth's angular position (specifically, the orientation of the meridian of Greenwich relative to the fictitious mean sun). Integrating +1.7 ms/d/cy and centering the resulting parabola on the year 1820 yields (to a first approximation) seconds for ΔT. Smoothed historical measurements of ΔT using total solar eclipses are about +17190 s in the year −500 (501 BC), +10580 s in 0 (1 BC), +5710 s in 500, +1570 s in 1000, and +200 s in 1500. After the invention of the telescope, measurements were made by observing occultations of stars by the Moon, which allowed the derivation of more closely spaced and more accurate values for ΔT. ΔT continued to decrease until it reached a plateau of +11 ± 6 s between 1680 and 1866. For about three decades immediately before 1902 it was negative, reaching −6.64 s. Then it increased to +63.83 s in January 2000 and +68.97 s in January 2018 and +69.361 s in January 2020, after even a slight decrease from 69.358 s in July 2019 to 69.338 s in September and October 2019 and a new increase in November and December 2019. This will require the addition of an ever-greater number of leap seconds to UTC as long as UTC tracks UT1 with one-second adjustments. (The SI second as now used for UTC, when adopted, was already a little shorter than the current value of the second of mean solar time.) Physically, the meridian of Greenwich in Universal Time is almost always to the east of the meridian in Terrestrial Time, both in the past and in the future. +17190 s or about h corresponds to 71.625°E. This means that in the year −500 (501 BC), Earth's faster rotation would cause a total solar eclipse to occur 71.625° to the east of the location calculated using the uniform TT. ==Values prior to 1955== All values of ΔT before 1955 depend on observations of the Moon, either via eclipses or occultations. The angular momentum lost by the Earth due to friction induced by the Moon's tidal effect is transferred to the Moon, increasing its angular momentum, which means that its moment arm (approximately its distance from the Earth, i.e. precisely the semi-major axis of the Moon's orbit) is increased (for the time being about +3.8 cm/year), which via Kepler's laws of planetary motion causes the Moon to revolve around the Earth at a slower rate. The cited values of ΔT assume that the lunar acceleration (actually a deceleration, that is a negative acceleration) due to this effect is = −26″/cy2, where is the mean sidereal angular motion of the Moon. This is close to the best estimate for as of 2002 of −25.858 ± 0.003″/cy2, so ΔT need not be recalculated given the uncertainties and smoothing applied to its current values. Nowadays, UT is the observed orientation of the Earth relative to an inertial reference frame formed by extra-galactic radio sources, modified by an adopted ratio between sidereal time and solar time. Its measurement by several observatories is coordinated by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). == Current values == Recall by definition. While TT is only theoretical, it is commonly realized as TAI + 32.184 seconds where TAI is UTC plus the current leap seconds, so . This can be rewritten as , where DUT1 is UT1 − UTC. The value of DUT1 is sent out in the weekly IERS Bulletin A, as well as several time signal services, and by extension serve as a source of the current . == Geological evidence == Tidal deceleration rates have varied over the history of the Earth-Moon system. Analysis of layering in fossil mollusc shells from 70 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, shows that there were 372 days a year, and thus that the day was about 23.5 hours long then. Based on geological studies of tidal rhythmites, the day was 21.9±0.4 hours long 620 million years ago and there were 13.1±0.1 synodic months/year and 400±7 solar days/year. The average recession rate of the Moon between then and now has been 2.17±0.31 cm/year, which is about half the present rate. The present high rate may be due to near resonance between natural ocean frequencies and tidal frequencies.	[ "rotational speed", "second", "reciprocal time", "solar eclipse", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Kepler's laws of planetary motion", "mollusc shell", "Rhythmites", "Ephemeris time", "Terrestrial Time", "mean sun", "Late Cretaceous", "Ephemeris Time", "day length fluctuations", "Unit of measurement", "Time standard", "International Atomic Time", "Simon Newcomb", "Moon", "last glacial period", "Dennis McCarthy (scientist)", "DUT1", "SI", "sidereal time", "Before Christ", "Earth's rotation", "dimension (physics)", "Day length fluctuations", "time signal service", "rotational acceleration", "resonance", "International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London", "Universal Time", "IERS", "Newcomb's Tables of the Sun", "tidal acceleration", "Tidal acceleration", "post-glacial rebound", "angular momentum", "leap second" ]
8,728	December 22	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== AD 69 – Vespasian is proclaimed Emperor of Rome; his predecessor, Vitellius, attempts to abdicate but is captured and killed at the Gemonian stairs. 401 – Pope Innocent I is elected, the only pope to succeed his father in the office. 856 – Damghan earthquake: An earthquake near the Persian city of Damghan kills an estimated 200,000 people, the sixth deadliest earthquake in recorded history. 880 – Luoyang, eastern capital of the Tang dynasty, is captured by rebel leader Huang Chao during the reign of Emperor Xizong. 1135 – Three weeks after the death of King Henry I of England, Stephen of Blois claims the throne and is privately crowned King of England, beginning the English Anarchy. 1216 – Pope Honorius III approves the Dominican Order through the papal bull of confirmation Religiosam vitam. 1489 – The forces of the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, take control of Almería from the Nasrid ruler of Granada, Muhammad XIII. ===1601–1900=== 1769 – Sino-Burmese War: The war ends with the Qing dynasty withdrawing from Burma forever. 1788 – Nguyễn Huệ proclaims himself Emperor Quang Trung, in effect abolishing on his own the Lê dynasty. 1790 – The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Alexander Suvorov and his Russian armies. 1807 – The Embargo Act, forbidding trade with all foreign countries, is passed by the U.S. Congress at the urging of President Thomas Jefferson. 1808 – Ludwig van Beethoven conducts and performs in concert at the Theater an der Wien, Vienna, with the premiere of his Fifth Symphony, Sixth Symphony, Fourth Piano Concerto and Choral Fantasy. 1851 – India's first freight train is operated in Roorkee, to transport material for the construction of the Ganges Canal. 1851 – The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., burns. 1864 – American Civil War: Savannah, Georgia, falls to the Union's Army of the Tennessee, and General Sherman tells President Abraham Lincoln: "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah". 1885 – Itō Hirobumi, a samurai, becomes the first Prime Minister of Japan. 1888 – The Christmas Meeting of 1888, considered to be the official start of the Faroese independence movement. 1890 – Cornwallis Valley Railway begins operation between Kentville and Kingsport, Nova Scotia. 1891 – Asteroid 323 Brucia becomes the first asteroid discovered using photography. 1894 – The Dreyfus affair begins in France, when Alfred Dreyfus is wrongly convicted of treason. ===1901–present=== 1906 – An 7.9 earthquake strikes Xinjiang, China, killing at least 280. 1920 – The GOELRO economic development plan is adopted by the 8th Congress of Soviets of the Russian SFSR. 1921 – Opening of Visva-Bharati College, also known as Santiniketan College, now Visva Bharati University, India. 1937 – The Lincoln Tunnel opens to traffic in New York City. 1939 – Indian Muslims observe a "Day of Deliverance" to celebrate the resignations of members of the Indian National Congress over their not having been consulted over the decision to enter World War II with the United Kingdom. 1940 – World War II: Himara is captured by the Greek army. 1942 – World War II: Adolf Hitler signs the order to develop the V-2 rocket as a weapon. 1944 – World War II: Battle of the Bulge: German troops demand the surrender of United States troops at Bastogne, Belgium, prompting the famous one word reply by General Anthony McAuliffe: "Nuts!" 1944 – World War II: The People's Army of Vietnam is formed to resist Japanese occupation of Indochina, now Vietnam. 1945 – U.S. President Harry S. Truman issues an executive order giving World War II refugees precedence in visa applications under U.S. immigration quotas. 1948 – Sjafruddin Prawiranegara established the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (Pemerintah Darurat Republik Indonesia, PDRI) in West Sumatra. 1963 – The cruise ship Lakonia burns north of Madeira, Portugal with the loss of 128 lives. 1964 – The first test flight of the SR-71 (Blackbird) takes place at Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California, United States. 1965 – In the United Kingdom, a speed limit is applied to all rural roads including motorways for the first time. 1968 – Cultural Revolution: People's Daily posted the instructions of Mao Zedong that "The intellectual youth must go to the country, and will be educated from living in rural poverty." 1971 – The international aid organization Doctors Without Borders is founded by Bernard Kouchner and a group of journalists in Paris, France. 1973 – A Royal Air Maroc Sud Aviation Caravelle crashes near Tangier-Boukhalef Airport in Tangier, Morocco, killing 106. 1974 – Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli vote to become the independent nation of Comoros. Mayotte remains under French administration. 1974 – The house of former British Prime Minister Edward Heath is attacked by members of the Provisional IRA. 1975 – U.S. President Gerald Ford creates the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in response to the 1970s energy crisis. 1978 – The pivotal Third Plenum of the 11th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party is held in Beijing, with Deng Xiaoping reversing Mao-era policies to pursue a program for Chinese economic reform. 1984 – "Subway vigilante" Bernhard Goetz shoots four would-be muggers on a 2 express train in Manhattan section of New York, United States. 1987 – In Zimbabwe, the political parties ZANU and ZAPU reach an agreement that ends the violence in the Matabeleland region known as the Gukurahundi. 1989 – Romanian Revolution: Communist President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu is overthrown by Ion Iliescu after days of bloody confrontations. The deposed dictator and his wife Elena flee Bucharest in a helicopter as protesters erupt in cheers. 1989 – German reunification: Berlin's Brandenburg Gate re-opens after nearly 30 years, effectively ending the division of East and West Germany. 1990 – Lech Wałęsa is elected President of Poland. 1990 – Final independence of Marshall Islands and Federated States of Micronesia after termination of trusteeship. 1992 – During approach to Tripoli International Airport, a Boeing 727 operating as Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 1103 collides in mid-air with a Libyan Air Force Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23, killing 157 people. 1996 – Airborne Express Flight 827 crashes in Narrows, Virginia, killing all six people on board. 1997 – Acteal massacre: Attendees at a prayer meeting of Roman Catholic activists for indigenous causes in the small village of Acteal in the Mexican state of Chiapas are massacred by paramilitary forces. 1997 – Somali Civil War: Hussein Farrah Aidid relinquishes the disputed title of President of Somalia by signing the Cairo Declaration, in Cairo, Egypt. It is the first major step towards reconciliation in Somalia since 1991. 1999 – Just after taking off from London Stansted Airport, Korean Air Cargo Flight 8509 crashes into Hatfield Forest near Great Hallingbury, killing all four people on board. 2001 – Burhanuddin Rabbani, political leader of the Northern Alliance, hands over power in Islamic State of Afghanistan to the interim government headed by President Hamid Karzai. 2001 – Richard Reid attempts to destroy a passenger airliner by igniting explosives hidden in his shoes aboard American Airlines Flight 63. 2008 – An ash dike ruptured at a solid waste containment area for a Tennessee Valley Authority coal-fired power plant in Roane County, Tennessee, releasing of coal fly ash slurry in the largest industrial spill in U.S. history. 2010 – The repeal of the Don't ask, don't tell policy, the 17-year-old policy banning homosexuals serving openly in the United States military, is signed into law by President Barack Obama. 2012 – Bashir Ahmad Bilour of Awami National Party and eight others are killed in a Pakistan Taliban bomber suicide attack in Dhaki Nalbandi area near Qissa Khwani Bazaar. 2016 – A study finds the VSV-EBOV vaccine against the Ebola virus between 70 and 100% effective, thus making it the first proven vaccine against the disease. 2017 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 2397 against North Korea is unanimously approved. 2017 – President Donald Trump signs the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. 2018 – A tsunami caused by an eruption of Anak Krakatau in Indonesia kills at least 430 people and injures almost a thousand more. 2018 – The 2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown, the longest shutdown of the U.S. federal government in history, begins. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 244 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (d. 311) 948 – Kang Kam-ch'an, Korean official and general (d. 1031) 1095 – Roger II of Sicily (d. 1154) 1178 – Emperor Antoku of Japan (d. 1185) 1183 – Chagatai Khan, Mongol ruler (d. 1242) 1300 – Khutughtu Khan Kusala, Mongolian emperor (d. 1329) 1459 – Sultan Cem, Ottoman politician (d. 1495) 1546 – Kuroda Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1604) 1550 – Cesare Cremonini, Italian philosopher and author (d. 1631) 1569 – Étienne Martellange, French architect (d. 1641) 1591 – Tommaso Dingli, Maltese architect and sculptor (d. 1666) ===1601–1900=== 1639 – Jean Racine, French poet and playwright (d. 1699) 1666 – Guru Gobind Singh, Indian guru and poet (d. 1708) 1694 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German philosopher and academic (d. 1768) 1696 – James Oglethorpe, English general and politician, 1st Colonial Governor of Georgia (d. 1785) 1819 – Pierre Ossian Bonnet, French mathematician and academic (d. 1892) 1839 – John Nevil Maskelyne, English magician (d. 1917) 1850 – Victoriano Huerta, Mexican general and politician, 35th President of Mexico (d. 1916) 1853 – Teresa Carreño, Venezuelan-American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1917) 1853 – Evgraf Fedorov, Russian mathematician, crystallographer, and mineralogist (d. 1919) 1853 – Sarada Devi, Indian mystic and philosopher (d. 1920) 1856 – Frank B. Kellogg, American lawyer and politician, 45th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937) 1858 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer and educator (d. 1924) 1868 – Jaan Tõnisson, Estonian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1941?) 1869 – Dmitri Egorov, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1931) 1869 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet and playwright (d. 1935) 1883 – Marcus Hurley, American cyclist (d. 1941) 1883 – Edgard Varèse, French-American composer (d. 1965) 1884 – St. Elmo Brady, African American chemist and educator (d. 1966) 1885 – Deems Taylor, American conductor and critic (d. 1966) 1887 – Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician and theorist (d. 1920) 1888 – J. Arthur Rank, 1st Baron Rank, English businessman, founded Rank Organisation (d. 1972) 1889 – George Hutson, English runner and soldier (d. 1914) 1892 – Herman Potočnik, Slovenian-Austrian engineer (d. 1929) 1894 – Edwin Linkomies, Finnish academic, professor and the Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1963) 1898 – Vladimir Fock, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1974) 1899 – Gustaf Gründgens, German actor and director (d. 1963) 1900 – Marc Allégret, French director and screenwriter (d. 1973) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Andre Kostelanetz, Russian-American conductor and composer (d. 1980) 1903 – Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1983) 1905 – Pierre Brasseur, French-Italian actor and screenwriter (d. 1972) 1905 – Pierre Levegh, French ice hockey player and racing driver (d. 1955) 1905 – Kenneth Rexroth, American poet, translator, and academic (d. 1982) 1907 – Peggy Ashcroft, English actress (d. 1991) 1908 – Giacomo Manzù, Italian sculptor and academic (d. 1991) 1909 – Patricia Hayes, English actress (d. 1998) 1911 – Danny O'Dea, English actor (d. 2003) 1912 – Elias Degiannis, Greek commander (d. 1943) 1912 – Lady Bird Johnson, American beautification activist; 38th First Lady of the United States (d. 2007) 1921 – Dimitri Fampas, Greek guitarist and composer (d. 1996) 1921 – Hawkshaw Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1963) 1922 – Ruth Roman, American actress (d. 1999) 1922 – Jim Wright, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 56th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 2015) 1923 – Peregrine Worsthorne, English journalist and author (d. 2020) 1924 – Frank Corsaro, American actor and director (d. 2017) 1925 – Lewis Glucksman, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2006) 1925 – Lefter Küçükandonyadis, Turkish footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1926 – Alcides Ghiggia, Italian-Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 2015) 1926 – Roberta Leigh, English writer, artist and TV producer (d. 2014) 1928 – Fredrik Barth, German-Norwegian anthropologist and academic (d. 2016) 1929 – Wazir Mohammad, Indian-Pakistani cricketer 1930 – Ardalion Ignatyev, Russian sprinter and educator (d. 1998) 1931 – Gisela Birkemeyer, German hurdler and coach (d. 2024) 1931 – Carlos Graça, São Toméan lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe (d. 2013) 1932 – Phil Woosnam, Welsh soccer player and manager (d. 2013) 1933 – John Hartle, English motorcycle racer (d. 1968) 1934 – David Pearson, American race car driver (d. 2018) 1935 – Paulo Rocha, Portuguese director and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1936 – James Burke, Irish historian and author 1936 – Héctor Elizondo, American actor and director 1951 – Lasse Bengtsson, Swedish journalist 1951 – Charles de Lint, Dutch-Canadian author and critic 1951 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, British landowner, businessman and philanthropist (d. 2016) 1951 – Tony Isabella, American comic book writer, editor, actor, artist and critic 1951 – Jan Stephenson, Australian golfer 1952 – Sandra Kalniete, Latvian politician and diplomat, former Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1953 – Ian Turnbull, Canadian ice hockey player 1953 – Tom Underwood, American baseball player (d. 2010) 1954 – Hideshi Matsuda, Japanese racing driver 1954 – Derick Parry, Nevisian cricketer 1955 – Galina Murašova, Lithuanian discus thrower 1955 – Lonnie Smith, American baseball player 1955 – Thomas C. Südhof, German-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1956 – Jane Lighting, English businesswoman 1957 – Stephen Conway, English bishop 1957 – Carole James, English-Canadian educator and politician 1957 – Peter Mortimer, Australian rugby league player 1958 – Frank Gambale, Australian guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1958 – David Heavener, American singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and director 1959 – Bernd Schuster, German footballer and manager 1960 – Jean-Michel Basquiat, American painter and poet (d. 1988) 1962 – Ralph Fiennes, English actor 1963 – Giuseppe Bergomi, Italian footballer and coach 1963 – Brian McMillan, South African cricketer and educator 1963 – Luna H. Mitani, Japanese-American painter and illustrator 1964 – Mike Jackson, American baseball player 1964 – Simon Kirby, English businessman and politician 1965 – David S. Goyer, American screenwriter 1965 – Urszula Włodarczyk, Polish heptathlete and triple jumper 1966 – Dmitry Bilozerchev, Russian gymnast and coach 1966 – Marcel Schirmer, German singer-songwriter and bass player 1966 – David Wright, English lawyer and politician 1967 – Richey Edwards, Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995) 1967 – Stéphane Gendron, Canadian lawyer and politician 1967 – Rebecca Harris, English businesswoman and politician 1967 – Dan Petrescu, Romanian footballer and manager 1968 – Emre Aracı, Turkish composer, conductor, and historian 1968 – Luis Hernández, Mexican footballer 1968 – Lori McKenna, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Rei Hance, American actress 1976 – Katleen De Caluwé, Belgian sprinter 1976 – Jason Lane, American baseball player and coach 1976 – Aya Takano, Japanese author and illustrator 1977 – Steve Kariya, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1978 – Danny Ahn, South Korean singer 1978 – Joy Ali, Fijian boxer (d. 2015) 1978 – Emmanuel Olisadebe, Nigerian-Polish footballer 1979 – Jamie Langfield, Scottish footballer and coach 1980 – Chris Carmack, American actor, singer, and model 1981 – Marina Kuptsova, Russian high jumper 1982 – Britta Heidemann, German fencer 1982 – Alinne Moraes, Brazilian actress and model 1983 – José Fonte, Portuguese footballer 1983 – Doc Gallows, American wrestler 1983 – Viola Kibiwot, Kenyan runner 1984 – Basshunter, Swedish singer, record producer and DJ 1984 – Greg Finley, American actor 1987 – Éder, Bissau-Portuguese footballer 1988 – Scott Darling, American ice hockey player 1988 – Mohamed El Shenawy, Egyptian footballer 1988 – Leigh Halfpenny, Welsh rugby player 1989 – Jordin Sparks, American singer-songwriter and actress 1989 – Jacob Stallings, American baseball player 1990 – Jean-Baptiste Maunier, French actor and singer 1991 – DaBaby, American rapper 1992 – Michaela Hončová, Slovak tennis player 1992 – Nick Johnson, American basketball player 1992 – Moonbyul, South Korean rapper, vocalist and songwriter 1993 – Sergi Darder, Spanish footballer 1993 – Raphaël Guerreiro, Portuguese footballer 1993 – Meghan Trainor, American singer-songwriter and producer 1994 – Rúben Lameiras, Portuguese footballer 1998 – G Hannelius, American actress and singer 1998 – Latto, American rapper and singer 1998 – Casper Ruud, Norwegian tennis player 2000 – Joshua Bassett, American actor and singer 2001 – Camila Osorio, Colombian tennis player 2002 – David Datro Fofana, Ivorian footballer 2006 – Callan McKenna, Scottish footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== AD 69 – Vitellius, Roman emperor (b. 15) 731 – Yuan Qianyao, official of the Chinese Tang dynasty 1012 – Baha' al-Dawla, Buyid amir of Iraq 1060 – Cynesige, Archbishop of York 1100 – Bretislav II of Bohemia (b. 1060) 1115 – Olaf Magnusson, King of Norway (b. 1099) 1419 – Antipope John XXIII 1530 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (b. 1470) 1554 – Alessandro Bonvicino, Italian painter (b. 1498) 1572 – François Clouet, French miniaturist (b. c. 1510) ===1601–1900=== 1603 – Mehmed III, Ottoman sultan (b. 1566) 1641 – Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, 2nd Prime Minister of France (b. 1560) 1646 – Petro Mohyla, Ruthenian metropolitan and saint (b. 1596) 1660 – André Tacquet, Flemish priest and mathematician (b. 1612) 1666 – Guercino, Italian painter (b. 1591) 1681 – Richard Alleine, English minister and author (b. 1611) 1767 – John Newbery, English publisher (b. 1713) 1788 – Percivall Pott, English physician and surgeon (b. 1714) 1806 – William Vernon, English-American merchant (b. 1719) 1828 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (b. 1766) 1853 – Manuel María Lombardini, Mexican general and politician. President (1853) (b. 1802) 1867 – Jean-Victor Poncelet, French mathematician and engineer (b. 1788) 1870 – Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Spanish journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1836) 1880 – George Eliot, English novelist and poet (b. 1819) 1884 – John Chisum, American cattle baron (b. 1824) 1891 – Paul de Lagarde, German biblical scholar and orientalist (b. 1827) 1899 – Dwight L. Moody, American evangelist and publisher, founded Moody Publishers (b. 1837) ===1901–present=== 1902 – Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German-Austrian psychiatrist and author (b. 1840) 1915 – Rose Talbot Bullard, American medical doctor and professor (b. 1864) 1917 – Frances Xavier Cabrini, Italian-American nun and saint (b. 1850) 1918 – Aristeidis Moraitinis, Greek lieutenant and pilot (b. 1891) 1919 – Hermann Weingärtner, German gymnast (b. 1864) 1924 – Karl Denke, German serial killer and cannibal (b. 1860) 1925 – Amelie Beese, German pilot and engineer (b. 1886) 1939 – Ma Rainey, American singer (b. 1886) 1940 – Nathanael West, American author and screenwriter (b. 1903) 1941 – Karel Hašler, Czech actor, director, composer, and screenwriter (b. 1879) 1942 – Franz Boas, German-American anthropologist and linguist (b. 1858) 1943 – Beatrix Potter, English children's book writer and illustrator (b. 1866) 1944 – Harry Langdon, American actor, comedian, and vaudevillian (b. 1884) 1950 – Frederick Freake, English polo player (b. 1876) 1957 – Frank George Woollard, English engineer (b. 1883) 1959 – Gilda Gray, Polish-American actress and dancer (b. 1901) 1960 – Ninian Comper, Scottish-English architect (b. 1864) 1962 – Ross McLarty, Australian politician, 17th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1891) 1965 – Richard Dimbleby, English journalist (b. 1913) 1968 – Raymond Gram Swing, American journalist (b. 1887) 1969 – Enrique Peñaranda, 45th President of Bolivia (b. 1892) 1971 – Godfried Bomans, Dutch journalist and author (b. 1913) 1974 – Sterling North, American author and critic (b. 1906) 1979 – Darryl F. Zanuck, American director and producer (b. 1902) 1985 – D. Boon, American singer and musician (b. 1958) 1986 – Mary Burchell, English author and activist (b. 1904) 1986 – David Penhaligon, Cornish Liberal Politician (b. 1944), Member of Parliament (MP) for Truro (1974–1986) 1987 – Luca Prodan, Italian-Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1953) 1988 – Chico Mendes, Brazilian trade union leader and activist (b. 1944) 1989 – Samuel Beckett, Irish author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906) 1992 – Harry Bluestone, English violinist and composer (b. 1907) 1992 – Frederick William Franz, American religious leader (b. 1893) 1993 – Don DeFore, American actor (b. 1913) 1995 – Butterfly McQueen, American actress and dancer (b. 1911) 1995 – James Meade, English economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1907) 1996 – Jack Hamm, American cartoonist and television host (b. 1916) 1997 – Sebastian Arcos Bergnes, Cuban-American dentist and activist (b. 1931) 2001 – Ovidiu Iacov, Romanian footballer (b. 1981) 2001 – Walter Newton Read, American lawyer and second chairman of the New Jersey Casino Control Commission (b. 1918) 2002 – Desmond Hoyte, Guyanese lawyer, politician and President of Guyana (b. 1929) 2002 – Joe Strummer, English singer-songwriter (b. 1952) 2004 – Doug Ault, American baseball player and manager (b. 1950) 2006 – Elena Mukhina, Russian gymnast (b. 1960) 2006 – Galina Ustvolskaya, Russian composer (b. 1919) 2007 – Charles Court, Australian politician, 21st Premier of Western Australia (b. 1911) 2007 – Adrian Cristobal, Filipino journalist and playwright (b. 1932) 2009 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian rancher and politician (b. 1940) 2009 – Albert Scanlon, English footballer (b. 1935) 2010 – Fred Foy, American soldier and announcer (b. 1921) 2012 – Chuck Cherundolo, American football player and coach (b. 1916) 2012 – Ryan Freel, American baseball player (b. 1976) 2012 – Cliff Osmond, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1937) 2012 – Lim Keng Yaik, Malaysian physician and politician (b. 1939) 2013 – Diomedes Díaz, Colombian singer-songwriter (b. 1956) 2013 – Hans Hækkerup, Danish lawyer and politician (b. 1945) 2013 – Oscar Peer, Swiss author, playwright, and philologist (b. 1928) 2014 – John Robert Beyster, American physicist and academic (b. 1924) 2014 – Christine Cavanaugh, American actress (b. 1963) 2014 – Joe Cocker, English singer-songwriter (b. 1944) 2014 – Bernard Stone, American lawyer and politician (b. 1927) 2015 – Peter Lundblad, Swedish singer-songwriter (b. 1950) 2015 – Freda Meissner-Blau, Australian activist and politician (b. 1927) 2016 – Chad Robinson, Australian rugby league player (b. 1980) 2017 – Gonzalo Morales Sáurez, Costa Rican painter (b. 1945) 2018 – Paddy Ashdown, British politician (b. 1941) 2018 – Simcha Rotem, last survivor of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (b. 1924) 2018 – Herman Sikumbang, Indonesian guitarist (b. 1982); casualty during 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami 2019 – Ram Dass, American spiritual teacher and author (b. 1931) ==Holidays and observances== Dongzhi Festival Armed Forces Day (Vietnam) Christian feast day: Anastasia of Sirmium (Orthodox Church) Eimhin Ernan, Son of Eogan Frances Xavier Cabrini (outside US) Hunger O Rex Henry Budd (Episcopal Church (USA)) Lottie Moon (Episcopal Church (USA)) December 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Mother's Day (Indonesia) National Mathematics Day (India) Teachers' Day (Cuba) Unity Day (Zimbabwe)	[ "President of Afghanistan", "James Meade", "1940", "1921", "Stephen Conway", "Latto", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Gene Rayburn", "Emperor Xizong of Tang", "Washington, D.C.", "Kingston Fossil Plant", "Dmitry Bilozerchev", "1982", "Marshall Islands", "Frank Gambale", "Lefter Küçükandonyadis", "List of Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Latvia", "Richard von Krafft-Ebing", "Franz Boas", "Darryl F. Zanuck", "German reunification", "Franz Abt", "Sandra Kalniete", "Kentville", "GOELRO", "Cultural Revolution", "Ganges Canal", "The Plain Dealer", "Faroese independence movement", "V-2 rocket", "Antipope John XXIII", "Peter Lundblad", "Ernan", "1850", "Ted Cruz", "Jean Racine", "1899", "Richey Edwards", "Alcides Ghiggia", "2001 failed shoe bomb attempt", "1990 Polish presidential election", "Marina Kuptsova", "Strategic Petroleum Reserve (United States)", "Vanessa Paradis", "Beatrix Potter", "Almería", "1788", "Don't ask, don't tell", "Korean Air Cargo Flight 8509", "Islam in India", "Lynne Thigpen", "Mark Robins", "United States Air Force Plant 42", "Hamid Karzai", "Bernd Schuster", "ATP Tour", "Lech Wałęsa", "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti", "National Geographic Deutschland", "Patricia Hayes", "William Tecumseh Sherman", "2015", "1924", "Herman Potočnik", "New York Daily News", "Herman Sikumbang", "1973 Royal Air Maroc Sud Aviation Caravelle crash", "1603", "Focus (German magazine)", "Gustaf Gründgens", "Héctor Elizondo", "Calendar of saints", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "1819", "Cairo", "Viola Kibiwot", "United States Congress", "National Hockey League", "treason", "1964", "Guercino", "1767", "President of Poland", "1666", "Lonnie Smith (baseball)", "Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia", "1898", "Petro Mohyla", "Gemonian stairs", "Peregrine Worsthorne", "Acteal massacre", "1872", "Mark Hill (musician)", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 2397", "European Space Agency", "1928", "1915", "323 Brucia", "1981", "Callan McKenna", "1546", "2008", "Ross McLarty", "D. Boon", "Britta Heidemann", "President of the United States", "1946", "John Nevil Maskelyne", "François Clouet", "Emirate of Granada", "Brandenburg Gate", "1887", "Anthony McAuliffe", "1950", "Kingsport, Nova Scotia", "Peter Mortimer (rugby league)", "1183", "Peggy Ashcroft", "New Jersey Casino Control Commission", "Armed Forces Day (Vietnam)", "Jim Wright", "Rank Organisation", "Cornwallis Valley Railway", "Eduard Uspensky", "United States Secretary of State", "Bastogne", "1979", "Adolf Hitler", "Roger Carr (businessman)", "Speaker of the United States House of Representatives", "1994", "TVOvermind", "viol", "Karl Denke", "Moody Publishers", "1906", "1972", "2016", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Federal government of the United States", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Frederick William Franz", "Enrique Peñaranda", "1943", "Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 1103", "Lasse Bengtsson", "Urszula Włodarczyk", "Barbara Billingsley", "1954", "Myriam Bédard", "1115", "1696", "Madeira", "Paul de Lagarde", "Associated Press", "President of Bolivia", "John Obadiah Westwood", "Iraq", "948", "Islamic State of Afghanistan", "Hermann Samuel Reimarus", "Vespasian", "Jerry Koosman", "Roger II of Sicily", "Giorgio Oberweger", "Rebecca Harris", "1851", "Ebola virus", "Ian Turnbull (ice hockey)", "1977", "Emmanuel Olisadebe", "Marcin Mięciel", "1974 Comorian independence referendum", "Great Hallingbury", "Isabella I of Castile", "Airborne Express Flight 827", "2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown", "Comoros", "People's Daily", "Frances Lannon", "1947", "Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster", "Carl Friedrich Abel", "samurai", "University of Helsinki", "Beethoven concert of 22 December 1808", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "Mohéli", "Teresa Carreño", "Chuck Cherundolo", "Pierre Levegh", "1922", "1920", "Santiniketan", "Paulo Rocha (film director)", "1931", "Pierre Brasseur", "Government shutdowns in the United States", "1992", "Fredrik Barth", "Nick Johnson (basketball)", "Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010", "Himara", "Jane Lighting", "2013", "Romanian Revolution", "Stephen, King of England", "Camila Osorio", "1953", "Communism", "1933", "1178", "Bashir Ahmad Bilour", "Jack Hamm", "Nathanael West", "1790", "Dmitri Khokhlov", "G Hannelius", "Pope Honorius III", "1012", "Thomas C. Südhof", "Tangier Ibn Battouta Airport", "1932", "1951", "Vladimir Fock", "Baha' al-Dawla", "1935", "President of Mexico", "1970", "Lottie Moon", "Embargo Act of 1807", "CNN.com", "2009", "1723", "Dina Meyer", "DaBaby", "1883", "Robin Gibb", "David Heavener", "George Eliot", "2010", "Luna H. Mitani", "Sam Newman", "Yuan Qianyao", "1985", "Frank George Woollard", "TSMS Lakonia", "Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)", "Narrows, Virginia", "Lê dynasty", "1216", "Lincoln Tunnel", "1870", "1990", "1808", "José Fonte", "1765", "Ion Iliescu", "Galina Murašova", "Evgraf Fedorov", "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23", "Ajeenkya Patil", "Richard Alleine", "Edwin Linkomies", "1961", "Nicholas Callan", "Lori McKenna", "David Penhaligon", "1489", "1926", "1966", "Religiosam vitam", "1906 Manasi earthquake", "Danny O'Dea", "Lim Keng Yaik", "Prime Minister of Estonia", "Rei Hance", "Gonzalo Morales Sáurez", "Albert Scanlon", "Monarchy of the United Kingdom", "1938", "Fatih Öztürk (footballer, born 1986)", "Mary Archer", "Rick Nielsen", "1999", "Stéphane Gendron", "1925", "Lucien Bouchard", "Joy Ali", "Doug Ault", "2019", "Vietnam", "Jaan Tõnisson", "1828", "Basshunter", "Kenneth Rexroth", "1978", "World War II evacuation and expulsion", "1869", "Jean-Victor Poncelet", "Edgard Varèse", "Frederick Freake", "John Chisum", "Visva-Bharati University", "President of Romania", "Edwin Arlington Robinson", "paramilitary", "Dennis Armfield", "Premier of Western Australia", "1965", "Sergei Aschwanden", "Diomedes Díaz", "All-Russian Congress of Soviets", "Siege of Izmail", "1987", "Piano Concerto No. 4 (Beethoven)", "Robert Percival Porter", "Deems Taylor", "Red Steagall", "1858", "1892", "Marcus Haislip", "Nobel Peace Prize", "1919", "1939", "Kang Kam-ch'an", "Chagatai Khan", "The Anarchy", "Nguyễn Huệ", "Emre Aracı", "2002", "2001", "Wazir Mohammad", "Christine Cavanaugh", "Lewis Glucksman", "President of Guyana", "Awami National Party", "Fred Foy", "1993", "Mayotte", "Dan Petrescu", "1660", "Indonesia", "fly ash", "Camille Guérin", "Ninian Comper", "Derick Parry", "Qing dynasty", "Carole James", "Hatfield Forest", "1976", "Chinese economic reform", "Dongzhi Festival", "1853", "2018", "2012", "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017", "Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)", "Phil Woosnam", "Jean-Baptiste Maunier", "Libyan Air Force", "André Tacquet", "East Germany", "President of Somalia", "1989", "Diocletian", "Ardalion Ignatyev", "2000", "Stanislav Neckář", "1967", "Greg Finley", "Frances Xavier Cabrini", "Ferdinand II of Aragon", "Marcel Schirmer", "Vitellius", "Grande Comore", "Sultan Cem", "Myer Prinstein", "Hans Hækkerup", "John Hartle", "Roman emperor", "Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird", "Elena Mukhina", "Harry S. Truman", "Ryan Freel", "1769", "Doc Gallows", "1971", "Adrian Cristobal", "1952", "Simon Kirby", "Marcus Hurley", "Mary Burchell", "1894", "Premier of Quebec", "Somali Civil War", "Hideshi Matsuda", "Pope Innocent I", "Emperor Antoku", "Comics Buyer's Guide", "1984", "1970s energy crisis", "Gerald Ford", "Willibald Pirckheimer", "Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe", "Joshua Bassett (actor)", "Charles de Lint", "1907", "Savannah, Georgia", "James Burke (science historian)", "731", "Joe Cocker", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "Izmail", "Kirk Maltby", "1937", "Chris Carmack", "1913", "Controlled-access highway", "Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator)", "1996", "1963", "Barry Jenkins (musician)", "Mike Molloy", "1880", "France", "1975", "Deng Xiaoping", "Barack Obama", "Gisela Birkemeyer", "Der Spiegel", "Eimhin", "1888", "1958", "Danny Ahn", "Richard Dimbleby", "Desmond Hoyte", "Casper Ruud", "Jordin Sparks", "Cliff Osmond", "Japanese occupation of French Indochina", "1459", "Manuel María Lombardini", "Étienne Martellange", "Zimbabwe African People's Union", "1941", "speed limit", "Amelie Beese", "1908", "Sent-down youth", "Dick Parry", "Chiapas", "Buyid", "Christmas Meeting of 1888", "Alessandro Bonvicino", "Sino-Burmese War (1765–69)", "1867", "Karel Hašler", "Roorkee", "Meghan Trainor", "Nazi Germany", "1949", "Donald Trump", "Sterling North", "Lady Bird Johnson", "1969", "BBC", "1799", "1934", "1962", "Ken Whitmore", "1569", "1912", "Tom Underwood", "executive order", "Johan Sebastian Welhaven", "1889", "1060", "Guru Gobind Singh", "Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully", "Samuel Beckett", "2007", "Acteal", "Franz Schmidt (composer)", "John Robert Beyster", "1891", "Andre Kostelanetz", "1885", "Mike Jackson (right-handed pitcher)", "1957", "Ma Rainey", "Morocco", "AllMusic", "List of colonial governors of Georgia", "Luoyang", "Zimbabwe", "Don Kardong", "1806", "Taliban", "Indian National Congress", "Ray Guy", "coal", "Egypt", "Katleen De Caluwé", "Takuya Onishi", "Haldan Keffer Hartline", "Henry I of England", "Luis Hernández (footballer, born 1968)", "Premier League", "Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill", "Tennessee Valley Authority", "Godfried Bomans", "1876", "Charlotte Lamb", "244", "Forbes", "O Rex", "Bretislav II", "Dreyfus affair", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Catholic Monarchs", "1591", "2004", "West Sumatra", "Unity Day (Zimbabwe)", "Scott Darling", "Pierre Ossian Bonnet", "1929", "Kuroda Yoshitaka", "Day of Deliverance (India)", "Alfred Dreyfus", "Paul Kuniholm", "Moonbyul", "1572", "Union (American Civil War)", "Chris Old", "December 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Rúben Lameiras", "1862", "Carlos Graça", "Giuseppe Bergomi", "Paul Wolfowitz", "Paddy Ashdown", "Victoriano Huerta", "Palmdale, California", "Roberta Leigh", "1995", "Henry Budd", "Bernhard Goetz", "Ovidiu Iacov", "Alexander Suvorov", "Dwight L. Moody", "David Pearson (racing driver)", "Itō Hirobumi", "Tang dynasty", "Matty Alou", "Major League Baseball", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)", "Elias Degiannis", "Raphaël Guerreiro", "West Germany", "Frank Corsaro", "London Stansted Airport", "1884", "Manfred Moore", "Dmitri Egorov", "1942", "1903", "Women's Tennis Association", "Gary Anderson (darts player)", "1805", "cruise ship", "Muhammad XIII, Sultan of Granada", "1839", "Butterfly McQueen", "1909", "Ram Dass", "Galina Ustvolskaya", "National Mathematics Day", "Teachers' Day", "Thomas Jefferson", "Steve Garvey", "Mao Zedong", "Cuba", "Brian McMillan", "1864", "Edward Heath", "Attempts at reconciliation in Somalia (1991–2004)", "1639", "Khutughtu Khan Kusala", "2006", "American Civil War", "Hawkshaw Hawkins", "Luca Prodan", "1900", "wikt:massacre", "Ruth Roman", "1865", "Choral Fantasy (Beethoven)", "Yuri Malenchenko", "Diane Sawyer", "J. Arthur Rank, 1st Baron Rank", "Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands", "Dominican Order", "1905", "United States Deputy Secretary of Defense", "James Oglethorpe", "1998", "Saint Hunger", "Nasrid dynasty", "Pakistan", "1917", "Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer", "Abraham Lincoln", "Catholic Church", "David Wright (politician)", "1983", "Army of the Tennessee", "1878", "1890", "Walter Newton Read", "Tangier", "1986", "Steve Carlton", "William Hyde Wollaston", "slurry", "Stefan Janos (physicist)", "Hussein Farrah Aidid", "Médecins Sans Frontières", "1641", "Jacob Stallings", "Fred Woolley", "UPI", "1530", "Gukurahundi", "1095", "Marc Allégret", "Joe Strummer", "Chico Mendes", "Royal Air Maroc", "Olaf Magnusson of Norway", "Simcha Rotem", "William Vernon", "Prime Minister of Japan", "Richard Reid", "Steve Kariya", "Sjafruddin Prawiranegara", "Anak Krakatau", "1955", "John Newbery", "Oscar Peer", "David Datro Fofana", "Phillip Glasier", "Sarada Devi", "Jason Lane", "1901", "880", "Belgium", "Brian Daley", "1956", "Jean-Michel Basquiat", "History of China", "Gilda Gray", "Freda Meissner-Blau", "Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)", "1991", "Sud Aviation Caravelle", "Chad Robinson", "Luis Francisco Cuéllar", "VSV-EBOV", "1930", "Roane County, Tennessee", "National Transportation Safety Board", "Tommaso Dingli", "Charles Sands", "2014", "1968", "Anastasia of Sirmium", "Bucharest", "Prime Minister of Finland", "Zimbabwe African National Union", "List of First Ladies of the United States", "Mehmed III", "1646", "Manhattan", "1902", "1681", "India", "Johann Friedrich Pfaff", "1973", "1936", "C. Eugene Steuerle", "1694", "Éder (Portuguese footballer)", "Michaela Hončová", "11th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party", "Matabeleland", "Ralph Fiennes", "Visva-Bharati College", "2018 Sunda Strait tsunami", "Hermann Weingärtner", "Don DeFore", "Tony Isabella", "Harry Langdon", "1944", "1997", "Cynesige", "Federated States of Micronesia", "856 Damghan earthquake", "George Hutson", "Luther Campbell", "Truro (UK Parliament constituency)", "AD 69", "Rose Talbot Bullard", "Harry Bluestone", "Connie Mack", "1868", "Damghan", "Anjouan", "1419", "Boeing 727", "1918", "Prime Minister of France", "Library of Congress", "1911", "1135", "Dilip Doshi", "Charles Court", "Giacomo Manzù", "Dimitri Fampas", "World War II", "401", "Aviation Safety Network", "Maurice Gibb", "Raymond Gram Swing", "1960", "1948", "Frank B. Kellogg", "Alinne Moraes", "1550", "1856", "Percivall Pott", "Tripoli International Airport", "Jamie Langfield", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Srinivasa Ramanujan", "Warsaw Ghetto Uprising", "Jan Stephenson", "Burhanuddin Rabbani", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "1945", "2 (New York City Subway service)", "Zack Britton", "2017", "Aya Takano", "1554", "Sebastian Arcos Bergnes", "1980", "1974", "1988", "Bernard Stone", "Battle of the Bulge", "1874", "Sergi Darder", "David S. Goyer", "856", "Bernard Kouchner", "Huang Chao", "1100", "1959", "Paris", "Leigh Halfpenny", "People's Army of Vietnam", "Nicolae Ceaușescu", "Mother's Day", "1300", "Giacomo Puccini", "Mohamed El Shenawy", "1807", "St. Elmo Brady", "Northern Alliance" ]
8,729	David Deutsch	{{Infobox scientist \| name = David Deutsch \| native_name = דוד דויטש \| honorific_suffix = \| native_name_lang = he \| image = David Deutsch.jpg \| image_size = \| landscape = yes \| caption = \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Haifa, Israel \| birth_name = David Elieser Deutsch \| death_date = \| death_place = \| residence = \| citizenship = \| nationality = \| fields = Theoretical physicsQuantum information science \| workplaces = University of OxfordClarendon Laboratory \| education = William Ellis School \| alma_mater = Clare College, Cambridge (BA)Wolfson College, Oxford (DPhil) \| thesis_url = http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.453518 \| thesis_title = Boundary effects in quantum field theory \| thesis_year = 1978 \| doctoral_advisor = {{Plainlist\| Dennis Sciama Philip Candelas He is a visiting professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at the Centre for Quantum Computation (CQC) in the Clarendon Laboratory of the University of Oxford. He pioneered the field of quantum computation by formulating a description for a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm designed to run on a quantum computer. He is a proponent of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. ==Early life and education== Deutsch was born to a Jewish family in Haifa, Israel on 18 May 1953, the son of Oskar and Tikva Deutsch. In London, David attended Geneva House school in Cricklewood (his parents owned and ran the Alma restaurant on Cricklewood Broadway), followed by William Ellis School in Highgate before reading Natural Sciences at Clare College, Cambridge and taking Part III of the Mathematical Tripos. He went on to Wolfson College, Oxford for his doctorate in theoretical physics, supervised by Dennis Sciama ==Career and research== His work on quantum algorithms began with a 1985 paper, later expanded in 1992 along with Richard Jozsa, to produce the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, one of the first examples of a quantum algorithm that is exponentially faster than any possible deterministic classical algorithm. he has been working on constructor theory, an attempt at generalizing the quantum theory of computation to cover not just computation but all physical processes. Together with Chiara Marletto, he published a paper in December 2014 entitled Constructor theory of information, that conjectures that information can be expressed solely in terms of which transformations of physical systems are possible and which are impossible. ===The Fabric of Reality=== In his 1997 book The Fabric of Reality, Deutsch details his "Theory of Everything". It aims not at the reduction of everything to particle physics, but rather mutual support among multiversal, computational, epistemological, and evolutionary principles. His theory of everything is somewhat emergentist rather than reductive. There are four strands to his theory: Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation of quantum physics, "the first and most important of the four strands." Karl Popper's epistemology, especially its anti-inductivism and requiring a realist (non-instrumental) interpretation of scientific theories, as well as its emphasis on taking seriously those bold conjectures that resist falsification. Alan Turing's theory of computation, especially as developed in Deutsch's Turing principle, in which the Universal Turing machine is replaced by Deutsch's universal quantum computer. ("The theory of computation is now the quantum theory of computation.") Richard Dawkins' refinement of Darwinian evolutionary theory and the modern evolutionary synthesis, especially the ideas of replicator and meme as they integrate with Popperian problem-solving (the epistemological strand). === Invariants === In a 2009 TED talk, Deutsch expounded a criterion for scientific explanation, which is to formulate invariants: "State an explanation [publicly, so that it can be dated and verified by others later] that remains invariant [in the face of apparent change, new information, or unexpected conditions]". "A bad explanation is easy to vary." ===The Beginning of Infinity=== Deutsch's second book, The Beginning of Infinity: Explanations that Transform the World, was published on 31 March 2011. In this book, he views the European Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries as near the beginning of a potentially unending sequence of purposeful knowledge creation. He examines the nature of knowledge, memes, and how and why creativity evolved in humans. ===Awards and honours=== The Fabric of Reality was shortlisted for the Rhone-Poulenc science book award in 1998. Deutsch was awarded the Dirac Prize of the Institute of Physics in 1998, and the Edge of Computation Science Prize in 2005. In 2017, he received the Dirac Medal of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP). Deutsch is linked to Paul Dirac through his doctoral advisor Dennis Sciama, whose doctoral advisor was Dirac. Deutsch was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008. In 2018, he received the Micius Quantum Prize. In 2021, he was awarded the Isaac Newton Medal and Prize. On September 22, 2022, he was awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics, shared with Charles H. Bennet, Gilles Brassard and Peter Shor. == Personal life == Deutsch is a founding member of the parenting and educational method Taking Children Seriously. === Views on Brexit === Deutsch supported Brexit, with his advocacy quoted by then-government adviser, Dominic Cummings, and reported by The New Yorker magazine in January 2020. Michael Gove mentioned Deutsch's viewpoint during a BBC Brexit debate. Regarding the debate, Deutsch later commented: "In Britain there is a clear path if you have a grievance, you can join a pressure-group, the pressure-group will pressure the government, or you can see your MP, and the MP will see the grievance building up, and so-on. Whereas, Europe is structured in such a way that it's very difficult to know whom to address your grievance to, or what they could do about it."	[ "Clare College, Cambridge", "Darwinism", "List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 2008", "Tim Maudlin", "Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics", "Utne Reader", "Dirac Medal (IOP)", "Theoretical physics", "Henri Poincaré", "quantum Turing machine", "Micius Quantum Prize", "Richard Feynman", "Paul Dirac", "Olivier Costa de Beauregard", "many-worlds interpretation", "Chiara Marletto", "meme", "Robert Nozick", "Wolfson College, Oxford", "Deutsch gate", "Alistair Cameron Crombie", "Quantum mechanics of time travel", "Israel", "Quantum logic gate", "Richard Jozsa", "Wigner's friend", "Ernst Cassirer", "International Centre for Theoretical Physics", "Gilles Brassard", "Scientific American", "Dominic Cummings", "Karl Popper", "universal quantum computer", "Alan Cook (physicist)", "Eugene Wigner", "Hugh Everett", "New Scientist", "Universal Turing machine", "Michael Gove", "Quantum information science", "Institute of Physics", "Fellow of the Royal Society", "Quantum cellular automaton", "Neo-Darwinism", "Clarendon Laboratory", "epistemological", "physicist", "Artur Ekert", "Royal Society", "Natural Sciences (Cambridge)", "Many-worlds interpretation", "Royal Society Prizes for Science Books", "Constructor theory", "Quantum Turing machine", "Springer-Verlag", "Dirac Medal (ICTP)", "The New Yorker", "Part III of the Mathematical Tripos", "reductionism", "Peter Shor", "Invariant (physics)", "University of Oxford", "quantum field theory", "emergence", "epistemology", "The Guardian", "constructor theory", "Richard Dawkins", "Age of Enlightenment", "London", "Creative Commons license", "Lawrence Sklar", "scientific realism", "Brexit", "multiversal", "quantum computing", "Charles H. Bennett (physicist)", "Taking Children Seriously", "Michael Friedman (philosopher)", "Edge.org", "Cricklewood", "Philip Candelas", "Centre for Quantum Computation", "Turing principle", "Margaret Morrison (philosopher)", "Dennis Sciama", "creativity", "Proceedings of the Royal Society A", "quantum mechanics", "Quantum error correction", "quantum computation", "William Ellis School", "TED talk", "Alan Turing", "Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm", "Dennis W. Sciama", "John D. Norton", "theoretical physics", "curved space-time", "quantum algorithms", "Nicholas Maxwell", "Max Born", "Haifa", "Church–Turing–Deutsch principle" ]
8,730	Volkssturm	The (, ) was a levée en masse national militia established by Nazi Germany during the last months of World War II. It was set up by the Nazi Party on the orders of Adolf Hitler and established on 25 September 1944. It was staffed by conscripting males between the ages of 16 and 60 years, who were not already serving in some military unit. The Volkssturm comprised one of the final components of the total war promulgated by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, part of a Nazi endeavor to overcome their enemies' military strength through force of will. Volkssturm units fought unsuccessful battles against Allied forces at the end of the war. On several occasions, its members participated in atrocities, accompanied by German civilians and the Hitler Youth, which were overseen by members of the SS or Gaue leaders. ==Origins and organisation== The Volkssturm drew inspiration from the Prussian Landsturm of 1813–1815, that fought in the liberation wars against Napoleon, mainly as guerrilla forces. Plans to form a Landsturm national militia in eastern Germany as a last resort to boost fighting strength were first proposed in 1944 by General Heinz Guderian, chief of the German General Staff. The army did not have enough men to resist the Soviet onslaught. So, additional categories of men were called into service, including those in non-essential jobs, those previously deemed unfit, over-age, or under-age, and those recovering from wounds. The Volkssturm had existed, on paper, since around 1925, but it was only after Hitler ordered Martin Bormann to recruit six million men for this militia that the group became a physical reality. While the regime formally established the Volkssturm on 25 September, it was not announced to the public until 16 October 1944. The official launch date was two days later, 18 October 1944 and was chosen by Heinrich Himmler to evoke parallels with the popular uprising which, according to popular legend, ended French rule over Germany and culminated in the Battle of Leipzig on the same date in 1813. Despite the appeal for this last-ditch effort, the intended strength of "six million" members was never attained. Joseph Goebbels and other propagandists depicted the Volkssturm as an outburst of enthusiasm and the will to resist. Historian Daniel Blatman writes that the Volkssturm was portrayed as the "incarnation" of the greater Volksgemeinschaft, whereby "all differences in social status, origin, or age vanish and unite all people on the basis of race. It was the service framework for members of the local community, who had been raised together and lived side by side, and now bore arms together in order to defend the community." In some regards, the Volkssturm was the culmination of Goebbels' "total war" speech of February 1943 and its formation was "given a big build-up" in the November 1944 newsreel episode of Die Deutsche Wochenschau. Consistent messages of final victory from various Nazi media outlets accompanying the Volkssturm's creation provided a psychological rallying point for the civilian population. While it had some marginal effect on morale, it was undermined by the recruits' visible lack of uniforms and weaponry. Nazi themes of death, transcendence, and commemoration were given full play to encourage the fight. Many German civilians realised that this was a desperate attempt to turn the course of the war. Sardonic old men would remark, "We old monkeys are the Führer’s newest weapon" (in German this rhymes: "Wir alten Affen sind des Führers neue Waffen"). A popular joke about the Volkssturm went "Why is the Volkssturm Germany's most precious resource? Because its members have silver in their hair, gold in their mouths, and lead in their bones." For these militia units to be effective, they needed not only strength in numbers, but also fanaticism. During the early stages of Volkssturm planning, it became apparent that units lacking morale would lack combat effectiveness. To generate fanaticism, Volkssturm units were placed under the direct command of local Nazi Party officials, the Gauleiter and Kreisleiter. The new Volkssturm was also to become a nationwide organisation, with Heinrich Himmler as Replacement Army commander, responsible for armaments and training. Though nominally under party control, Volkssturm units were placed under Heer command when engaged in action. At the Reich level, the SS and the Party Chancellery agreed to share responsibility between them. Himmler retained responsibility for military equipment and training while Bormann, head of the Party Chancellery, was charged with oversight of administration and political indoctrination. Aware that a "people's army" would not be able to withstand the onslaught of the modern army wielded by the Allies, Hitler issued the following order towards the end of 1944: Experience in the East has shown that Volkssturm, emergency and reserve units have little fighting value when left to themselves, and can be quickly destroyed. The fighting value of these units, which are for the most part strong in numbers, but weak in the armaments required for modern battle, is immeasurably higher when they go into action with troops of the regular army in the field. I, therefore, order: where Volkssturm, emergency, and reserve units are available, together with regular units, in any battle sector, mixed battle-groups (brigades) will be formed under unified command, so as to give the Volkssturm, emergency, and reserve units stiffening and support. With the Nazi Party in charge of organising the Volkssturm, each Gauleiter, or Nazi Party District Leader, was charged with the leadership, enrollment, and organisation of the Volkssturm in their district. The largest Volkssturm unit seems to have corresponded to the next smaller territorial subdivision of the Nazi Party organisation—the Kreis. The basic unit was a battalion of 642 men. Units were mostly composed of members of the Hitler Youth, invalids, the elderly, or men who had previously been considered unfit for military service. On 12 February 1945, the Nazis conscripted German women and girls into the auxiliaries of the Volkssturm. Correspondingly, girls as young as 14 years were trained in the use of small arms, Panzerfausts, machine guns, and hand grenades from December 1944 through May 1945. Municipal organisation: A Bataillon (battalion) in every Kreis (there were 920 Kreise in Greater Germany) A Kompanie (company) in every Ortsgruppe (the "local chapter" of the Nazi Party). A Zug (platoon) in every Zelle (literally a "cell" of Party members) A Gruppe (squad) in every Block (city block) Each Gauleiter and Kreisleiter had a Volkssturm Chief of Staff. From the militia's inception until the spring of 1945, Himmler and Bormann engaged in a power-struggle over the jurisdictional control over the Volkssturm regarding security and police powers in Germany and the occupied territories; a contest which Himmler and the SS more or less won on one level (police and security), but lost to Bormann on another (mobilising reserve forces). Historian David Yelton described the situation as two ranking officers at the helm of a sinking ship fighting over command. Benito Mussolini suggested, through his son Vittorio, then general secretary of the Republican Fascist Party's German branch, that 30,000 Italians should be added to the Volkssturm in the defence of Germany. However, no evidence exists that this offer was implemented. ==Uniforms and insignia== The Volkssturm "uniform" was only a black armband with the German words Deutscher Volkssturm Wehrmacht ("German People's Storm, (of the) Armed Forces"). The German government tried to issue as many of its members as possible with military uniforms of all sorts, ranging from Feldgrau to camouflage types. An example of the Volkssturm's piecemeal outfitting occurred in the Rhineland, where one unit was provided with "pre-war black SS uniforms, brown Organization Todt coats, blue Luftwaffe auxiliary caps, and French Adrian helmets." Most members of the Volkssturm, especially elderly members, had no uniforms and were not supplied, so they generally wore either work uniforms (including railway workers, policemen, and firemen), Hitler Youth uniforms, old uniforms or parts of uniforms from the First World War, or their civilian clothing and usually carried with them their own personal rucksacks, blankets, cooking-equipment, etc. ==Ranks== The simple paramilitary insignia of the Volkssturm were as follows: ==Training and impact== Typically, members of the Volkssturm received only very basic military training. It included a brief indoctrination and training on the use of basic weapons such as the Karabiner 98k rifle and Panzerfaust. Because of continuous fighting and weapon shortages, weapon training was often minimal. There was also a lack of instructors, meaning that weapons training was sometimes done by World War I veterans drafted into service themselves. Often Volkssturm members were only able to familiarise themselves with their weapons when in actual combat. There was no standardisation of any kind and units were issued only what equipment was available. This was true of every form of equipment—Volkssturm members were required to bring their own uniforms and culinary equipment etc. This resulted in the units looking very ragged and, instead of boosting civilian morale, it often reminded people of Germany's desperate state. Armament was equally haphazard: though some Karabiner 98ks were on hand, members were also issued older Gewehr 98s, Steyr-Mannlicher M1895s, 19th-century Gewehr 71s, and Steyr-Mannlicher M1888s, as well as Dreyse M1907 pistols. In addition there was a plethora of Soviet, British, Belgian, French, Italian, and other weapons that had been captured by German forces during the war. The Germans had also developed cheap Volkssturm weapons, such as MP 3008 machine pistols and Volkssturmgewehr rifles. These were completely stamped and machine-pressed constructions (in the 1940s, industrial processes were much cruder than today, so a firearm needed great amounts of semi-artisanal work to be actually reliable). The Volkssturm troops were nominally supplied when and where possible by both the Wehrmacht and the SS. By the end of January 1945, the Volkssturm had only accumulated 40,500 rifles and 2,900 machine guns amid this mish-mash of foreign and outdated assemblage of weapons. When units had completed their training and received armament, members took a customary oath to Hitler and were then dispatched into combat. Teenagers and middle-aged men were sent to separate training camps, some of whom received as little as ten to fourteen days of training before being sent to fight. Unlike most English-speaking countries, Germany had universal military service for all young men for several generations, so many of the older members would have had at least basic military training from when they served in the German Army and many would have been veterans of the First World War. Volkssturm units were supposed to be used only in their own districts, but many were sent directly to the front lines. Ultimately, it was their charge to confront the overwhelming power of the British, Canadian, Soviet, American, and French armies alongside Wehrmacht forces to either turn the tide of the war or set a shining example for future generations of Germans and expunge the defeat of 1918 by fighting to the last, dying before surrendering. It was an apocalyptic goal which some of those assigned to the Volkssturm took to heart. Unremittingly fanatical members of the Volkssturm refused to abandon the Nazi ethos unto the dying days of Nazi Germany, and in a number of instances took brutal "police actions" against German civilians deemed defeatists or cowards. Losses were high among the Volkssturm – Battalion 25/235 for instance, started out with 400 men but fought on until there were only 10 men remaining. Fighting at Küstrin between 30 January to 29 March 1945, militia units made up mostly of the Volkssturm resisted for nearly two months. Losses were upwards of 60 percent for the Volkssturm at Kolberg, roughly 1,900 of them died at Breslau, and during the Battle of Königsberg, another 2,400 members of the Volkssturm were killed. At other times along the western front particularly, Volkssturm troops would cast their arms aside and disappear into the chaos. Many units lost their enthusiasm for the fight when it became clear that the Allies had won, prompting them to lay down their weapons and surrender – they also feared being captured by Allied forces and tortured or executed as partisans. Duty to their communities also played a part in their capitulation, as did self-preservation. ==Battle of Berlin== Their most extensive use was during the Battle of Berlin, where Volkssturm units fought in many parts of the city. This battle was particularly devastating to its formations; however, many members fought to the death out of fear of being captured by the Soviets. The Volkssturm had a strength of about 60,000 in the Berlin area, formed into 92 battalions, of which about 30 battalions of Volkssturm I (those with some weapons) were sent to forward positions, while those of Volkssturm II (those without weapons) remained in the inner city. One of the few substantive fighting units left to defend Berlin was the LVI Panzer Corps, which occupied the southeastern sector of the town, whereas the remaining parts of the city were being defended by what remained of the SS, the Volkssturm, and the Hitler Youth formations. Nonetheless, a force of over 2.5 million Soviet troops, equipped with 6,250 tanks and over 40,000 artillery pieces, were assigned to capture the city, and the diminished remnants of the Wehrmacht were no match for them. Meanwhile, Hitler denounced every perceived "betrayal" to the inhabitants of the Führerbunker. Not eager to die what was thought to be a pointless death, many older members of the Volkssturm looked for places to hide from the approaching Soviet Army. One notable and unusual Volkssturm unit in the Battle for Berlin was the 3/115 Siemensstadt Battalion. It comprised 770 men, mostly World War I veterans in their 50s who were reasonably fit factory workers, with experienced officers. Unlike most Volkssturm units it was quite well equipped and trained. It was formed into three rifle companies, a support company (with two infantry support guns, four infantry mortars, and heavy machine guns), and a heavy weapons company (with four Soviet M-20 howitzers and a French De Bange 220mm mortar). The battalion first engaged Soviet troops at Friedrichsfelde on 21 April and saw the heaviest fighting over the following two days. It held out until 2 May, by which time it was down to just 50 rifles and two light machine guns. The survivors fell back to join other Volkssturm units. 26 men from the battalion were awarded the Iron Cross. Allied bombing and Soviet artillery had reduced Berlin to rubble; meanwhile the final stand in Berlin dwindled to fighting against highly trained, battle-hardened Soviet troops on the brink of final victory, who viewed resistance fighters like the Volkssturm as terrorists in much the same way the Wehrmacht once had viewed potential partisans during Operation Barbarossa. Red Army soldiers called the Hitler Youth formations and members of the Volkssturm still fighting to the end in Berlin "totals" for being part of Germany's total mobilisation effort. ==Role in atrocities== On several occasions, members of the Volkssturm participated in atrocities. During January 1945, thousands of prisoners were evacuated and force-marched from several smaller concentration camps—which included Jesau, Seerappen, Schippenbeil, Gerdauen, and Helgenbeil—near Königsberg, many dying along the way. Upon reaching Palmnicken, some 2,500 to 3,000 prisoners of the 5,000 that originally began the journey were lodged in a factory. Mayor and local Nazi party chief, Kurt Friedrichs wanted the SS to send these prisoners on their way since the Red Army was not far away. When local Volkssturm leader Hans Feyerabend was ordered to transport the suffering prisoners out of the town, he refused to carry out the order and was heard exclaiming that he would not permit a massacre like the one at Katyń forest. Feyerabend even assigned Volkssturm guards to keep watch on the local Nazi party members, but this proved fruitless when Friedrich armed a group of Hitler Youth and likewise summoned the local SD elements, whose leaders then commanded the Volkssturm to help evacuate the prisoners. On 30 January 1945, after the Volkssturm left with Friedrich in charge, Feyerabend committed suicide; then between 30 January and 1 February the prisoners were murdered by the remaining assemblage of SS guards, Hitler Youth, and the local Volkssturm unit. When prisoners fell sick with typhus in Reichsgau Steiermark during February–March 1945, SS men, Hitler Youth, and Volkssturm units systematically murdered them. Under the orders of Loeben-district Kreisleiter, Otto Christandl, Volkssturm units in nearby Graz and Eisenerz assisted the Gestapo and Ukrainian Waffen-SS troops in evacuating between 6,000 and 8,000 prisoners—being marched towards Mauthausen—from their region, many of whom were murdered during the journey when they collapsed from exhaustion. Sometime in early April 1945 as Allied forces approached the Mittelwerk facilities—where V2 rockets were being produced—the slave labourers from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp were force-marched from the western Harz by a collection of guards drawn from the military, the Hitler Youth, and the Volkssturm. Approximately north of Magdeburg, in the village of Mieste, this motley assemblage of guards locked a thousand of these prisoners in a barn and burned them alive at the instruction of a local Nazi Party leader; this event came to be known as the Gardelegen massacre. At the town of Celle in Lower Saxony around the same time, members of the SS, SA, local police, Hitler Youth, and Volkssturm were aided by locals to "hunt down and shoot" prisoners who had fled into the local woodland after their transport train was bombed. Interrogated members of the Volkssturm—when questioned as to where the regular forces had gone—revealed that German soldiers surrendered to the Americans and British instead of the Red Army for fear of reprisals related to the atrocities they had committed in the Soviet Union. ==Final phase== While Iron Crosses were being handed out in places like Berlin, other cities and towns like Parchim and Mecklenburg witnessed old elites, acting as military commandants over the Hitler Youth and Volkssturm, asserting themselves and demanding that the defensive fighting stop so as to spare lives and property. Despite their efforts, the last four months of the war were an exercise in futility for the Volkssturm, and the Nazi leadership's insistence to continue the fight to the bitter end contributed to an additional 1.23 million (approximated) deaths, half of them German military personnel and the other half from the Volkssturm. In many small towns, when leading members of the Volkssturm refused to fight on against the superior forces of the Allies—part of an attempt to circumvent the "total destruction" of their home regions—they were tried and "summarily hanged" by party activists. During the spring of 1945, thousands of Volkssturm members were killed like this by Nazi Party fanatics in Franken. ==Notable members== Otto Dix, German painter Gerhart Drabsch, German writer, killed on the Eastern Front in 1945 Martin Heidegger, German philosopher Otto Herzog, received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross Hans Modrow, penultimate Prime Minister of East Germany Ernst Tiburzy, received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Gustav Anton von Wietersheim, WWI veteran and WWII general dismissed for apparent failures early in the Battle of Stalingrad, who served in the Volkssturm as a private ==In fiction== Gregor Dorfmeister, under the pseudonym of Manfred Gregor, in 1958 published the novel Die Brücke, based on his experiences in a Volkssturm unit. The novel was adapted to film the following year and to a made-for-television movie in 2008. Volkssturm units composed of teenagers are depicted in battle scenes in the 2004 film Downfall. Volkssturm units composed of teenagers are depicted in scenes in the sixth episode of the 2019 Das Erste series Charité at War, which streams on Netflix. Volkssturm units are seen in battle scenes in the 2019 film Jojo Rabbit by Taika Waititi. Volkssturm units composed of teenagers are depicted in battle scenes in the 2014 film Fury.	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Evans", "Feldgrau", "Schutzstaffel", "Battle of Stalingrad", "Die Deutsche Wochenschau" ]
8,731	Director's cut	In public use, a director's cut is the director's preferred version of a film (or video game, television episode, music video, commercial, etc.). It is generally considered a marketing term to represent the version of a film the director prefers, and is usually used in contrast to a theatrical release of that film where the director did not have final cut privilege and did not agree with what was released. The word "cut" is used in this context as a synecdoche to refer to the entire film editing process and the resulting product. Traditionally, films were edited by literally cutting strips of film and splicing them together. Most of the time, film directors do not have the "final cut" (final say on the version released to the public). Those with money invested in the film, such as the production companies, distributors, or studios, may make changes intended to make the film more profitable at the box office. In extreme cases that can sometimes mean a different ending, less ambiguity, or excluding scenes that would earn a more audience-restricting rating, but more often means that the film is simply shortened to provide more screenings per day. With the rise of home video, the phrase became more generically used as a marketing term to communicate to consumers that this is the director's preferred edit of a film, and it implies the director was not happy with the version that was originally released. Sometimes there are big disagreements between the director's vision and the producer's vision, and the director's preferred edit is sought after by fans (for example Terry Gilliam's Brazil). Not all films have separate "director's cuts" (often the director is happy with the theatrical release, even if they didn't have final cut privilege), and sometimes separate versions of films are released as "director's cuts" even if the director doesn't prefer them. Once such example is Ridley Scott's Alien, which had a "director's cut" released in 2003, even though the director said it was purely for "marketing purposes" and didn't represent his preferred vision for the film. Sometimes alternate edits are released, which are not necessarily director's preferred cuts, but which showcase different visions for the project for fans to enjoy. Examples include James Cameron's Avatar, which was released as both a "Special Edition" and "Extended" cuts, and Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings, which were released on home video as "Extended Editions". These versions do not represent the director's preferred visions. The term since expanded to include media such as video games, comic books and music albums (the latter two of which don't actually have directors). == Original use of the phrase == Within the industry itself, a "director's cut" refers to a stage in the editing process, and is not usually what a director wants to release to the public, due to the fact it is unfinished. The editing process of a film is broken into stages: First is the assembly/rough cut, where all selected takes are put together in the order in which they should appear in the film. Next, the editor's cut is reduced from the rough cut; the editor may be guided by their own choices or following notes from the director or producers. Eventually is the final cut, which actually gets released or broadcast. In between the editor's cut and the final cut can come any number of fine cuts, including the director's cut. The director's cut may include unsatisfactory takes, a preliminary soundtrack, a lack of desired pick-up shots etc., which the director would not like to be shown but uses as a placeholder until satisfactory replacements can be inserted. This is still how the term is used within the film industry, as well as commercials, television, and music videos. == Inception == The trend of releasing alternate cuts of films for artistic reasons became prominent in the 1970s; in 1974, the "director's cut" of The Wild Bunch was shown theatrically in Los Angeles to sold-out audiences. The theatrical release of the film had cut 10 minutes to get an R rating, but this cut was hailed as superior and has now become the definitive one. Other early examples include George Lucas's first two films being re-released following the success of Star Wars, in cuts which more closely resembled his vision, or Peter Bogdanovich re-cutting The Last Picture Show several times. Charlie Chaplin also re-released all of his films in the 1970s, several of which were re-cut (Chaplin's re-release of The Gold Rush in the 1940s is almost certainly the earliest prominent example of a director's re-cut film being released to the public). A theatrical re-release of Close Encounters of the Third Kind used the phrase "Special Edition" to describe a cut which was closer to Spielberg's intent but had a compromised ending demanded by the studio. As the home video industry rose in the early 1980s, video releases of director's cuts were sometimes created for the small but dedicated cult fan market. Los Angeles cable station Z Channel is also cited as significant in the popularization of alternate cuts. Early examples of films released in this manner include Michael Cimino's Heaven's Gate, where a longer cut was recalled from theatres but subsequently shown on cable and eventually released to home video; James Cameron's Aliens, where a video release restored 20 minutes the studio had insisted on cutting; Cameron also voluntarily made cuts to the theatrical version of The Abyss for pacing but restored them for a video release, and most famously, Ridley Scott's Blade Runner, where an alternate workprint version was released to fan acclaim, ultimately resulting in the 1992 recut. Scott later recut the film once more, releasing a version dubbed "The Final Cut" in 2007. This was the final re-cut and the first in which Scott maintained creative control over the final product, leading to The Final Cut being considered the definitive version of the film. == Criticism == Once distributors discovered that consumers would buy alternate versions of films, it became more common for films to have alternative versions released. And the original public meaning of a director's preferred vision has become ignored, leading to so-called "director's cuts" of films where the director prefers the theatrically released version (or when the director had actual final cut privilege in the first place). Such versions are often marketing ploys, assembled by simply restoring deleted scenes, sometimes adding as much as a half-hour to the length of the film without regard to pacing and storytelling. As a result, the "director's cut" is often considered a misnomer. Some directors deliberately try to avoid labelling alternate versions as such (e.g. Peter Jackson and James Cameron; each using the phrases "Special Edition" or "Extended Edition" for alternate versions of their films). Sometimes the term is used a marketing ploy. For example, Ridley Scott states on the director's commentary track of Alien that the original theatrical release was his "director's cut", and that the new version was released as a marketing ploy. Director Peter Bogdanovich, no stranger to director's cuts himself, cites Red River as an example where Another way that released director's cuts can be compromised is when directors were never allowed to even shoot their vision, and thus when the film is re-cut, they must make do with the footage that exists. Examples of this include Terry Zwigoff's Bad Santa, Brian Helgeland's Payback, and most notably the Richard Donner re-cut of Superman II. Donner completed about 75 per cent of the shooting of the sequel during the shooting of the first one but was fired from the project. His director's cut of the film includes, among other things, screen test footage of stars Christopher Reeve and Margot Kidder, footage used in the first film, and entire scenes that were shot by replacement director Richard Lester which Donner dislikes but were required for story purposes. On the other side, some critics (such as Roger Ebert) have approved of the use of the label in unsuccessful films that had been tampered with by studio executives, such as Sergio Leone's original cut of Once Upon a Time in America, and the moderately successful theatrical version of Daredevil, which were altered by studio interference for their theatrical release. Other well-received director's cuts include Ridley Scott's Kingdom of Heaven (with Empire magazine stating: "The added 45 minutes in the Director’s Cut are like pieces missing from a beautiful but incomplete puzzle"), or Sam Peckinpah's Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid, where the restored 115-minute cut is closer to the director's intent than the theatrical 105-minute cut (the actual director's cut was 122 minutes; it was never completed to Peckinpah's satisfaction, but was used as a guide for the restoration that was done after his death). In some instances, such as Peter Weir's Picnic at Hanging Rock, Robert Wise's Star Trek: The Motion Picture, John Cassavetes's The Killing of a Chinese Bookie, Blake Edwards's Darling Lili and Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather Coda, changes made to a director's cut resulted in a very similar runtime or a shorter, more compact cut. This generally happens when a distributor insists that a film be completed to meet a release date, but sometimes it is the result of removing scenes that the distributor insisted on inserting, as opposed to restoring scenes they insisted on cutting. == Extended cuts and special editions == (See Changes in Star Wars re-releases and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial: The 20th Anniversary) Separate to director's cuts are alternate cuts released as "special editions" or "extended cuts". These versions are often put together for home video for fans, and should not be confused with 'director's cuts'. For example, despite releasing extended versions of his The Lord of the Rings trilogy, Peter Jackson told IGN in 2019 that “the theatrical versions are the definitive versions, I regard the extended cuts as being a novelty for the fans that really want to see the extra material.” \|source=—Ridley Scott \|align=right \|salign=right \|width=25%}} James Cameron has shared similar sentiments regarding the special editions of his films, "What I put into theaters is the Director's Cut. Nothing was cut that I didn't want cut. All the extra scenes we've added back in are just a bonus for the fans." Similar statements were made by Ridley Scott for the 2003 'director's cut' of Alien. The Warriors (1979), Superman (1978) and the Harry Potter films. === Examples of alternate cuts === The Lord of the Rings film series directed by Peter Jackson saw an "Extended Edition" release for each of the three films The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003) featuring an additional 30 minutes, 47 minutes and 51 minutes respectively of new scenes, special effects and music alongside fan-club credits. These versions of the films were not Jackson's preferred edit, however, they were simply extended versions for fans to enjoy at home. Snyder originally teased a 214-minute cut of the film that was supposed to be the theatrical version released in 2017 if he did not step down from the project. Snyder has also confirmed that his Netflix distributed sci-fi film Rebel Moon – Part One: A Child of Fire (2023) and its sequel Rebel Moon – Part Two: The Scargiver (2024) would receive R-rated director's cuts with its new titles Rebel Moon – Chapter One: Chalice of Blood, and the sequel Rebel Moon – Chapter Two: Curse of Forgiveness (both 2024). The PG-13 initial versions of those films having been critically panned. The film Caligula exists in at least 10 different officially released versions, ranging from a sub-90-minute television edit version of TV-14 (later TV-MA) for cable television to an unrated full pornographic version exceeding 3.5 hours. This is believed to be the largest amount of distinct versions of a single film. Among major studio films, the record is believed to be held by Blade Runner; the magazine Video Watchdog counted no less than seven distinct versions in a 1993 issue, before director Ridley Scott later released a "Final Cut" in 2007 to acclaim from critics including Roger Ebert who included it on his great movies list, The release of Blade Runner: The Final Cut brings the supposed grand total to eight differing versions of Blade Runner. Upon its release on DVD and Blu-ray in 2019, Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald featured an extended cut with seven minutes of additional footage. This is the first time since Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets that a Wizarding World film has had one. An animated example of an extended cut without the approval of the director was 1983's Twice Upon a Time, which was extended to have more profanity (supervised by co-writer and producer Bill Couturié) as opposed to co-director John Korty's original. The Coen Brothers' Blood Simple is one of few examples that demonstrate director's cuts are not necessarily longer. == Music videos == The music video for the 2006 Academy Award-nominated song "Listen", performed by Beyoncé, received a director's cut by Diane Martel. This version of the video was later included on Knowles' B'Day Anthology Video Album (2007). Linkin Park has a director's cut version for their music video "Faint" (directed by Mark Romanek) in which one of the band members spray paints the words "En Proceso" on a wall, as well as Hoobastank also having one for 2004's "The Reason" which omits the woman getting hit by the car. Britney Spears' music video for 2007's "Gimme More" was first released as a director's cut on iTunes, with the official video released 3 days later. Many other director's cut music videos contain sexual content that can't be shown on TV thus creating alternative scenes, such as Thirty Seconds to Mars's "Hurricane", and in some cases, alternative videos, such as in the case of Spears' 2008 video for "Womanizer". == Expanded usage in pop culture == As the trend became more widely recognized, the term director's cut became increasingly used as a colloquialism to refer to an expanded version of other things, including video games, music, and comic books. This confusing usage only served to further reduce the artistic value of a director's cut, and it is currently rarely used in those ways. === Video games === For video games, these expanded versions, also referred as "complete editions", will have additions to the gameplay or additional game modes and features outside the main portion of the game. As is the case with certain high-profile Japanese-produced games, the game designers may take the liberty to revise their product for the overseas market with additional features during the localization process. These features are later added back to the native market in a re-release of a game in what is often referred as the international version of the game. This was the case with the overseas versions of Final Fantasy VII, Metal Gear Solid and Rogue Galaxy, which contained additional features (such as new difficulty settings for Metal Gear Solid), resulting in re-released versions of those respective games in Japan (Final Fantasy VII International, Metal Gear Solid: Integral and Rogue Galaxy: Director's Cut). In the case of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty and Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, the American versions were released first, followed by the Japanese versions and then the European versions, with each regional release offering new content not found in the previous one. All of the added content from the Japanese and European versions of those games were included in the expanded editions titled Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance and Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence. They also, similar to movies, will occasionally include extra, uncensored or alternate versions of cutscenes, as was the case with Resident Evil: Code Veronica X. In markets with strict censorship, a later relaxing of those laws occasional will result in the game being rereleased with the "Special/Uncut Edition" tag added to differentiate between the originally released censored version and the current uncensored edition. Several of the Pokémon games have also received director's cuts and have used the term "extension", though "remake" and "third version" are also often used by many fans. These include Pocket Monsters: Blue (Japan only), Pokémon Yellow (for Pokémon Red and Green/Blue), Pokémon Crystal (for Pokémon Gold and Silver), Pokémon Emerald (for Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire), Pokémon Platinum (for 'Pokémon Diamond and Pearl') and Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon. For their PlayStation 5 "Director's Cut" releases of the PlayStation 4 games Ghost of Tsushima and Death Stranding both received expanded features on both games. === Music === "Director's cuts" in music are rarely released. A few exceptions include Guided by Voices' 1994 album Bee Thousand, which was re-released as a three disc vinyl LP director's cut in 2004, and Fall Out Boy's 2003 album Take This to Your Grave, which was re-released as a Director's cut in 2005 with two extra tracks. In 2011 British singer Kate Bush released the album titled Director's Cut. It is made up of songs from her earlier albums The Sensual World and The Red Shoes which have been remixed and restructured, three of which were re-recorded completely.	[ "B'Day Anthology Video Album", "Red River (1948 film)", "Darling Lili", "Pokémon Gold and Silver", "Star Wars", "Film stock", "software localization", "HBO Max", "Resident Evil: Code Veronica X", "Rotten Tomatoes", "synecdoche", "Sergio Leone", "The Lord of the Rings (film series)", "Episode", "final cut privilege", "The Warriors (film)", "editor's cut", "Steven Spielberg", "Dune (1984 film)", "Coen Brothers", "Rogue Galaxy", "Alien Quadrilogy", "video game", "Richard Lester", "vinyl LP", "Fall Out Boy", "Blake Edwards", "Michael Cimino", "Christopher Reeve", "Avatar (2009 film)", "Picnic at Hanging Rock (film)", "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial", "Pokémon Emerald", "Special edition", "Heaven's Gate (film)", "Blade Runner", "The Wild Bunch", "Terry Zwigoff", "Brian Helgeland", "Richard Donner", "American Graffiti", "home video", "Take This to Your Grave", "Deadline Hollywood", "Los Angeles", "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", "Gary D. Rhodes", "Sam Peckinpah", "Listen (Beyoncé Knowles song)", "The Last Picture Show", "Britney Spears", "Film modification", "Daredevil (film)", "Mark Romanek", "Diane Martel", "Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty", "Wizarding World", "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (film)", "Faint (song)", "Hurricane (Thirty Seconds to Mars song)", "Superman II", "re-released", "Roger Ebert", "music video", "Fan edit", "Blood Simple", "Pokémon Platinum", "The Gold Rush", "Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire", "The Abyss", "PlayStation 4", "Peter Bogdanovich", "Ghost of Tsushima", "The Red Shoes (album)", "iTunes Store", "George Lucas", "sexual content", "Film director", "Kate Bush", "Cinephilia", "Caligula (film)", "John Cassavetes", "Harry Potter (films)", "Beyoncé", "The Criterion Collection", "song", "Charlie Chaplin", "Rebel Moon – Part Two: The Scargiver", "Bad Santa", "Superman (1978 film)", "Bill Couturié", "Metal Gear Solid: Integral", "PlayStation 5", "Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut", "Academy Awards", "Thirty Seconds to Mars", "Peter Weir", "Ridley Scott", "Z Channel", "The Godfather, Coda: The Death of Michael Corleone", "Rebel Moon", "20th Century Fox", "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice", "Payback (1999 film)", "Motion Picture Association film rating system", "James Cameron", "Changes in Star Wars re-releases", "Screen Rant", "The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers", "Pick-up (filmmaking)", "film", "Kingdom of Heaven (film)", "Film editing", "TheGuardian.com", "Motion picture rating system", "cult following", "Pokémon Yellow", "Margot Kidder", "The Killing of a Chinese Bookie", "Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game)", "Womanizer (song)", "Cut (transition)", "Francis Ford Coppola", "The Sensual World", "Aliens (film)", "The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring", "Bee Thousand", "Justice League (film)", "colloquialism", "Gimme More", "Zack Snyder", "Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald", "Star Trek: The Motion Picture", "Final Fantasy VII", "Brazil (1985 film)", "Artistic integrity", "The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King", "Linkin Park", "Director's Cut (Kate Bush album)", "film editing", "Zack Snyder's Justice League", "Twice Upon a Time (1983 film)", "Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater", "Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon", "Peter Jackson", "Death Stranding", "THX 1138", "Guided by Voices", "Television advertisement", "Pokémon Diamond and Pearl", "Alien (film)", "Robert Wise", "Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid", "Pokémon Crystal", "Once Upon a Time in America", "Warner Bros. Pictures", "Pocket Monsters: Blue", "Joss Whedon", "Spotify", "Final cut (film editing)", "John Korty", "FilmRatings.com", "Cable television", "Video Watchdog" ]
8,733	Digital video	Digital video is an electronic representation of moving visual images (video) in the form of encoded digital data. This is in contrast to analog video, which represents moving visual images in the form of analog signals. Digital video comprises a series of digital images displayed in rapid succession, usually at 24, 25, 30, or 60 frames per second. Digital video has many advantages such as easy copying, multicasting, sharing and storage. Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard-definition component video signal in digital form. In addition to uncompressed formats, popular compressed digital video formats today include MPEG-2, H.264 and AV1. Modern interconnect standards used for playback of digital video include HDMI, DisplayPort, Digital Visual Interface (DVI) and serial digital interface (SDI). Digital video can be copied and reproduced with no degradation in quality. In contrast, when analog sources are copied, they experience generation loss. Digital video can be stored on digital media such as Blu-ray Disc, on computer data storage, or streamed over the Internet to end users who watch content on a personal computer or mobile device screen or a digital smart TV. Today, digital video content such as TV shows and movies also includes a digital audio soundtrack. ==History== ===Cameras=== The basis for digital video cameras is metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) image sensors. The first practical semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented in 1969 by Willard S. Boyle, who won a Nobel Prize for his work in physics. Following the commercialization of CCD sensors during the late 1970s to early 1980s, the entertainment industry slowly began transitioning to digital imaging and digital video from analog video over the next two decades. The CCD was followed by the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), developed in the 1990s. Major films shot on digital video overtook those shot on film in 2013. Since 2016 over 90% of major films were shot on digital video. , 92% of films are shot on digital. Only 24 major films released in 2018 were shot on 35mm. Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC and Canon offer a variety of choices for shooting high-definition video. At the high end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. These cameras from Sony, Vision Research, Arri, Blackmagic Design, Panavision, Grass Valley and Red offer resolution and dynamic range that exceeds that of traditional video cameras, which are designed for the limited needs of broadcast television. ===Coding=== In the 1970s, pulse-code modulation (PCM) induced the birth of digital video coding, demanding high bit rates of 45-140 Mbit/s for standard-definition (SD) content. By the 1980s, the discrete cosine transform (DCT) became the standard for digital video compression. The first digital video coding standard was H.120, created by the (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) or CCITT (now ITU-T) in 1984. H.120 was not practical due to weak performance. H.120 was based on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM), a compression algorithm that was inefficient for video coding. During the late 1980s, a number of companies began experimenting with DCT, a much more efficient form of compression for video coding. The CCITT received 14 proposals for DCT-based video compression formats, in contrast to a single proposal based on vector quantization (VQ) compression. The H.261 standard was developed based on DCT compression, becoming first practical video coding standard. The current-generation video coding format is HEVC (H.265), introduced in 2013. While AVC uses the integer DCT with 4x4 and 8x8 block sizes, HEVC uses integer DCT and DST transforms with varied block sizes between 4x4 and 32x32. HEVC is heavily patented, with the majority of patents belonging to Samsung Electronics, GE, NTT and JVC Kenwood. It is currently being challenged by the aiming-to-be-freely-licensed AV1 format. , AVC is by far the most commonly used format for the recording, compression and distribution of video content, used by 91% of video developers, followed by HEVC which is used by 43% of developers. ===Production=== Starting in the late 1970s to the early 1980s, video production equipment that was digital in its internal workings was introduced. These included time base correctors (TBC) and digital video effects (DVE) units. They operated by taking a standard analog composite video input and digitizing it internally. This made it easier to either correct or enhance the video signal, as in the case of a TBC, or to manipulate and add effects to the video, in the case of a DVE unit. The digitized and processed video information was then converted back to standard analog video for output. Later on in the 1970s, manufacturers of professional video broadcast equipment, such as Bosch (through their Fernseh division) and Ampex developed prototype digital videotape recorders (VTR) in their research and development labs. Bosch's machine used a modified 1-inch type B videotape transport and recorded an early form of CCIR 601 digital video. Ampex's prototype digital video recorder used a modified 2-inch quadruplex videotape VTR (an Ampex AVR-3) fitted with custom digital video electronics and a special octaplex 8-head headwheel (regular analog 2" quad machines only used 4 heads). Like standard 2" quad, the audio on the Ampex prototype digital machine, nicknamed Annie by its developers, still recorded the audio in analog as linear tracks on the tape. None of these machines from these manufacturers were ever marketed commercially. Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard definition component video signal in digital form. Component video connections required 3 cables, but most television facilities were wired for composite NTSC or PAL video using one cable. Due to this incompatibility the cost of the recorder, D1 was used primarily by large television networks and other component-video capable video studios. In 1988, Sony and Ampex co-developed and released the D2 digital videocassette format, which recorded video digitally without compression in ITU-601 format, much like D1. In comparison, D2 had the major difference of encoding the video in composite form to the NTSC standard, thereby only requiring single-cable composite video connections to and from a D2 VCR. This made it a perfect fit for the majority of television facilities at the time. D2 was a successful format in the television broadcast industry throughout the late '80s and the '90s. D2 was also widely used in that era as the master tape format for mastering laserdiscs. D1 & D2 would eventually be replaced by cheaper systems using video compression, most notably Sony's Digital Betacam, that were introduced into the network's television studios. Other examples of digital video formats utilizing compression were Ampex's DCT (the first to employ such when introduced in 1992), the industry-standard DV and MiniDV and its professional variations, Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO, and Betacam SX, a lower-cost variant of Digital Betacam using MPEG-2 compression. One of the first digital video products to run on personal computers was PACo: The PICS Animation Compiler from The Company of Science & Art in Providence, RI. It was developed starting in 1990 and first shipped in May 1991. PACo could stream unlimited-length video with synchronized sound from a single file (with the .CAV file extension) on CD-ROM. Creation required a Mac, and playback was possible on Macs, PCs, and Sun SPARCstations. QuickTime, Apple Computer's multimedia framework, was released in June 1991. Audio Video Interleave from Microsoft followed in 1992. Initial consumer-level content creation tools were crude, requiring an analog video source to be digitized to a computer-readable format. While low-quality at first, consumer digital video increased rapidly in quality, first with the introduction of playback standards such as MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 (adopted for use in television transmission and DVD media), and the introduction of the DV tape format allowing recordings in the format to be transferred directly to digital video files using a FireWire port on an editing computer. This simplified the process, allowing non-linear editing systems (NLE) to be deployed cheaply and widely on desktop computers with no external playback or recording equipment needed. The widespread adoption of digital video and accompanying compression formats has reduced the bandwidth needed for a high-definition video signal (with HDV and AVCHD, as well as several professional formats such as XDCAM, all using less bandwidth than a standard definition analog signal). These savings have increased the number of channels available on cable television and direct broadcast satellite systems, created opportunities for spectrum reallocation of terrestrial television broadcast frequencies, and made tapeless camcorders based on flash memory possible, among other innovations and efficiencies. === Culture === Culturally, digital video has allowed video and film to become widely available and popular, beneficial to entertainment, education, and research. Digital video is increasingly common in schools, with students and teachers taking an interest in learning how to use it in relevant ways. Digital video also has healthcare applications, allowing doctors to track infant heart rates and oxygen levels. In addition, the switch from analog to digital video impacted media in various ways, such as in how businesses use cameras for surveillance. Closed circuit television (CCTV) switched to using digital video recorders (DVR), presenting the issue of how to store recordings for evidence collection. Today, digital video is able to be compressed in order to save storage space. === Digital television === Digital television (DTV) is the production and transmission of digital video from networks to consumers. This technique uses digital encoding instead of analog signals used prior to the 1950s. As compared to analog methods, DTV is faster and provides more capabilities and options for data to be transmitted and shared. Digital television's roots are tied to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video, requiring around 200Mbit/s for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, and over 1Gbit/s for high-definition television (HDTV). ==Overview == Digital video comprises a series of digital images displayed in rapid succession. In the context of video, these images are called frames. The rate at which frames are displayed is known as the frame rate and is measured in frames per second. Every frame is a digital image and so comprises a formation of pixels. The color of a pixel is represented by a fixed number of bits of that color where the information of the color is stored within the image. For example, 8-bit captures 256 levels per channel, and 10-bit captures 1,024 levels per channel. The more bits, the more subtle variations of colors can be reproduced. This is called the color depth, or bit depth, of the video. ===Interlacing=== In interlaced video each frame is composed of two halves of an image. The first half contains only the odd-numbered lines of a full frame. The second half contains only the even-numbered lines. These halves are referred to individually as fields. Two consecutive fields compose a full frame. If an interlaced video has a frame rate of 30 frames per second the field rate is 60 fields per second, though both part of interlaced video, frames per second and fields per second are separate numbers. ===Bit rate and BPP=== By definition, bit rate is a measurement of the rate of information content from the digital video stream. In the case of uncompressed video, bit rate corresponds directly to the quality of the video because bit rate is proportional to every property that affects the video quality. Bit rate is an important property when transmitting video because the transmission link must be capable of supporting that bit rate. Bit rate is also important when dealing with the storage of video because, as shown above, the video size is proportional to the bit rate and the duration. Video compression is used to greatly reduce the bit rate while having little effect on quality. Bits per pixel (BPP) is a measure of the efficiency of compression. A true-color video with no compression at all may have a BPP of 24 bits/pixel. Chroma subsampling can reduce the BPP to 16 or 12 bits/pixel. Applying JPEG compression on every frame can reduce the BPP to 8 or even 1 bits/pixel. Applying video compression algorithms like MPEG1, MPEG2 or MPEG4 allows for fractional BPP values to exist. ====Constant bit rate versus variable bit rate==== BPP represents the average bits per pixel. There are compression algorithms that keep the BPP almost constant throughout the entire duration of the video. In this case, we also get video output with a constant bitrate (CBR). This CBR video is suitable for real-time, non-buffered, fixed bandwidth video streaming (e.g. in videoconferencing). Since not all frames can be compressed at the same level, because quality is more severely impacted for scenes of high complexity, some algorithms try to constantly adjust the BPP. They keep the BPP high while compressing complex scenes and low for less demanding scenes. This way, it provides the best quality at the smallest average bit rate (and the smallest file size, accordingly). This method produces a variable bitrate because it tracks the variations of the BPP. ==Technical overview== Standard film stocks typically record at 24 frames per second. For video, there are two frame rate standards: NTSC, at 30/1.001 (about 29.97) frames per second (about 59.94 fields per second), and PAL, 25 frames per second (50 fields per second). Digital video cameras come in two different image capture formats: interlaced and progressive scan. Interlaced cameras record the image in alternating sets of lines: the odd-numbered lines are scanned, and then the even-numbered lines are scanned, then the odd-numbered lines are scanned again, and so on. One set of odd or even lines is referred to as a field, and a consecutive pairing of two fields of opposite parity is called a frame. Progressive scan cameras record all lines in each frame as a single unit. Thus, interlaced video captures the scene motion twice as often as progressive video does for the same frame rate. Progressive scan generally produces a slightly sharper image, however, motion may not be as smooth as interlaced video. Digital video can be copied with no generation loss; which degrades quality in analog systems. However, a change in parameters like frame size, or a change of the digital format can decrease the quality of the video due to image scaling and transcoding losses. Digital video can be manipulated and edited on non-linear editing systems. Digital video has a significantly lower cost than 35 mm film. In comparison to the high cost of film stock, the digital media used for digital video recording, such as flash memory or hard disk drive is very inexpensive. Digital video also allows footage to be viewed on location without the expensive and time-consuming chemical processing required by film. Network transfer of digital video makes physical deliveries of tapes and film reels unnecessary. Digital television (including higher quality HDTV) was introduced in most developed countries in early 2000s. Today, digital video is used in modern mobile phones and video conferencing systems. Digital video is used for Internet distribution of media, including streaming video and peer-to-peer movie distribution. Many types of video compression exist for serving digital video over the internet and on optical disks. The file sizes of digital video used for professional editing are generally not practical for these purposes, and the video requires further compression with codecs to be used for recreational purposes. , the highest image resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 132.7 megapixels (15360 x 8640 pixels). The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high-speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording. == Technical properties == Live digital video consumes bandwidth. Recorded digital video consumes data storage. The amount of bandwidth or storage required is determined by the frame size, color depth and frame rate. Each pixel consumes a number of bits determined by the color depth. The data required to represent a frame of data is determined by multiplying by the number of pixels in the image. The bandwidth is determined by multiplying the storage requirement for a frame by the frame rate. The overall storage requirements for a program can then be determined by multiplying bandwidth by the duration of the program. These calculations are accurate for uncompressed video, but due to the relatively high bit rate of uncompressed video, video compression is extensively used. In the case of compressed video, each frame requires only a small percentage of the original bits. This reduces the data or bandwidth consumption by a factor of 5 to 12 times when using lossless compression, but more commonly, lossy compression is used due to its reduction of data consumption by factors of 20 to 200. Note that it is not necessary that all frames are equally compressed by the same percentage. Instead, consider the average factor of compression for all the frames taken together. ==Interfaces and cables== Purpose-built digital video interfaces Digital component video Digital Visual Interface (DVI) DisplayPort HDBaseT High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) Unified Display Interface General-purpose interfaces use to carry digital video FireWire (IEEE 1394) Universal Serial Bus (USB) The following interface has been designed for carrying MPEG-Transport compressed video: DVB-ASI Compressed video is also carried using UDP-IP over Ethernet. Two approaches exist for this: Using RTP as a wrapper for video packets as with SMPTE 2022 1–7 MPEG Transport Packets are placed directly in the UDP packet Other methods of carrying video over IP Network Device Interface SMPTE 2110 ==Storage formats== ===Encoding=== CCIR 601 used for broadcast stations VC-2 also known as Dirac Pro MPEG-4 good for online distribution of large videos and video recorded to flash memory MPEG-2 used for DVDs, Super-VCDs, and many broadcast television formats MPEG-1 used for video CDs H.261 H.263 H.264 also known as MPEG-4 Part 10, or as AVC, used for Blu-ray Discs and some broadcast television formats H.265 also known as MPEG-H Part 2, or as HEVC MOV used for QuickTime framework Theora used for video on Wikipedia ===Tapes=== Betacam SX, MPEG IMX, Digital Betacam, or DigiBeta — professional video formats by Sony, based on original Betamax technology D-VHS — MPEG-2 format data recorded on a tape similar to S-VHS D1, D2, D3, D5, D7, D9 (also known as Digital-S) — various SMPTE professional digital video standards D8 — DV-format data recorded on Hi8-compatible cassettes; largely a consumer format DV, MiniDV — used in most of digital videocassette consumer camcorders; designed for high quality and easy editing; can also record high-definition data (HDV) in MPEG-2 format DVCAM, DVCPRO — used in professional broadcast operations; similar to DV but generally considered more robust; though DV-compatible, these formats have better audio handling. DVCPRO50 and DVCPRO HD support higher bandwidths as compared to Panasonic's DVCPRO. HDCAM and HDCAM SR were introduced by Sony as a high-definition alternative to DigiBeta. MicroMV — MPEG-2-format data recorded on a very small, matchbook-sized cassette; obsolete ProHD — name used by JVC for its MPEG-2-based professional camcorders === Discs === Blu-ray Disc DVD VCD	[ "MPEG-2", "Nippon Electric Corporation", "pixel", "broadcast television", "MPEG2", "HDMI", "ITU-601", "image sensors", "digital image", "QuickTime", "Betacam SX", "Bandwidth (computing)", "Motion Picture Experts Group", "end user", "D-1 (Sony)", "spectrum reallocation", "Online video platform", "Digital Visual Interface", "Webcam", "H.262", "tapeless camcorder", "computers", "D2 (video format)", "ProHD", "analog signal", "computer data storage", "streaming video", "H.261", "standard-definition television", "non-linear editing", "Vision Research Phantom", "Betacam", "Canon (company)", "QuickTime File Format", "Internet", "Index of video-related articles", "digital data", "semiconductor", "VHS", "Real-time Transport Protocol", "D-5 (Panasonic)", "MPEG-4 Visual", "Universal Serial Bus", "Chroma subsampling", "DVCAM", "lossless compression", "HDCAM", "DisplayPort", "VC-2", "Grass Valley (company)", "Bitmovin", "Network Device Interface", "constant bitrate", "Hi8", "HDCAM SR", "differential pulse-code modulation", "charge-coupled device", "MicroMV", "video", "Digital component video", "uncompressed video", "variable bitrate", "video coding standard", "high-definition video", "Theora", "entertainment industry", "Benton Foundation", "Mbit/s", "Internet Protocol", "RealNetworks", "metal–oxide–semiconductor", "interlaced video", "flash memory", "Digital cinematography", "MPEG-1", "digital video effects", "color depth", "The A.V. Club", "Ampex", "digital television", "JVC Kenwood", "D9 (video)", "S-VHS", "movie", "JVC", "Digital8", "composite video", "Microsoft", "Apple Computer", "videotape recorder", "CRC Press", "HDV", "User Datagram Protocol", "1\" Type C videotape", "terrestrial television", "H.264/MPEG-4 AVC", "FireWire", "television studio", "Internet video", "frames per second", "SPARCstation", "AVCHD", "transcoding", "H.264", "Sony D1", "DVB", "MiniDV", "time base corrector", "MPEG", "video production", "Display aspect ratio", "Panavision", "D3 (video)", "Betamax", "discrete cosine transform", "hard disk drive", "digital imaging", "GE", "file extension", "Type B videotape", "D-VHS", "HEVC", "Closed circuit television", "XDCAM", "Institution of Engineering and Technology", "television network", "TV show", "MPEG transport stream", "Digital audio", "film stock", "analog video", "Unified Display Interface", "AV1", "Robert Bosch GmbH", "Fernseh", "Sony", "vector quantization", "peer-to-peer", "active-pixel sensor", "DV (video format)", "Red Digital Cinema Camera Company", "Gbit/s", "MPEG IMX", "HDTV", "Samsung Electronics", "JPEG", "smart TV", "high-definition television", "progressive scan", "NTSC", "SMPTE 2022", "Video editing software", "Apple Inc.", "H.263", "Data compression", "MPEG4", "television", "D-2 (video)", "standard-definition", "film frame", "laserdiscs", "pulse-code modulation", "pl:Digital video", "Discrete sine transform", "CMOS sensor", "television broadcast", "VCD", "Display resolution", "CCITT", "Ethernet", "HDBaseT", "dynamic range", "image scaling", "bit rate", "component video", "video coding", "desktop computer", "High-Definition Multimedia Interface", "SMPTE 2110", "MPEG1", "Audio Video Interleave", "lossy compression", "SMPTE", "DVD", "image resolution", "MPEG-4", "Blackmagic Design", "direct broadcast satellite", "non-linear editing system", "cable television", "Arri", "Blu-ray Disc", "H.265", "H.120", "Uncompressed video", "Thomson-CSF", "generation loss", "digital video camera", "CCIR 601", "Asynchronous serial communication", "2-inch quadruplex videotape", "Digital television", "video compression", "megapixel", "Nippon Telegraph and Telephone", "Video coding format", "mobile phone", "digital video recorder", "Compressed video", "serial digital interface", "digital audio", "DVCPRO", "European Broadcasting Union", "frame rate", "high-speed camera", "D1 (Sony)", "CMOS", "Panasonic", "DCT (videocassette format)", "video conferencing", "Digital Betacam", "video quality", "PAL", "MPEG LA" ]
8,735	BIND	BIND () is a suite of software for interacting with the Domain Name System (DNS). Its most prominent component, named (pronounced name-dee: , short for name daemon), performs both of the main DNS server roles, acting as an authoritative name server for DNS zones and as a recursive resolver in the network. As of 2015, it is the most widely used domain name server software, and is the de facto standard on Unix-like operating systems. Also contained in the suite are various administration tools such as nsupdate and dig, and a DNS resolver interface library. The software was originally designed at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) in the early 1980s. The name originates as an acronym of Berkeley Internet Name Domain, reflecting the application's use within UC Berkeley. The current version is BIND 9, first released in 2000 and still actively maintained by the Internet Systems Consortium (ISC) with new releases issued several times a year. ==Key features== BIND 9 is intended to be fully compliant with the IETF DNS standards and draft standards. Important features of BIND 9 include: TSIG, nsupdate, IPv6, RNDC (remote name daemon control), views, multiprocessor support, Response Rate Limiting (RRL), DNSSEC, and broad portability. RNDC enables remote configuration updates, using a shared secret to provide encryption for local and remote terminals during each session. ==Database support== While earlier versions of BIND offered no mechanism to store and retrieve zone data in anything other than flat text files, in 2007 BIND 9.4 DLZ provided a compile-time option for zone storage in a variety of database formats including LDAP, Berkeley DB, PostgreSQL, MySQL, and ODBC. BIND 10 planned to make the data store modular, so that a variety of databases may be connected. In 2016 ISC added support for the 'dyndb' interface, contributed by RedHat, with BIND version 9.11.0. ==Security== Security issues that are discovered in BIND 9 are patched and publicly disclosed in keeping with common principles of open source software. A complete list of security defects that have been discovered and disclosed in BIND9 is maintained by Internet Systems Consortium, the current authors of the software. The BIND 4 and BIND 8 releases both had serious security vulnerabilities. Use of these ancient versions, or any un-maintained, non-supported version is strongly discouraged. BIND 9 was a complete rewrite, in part to mitigate these ongoing security issues. The downloads page on the ISC web site clearly shows which versions are currently maintained and which are end of life. ==History== BIND was originally written by four graduate students at the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle and Songnian Zhou, in the early 1980s as a result of a DARPA grant. The acronym BIND is for Berkeley Internet Name Domain, from a technical paper published in 1984. Paul Vixie of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) took over BIND development in 1988, releasing versions 4.9 and 4.9.1. Vixie continued to work on BIND after leaving DEC. BIND Version 4.9.2 was sponsored by Vixie Enterprises. Vixie eventually founded the Internet Software Consortium (ISC), which became the entity responsible for BIND versions starting with 4.9.3. It was written from scratch in part to address the architectural difficulties with auditing the earlier BIND code bases, and also to support DNSSEC (DNS Security Extensions). The development of BIND 9 took place under a combination of commercial and military contracts. Most of the features of BIND 9 were funded by UNIX vendors who wanted to ensure that BIND stayed competitive with Microsoft's DNS offerings; the DNSSEC features were funded by the US military, which regarded DNS security as important. BIND 9 was released in September 2000. moving the source code repository to GitHub for further development by outside public efforts. ISC discontinued its involvement in the project due to cost-cutting measures. The development of DHCP components was split off to become a new Kea project.	[ "Resolver (DNS)", "Unix-like", "Berkeley Software Distribution", "Domain Name System Security Extensions", "encryption", "graduate student", "DNS zone", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "Linux Weekly News", "Internet Software Consortium", "Linux", "IPv6", "LDAP", "NetBSD", "DNS server", "Paul Vixie", "macOS", "TSIG", "Mozilla Public License", "MySQL", "Daemon (computing)", "Stable", "Kea (software)", "ODBC", "nsupdate", "DNSSEC", "Internet Systems Consortium", "shared secret", "PostgreSQL", "De facto standard", "Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency", "Code audit", "University of California, Berkeley", "Domain Name System", "Zone file", "OpenBSD", "authoritative name server", "Long-term support", "FreeBSD", "Computer Systems Research Group", "Akamai Technologies", "DNS management software", "dig (command)", "GitHub", "Rewrite (programming)", "Comparison of DNS server software", "Berkeley DB", "IPv4" ]
8,736	Djbdns	The djbdns software package is a DNS implementation. It was created by Daniel J. Bernstein in response to his frustrations with repeated security holes in the widely used BIND DNS software. As a challenge, Bernstein offered a $1000 prize for the first person to find a security hole in djbdns, which was awarded in March 2009 to Matthew Dempsky. , djbdns's tinydns component was the second most popular DNS server in terms of the number of domains for which it was the authoritative server, and third most popular in terms of the number of DNS hosts running it. djbdns has never been vulnerable to the widespread cache poisoning vulnerability reported in July 2008, but it has been discovered that it is vulnerable to a related attack. The source code has not been centrally managed since its release in 2001, and was released into the public domain in 2007. As of March 2009, there are a number of forks, one of which is dbndns (part of the Debian Project), and more than a dozen patches to modify the released version. While djbdns does not directly support DNSSEC, there are third party patches to add DNSSEC support to djbdns' authoritative-only tinydns component. ==Components== The djbdns software consists of servers, clients, and miscellaneous configuration tools. ===Servers=== dnscache — the DNS resolver and cache. tinydns — a database-driven DNS server. walldns — a "reverse DNS wall", providing IP address-to-domain name lookup only. rbldns — a server designed for DNS blacklisting service. pickdns — a database-driven server that chooses from matching records depending on the requestor's location. (This feature is now a standard part of tinydns.) axfrdns — a zone transfer server. ===Client tools=== axfr-get — a zone-transfer client. dnsip — simple address from name lookup. dnsipq — address from name lookup with rewriting rules. dnsname — simple name from address lookup. dnstxt — simple text record from name lookup. dnsmx — mail exchanger lookup. dnsfilter — looks up names for addresses read from stdin, in parallel. dnsqr — recursive general record lookup. dnsq — non-recursive general record lookup, useful for debugging. dnstrace (and dnstracesort) — comprehensive testing of the chains of authority over DNS servers and their names. ==Design== In djbdns, different features and services are split off into separate programs. For example, zone transfers, zone file parsing, caching, and recursive resolving are implemented as separate programs. The result of these design decisions is a reduction in code size and complexity of the daemon program that provides the core function of answering lookup requests. Bernstein asserts that this is true to the spirit of the Unix operating system, and makes security verification much simpler. ==Copyright status== On December 28, 2007, Bernstein released djbdns into the public domain. Previously the package was distributed free of charge as license-free software. However this did not permit the distribution of modified versions of djbdns, which was one of the core principles of open-source software. Consequently, it was not included in those Linux distributions which required all components to be open-source.	[ "daemon (computing)", "Unix-like", "license-free software", "DNS cache", "Daniel J. Bernstein", "dbndns", "recursion", "public domain", "Unix", "source code", "DNS cache poisoning", "open-source software", "DNSSEC", "Fork (software development)", "Vulnerability (computing)", "Domain Name System", "BIND", "Public domain", "security hole", "DNS management software", "Debian Project", "Linux distribution", "Comparison of DNS server software", "Patch (computing)" ]
8,741	Dylan (programming language)	Dylan is a multi-paradigm programming language that includes support for functional and object-oriented programming (OOP), and is dynamic and reflective while providing a programming model designed to support generating efficient machine code, including fine-grained control over dynamic and static behaviors. It was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer. Dylan derives from Scheme and Common Lisp and adds an integrated object system derived from the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS). In Dylan, all values (including numbers, characters, functions, and classes) are first-class objects. Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, pattern-based syntax extension macros, and many other advanced features. Programs can express fine-grained control over dynamism, admitting programs that occupy a continuum between dynamic and static programming and supporting evolutionary development (allowing for rapid prototyping followed by incremental refinement and optimization). Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well-suited for developing commercial software. Dylan attempts to address potential performance issues by introducing "natural" limits to the full flexibility of Lisp systems, allowing the compiler to clearly understand compilable units, such as libraries. Dylan derives much of its semantics from Scheme and other Lisps; some Dylan implementations were initially built within extant Lisp systems. However, Dylan has an ALGOL-like syntax instead of a Lisp-like prefix syntax. ==History== Dylan was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer. At one time in its development, it was intended for use with the Apple Newton computer, but the Dylan implementation did not reach sufficient maturity in time, and Newton instead used a mix of C and the NewtonScript developed by Walter Smith. Apple ended their Dylan development effort in 1995, though they made a "technology release" version available (Apple Dylan TR1) that included an advanced integrated development environment (IDE). Two other groups contributed to the design of the language and developed implementations: Harlequin released a commercial IDE for Microsoft Windows and Carnegie Mellon University released an open source compiler for Unix systems called Gwydion Dylan. Both of these implementations are now open source. The Harlequin implementation is now named Open Dylan and is maintained by a group of volunteers, the Dylan Hackers. The Dylan language was code-named Ralph. James Joaquin chose the name Dylan for "DYnamic LANguage." ==Syntax== Many of Dylan's syntax features come from its Lisp heritage. Originally, Dylan used a Lisp-like prefix syntax, which was based on s-expressions. By the time the language design was completed, the syntax was changed to an ALGOL-like syntax, with the expectation that it would be more familiar to a wider audience of programmers. The syntax was designed by Michael Kahl. It is described in great detail in the Dylan Reference Manual. ===Lexical syntax=== Dylan is not case sensitive. Dylan's lexical syntax allows the use of a naming convention where hyphen (minus) signs are used to connect the parts of multiple-word identifiers (sometimes called "lisp-case" or "kebab case"). This convention is common in Lisp languages. Besides alphanumeric characters and hyphen-minus signs, Dylan allows a variety of non-alphanumeric characters as part of identifiers. Identifiers may not consist of these non-alphanumeric characters alone. If there is any ambiguity, whitespace is used. ===Example code=== A simple class with several slots: define class () slot point-x :: , required-init-keyword: x:; slot point-y :: , required-init-keyword: y:; end class ; By convention, classes are named with less-than and greater-than signs used as angle brackets, e.g. the class named in the code example. In end class both class and are optional. This is true for all end clauses. For example, you may write end if or just end to terminate an if statement. To make an instance of : make(, x: 100, y: 200) The same class, rewritten in the most minimal way possible: define class () slot point-x; slot point-y; end; The slots are now both typed as . The slots must be initialized manually: let p = make(); point-x(p) := 100; // or p.point-x := 100; point-y(p) := 200; // or p.point-y := 200; By convention, constant names begin with "$": define constant $pi :: = 3.1415927d0; A factorial function: define function factorial (n :: ) => (n! :: ) case n < 0 => error("Can't take factorial of negative integer: %d\n", n); n = 0 => 1; otherwise => n * factorial(n - 1); end end; Here, n! and are just normal identifiers. There is no explicit return statement. The result of a method or function is the last expression evaluated. It is a common style to leave off the semicolon after an expression in return position. ==Modules vs. namespace== In many object-oriented languages, classes are the main means of encapsulation and modularity; each class defines a namespace and controls which definitions are externally visible. Further, classes in many languages define an indivisible unit that must be used as a whole. For example, using a String concatenation function requires importing and compiling against all of String. Some languages, including Dylan, also include a separate, explicit namespace or module system that performs encapsulation in a more general way. In Dylan, the concepts of compile-unit and import-unit are separated, and classes have nothing specifically to do with either. A library defines items that should be compiled and handled together, while a module defines a namespace. Classes can be placed together in modules, or cut across them, as the programmer wishes. Often the complete definition for a class does not exist in a single module, but is spread across several that are optionally collected together. Different programs can have different definitions of the same class, including only what they need. For example, consider an add-on library for regex support on String. In some languages, for the functionality to be included in strings, the functionality must be added to the String namespace. As soon as this occurs, the String class becomes larger, and functions that don't need to use regex still must "pay" for it in increased library size. For this reason, these sorts of add-ons are typically placed in their own namespaces and objects. The downside to this approach is that the new functions are no longer a part of String; instead, it is isolated in its own set of functions that must be called separately. Instead of myString.parseWith(myPattern), which would be the natural organization from an OO viewpoint, something like myPattern.parseString(myString) is used, which effectively reverses the ordering. Under Dylan, many interfaces can be defined for the same code, for instance the String concatenation method could be placed in both the String interface, and the "concat" interface which collects together all of the different concatenation functions from various classes. This is more commonly used in math libraries, where functions tend to be applicable to widely differing object types. A more practical use of the interface construct is to build public and private versions of a module, something that other languages include as a bolt on feature that invariably causes problems and adds syntax. Under Dylan, every function call can be simply placed in the "Private" or "Development" interface, and collect up publicly accessible functions in Public. Under Java or C++ the visibility of an object is defined in the code, meaning that to support a similar change, a programmer would be forced to rewrite the definitions fully, and could not have two versions at the same time. ==Classes== Classes in Dylan describe slots (data members, fields, ivars, etc.) of objects in a fashion similar to most OO languages. All access to slots is via methods, as in Smalltalk. Default getter and setter methods are automatically generated based on the slot names. In contrast with most other OO languages, other methods applicable to the class are often defined outside of the class, and thus class definitions in Dylan typically include the definition of the storage only. For instance: define class () slot title :: = "untitled", init-keyword: title:; slot position :: , required-init-keyword: position:; end class; In this example, the class "" is defined. The syntax is convention only, to make the class names stand out—the angle brackets are merely part of the class name. In contrast, in some languages the convention is to capitalize the first letter of the class name or to prefix the name with a C or T (for example). inherits from a single class, , and contains two slots, title holding a string for the window title, and position holding an X-Y point for a corner of the window. In this example, the title has been given a default value, while the position has not. The optional init-keyword syntax allows the programmer to specify the initial value of the slot when instantiating an object of the class. In languages such as C++ or Java, the class would also define its interface. In this case the definition above has no explicit instructions, so in both languages access to the slots and methods is considered protected, meaning they can be used only by subclasses. To allow unrelated code to use the window instances, they must be declared public. In Dylan, these sorts of visibility rules are not considered part of the code, but of the module/interface system. This adds considerable flexibility. For instance, one interface used during early development could declare everything public, whereas one used in testing and deployment could limit this. With C++ or Java these changes would require changes to the source code, so people won't do it, whereas in Dylan this is a fully unrelated concept. Although this example does not use it, Dylan also supports multiple inheritance. ==Methods and generic functions== In Dylan, methods are not intrinsically associated with any specific class; methods can be thought of as existing outside of classes. Like CLOS, Dylan is based on multiple dispatch (multimethods), where the specific method to be called is chosen based on the types of all its arguments. The method need not be known at compile time, the understanding being that the required function may be available, or not, based on a user's preferences. Under Java the same methods would be isolated in a specific class. To use that functionality the programmer is forced to import that class and refer to it explicitly to call the method. If that class is unavailable, or unknown at compile time, the application simply won't compile. In Dylan, code is isolated from storage in functions. Many classes have methods that call their own functions, thereby looking and feeling like most other OO languages. However code may also be located in generic functions, meaning they are not attached to a specific class, and can be called natively by anyone. Linking a specific generic function to a method in a class is accomplished thusly: define method turn-blue (w :: ) w.color := $blue; end method; This definition is similar to those in other languages, and would likely be encapsulated within the class. Note the := setter call, which is syntactic sugar for color-setter($blue, w). The utility of generic methods comes into its own when you consider more "generic" examples. For instance, one common function in most languages is the to-string, which returns some human-readable form for the object. For instance, a window might return its title and its position in parens, while a string would return itself. In Dylan these methods could all be collected into a single module called "to-string", thereby removing this code from the definition of the class itself. If a specific object did not support a to-string, it could be easily added in the to-string module. ==Extensibility== This whole concept might strike some readers as very odd. The code to handle to-string for a window isn't defined in ? This might not make any sense until you consider how Dylan handles the call of the to-string. In most languages when the program is compiled the to-string for is looked up and replaced with a pointer (more or less) to the method. In Dylan this occurs when the program is first run; the runtime builds a table of method-name/parameters details and looks up methods dynamically via this table. That means that a function for a specific method can be located anywhere, not just in the compile-time unit. In the end the programmer is given considerable flexibility in terms of where to place their code, collecting it along class lines where appropriate, and functional lines where it's not. The implication here is that a programmer can add functionality to existing classes by defining functions in a separate file. For instance, you might wish to add spell checking to all s, which in C++ or Java would require access to the source code of the string class—and such basic classes are rarely given out in source form. In Dylan (and other "extensible languages") the spell checking method could be added in the spell-check module, defining all of the classes on which it can be applied via the define method construct. In this case the actual functionality might be defined in a single generic function, which takes a string and returns the errors. When the spell-check module is compiled into your program, all strings (and other objects) will get the added functionality. ==Apple Dylan== Apple Dylan is the implementation of Dylan produced by Apple Computer. It was originally developed for the Apple Newton product.	[ "Cross-platform software", "programming language", "Syntactic macro", "multiple inheritance", "x86-64", "Addison-Wesley", "multiple dispatch", "human-readable", "Apple Newton", "Dynamic programming language", "keyword argument", "kebab case", "Java (programming language)", "ALGOL", "Scheme (programming language)", "Reflective programming", "commercial software", "Lisp (programming language)", "Multi-paradigm programming language", "Lasso (programming language)", "programming model", "Gradual typing", "Julia (programming language)", "alphanumeric", "EuLisp", "compiler", "Unix", "lisp-case", "integrated development environment", "NewtonScript", "machine code", "Harlequin (software company)", "Common Lisp", "Ruby (programming language)", "Carnegie Mellon University", "Microsoft Windows", "Open-source software", "hyphen-minus", "angle bracket", "Open Source Community", "Case sensitivity", "Smalltalk", "Python (programming language)", "s-expression", "Apple Computer", "Common Lisp Object System", "C++", "first-class object", "IA-32", "Strong and weak typing", "lexical syntax", "regex", "Library (computing)", "object-oriented programming", "Polymorphism (computer science)", "Run time system", "Object-oriented programming", "syntactic sugar", "return statement", "Pattern matching", "Functional programming", "Class (computer programming)" ]
8,742	Dublin Core	The Dublin Core vocabulary, also known as the Dublin Core Metadata Terms (DCMT), is a general purpose metadata vocabulary for describing resources of any type. It was first developed for describing web content in the early days of the World Wide Web. The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI) is responsible for maintaining the Dublin Core vocabulary. Initially developed as fifteen terms in 1998 the set of elements has grown over time and in 2008 was redefined as an Resource Description Framework (RDF) vocabulary. Designed with minimal constraints, each Dublin Core element is optional and may be repeated. There is no prescribed order in Dublin Core for presenting or using the elements. ==Milestones== 1995 - In 1995 an invitational meeting hosted by the Ohio College Library Center (OCLC) and the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) takes place at Dublin, Ohio, the headquarters of OCLC. 1998, September - RFC 2413 "Dublin Core Metadata for Resource Discovery" details the original 15-element vocabulary. 2000 - Issuance of Qualified Dublin Core. 2001 - Publication of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set as ANSI/NISO Z39.85. 2008 - Publication of Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Terms in RDF. ==Evolution of the Dublin Core vocabulary== The Dublin Core Element Set was a response to concern about accurate finding of resources on the Web, with some early assumptions that this would be a library function. In particular it anticipated a future in which scholarly materials would be searchable on the World Wide Web. Whereas HTML was being used to mark-up the structure of documents, metadata was needed to mark-up the contents of documents. Given the great number of documents on, and soon to be on, the World Wide Web, it was proposed that "self-identifying" documents would be necessary. To this end, the Dublin Core Metadata Workshop met beginning in 1995 to develop a vocabulary that could be used to insert consistent metadata into Web documents. Originally defined as 15 metadata elements, the Dublin Core Element Set allowed authors of web pages a vocabulary and method for creating simple metadata for their works. It provided a simple, flat element set that could be used Qualified Dublin Core was developed in the late 1990s to provide an extension mechanism to the vocabulary of 15 elements. This was a response to communities whose metadata needs required additional detail. This expanded element set incorporates the original 15 elements and many of the qualifiers of the qualified Dublin Core as RDF properties. The full set of elements is found under the namespace http://purl.org/dc/terms/. There is a separate namespace for the original 15 elements as previously defined: http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/. === Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, 1995=== The Dublin Core vocabulary published in 1999 consisted of 15 terms: The vocabulary was commonly expressed in HTML 'meta' tagging in the "" section of an HTML-encoded page. The vocabulary could be used in any metadata serialization including key/value pairs and XML. ===Qualified Dublin Core, 2000=== Subsequent to the specification of the original 15 elements, Qualified Dublin Core was developed to provide an extension mechanism to be used when the primary 15 terms were not sufficient. A set of common refinements was provided in the documentation. These schemes include controlled vocabularies and formal notations or parsing rules. Qualified Dublin Core was not limited to these specific refinements, allowing communities to create extended metadata terms to meet their needs. The guiding principle for the qualification of Dublin Core elements, colloquially known as the Dumb-Down Principle, states that an application that does not understand a specific element refinement term should be able to ignore the qualifier and treat the metadata value as if it were an unqualified (broader) element. While this may result in some loss of specificity, the remaining element value (without the qualifier) should continue to be generally correct and useful for discovery. Qualified Dublin Core added qualifiers to these elements: And added three elements not in the base 15: Audience Provenance RightsHolder Qualified Dublin Core is often used with a "dot syntax", with a period separating the element and the qualifier(s). This is shown in this excerpted example provided by Chan and Hodges: This policy describes how terms are assigned and also sets limits on the amount of editorial changes allowed to the labels, definitions, and usage comments. ==Dublin Core as standards== The Dublin Core Metadata Terms vocabulary has been formally standardized internationally as ISO 15836 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and as IETF RFC 5013 by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), as well as in the U.S. as ANSI/NISO Z39.85 by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO). ==Syntax== Syntax choices for metadata expressed with the Dublin Core elements depend on context. Dublin Core concepts and semantics are designed to be syntax independent and apply to a variety of contexts, as long as the metadata is in a form suitable for interpretation by both machines and people. ==Notable applications== One Document Type Definition based on Dublin Core is the Open Source Metadata Framework (OMF) specification. OMF is in turn used by Rarian (superseding ScrollKeeper), which is used by the GNOME desktop and KDE help browsers and the ScrollServer documentation server. PBCore is also based on Dublin Core. The Zope CMF's Metadata products, used by the Plone, ERP5, the Nuxeo CPS Content management systems, SimpleDL, and Fedora Commons also implement Dublin Core. The EPUB e-book format uses Dublin Core metadata in the OPF file. Qualified Dublin Core is used in the DSpace archival management software. The Australian Government Locator Service (AGLS) metadata standard is an application profile of Dublin Core.	[ "PBCore", "metadata", "SimpleDL", "ScrollKeeper", "GNOME", "Controlled vocabulary", "ERP5", "OPF (file format)", "Open Archives Initiative", "Zope", "National Information Standards Organization", "KDE", "Resource Description Framework", "Content management system", "DSpace", "OCLC", "Darwin Core", "Metadata registry", "Zope Content Management Framework", "Ontology (information science)", "e-book", "International Organization for Standardization", "Dublin, Ohio", "International Digital Publishing Forum", "Metadata Object Description Schema", "Plone (software)", "National Center for Supercomputing Applications", "EPUB", "Fedora Commons", "Rarian", "Interoperability", "Australian Government Locator Service", "Document Type Definition", "Internet Engineering Task Force" ]
8,743	Document Object Model	The Document Object Model (DOM) is a cross-platform and language-independent interface that treats an HTML or XML document as a tree structure wherein each node is an object representing a part of the document. The DOM represents a document with a logical tree. Each branch of the tree ends in a node, and each node contains objects. DOM methods allow programmatic access to the tree; with them one can change the structure, style or content of a document. Nodes can have event handlers (also known as event listeners) attached to them. Once an event is triggered, the event handlers get executed. The principal standardization of the DOM was handled by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which last developed a recommendation in 2004. WHATWG took over the development of the standard, publishing it as a living document. The W3C now publishes stable snapshots of the WHATWG standard. In HTML DOM (Document Object Model), every element is a node: A document is a document node. All HTML elements are element nodes. All HTML attributes are attribute nodes. Text inserted into HTML elements are text nodes. Comments are comment nodes. ==History== The history of the Document Object Model is intertwined with the history of the "browser wars" of the late 1990s between Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer, as well as with that of JavaScript and JScript, the first scripting languages to be widely implemented in the JavaScript engines of web browsers. JavaScript was released by Netscape Communications in 1995 within Netscape Navigator 2.0. Netscape's competitor, Microsoft, released Internet Explorer 3.0 the following year with a reimplementation of JavaScript called JScript. JavaScript and JScript let web developers create web pages with client-side interactivity. The limited facilities for detecting user-generated events and modifying the HTML document in the first generation of these languages eventually became known as "DOM Level 0" or "Legacy DOM." No independent standard was developed for DOM Level 0, but it was partly described in the specifications for HTML 4. Legacy DOM was limited in the kinds of elements that could be accessed. Form, link and image elements could be referenced with a hierarchical name that began with the root document object. A hierarchical name could make use of either the names or the sequential index of the traversed elements. For example, a form input element could be accessed as either document.myForm.myInput or document.forms[0].elements[0]. The Legacy DOM enabled client-side form validation and simple interface interactivity like creating tooltips. In 1997, Netscape and Microsoft released version 4.0 of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer respectively, adding support for Dynamic HTML (DHTML) functionality enabling changes to a loaded HTML document. DHTML required extensions to the rudimentary document object that was available in the Legacy DOM implementations. Although the Legacy DOM implementations were largely compatible since JScript was based on JavaScript, the DHTML DOM extensions were developed in parallel by each browser maker and remained incompatible. These versions of the DOM became known as the "Intermediate DOM". After the standardization of ECMAScript, the W3C DOM Working Group began drafting a standard DOM specification. The completed specification, known as "DOM Level 1", became a W3C Recommendation in late 1998. By 2005, large parts of W3C DOM were well-supported by common ECMAScript-enabled browsers, including Internet Explorer 6 (from 2001), Opera, Safari and Gecko-based browsers (like Mozilla, Firefox, SeaMonkey and Camino). ==Standards== The W3C DOM Working Group published its final recommendation and subsequently disbanded in 2004. Development efforts migrated to the WHATWG, which continues to maintain a living standard. In 2009, the Web Applications group reorganized DOM activities at the W3C. In 2013, due to a lack of progress and the impending release of HTML5, the DOM Level 4 specification was reassigned to the HTML Working Group to expedite its completion. Meanwhile, in 2015, the Web Applications group was disbanded and DOM stewardship passed to the Web Platform group. Beginning with the publication of DOM Level 4 in 2015, the W3C creates new recommendations based on snapshots of the WHATWG standard. DOM Level 1 provided a complete model for an entire HTML or XML document, including the means to change any portion of the document. DOM Level 2 was published in late 2000. It introduced the getElementById function as well as an event model and support for XML namespaces and CSS. DOM Level 3, published in April 2004, added support for XPath and keyboard event handling, as well as an interface for serializing documents as XML. HTML5 was published in October 2014. Part of HTML5 had replaced DOM Level 2 HTML module. DOM Level 4 was published in 2015 and retired in November 2020. DOM 2020-06 was published in September 2021 as a W3C Recommendation. It is a snapshot of the WHATWG living standard. ==Applications== ===Web browsers=== To render a document such as a HTML page, most web browsers use an internal model similar to the DOM. The nodes of every document are organized in a tree structure, called the DOM tree, with the topmost node named as "Document object". When an HTML page is rendered in browsers, the browser downloads the HTML into local memory and automatically parses it to display the page on screen. However, the DOM does not necessarily need to be represented as a tree, and some browsers have used other internal models. ===JavaScript=== When a web page is loaded, the browser creates a Document Object Model of the page, which is an object oriented representation of an HTML document that acts as an interface between JavaScript and the document itself. This allows the creation of dynamic web pages, because within a page JavaScript can: add, change, and remove any of the HTML elements and attributes change any of the CSS styles react to all the existing events create new events == DOM tree structure == A Document Object Model (DOM) tree is a hierarchical representation of an HTML or XML document. It consists of a root node, which is the document itself, and a series of child nodes that represent the elements, attributes, and text content of the document. Each node in the tree has a parent node, except for the root node, and can have multiple child nodes. === Elements as nodes === Elements in an HTML or XML document are represented as nodes in the DOM tree. Each element node has a tag name and attributes, and can contain other element nodes or text nodes as children. For example, an HTML document with the following structure: My Website Welcome to DOM This is my website. will be represented in the DOM tree as: - Document (root) - html - head - title - "My Website" - body - h1 - "Welcome to DOM" - p - "This is my website." === Text nodes === Text content within an element is represented as a text node in the DOM tree. Text nodes do not have attributes or child nodes, and are always leaf nodes in the tree. For example, the text content "My Website" in the title element and "Welcome" in the h1 element in the above example are both represented as text nodes. === Attributes as properties === Attributes of an element are represented as properties of the element node in the DOM tree. For example, an element with the following HTML: Link will be represented in the DOM tree as: - a - href: "https://example.com" - "Link" == Manipulating the DOM tree == The DOM tree can be manipulated using JavaScript or other programming languages. Common tasks include navigating the tree, adding, removing, and modifying nodes, and getting and setting the properties of nodes. The DOM API provides a set of methods and properties to perform these operations, such as getElementById, createElement, appendChild, and innerHTML. // Create the root element var root = document.createElement("root"); // Create a child element var child = document.createElement("child"); // Add the child element to the root element root.appendChild(child); Another way to create a DOM structure is using the innerHTML property to insert HTML code as a string, creating the elements and children in the process. For example: document.getElementById("root").innerHTML = ""; Another method is to use a JavaScript library or framework such as jQuery, AngularJS, React, Vue.js, etc. These libraries provide a more convenient, eloquent and efficient way to create, manipulate and interact with the DOM. It is also possible to create a DOM structure from an XML or JSON data, using JavaScript methods to parse the data and create the nodes accordingly. Creating a DOM structure does not necessarily mean that it will be displayed in the web page, it only exists in memory and should be appended to the document body or a specific container to be rendered. In summary, creating a DOM structure involves creating individual nodes and organizing them in a hierarchical structure using JavaScript or other programming languages, and it can be done using several methods depending on the use case and the developer's preference. ==Implementations== Because the DOM supports navigation in any direction (e.g., parent and previous sibling) and allows for arbitrary modifications, implementations typically buffer the document. However, a DOM need not originate in a serialized document at all, but can be created in place with the DOM API. And even before the idea of the DOM originated, there were implementations of equivalent structure with persistent disk representation and rapid access, for example DynaText's model disclosed in and various database approaches. ===Layout engines=== Web browsers rely on layout engines to parse HTML into a DOM. Some layout engines, such as Trident/MSHTML, are associated primarily or exclusively with a particular browser, such as Internet Explorer. Others, including Blink, WebKit, and Gecko, are shared by a number of browsers, such as Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Firefox. The different layout engines implement the DOM standards to varying degrees of compliance. ===Libraries=== DOM implementations: libxml2 MSXML Xerces is a collection of DOM implementations written in C++, Java and Perl xml.dom for Python XML for is a JavaScript-based DOM implementation PHP.Gt DOM is a server-side DOM implementation based on libxml2 and brings DOM level 4 compatibility to the PHP programming language Domino is a Server-side (Node.js) DOM implementation based on Mozilla's dom.js. Domino is used in the MediaWiki stack with Visual Editor. SimpleHtmlDom is a simple HTML document object model in C#, which can generate HTML string programmatically. APIs that expose DOM implementations: JAXP (Java API for XML Processing) is an API for accessing DOM providers Lazarus (Free Pascal IDE) contains two variants of the DOM - with UTF-8 and ANSI format Inspection tools: DOM Inspector is a web developer tool	[ "jQuery", "Internet Explorer 6", "HTML element", "Netscape Navigator", "Java API for XML Processing", "XML namespace", "ECMAScript", "Object (computer science)", "Free Pascal", "Microsoft Internet Explorer", "Lazarus (IDE)", "Hyperlink", "tree structure", "Implementation", "Sequence", "Safari (web browser)", "Vue.js", "AngularJS", "DynaText", "World Wide Web Consortium", "Virtual DOM", "web browser engine", "HTML5", "client-side", "React (JavaScript library)", "tooltip", "Mozilla Firefox", "HTML Working Group", "event handling", "Blink (layout engine)", "cross-platform", "HTML4", "Apache Xerces", "JavaScript engine", "Internet Explorer 3", "web browser", "web developer", "scripting language", "W3C", "WHATWG", "XPath", "Node (computer science)", "Firefox", "PHP", "event handler", "Web browser engine", "serialization", "XML", "dynamic web page", "Mozilla Application Suite", "WebKit", "Trident (layout engine)", "MSXML", "Python (programming language)", "SeaMonkey", "Microsoft", "Opera (web browser)", "JavaScript", "Netscape Communications", "Form (web)", "Gecko (layout engine)", "MediaWiki", "Shadow DOM", "libxml2", "Google Chrome", "DOM Inspector", "Text box", "DOM Events", "Language-independent specification", "browser wars", "Camino (web browser)", "living document", "HTML", "Dynamic HTML", "JScript", "Event (computing)" ]
8,745	Design pattern	A design pattern is the re-usable form of a solution to a design problem. The idea was introduced by the architect Christopher Alexander and has been adapted for various other disciplines, particularly software engineering. == Details == An organized collection of design patterns that relate to a particular field is called a pattern language. This language gives a common terminology for discussing the situations designers are faced with. {{Blockquote\|The elements of this language are entities called patterns. Each pattern describes a problem that occurs over and over again in our environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the same way twice.\|author=Christopher Alexander\|source=A Pattern Language Christopher Alexander describes common design problems as arising from "conflicting forces"—such as the conflict between wanting a room to be sunny and wanting it not to overheat on summer afternoons. A pattern would not tell the designer how many windows to put in the room; instead, it would propose a set of values to guide the designer toward a decision that is best for their particular application. Alexander, for example, suggests that enough windows should be included to direct light all around the room. He considers this a good solution because he believes it increases the enjoyment of the room by its occupants. Other authors might come to different conclusions, if they place higher value on heating costs, or material costs. These values, used by the pattern's author to determine which solution is "best", must also be documented within the pattern. Pattern documentation should also explain when it is applicable. Since two houses may be very different from one another, a design pattern for houses must be broad enough to apply to both of them, but not so vague that it doesn't help the designer make decisions. The range of situations in which a pattern can be used is called its context. Some examples might be "all houses", "all two-story houses", or "all places where people spend time". For instance, in Christopher Alexander's work, bus stops and waiting rooms in a surgery center are both within the context for the pattern "A PLACE TO WAIT". == Examples == Software design pattern, in software design Architectural pattern, for software architecture Interaction design pattern, used in interaction design / human–computer interaction Pedagogical patterns, in teaching Pattern gardening, in gardening Business models also have design patterns. See .	[ "vi:Mẫu thiết kế", "Addison-Wesley", "Pedagogical patterns", "ja:デザインパターン", "Christopher Alexander", "software engineering", "A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction", "Health Policy and Technology", "Anti-pattern", "O'Reilly Media", "Oxford University Press", "pattern language", "Style guide", "Design paradigm", "pl:Wzorzec projektowy", "Interaction design pattern", "tr:Tasarım örüntüsü", "Pattern gardening", "Dark pattern", "zh:设计模式", "Architectural pattern", "Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software", "Software design pattern", "Wiley (publisher)", "A Pattern Language", "Design Patterns (book)", "Prentice Hall" ]
8,748	N,N-Dimethyltryptamine	Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), also known as N,N-dimethyltryptamine (N,N-DMT), is a psychedelic drug of the tryptamine family that occurs naturally in many plants and animals, including humans. DMT is used as a psychedelic drug and prepared by various cultures for ritual purposes as an entheogen. DMT has a rapid onset, intense effects, and a relatively short duration of action. For those reasons, DMT was known as the "businessman's trip" during the 1960s in the United States, as a user could access the full depth of a psychedelic experience in considerably less time than with other substances such as LSD or psilocybin mushrooms. DMT can be inhaled or injected and its effects depend on the dose, as well as the mode of administration. When inhaled or injected, the effects last about five to fifteen minutes. Effects can last three hours or more when orally ingested along with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), such as the ayahuasca brew of many native Amazonian tribes. DMT can produce vivid "projections" of mystical experiences involving euphoria and dynamic pseudohallucinations of geometric forms. DMT is a functional analog and structural analog of other psychedelic tryptamines such as O-acetylpsilocin (4-AcO-DMT), psilocybin (4-PO-DMT), psilocin (4-HO-DMT), NB-DMT, O-methylbufotenin (5-MeO-DMT), and bufotenin (5-HO-DMT). Parts of the structure of DMT occur within some important biomolecules like serotonin and melatonin, making them structural analogs of DMT. ==Use== DMT is produced in many species of plants often in conjunction with its close chemical relatives 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and bufotenin (5-OH-DMT). Psilocin and psilocybin, the main psychoactive compounds in psilocybin mushrooms, are structurally similar to DMT. The psychotropic effects of DMT were first studied scientifically by the Hungarian chemist and psychologist Stephen Szára, who performed research with volunteers in the mid-1950s. Szára, who later worked for the United States National Institutes of Health, had turned his attention to DMT after his order for LSD from the Swiss company Sandoz Laboratories was rejected on the grounds that the powerful psychotropic could be dangerous in the hands of a communist country. DMT is generally not active orally unless it is combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor such as a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), for example, harmaline. DMT can be inhaled using a bong, typically when sandwiched between layers of plant matter, using a specially designed pipe, or by using an e-cigarette once it has been dissolved in propylene glycol and/or vegetable glycerin. Some users have also started using vaporizers meant for cannabis extracts ("wax pens") for ease of temperature control when vaporizing crystals. A DMT-infused smoking blend is called Changa, and is typically used in pipes or other utensils meant for smoking dried plant matter. ====Intravenous injection==== In a study conducted from 1990 through 1995, University of New Mexico psychiatrist Rick Strassman found that some volunteers injected with high doses of DMT reported experiences with perceived alien entities. Usually, the reported entities were experienced as the inhabitants of a perceived independent reality that the subjects reported visiting while under the influence of DMT. The dose range of DMT via bolus intravenous injection is 4 to 30mg. ====Intramuscular or subcutaneous injection==== Threshold activity occurs at a dose of 30mg intramuscularly and full effects occur at a dose of 50 to 100mg by this route. a highly active reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMAs), rendering the DMT orally active by protecting it from deamination. or local availability of ingredients. Two common sources of DMT in the western US are reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) and Harding grass (Phalaris aquatica). These invasive grasses contain low levels of DMT and other alkaloids but also contain gramine, which is toxic and difficult to separate. In addition, Jurema (Mimosa tenuiflora) shows evidence of DMT content: the pink layer in the inner rootbark of this small tree contains a high concentration of N,N-DMT. Taken orally with an RIMA, DMT produces a long-lasting (over three hours), slow, deep metaphysical experience similar to that of psilocybin mushrooms, but more intense. The intensity of orally administered DMT depends on the type and dose of MAOI administered alongside it. When ingested with 120 mg of harmine (a RIMA and member of the harmala alkaloids), 20 mg of DMT was reported to have psychoactive effects by author and ethnobotanist Jonathan Ott. Ott reported that to produce a visionary state, the threshold oral dose was 30 mg DMT alongside 120 mg harmine. Examples include perceiving hyperbolic geometry or seeing Escher-like impossible objects. Several scientific experimental studies have tried to measure subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness induced by drugs under highly controlled and safe conditions. Rick Strassman and his colleagues conducted a five-year-long DMT study at the University of New Mexico in the 1990s. The results provided insight about the quality of subjective psychedelic experiences. In this study participants received the DMT dosage via intravenous injection and the findings suggested that different psychedelic experiences can occur, depending on the level of dosage. Lower doses (0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg) produced some aesthetic and emotional responses, but not hallucinogenic experiences (e.g., 0.05 mg/kg had mild mood elevating and calming properties). Strassman also highlighted the importance of the context where the drug has been taken. He claimed that DMT has no beneficial effects of itself, rather the context when and where people take it plays an important role. The second dimension, anxious ego-dissolution (AED), represents a disordering of thoughts and decreases in autonomy and self-control. Last, visionary restructuralization (VR) refers to auditory/visual illusions and hallucinations. Results showed strong effects within the first and third dimensions for all conditions, especially with DMT, and suggested strong intrastability of elicited reactions independently of the condition for the OB and VR scales. McKenna first encountered the "machine elves" after smoking DMT in Berkeley in 1965. His subsequent speculations regarding the hyperdimensional space in which they were encountered have inspired a great many artists and musicians, and the meaning of DMT entities has been a subject of considerable debate among participants in a networked cultural underground, enthused by McKenna's effusive accounts of DMT hyperspace. Cliff Pickover has also written about the "machine elf" experience, in the book Sex, Drugs, Einstein, & Elves. Strassman also argues for a similarity in his study participants' descriptions of mechanized wheels, gears and machinery in these encounters, with those described in visions of encounters with the Living Creatures and Ophanim of the Hebrew Bible, noting they may stem from a common neuropsychopharmacological experience.}} Strassman's experimental participants also note that some other entities can subjectively resemble creatures more like insects and aliens. As a result, Strassman writes these experiences among his experimental participants "also left me feeling confused and concerned about where the spirit molecule was leading us. It was at this point that I began to wonder if I was getting in over my head with this research." Hallucinations of strange creatures had been reported by Stephen Szara in a 1958 study in psychotic patients, in which he described how one of his subjects under the influence of DMT had experienced "strange creatures, dwarves or something" at the beginning of a DMT trip. Other researchers of the entities seemingly encountered by DMT users describe them as "entities" or "beings" in humanoid as well as animal form, with descriptions of "little people" being common (non-human gnomes, elves, imps, etc.). Strassman and others have speculated that this form of hallucination may be the cause of alien abduction and extraterrestrial encounter experiences, which may occur through endogenously-occurring DMT. Likening them to descriptions of rattling and chattering auditory phenomena described in encounters with the Hayyoth in the Book of Ezekiel, Rick Strassman notes that participants in his studies, when reporting encounters with the alleged entities, have also described loud auditory hallucinations, such as one subject reporting typically "the elves laughing or talking at high volume, chattering, twittering". A 2019 large-scale study pointed that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) may be linked to near-death experiences due to the semantic similarity of reports associated with the use of psychoactive compounds and NDE narratives, but the study concluded that with the current data it is neither possible to corroborate nor refute the hypothesis that the release of an endogenous ketamine-like neuroprotective agent underlies NDE phenomenology. ===Physiological effects=== According to a dose-response study in human subjects, dimethyltryptamine administered intravenously slightly elevated blood pressure, heart rate, pupil diameter, and rectal temperature, in addition to elevating blood concentrations of beta-endorphin, corticotropin, cortisol, and prolactin; growth hormone blood levels rise equally in response to all doses of DMT, and melatonin levels were unaffected." Several speculative and yet untested hypotheses suggest that endogenous DMT is produced in the human brain and is involved in certain psychological and neurological states. DMT is naturally occurring in small amounts in rat brains, human cerebrospinal fluid, and other tissues of humans and other mammals. Further, mRNA for the enzyme necessary for the production of DMT, INMT, are expressed in the human cerebral cortex, choroid plexus, and pineal gland, suggesting an endogenous role in the human brain. In 2011, Nicholas Cozzi of the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, and three other researchers, concluded that INMT, an enzyme that is associated with the biosynthesis of DMT and endogenous hallucinogens is present in the non-human primate (rhesus macaque) pineal gland, retinal ganglion neurons, and spinal cord. ===Addiction and dependence liability=== DMT, like other serotonergic psychedelics, is considered to be non-addictive with low abuse potential. At present, there have been no studies that report drug withdrawal syndrome with termination of DMT, and dependence potential of DMT and the risk of sustained psychological disturbance may be minimal when used infrequently; however, the physiological dependence potential of DMT and ayahuasca has not yet been documented convincingly. ===Tolerance=== Unlike other classical psychedelics, tolerance does not seem to develop to the subjective effects of DMT. Studies report that DMT did not exhibit tolerance upon repeated administration of twice a day sessions, separated by 5hours, for 5consecutive days; field reports suggests a refractory period of only 15 to 30minutes, while the plasma levels of DMT was nearly undetectable 30minutes after intravenous administration. Another study of four closely spaced DMT infusion sessions with 30minute intervals also suggests no tolerance buildup to the psychological effects of the compound, while heart rate responses and neuroendocrine effects were diminished with repeated administration. A fully hallucinogenic dose of DMT did not demonstrate cross-tolerance to human subjects who are highly tolerant to LSD; hence, research suggests that DMT exhibits unique pharmacological properties compared to other classical psychedelics. ==Interactions== DMT is inactive when ingested orally due to metabolism by MAO, and DMT-containing drinks such as ayahuasca have been found to contain MAOIs, in particular, harmine and harmaline. However, a clinical study of people with depression found that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) did not diminish the effects of DMT and instead resulted in greater mystical experience, emotional breakthrough, and ego dissolution scores with DMT than in people with depression not on antidepressants. This was in contrast to previous research finding that SSRIs diminished the effects of serotonergic psychedelics. The interaction between psychedelics and antipsychotics and anticonvulsant are not well documented, however reports reveal that co-use of psychedelics with mood stabilizers such as lithium may provoke seizure and dissociative effects in individuals with bipolar disorder. \|} DMT binds non-selectively with affinities below 0.6 μmol/L to the following serotonin receptors: 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2B, It has also been shown to possess affinity for the dopamine D1, α1-adrenergic, α2-adrenergic, imidazoline-1, and σ1 receptors. Converging lines of evidence established activation of the σ1 receptor at concentrations of 50–100 μmol/L. Its efficacies at the other receptor binding sites are unclear. It has also been shown in vitro to be a substrate for the cell-surface serotonin transporter (SERT) expressed in human platelets, and the rat vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), which was transiently expressed in fall armyworm Sf9 cells. DMT inhibited SERT-mediated serotonin uptake into platelets at an average concentration of 4.00 ± 0.70 μmol/L and VMAT2-mediated serotonin uptake at an average concentration of 93 ± 6.8 μmol/L. In addition, DMT is a potent serotonin releasing agent with an value of 81 to 114nM. a large part of DMT psychedelic effects can be attributed to a functionally selective activation of the 5-HT2A receptor. DMT concentrations eliciting 50% of its maximal effect (half maximal effective concentration = EC50) at the human 5-HT2A receptor in vitro are in the 0.118–0.983 μmol/L range. This range of values coincides well with the range of concentrations measured in blood and plasma after administration of a fully psychedelic dose (see Pharmacokinetics). DMT is one of the only psychedelics that isn't known to produce tolerance to its hallucinogenic effects. This may be due to the fact that DMT is a biased agonist of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. Similarly to DMT, 5-MeO-DMT is a biased agonist of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor, with minimal β-arrestin2 recruitment, and likewise has been associated with little tolerance to its hallucinogenic effects. Other receptors such as 5-HT1A may also play a role. In 2009, it was hypothesized that DMT may be an endogenous ligand for the σ1 receptor. This is minimally 4 orders of magnitude higher than the average concentrations measured in rat brain tissue or human plasma under basal conditions (see Endogenous DMT), so σ1 receptors are likely to be activated only under conditions of high local DMT concentrations. If DMT is stored in synaptic vesicles, Following vesicular release, the resulting concentration of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, to which serotonin receptors are exposed, is estimated to be about 300 μmol/L. Thus, while in vitro receptor binding affinities, efficacies, and average concentrations in tissue or plasma are useful, they are not likely to predict DMT concentrations in the vesicles or at synaptic or intracellular receptors. Under these conditions, notions of receptor selectivity are moot, and it seems probable that most of the receptors identified as targets for DMT (see above) participate in producing its psychedelic effects. In September 2020, an in vitro and in vivo study found that DMT present in the ayahuasca infusion promotes neurogenesis, meaning it helps with generating neurons. DMT produces the head-twitch response (HTR), a behavioral proxy of psychedelic-like effects, in rodents. However, its effects in the HTR paradigm in mice that are highly strain-dependent, including producing an HTR comparable to other psychedelics, producing an HTR that is much weaker than that of other psychedelics, or producing no HTR at all. The cryo-EM structures of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor with DMT, as well as with various other psychedelics and serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists, have been solved and published by Bryan L. Roth and colleagues. ===Pharmacokinetics=== DMT peak level concentrations (Cmax) measured in whole blood after intramuscular (IM) injection (0.7 mg/kg, n = 11) and in plasma following intravenous (IV) administration (0.4 mg/kg, n = 10) Similar active transport, and accumulation processes likely occur in human brains and may concentrate DMT in brain by several-fold or more (relatively to blood), resulting in local concentrations in the micromolar or higher range. Such concentrations would be commensurate with serotonin brain tissue concentrations, which have been consistently determined to be in the 1.5–4 μmol/L range. Closely coextending with peak psychedelic effects, mean time to reach peak concentrations (Tmax) was determined to be 10–15 minutes in whole blood after IM injection, and 90–120 minutes, respectively. The pharmacokinetics for vaporizing DMT have not been studied or reported. Due to its lipophilicity, DMT easily crosses the blood–brain barrier and enters the central nervous system. as other DMT acid salts are extremely hygroscopic and will not readily crystallize. Its freebase form, although less stable than DMT hemifumarate, is favored by recreational users choosing to vaporize the chemical as it has a lower boiling point. ===Laboratory synthesis=== DMT can be synthesized through several possible pathways from different starting materials. The two most commonly encountered synthetic routes are through the reaction of indole with oxalyl chloride followed by reaction with dimethylamine and reduction of the carbonyl functionalities with lithium aluminium hydride to form DMT. Procedures using sodium cyanoborohydride and sodium triacetoxyborohydride (presumably created in situ from cyanoborohydride though this may not be the case due to the presence of water or methanol) also result in the creation of cyanated tryptamine and beta-carboline byproducts of unknown toxicity while using sodium borohydride in absence of acid does not. Bufotenine, a plant extract, can also be synthesized into DMT. Alternatively, an excess of methyl iodide or methyl p-toluenesulfonate and sodium carbonate can be used to over-methylate tryptamine, resulting in the creation of a quaternary ammonium salt, which is then dequaternized (demethylated) in ethanolamine to yield DMT. The same two-step procedure is used to synthesize other N,N-dimethylated compounds, such as 5-MeO-DMT. ===Clandestine manufacture=== In a clandestine setting, DMT is not typically synthesized due to the lack of availability of the starting materials, namely tryptamine and oxalyl chloride. Instead, it is more often extracted from plant sources using a nonpolar hydrocarbon solvent such as naphtha or heptane, and a base such as sodium hydroxide. Alternatively, an acid–base extraction is sometimes used instead. A variety of plants contain DMT at sufficient levels for being viable sources, ====Indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (INMT)==== Before techniques of molecular biology were used to localize indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (INMT), and human lung during the early 1970s. Selectivity rather than sensitivity proved to be a challenge for some TLC methods with the discovery in 1974–1975 that incubating rat blood cells or brain tissue with (14C-CH3)SAM and NMT as substrate mostly yields tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives, and negligible amounts of DMT in brain tissue. and mammalian brain, including in vivo, as they all relied upon use of the problematic TLC methods: Published in 1978, the last study attempting to evidence in vivo INMT activity and DMT production in brain (rat) with TLC methods finds biotransformation of radiolabeled tryptamine into DMT to be real but "insignificant". Capability of the method used in this latter study to resolve DMT from tetrahydro-β-carbolines is questioned later. Intermediate levels of expression are found in human heart, skeletal muscle, trachea, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, testis, prostate, placenta, lymph node, and spinal cord. A 2020 study using in-situ hybridization, a far more accurate tool than the northern blot analysis, found mRNA coding for INMT expressed in the human cerebral cortex, choroid plexus, and pineal gland. From then on, two major complementary lines of evidence have been investigated: localization and further characterization of the N-methyltransferase enzyme, and analytical studies looking for endogenously produced DMT in body fluids and tissues. A study published in 2014 reported the biosynthesis of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in the human melanoma cell line SK-Mel-147 including details on its metabolism by peroxidases. It is assumed that more than half of the amount of DMT produced by the acidophilic cells of the pineal gland is secreted before and during death, the amount being 2.5–3.4 mg/kg. However, this claim by Strassman has been criticized by David Nichols who notes that DMT does not appear to be produced in any meaningful amount by the pineal gland. Removal or calcification of the pineal gland does not induce any of the symptoms caused by removal of DMT. The symptoms presented are consistent solely with reduction in melatonin, which is the pineal gland's known function. Nichols instead suggests that dynorphin and other endorphins are responsible for the reported euphoria experienced by patients during a near-death experience. In 2014, researchers demonstrated the immunomodulatory potential of DMT and 5-MeO-DMT through the Sigma-1 receptor of human immune cells. This immunomodulatory activity may contribute to significant anti-inflammatory effects and tissue regeneration. ====Endogenous DMT==== N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic compound identified endogenously in mammals, is biosynthesized by aromatic -amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) and indolethylamine-N-methyltransferase (INMT). Studies have investigated brain expression of INMT transcript in rats and humans, coexpression of INMT and AADC mRNA in rat brain and periphery, and brain concentrations of DMT in rats. INMT transcripts were identified in the cerebral cortex, pineal gland, and choroid plexus of both rats and humans via in situ hybridization. Notably, INMT mRNA was colocalized with AADC transcript in rat brain tissues, in contrast to rat peripheral tissues where there existed little overlapping expression of INMT with AADC transcripts. Additionally, extracellular concentrations of DMT in the cerebral cortex of normal behaving rats, with or without the pineal gland, were similar to those of canonical monoamine neurotransmitters including serotonin. A significant increase of DMT levels in the rat visual cortex was observed following induction of experimental cardiac arrest, a finding independent of an intact pineal gland. These results show for the first time that the rat brain is capable of synthesizing and releasing DMT at concentrations comparable to known monoamine neurotransmitters and raise the possibility that this phenomenon may occur similarly in human brains. The first claimed detection of endogenous DMT in mammals was published in June 1965: German researchers F. Franzen and H. Gross report to have evidenced and quantified DMT, along with its structural analog bufotenin (5-HO-DMT), in human blood and urine. In an article published four months later, the method used in their study was strongly criticized, and the credibility of their results challenged. Few of the analytical methods used prior to 2001 to measure levels of endogenously formed DMT had enough sensitivity and selectivity to produce reliable results. Gas chromatography, preferably coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), is considered a minimum requirement. liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (LC-ESI-MS/MS) allows for reaching limits of detection (LODs) 12 to 200 fold lower than those attained by the best methods employed in the 1970s. The data summarized in the table below are from studies conforming to the abovementioned requirements (abbreviations used: CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; LOD = limit of detection; n = number of samples; ng/L and ng/kg = nanograms (10−9 g) per litre, and nanograms per kilogram, respectively): {\| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; width:70%;" \|+ align="bottom" \| DMT in body fluids and tissues (NB: units have been harmonized) ! style="background:azure; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; width:30px;" \| Species ! style="background:azure; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; width:60px;" \| Sample ! style="background:azure; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; width:400px;" \| Results \|- ! rowspan="8" style="background:oldLace; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:30px;" \| Human \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace; width:60px;" \| Blood serum \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace; width:400px;" \| < LOD (n = 66) \|- \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace; width:60px;" \| Whole blood \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace; width:400px;" \| < LOD (n = 20); 50–790 ng/L (n = 20) \|- \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace; width:60px;" \| Urine \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace; width:400px;" \| < 100 ng/L (n = 9) \|- style="vertical-align:middle; background:oldLace;" \| style="width:60px;" \| Feces \| style="width:400px;" \| < 50 ng/kg (n = 12); 130 ng/kg (n = 1) \|- ! rowspan="4" style="background:#dcdcdc; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; width:30px;" \| Rat \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:#dcdcdc; width:60px;" \| Kidney \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:#dcdcdc; width:400px;" \| 12 & 16 ng/kg (n = 2) \|- ! style="vertical-align:middle; background:honeyDew; width:30px;" \| Rabbit \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:honeyDew; width:60px;" \| Liver \| style="vertical-align:middle; background:honeyDew; width:400px;" \| < 10 ng/kg (n = 1) ===Biosynthesis=== Dimethyltryptamine is an indole alkaloid derived from the shikimate pathway. Its biosynthesis is relatively simple and summarized in the adjacent picture. In plants, the parent amino acid -tryptophan is produced endogenously where in animals -tryptophan is an essential amino acid coming from diet. No matter the source of -tryptophan, the biosynthesis begins with its decarboxylation by an aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme (step 1). The resulting decarboxylated tryptophan analog is tryptamine. Tryptamine then undergoes a transmethylation (step 2): the enzyme indolethylamine-N-methyltransferase (INMT) catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from cofactor S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), via nucleophilic attack, to tryptamine. This reaction transforms SAM into S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), and gives the intermediate product N-methyltryptamine (NMT). NMT is in turn transmethylated by the same process (step 3) to form the end product N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Tryptamine transmethylation is regulated by two products of the reaction: SAH, and DMT ==History== DMT derived from plant-based sources has been used as an entheogen in South America for thousands of years. DMT was first synthesized in 1931 by Canadian chemist Richard Helmuth Fredrick Manske. In general, its discovery as a natural product is credited to Brazilian chemist and microbiologist Oswaldo Gonçalves de Lima, who isolated an alkaloid he named nigerina (nigerine) from the root bark of Mimosa tenuiflora in 1946. However, in a careful review of the case Jonathan Ott shows that the empirical formula for nigerine determined by Gonçalves de Lima, which notably contains an atom of oxygen, can match only a partial, "impure" or "contaminated" form of DMT. It was only in 1959, when Gonçalves de Lima provided American chemists a sample of Mimosa tenuiflora roots, that DMT was unequivocally identified in this plant material. Less ambiguous is the case of isolation and formal identification of DMT in 1955 in seeds and pods of Anadenanthera peregrina by a team of American chemists led by Evan Horning (1916–1993). Since 1955, DMT has been found in a number of organisms: in at least fifty plant species belonging to ten families, and in at least four animal species, including one gorgonian and three mammalian species (including humans). In terms of a scientific understanding, the hallucinogenic effects of DMT were not uncovered until 1956 by Hungarian chemist and psychiatrist Stephen Szara. This is considered to be the converging link between the chemical structure DMT to its cultural consumption as a psychoactive and religious sacrament. Another historical milestone is the discovery of DMT in plants frequently used by Amazonian natives as additive to the vine Banisteriopsis caapi to make ayahuasca decoctions. In 1957, American chemists Francis Hochstein and Anita Paradies identified DMT in an "aqueous extract" of leaves of a plant they named Prestonia amazonicum [sic] and described as "commonly mixed" with B. caapi. The lack of a proper botanical identification of Prestonia amazonica in this study led American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes (1915–2001) and other scientists to raise serious doubts about the claimed plant identity. The mistake likely led the writer William Burroughs to regard the DMT he experimented with in Tangier in 1961 as "Prestonia". Better evidence was produced in 1965 by French pharmacologist Jacques Poisson, who isolated DMT as a sole alkaloid from leaves, provided and used by Aguaruna Indians, identified as having come from the vine Diplopterys cabrerana (then known as Banisteriopsis rusbyana). Not only did they detect DMT in leaves of P. viridis obtained from Kaxinawá indigenous people, but they also were the first to identify it in a sample of an ayahuasca decoction, prepared by the same indigenous people. India – DMT is illegal to produce, transport, trade in or possess with a minimum prison or jail punishment of ten years. =====Europe===== France – DMT, along with most of its plant sources, is classified as a stupéfiant (narcotic). Germany – DMT is prohibited as a class I drug. Republic of Ireland – DMT is an illegal Schedule 1 drug under the Misuse of Drugs Acts. An attempt in 2014 by a member of the Santo Daime church to gain a religious exemption to import the drug failed. Latvia — DMT is prohibited as a Schedule I drug. Netherlands – The drug is banned as it is classified as a List 1 Drug per the Opium Law. Production, trade and possession of DMT are prohibited. Russia – Classified as a Schedule I narcotic, including its derivatives (see sumatriptan and zolmitriptan). Serbia – DMT, along with stereoisomers and salts is classified as List 4 (Psychotropic substances) substance according to Act on Control of Psychoactive Substances. Sweden – DMT is considered a Schedule 1 drug. The Swedish supreme court concluded in 2018 that possession of processed plant material containing a significant amount of DMT is illegal. However, possession of unprocessed such plant material was ruled legal. United Kingdom – DMT is classified as a Class A drug. Belgium – DMT cannot be possessed, sold, purchased or imported. Usage is not specifically prohibited, but since usage implies possession one could be prosecuted that way. =====North America===== Canada – DMT is classified as a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, but is legal for religious groups to use. In 2017 the Santo Daime Church Céu do Montréal received religious exemption to use ayahuasca as a sacrament in their rituals. United States – DMT is classified in the United States as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. In December 2004, the Supreme Court lifted a stay, thereby allowing the Brazil-based União do Vegetal (UDV) church to use a decoction containing DMT in their Christmas services that year. This decoction is a tea made from boiled leaves and vines, known as hoasca within the UDV, and ayahuasca in different cultures. In Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, the Supreme Court heard arguments on 1 November 2005, and unanimously ruled in February 2006 that the U.S. federal government must allow the UDV to import and consume the tea for religious ceremonies under the 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act. In September 2008, the three Santo Daime churches filed suit in federal court to gain legal status to import DMT-containing ayahuasca tea. The case, Church of the Holy Light of the Queen v. Mukasey, presided over by U.S. District Judge Owen M. Panner, was ruled in favor of the Santo Daime church. As of 21 March 2009, a federal judge says members of the church in Ashland can import, distribute and brew ayahuasca. Panner issued a permanent injunction barring the government from prohibiting or penalizing the sacramental use of "Daime tea". Panner's order said activities of The Church of the Holy Light of the Queen are legal and protected under freedom of religion. His order prohibits the federal government from interfering with and prosecuting church members who follow a list of regulations set out in his order. =====Oceania===== New Zealand – DMT is classified as a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975. Australia – DMT is listed as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015). A Schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO." Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian federal government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants". DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing mescaline or ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official Floral Emblem of Australia, Acacia pycnantha (Golden Wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native and/or religious people). Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 6.0 g (3/16 oz) of DMT is considered enough to determine a court of trial and 2.0 g (1/16 oz) is considered intent to sell and supply. ===Black market=== Electronic cigarette cartridges or vape pens filled with DMT started to be sold on the black market by 2018. ==Research== Existing research on clinical use of DMT mostly focuses on its effects when exogenously administered as a drug. Although the scientific consensus is that DMT is a naturally occurring molecule in humans, the effects of endogenous DMT in humans (and more broadly in mammals) are still not well understood. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an endogenous ligand of sigma-1 receptors (Sig-1Rs), acts against systemic hypoxia. Research demonstrates DMT reduces the number of apoptotic and ferroptotic cells in mammalian forebrain and supports astrocyte survival in an ischemic environment. According to these data, DMT may be considered as adjuvant pharmacological therapy in the management of acute cerebral ischemia. DMT is studied as a potential treatment for Parkinson's disease in a Phase 1/2 clinical trial. SPL026 (DMT fumarate) is currently undergoing phase II clinical trials investigating its use alongside supportive psychotherapy as a potential treatment for major depressive disorder. Additionally, a safety study is underway to investigate the effects of combining SSRIs with SPL026.	[ "messenger RNA", "Central District (Israel)", "Beta-carboline", "Dopamine receptor D4", "Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons", "indole", "tryptamine", "Hebrew Bible", "heptane", "Aguaruna people", "Ayahuasca", "SSRI", "acid–base extraction", "Rapid eye movement sleep", "National Institutes of Health", "Diário Oficial da União", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Shamanism", "Alpha-1A adrenergic receptor", "Brazil", "intravenously", "living creatures (Bible)", "near-death experience", "tryptamine-N-methyltransferase", "reed canary grass", "hoasca", "alkaloid", "decoction", "Canada", "New Zealand", "imps", "endogenous ligand", "methanol", "bipolar disorder", "methyl iodide", "e-cigarette", "serotonin transporter", "antipsychotic", "Endogeny (biology)", "Latvia", "Muscarinic acetylcholine M5 receptor", "Blood serum", "Parkinson's disease", "inhalation", "peroxidation", "electrospray ionization", "endogenous", "aromatic amino acid decarboxylase", "Psychotria viridis", "Terence McKenna", "Beta-2 adrenergic receptor", "nucleophilic", "Insufflation (medicine)", "ritual", "intravenous administration", "5-HT7 receptor", "shikimate", "insufflation", "Phase II Clinical Trials", "mass spectrometry", "duration of action", "Phalaris aquatica", "N-Methyltryptamine", "endorphin", "sodium hydroxide", "Salvia divinorum", "Russia", "Pharmacokinetics", "INMT", "Acacia pycnantha", "carbonyl", "Diplopterys cabrerana", "Australia", "Urine", "Republic of Ireland", "essential amino acid", "Santo Daime", "lipophilic", "cerebral ischemia", "ketamine", "structural analog", "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", "vape pen", "Misuse of Drugs Act 1981", "lithium aluminium hydride", "Construction of electronic cigarettes", "Journal of Scientific Exploration", "Lumbar puncture", "Phases of clinical research", "bad trip", "indigenous people", "stimulants", "neuroplasticity", "imines", "in vivo", "Owen M. Panner", "molecular biology", "DOM (drug)", "Phalaris arundinacea", "Dopamine receptor D5", "plant", "5-HT1D receptor", "thymus", "empirical formula", "bufotenin", "List of Schedule I drugs (US)", "tandem mass spectrometry", "harmala alkaloids", "D1 receptor", "indole alkaloid", "Israel", "enzyme", "ephedrine", "rectal (medicine)", "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor", "Anadenanthera peregrina", "drug tolerance", "Biological target", "Prestonia amazonica", "Lysergic acid diethylamide", "Scholarly approaches to mysticism", "seizure", "M. C. Escher", "Tel Aviv", "LSD", "valvular heart disease", "Stephen Szára", "substituted tryptamine", "biased agonist", "depressant", "Book of Ezekiel", "onset of action", "psychedelic experience", "Immunomodulation", "5-HT1F receptor", "Sigma-2 receptor", "Catalysis", "Isotopic dilution", "substance-induced psychosis", "lymph node", "subcutaneous injection", "Affinity (pharmacology)", "in-situ hybridization", "oxalyl chloride", "União do Vegetal", "NB-DMT", "Neuroendocrinology", "α1-adrenergic receptor", "corticotropin", "pharmacological therapy", "thyroid", "5-HT2A receptor", "Harmala alkaloid", "sodium carbonate", "Gas chromatography", "melatonin", "log P", "Tricyclic antidepressant", "alien abduction", "harmine", "limit of detection", "cryo-EM", "Ynetnews", "head-twitch response", "natural product", "Science (journal)", "Extraterrestrial life in culture", "substance use disorder", "Immunohistochemistry", "hallucinogenic snuff", "Reversible inhibition of monoamine oxidase", "mood stabilizer", "formaldehyde", "Alpha-2C adrenergic receptor", "α2-adrenergic receptor", "growth hormone", "intravenous injection", "psychoplastogen", "Analog (chemistry)", "impossible object", "Ophanim", "Mimosa hostilis", "5-HT6 receptor", "GC-MS", "lipophilicity", "analgesic", "Oxidative deamination", "ego dissolution", "ethanolamine", "5-HT1E receptor", "dextromethorphan", "psilocybin mushroom", "Psilocin", "L-tryptophan", "Acacia confusa", "Neuropsychopharmacology", "mystical experience", "dopamine", "functionally selective", "Blenheim, New Zealand", "Angels in Judaism", "France", "Indole-3-acetic acid", "sumatriptan", "Goblet cell", "Attorney-General's Department (Australia)", "Dimethyltryptamine-N-oxide", "cerebrospinal fluid", "Cofactor (biochemistry)", "Intravenous", "prolactin", "Dopamine receptor D3", "Blood plasma", "Misuse of Drugs Act (Ireland)", "Oral administration", "Reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A", "Amazon rainforest", "Psychotria carthagenensis", "Netherlands", "Synaptic vesicle", "psilocin", "depression (mood)", "Monoamine oxidase", "Sigma-1 receptor", "tachyphylaxis", "Fairfax New Zealand", "Parliamentary Counsel Office (New Zealand)", "panic attacks", "Richard Evans Schultes", "Serbia", "fall armyworm", "United States", "Refractory period (physiology)", "ginseng", "Oxford University Press", "Fractionation", "immunohistochemistry", "entheogen", "functional analog (chemistry)", "ayahuasca", "psychedelic drug", "Tryptophan", "decarboxylation", "bone marrow", "Yediot Ahronot", "Dopamine receptor D1", "United Kingdom", "Cliff Pickover", "Criminal law of Australia", "naphtha", "Microdialysis", "narcotic", "Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor", "5-HT3 receptor", "mouse brain", "antimigraine drug", "Lithium (medication)", "Bryan L. Roth", "molar concentration", "serotonin", "deamination", "Muscarinic acetylcholine M1 receptor", "University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health", "pseudohallucination", "agonist", "affinity (pharmacology)", "Ashland, Oregon", "cross-tolerance", "Gq protein", "chemical compound", "oxidation", "Analytical chemistry", "β-arrestin2", "Controlled Drugs and Substances Act", "quaternary ammonium salt", "gorgonian", "serotonin syndrome", "gramine", "microdialysis", "Isotope labeling", "5-HT1B receptor", "Living creatures (Bible)", "Opium Law", "List of psychoactive plants", "White blood cell", "Drug withdrawal", "Changa (drug)", "Northern blot", "substrate (biochemistry)", "Controlled Substances Act", "neurogenesis", "major depressive disorder", "intramuscular injection", "receptor (biochemistry)", "South America", "monoamine oxidase", "serotonin receptor", "EC50", "central nervous system", "binding selectivity", "sodium cyanoborohydride", "S-adenosyl-methionine", "List of Australian floral emblems", "Sweden", "N-methyltryptamine", "Imidazoline I1 receptor", "S-adenosylhomocysteine", "Hygroscopy", "freedom of religion", "harmaline", "tricyclic antidepressant", "sigma-1 receptor", "Ethnobotany", "Julius Axelrod", "rhesus macaque", "ethnobotany", "TAAR1", "Banisteriopsis caapi", "monoamine oxidase inhibitor", "Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal", "Histamine H1 receptor", "enzyme assay", "Erowid", "psilocybin mushrooms", "5-HT5A receptor", "O-acetylpsilocin", "demethylation", "hallucinogen", "5-HT2B receptor", "Inhalation", "blood–brain barrier", "hyperbolic geometry", "Kennewick, WA", "transmethylation", "Germany", "Belgium", "Freeze-drying", "microbiologist", "serotonin releasing agent", "thin layer chromatography", "MDMA", "Intramuscular injection", "Sodium borohydride", "Harding grass", "Capsule (pharmacy)", "Rick Strassman", "receptor downregulation", "Sandoz Laboratories", "in vitro", "Serotonergic psychedelic", "cell signaling", "psilocybin", "cortisol", "India", "sodium triacetoxyborohydride", "drug discrimination", "Yopo", "Dissociative disorder", "zolmitriptan", "Family (biology)", "antidepressant", "5-HT2C receptor", "University of New Mexico", "carbon-14", "bong", "pineal gland", "Misuse of Drugs Act 1975", "dimethylamine", "emotional breakthrough", "Field research", "Neuron", "Tryptamine", "5-HT1A receptor", "Methyl p-toluenesulfonate", "Alpha-1B adrenergic receptor", "Jonathan Ott", "spleen", "Histamine H2 receptor", "methyl group", "5-MeO-DMT", "William S. Burroughs", "DOI (drug)", "monoamine oxidase inhibitors", "Religious Freedom Restoration Act", "heart rate", "Wellington", "indolethylamine N-methyltransferase", "biosynthesis", "Acacia acuminata", "vesicular monoamine transporter 2", "5-HT4 receptor", "hemifumarate", "ego death", "Beta-1 adrenergic receptor", "Chromosome 7 (human)", "Hypericum perforatum", "Misuse of Drugs Act 1971", "Poisons Act 1964", "Freebase (chemistry)", "intrinsic activity", "Histamine H4 receptor", "Australian federal government", "Base (chemistry)", "High-performance liquid chromatography", "Mimosa tenuiflora", "Kaxinawá", "protein–ligand complex", "Dopamine receptor D2", "APZ questionnaire", "anticonvulsant", "mescaline", "adrenal gland", "methyltransferase", "gnomes", "Imidazoline receptor", "Virola", "List of entheogens", "Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor", "Anadenanthera colubrina", "Serotonin" ]
8,750	Da capo	Da capo ( , , ; often abbreviated as D.C.) is an Italian musical term that means "from the beginning" (literally, "from the head"). The term is a directive to repeat the previous part of music, often used to save space, and thus is an easier way of saying to repeat the music from the beginning. In small pieces, this might be the same thing as a repeat. But in larger works, D.C. might occur after one or more repeats of small sections, indicating a return to the very beginning. The resulting structure of the piece is generally in ternary form. Sometimes, the composer describes the part to be repeated, for example: Menuet da capo. In opera, where an aria of this structure is called a da capo aria, the repeated section is often adorned with grace notes. The word Fine (Ital. 'end') is generally placed above the stave at the point where the movement ceases after a 'Da capo' repetition. Its place is occasionally taken by a pause (see fermata)." ==Variations== Da Capo al Fine (often abbreviated as D.C. al Fine): Repeat from beginning to the end, or up to the word Fine (should that appear at the end of the passage)—the word Fine itself signifying the end. Da Capo al Coda (often abbreviated as D.C. al Coda): Repeat from beginning to an indicated place and then play the tail part (the "Coda"). It directs the musician to go back and repeat the music from the beginning ("Capo"), and to continue playing until one reaches the first coda symbol. Upon reaching the first coda symbol, skip to the second coda symbol and continue playing until the end. The portion of the piece from the second coda to the end is often referred to as the "coda" of the piece, or quite literally as "the tail". This may also be instructed by simply using the words al Coda after which the musician is to skip to the written word Coda. Da Capo al Segno (often abbreviated as D.C. al Segno): It means "From the beginning to the sign (𝄋)".	[ "aria", "Dal segno", "fermata", "da capo aria", "coda (music)", "musical term", "Repeat sign", "repetition (music)", "section (music)", "opera", "Italian language", "musical form", "ternary form", "grace note", "Coda (music)" ]
8,751	Dominatrix	A dominatrix ( ; or dominatrices ), or domme, is a woman who takes the dominant role in BDSM activities. The BDSM practice is called female dominance, or femdom. A dominatrix can be of any sexual orientation, but this does not necessarily limit the genders of her submissive partners. Dominatrices are popularly known for inflicting physical pain on their submissive subjects, but this is not done in every case. In some instances erotic humiliation is used, such as verbal humiliation or the assignment of humiliating tasks. Dominatrices also make use of other forms of servitude. Practices of domination common to many BDSM and other various sexual relationships are also prevalent. A dominatrix is typically a paid professional (pro-domme) as the term dominatrix is little-used within the non-professional BDSM scene. ==Terminology and etymology== Dominatrix is the feminine form of the Latin dominator, a ruler or lord, and was originally used in a non-sexual sense. Its use in English dates back to at least 1561. Its earliest recorded use in the prevalent modern sense, as a female dominant in sadomasochism, dates to 1961. It was initially coined to describe a woman who provides punishment-for-pay as one of the case studies within Bruce Roger's pulp paperback The Bizarre Lovemakers. The term was taken up shortly after by the Myron Kosloff title Dominatrix (with art by Eric Stanton) in 1968, and entered more popular mainstream knowledge following the 1976 film Dominatrix Without Mercy. The term domme is likely a coined pseudo-French feminine inflection of the slang dom (short for dominant). The use of domme, dominatrix, dom, or dominant by any woman in a dominant role is chosen mostly by personal preference and the conventions of the local BDSM scene. The term mistress or dominant mistress is sometimes also used. Female dominance (also known as female domination or femdom) is a BDSM activity in which the dominant partner is female. However, while the term mistress is often used in the media, members of the BDSM community often avoid it, as it can be confused with mistress in the sense of a woman who has an illicit relationship with a married man, a term which has the negative implication of cheating on a partner. Since there is a large overlap between the BDSM and polyamory communities, where ethical conduct is a prime concern, any such relationship is a source of disapproval. Although the term dominatrix was not used, the classic example in literature of the female dominant-male submissive relationship is portrayed in the 1870 novella Venus in Furs by Austrian writer Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. The term masochism was later derived from the author's name by Richard von Krafft-Ebing in the latter's 1886 forensic study Psychopathia Sexualis. ==History== The history of the dominatrix is argued to date back to rituals of the goddess Inanna (or Ishtar as she was known in Akkadian), in ancient Mesopotamia. Ancient cuneiform texts consisting of "Hymns to Inanna" have been cited as examples of the archetype of the powerful, sexual female displaying dominating behaviors and forcing gods and men into submission to her. The pseudonymous archaeologist and BDSM historian Anne O. Nomis notes that Inanna's rituals included cross-dressing of cult personnel, and rituals "imbued with pain and ecstasy, bringing about initiation and journeys of altered consciousness; punishment, moaning, ecstasy, lament and song, participants exhausting themselves with weeping and grief." The fictional tale of Phyllis and Aristotle, which became popular and gained numerous versions from the 12th century onwards, tells the story of a dominant woman who seduced and dominated the male intellect of the greatest philosopher. In the story, Phyllis forces Aristotle to kneel on the ground so that she rides on his back while whipping and verbally humiliating him. The profession appears to have originated as a specialization within brothels, before becoming its own unique craft. As far back as the 1590s, flagellation within an erotic setting is recorded. The profession features in erotic prints of the era, such as the British Museum mezzotint "The Cully Flaug'd" (c. 1674–1702), and in accounts of forbidden books which record the flogging schools and the activities practised. Within the 18th century, female "Birch Disciplinarians" advertised their services in a book masked as a collection of lectures or theatrical plays, entitled "Fashionable Lectures" (c. 1761). This included the names of 57 women, some actresses and courtesans, who catered to birch discipline fantasies, keeping a room with rods and cat o' nine tails, and charging their clients a Guinea for a "lecture". Amongst the well-known "dominatrix governesses" were Mrs Chalmers, Mrs Noyeau, the late Mrs Jones of Hertford Street and London Street, the late Mrs Theresa Berkley, Bessy Burgess of York Square and Mrs Pyree of Burton Crescent. She is recorded to have used implements such as whips, canes and birches, to chastise and punish her male clients, as well as the Berkley Horse, a specially designed flogging machine, and a pulley suspension system for lifting them off the floor. Such historical use of corporal punishment and suspension, in a setting of domination roleplay, connects very closely to the practices of modern-day professional dominatrices. The "bizarre style" (as it came to be called) of leather catsuits, claws, tail whips, and latex rubber only came about in the 20th century, initially within commercial fetish photography, and taken up by dominatrices. Within the mid-20th century, dominatrices operated in a very discreet and underground manner, which has made them difficult to trace within the historical record. A few photographs still exist of the women who ran their domination businesses in London, New York, The Hague and Hamburg's Herbertstraße, predominantly in sepia and black-and-white photographs, and scans from magazine articles, copied and re-copied. Amongst these were Miss Doreen of London who was acquainted with John Sutcliffe of AtomAge fame, whose clients reportedly included Britain's top politicians and businessmen. In New York, the dominatrix Anne Laurence was known within the underground circle of acquaintances during the 1950s, with Monique Von Cleef arriving in the early 1960s, and hitting national headlines when her home was raided by police detectives on 22 December 1965. Von Cleef went on to set up her "House of Pain" in The Hague in the 1970s, which became one of the world capitals for dominatrices, reportedly with visiting lawyers, ambassadors, diplomats and politicians. Domenica Niehoff worked as a dominatrix in Hamburg and appeared on talk shows on German television from the 1970s onwards, campaigning for sex workers' rights. Mistress Raven, founder and manager of Pandora's Box, one of New York's best known BDSM studios, was featured in Nick Broomfield's 1996 documentary film Fetishes. ==Professional dominatrices== The term dominatrix is mostly used to describe a female professional dominant (or "pro-domme") who is paid to engage in BDSM play with a submissive. Professional dominatrices are not prostitutes, despite the sensual and erotic interactions they have. An appointment or roleplay is referred to as a "session", and is often conducted in a dedicated professional play space which has been set up with specialist equipment, known as a "dungeon". Sessions may also be conducted remotely by letter or telephone, or in the contemporary era of technological connectivity by email, online chat or platforms such as OnlyFans. Most, but not all, clients of female professional dominants are men. Male professional dominants also exist, catering predominantly to the gay male market. Women who engage in female domination typically promote and title themselves under the terms "dominatrix", "mistress", "lady", "madame", "" (German for "mistress") or "goddess". In a study of German dominatrices, Andrew Wilson said that the trend for dominatrices choosing names aimed at creating and maintaining an atmosphere in which class, femininity and mystery are key elements of their self-constructed identity. Some professional dominatrices set minimum age limits for their clients. Popular requests from clients are for dungeon play including bondage, spanking and cock and ball torture, or for medical play using hoods, gas masks and urethral sounding. Verbal erotic humiliation, such as small penis humiliation, is also popular. There are some professional dominatrices that engage in sexual contact activities such as facesitting, handjobs or fellatio but others disapprove of this. Other BDSM activities can include various forms of body worship, such as foot worship, ass worship, breast worship and pussy worship; tease and denial; corporal punishment including breast torture, caning, whipping; orgasm denial; and as well as face slapping, hair pulling, dripping hot wax on the genitals, spitting, golden showers, "forced" chastity, cock and ball torture, and pussy torture. It is not unusual for a dominatrix to consider her profession different from that of an escort and not perform tie and tease or "happy endings". Typically professional dominatrices do not have sexual intercourse with their clients, do not become naked with their clients The Canadian dominatrix Terri-Jean Bedford, who was one of three women who initiated an application in the Ontario Superior Court seeking invalidation of Canada's laws regarding brothels, sought to differentiate for clarity her occupation as a dominatrix rather than a prostitute to the media, due to frequent misunderstanding and conflation by the public of the two terms. That being said, it is now generally accepted that a professional dominatrix is a sex worker, and many of the acts conducted during a session may be interpreted as equally sexual to the participants. While dominatrices come from many different backgrounds, it has been shown that a considerable number are well-educated. Research into US dominatrices published in 2012 indicated that 39% of the sample studied had received some sort of graduate training. A 1985 study suggested that about 30 percent of participants in BDSM subculture were female. A 1994 report indicated that around a quarter of the women who took part in BDSM subculture did so professionally. In a 1995 study of Internet discussion group messages, the preference for the dominant-initiator role was expressed by 11% of messages by heterosexual women, compared to 71% of messages by heterosexual men. Professional dominatrices can be seen advertising their services online and in print publications which carry erotic services advertising, such as contact magazines and fetish magazines that specialise in female domination. The precise number of women actively offering professional domination services is unknown. Most professional dominatrices practice in large metropolitan cities such as New York, Los Angeles, and London, with as many as 200 women working as dominatrices in Los Angeles. Professional dominatrices may take pride or differentiation in their psychological insight into their clients' fetishes and desires, as well as their technical ability to perform complex BDSM practices, such as Japanese shibari, head-scissoring, and other forms of bondage, suspension, torture roleplay, and corporal punishment, and other such practices which require a high degree of knowledge and competency to safely oversee. From a sociological point of view, Danielle Lindemann has stated the "embattled purity regime" in which many pro-dommes emphasise their specialist knowledge and professional skills, while distancing themselves from economic criteria for success, in a way which is comparable to avant-garde artists. Some dominatrices practice financial domination, or findom, a fetish in which a submissive is aroused by sending money or gifts to a dominatrix at her instruction. In some cases the dominatrix is given control of the submissive's finances or a "blackmail" scenario is acted out. In the majority of cases the dominatrix and the submissive do not physically meet. The interactions are typically performed using the Internet, which is also where such services are advertised. Findom was originally a niche service that a traditional dominatrix would offer, but it has become popular with less-experienced online practitioners. To differentiate women who identify as a dominatrix but do not offer paid services, non-professional dominants are occasionally referred to as a "lifestyle" dominatrix or Mistress. The term "lifestyle" to signify BDSM is occasionally a contention topic in the BDSM community and that some dominatrices may dislike the term. Some professional dominatrices are also "lifestyle" dominatrices—i.e., in addition to paid sessions with submissive clients they engage in unpaid recreational sessions or may incorporate power exchange within their own private lives and relationships. However, the term has fallen out of general usage with respect to women who are dominant in their private relationships, and has taken on more and more the connotation of "professional". Nathalie Lugand in her 2023 book "A Psychodynamic Approach to Female Domination in BDSM Relationships" describes this strict separation as artificial. == Notable dominatrices == Catherine Robbe-Grillet is a lifestyle dominatrix. Born in Paris on September 24, 1930, she then became France's most famous lifestyle dominatrix. She is also a writer and actress, the widow of nouveau roman pioneer and sadist Alain Robbe-Grillet. She currently lives with Beverly Charpentier, a 51-year-old South African woman who is her submissive companion. Although being such a famous dominatrix, she has never accepted payment for her "ceremonies". She's quoted as saying "If someone pays, then they are in charge. I need to remain free. It is important that everyone involved knows that I do it solely for my pleasure." "Catherine is my secret garden," Charpentier says. "I have given myself to her, body and soul. She does whatever she wants, whenever she wants, with either or both, according to her pleasure—and her pleasure is also my pleasure." During the twentieth century, dominatrix imagery was developed by the work of a number of artists including the costume designer and photographer Charles Guyette, the publisher and film director Irving Klaw, and the illustrators Eric Stanton and Gene Bilbrew who drew for the fetish magazine Exotique. One of the garments associated with the dominatrix is the catsuit. The black leather female catsuit entered dominant fetish culture in the 1950s with the AtomAge magazine and its connections to fetish fashion designer John Sutcliffe. Its appearance in mainstream culture began when catsuits were worn by strong female protagonists in popular 1960s TV programs like The Avengers and by comic super-heroines such as Catwoman. The catsuit represented the independence of a woman capable of "kick-ass" moves and action, giving complete freedom of movement. At the same time, the one-piece catsuit accentuated and exaggerated the sexualized female form, providing visual access to a woman's body, while simultaneously obstructing physical penetrative access. "You can look but you can't touch" is the message, which plays upon the BDSM practice known as "tease and denial". Another common image is that of a dominatrix wearing thigh-high boots in leather or shiny PVC, which have long held a fetishistic status and are sometimes called kinky boots, along with very high stiletto heels. Fishnet stockings, seamed hosiery, stockings and garter belts (suspenders) are also used in the representation and attire of dominatrices, to emphasize the form and length of the legs with erotic connotation. Tight leather corsets are another popular dominatrix garment. Gloves, whether long opera gloves or fingerless gloves, are often a further accessory to emphasize the feminine role. Neck corsets are also sometimes worn. Dominatrices frequently wear clothing made from fetish fashion materials. Examples include PVC clothing, latex clothing and garments drawn from the leather subculture. In some cases elements of dominatrix attire, such as leather boots and peaked cap, are drawn from Nazi chic, particularly the black SS officer's uniform which has been widely adopted and fetishized by underground gay and BDSM lifestyle groups to satisfy a uniform fetish. A dominatrix often uses strong, dominant body language which is comparable to dominant posturing in the animal world. The props she brandishes signify her role as dominatrix, such as a flogger, whip or riding crop as illustrated in the artwork of Bruno Zach in the early 20th century. Another often-depicted characteristic of the dominatrix character is of smoking, either of tobacco cigarettes or cannabis products. While smoking tobacco has been in rapid decline worldwide, depiction of it in BDSM literature and media is increasing, as the negative image of smoking reinforces the "bad girl" stereotype associated with a dominatrix. Practicing professional dominatrices may draw their attire from the conventional imagery associated with the role, or adapt it to create their own individual style. There is a potential conflict between meeting conventional expectations and a desire for dominant independent self-expression. Some contemporary dominatrices draw upon an eclectic range of strong female archetypes, including the goddess, the female superheroine, the femme fatale, the priestess, the empress, the queen, the governess and the KGB secret agent. == In literature == Themes associated with the dominatrix character have appeared in literature since the 10th century. Canoness Hroswitha, in her manuscript Maria, uses the word Dominatrix for the main character. She is portrayed as an unattainable woman who is too good for any of the men who are in love with her. The theme of "the unattainable woman" has been used thoroughly in medieval literature as well, although it differs from a dominatrix. Medieval themes surrounding the unattainable woman concerned issues of social classes and structure, with chivalry being a prime part of a relationship between a man and woman. There are some exceptions to this trend during medieval times. In Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1605), Celadon is imprisoned by Galatea. Celadon complains that his "mistress . . . Galatea keeps me on such a short leash". In Robert Herrick's Hesperides, a book of poems published in 1648, there were three revealing poems An Hymne to Love, The Dream, and To Love which showcase masculine longing for domination, restraint, discipline. In Ulysses by James Joyce, the character Leopold Bloom has many fantasies of submission to a lady and of receiving whippings from her. Many viewers have not liked the depictions of a dominatrix in the first season, often citing it as "inaccurate". However, they hired a consultant who worked as dominatrix for 15 years to assist them in the script for the second season and fix the inaccuracies. Exit to Eden is a film based on a novel of the same name with a dominatrix-based plot.	[ "Art Institute of Chicago", "Marylebone", "Inanna", "The Avengers (TV series)", "sexual orientation", "Pandora's Box (BDSM)", "University of Chicago Press", "Richard von Krafft-Ebing", "Zoe Levin", "Garter (stockings)", "urethral sounding", "Male submission", "Rolling Stone", "whipping", "contact magazine", "stiletto heels", "Domination and submission (BDSM)", "breast torture", "SS officer", "BDSM in culture and media", "polyamory", "Exotique", "Pegging (sexual practice)", "Exit to Eden (film)", "Aristotle", "KGB", "John Sutcliffe (designer)", "boot fetishism", "corporal punishment", "body worship", "BDSM", "latex clothing", "Paperback", "Feminization (sexual activity)", "Alain Robbe-Grillet", "Nazi chic", "Leopold von Sacher-Masoch", "Terri-Jean Bedford", "Sexuality and Culture", "Danielle Lindemann", "Chastity belt (BDSM)", "Barbie Ferreira", "sex workers' rights", "smoking", "Servitude (BDSM)", "Ishtar", "sadomasochism", "fetish fashion", "Greenery Press", "Mesopotamia", "Japanese bondage", "Sociological Forum", "fetish magazine", "Tomi Ungerer", "AtomAge", "tie and tease", "financial domination", "Venus Berlin", "tease and denial", "Sadism and masochism in fiction", "Melissa Febos", "cannabis", "Sadomasochism", "Female bodybuilding", "Erotic massage", "fishnet stockings", "St. Martin's Press", "PVC clothing", "Urolagnia", "Éditions Gallimard", "Burton Crescent", "Ontario Superior Court", "cigarettes", "Gene Bilbrew", "leather subculture", "Time Out (magazine)", "Fisting", "Paddle (spanking)", "small penis humiliation", "Session wrestler", "Charlotte Street", "sexual fetish", "handjob", "Bonding (TV series)", "Female-Led Relationship", "animal communication", "Eric Stanton", "foot worship", "Berkley Horse", "erotic humiliation", "catsuit", "Masculinization (sexual activity)", "Variety (magazine)", "Don Quixote", "brothel", "Domination and submission", "Seamed stockings", "mistress (lover)", "fellatio", "IndieWire", "Bondage (BDSM)", "Charles Guyette", "London", "uniform fetish", "Canoness Hroswitha", "tobacco", "Bustle (magazine)", "Exit to Eden", "Body worship", "Maîtresse Françoise", "Psychopathia Sexualis (Richard von Krafft-Ebing book)", "thigh-high boots", "nouveau roman", "wax play", "Fashionable Lectures", "Fishnet", "discussion group", "sexual fetishism", "Herbertstraße", "Hertford Street", "Theresa Berkley", "OnlyFans", "Fetishes (film)", "Latin", "medical fetishism", "facesitting", "spanking", "James Joyce", "Female submission", "Latex and PVC fetishism", "play (BDSM)", "Nick Broomfield", "whip", "Leopold Bloom", "tale of Phyllis and Aristotle", "Domenica Niehoff", "Male dominance (BDSM)", "Diogenes Verlag", "orgasm denial", "Catwoman", "stocking", "Giovanni Buonconsiglio", "archetype", "Pocket Books", "Cock and ball torture (sexual practice)", "Venus in Furs", "Irving Klaw", "stiletto heel", "Ulysses (novel)", "Bruno Zach", "Taylor & Francis", "prostitute", "Catherine Robbe-Grillet", "opera gloves", "Robert Herrick (poet)", "cock and ball torture", "Latex clothing", "Suspension bondage", "Euphoria (American TV series)", "caning", "Hesperides (poetry)", "Neck corset", "corset", "Call girl" ]
8,752	Flag of Denmark	{{Infobox flag \| Name = Denmark \| Article = \| Image = Flag of Denmark.svg \| Alt = \| Noborder = \| Morenicks = \| Use = 100100 \| Symbol = \| Proportion = 28:37 national is red with a white Nordic cross, which means that the cross extends to the edges of the flag and that the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. A banner with a white-on-red cross is attested as having been used by the kings of Denmark since the 14th century. An origin legend with considerable impact on Danish national historiography connects the introduction of the flag to the Battle of Lindanise of 1219. The elongated Nordic cross, which represents Christianity, reflects its use as a maritime flag in the 18th century. The flag became popular as a national flag in the early 16th century. Its private use was outlawed in 1834 but again permitted by a regulation of 1854. The flag holds the Guinness world record of being the oldest continuously used national flag, that is since 1625. ==Description== A 1748 regulation, which is still in force, defines the flag as constructed of two squares of , with a white cross the height of the flag and the two rectangular fields as . Multiplying the proportions by three to get whole numbers gives the proportions in the construction sheet below (28 divided by 4 being 7 for the white cross). === Colour === No official definition of "Dannebrog rød" exists. The private company Dansk Standard, regulation number 359 (2005), defines the red colour of the flag as Pantone 186c. === Construction sheet === == History == === 1219 origin legend === A tradition recorded in the 16th century traces the origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark (r. 1202–1241). The oldest of them is in Christiern Pedersen's Danske Krønike, which is a sequel to Saxo Grammaticus's , which was written in 1520 to 1523. Here, the flag falls from the sky during one of Valdemar's military campaigns overseas. Pedersen also states that the very same flag was taken into exile by Eric of Pomerania in 1440. The second source is the writing of the Franciscan friar Petrus Olai (Peder Olsen) of Roskilde (died ). This record describes a battle in 1208 near Fellin during the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II. The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross fell from the sky and miraculously led to a Danish victory. In a third account, also by Petrus Olai, in Danmarks Tolv Herligheder ("Twelve Splendours of Denmark"), in splendour number nine, the same story is retold almost verbatim, with a paragraph inserted correcting the year to 1219. Now, the flag is falling from the sky in the Battle of Lindanise, also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: Volmerslaget), near Lindanise (Tallinn) in Estonia, of 15 June 1219. It is this third account that has been the most influential, and some historians have treated it as the primary account taken from a (lost) source dating to the first half of the 15th century. In Olai's account, the battle was going badly, and defeat seemed imminent. However the Danish bishop, Anders Sunesen, was on top of a hill overlooking the battle and prayed to God with his arms raised. The Danes moved closer to victory as prayed. When he raised his arms, the Danes surged forward, but when his arms grew tired, and he let them fall, the Estonians turned the Danes back. Attendants rushed forward to raise his arms once again, and the Danes again surged forward, but for a second time he grew so tired that he dropped his arms, and the Danes again lost the advantage and became closer to defeat. He needed two soldiers to keep his hands up (which might be a copycat of Exodus 17:11-12). When the Danes were about to lose, the Dannebrog miraculously fell from the sky. The King took it and showed it to the troops, their hearts were filled with courage, and the Danes won the battle. The possible historical nucleus behind this origin legend was extensively discussed by Danish historians in the 19th to 20th centuries. One such example is Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen, who argued that Bishop Theoderich was the original instigator of the 1218 inquiry from Bishop Albert of Buxhoeveden to King Valdemar II which led to the Danish participation in the Baltic crusades. Jørgensen speculates that Bishop Theoderich might have carried the Knight Hospitaller's banner in the 1219 battle and that "the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theoderich tent. He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle". ascribes the origin to the 1208 Battle of Fellin, not the Battle of Lindanise in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story. Fabricius speculated that it might have been Archbishop Andreas Sunesøn's personal ecclesiastical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop Absalon under whose initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia. The banner would then already be known in Estonia. Fabricius repeats Jørgensen's idea about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent, which the enemy mistakenly attacked believing it to be the tent of the King. A different theory is briefly discussed by Fabricius and elaborated more by Helge Bruhn (1949). Bruhn interprets the story in the context of the widespread tradition of the miraculous appearance of crosses in the sky in Christian legend, specifically comparing such an event attributed to a battle of 10 September 1217 near Alcazar in which it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky and brought victory to the Christians. In Swedish national historiography of the 18th century, there is a tale paralleling the Danish legend, in which a golden cross appears in the blue sky during a Swedish battle in Finland in 1157. === Middle Ages === The white-on-red cross emblem originates in the age of the Crusades. In the 12th century, it was also used as war flag by the Holy Roman Empire. In the Gelre Armorial, dated 1340–1370, such a banner is shown alongside the coat of arms of the king of Denmark. This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog. About the same time, Valdemar IV of Denmark displays a cross in his coat of arms on his Danælog seal (Rettertingsseglet, dated 1356). The image from the Armorial Gelre is nearly identical to an image found in a 15th-century coat of arms book now located in the National Archives of Sweden (Riksarkivet). The seal of Eric of Pomerania (1398) as king of the Kalmar Union displays the arms of Denmark's chief dexter, three lions. In this version, the lions hold a Dannebrog banner. File:War flag of the Holy Roman Empire (1200-1350).svg\|Reichssturmfahne of the Holy Roman Empire File:Royal Banner of Denmark (14th Century).svg\|The royal banner of the kings of Denmark based on the royal coat of arms File:Erikafpommernsdanskeunionssegl.jpg\|Seal of Eric of Pomerania as king of the Kalmar union, 1398. A small Dannebrog banner is depicted as held by the three Danish lions in the top-left corner. The reason that the kings of Denmark in the 14th century began displaying the cross banner in their coats of arms is unknown. Caspar Paludan-Müller (1873) suggested that it may reflect a banner sent by the pope to support the king during the Livonian Crusade. Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen (1875) identifies the banner as that of the Knights Hospitaller, an order that had a presence in Denmark from the later 12th century. Several coins, seals and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to the 15th centuries and even earlier and show similar heraldic designs similar, alongside the royal coat of arms (three blue lions on a golden shield.) There is a record suggesting that the Danish Army had a "chief banner" (hoffuitbanner) in the early 16th century. Such a banner is mentioned in 1570 by Niels Hemmingsøn in the context of a 1520 battle between Danes and Swedes near Uppsala as nearly captured by the Swedes but saved by the heroic actions of the banner-carrier Mogens Gyldenstierne and Peder Skram. The legend attributing the miraculous origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark (r. 1202-1241) was recorded by Christiern Pedersen and Petrus Olai in the 1520s. Hans Svaning's History of King Hans from 1558 to 1559 and Johan Rantzau's History about the Last Dithmarschen War, from 1569, record the further fate of the Danish hoffuitbanner: According to the tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lindanise was used in the small campaign of 1500, when King Hans tried to conquer Dithmarschen (in western Holstein in northern Germany). The flag was lost in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Hemmingstedt, on 17 February 1500. In 1559, King Frederik II recaptured it during his own Dithmarschen campaign. In 1576, the son of Johan Rantzau, Henrik Rantzau, also writes about the war and the fate of the flag, noting that the flag was in a poor condition when returned. He records that the flag after its return to Denmark was placed in the cathedral in Slesvig. Slesvig historian Ulrik Petersen (1656–1735) confirms the presence of such a banner in the cathedral in the early 17th century and records that it had crumbled away by about 1660. Contemporary records describing the battle of Hemmingstedt make no reference to the loss of the original Dannebrog, although the capitulation state that all Danish banners lost in 1500 was to be returned. In a letter dated 22 February 1500 to Oluf Stigsøn, King John describes the battle but does not mention the loss of an important flag. In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was of limited importance. In 1598, Neocorus wrote that the banner captured in 1500 was brought to the church in Wöhrden and hung there for the next 59 years until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in 1559. ===Modern period === Used as a maritime flag since the 16th century, the Dannebrog was introduced as a regimental flag in the Danish army in 1785, and for the militia (landeværn) in 1801. From 1842, it was used as the flag of the entire army. During the first half of the 19th century, in parallel to the development of Romantic nationalism in other European countries, the military flag increasingly came to be seen as representing the nation itself. Poems of the period invoking the Dannebrog were written by B.S. Ingemann, N.F.S. Grundtvig, Oehlenschläger, Chr. Winther and H.C. Andersen. Special permission to use the Splitflag was given to individual institutions and private companies, especially after 1870. In 1886, the war ministry introduced a regulation indicating that the flag should be flown from military buildings on thirteen specified days, including royal birthdays, the date of the signing of the Constitution of 5 June 1849 and days of remembrance for military battles. In 1913, the naval ministry issued its own list of flag days. On 10 April 1915, the hoisting of any other flag on Danish soil was prohibited. The prohibition was lifted on 24 June 2023, after a Supreme Court ruling. From 1939 to 2012, the yearbook Hvem-Hvad-Hvor included a list of flag days. As of 2019, flag days can be viewed at the "Ministry of Justice (Justitsministeriet)" as well as "The Denmark Society (Danmarks-Samfundet)". == Variants == === Maritime flag and corresponding Kingdom flag === {{flag image\|Image = Naval Ensign of Denmark.svg\|NoBorder = yes\|NoCentering = yes\|Caption = The Orlogsflag – the Danish naval flag. Proportions: 7:17 after King Frederik X adopted a new version of his personal coat of arms on 20 December 2024. The royal standard is the flag of Denmark with a swallow-tail and charged with the monarch's coat of arms set in a white square. The centre square is 32 parts in a flag with the ratio 56:107. ===Other members of the royal family=== File:Standard of Queen Mary of Denmark (2025).svg\| Standard of Queen Mary of Denmark File:Standard of the Crown Prince of Denmark (2025).svg\| Standard of Christian, the Crown Prince of Denmark File:Standard of the Regent of Denmark.svg\| Standard of the Regent of Denmark File:Standard of the Royal House of Denmark.svg\| Standard of the Royal House that is used by other members of the royal family File:Standard of Frederik the Crown Prince of Denmark at Amalienborg.jpg\|Standard of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark (now King Frederik X) flying at Amalienborg == Other flags in the Kingdom of Denmark == Greenland and the Faroe Islands are autonomous territories within the Kingdom of Denmark. They have their own official flags. File:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg\|8:11 Flag of the Faroe Islands File:Flag of Greenland.svg\|2:3 Flag of Greenland Some areas in Denmark have unofficial flags. While they have no legal recognition or regulation, they can be used freely. The regional flags of Bornholm and Ærø are occasionally used by locals of those islands and in tourist-related businesses. The proposal for a flag of Jutland has hardly found any actual use, maybe in part because of its peculiar design. The flag of Vendsyssel (Vendelbrog) is seen infrequently, but locals recognise it. According to an article in the newspaper Nordjyske, the flag had been used in the former insignia of Flight Eskadrille 723 of Aalborg Air Base, in the 1980s.	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8,753	Dharma	Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term dharma does not have a single, clear translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit dhr-, meaning to hold or to support, thus referring to law that sustains things—from one's life to society, and to the Universe at large. In its most commonly used sense, dharma refers to an individual's moral responsibilities or duties; the dharma of a farmer differs from the dharma of a soldier, thus making the concept of dharma a varying dynamic. As with the other components of the Puruṣārtha, the concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is adharma. In Hinduism, dharma denotes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta—the "order and custom" that makes life and universe possible. This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living" according to the stage of life or social position. Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of the Puruṣārtha. The concept of dharma was in use in the historical Vedic religion (1500–500 BCE), and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. In Buddhism, dharma () refers to the teachings of the Buddha and to the true nature of reality (which the teachings point to). In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for specific "phenomena" and for the ultimate truth. === Dharma and Mimamsa === Mimamsa, developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly the Mimamsa Sutras attributed to Jaimini, emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as the central concern, defining dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem existence, Mimamsakas focus on the continual renewal and realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions. They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting confidence in Vedic injunctions and the reality of language as a means of knowing. Mimamsa addresses the delayed results of actions (like wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes. This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed, are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma. ===In the Epics=== The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls, places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent. In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja". Dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha, Rama, Sita, and Lakshman in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even though it brings him immense personal suffering. In the Mahabharata, dharma is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by dharma. The value and appeal of the Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book. Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers: one answer is of Bhima, which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which appeals to piety, deities, social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma. There is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny. The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma with metaphors. ===According to 4th-century Vatsyayana=== According to Klaus Klostermaier, 4th-century CE Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained dharma by contrasting it with adharma. Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana: Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner) Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others) Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk) Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self-study) Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity) Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others) ===According to Patanjali Yoga=== In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali the dharma is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal. Dharma is part of yoga, suggests Patanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga. Patanjali explained dharma in two categories: yamas (restraints) and niyamas (observances). The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others. The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes. The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.	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H. Ingalls, Sr.", "Vātsyāyana", "kāla", "Hindu", "Bhrigu", "dog", "Guru Granth Sahib", "Huston Smith", "Dharma (Buddhism)", "Modern Asian Studies", "Āśrama (stage)", "Tirthankara", "Buddhism", "historical Vedic religion", "David Frawley", "satya", "Sangha (Buddhism)", "Indian philosophy", "Rajiv Malhotra", "Ayyavazhi", "Three Jewels", "Sarnath", "Gautama Buddha", "Etienne Lamotte", "Dharmashastra", "Rta" ]
8,756	Daniel Dennett	Daniel Clement Dennett III (March 28, 1942 – April 19, 2024) was an American philosopher and cognitive scientist. His research centered on the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of science, and the philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. Dennett was the co-director of the Center for Cognitive Studies and the Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy at Tufts University in Massachusetts. Dennett was a member of the editorial board for The Rutherford Journal and a co-founder of The Clergy Project. A vocal atheist and secularist, Dennett has been described as "one of the most widely read and debated American philosophers". He was referred to as one of the "Four Horsemen" of New Atheism, along with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and Christopher Hitchens. ==Early life and education== Daniel Clement Dennett III was born on March 28, 1942, in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Ruth Marjorie (née Leck; 1903–1971) and Daniel Clement Dennett Jr. (1910–1947). Dennett spent part of his childhood in Lebanon, In 1947, his father was killed in a plane crash in Ethiopia. Shortly after, his mother took him back to Massachusetts. Dennett's sister is the investigative journalist Charlotte Dennett. Dennett graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1959, and spent one year at Wesleyan University before receiving his BA degree in philosophy at Harvard University in 1963. From 1965 to 1971, Dennett taught at the University of California, Irvine, before moving to Tufts University where he taught for many decades. Dennett described himself as "an autodidact—or, more properly, the beneficiary of hundreds of hours of informal tutorials on all the fields that interest me, from some of the world's leading scientists". Throughout his career, he was an interdisciplinarian who argued for "breaking the silos of knowledge", and he collaborated widely with computer scientists, cognitive scientists, and biologists.—Dennett articulated the case for a two-stage model of decision making in contrast to libertarian views. While other philosophers have developed two-stage models, including William James, Henri Poincaré, Arthur Compton, and Henry Margenau, Dennett defended this model for the following reasons: Leading libertarian philosophers such as Robert Kane have rejected Dennett's model, specifically that random chance is directly involved in a decision, on the basis that they believe this eliminates the agent's motives and reasons, character and values, and feelings and desires. They claim that, if chance is the primary cause of decisions, then agents cannot be liable for resultant actions. Kane says: ===Mind=== Dennett is a proponent of materialism in the philosophy of mind. He argues that mental states, including consciousness, are entirely the result of physical processes in the brain. In his book Consciousness Explained (1991), Dennett presents his arguments for a materialist understanding of consciousness, rejecting Cartesian dualism in favor of a physicalist perspective. Dennett remarked in several places (such as "Self-portrait", in Brainchildren) that his overall philosophical project remained largely the same from his time at Oxford onwards. He was primarily concerned with providing a philosophy of mind that is grounded in empirical research. In his original dissertation, Content and Consciousness, he broke up the problem of explaining the mind into the need for a theory of content and for a theory of consciousness. His approach to this project also stayed true to this distinction. Just as Content and Consciousness has a bipartite structure, he similarly divided Brainstorms into two sections. He would later collect several essays on content in The Intentional Stance and synthesize his views on consciousness into a unified theory in Consciousness Explained. These volumes respectively form the most extensive development of his views. In chapter 5 of Consciousness Explained, Dennett described his multiple drafts model of consciousness. He stated that, "all varieties of perception—indeed all varieties of thought or mental activity—are accomplished in the brain by parallel, multitrack processes of interpretation and elaboration of sensory inputs. Information entering the nervous system is under continuous 'editorial revision.'" (p. 111). Later he asserts, "These yield, over the course of time, something rather like a narrative stream or sequence, which can be thought of as subject to continual editing by many processes distributed around the brain, ..." (p. 135, emphasis in the original). In this work, Dennett's interest in the ability of evolution to explain some of the content-producing features of consciousness is already apparent, and this later became an integral part of his program. He stated his view is materialist and scientific, and he presents an argument against qualia; he argued that the concept of qualia is so confused that it cannot be put to any use or understood in any non-contradictory way, and therefore does not constitute a valid refutation of physicalism. This view is rejected by neuroscientists Gerald Edelman, Antonio Damasio, Vilayanur Ramachandran, Giulio Tononi, and Rodolfo Llinás, all of whom state that qualia exist and that the desire to eliminate them is based on an erroneous interpretation on the part of some philosophers regarding what constitutes science. Dennett's strategy mirrored his teacher Ryle's approach of redefining first-person phenomena in third-person terms, and denying the coherence of the concepts which this approach struggles with. Dennett self-identified with a few terms: In Consciousness Explained, he affirmed "I am a sort of 'teleofunctionalist', of course, perhaps the original teleofunctionalist". He went on to say, "I am ready to come out of the closet as some sort of verificationist." (pp. 460–61). Dennett was credited with inspiring false belief tasks used in developmental psychology. He noted that when four-year-olds watch the Punch and Judy puppet show, they laugh because they know that they know more about what's going on than one of the characters does: ===Evolutionary debate=== Much of Dennett's work from the 1990s onwards was concerned with fleshing out his previous ideas by addressing the same topics from an evolutionary standpoint, from what distinguishes human minds from animal minds (Kinds of Minds), Dennett saw evolution by natural selection as an algorithmic process (though he spelt out that algorithms as simple as long division often incorporate a significant degree of randomness). This idea is in conflict with the evolutionary philosophy of paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, who preferred to stress the "pluralism" of evolution (i.e., its dependence on many crucial factors, of which natural selection is only one). Dennett's views on evolution are identified as being strongly adaptationist, in line with his theory of the intentional stance, and the evolutionary views of biologist Richard Dawkins. In Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Dennett showed himself even more willing than Dawkins to defend adaptationism in print, devoting an entire chapter to a criticism of the ideas of Gould. This stems from Gould's long-running public debate with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists over human sociobiology and its descendant evolutionary psychology, which Gould and Richard Lewontin opposed, but which Dennett advocated, together with Dawkins and Steven Pinker. Gould argued that Dennett overstated his claims and misrepresented Gould's, to reinforce what Gould describes as Dennett's "Darwinian fundamentalism". Dennett's theories have had a significant influence on the work of evolutionary psychologist Geoffrey Miller. ===Religion and morality=== Dennett was a vocal atheist and secularist, a member of the Secular Coalition for America advisory board, and a member of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, as well as an outspoken supporter of the Brights movement. Dennett was referred to as one of the "Four Horsemen of New Atheism", along with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and the late Christopher Hitchens. In Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Dennett wrote that evolution can account for the origin of morality. He rejected the idea that morality being natural to us implies that we should take a skeptical position regarding ethics, noting that what is fallacious in the naturalistic fallacy is not to support values per se, but rather to rush from facts to values. In his 2006 book, Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon, Dennett attempted to account for religious belief naturalistically, explaining possible evolutionary reasons for the phenomenon of religious adherence. In this book he declared himself to be "a bright", and defended the term. He did research into clerics who are secretly atheists and how they rationalize their works. He found what he called a "don't ask, don't tell" conspiracy because believers did not want to hear of loss of faith. This made unbelieving preachers feel isolated, but they did not want to lose their jobs and church-supplied lodgings. Generally, they consoled themselves with the belief that they were doing good in their pastoral roles by providing comfort and required ritual. The research, with Linda LaScola, was further extended to include other denominations and non-Christian clerics. The research and stories Dennett and LaScola accumulated during this project were published in their 2013 co-authored book, Caught in the Pulpit: Leaving Belief Behind. ===Memetics, postmodernism and deepity=== Dennett wrote about and advocated the notion of memetics as a philosophically useful tool, his last work on this topic being his "Brains, Computers, and Minds", a three-part presentation through Harvard's MBB 2009 Distinguished Lecture Series. Dennett was critical of postmodernism, having said: Dennett adopted and somewhat redefined the term "deepity", originally coined by Miriam Weizenbaum. Dennett used "deepity" for a statement that is apparently profound, but is actually trivial on one level and meaningless on another. Generally, a deepity has two (or more) meanings: one that is true but trivial, and another that sounds profound and would be important if true, but is actually false or meaningless. Examples are "Que será será!", "Beauty is only skin deep!", "The power of intention can transform your life." The term has been cited many times. === Artificial intelligence === While approving of the increase in efficiency that humans reap by using resources such as expert systems in medicine or GPS in navigation, Dennett saw a danger in machines performing an ever-increasing proportion of basic tasks in perception, memory, and algorithmic computation because people may tend to anthropomorphize such systems and attribute intellectual powers to them that they do not possess. He believed the relevant danger from artificial intelligence (AI) is that people will misunderstand the nature of basically "parasitic" AI systems, rather than employing them constructively to challenge and develop the human user's powers of comprehension. In the 1990s, Dennett collaborated with a group of computer scientists at MIT to attempt to develop a humanoid, conscious robot, named "Cog". Although acknowledging that it is "possible in principle" to create AI with human-like comprehension and agency, Dennett maintained that the difficulties of any such "strong AI" project would be orders of magnitude greater than those raising concerns have realized. Dennett believed, as of the book's publication in 2017, that the prospect of superintelligence (AI massively exceeding the cognitive performance of humans in all domains) was at least 50 years away, and of far less pressing significance than other problems the world faces. === Realism === Dennett was known for his nuanced stance on realism. While he supported scientific realism, advocating that entities and phenomena posited by scientific theories exist independently of our perceptions, he leant towards instrumentalism concerning certain theoretical entities, valuing their explanatory and predictive utility, as showing in his discussion of real patterns. Dennett's pragmatic realism underlines the entanglement of language, consciousness, and reality. He posited that our discourse about reality is mediated by our cognitive and linguistic capacities, marking a departure from Naïve realism. ==== Realism and instrumentalism ==== Dennett's philosophical stance on realism was intricately connected to his views on instrumentalism and the theory of real patterns. In discussing intentional states, Dennett posited that they should not be thought of as resembling theoretical entities, but rather as logical constructs, avoiding the pitfalls of intentional realism without lapsing into pure instrumentalism or even eliminativism. His instrumentalism and anti-realism were crucial aspects of his view on intentionality, emphasizing the centrality and indispensability of the intentional stance to our conceptual scheme. ==Recognition== Dennett was the recipient of a Fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He was a Fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and a Humanist Laureate of the International Academy of Humanism. He was named 2004 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association. He became a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2009. In 2012, he was awarded the Erasmus Prize, an annual award for a person who has made an exceptional contribution to European culture, society or social science, "for his ability to translate the cultural significance of science and technology to a broad audience". ==Personal life== In 1962, Dennett married Susan Bell. They lived in North Andover, Massachusetts, and had a daughter, a son, and six grandchildren. He was an avid sailor who loved sailing Xanthippe, his 13-meter sailboat. He also played many musical instruments and sang at glee clubs. Dennett died of interstitial lung disease at Maine Medical Center on April 19, 2024, at the age of 82. ==Selected works== Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (MIT Press 1981) () Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting (MIT Press 1984) – on free will and determinism () Content and Consciousness (Routledge & Kegan Paul Books Ltd; 2nd ed. 1986) () year=1996 \|title=The Intentional Stance (6th printing) \|place=Cambridge, Massachusetts\|publisher=The MIT Press \|isbn=0-262-54053-3 (First published 1987) Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life (Simon & Schuster; reprint edition 1996) () Kinds of Minds: Towards an Understanding of Consciousness (Basic Books 1997) () Brainchildren: Essays on Designing Minds (Representation and Mind) (MIT Press 1998) () – A Collection of Essays 1984–1996 Freedom Evolves (Viking Press 2003) () Sweet Dreams: Philosophical Obstacles to a Science of Consciousness (MIT Press 2005) () Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon (Penguin Group 2006) (). Neuroscience and Philosophy: Brain, Mind, and Language (Columbia University Press 2007) (), co-authored with Max Bennett, Peter Hacker, and John Searle Science and Religion: Are They Compatible? (Oxford University Press 2010) (), co-authored with Alvin Plantinga Intuition Pumps and Other Tools for Thinking (W. W. Norton & Company 2013) () Caught in the Pulpit: Leaving Belief Behind (Pitchstone Publishing – 2013) () co-authored with Linda LaScola Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind (MIT Press – 2011) (), co-authored with Matthew M. Hurley and Reginald B. Adams Jr. From Bacteria to Bach and Back: The Evolution of Minds (W. W. Norton & Company – 2017) () I've Been Thinking (Allen Lane 2023) ()	[ "secularist", "Willard Van Orman Quine", "Hertford College, Oxford", "postmodernism", "The Clergy Project", "Moral character", "Henry Margenau", "MIT Press", "Guggenheim Fellowships", "biologist", "Vilayanur Ramachandran", "Carleton College", "Nijmegen", "Henri Poincaré", "functionalism (philosophy of mind)", "long division", "evolutionary biology", "Lebanon", "Value (personal and cultural)", "American Humanist Association", "Compatibilism", "Heterophenomenology", "real patterns", "University of Minnesota", "empirical", "21st-century philosophy", "Netherlands", "Western philosophy", "Camp Mowglis", "Adaptationism", "Antonio Damasio", "Intuition pump", "Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)", "MIT", "Naïve realism", "Scientific American", "Multiple drafts model", "Cartesian dualism", "superintelligence", "sociobiology", "Robert Kane (philosopher)", "Christopher Hitchens", "Cartesian theater", "Xanthippe", "KPFA-FM", "North Andover, Massachusetts", "John Brockman (literary agent)", "randomness", "Brainstorms", "paleontologist", "multiple drafts model", "The Third Culture", "John Haugeland", "Committee for Skeptical Inquiry", "Harvard University", "qualia", "Massachusetts", "Diplomatic missions of the United States", "Sam Harris", "Alvin Plantinga", "American Academy of Achievement", "20th-century philosophy", "Oxford University Press", "Phillips Exeter Academy", "physicalism", "Materialism", "The Atheism Tapes", "Stephen Jay Gould", "sailing", "Pitchstone Publishing", "Sphexishness", "Belief in belief", "artificial intelligence", "Richard Lewontin", "Bachelor of Arts", "Gerald Edelman", "Jean Nicod Prize", "greedy reductionism", "Darwin's Dangerous Idea", "Peter Hacker", "Verificationism", "Brights movement", "University of California, Irvine", "Radboud University", "kin selection", "Boston", "inclusive fitness", "algorithm", "Secular Coalition for America", "Greedy reductionism", "The Rutherford Journal", "William James", "glee club", "Nick Bostrom", "cognitive science", "Wesleyan University", "philosophy of mind", "Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences", "Cartesian materialism", "Analytic philosophy", "University of Oxford", "Doctor of Philosophy", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "Freedom From Religion Foundation", "Richard Dawkins", "Gilbert Ryle", "Ethiopia", "Sweet Dreams (Dennett book)", "atheist", "Punch and Judy", "philosophy of religion", "Arthur Compton", "International Academy of Humanism", "TheGuardian.com", "Erasmus Prize", "World War II", "scientific realism", "philosophy of science", "naturalistic fallacy", "determinism", "editorial board", "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse in popular culture", "philosophy of biology", "Max Bennett (scientist)", "Maine Medical Center", "Thesis", "Artificial general intelligence", "Giulio Tononi", "Intentional stance", "false belief", "intentional stance", "honorary doctorate", "Cognitive biology", "E. O. Wilson", "Autodidacticism", "Islamic studies", "Philosophy of mind", "materialism", "Freedom Evolves", "Steven Pinker", "Fulbright Fellowship", "Office of Strategic Services", "John Searle", "Evolutionary psychology of religion", "Rodolfo Llinás", "Desire (emotion)", "secularism", "Wikt:Citations:deepity", "Portland, Maine", "Brainstorm machine", "evolutionary psychology", "Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon", "Real patterns", "New Atheism", "Beirut", "free will", "Academy of Achievement", "Atheism", "interstitial lung disease", "Consciousness Explained", "From Bacteria to Bach and Back", "Tufts University", "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse", "Libertarianism (metaphysics)", "Mind & Brain Prize", "memetics" ]
8,757	Darwin's Dangerous Idea	Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life is a 1995 book by the philosopher Daniel Dennett, in which the author looks at some of the repercussions of Darwinian theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that natural selection is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the evolution of life. Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so. Dennett says, for example, that by claiming that minds cannot be reduced to purely algorithmic processes, many of his eminent contemporaries are claiming that miracles can occur. These assertions have generated a great deal of debate and discussion in the general public. The book was a finalist for the 1995 National Book Award for Nonfiction and the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction. ==Background== Dennett's previous book was Consciousness Explained (1991). Dennett noted discomfort with Darwinism among not only lay people but also even academics and decided it was time to write a book dealing with the subject. Darwin's Dangerous Idea is not meant to be a work of science, but rather an interdisciplinary book; Dennett admits that he does not understand all of the scientific details himself. He goes into a moderate level of detail, but leaves it for the reader to go into greater depth if desired, providing references to this end. In writing the book, Dennett wanted to "get thinkers in other disciplines to take evolutionary theory seriously, to show them how they have been underestimating it, and to show them why they have been listening to the wrong sirens". To do this he tells a story; one that is mainly original but includes some material from his previous work. Dennett taught an undergraduate seminar at Tufts University on Darwin and philosophy, which included most of the ideas in the book. He also had the help of fellow staff and other academics, some of whom read drafts of the book. It is dedicated to W. V. O. Quine, "teacher and friend". ==Synopsis== ===Part I: Starting in the Middle=== "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race." The first chapter "Tell Me Why" is named after a song. Before Charles Darwin, and still today, a majority of people see God as the ultimate cause of all design, or the ultimate answer to 'why?' questions. John Locke argued for the primacy of mind before matter, and David Hume, while exposing problems with Locke's view, could not see any alternative. Darwin provided just such an alternative: evolution. Besides providing evidence of common descent, he introduced a mechanism to explain it: natural selection. According to Dennett, natural selection is a mindless, mechanical and algorithmic process—Darwin's dangerous idea. The third chapter introduces the concept of "skyhooks" and "cranes" (see below). He suggests that resistance to Darwinism is based on a desire for skyhooks, which do not really exist. According to Dennett, good reductionists explain apparent design without skyhooks; greedy reductionists try to explain it without cranes. Chapter 4 looks at the tree of life, such as how it can be visualized and some crucial events in life's history. The next chapter concerns the possible and the actual, using the 'Library of Mendel' (the space of all logically possible genomes) as a conceptual aid. In the last chapter of part I, Dennett treats human artifacts and culture as a branch of a unified Design Space. Descent or homology can be detected by shared design features that would be unlikely to appear independently. However, there are also "Forced Moves" or "Good Tricks" that will be discovered repeatedly, either by natural selection (see convergent evolution) or human investigation. ===Part II: Darwinian Thinking in Biology=== The first chapter of part II, "Darwinian Thinking in Biology", asserts that life originated without any skyhooks, and the orderly world we know is the result of a blind and undirected shuffle through chaos. The eighth chapter's message is conveyed by its title, "Biology is Engineering"; biology is the study of design, function, construction and operation. However, there are some important differences between biology and engineering. Related to the engineering concept of optimization, the next chapter deals with adaptationism, which Dennett endorses, calling Gould and Lewontin's "refutation" of it an illusion. Dennett thinks adaptationism is, in fact, the best way of uncovering constraints. The tenth chapter, entitled "Bully for Brontosaurus", is an extended critique of Stephen Jay Gould, who Dennett feels has created a distorted view of evolution with his popular writings; his "self-styled revolutions" against adaptationism, gradualism and other orthodox Darwinism all being false alarms. The final chapter of part II dismisses directed mutation, the inheritance of acquired traits and Teilhard's "Omega Point", and insists that other controversies and hypotheses (like the unit of selection and Panspermia) have no dire consequences for orthodox Darwinism. ===Part III: Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality=== "Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality" is the name of Part III, which begins with a quote from Nietzsche. Chapter 12, "The Cranes of Culture", discusses cultural evolution. It asserts that the meme has a role to play in our understanding of culture, and that it allows humans, alone among animals, to "transcend" our selfish genes. "Losing Our Minds to Darwin" follows, a chapter about the evolution of brains, minds and language. Dennett criticizes Noam Chomsky's perceived resistance to the evolution of language, its modeling by artificial intelligence, and reverse engineering. The evolution of meaning is then discussed, and Dennett uses a series of thought experiments to persuade the reader that meaning is the product of meaningless, algorithmic processes. Chapter 15 asserts that Gödel's Theorem does not make certain sorts of artificial intelligence impossible. Dennett extends his criticism to Roger Penrose. The subject then moves on to the origin and evolution of morality, beginning with Thomas Hobbes (who Dennett calls "the first sociobiologist") and Friedrich Nietzsche. He concludes that only an evolutionary analysis of ethics makes sense, though he cautions against some varieties of 'greedy ethical reductionism'. Before moving to the next chapter, he discusses some sociobiology controversies. The penultimate chapter, entitled "Redesigning Morality", begins by asking if ethics can be 'naturalized'. Dennett does not believe there is much hope of discovering an algorithm for doing the right thing, but expresses optimism in our ability to design and redesign our approach to moral problems. In "The Future of an Idea", the book's last chapter, Dennett praises biodiversity, including cultural diversity. In closing, he uses Beauty and the Beast as an analogy; although Darwin's idea may seem dangerous, it is actually quite beautiful. == Central concepts == === Design Space === Dennett believes there is little or no principled difference between the naturally generated products of evolution and the man-made artifacts of human creativity and culture. For this reason he indicates deliberately that the complex fruits of the tree of life are in a very meaningful sense "designed"—even though he does not believe evolution was guided by a higher intelligence. Dennett supports using the notion of memes to better understand cultural evolution. He also believes even human creativity might operate by the Darwinian mechanism. This leads him to propose that the "space" describing biological "design" is connected with the space describing human culture and technology. A precise mathematical definition of Design Space is not given in Darwin's Dangerous Idea. Dennett acknowledges this and admits he is offering a philosophical idea rather than a scientific formulation. === Natural selection as an algorithm === Dennett describes natural selection as a substrate-neutral, mindless algorithm for moving through Design Space. === Universal acid === Dennett writes about the fantasy of a "universal acid" as a liquid that is so corrosive that it would eat through anything that it came into contact with, even a potential container. Such a powerful substance would transform everything it was applied to; leaving something very different in its wake. This is where Dennett draws parallels from the “universal acid” to Darwin's idea: it eats through just about every traditional concept, and leaves in its wake a revolutionized world-view, with most of the old landmarks still recognizable, but transformed in fundamental ways. While there are people who would like to see Darwin's idea contained within the field of biology, Dennett asserts that this dangerous idea inevitably “leaks” out to transform other fields as well. ===Skyhooks and cranes=== Dennett uses the term "skyhook" to describe a source of design complexity that does not build on lower, simpler layers—in simple terms, a miracle. In philosophical arguments concerning the reducibility (or otherwise) of the human mind, Dennett's concept pokes fun at the idea of intelligent design emanating from on high, either originating from one or more gods, or providing its own grounds in an absurd, Munchausen-like bootstrapping manner. Dennett also accuses various competing neo-Darwinian ideas of making use of such supposedly unscientific skyhooks in explaining evolution, coming down particularly hard on the ideas of Stephen Jay Gould. Dennett contrasts theories of complexity that require such miracles with those based on "cranes", structures that permit the construction of entities of greater complexity but are themselves founded solidly "on the ground" of physical science. == Reception == In The New York Review of Books, John Maynard Smith praised Darwin's Dangerous Idea: It is therefore a pleasure to meet a philosopher who understands what Darwinism is about, and approves of it. Dennett goes well beyond biology. He sees Darwinism as a corrosive acid, capable of dissolving our earlier belief and forcing a reconsideration of much of sociology and philosophy. Although modestly written, this is not a modest book. Dennett argues that, if we understand Darwin's dangerous idea, we are forced to reject or modify much of our current intellectual baggage... Writing in the same publication, Stephen Jay Gould criticised Darwin's Dangerous Idea for being an "influential but misguided ultra-Darwinian manifesto": Daniel Dennett devotes the longest chapter in Darwin's Dangerous Idea to an excoriating caricature of my ideas, all in order to bolster his defense of Darwinian fundamentalism. If an argued case can be discerned at all amid the slurs and sneers, it would have to be described as an effort to claim that I have, thanks to some literary skill, tried to raise a few piddling, insignificant, and basically conventional ideas to "revolutionary" status, challenging what he takes to be the true Darwinian scripture. Since Dennett shows so little understanding of evolutionary theory beyond natural selection, his critique of my work amounts to little more than sniping at false targets of his own construction. He never deals with my ideas as such, but proceeds by hint, innuendo, false attribution, and error. Gould was also a harsh critic of Dennett's idea of the "universal acid" of natural selection and of his subscription to the idea of memetics; Dennett responded, and the exchange between Dennett, Gould, and Robert Wright was printed in the New York Review of Books. Biologist H. Allen Orr wrote a critical review emphasizing similar points in the Boston Review. The book has also provoked a negative reaction from creationists; Frederick Crews writes that Darwin's Dangerous Idea "rivals Richard Dawkins's The Blind Watchmaker as the creationists' most cordially hated text."	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8,758	Douglas Hofstadter	Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15, 1945) is an American cognitive and computer scientist whose research includes concepts such as the sense of self in relation to the external world, consciousness, analogy-making, strange loops, artificial intelligence, and discovery in mathematics and physics. His 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid won the Pulitzer Prize for general nonfiction, and a National Book Award (at that time called The American Book Award) for Science. His 2007 book I Am a Strange Loop won the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Science and Technology. == Early life and education == Hofstadter was born in New York City to future Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Hofstadter and Nancy Givan Hofstadter. He grew up on the campus of Stanford University, where his father was a professor, and attended the International School of Geneva in 1958–59. He graduated with distinction in mathematics from Stanford University in 1965, and received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Oregon in 1975, where his study of the energy levels of Bloch electrons in a magnetic field led to his discovery of the fractal known as Hofstadter's butterfly. Since 1988, Hofstadter has been the College of Arts and Sciences Distinguished Professor of Cognitive Science and Comparative Literature at Indiana University in Bloomington, where he directs the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition, which consists of himself and his graduate students, forming the "Fluid Analogies Research Group" (FARG). In 1988, he received the In Praise of Reason award, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry's highest honor. In 2009, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and became a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 2010, he was elected a member of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, Sweden. ==Work and publications== At the University of Michigan and Indiana University, Hofstadter and Melanie Mitchell coauthored a computational model of "high-level perception"—Copycat—and several other models of analogy-making and cognition, including the Tabletop project, co-developed with Robert M. French. The Letter Spirit project, implemented by Gary McGraw and John Rehling, aims to model artistic creativity by designing stylistically uniform "gridfonts" (typefaces limited to a grid). Other more recent models include Phaeaco (implemented by Harry Foundalis) and SeqSee (Abhijit Mahabal), which model high-level perception and analogy-making in the microdomains of Bongard problems and number sequences, respectively, as well as George (Francisco Lara-Dammer), which models the processes of perception and discovery in triangle geometry. Hofstadter's thesis about consciousness, first expressed in Gödel, Escher, Bach but also present in several of his later books, is that it is "an emergent consequence of seething lower-level activity in the brain." In Gödel, Escher, Bach he draws an analogy between the social organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent "colony" of neurons. In particular, Hofstadter claims that our sense of having (or being) an "I" comes from the abstract pattern he terms a "strange loop", an abstract cousin of such concrete phenomena as audio and video feedback that Hofstadter has defined as "a level-crossing feedback loop". The prototypical example of a strange loop is the self-referential structure at the core of Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Hofstadter's 2007 book I Am a Strange Loop carries his vision of consciousness considerably further, including the idea that each human "I" is distributed over numerous brains, rather than being limited to one. Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language is a long book devoted to language and translation, especially poetry translation, and one of its leitmotifs is a set of 88 translations of "Ma Mignonne", a highly constrained poem by 16th-century French poet Clément Marot. In this book, Hofstadter jokingly describes himself as "pilingual" (meaning that the sum total of the varying degrees of mastery of all the languages that he has studied comes to 3.14159 ...), as well as an "oligoglot" (someone who speaks "a few" languages). In 1999, the bicentennial year of the Russian poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, Hofstadter published a verse translation of Pushkin's classic novel-in-verse Eugene Onegin. He has translated other poems and two novels: La Chamade (That Mad Ache) by Françoise Sagan, and La Scoperta dell'Alba (The Discovery of Dawn) by Walter Veltroni, the then-head of the Partito Democratico in Italy. The Discovery of Dawn was published in 2007, and That Mad Ache was published in 2009, bound together with Hofstadter's essay "Translator, Trader: An Essay on the Pleasantly Pervasive Paradoxes of Translation". === Hofstadter's Law === Hofstadter's Law is "It always takes longer than you expect, even when you take into account Hofstadter's Law." The law is stated in Gödel, Escher, Bach. === Students === Hofstadter's former Ph.D. students include (with dissertation title): David ChalmersToward a Theory of Consciousness Bob FrenchTabletop: An Emergent, Stochastic Model of Analogy-Making Gary McGrawLetter Spirit (Part One): Emergent High-level Perception of Letters Using Fluid Concepts Melanie MitchellCopycat: A Computer Model of High-Level Perception and Conceptual Slippage in Analogy-making == Public image == Hofstadter has said that he feels "uncomfortable with the nerd culture that centers on computers". He admits that "a large fraction [of his audience] seems to be those who are fascinated by technology", but when it was suggested that his work "has inspired many students to begin careers in computing and artificial intelligence" he replied that he was pleased about that, but that he himself has "no interest in computers". In that interview he also mentioned a course he has twice given at Indiana University, in which he took a "skeptical look at a number of highly touted AI projects and overall approaches". In his book Metamagical Themas, he says that "in this day and age, how can anyone fascinated by creativity and beauty fail to see in computers the ultimate tool for exploring their essence?" In 1988, Dutch director Piet Hoenderdos created a docudrama about Hofstadter and his ideas, Victim of the Brain, based on The Mind's I. It includes interviews with Hofstadter about his work. Provoked by predictions of a technological singularity (a hypothetical moment in the future of humanity when a self-reinforcing, runaway development of artificial intelligence causes a radical change in technology and culture), Hofstadter has both organized and participated in several public discussions of the topic. At Indiana University in 1999 he organized such a symposium, and in April 2000, he organized a larger symposium titled "Spiritual Robots" at Stanford University, in which he moderated a panel consisting of Ray Kurzweil, Hans Moravec, Kevin Kelly, Ralph Merkle, Bill Joy, Frank Drake, John Holland and John Koza. Hofstadter was also an invited panelist at the first Singularity Summit, held at Stanford in May 2006. Hofstadter expressed doubt that the singularity will occur in the foreseeable future. In a 2023 interview, Hofstadter said that rapid progress in AI made some of his "core beliefs" about AI's limitations "collapse". Hinting at an AI takeover, he added that human beings may soon be eclipsed by "something else that is far more intelligent and will become incomprehensible to us". == Columnist == When Martin Gardner retired from writing his "Mathematical Games" column for Scientific American magazine, Hofstadter succeeded him in 1981–83 with a column titled Metamagical Themas (an anagram of "Mathematical Games"). An idea he introduced in one of these columns was the concept of "Reviews of This Book", a book containing nothing but cross-referenced reviews of itself that has an online implementation. One of Hofstadter's columns in Scientific American concerned the damaging effects of sexist language, and two chapters of his book Metamagical Themas are devoted to that topic, one of which is a biting analogy-based satire, "A Person Paper on Purity in Language" (1985), in which the reader's presumed revulsion at racism and racist language is used as a lever to motivate an analogous revulsion at sexism and sexist language; Hofstadter published it under the pseudonym William Satire, an allusion to William Safire. Another column reported on the discoveries made by University of Michigan professor Robert Axelrod in his computer tournament pitting many iterated prisoner's dilemma strategies against each other, and a follow-up column discussed a similar tournament that Hofstadter and his graduate student Marek Lugowski organized. The "Metamagical Themas" columns ranged over many themes, including patterns in Frédéric Chopin's piano music (particularly his études), the concept of superrationality (choosing to cooperate when the other party/adversary is assumed to be equally intelligent as oneself), and the self-modifying game of Nomic, based on the way the legal system modifies itself, and developed by philosopher Peter Suber. == Personal life == Hofstadter was married to Carol Ann Brush until her death. They met in Bloomington, and married in Ann Arbor in 1985. They had two children. Carol died in 1993 from the sudden onset of a brain tumor, glioblastoma multiforme, when their children were young. The Carol Ann Brush Hofstadter Memorial Scholarship for Bologna-bound Indiana University students was established in 1996 in her name. Hofstadter's book Le Ton beau de Marot is dedicated to their two children and its dedication reads "To M. & D., living sparks of their Mommy's soul". In 2010, Hofstadter met his second wife, Baofen Lin, in a cha-cha-cha class. They married in 2012 in Bloomington. Hofstadter has composed pieces for piano and for piano and voice. He created an audio CD, DRH/JJ, of these compositions performed mostly by pianist Jane Jackson, with a few performed by Brian Jones, Dafna Barenboim, Gitanjali Mathur, and Hofstadter. The dedication for I Am A Strange Loop is: "To my sister Laura, who can understand, and to our sister Molly, who cannot." Hofstadter explains in the preface that his younger sister Molly never developed the ability to speak or understand language. As a consequence of his attitudes about consciousness and empathy, Hofstadter became a vegetarian in his teenage years, and has remained primarily so since that time. ==In popular culture== In the 1982 novel 2010: Odyssey Two, Arthur C. Clarke's first sequel to 2001: A Space Odyssey, HAL 9000 is described by the character "Dr. Chandra" as being caught in a "Hofstadter–Möbius loop". The movie uses the term "H. Möbius loop". On April 3, 1995, Hofstadter's book Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought was the first book sold by Amazon.com. Michael R. Jackson's musical A Strange Loop makes reference to Hofstadter's concept and the title of his 2007 book. == Published works == === Books === The books published by Hofstadter are (the ISBNs refer to paperback editions, where available): Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid () (1979) Metamagical Themas () (collection of Scientific American columns and other essays, all with postscripts) (1985) Ambigrammi: un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creatività () (in Italian only) Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies (co-authored with several of Hofstadter's graduate students) () Rhapsody on a Theme by Clement Marot () (1995, published 1996; volume 16 of series The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in Human Values) Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language () I Am a Strange Loop () (2007) Surfaces and Essences: Analogy as the Fuel and Fire of Thinking, co-authored with Emmanuel Sander () (first published in French as L'Analogie. Cœur de la pensée; published in English in the U.S. in April 2013) === Involvement in other books === Hofstadter has written forewords for or edited the following books: The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul (co-edited with Daniel Dennett), 1981. (, ) and () Inversions, by Scott Kim, 1981. (Foreword) () Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges, 1983. (Preface) Sparse Distributed Memory by Pentti Kanerva, Bradford Books/MIT Press, 1988. (Foreword) () Are Quanta Real? A Galilean Dialogue by J.M. Jauch, Indiana University Press, 1989. (Foreword) () Gödel's Proof (2002 revised edition) by Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, edited by Hofstadter. In the foreword, Hofstadter explains that the book (originally published in 1958) exerted a profound influence on him when he was young. () Who Invented the Computer? The Legal Battle That Changed Computing History by Alice Rowe Burks, 2003. (Foreword) Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker by Christof Teuscher, 2003. (editor) Brainstem Still Life by Jason Salavon, 2004. (Introduction) () Masters of Deception: Escher, Dalí & the Artists of Optical Illusion by Al Seckel, 2004. (Foreword) King of Infinite Space: Donald Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry by Siobhan Roberts, Walker and Company, 2006. (Foreword) Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science by Karl Sigmund, Basic Books, 2017. Hofstadter wrote the foreword and helped with the translation. To Light the Flame of Reason: Clear Thinking for the Twenty-First Century by Christopher Sturmark, Prometheus, 2022. (Foreword and Contributions) ===Translations=== Eugene Onegin: A Novel Versification from the Russian original of Alexander Pushkin, 1999. () The Discovery of Dawn from the Italian original of Walter Veltroni, 2007. () That Mad Ache, co-bound with Translator, Trader: An Essay on the Pleasantly Pervasive Paradoxes of Translation, from the French original La chamade of Francoise Sagan), 2009. ()	[ "physics", "Kevin Kelly (editor)", "Martin Gardner", "Jason Salavon", "Eugene Onegin", "Stanford University", "American Philosophical Society", "Amazon.com", "Hofstadter's Law", "Superrationality", "Bloch electron", "Egbert B. Gebstadter", "Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies", "Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter", "Ralph Merkle", "Christof Teuscher", "consciousness", "American philosophy", "pi", "Robert Axelrod (political scientist)", "Michael R. Jackson", "Arthur C. Clarke", "John Henry Holland", "Karl Sigmund", "glioblastoma multiforme", "National Book Foundation", "Bongard problem", "lipogram", "David Chalmers", "Clément Marot", "August Ferdinand Möbius", "Ernest Nagel", "New York City", "prisoner's dilemma", "Copycat (software)", "The Discovery of Dawn", "Scientific American", "Gödel, Escher, Bach", "Daniel Dennett", "Hofstadter points", "Cognitive science", "The Mind's I", "BlooP and FlooP", "Physics", "Garry Kasparov", "I Am a Strange Loop", "Committee for Skeptical Inquiry", "PhD", "American Academy of Achievement", "Études (Chopin)", "HAL 9000", "Artificial intelligence", "artificial intelligence", "IBM Deep Blue", "International School of Geneva", "Mathematical Games (column)", "Hofstadter's law", "La chamade", "Nobel Prize", "superrationality", "Gregory Wannier", "William Safire", "Peter Suber", "National Book Award", "Hofstadter's butterfly", "Alice Burks", "2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)", "Optical feedback", "AI takeover", "strange loop", "Andrew Hodges", "Frank Drake", "anagram", "Gary McGraw", "Scott A. Jones", "University of Oregon", "B. S.", "James R. Newman", "Al Seckel", "Indiana University", "Cha-cha-cha (dance)", "Victim of the Brain", "cognition", "American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Latin honors", "Françoise Sagan", "Doctor of Philosophy", "Platonia dilemma", "Pulitzer Prize", "Alexander Pushkin", "University of Michigan", "energy level", "Hans Moravec", "A Strange Loop", "List of winners of the National Book Award", "Sparse Distributed Memory", "List of American philosophers", "2010: Odyssey Two", "Distinguished Professor", "Singularity Summit", "Scott Kim", "Robert Hofstadter", "Christopher Sturmark", "Indiana University (Bloomington)", "Robert M. French", "Audio feedback", "Le Ton beau de Marot", "Vegetarianism", "Gödel's incompleteness theorems", "technological singularity", "Bill Joy", "Philosophy of mind", "Francoise Sagan", "Alan Turing: The Enigma", "Alan Turing", "Strange loop", "Frédéric Chopin", "Academy of Achievement", "Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala", "self-modifying game", "Siobhan Roberts", "Pentti Kanerva", "fractal", "Nomic", "Walter Veltroni", "Ray Kurzweil", "John Koza", "Metamagical Themas", "The Atlantic", "Melanie Mitchell", "mathematics" ]
8,765	Dahomey	{{Infobox country \| native_name = Danhɔmɛ (Fon) \| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Dahomey \| common_name = Dahomey \| demonym = Dahomean \| image_flag = Royal banner of Béhanzin of Dahomey.svg \| image_flag2 = Flag of Ghezo of Dahomey.svg \| flag_border = no \| flag_type = Top: Flag of Béhanzin (–)Bottom: Flag of Ghezo (1818–1858) \| image_coat = Coat of arms of Béhanzin.svg \| symbol_type = Coat of arms (–) \| image_map = Royaume du Danhomè 1894.svg \| image_map_caption = The Kingdom of Dahomey around 1894, superimposed on a map of the modern-day Republic of Benin, in the region of West Africa. \| status = Kingdom, vassal state of the Oyo Empire (1730–1823), French Protectorate (1894–1904) \| status_text = \| government_type = Monarchy \| year_start = \| year_end = 1904 \| event1 = Dakodonu begins conquest on Abomey Plateau \| date_event1 = \| event2 = King Agaja conquers Allada and Whydah \| date_event2 = 1724–1727 \| event3 = King Ghezo defeats the Oyo Empire and ends tributary status \| date_event3 = 1823 \| event_start = Aja settlers from Allada settle on Abomey Plateau \| event4 = Annexed into French Dahomey \| date_event4 = 1894 \| p1 = Kingdom of Ardra \| p2 = Kingdom of Whydah \| s1 = French Dahomey \| flag_s1 = Flag of France.svg \| capital = Abomey \| common_languages = Fon \| religion = Vodun \| currency = Cowrie \| leader1 = Do-Aklin \| year_leader1 = 1600–1625 (first) \| leader2 = Agoli-agbo \| year_leader2 = 1894–1900 (last) \| title_leader = Ahosu (King) \| stat_year1 = 1700 European visitors extensively documented the kingdom, and it became one of the most familiar African nations known to Europeans. significant international trade and diplomatic relations with Europeans, a centralized administration, taxation systems, and an organized military. Notable in the kingdom were significant artwork, an all-female military unit called the Dahomey Amazons by European observers, and the elaborate religious practices of Vodun. The growth of Dahomey coincided with the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, and it became known to Europeans as a major supplier of slaves. Dahomey was a highly militaristic society constantly organised for warfare; it captured captives during wars and raids against neighboring societies and sold them into the Atlantic slave trade in exchange for European goods such as rifles, gunpowder, fabrics, cowrie shells, tobacco, pipes, and alcohol. Other captives became slaves in Dahomey, where they worked on royal plantations or were killed in human sacrifices during the festival celebrations known as the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved significant collection and distribution of gifts and tribute, religious Vodun ceremonies, military parades, and discussions by dignitaries about the future for the kingdom. In the 1840s, Dahomey began to face decline with British pressure to abolish the slave trade, which included the anti-slavery blockade of Africa by the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron. Dahomey was also weakened after facing crushing defeats at the hands of Abeokuta, a Yoruba city-state which was founded by the Oyo Empire refugees migrating southward. Dahomey later began experiencing territorial disputes with France which led to the war in 1890 and part of the kingdom becoming a French protectorate. The kingdom fell four years later, when renewed fighting resulted in the last king, Béhanzin, to be overthrown and the country annexed into French West Africa. French Dahomey would gain independence in 1960 as the Republic of Dahomey, which would rename itself Benin in 1975. ==Name== The Kingdom of Dahomey was referred to by many different names and has been written in a variety of ways, including Danxome, Danhome, and Fon. The name Fon relates to the dominant ethnic and language group, the Fon people, of the royal families of the kingdom and is how the kingdom first became known to Europeans. The names Dahomey, Danxome, and Danhome share an origin story, which historian Edna Bay says may be a false etymology. The story goes that Dakodonu, considered the second king in modern kings lists, was granted permission by the Gedevi chiefs, the local rulers, to settle in the Abomey Plateau. Dakodonu requested additional land from a prominent chief named Dan (or Da) to which the chief responded sarcastically, "Should I open up my belly and build you a house in it?" For this insult, Dakodonu killed Dan and began the construction of his palace on the spot. The name of the kingdom was derived from the incident: Dan meaning "chief", xo meaning "belly", and me meaning "inside of", in the Fon language. ==History== The Kingdom of Dahomey was established around 1600 as an offshoot of the royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Allada. The foundational king for Dahomey is often considered to be Houegbadja (c. 1645–1685), who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey and began raiding and taking over towns outside of the Abomey Plateau. === Kings === Source: ===Rule of Agaja (1708–1740)=== King Agaja, Houegbadja's grandson, came to the throne in 1708 and began significant expansion of the Kingdom of Dahomey. This expansion was made possible by the superior military force of King Agaja's Dahomey. In contrast to surrounding regions, Dahomey employed a professional standing army numbering around ten thousand. What the Dahomey lacked in numbers, they made up for in discipline and superior arms. In 1724, Agaja conquered Allada, the origin for the royal family according to oral tradition, and in 1727 he conquered Whydah. This increased size of the kingdom, particularly along the Atlantic coast, and increased power made Dahomey into a regional power. The result was near constant warfare with the main regional state, the Oyo Empire, from 1728 until 1740. The warfare with the Oyo empire resulted in Dahomey assuming a tributary status to the Oyo empire. First, he needed to gain political independence by removing the tributary yoke that the Yoruba empire of Oyo had over the Dahomey since 1748. Secondly, he needed to revitalize the Dahomey economy. In 1904, the area became part of a French colony, French Dahomey. In 1958, French Dahomey became the self-governing colony called the Republic of Dahomey and gained full independence in 1960. It was renamed in 1975 the People's Republic of Benin and in 1991 the Republic of Benin. === Modernity === Today, the kingdom continues to exist as a constituent monarchy located within Benin. Its rulers no longer hold any official powers under Benin's constitution, but they retain some political and economic influence. Modern kings participate in important Vodun religious festivals and other traditional ceremonies. ==Politics== Early writings often presented the kingdom as an absolute monarchy led by a despotic king. These depictions were often deployed as arguments by different sides in the slave trade debates, mainly in the United Kingdom, and as such were probably exaggerations. The primary political divisions revolved around villages with chiefs and administrative posts appointed by the king and acting as his representatives to adjudicate disputes in the village. The migana combination of mi (our) and gan (chief)was a primary consul for the king, a key judicial figure, and served as the head executioner. The mehu was similarly a key administrative officer who managed the palaces and the affairs of the royal family, economic matters, and the areas to the south of Allada (making the position key to contact with Europeans). ==Foreign relations== The relations between Dahomey and other countries were complex and heavily impacted by the transatlantic slave trade. ===Brazil=== In 1750, the Kingdom of Dahomey sent a diplomatic mission to Salvador, Portuguese colony of Brazil in order to strengthen diplomatic relations with this Portuguese colony following an incident which led to the expulsion of Portuguese-Brazilian diplomatic authorities in 1743. Other Dahomey missions were sent to Portuguese colony of Brazil from 1795 to 1805 with the purpose of strengthening relations with Portuguese colonial authorities and slave buyers residing in Brazilian territory, ensuring that they maintained an interest in purchasing enslaved people supplied by Dahomey rather than rival kingdoms. It is also recorded that in 1823, the Kingdom of Dahomey formally recognized Brazil's independence, making it one of the first political entities in the world to do so. The Atlantic slave trade between Brazil and Dahomey remained intense even under pressure from the United Kingdom for its abolition. Francisco Félix de Sousa, a former enslaved person and later a major slave trader in the Dahomey region, became a politically influential figure in that kingdom after the ascent of Guezo to the Dahomean throne. He was granted the honorary title of Chachá, vice-king of Ajudá, and a monopoly on the exportation of slaves. ===France=== In 1861, the kingdom of Porto-Novo, one of Dahomey's tributaries, was bombarded by the Royal Navy. Porto-Novo asked for protection from France and became a French protectorate as a result in 1863. This status was rejected by King Behanzin, who still declared Porto-Novo to be a tributary of Dahomey. Another issue of contention was the status of Cotonou, a port the French believed was under their control because of a treaty signed by Dahomey's representative in Whydah. Dahomey ignored all French claims there as well and continued to collect customs from the port. These territorial disputes escalated into the First Franco-Dahomean War in 1890, resulting in French victory. Dahomey was forced to sign a treaty surrendering Porto-Novo and Cotonou to the French. It later returned to raiding the area and disregarded French complaints, triggering the Second Franco-Dahomean War in 1892. The kingdom was defeated in 1894, it was annexed into the French colonial empire as French Dahomey, and King Behanzin was exiled to Algeria. ===Portugal=== The Portuguese fort at Ouidah was destroyed by the army of Dahomey in 1743 during its conquest of the city, so King Tegbesu desired to renew relations with Portugal. Dahomey sent at least five embassies to Portugal and Brazil during the years of 1750, 1795, 1805, 1811 and 1818, with the goal of negotiating the terms of the Atlantic slave trade. These missions created an official correspondence between the kings of Dahomey and the kings of Portugal, and gifts were exchanged between them. The Portuguese Crown paid for the expenses travel and accommodation expenses of Dahomey's ambassadors, who traveled between Lisbon and Salvador, Bahia. The embassies of 1805 and 1811 brought letters from King Adandozan, who had imprisoned Portuguese subjects in the Dahomean capital of Abomey and requested for Portugal to trade exclusively at Ouidah. Portugal promised to answer to his demands if he released the prisoners. The British sent diplomatic missions to Dahomey in an effort to convince King Ghezo to abolish human sacrifice and slave trading. Ghezo did not immediately concede to British demands but attempted to maintain friendly relations with Britain by encouraging the growth of new trade in palm oil instead. In 1851, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade against Dahomey, forcing Ghezo to sign a treaty in 1852 that immediately abolished the export of slaves. This was broken when slave trading resumed in 1857 and 1858. Historian Martin Meredith quotes Ghezo telling the British: During a diplomatic mission to Dahomey in 1849, Captain Frederick E. Forbes of the Royal Navy received an enslaved girl (later named Sarah Forbes Bonetta) from King Ghezo as a "gift", who would later become a goddaughter to Queen Victoria. ===United States=== During the American Revolution, the rebelling United Colonies prohibited the international slave trade for a variety of economic, political, and moral reasons depending on the colony. Following the end of the revolution, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807, which federally outlawed the international slave trade, though domestic slavery itself would persist until the American Civil War. Thus, the United States never established any formal diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Dahomey. The last known slave ship that sailed to the United States secretly and illegally imported 110 slaves from Dahomey, purchased long after the abolition of the slave trade. The story was mentioned in the newspaper The Tarboro Southerner on July 14, 1860. Five days earlier, a schooner called Clotilda, captained by William Foster, arrived in the bay of Mobile, Alabama carrying the last known shipment of slaves to the U.S. In 1858, an American man named Timothy Meaher made a wager with acquaintances that despite the law banning the slave trade, he could safely bring a load of slaves from Africa. He built the Clotilda slave ship and sent William Foster to captain it and retrieve enslaved Africans. Captain William Foster arrived in Ouidah, a coastal port of Dahomey, and retrieved 110 slaves. Describing how he came in possession of the slaves, he wrote in his journal in 1860, Zora Neale Hurston wrote about her interviews with Oluale Kossola, who was thought to be the last survivor of the Clotilda, in her book Barracoon. Later, it was found that Matilda McCrear was the last living survivor of that atrocity. A notable descendant of a slave from this ship is Ahmir Khalib Thompson, an American music artist known as Questlove. Mr. Thompson's story is depicted in the PBS Television show Finding Your Roots [Season 4, Episode 9]. ===Yoruba=== The Oyo Empire engaged in frequent conflicts with the Kingdom of Dahomey and Dahomey became a tributary of the Oyo from 1732 until 1823. The city-state of Porto-Novo, under the protection of Oyo, and Dahomey had a long-standing rivalry largely over control of the slave trade along the coast. The rise of Abeokuta in the 1840s created another power rivaling Dahomey, largely by creating a safe haven for people from the slave trade. The army consisted of 15,000 personnel which was divided into right, left, center and reserve; and in each of these was further divided into companies and platoons. When going into battle, the king would take a secondary position to the field commander with the reason given that if any spirit were to punish the commander for decisions it should not be the king. From the 18th century, the state could obtain naval support from Ardra where they had created a subordinate dynasty after conquering the state in the early 18th century. Dahomey enlisted the services of Ardra's navy against the Epe in 1778 and Badagry in 1783. ===Amazons=== The Dahomean state became widely known for its corps of female soldiers. Their origins are debated; they may have formed from a palace guard or from (female hunting teams). They were organized around 1729 to fill out the army and make it look larger in battle, armed only with banners. The women reportedly behaved so courageously they became a permanent corps. In the beginning, the soldiers were criminals pressed into service rather than death. Eventually, the corps was respected enough that King Ghezo ordered every family to send him their daughters, with the fittest being chosen as soldiers. European accounts clarified that seven distinct movements were required to load a Dane gun which took an Amazon 30 seconds in comparison to the 50 seconds it took a Dahomean male soldier to load. During a campaign against Whydah that year, Dahomey was able to force Whydah to fortify itself at an island called Foudou-Cong. Dahomey cut trees which were planted in the water to serve as a causeway and bridge the army's access to the fortified Whydah island. The causeway also obstructed the movement of a 700 canoe force belonging to Whydah. As a result, the Whydah army had to survive on the boats for months sustaining its forces with fish diet. According to Thornton, Dahomey used this strategy of siege causeways again in 1776 against another opponent state where it built 3 bridges to connect the island housing the opponent forces. Coastal belligerents opposing Dahomey allied with European forts against the state. Dahomey was able to capture Dutch and Portuguese forts in the 18th century through the use of ladders and sappers. Thornton writes that in 1737, Dahomey used scale ladders against the Dutch fort in Keta simultaneously as its sappers built a tunnel under the fort's bastion causing it to collapse when its defenders fired an artillery round within the bastion. A similar tactic was employed against a Portuguese fort with 30 mounted guns at Whydah in 1743 as its bastions collapsed enabling the Dahomey infantry to enter the fort. Another tactic for attacking coastal forts was the burning of nearby villages during a land breeze in order for the wind to carry the flames toward the fort. This tactic was first revealed by a British commander at Whydah in 1728, who countered it by burning the nearby villages during a sea breeze to prevent the Dahomeyan army from burning the villages during a land breeze. In the mid 18th century, Abomey was surrounded by a ditch accessible by bridges whiles in 1772 the royal residence was surrounded with a mud brick wall 20 feet high, "with blockhouses on each wall." Dahomey also built underground chambers in Abomey which served varying functions including that of providing military installations for the army. These souterrains have been dated to the late 17th century. Wheeled vehicles are recorded to have been implemented in Dahomeyan warfare. In an operation against Abeokuta in 1864, Dahomey fielded three guns mounted on locally made carriages of which historian Robin Law adds that these weapons did not play an effective role in the battle. The main currency was cowry shells. ===Domestic=== The domestic economy largely focused on agriculture and crafts for local consumption. Until the development of palm oil, very little agricultural or craft goods were traded outside of the kingdom. Markets served a key role in the kingdom and were organized around a rotating cycle of four days with a different market each day (the market type for the day was religiously sanctioned). Several wealthy citizens stored their cowrie wealth in a building called akueho (cowrie huts) located in the compounds of their houses. Such cowrie huts were designed to protect the cowries from fire and theft. Iroko argues that this was a form of banking in Dahomey because the owners of such akueho houses regularly kept the deposits of others in the storehouse which they used as a form of loans to 3rd parties. Guyer and Stiansen on the other hand, are skeptical of Iroko's theory. ==== Taxation ==== Herskovits recounts a complex tax system in the kingdom, in which officials who represented the king, the , gathered data from each village regarding their harvest. Then the king set a tax based upon the level of production and village population. In addition, the king's own land and production were taxed. Taxes were imposed on craft workers including blacksmiths, weavers and wood cutters for example. Kangaroo courts could be held at any place such as the market or on roads, presided over by officials recognized by the central government. Such courts could extract some form of tax from the litigants before judging the case. Other war captives who were not intended to be sold to Europeans remained in Dahomey as slaves. There, they worked on royal plantations that supplied food for the army and royal court. There was a history of large-scale human sacrifice using slaves. ==Religion== The Kingdom of Dahomey shared many religious rituals with surrounding populations. It also developed unique ceremonies, beliefs, and religious stories. These included royal ancestor worship and West African Vodun. ===Royal ancestor worship=== Early kings established clear worship of royal ancestors and centralized their ceremonies in the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted position in the land of the dead and it was necessary to get their permission for many activities on earth. The number is also often reported to be 4,000. ===Cosmology=== Dahomey had a unique form of West African Vodun that linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a wife of Agaja and mother of Tegbessou, brought Vodun to the kingdom and ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having female characteristics and Lisa having male characteristics) and it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created by their mother Nana-Buluku. Kings were often depicted in large zoomorphic forms with each king resembling a particular animal in multiple representations. Much of the artwork revolved around the royalty. Each of the palaces at the Royal Palaces of Abomey contained elaborate bas-reliefs (noundidė in Fon) providing a record of the king's accomplishments. Each king had his own palace within the palace complex and within the outer walls of their personal palace was a series of clay reliefs designed specific to that king. These were not solely designed for royalty and chiefs, temples, and other important buildings had similar reliefs. The reliefs would present Dahomey kings often in military battles against the Oyo or Mahi tribes to the north of Dahomey with their opponents depicted in various negative depictions (the king of Oyo is depicted in one as a baboon eating a cob of corn). Historical themes dominated representation and characters were basically designed and often assembled on top of each other or in close proximity creating an ensemble effect. Also unusual, by being so early and clearly provenanced, is a carved wooden tray (not dissimilar to much more recent examples) in Ulm, Germany, which was brought to Europe before 1659, when it was described in a printed catalogue. Wheeled carriages were used in Dahomey after their introduction into the region of modern Benin in the late 17th century. Some carriages were manufactured indigenously while most were obtained as gifts from European allies. The carriages were often used for ceremonial purposes and were drawn mostly by men due to the small number of horses in the state. Carriages in Dahomey came in varying sizes and shapes. Some were modelled after ships, elephants and horses. Burton noted that the road between Abomey and the town of Cana, which was about six to seven miles long, was regularly kept weeded for the convenience of the royal carriages. ==In popular culture== The Kingdom of Dahomey has been depicted in a number of different works of fiction or creative nonfiction. ===Literature and theatre=== In the novel Robur the Conqueror (1886) by Jules Verne, the crew and passengers of the Albatross travel to Dahomey, where they interrupt an act of human sacrifice. In Dahomey (1903) was a successful Broadway musical, the first full-length Broadway musical written entirely by African Americans, in the early 20th century. Novelist Paul Hazoumé's first novel Doguicimi (1938) was based on decades of research into the oral traditions of the Kingdom of Dahomey during the reign of King Ghezo. The anthropologist Judith Gleason wrote a novel, Agõtĩme: Her Legend (1970), centered on one of the wives of a king of Dahomey in the late 18th century, who offends her husband who sells her to slavery in Brazil; she makes a bargain with a vodu (deity), putting her son on the throne of Dahomey and bringing her home. Another novel tracing the background of a slave, this time in the United States, was The Dahomean, or The Man from Dahomey (1971), by the African-American novelist Frank Yerby; its hero is an aristocratic warrior. In the third of George McDonald Fraser's Flashman novels, Flash for Freedom! (1971), Flashman dabbles in the slave trade and visits Dahomey. The Viceroy of Ouidah (1980) by Bruce Chatwin is the story of a Brazilian who, hoping to make his fortune from slave trading, sails to Dahomey in 1812, befriending its unbalanced king and coming to a bad end. The main character of one of the two parallel stories in Will Do Magic for Small Change (2016) by Andrea Hairston is Kehinde, a Yoruba woman forced into the Dahomean army; she struggles with divided loyalty, and after the fall of Behanzin, joins a French entertainment troupe who intend to exhibit her as an Amazon at the Chicago World's Fair. The Booker Prize-winning novel Girl, Woman, Other (2019) by Bernardine Evaristo features a character named Amma who writes and directs a play titled The Last Amazon of Dahomey. Behanzin's resistance to the French attempt to end slave trading and human sacrifice has been central to a number of works. Jean Pliya's first play Kondo le requin (1967), winner of the Grand Prize for African History Literature, tells the story of Behanzin's struggle to maintain the old order. Maryse Condé's novel The Last of the African Kings (1992) similarly focuses on Behanzin's resistance and his exile to the Caribbean. The novel Thread of Gold Beads (2012) by Nike Campbell centers on a daughter of Behanzin; through her eyes, the end of his reign is observed. Zora Neale Hurston's book Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo", posthumously published May 2018. ===Video games=== Dahomey has been depicted in some historical war strategy video games. The Dahomey Amazons appear in the historical strategy video game Empire: Total War (2009), developed by Creative Assembly. In the grand strategy video games Europa Universalis IV (2013) and Victoria 3 (2022), both developed by Paradox Interactive, Dahomey appears as one of many historical nations that players can play as or interact with.	[ "Badagry", "Oba of Lagos", "Winchester rifle", "Ulm", "Dane gun", "Tributary state", "Thomas Birch Freeman", "Werndl–Holub rifle", "Second Franco-Dahomean War", "France", "People's Republic of Benin", "Salvador, Bahia", "United Colonies", "Snider Enfield", "causeway", "In Dahomey", "false etymology", "Psychology Press", "Atlantic slave trade", "Victoria (British TV series)", "Paul Hazoumé", "Glèlè", "Benin", "Company (military unit)", "Cobra Verde", "The Viceroy of Ouidah", "Abolitionism in the United Kingdom", "Maryse Condé", "Creative Assembly", "Peabody action", "blockhouse", "protectorate", "Archibald Dalzel", "74th Berlin International Film Festival", "First Franco-Dahomean War", "souterrains", "West Africa", "Kpengla", "Royal Palaces of Abomey", "Martin Meredith", "platoons", "sea breeze", "Redoshi", "Ghezo", "Spencer repeating rifle", "Kingdom of Bonny", "flintlock", "List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history", "Epe, Lagos State", "slave ship", "Kosoko", "Kingdom of Whydah", "Finding Your Roots", "Republic of Dahomey", "Matilda McCrear", "Hwanjile", "Kingdom of Allada", "Fon people", "Assemblage (art)", "Slavery", "Kangaroo court", "Annual Customs of Dahomey", "Cudjoe Lewis", "Oyo Empire", "Porto-Novo", "blockade of Africa", "Timothy Meaher", "gunpowder", "Rio de Janeiro", "Mahi people", "absolute monarchy", "Alfred-Amédée Dodds", "Oluale Kossola", "Abeokuta", "Flanking maneuver", "State of Brazil", "Werner Herzog", "Tegbesu", "Cotonou", "Jules Verne", "constituent monarchy", "standing army", "United States", "Zoomorphism", "Dakodonu", "French West Africa", "palm oil", "bombax", "World's Columbian Exposition", "Mauser Model 1871", "Albini-Braendlin rifle", "grand strategy wargame", "Algeria", "Empire: Total War", "Dreyse needle gun", "Wänzl rifle", "John Thornton (historian)", "carbine", "Glele", "Aja people", "Keta", "Golden Bear", "Abolitionism", "Zora Neale Hurston", "Empire of Brazil", "Clotilda (slave ship)", "United Kingdom", "Mortar (weapon)", "field fortification", "Gina Prince-Bythewood", "banking", "Routledge", "Jane I. Guyer", "Chassepot", "provenance", "Frank Yerby", "military installations", "French Dahomey", "calibers", "Bruce Chatwin", "Victoria 3", "Mobile, Alabama", "ABC-CLIO", "Agonglo", "Agongointo-Zoungoudo Underground Town", "Houegbadja", "Mitrailleuse", "Ahmir Khalib Thompson", "Yoruba people", "Smoking pipe", "carriages", "Despotism", "Protectorate", "Tegbessou", "Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves", "Musket", "Traditional African religions", "Allada", "sapper", "kpojito", "diplomatic mission", "Béhanzin", "The Woman King", "Paradox Interactive", "State (polity)", "carronades", "Agaja", "Blockade of Africa", "Dakodonou", "Royal Navy", "appliqué", "Dahomey (film)", "African art", "musket", "Abomey", "United Provinces of the Río de la Plata", "gbeto", "Ouidah", "Egba people", "Cineuropa", "Europa Universalis IV", "tobacco", "apprenticeship", "The Flashman Papers", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Cambridge University Press", "Broadway theatre", "Andrea Hairston", "Cowrie", "Atlantic Ocean", "Akaba of Dahomey", "fiction", "Cana, Benin", "Queen Victoria", "Adandozan", "Alcoholic beverage", "King of Dahomey", "Robur the Conqueror", "human sacrifice", "ditches", "Napoleonic Wars", "Agoli-agbo", "American Revolutionary War", "European colonization of Africa", "Dahomey Amazons", "Sovereignty", "Independence of Brazil", "Do-Aklin", "cowry", "Textile", "Barracoon: The Story of the Last \"Black Cargo\"", "Lisbon", "trench", "British Empire", "Nordic Africa Institute", "Mati Diop", "Francisco Félix de Sousa", "Suppressive fire", "Behanzin", "Sarah Forbes Bonetta", "Abiola Félix Iroko", "slave raid", "Relief", "Jean Pliya", "Thomas Jefferson", "Kingdom of Ardra", "bas-reliefs", "Asante people", "Flash for Freedom!", "land breeze", "Slave-trader", "West Africa Squadron", "rifles", "Republic of Benin", "French colonial empire", "Ethnic groups in Europe", "American Civil War", "Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil", "plantation economy", "creative nonfiction", "Seriki Williams Abass", "Portuguese colonization of the Americas", "strategy video game", "West African Vodun", "Frontal assault", "Fon language", "bastion", "toll booths", "cowrie shells", "Cartridge (firearms)", "Slavery in Brazil" ]
8,767	Dragoon	Dragoons were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat with swords and firearms from horseback. While their use goes back to the late 16th century, dragoon regiments were established in most European armies during the 17th and early 18th centuries; they provided greater mobility than regular infantry but were far less expensive than cavalry. The name reputedly derives from a type of firearm, called a dragon, which was a handgun version of a blunderbuss, carried by dragoons of the French Army. The title has been retained in modern times by a number of armoured or ceremonial mounted regiments. == Origins and name == The establishment of dragoons evolved from the practice of sometimes transporting infantry by horse when speed of movement was needed. In 1552, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, mounted several companies of infantry on pack horses to achieve surprise, another example being that used by Louis of Nassau in 1572 during operations near Mons in Hainaut, when 500 infantry were transported this way. It is also suggested the first dragoons were raised by the Marshal de Brissac in 1600. According to old German literature, dragoons were invented by Count Ernst von Mansfeld, one of the greatest German military commanders, in the early 1620s. There are other instances of mounted infantry predating this. However Mansfeld, who had learned his profession in Hungary and the Netherlands, often used horses to make his foot troops more mobile, creating what was called an armée volante (French for 'flying army'). During the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors fought on horse with arquebuses, prefiguring the origin of European dragoons. The origin of the name remains disputed and obscure. It possibly derives from an early weapon, a short wheellock, called a dragon because its muzzle was decorated with a dragon's head. The practice comes from a time when all gunpowder weapons had distinctive names, including the culverin, serpentine, falcon, falconet, etc. It is also sometimes claimed a galloping infantryman with his loose coat and the burning match resembled a dragon. It has also been asserted that the name was coined by Mansfeld as a comparison to dragons represented as "spitting fire and being swift on the wing". Finally, it has been suggested that the name derives from the German tragen or the Dutch dragen, both being the verb to carry in their respective languages. Howard Reid claims the name and role descend from the Latin Draconarius. === Use as a verb === Dragoon is occasionally used as a verb meaning to subjugate or persecute by the imposition of troops; and by extension to compel by any violent measures or threats. The term dates from 1689, when dragoons were being used by the French monarchy to persecute Protestants, particularly by forcing Protestants to lodge a dragoon (dragonnades) in their house to watch over them at the householder's expense. == Early history and role == Early dragoons were not organized in squadrons or troops as were cavalry, but in companies like the infantry. Their commissioned and non-commissioned officers bore infantry ranks, while they used drummers, not buglers, to communicate orders on the battlefield. The flexibility of mounted infantry made dragoons a useful arm, especially when employed for what would now be termed "internal security" against smugglers or civil unrest, and on line of communication security duties. In Britain, companies of dragoons were first raised during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and prior to 1645 either served as independent troops or were attached to cavalry units. When the New Model Army was first approved by Parliament in January 1645, it included ten regiments of cavalry, each with a company of dragoons attached. At the urging of Sir Thomas Fairfax, on 1 March they were formed into a separate unit of 1,000 men, commanded by Colonel John Okey, and played an important part at the Battle of Naseby in June. Supplied with inferior horses and more basic equipment, the dragoon regiments were cheaper to raise and maintain than the expensive regiments of cavalry. When in the 17th century Gustav II Adolf introduced dragoons into the Swedish Army, he provided them with a sword, an axe and a matchlock musket, using them as "labourers on horseback". Many of the European armies henceforth imitated this all-purpose set of weaponry. Dragoons of the late 17th and early 18th centuries retained strong links with infantry in appearance and equipment, differing mainly in the substitution of riding boots for shoes and the adoption of caps instead of broad-brimmed hats to enable muskets to be worn slung. A non-military use of dragoons was the 1681 Dragonnades, a policy instituted by Louis XIV to intimidate Huguenot families into either leaving France or re-converting to Catholicism by billeting ill-disciplined dragoons in Protestant households. While other categories of infantry and cavalry were also used, the mobility, flexibility and available numbers of the dragoon regiments made them particularly suitable for repressive work of this nature over a wide area. In the Spanish Army, Pedro de la Puente organized a body of dragoons in Innsbruck in 1635. In 1640, a tercio of a thousand dragoons armed with the arquebus was created in Spain. By the end of the 17th century, the Spanish Army had three tercios of dragoons in Spain, plus three in the Netherlands and three more in Milan. In 1704, the Spanish dragoons were reorganised into regiments by Philip V, as were the rest of the tercios. Dragoons were at a disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, and constantly sought to improve their horsemanship, armament and social status. By the Seven Years' War in 1756, their primary role in most European armies had progressed from that of mounted infantry to that of heavy cavalry. They were sometimes described as "medium" cavalry, midway between heavy/armoured and light/unarmoured regiments, though this was a classification that was rarely used at the time. Their original responsibilities for scouting and picket duty had passed to hussars and similar light cavalry corps in the French, Austrian, Prussian, and other armies. In the Imperial Russian Army, due to the availability of Cossack troops, the dragoons were retained in their original role for much longer. An exception to the rule was the British Army, which from 1746 onward gradually redesignated all regiments of "horse" (regular cavalry) as lower paid "dragoons", in an economy measure. Starting in 1756, seven regiments of light dragoons were raised and trained in reconnaissance, skirmishing and other work requiring endurance in accordance with contemporary standards of light cavalry performance. The success of this new class of cavalry was such that another eight dragoon regiments were converted between 1768 and 1783. When this reorganisation was completed in 1788, the cavalry arm consisted of regular dragoons and seven units of dragoon guards. The designation of dragoon guards did not mean that these regiments (the former 2nd to 8th horse) had become household troops, but simply that they had been given a more dignified title to compensate for the loss of pay and prestige. Towards the end of 1776, George Washington realized the need for a mounted branch of the American military. In January 1777 four regiments of light dragoons were raised. Short term enlistments were abandoned and the dragoons joined for three years, or "the war". They participated in most of the major engagements of the American War of Independence, including the battles of White Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, Saratoga, Cowpens, and Monmouth, as well as the Yorktown campaign. == 19th century == During the Napoleonic Wars, dragoons generally assumed a cavalry role, though remaining a lighter class of mounted troops than the armored cuirassiers. Dragoons rode larger horses than the light cavalry and wielded straight, rather than curved swords. === France === Emperor Napoleon often formed complete divisions out of his 30 dragoon regiments, while in 1811 six regiments were converted to Chevau-Legers Lanciers; they were often used in battle to break the enemy's main resistance. In northern and eastern Europe they were employed as heavy cavalry, while in the Peninsular War they also fulfilled the role of lighter cavalry, for example in anti-guerrilla operations. In 1809, French dragoons scored notable successes against Spanish armies at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes. === British Army === Between 1806 and 1808, the 7th, 10th, 15th and 18th regiments of Light Dragoons of the British Army were re-designated as hussars and when the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, some became lancers. The transition from dragoons to hussars was however a slow one, affecting uniforms but not equipment and functions. Even titles often remained ambiguous until 1861, for example, 18th King's Light Dragoons (Hussars). The seven regiments of Dragoon Guards served as the heavy cavalry arm of the British Army, although unlike continental cuirassiers they carried no armour. Between 1816 and 1861, the other twenty-one cavalry regiments were either disbanded or rebadged as lancers or hussars. === Kingdom of Prussia === The Kingdom of Prussia in the Napoleonic era included 14 Regiments of Dragoons, designated Numbers 1 through 14, in their Order of Battle at the start of the 1806 Campaign against Napoleon's French Army. Prussian cavalry regiments were better known by their "Chef" or "Inhaber", the titular commander responsible for supporting the regiment, while command in the field might fall to a more junior Colonel, Lt. Colonel, or even a Major. As a result, every time there was a change in "Chef" the name of the regiment changed. By 1806, the Prussian Dragoons wore a very tall bicorn hat worn slanted slightly obliquely with a tall, white plume. Their uniforms had changed by 1802 from coats that had been cut like the infantry to short, medium-blue cavalry tunics. Each regiment had differentiating colors for a variety of uniform accessories such as small pompoms at the side of the hat, tunic facings and shoulder flaps on the left shoulder, woolen tassels for the sabre straps, and the horse saddlecloths. Dragoons were issued a long, straight blade with a single edge, the Dragoon Pallasch sword, which featured a brass basket hilt for hand protection. The Pallasch was designed for powerful cutting and thrusting action, making it effective for cavalry charges. For the period of 1798 to October of 1806, the majority of Prussian Dragoon regiments were similar to Prussian Cuirassier regiments in staffing and organization. Most were made up of 5 squadrons with an 'on paper' war-time regimental strength of 935 men including soldiers, officers, and all the support staff. The minor difference was that Dragoon regiments had 10 more carabiniers (60 in a Dragoon regiment compared to 50 in a Cuirassier regiment) and therefore ten fewer regular troopers (660 Dragoons compared to 670 Cuirassiers). The average regimental staff of most of the regiments was around 37 officers, 65 NCOs, one staff trumpeter and 14 trumpeters, supported by 5 surgeons led by a regimental surgeon, 9 blacksmiths, a regimental quartermaster, a chaplain and a judge, a horse trainer, a saddlemaker, a gunsmith and a gunstock maker, a provost, and 68 servants. The two regiments that were exceptions were the 5th "Bayreuth" (re-designated in March 1806 as the Queen's or "Königin" Dragoons) and the 6th "Auer" Dragoon regiments, which were double-strength with 10 squadrons and retained 2/3rd German heavy horses. After the disastrous results of the 1806-07 war with France, most of the Prussian army had ceased to exist. For example, the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 14th Dragoon regiments were totally lost and even the 9th and 14th Dragoon regimental depots had been destroyed. The complete re-organization of the Prussian army in 1808 led to numerous regiments being re-organized and re-designated, mixing surviving Dragoons and Cuirassier veterans with new recruits into a new numeric system and losing the traditional "Chef" naming schema in favor of a mostly geographical designation, with a few exceptions. For example, the old pre-1807 5th "Bayreuth"/"Königin" Dragoons became the 1st "Königin" Dragoon regiment, while the 7th "von Baczko" Dragoons became the 3rd "Lithuanian" Dragoon regiment. The newly designated 5th "Brandenburg" Dragoons were formed from merging the remains of the 5th "von Bailliodz" Cuirassier regiment and its depot with the remains of the old 1st "Konig von Bayern" Dragoon regiment and its depot. This resulted in the reduction of Prussian Dragoon regiments from 14 to 6. Many of these new Prussian Dragoon regiments fought in the 1813 Wars of Liberation in the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon in central Europe and France into 1814. === German Empire === The creation of a unified German state in 1871 brought together the dragoon regiments of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, Baden, Hesse, and Württemberg in a single numbered sequence, although historic distinctions of insignia and uniform were largely preserved. Two regiments of the Imperial Guard were designated as dragoons. === Austria === The Austrian (later Austro-Hungarian) Army of the 19th century included six regiments of dragoons in 1836, classed as heavy cavalry for shock action, but in practice used as multi-purpose medium troops. After 1859 all but two Austrian dragoon regiments were converted to cuirassiers or disbanded. From 1868 to 1918 the Austro-Hungarian dragoons numbered 15 regiments. === Spain === During the 18th century, Spain raised several regiments of dragoons to protect the northern provinces and borders of New Spain, the present-day states of California, Nevada, Colorado, Texas, Kansas, Arizona, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. In mainland Spain, dragoons were reclassified as light cavalry from 1803 but remained among the elite units of the Spanish Colonial Army. A number of dragoon officers played a leading role in initiating the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, including Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama and Agustin de Iturbide, who briefly served as Emperor of México from 1822 to 1823. === USA === Prior to the War of 1812, the U.S. organized the Regiment of Light Dragoons. For the war, a second regiment was activated; that regiment was consolidated with the original regiment in 1814. The original regiment was consolidated with the Corps of Artillery in June 1815. The United States Dragoons was organized by an Act of Congress approved on 2 March 1833 after the disbandment of the Battalion of Mounted Rangers. The unit became the "First Regiment of Dragoons" when the Second Dragoons was raised in 1836. In 1861, they were re-designated as the 1st and 2nd Cavalry but did not change their role or equipment, although the traditional orange uniform braiding of the dragoons was replaced by the standard yellow of the Cavalry branch. This marked the official end of dragoons in the U.S. Army in name, although certain modern units trace their origins back to the historic dragoon regiments. In practice, all US cavalry assumed a dragoon-like role, frequently using carbines and pistols, in addition to their swords. === Russian Empire === Between 1881 and 1907, all Russian cavalry (other than Cossacks and Imperial Guard regiments) were designated as dragoons, reflecting an emphasis on the double ability of dismounted action as well as the new cavalry tactics in their training and a growing acceptance of the impracticality of employing historical cavalry tactics against modern firepower. Upon the reinstatement of Uhlan and Hussar Regiments in 1907 their training pattern, as well as that of the Cuirassiers of the Guard, remained unchanged until the collapse of the Russian Imperial Army. === Japan === In Japan, during the late 19th and early 20th century, dragoons were deployed in the same way as in other armies, but were dressed as hussars. == 20th century == In the period before 1914, dragoon regiments still existed in the British and French armies, as well as the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Canadian, Peruvian, Swiss, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, and Spanish. Their uniforms varied greatly, lacking the characteristic features of hussar or lancer regiments. Uniforms bore occasional reminders of their mounted infantry origins: the 28 dragoon regiments of the Imperial German Army wore the infantry Pickelhaube or spiked helmet, while British dragoons wore scarlet tunics for full dress while hussars and all but one of the lancer regiments wore dark blue. In other respects however dragoons had adopted the same tactics, roles and equipment as other branches of the cavalry and the distinction had become simply one of traditional titles. Weaponry had ceased to have a historic connection, with both the French and German dragoon regiments carrying lances when serving as mounted troops during World War I. The historic German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian dragoon regiments ceased to exist as distinct branches following the overthrow of the respective imperial regimes of these countries during 1917–18. The Spanish dragoons, which dated back to 1640, were reclassified as numbered cavalry regiments in 1931 as part of the army modernization policies of the Second Spanish Republic. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, France maintained 32 regiments of dragoons. Armed with lances, sabres and carbines they were primarily intended to carry out reconnaissance and infantry flanking functions. The Australian Light Horse were similar to 18th-century dragoon regiments in some respects, being mounted infantry which normally fought on foot, their horses' purpose being transportation. They served during the Second Boer War and World War I. The Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade became famous for the Battle of Beersheba in 1917 where they charged on horseback using rifle bayonets in hand, since neither sabres nor lances were part of their equipment. Later in the Palestine campaign Pattern 1908 cavalry swords were issued and used in the campaign leading to the fall of Damascus. Probably the last use of real dragoons (infantry on horseback) in combat was made by the Portuguese Army in the war in Angola during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1966, the Portuguese created an experimental horse platoon to operate against the guerrillas in the high grass region of Eastern Angola, in which each soldier was armed with a G3 battle rifle for combat on foot and with a semi-automatic pistol to fire from horseback. The troops on horseback were able to operate in difficult terrain unsuited to motor vehicles and had the advantage of being able to control the area around them, with a clear view over the grass that foot troops did not have. Moreover, these unconventional troops created a psychological impact on an enemy that was not used to facing horse troops, and thus had no training or strategy to deal with them. The experimental horse platoon was so successful that its entire parent battalion was transformed from an armored reconnaissance unit to a three-squadron horse battalion known as the "Dragoons of Angola". One of the typical operations carried out by the Dragoons of Angola, in cooperation with airmobile forces, consisted of the dragoons chasing the guerrillas and pushing them in one direction, with the airmobile troops being launched from helicopter in the enemy rear, trapping the enemy between the two forces. === Dragoner rank === Until 1918, Dragoner (en: dragoon) was the designation given to the lowest ranks in the dragoon regiments of the Austro-Hungarian and Imperial German armies. The Dragoner rank, together with all other private ranks of the different branch of service, belonged to the so-called Gemeine rank group. ==Modern dragoons== === Brazil === The guard of honour for the President of Brazil includes the 1st Guard Cavalry Regiment of the Brazilian Army, known as the "Dragões da Independência" (Independence Dragoons). The name was given in 1927 and refers to the fact that a detachment of dragoons escorted the Prince Royal of Portugal and Brazil, Pedro of Braganza, at the time when he declared Brazilian independence from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on 7 September 1822. The Independence Dragoons wear 19th-century dress uniforms similar to those of the earlier Imperial Honor Guard, which are used as the regimental full dress uniform since 1927. The uniform was designed by Debret, in white and red, with plumed bronze helmets. The colors and pattern were influenced by the Austrian dragoons of the period, as the Brazilian Empress consort was also an Austrian archduchess. The color of the plumes varies according to rank. The Independence Dragoons are armed with lances and sabres, the latter only for the officers and the colour guard. The regiment was established in 1808 by the Prince Regent and future King of Portugal, John VI, with the duty of protecting the Portuguese royal family, which had sought refuge in Brazil during the Napoleonic wars. However dragoons had existed in Portugal since at least the early 18th century and, in 1719, units of this type of cavalry were sent to Brazil, initially to escort shipments of gold and diamonds and to guard the Viceroy who resided in Rio de Janeiro (1st Cavalry Regiment – Vice-Roy Guard Squadron). Later, they were also sent to the south to serve against the Spanish during frontier clashes. After the proclamation of the Brazilian independence, the title of the regiment was changed to that of the Imperial Honor Guard, with the role of protecting the Imperial Family. The Guard was later disbanded by Emperor Pedro II and would be recreated only later in the republican era. At the time of the Republic proclamation in 1889, horse No. 6 of the Imperial Honor Guard was ridden by the officer making the declaration of the end of Imperial rule, Second lieutenant Eduardo José Barbosa. This is commemorated by the custom under which the horse having this number is used only by the commander of the modern regiment. === Canada === There are three dragoon regiments in the Canadian Army: The Royal Canadian Dragoons and two reserve regiments, the British Columbia Dragoons and the Saskatchewan Dragoons. The Royal Canadian Dragoons is the senior Armoured regiment in the Canadian Army. The regiment was authorized in 1883 as the Cavalry School Corps, being redesignated as Canadian Dragoons in 1892, adding the Royal designation the next year. The RCD has a history of fighting dismounted, serving in the Second Boer War in South Africa as mounted infantry, fighting as infantry with the 1st Canadian Division in Flanders in 1915–1916 and spending the majority of the regiment's service in the Italian Campaign 1944–1945 fighting dismounted. In 1994 when the regiment deployed to Bosnia as part of the United Nations Protection Force, B Squadron was employed as a mechanized infantry company. The current role of The Royal Canadian Dragoons is to provide Armour Reconnaissance support to 2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group (2 CMBG) as well as C Squadron RCD in Gagetown which is a part of 2 CMBG and the RCD Regiment with Leopard 2A4 and 2A6 tanks. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police were accorded the formal status of a regiment of dragoons in 1921. The modern RCMP does not retain any military status however. === Chile === Founded as the Dragones de la Reina (Queen's Dragoons) in 1758 and later renamed the Dragoons of Chile in 1812, and then becoming the Carabineros de Chile in 1903. The Carabineros are the national police of Chile. The military counterpart, that of the 15th Reinforced Regiment "Dragoons" is now as of 2010 the 4th Armored Brigade "Chorrillos" based in Punta Arenas as the 6th Armored Cavalry Squadron "Dragoons", and form part of the 5th Army Division. === Denmark === The Royal Danish Army includes amongst its historic regiments the Jutland Dragoon Regiment, which was raised in 1670. === France === The modern French Army retains three dragoon regiments from the thirty-two in existence at the beginning of World War I: the 2nd, which is a nuclear, biological and chemical protection regiment, the 5th, an experimental Combined arms regiment, and the 13th (Special Reconnaissance). === Lithuania === Beginning in the 17th century, the mercenary army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania included dragoon units. In the middle of the 17th century there were 1,660 dragoons in an army totaling 8,000 men. By the 18th century there were four regiments of dragoons. Lithuanian cavalrymen served in dragoon regiments of both the Russian and Prussian armies, after the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1920 and 1924, and again between 1935 and 1940, the Lithuanian Army included the Third Dragoon Iron Wolf Regiment. The dragoons were the equivalent of the present-day Volunteer Forces. In modern Lithuania the Grand Duke Butigeidis Dragoon Battalion (Lithuanian: didžiojo kunigaikščio Butigeidžio dragūnų batalionas) is designated as dragoons, with a motorized infantry role. === Mexico === During the times of the Viceroyalty, regiments of dragoons (Dragon de cuera) were created to defend New Spain. They were mostly horsemen from the provinces. During and after the Mexican war of independence, dragons have played an important role in military conflicts within the country such as the Battle of Puebla during the French intervention, until the Mexican Revolution. One of the best-known military marches in Mexico is the Marcha Dragona (dragon march), the only one currently used by cavalry and motorized units during the parade on 16 September to commemorate Independence Day. === Norway === In the Norwegian Army during the early part of the 20th century, dragoons served in part as mounted troops, and in part on skis or bicycles (hjulryttere, meaning "wheel-riders"). Dragoons fought on horses, bicycles and skis against the German invasion in 1940. After World War II the dragoon regiments were reorganized as armoured reconnaissance units. "Dragon" is the rank of a compulsory service private cavalryman while enlisted (regular) cavalrymen have the same rank as infantrymen: "Grenader". === Pakistan === The Armoured Regiment "34 Lancers" of Pakistan Army Armoured Corps is also known as "Dragoons". === Peru === The "Mariscal Domingo Nieto" Cavalry Regiment Escort, named after Field Marshal Domingo Nieto, a former President of Peru, were the traditional Guard of the Government Palace until 5 March 1987 and its disbandment in that year. However, by Ministerial Resolution No 139-2012/DE/EP of 2 February 2012 the restoration of the Cavalry Regiment "Marshal Domingo Nieto" as the official escort of the President of the Republic of Peru was announced. The main mission of the reestablished regiment was to guarantee the security of the President of the Republic and of the Government Palace. This regiment of dragoons was created in 1904 following the suggestion of a French military mission which undertook the reorganization of the Peruvian Army in 1896. The initial title of the unit was Cavalry Squadron "President's Escort". It was modelled on the French dragoons of the period. The unit was later renamed as the Cavalry Regiment "President's Escort" before receiving its current title in 1949. The Peruvian Dragoon Guard has throughout its existence worn French-style uniforms of black tunic and red breeches in winter and white coat and red breeches in summer, with red and white plumed bronze helmets with the coat of arms of Peru and golden or red epaulettes depending on rank. They retain their original armament of lances and sabres, until the 1980s rifles were used for dismounted drill. At 13:00 hours every day, the main esplanade in front of the Government Palace of Perú fronting Lima's Main Square serves as the stage for the changing of the guard, undertaken by members of the Presidential Life Guard Escort Dragoons, mounted or dismounted. While the dismounted changing is held on Mondays and Fridays, the mounted ceremony is held twice a month on a Sunday. === Portugal === The Portuguese Army still maintains two units which are descended from former regiments of dragoons. These are the 3rd Regiment of Cavalry (the former "Olivença Dragoons") and the 6th Regiment of Cavalry (the former "Chaves Dragoons"). Both regiments are, presently, armoured units. The Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade's Armoured Reconnaissance Squadron – a unit from the 3rd Regiment of Cavalry – is known as the "Paratroopers Dragoons". During the Portuguese Colonial War in the 1960s and the 1970s, the Portuguese Army created an experimental horse platoon, to combat the guerrillas in eastern Angola. This unit was soon augmented, becoming a group of three squadrons, known as the "Angola Dragoons". The Angola Dragoons operated as mounted infantry – like the original dragoons – each soldier being armed with a pistol to fire when on horseback and with an automatic rifle, to use when dismounted. A unit of the same type was being created in Mozambique when the war ended in 1974. === Spain === The Spanish Army began the training of a dragoon corps in 1635 under the direction of Pedro de la Puente at Innsbruck. In 1640 the first dragoon "tercio" was created, equipped with arquebuses and maces. The number of dragoon tercios was increased to nine by the end of the XVII century: three garrisoned in Spain, another three in the Netherlands and the remainder in Milan. The tercios were converted into a Regimental system, beginning in 1704. Philip V created several additional dragoon regiments to perform the functions of a police corps in the New World. Notable amongst those units were the leather-clad dragones de cuera. In 1803, the dragoon regiments were renamed as "caballería ligera" (light cavalry). By 1815, these units had been disbanded. Spain recreated its dragoons in the late nineteenth century. Three Spanish dragoon regiments were still in existence in 1930. === Sweden === In the Swedish Army, dragoons comprise the Military Police and Military Police Rangers. They also form the 13th Battalion of the Life Guards, which is a military police unit. The 13th (Dragoons) Battalion have roots that go back as far as 1523, making it one of the world's oldest military units still in service. Today, the only mounted units still retained by the Swedish Army are the two dragoons squadrons of the King's Guards Battalion of the Life Guards. Horses are used for ceremonial purposes only, most often when the dragoons take part in the changing of the guards at The Royal Palace in Stockholm. "Livdragon" is the rank of a private cavalryman. === Switzerland === Uniquely, mounted dragoons continued to exist as combat units in the Swiss Armed Forces until the early 1970s, when they were converted into Armoured Grenadiers units. The "Dragoner" had to prove he was able to keep a horse at home before entering the cavalry. At the end of basic training they had to buy a horse at a reduced price from the army and to take it home together with equipment, uniform and weapon. In the "yearly repetition course" the dragoons served with their horses, often riding from home to the meeting point. The abolition of the dragoon units, believed to be the last non-ceremonial horse cavalry in Europe, was a contentious issue in Switzerland. On 5 December 1972 the Swiss National Council approved the measure by 91 votes, against 71 for retention. === United Kingdom === As of 2021, the British Army contains four regiments designated as dragoons: 1st The Queens Dragoon Guards, Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, the Royal Dragoon Guards, and the Light Dragoons. These perform a variety of reconnaissance and light support activities, including convoy protection, and operate the Jackal, the Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicle and the FV107 Scimitar light tank. === United States === The 1st and 2nd Battalion, 48th Infantry were mechanized infantry units assigned to the 3rd Armored Division (3AD) in West Germany during the Cold War. The unit crest of the 48th Infantry designated the unit as Dragoons, purely a traditional designation. The 1st Dragoons was reformed in the Vietnam War era as the 1st Squadron, 1st U.S. Cavalry. It served in the Iraq War and remains as the oldest cavalry unit, as well as the most decorated one, in the U.S. Army. Today's modern 1–1 Cavalry is a scout/attack unit, equipped with MRAPs, M3A3 Bradley CFVs, and Strykers. Another modern United States Army unit, informally known as the 2nd Dragoons, is the 2nd Cavalry Regiment. This unit was originally organized as the Second Regiment of Dragoons in 1836 and was renamed the Second Cavalry Regiment in 1861, being redesignated as the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment in 1948. The regiment is currently equipped with the Stryker family of wheeled fighting vehicles and was redesignated as the 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment in 2006. In 2011 the 2nd Dragoon regiment was redesignated as the 2nd Cavalry Regiment. The 2nd Cavalry Regiment has the distinction of being the longest continuously serving regiment in the United States Army. The 113th Army Band at Fort Knox is also officially nicknamed as "The Dragoons". This derives from its formation as the Band, First Regiment of Dragoons on 8 July 1840. Company D, 3rd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion of the United States Marine Corps, is nicknamed the "Dragoons". Their combat history includes service in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan from 2002 to 2013.	[ "George Washington", "New World", "Reiter", "Grand Duchy of Hesse", "Prince Royal of Portugal", "epaulettes", "Battle of Brandywine", "Battle of Naseby", "Seven Years' War", "internal security", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Royal Dragoon Guards", "United States Mounted Rangers", "13th Hussars", "Kingdom of Bavaria", "Operation Weserübung", "Soldado de cuera", "23rd Light Dragoons", "Montana", "tercio", "13th Parachute Dragoon Regiment", "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "3rd Armored Division (United States)", "Fort Knox", "Huguenot", "3rd The King's Own Hussars", "armoured warfare", "New Model Army", "picket (military)", "Draconarius", "Cossacks", "Mons, Belgium", "armoured regiment", "Portuguese Army", "Cold War", "5th Dragoon Regiment (France)", "Portuguese Colonial War", "Grand Duchy of Baden", "battle rifle", "Pedro II of Brazil", "5th Dragoon Guards", "11th Hussars", "Angola", "List of Portuguese monarchs", "Iraq War", "Thomas Fairfax", "Duke of Brissac", "List of Presidents of Peru", "Second Boer War", "firearm", "Innsbruck", "Partitions of Poland", "Independence Dragoons", "Peruvian Army", "Uhlan", "The Royal Canadian Dragoons", "Swiss Armed Forces", "United States Army", "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves", "airmobile", "Hobilar", "8th King's Royal Irish Hussars", "non-commissioned officer", "French Army", "conquistador", "War of 1812", "Battle of Beersheba (1917)", "Squadron (cavalry)", "21st Lancers", "President of Brazil", "Cuirassier", "Battle of Saratoga", "12th Royal Lancers", "dragoon guards", "Rio de Janeiro", "military reserve", "Sixth Coalition", "Bradley Fighting Vehicle", "Protestants", "reconnaissance", "Dragoons of Angola", "guard of honour", "Royal Scots Greys", "sword", "commissioned officer", "World War I", "3rd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion", "6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons", "Dragoons", "United States Congress", "Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma", "Pickelhaube", "Imperial Guard (Russia)", "Brasília", "Yorktown campaign", "Red coat (military uniform)", "Jean-Baptiste Debret", "Imperial Russian Army", "carbine", "culverin", "Karlsruhe", "15th The King's Hussars", "automatic rifle", "7th Dragoon Guards", "dragonnades", "Parliament of England", "Louis XIV of France", "24-hour clock", "14th King's Hussars", "Life Guards (Sweden)", "Battle of Germantown", "25th Dragoons", "18th Royal Hussars", "Louis XIV", "Napoleon", "Austrian Empire", "court martial", "United States Marine Corps", "Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicle", "pack horse", "Spanish Netherlands", "Battle of Ocana", "Kansas", "Combined arms", "Light Dragoons", "4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards", "10th Royal Hussars", "British Army", "2nd Cavalry Regiment (United States)", "Danish Army", "coat of arms of Peru", "line of communication", "Portuguese Mozambique", "Milan", "Battle of White Plains", "cavalry", "Pedro I of Brazil", "4th Queen's Own Hussars", "French intervention", "Portuguese Angola", "German Empire", "2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment", "Canadian Army", "Juan Aldama", "Edict of Fontainebleau", "Carabineros de Chile", "billeting", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Stryker", "Chaves (Portugal)", "9th Queen's Royal Lancers", "Royal Canadian Mounted Police", "Battle of Puebla", "Ernst von Mansfeld", "Government Palace (Peru)", "3rd Dragoon Guards", "Mexican Revolution", "1st King's Dragoon Guards", "Second Spanish Republic", "Endurance riding", "Angola Dragoons", "Saskatchewan Dragoons", "Kingdom of Württemberg", "Carabiniers (6th Dragoon Guards)", "17th Lancers", "Napoleonic wars", "German Army (German Empire)", "Carabinier", "Texas", "Motorized infantry", "Anonymity", "Viceroy", "Hussar", "7th Queen's Own Hussars", "lancer", "skirmish", "Mariscal Domingo Nieto Cavalry Regiment Escort", "Olivenza", "2nd Dragoon Regiment (France)", "Kingdom of Saxony", "João VI of Portugal", "22nd Dragoons", "troop", "Regiment of Light Dragoons (United States)", "Punta Arenas", "19th Royal Hussars", "MRAP", "Colorado", "Armoured warfare", "Harquebusier", "World War II", "Peninsular War", "Jackal (vehicle)", "Nevada", "blunderbuss", "County of Hainaut", "German Campaign of 1813", "Battle of Trenton", "Mexican war of independence", "wheellock", "arquebus", "Battle of Alba de Tormes", "Heckler & Koch G3", "mounted infantry", "West Germany", "squadron (cavalry)", "semi-automatic pistol", "United States Dragoons", "Swedish Army", "Napoleonic Wars", "Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)", "British Columbia Dragoons", "Dragon (firearm)", "Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "matchlock", "company (military unit)", "American Revolutionary War", "Ignacio Allende", "12th Manitoba Dragoons", "Battle of Monmouth", "motor vehicle", "National Council of Switzerland", "1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards", "Independence of Brazil", "1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)", "Brazilian imperial family", "Louis of Nassau", "falconet (cannon)", "Palácio da Alvorada", "Domingo Nieto", "Spanish Army", "Military of New Spain", "Jydske Dragonregiment", "Stahlhelm", "Gendarmerie", "cuirassier", "South Dakota", "Australian Light Horse", "bayonet", "Agustin de Iturbide", "Canadian Forces", "Norwegian Army", "North Ludlow Beamish", "Dumfries, Virginia", "hussars", "1st The Royal Dragoons", "anachronism", "Brazilian Army", "infantry", "24th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons", "2nd Regiment of Light Dragoons (United States)", "Cossack", "Act of Congress", "armour", "Mexican War of Independence", "Royal Scots Dragoon Guards", "North Dakota", "FV107 Scimitar", "cavalry tactics", "Maria Leopoldina of Austria", "2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays)", "Mace (bludgeon)", "5th Royal Irish Lancers", "Grand Duchy of Oldenburg", "16th The Queen's Lancers", "lance", "pistol", "Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces", "Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade", "John Okey", "Gustav II Adolf", "Philip V of Spain", "acquitted", "helicopter", "Battle of Cowpens", "20th Hussars", "Military Police", "sabre", "48th Infantry Regiment (United States)", "Dragonnades", "Catholicism", "New Spain", "Arizona", "Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire", "Battle of Princeton", "Howard Reid (filmmaker)", "dragon", "Gemeine", "Vietnam War" ]
8,768	Dulcimer	The term dulcimer refers to two families of musical string instruments. ==Hammered dulcimers== The word dulcimer originally referred to a trapezoidal zither similar to a psaltery whose many strings are struck by handheld "hammers". Variants of this instrument are found in many cultures, including: Hammered dulcimer (England, Scotland, United States) Hackbrett (southern Germany, Austria, Switzerland) Tsymbaly (Ukraine), tsimbl (Ashkenazi Jewish), țambal (Romania) and cimbalom (Hungary) may refer to either a relatively small folk instrument or a larger classical instrument. The santouri (Greece) (called "santur" in the Ottoman Empire) is almost identical to the Jewish and Romanian folk instruments. Santur (Iran and Iraq) Santoor (northern India and Pakistan) is constructed and tuned differently from the santur of Iran and Iraq Khim (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand) Yangqin (China), Đàn tam thập lục (Vietnam), yanggeum (Korea) ==Appalachian dulcimer and derivatives== In the Appalachian region of the U.S. in the nineteenth century, hammered dulcimers were rare. There, the word dulcimer, which was familiar from the King James Version of the Bible, was used to refer to a three or four stringed fretted instrument, generally played on the lap by strumming. Variants include: The original Appalachian dulcimer Various twentieth century derivatives, including Banjo dulcimer, with banjo-like resonating membrane Resonator dulcimer, with inset conical resonator Bowed dulcimer, teardrop-shaped and played upright with a bow Electric dulcimer, various types of dulcimer which use a pickup to amplify the sound	[ "Germany", "King James Version", "hammered dulcimer", "Electric dulcimer", "string instrument", "Resonator dulcimer", "Korea", "Hackbrett", "Appalachia", "Ashkenazi Jewish", "Appalachian dulcimer", "Banjo dulcimer", "Ukraine", "Pakistan", "Ottoman Empire", "Bible", "String instrument", "țambal", "cimbalom", "yanggeum", "List of Appalachian dulcimer players", "Cambodia", "China", "Hungary", "Iran", "psaltery", "Khim", "Santoor", "tsimbl", "Yangqin", "santouri", "Hammered dulcimer", "Vietnam", "Tsymbaly", "Austria", "Bowed dulcimer", "India", "Plucked string instrument", "Đàn tam thập lục", "Switzerland", "Thailand", "Greece", "Laos", "List of hammered dulcimer players", "Romania", "zither", "Santur", "Iraq" ]
8,769	Dutch West India Company	The Dutch West India Company () was a Dutch chartered company that was founded in 1621 and went defunct in 1792. Among its founders were Reynier Pauw, Willem Usselincx (1567–1647), and Jessé de Forest (1576–1624). On 3 June 1621, it was granted a charter for a trade monopoly in the Dutch West Indies by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and given jurisdiction over Dutch participation in the Atlantic slave trade, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America. The area where the company could operate consisted of West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope) and the Americas, which included the Pacific Ocean and ended east of the Maluku Islands, according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants. The company became instrumental in the largely ephemeral Dutch colonization of the Americas (including New Netherland) in the seventeenth century. From 1624 to 1654, in the context of the Dutch–Portuguese War, the GWC held Portuguese territory in northeast Brazil, but they were ousted from Dutch Brazil following fierce resistance. After several reversals, the GWC reorganized and a new charter was granted in 1675, largely on the strength in the Atlantic slave trade. This "new" version lasted for more than a century, until after the Fourth Anglo–Dutch War, during which it lost most of its assets. ==Origins== When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was founded in 1602, some traders in Amsterdam did not agree with its monopolistic policies. With help from Petrus Plancius, a Dutch-Flemish astronomer, cartographer, and clergyman, they sought for a northeastern or northwestern access to Asia to circumvent the VOC monopoly. In 1609, English explorer Henry Hudson, in employment of the VOC, landed on the coast of New England and sailed up what is now known as the Hudson River in his quest for the Northwest Passage to Asia. However, he failed to find a passage. Consequently, in 1615, Isaac Le Maire and Samuel Blommaert, assisted by others, focused on finding a south-westerly route around South America's Tierra del Fuego archipelago in order to circumvent the monopoly of the VOC. One of the first sailors who focused on trade with Africa was Balthazar de Moucheron. The trade with Africa offered several possibilities to set up trading posts or factories, an important starting point for negotiations. It was Blommaert, however, who stated that, in 1600, eight companies sailed on the coast of Africa, competing with each other for the supply of copper, from the Kingdom of Loango. Pieter van den Broecke was employed by one of these companies. In 1612, a Dutch fortress was built in Mouree (present day Ghana), along the Dutch Gold Coast. Trade with the Caribbean, for salt, sugar and tobacco, was hampered by Spain and delayed because of peace negotiations. Spain offered peace on condition that the Dutch Republic would withdraw from trading with Asia and America. Spain refused to sign the peace treaty if a West Indian Company would be established. At this time, the Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic was occurring. Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt offered to suspend trade with the West Indies in exchange for the Twelve Years' Truce. He took the proposal of founding a West-India Company off table. The result was that, during a few years, the Dutch sailed under a foreign flag to South America. However, ten years later, Stadtholder Maurice of Orange, proposed to continue the war with Spain, but also to distract attention from Spain to the Republic. In 1619, his opponent Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was beheaded, and when in April 1621 the truce expired, the West Indian Company could be established. The West India Company received its charter from the States-General in June 1621, granting it a 24-year monopoly on trade and colonization that included the American coast between Newfoundland and the Straits of Magellan. One of the promotors was Reynier Pauw, who went on to appoint two of his sons as the first managers in 1621; both Pieter and Michiel Reyniersz Pauw were in place for fifteen years. Reynier Pauw II, Cornelis Bicker, and Samuel Blommaert were appointed in 1622. ==Organization== The Dutch West India Company was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Like the VOC, the GWC had five offices, called chambers (kamers), in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hoorn, Middelburg and Groningen, of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company. The board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX (the Nineteen Gentlemen, as opposed to the Heeren XVII who controlled the East India company.) The institutional structure of the GWC followed the federal structure, which entailed extensive discussion for any decision, with regional representation: 8 from Amsterdam; 4 from Zeeland, 2 each from the Northern Quarter (Hoorn and Enkhuizen), the Maas (Rotterdam, Delft, and Dordrecht), the region of Groningen, and one representative from the States General. Each region had its own chamber and board of directors. The validity of the charter was set at 24 years. Only in 1623 was funding arranged, after several bidders were put under pressure. The States General of the Netherlands and the VOC pledged one million guilders in the form of capital and subsidy. Although Iberian writers said that crypto-Jews or Marranos played an important role in the formation of both the VOC and the GWC, research has shown that initially they played a minor role, but expanded during the period of the Dutch in Brazil. Emigrant Calvinists from the Spanish Netherlands did make significant investments in the GWC. Investors did not rush to put their money in the company in 1621, but the States-General urged municipalities and other institutions to invest. Explanations for the slow investment by individuals were that shareholders had "no control over the directors' policy and the handling of ordinary investors' money," that it was a "racket" to provide "cushy posts for the directors and their relatives, at the expense of ordinary shareholders". The VOC directors invested money in the GWC, without consulting their shareholders, causing dissent among a number of shareholders. In order to attract foreign shareholders, the GWC offered equal standing to foreign investors with Dutch, resulting in shareholders from France, Switzerland, and Venice. A translation of the original 1621 charter appeared in English, Orders and Articles granted by the High and Mightie Lords the States General of the United Provinces concerning the erecting of a West-Indies Companie, Anno Dom. MDCXII. by 1623, the capital for the GWC at 2.8 million florins was not as great the VOC's original capitalization of 6.5 million, but it was still a substantial sum. The GWC had 15 ships to carry trade and plied the west African coast and Brazil. Unlike the VOC, the GWC had no right to deploy military troops. When the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621 was over, the Republic had a free hand to re-wage war with Spain. A Groot Desseyn ("grand design") was devised to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa and the Americas, so as to dominate the sugar and slave trade. When this plan failed, privateering became one of the major goals within the GWC. The arming of merchant ships with guns and soldiers to defend themselves against Spanish ships was of great importance. On almost all ships in 1623, 40 to 50 soldiers were stationed, possibly to assist in the hijacking of enemy ships. It is unclear whether the first expedition was the expedition by Jacques l'Hermite to the coast of Chile, Peru and Bolivia, set up by Stadtholder Maurice with the support of the States General and the VOC. The company was initially a dismal failure, in terms of its expensive early projects, and its directors shifted emphasis from conquest of territory to pursue plunder of shipping. The most spectacular success for the GWC was Piet Heyn's seizure of the Spanish silver fleet, which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain. He had also seized a consignment of sugar from Brazil and a galleon from Honduras with cacao, indigo, and other valuable goods. Privateering was its most profitable activity in the late 1620s. Despite Heyn's success at plunder, the company's directors realized that it was not a basis to build long-term profit, leading them to renew their attempts to seize Iberian territory in the Americas. They decided their target was Brazil. (Recapture of Bahia) ===Involvement in Brazil=== There were conflicts between directors from different areas of The Netherlands, with Amsterdam less supportive of the company. Non-maritime cities, including Haarlem, Leiden, and Gouda, along with Enkhuizen and Hoorn were enthusiastic about seizing territory. They sent a fleet to Brazil, capturing Olinda and Pernambuco in 1630 in their initial foray to create a Dutch Brazil, but could not hold them due to a strong Portuguese resistance. Company ships continued privateering in the Caribbean, as well seizing vital land resources, particularly salt pans. The company's general lack of success saw their shares plummet and the Dutch and The Spanish renewed truce talks in 1633. In 1629, the GWC gave permission to a number of investors in New Netherlands to found patroonships, enabled by the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions which was ratified by the Dutch States General on 7 June 1629. The patroonships were created to help populate the colony, by providing investors grants providing land for approximately 50 people "upwards of 15 years old", per grant, mainly in the region of New Netherland. Patroon investors could expand the size of their land grants as large as 4 miles, "along the shore or along one bank of a navigable river..." Rensselaerswyck was the most successful Dutch West India Company patroonship. Other settlements were established on the Netherlands Antilles, and in South America, in Dutch Brazil, Suriname and Guyana. In Africa, posts were established on the Gold Coast (now Ghana), the Slave Coast (now Benin), and briefly in Dutch Loango-Angola. It was a neo-feudal system, where patrons were permitted considerable powers to control the overseas colony. In the Americas, fur (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African settlements traded the enslaved (mainly destined for the plantations on the Antilles and Suriname), gold, copper and ivory. ===Decline=== In North America, the settlers Albert Burgh, Samuel Blommaert, Samuel Godijn, Johannes de Laet had little success with populating the colony of New Netherland, and to defend themselves against local Amerindians. Only Kiliaen Van Rensselaer managed to maintain his settlement in the north along the Hudson. Blommaert secretly tried to secure his interests with the founding of the colony of New Sweden on behalf of Sweden on the Delaware in the south. The main focus of the GWC now went to Brazil. The West India Company managed to conquer parts of Brazil from Portugal in 1630. That same year, the colony of New Holland was founded, with a capital in Mauritsstad (present-day Recife). In the meantime, the war demanded so many of its forces that the company had to operate under a permanent threat of bankruptcy. In fact, the GWC went bankrupt in 1636 and all attempts at rehabilitation were doomed to failure. In 1636, the Dutch West India Company took possession of St. Eustatius, Sint Maarten, and Saba which all fell under Dutch control. A commander was stationed on St. Eustatius to govern all three islands by 1678. Because of the ongoing war in Brazil, the situation for the GWC in 1645, at the end of the charter, was very bad. An attempt to compensate the losses of the GWC with the profits of the VOC failed because the directors of the VOC did not want to. In 1645, the main participants in the GWC were members of the Trip family. Merging the two companies was not feasible. Amsterdam was not willing to help out, because it had too much interest in peace and healthy trade relations with Portugal. This indifferent attitude of Amsterdam was the main cause of the slow, half-hearted policy, which would eventually lead to losing the colony. In 1647, the company made a restart using 1.5 million guilders, capital of the VOC. The States General took responsibility for the warfare in Brazil. ===Restart=== Due to the Peace of Westphalia, the attacks on Spanish shipping were forbidden to the GWC. The Portuguese succeeded in the recapture of Angola. Many merchants from Amsterdam and Zeeland decided to work with marine and merchants from the Holy Roman Empire, Denmark–Norway, England and other European countries. In 1649, a competing Swedish Africa Company was founded; the GWC obtained a monopoly on gold and enslaved Africans with the kingdom of Accra (present-day Ghana). Elmina Castle was the main port. In 1654 the Dutch were thrown out of Brazil after the recapture of Recife. In 1656, the company signed the Treaty of Butre (Dutch Gold Coast). In 1659 the Danish West India Company, an undercover Dutch enterprise, was founded. (In 1660 the Royal African Company was founded, led by the Duke of York.) In 1662, the GWC obtained several asiento subcontracts with the Spanish Crown, under which the Dutch were allowed to deliver 24,000 enslaved Africans. The GWC made Curaçao a centre of the Atlantic slave trade, bringing slaves from West Africa to the island, before selling them elsewhere in the Caribbean and Spanish Main. The influence of the GWC in Africa was threatened during the Second and Third Anglo–Dutch Wars, but English efforts to displace the Dutch from the region ultimately proved unsuccessful. The first West India Company suffered a long agony, and its end in 1674 was painless. The reason that the GWC could drag on for 27 years seems to have been its valuable West African possessions, due to its slaves. ==Second West India Company== When the GWC could not repay its debts in 1674, the company was dissolved. But due to continued high demand for trade between West Africa and the Dutch colonies in the Americas (mainly slave trade), a second West India Company known as the New West India Company was chartered that same year. This new company controlled the same trade area as the first but privateering was no longer an asset. All ships, fortresses, etc. were taken over by the new company. Nobody was fired, but the number of directors was reduced from 19 to 10, and the number of governors from 74 to 50. By 1679, the new GWC had slightly more than guilders which was largely supplied by the Amsterdam Chamber. In 1687, due to the Asiento possessed by Balthasar Coymans, the company paid the highest dividend. From 1694 until 1700, the GWC waged a long conflict against the Eguafo Kingdom along the Gold Coast, present-day Ghana. The Komenda Wars drew in significant numbers of neighbouring African kingdoms and led to the replacement of the gold trade with enslaved Africans. Calabar was the largest slave trading place in Africa. Sint Eustatius (Dutch Caribbean) became the most profitable asset of the GWC and a transit point for enslaved Africans in the transatlantic slave trade. After 1734 the GWC was primarily engaged in facilitating the slave trade, and only responsible for the supply of slaves until 1738. The company then began to outsource the slave trade and left it to private enterprise, especially in Middelburg, Zeeland. In 1750 Thomas Hope was elected in the board of the company, but preferred the Heren XVII after two years; he was succeeded by Nicolaas Geelvinck in 1764. In 1773, when drinking coffee and cocoa was popular almost everywhere, the family Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck sold its property in the colony of Surinam. The GWC participated in a bigger share together with the Society of Suriname. Many planters in Surinam and the Caribbean came into financial trouble because of the mortgages (Crisis of 1772); the demand for slaves dropped. In 1775, the last slave ship entered the port of Willemstad. From 1780 on the company made losses and paid no dividend. After the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, it became apparent that the GWC was no longer capable of defending its own colonies, as Sint Eustatius, Berbice, Essequibo, Demerara, and some forts on the Dutch Gold Coast were rapidly taken by the British. In 1791 it was decided not to renew the patent to the GWC and to dissolve the company. All stocks were sold and territories previously held by the GWC came under the rule of the States General of the Netherlands. A directorate Ad-Interim took over the administration. A Council of Colonies was established as administrator over the affairs of the GWC until 1795. Around 1800 there was an attempt to create a third West India Company, but without success.	[ "Delft", "Zeeland", "List of colonial governors of the Dutch Gold Coast", "New England", "Holy Roman Empire", "Leiden", "Marranos", "Mouree", "Nieuw Holland", "Atlantic slave trade", "recapture of Angola", "nl:Trip (geslacht)", "Benin", "Henry Hudson", "Sint Eustatius", "Brosimum guianense", "Netherlands Antilles", "Dutch West Indies", "Third Anglo-Dutch War", "Haarlem", "Calvinists", "Groningen", "Grand Pensionary", "Komenda Wars", "St. Eustatius", "Calabar", "cochineal", "New Sweden", "Stadtholder", "Dutch Loango-Angola", "recapture of Recife", "Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)", "Enkhuizen", "Twelve Years' Truce", "Denmark–Norway", "Crisis of 1772", "Rensselaerswyck", "wikisource:Charter of the Dutch West India Company", "List of director generals of New Netherland", "Spanish Main", "privateering", "Dutch East India Company", "Dutch colonization of the Americas", "Republic of the Seven United Netherlands", "Jessé de Forest", "Berbice", "Fourth Anglo-Dutch War", "Hoorn", "States General of the Netherlands", "Surinam (Dutch colony)", "Johannes de Laet", "Petrus Plancius", "Noorderkwartier", "Groot Desseyn", "Middelburg, Zeeland", "Amsterdam", "Pacific Ocean", "New Holland (Acadia)", "Peace of Westphalia", "New Netherland", "feudal system", "Kiliaen van Rensselaer (merchant)", "Jan Pieter Theodoor Huydecoper", "Ghana", "Royal African Company", "List of Dutch West India Company trading posts and settlements", "monopoly", "Samuel Godijn", "Dutch Slave Coast", "patroonships", "Balthazar de Moucheron", "Jacques l'Hermite", "Michiel Reyniersz Pauw", "Fort Nassau, Ghana", "Sint Maarten", "Essequibo (colony)", "Northwest Passage", "fur", "Treaty of Tordesillas", "Treaty of Butre", "Dutch Gold Coast", "Tierra del Fuego", "Pieter van den Broecke", "Tropic of Cancer", "Albert Burgh", "Heren XVII", "Samuel Blommaert", "Elmina Castle", "Cornelis Bicker", "Chartered company", "Willem Usselincx", "Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions", "Johan van Oldenbarnevelt", "Saba (island)", "Dordrecht", "Johannes Gerard van Dillen", "Recapture of Bahia", "Maluku Islands", "Recife", "chartered company", "Factory (trading post)", "New Amsterdam", "Swedish Africa Company", "Demerara", "guilders", "Second Anglo-Dutch War", "Asiento", "Pernambuco", "crypto-Jews", "dividend", "Charles R. Boxer", "Jonathan I. Israel", "Haematoxylum campechianum", "Spanish silver fleet", "Fort Amsterdam", "Groningen (city)", "private enterprise", "Guyana", "nl:Balthasar Coymans (1652-1686)", "Thomas Hope (banker, born 1704)", "Willemstad", "Cape of Good Hope", "Gouda, South Holland", "Society of Suriname", "World Digital Library", "Accra", "Kingdom of Loango", "Curaçao", "Suriname", "Monarchy of Spain", "Rotterdam", "Mauritsstad", "Maurice of Orange", "Danish West India Company", "Charles Ralph Boxer", "Maritime hijacking", "Nicolaas Geelvinck", "Eighty Years' War", "Olinda", "James II of England", "Reynier Pauw", "Asiento de Negros", "slaves", "Isaac Le Maire", "Delaware River", "Dutch Brazil", "Dutch–Portuguese War", "transatlantic slave trade", "Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck" ]
8,771	Dyula language	{{Infobox language \| name = Dyula \| nativename = \| states = Burkina Faso, Mali, Ivory Coast \| ethnicity = Dyula \| speakers = L1: million \| date = 2012–2021 \| ref = e27 \| speakers2 = L2: million (2012–2013) At the same time, however, a process of ethnogenesis across the centuries led to some communities in modern towns like Bobo-Dioulasso, Odienné and Kong adopting the label as one of their ethnic identity. These communities speak varieties of Dyula with common traits that distinguish it from the lingua franca form of Jula that one hears in markets across much of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. Later, the term was also used for a simplified version of Bambara, which comes from Mali, mixed with elements of Maninka. It became a widely used lingua franca. Native speakers of Manding in the Ivory Coast use the pejorative term 'Tagbusikan' to refer to this simplified language, while they called their own language 'Konyakakan', 'Odiennekakan' or 'Maukakan'. The influx of millions of migrant workers from the Sahel further boostered the use of Dyula in the Ivory Coast due to the need of a lingua franca. Many Burkinabe learned Dyula while staying in the Ivory Coast and further disseminated it back home. Today, Dyula is used to at least some extent by 61% of the population of the Ivory Coast and by about 35% of the Burkinabe (mainly those living in the southern or western part of the country). ==Writing systems== === N'Ko alphabet === The N'Ko script is an indigenous writing system for the Manding language continuum, invented in 1949 by Solomana Kanté, a Guinean educator. Today, the script has been digitised as part of Unicode, which allows it to be used easily online, but the lack of funding and the official status of French means that use of this alphabet largely happens outside of formal education and is not systematically used on street signs, etc. === Latin alphabet and orthography === Dioula orthography is regulated in Burkina Faso by the Dioula Sub-Commission of the National Commission for Languages. On 15 July 1971, the National Sub-Commission for Dioula was created and on 16 July 1971, it began a study in order to set the Dioula alphabet. An alphabet was published on 27 July 1973 and gained official status on 2 February 1979. Some letters were added later, for borrowed words, and others were replaced: by , and by . In Burkina Faso, the Dioula alphabet is made up of 28 letters each representing a single phoneme. In the orthography, long vowels are represented by doubled letters; thus, /e/ is written and /eː/, . The nasalisation of a vowel is written followed by an n; for example, /ẽ/ is written . The notation of tones was recommended in 1973, but in practice they are not written. The transcription guide published in 2003 does not reiterate this recommendation. Tones are noted solely in lexicographical works. However, to avoid ambiguity, tone marking is obligatory in certain cases. For example: he/she (third person singular pronoun) you (second person plural pronoun) == Media == Dioula can be heard spoken in the 2004 film Night of Truth, directed by Fanta Régina Nacro, Burkina Faso's first female director.	[ "Night of Truth", "Mutual intelligibility", "Fricative", "Labial consonant", "second language", "Unicode", "Fanta Régina Nacro", "Bambara language", "Mandinka people", "Close vowel", "Ajami script", "language continuum", "Ivory Coast", "Guinea-Bissau", "Approximant", "Nasal consonant", "Latin script", "Solomana Kante", "Rhotic consonant", "Open-mid vowel", "N'Ko script", "Burkina Faso", "West Africa", "Mali", "Guinea", "Front vowel", "Senufo people", "Bambara people", "Close-mid vowel", "Open vowel", "Ghana", "Maninka language", "Glottal consonant", "Palatal consonant", "Plosive", "Manding languages", "first language", "Mande languages", "Alveolar consonant", "Central vowel", "Lingua franca", "Maurice Delafosse", "Back vowel", "Tone (linguistics)", "Sahel", "Dyula people", "Velar consonant", "INALCO", "Arabic script" ]
8,774	Desi Arnaz	Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha III (March 2, 1917 – December 2, 1986), known as Desi Arnaz, was a Cuban-American actor, musician, producer, and bandleader. He played Ricky Ricardo on the American television sitcom I Love Lucy, in which he co-starred with his wife Lucille Ball. Arnaz and Lucille Ball co-founded and ran the television production company Desilu Productions, originally to market I Love Lucy to television networks. After I Love Lucy ended, Arnaz went on to produce several other television series, at first with Desilu Productions, and later independently, including The Ann Sothern Show and The Untouchables. He was also the bandleader of his Latin group, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra. He was known for playing conga drums and popularized the conga line in the United States. A descendant of Cuban nobility, Arnaz was a great-great-great-grandson of José Joaquín, a mayor of Santiago de Cuba. The Cuban Revolution of 1933 forced Arnaz and his family to lose everything and flee Cuba. A mob attacked and destroyed the family's houses, property, and livestock. Arnaz narrowly escaped the attack because he was able to hop in a car driving away. His father, Alberto Arnaz, was jailed and all of his property was confiscated. He was released after six months when his father-in-law, Alberto de Acha, intervened on his behalf. (near Tampa) to improve his English. His first jobs included working at Woolworth's and cleaning canary cages in Miami. He then went into the tile business with his father before turning to show business full time. and began making a name for himself in Miami. Xavier Cugat, after seeing Arnaz perform, hired him for his touring orchestra, playing the conga drum and singing. Becoming a star attraction encouraged him to start his own band, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra. He came to the attention of Rodgers and Hart who, in 1939, cast him in their Broadway musical Too Many Girls. The show was a hit and RKO Pictures bought the movie rights. ===Military service=== On April 27, 1943, Arnaz received his draft notice. However, Arnaz was disqualified from overseas service due to hypertension and knee injuries, which caused him pain with prolonged physical exertion, according to his military physical examination. He had injured his left knee prior to his enlistment and injured his right knee soon after enlisting on May 23, 1943, during a baseball game at Camp Arlington. He completed his recruit training, but was classified for limited service in the United States Army during World War II. He was assigned to direct United Service Organization (USO) programs at the Birmingham General Army Hospital in the San Fernando Valley. It was his responsibility to keep injured soldiers entertained while they recovered in the hospital. Thanks to his Hollywood connections, Arnaz was able to bring celebrities to visit the hospital and boost morale of the soldiers. For example, upon discovering the first thing the wounded soldiers requested was a glass of cold milk, he arranged for movie starlets to meet them and pour the milk for them. Arnaz served two years, seven months and four days. His primary unit was the 9th Service Command, Army Service Forces. For his service during World War II, he was awarded the Army Good Conduct Medal, the American Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal. Arnaz was discharged as a staff sergeant on September 30, 1945. ===Career post-military=== On December 1, 1945, Arnaz formed another orchestra, which was successful in live appearances and recordings. He sang for troops in Birmingham Hospital with John Macchia and hired his childhood friend Marco Rizo to play piano and arrange for the orchestra. For the 1946–47 season, Arnaz was the bandleader, conducting his Desi Arnaz Orchestra, on Bob Hope's radio show (The Pepsodent Show) on NBC. In 1951, Arnaz was given a game show on CBS Radio, Your Tropical Trip to entice Arnaz and Ball to stay at CBS over a competing offer from NBC, and to keep Arnaz and his band employed and in Hollywood, rather than touring. The musical game show, hosted by Arnaz and featuring Arnaz's orchestra, had audience members competing for a Caribbean vacation. The program aired from January 1951 until September, shortly before the premiere of I Love Lucy in October. When he became successful in television, he kept the orchestra on his payroll, and Rizo arranged and orchestrated the music for I Love Lucy. ===I Love Lucy=== On October 15, 1951, Arnaz co-starred in the premiere of I Love Lucy, in which he played a fictionalized version of himself, Cuban orchestra leader Enrique "Ricky" Ricardo. His co-star was his real-life wife, Lucille Ball, who played Ricky's wife, Lucy. Television executives had been pursuing Ball to adapt her very popular radio series My Favorite Husband for television. Ball insisted on Arnaz playing her on-air spouse so the two would be able to spend more time together. CBS wanted Ball's Husband co-star Richard Denning. The original premise was for the couple to portray Lucy and Larry Lopez, a successful show business couple whose glamorous careers interfered with their efforts to maintain a normal marriage. Market research indicated, however, that this scenario would not be popular, so Jess Oppenheimer changed it to make Ricky Ricardo a struggling young orchestra leader and Lucy an ordinary housewife who had show business fantasies but no talent. The character name "Larry Lopez" was dropped because of a real-life bandleader named Vincent Lopez, and was replaced with "Ricky Ricardo". The name was inspired by Henry Richard, a family friend and the brother of P.C. Richard of P.C. Richard & Son. This name translates to Enrique Ricardo. Ricky often appeared at, and later owned, the Tropicana Club, which under his ownership he renamed Club Babalu. Initially, the idea of having Ball and the distinctly Latin American Arnaz portray a married couple encountered resistance as they were told that Desi's Cuban accent and Latin style would not be agreeable to American viewers. The couple overcame these objections, however, by touring together, during the summer of 1950, in a live vaudeville act they developed with the help of Spanish clown Pepito Pérez, together with Ball's radio show writers. Much of the material from their vaudeville act, including Lucy's memorable seal routine, was used in the pilot episode of I Love Lucy. Segments of the pilot were recreated in the sixth episode of the show's first season. During his time on the show, Arnaz and Ball became TV's most successful entrepreneurs. === Desilu Productions === With Ball, Arnaz founded Desilu Productions in 1950, initially to produce the vaudeville-style touring act that led to I Love Lucy. At that time, most television programs were broadcast live, and as the largest markets were in New York, the rest of the country received only kinescope images. Karl Freund, Arnaz's cameraman, and even Arnaz himself have been credited with the development of the multiple-camera setup production style using adjacent sets in front of a live audience that became the standard for subsequent situation comedies. The use of film enabled every station around the country to broadcast high-quality images of the show. Arnaz was told that it would be impossible to allow an audience onto a sound stage, but he worked with Freund to design a set that would accommodate an audience, allow filming, and adhere to fire and safety codes. Due to the expense of 35mm film, Arnaz and Ball agreed to salary cuts. In return, they retained the rights to the films. This was the basis for their invention of re-runs and syndicating TV shows (a huge source of new revenue). In addition to I Love Lucy, he executive produced The Ann Sothern Show and Those Whiting Girls (starring Margaret Whiting and Barbara Whiting), and was involved in several other series such as The Untouchables, Whirlybirds, and Sheriff of Cochise / United States Marshal. While he was producing The Untouchables, Arnaz was allegedly the target of a mafia murder plot, which was later called off, due to the show's negative publicity of gangsters. These allegations were made in the 1980s by Jimmy Fratianno in his book, The Last Mafioso, although they were rejected by Arnaz. He also produced the feature film Forever, Darling (1956), in which he and Ball starred. The original Desilu company continued long after Arnaz's divorce from Ball and her subsequent marriage to Gary Morton. Desilu continued to produce its own programs in addition to providing facilities to other producers. In 1962, Arnaz sold his share of Desilu to Ball and formed his own production company after their divorce. With the newly formed Desi Arnaz Productions, he made The Mothers-In-Law (at Desilu) for United Artists Television and NBC. This sitcom ran for two seasons from 1967 to 1969. During its two-year run, Arnaz made four guest appearances as a Spanish matador, Señor Delgado. Arnaz's company was succeeded-in-interest by the company now known as Desilu, Too. Desilu, Too and Lucille Ball Productions worked hand-in-hand with MPI Home Video in the home video reissues of the Ball/Arnaz material not owned by CBS (successor-in-interest to Paramount Television, which in turn succeeded the original Desilu company). This material included Here's Lucy and The Mothers-In-Law, as well as many programs and specials Ball and Arnaz made independently of each other. ===Later career=== In the 1970s, Arnaz co-hosted a week of shows with daytime host and producer Mike Douglas. Vivian Vance appeared as a guest. Arnaz also headlined a Kraft Music Hall special on NBC that featured his two children, with a brief appearance by Vance. Arnaz suffered a severe attack of diverticulitis in 1971, which required an operation and several years of recovery. He worked with Universal Studios for two years working on development deals for two shows that eventually fell through, Dr. Domingo (the character did appear on one episode of Ironside) and Chairman of the Board starring Elke Sommer. Arnaz moved on to work on his autobiography for two years. To promote his autobiography, A Book, on February 21, 1976, Arnaz served as a guest host on Saturday Night Live, with his son, Desi, Jr., also appearing. The program contained spoofs of I Love Lucy and The Untouchables. In 1976, CBS paid tribute to Lucille Ball with the two-hour special CBS Salutes Lucy: The First 25 Years. Both Ball and Arnaz appeared on the screen for the special, which is the first time they appeared together in 16 years since their divorce. When asked about returning to television in a 1976 newspaper article, Arnaz said, "People ask me to go back on TV but the thin' is, it's too tough competing with the Ricky Ricardo of 20 years ago. He looks a lot better than I do." Arnaz made a guest appearance on the TV series Alice, in 1978 starring Linda Lavin and produced by I Love Lucy co-creators Madelyn Pugh (Madelyn Davis) and Bob Carroll, Jr. His last acting role was as Mayor Leon Quiñones in the 1982 film, The Escape Artist. Arnaz owned the in Palm Desert, CA. He also taught classes at San Diego State University in studio production and acting for television. ==Personal life== === Beliefs === Arnaz and Ball decided that I Love Lucy would maintain what Arnaz termed "basic good taste" and were therefore determined to avoid ethnic jokes, as well as humor based on physical handicaps or mental disabilities. Arnaz recalled that the only exception consisted of making fun of Ricky Ricardo's accent; even these jokes worked only when Lucy, as his wife, did the mimicking. ===Politics=== A lifelong Republican, Arnaz was deeply patriotic about the United States. In his memoirs, he wrote that he knew of no other country in the world where "a sixteen-year-old kid, broke and unable to speak the language" could achieve the successes that he had. Nixon appointed Arnaz as the U.S. roving ambassador to Latin America in the early 1970s. He was a supporter of Ronald Reagan and spoke at campaign rallies, such as one hosted by the National Republican Hispanic Assembly in 1980. He was an advocate for the Hispanic community, encouraging them to take the 1980 census to increase federal funding for their communities. === Marriages === Arnaz and Lucille Ball were married on November 30, 1940. Their marriage was always turbulent. Convinced that Arnaz was being unfaithful to her, along with him coming home drunk several times, Ball filed for divorce in September 1944. The interlocutory decree became final in October 1944, but because they had spent the night together the day before, California state law at the time had declared it null and void. Arnaz and Ball subsequently had two children, actors Lucie Arnaz (born 1951) and Desi Arnaz Jr. (born 1953). Hollywood procurer of prostitutes Scotty Bowers claimed in his memoir Full Service that he had procured as many as two to three prostitutes per week for Arnaz, each of whom was paid 200 dollars, as opposed to the usual 20. Lucille Ball confronted Bowers about this and publicly slapped him in the face, yelling "You! Stop pimping for my husband!" Arnaz's marriage with Ball began to collapse under the strain of his growing problems with alcohol, gambling, and infidelity. According to his memoir, the combined pressures of managing the production company, as well as supervising its day-to-day operations, had greatly worsened as the company grew much larger, and he felt compelled to seek outlets to alleviate the stress. Arnaz also suffered from diverticulitis. Ball divorced him on March 2, 1960, which was coincidentally his birthday. When Ball returned to weekly television, she and Arnaz worked out an agreement regarding Desilu, wherein she bought him out. Edith Mack Hirsch (née McSkimming) was Arnaz's second wife. The two were married for 22 years until Edith died from cancer on March 23, 1985. Although Arnaz and Ball both married other spouses after their divorce in 1960, they remained friends and grew closer in his final decade. For Lucy's appearance at the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986, Arnaz had written a statement. Read by Robert Stack as a posthumous statement, Arnaz wrote, "P.S. I Love Lucy was never just a title." Family home video later aired on television showed Ball and Arnaz playing together with their grandson Simon shortly before Arnaz's death. === Health === Arnaz suffered from knee injuries as a young man shortly before and during his military service in World War II. The pain was troublesome enough that he was disqualified from serving overseas. In the late 1960s, he was seriously injured in an accident when the floor in his home in Baja California collapsed and he was impaled by a tree stump. An operation saved his life, although his health was never the same after the incident. Throughout his life he periodically had to seek medical treatment for diverticulitis and intestinal issues, sometimes requiring hospitalization. After his second wife Edith's death in 1985, Arnaz was persuaded by his children to seek treatment for his decades-long alcohol addiction, which by then had seriously damaged his health. Lucie Arnaz described her pride at attending a treatment meeting with her father where he stood up and said "I'm Desi, and I'm an alcoholic". === Arrests === Arnaz had a few run-ins with the law. He was arrested in 1959 on an intoxication charge while he was walking Hollywood Blvd. In 1966, he was arrested and charged with assault with a deadly weapon after an altercation with youth parking in front of his house. Two young men were allegedly partying nearby and harassing his then-15-year-old daughter Lucie and her friend. Arnaz confronted them, threatened to shoot their tires and cars, and then fired two shots that went into the ground. He spent three hours at the San Diego jail and was released on $1,100 bail. ==Later life== Desi Arnaz spent his retirement doing activities he enjoyed including sailing his yacht (he was a skilled yachtsman since childhood), fishing, and cooking Cuban dishes. He suffered from numerous health issues later in life. He contributed to charitable and nonprofit organizations, including San Diego State University. He was active in politics and made occasional public appearances. He was the guest of honor at the Carnival Miami in March 1982 where he performed with his children, Lucie and Desi Jr., in front of a crowd of 35,000. ==Death== Arnaz was a regular smoker for much of his life and often smoked cigarettes on the set of I Love Lucy. He smoked cigars until he was in his sixties. Arnaz was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1986 and underwent treatment. Lucille Ball visited him during this time in the hospital and the two watched VHS tapes of I Love Lucy. According to Lucie, her mother simply said "I love you. I love you. Desi, I love you," repeating the words over the phone. Lucie hadn't realized the solemnity of this last time, not until she checked her diary to notice the date had been the 46th anniversary of Ball and Arnaz's wedding. His death came just five days before Lucille Ball received the Kennedy Center Honors. His mother outlived him by almost two years. ==Legacy== Desi Arnaz has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6301 Hollywood Boulevard for contributions to motion pictures and one at 6250 Hollywood Boulevard for television. Unlike his co-stars, Arnaz was never nominated for an Emmy for his performance in I Love Lucy; however, as executive producer of the series, he was nominated four times in the Best Situation Comedy category, winning twice. In 1956, he won a Golden Globe for Best Television Achievement for helping to shape the American Comedy through his contributions in front of and behind the camera of I Love Lucy. He was inducted into the Television Academy's Hall of Fame. The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center museum is in Jamestown, New York, and the Desi Arnaz Bandshell in the Lucille Ball Memorial Park is in Celoron, New York. Desi Arnaz appears as a character in Oscar Hijuelos's 1989 novel The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love and is portrayed by his son, Desi Arnaz Jr., in the 1992 film adaptation, The Mambo Kings. Maurice Benard portrayed Desi Arnaz in the 1991 television film Lucy & Desi: Before the Laughter. In the 2003 television film Lucy, Desi Arnaz was portrayed by Danny Pino. Arnaz was portrayed by Oscar Nuñez in I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, a comedy about how Arnaz and Ball battled to get their sitcom on the air. It had its world premiere in Los Angeles on July 12, 2018, co-starring Sarah Drew as Lucille Ball and Seamus Dever as I Love Lucy creator-producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer. The play, written by Jess Oppenheimer's son, Gregg Oppenheimer, was recorded in front of a live audience for nationwide public radio broadcast and online distribution. BBC Radio 4 broadcast a serialized version of the play in the UK in August 2020, as LUCY LOVES DESI: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, starring Wilmer Valderrama as Arnaz and co-starring Anne Heche as Lucille Ball. On March 2, 2019, Google celebrated what would have been Arnaz's 102nd birthday with a Google Doodle. Javier Bardem portrayed Arnaz in the 2021 biographical film Being the Ricardos written and directed by Aaron Sorkin and produced by Amazon Studios, alongside Nicole Kidman as Ball. He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor. ==Filmography== ===As actor=== 1940: Too Many Girls .... Manuelito Lynch 1941: Father Takes a Wife .... Carlos Bardez 1942: Four Jacks and a Jill .... Steve Sarto / King Stephan VIII of Aregal 1942: The Navy Comes Through .... Pat Tarriba 1943: Bataan .... Felix Ramirez 1946: Cuban Pete .... Himself 1947: Jitterumba (Short) .... Band Leader 1949: Holiday in Havana .... Carlos Estrada 1951: I Love Lucy (181 episodes, 1951–1957) .... Ricky Ricardo 1952: What's My Line .... Himself (Guest) 1953: I Love Lucy: The Movie .... Ricky Ricardo / Himself 1954: The Long, Long Trailer .... Nicholas 'Nicky' Collini 1955: What's My Line .... Himself (Guest) with Lucille Ball 1956: Lucy's Really Lost Moments .... Ricky Ricardo 1956: I Love Lucy Christmas Show (TV Series) .... Ricky Ricardo 1956: Forever, Darling .... Lorenzo Xavier Vega 1957: The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour (13 episodes, 1957–1960) .... Ricky Ricardo 1958: Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse (5 episodes, 1958–1960) .... Ricky Ricardo 1959: Make Room for Daddy (1 episode, 1959) .... Ricky Ricardo 1959: Sunday Showcase (1 episode, 1959) .... Ricky Ricardo 1961: The Red Skelton Show (1 episode, 1961) .... Guest / Himself 1967: The Mothers-in-Law (4 episodes, 1967–1968) .... Raphael del Gado 1970: Kraft Music Hall (1 episode, 1970) .... Host 1970: The Virginian (repackaged as "The Men From Shiloh") (1 episode, 1970) .... El Jefe 1974: Ironside (1 episode "Riddle at 24000" season 7 episode 23, 1974) .... Dr. Juan Domingo 1976: Saturday Night Live (February 21, as host and musical guest) 1976: CBS Salutes Lucy: The First 25 Years (TV Special) .... Himself 1978: Alice (1 episode, 1978) .... Paco 1982: The Escape Artist .... Mayor Leon Quiñones (final film role) ===As producer=== 1952: I Love Lucy (executive producer) (131 episodes, 1952–1956) (producer) 1955: Those Whiting Girls TV series (executive producer) (unknown episodes) 1956: Forever, Darling (producer) 1956: I Love Lucy Christmas Show (TV) (producer) 1957: The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour (executive producer) (13 episodes, 1957–1960) 1958: The Fountain of Youth (TV) (executive producer) 1958: The Texan TV series (executive producer) (unknown episodes) 1958: The Ann Sothern Show (executive producer) (93 episodes, 1958–1961) 1960: New Comedy Showcase TV series (executive producer) 1961: The Untouchables (executive producer) (3 episodes, 1961–1962) 1962: The Lucy Show (executive producer) (15 episodes, 1962–1963) 1967: The Mothers-In-Law (executive producer) (56 episodes, 1967–1969) 1968: Land's End TV pilot (producer) ===As writer=== 1959: Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse (1 episode, 1959) – Ballad for a Bad Man (1959) TV episode (writer) 1968: Land's End TV pilot (creator) ===As director=== 1959: Sunday Showcase (1 episode, 1959) 1959: The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour (3 episodes, 1959–1960) 1966: The Carol Channing Show (TV) 1967: The Mothers-In-Law (24 episodes, 1967–1968) ===Soundtracks=== 1940: Too Many Girls (performer: "Spic 'n' Spanish", "You're Nearer", "Conga") ("'Cause We Got Cake") 1941: Father Takes a Wife ("Perfidia" (1939), "Mi amor" (1941)) 1942: Four Jacks and a Jill ("Boogie Woogie Conga" 1941) 1946: Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra (performer: "Guadalajara", "Babalu (Babalú)", "Tabu (Tabú)", "Pin Marin") ... a.k.a. "Melody Masters: Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra" – USA (series title) 1949: Holiday in Havana (writer: "Holiday In Havana", "The Arnaz Jam") 1956: Forever, Darling (performer: "Forever, Darling" (reprise)) 1952: I Love Lucy (3 episodes, 1952–1956) ... a.k.a. "Lucy in Connecticut" – USA (rerun title) ... a.k.a. "The Sunday Lucy Show" – USA (rerun title) ... a.k.a. "The Top Ten Lucy Show" – USA (rerun title) – Lucy and Bob Hope (1956) TV episode (performer: "Nobody Loves the Ump" (uncredited)) – Ricky's European Booking (1955) TV episode (performer: "Forever, Darling" (uncredited)) – Cuban Pals (1952) TV episode (performer: "The Lady in Red", "Similau") 1958: The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour (1 episode, 1958) ... a.k.a. "We Love Lucy" – USA (syndication title) – Lucy Wins a Race Horse (1958) TV episode (performer: "The Bayamo") 2001: I Love Lucy's 50th Anniversary Special (TV) (performer: "California, Here I Come", "Babalu (Babalú)") ... a.k.a. "The I Love Lucy 50th Anniversary Special" – USA (DVD title)	[ "Cuban Pete (film)", "Bacardi", "Desilu Productions", "The Pepsodent Show", "Rodgers and Hart", "CBS Salutes Lucy: The First 25 Years", "RKO Pictures", "Gary Morton", "Cuban Pete (song)", "The Texan (TV series)", "CBS", "United Artists Television", "Being the Ricardos", "Cuban Revolution of 1933", "Jabberwocky", "Vivian Vance", "The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love", "The Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Thoroughbred", "Lucy (2003 film)", "Encyclopedia of Popular Music", "situation comedies", "The Long, Long Trailer", "rerun", "Republican Party (United States)", "conga line", "Oscar Hijuelos", "The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour", "Google Doodle", "Desilu", "CBS Radio", "Del Mar, California", "Saturday Night Live", "Army Good Conduct Medal", "The Phoenix (newspaper)", "Los Angeles Times", "Mike Douglas", "Richard Denning", "Babalú", "Ricky Ricardo", "Mexico", "Jamestown, New York", "Too Many Girls (film)", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Saturday Night Live season 1", "Sunday Showcase", "United States Army", "Nicole Kidman", "Linda Lavin", "Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center", "MPI Home Video", "What's My Line", "Paramount Television", "Lewis Carroll", "Bataan (film)", "Deadline Hollywood", "United Press International", "Army Service Forces", "sound stage", "Tampa", "Virgin Books", "United States Republican Party", "vaudeville", "Barbara Whiting", "Louis Armstrong", "F. W. Woolworth Company", "Marco Rizo", "Similau", "Broadcast syndication", "Melody Master", "ethnic joke", "Alice (American TV series)", "Wilmer Valderrama", "Aaron Sorkin", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Bob Hope", "World War II Victory Medal", "Karl Freund", "Those Whiting Girls", "Holiday in Havana", "BBC Radio 4", "Saint Leo University", "Jimmy Fratianno", "Scotty Bowers", "Full Service (book)", "Cuban nobility", "San Fernando Valley", "The Fountain of Youth", "Javier Bardem", "Museum of Broadcast Communications", "The Ann Sothern Show", "diverticulitis", "The Mothers-in-Law", "Conscription in the United States", "Lucie Arnaz", "American Campaign Medal", "Corona, California", "Miami University", "Whirlybirds", "Desiderio Alberto Arnaz II", "The Mothers-In-Law", "Gustavo Pérez Firmat", "Father Takes a Wife", "Danny Pino", "Margaret Whiting", "Four Jacks and a Jill (film)", "Catholic", "Kraft Music Hall (TV series)", "Bosley Crowther", "The Virginian (TV series)", "Lucille Ball", "Madelyn Pugh", "I Love Lucy: The Movie", "Too Many Girls (musical)", "The Red Skelton Show", "Jess Oppenheimer", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series", "The Navy Comes Through", "I Love Lucy", "Robert Stack", "Ironside (1967 TV series)", "Four Jacks and a Jill", "horse-breeding", "Celoron, New York", "Cuban House of Representatives", "kinescope", "Here's Lucy", "Elke Sommer", "Library of Congress", "Sarah Drew", "List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars", "Anne Heche", "Broadway theatre", "Kraft Music Hall", "Camp Arlington", "The Untouchables (1959 TV series)", "World War II", "13th Golden Globe Awards", "Seamus Dever", "Birmingham General Army Hospital", "Desi Arnaz Jr.", "Associated Press", "TV Guide", "The Lady in Red (Allie Wrubel song)", "Amazon Studios", "The Escape Artist (film)", "Del Mar Racetrack", "Academy of Television Arts & Sciences", "Hollywood, Los Angeles", "Staff Sergeant", "Golden Globe", "P.C. Richard & Son", "multiple-camera setup", "Xavier Cugat", "San Diego State University", "Turner Classic Movies", "Academy Award for Best Actor", "The Mambo Kings", "United Service Organization", "Lucy & Desi: Before the Laughter", "The Lucy Show", "Desi Arnaz Stakes", "Oscar Nuñez", "The Pittsburgh Press", "Al Capone", "The New York Times", "My Favorite Husband", "Kennedy Center Honors", "Maurice Benard", "Robert Taylor (American actor)", "Kathleen Brady (historian)", "List of Cuban Americans", "Santiago de Cuba", "NBC", "Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse", "Bob Carroll, Jr.", "Forever, Darling", "Make Room for Daddy" ]
8,777	DNA virus	A DNA virus is a virus that has a genome made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that is replicated by a DNA polymerase. They can be divided between those that have two strands of DNA in their genome, called double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, and those that have one strand of DNA in their genome, called single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. dsDNA viruses primarily belong to two realms: Duplodnaviria and Varidnaviria, and ssDNA viruses are almost exclusively assigned to the realm Monodnaviria, which also includes some dsDNA viruses. Additionally, many DNA viruses are unassigned to higher taxa. Reverse transcribing viruses, which have a DNA genome that is replicated through an RNA intermediate by a reverse transcriptase, are classified into the kingdom Pararnavirae in the realm Riboviria. DNA viruses are ubiquitous worldwide, especially in marine environments where they form an important part of marine ecosystems, and infect both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They appear to have multiple origins, as viruses in Monodnaviria appear to have emerged from archaeal and bacterial plasmids on multiple occasions, though the origins of Duplodnaviria and Varidnaviria are less clear. Prominent disease-causing DNA viruses include herpesviruses, papillomaviruses, and poxviruses. ==Baltimore classification== The Baltimore classification system is used to group viruses together based on their manner of messenger RNA (mRNA) synthesis and is often used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. DNA viruses constitute two Baltimore groups: Group I: double-stranded DNA viruses, and Group II: single-stranded DNA viruses. While Baltimore classification is chiefly based on transcription of mRNA, viruses in each Baltimore group also typically share their manner of replication. Viruses in a Baltimore group do not necessarily share genetic relation or morphology. ===Double-stranded DNA viruses=== The first Baltimore group of DNA viruses are those that have a double-stranded DNA genome. All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process. First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the site where transcription begins, allowing for the recruitment of a host RNA polymerase. Second, once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands. Third, the RNA polymerase terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site. dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome. Bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions of each other, is widely used. A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around the circular genome is also common. Some dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the prior synthesized strand, forming a dsDNA genome. Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition whereby a viral genome in a host cell's DNA is replicated to another part of a host genome. dsDNA viruses can be subdivided between those that replicate in the cell nucleus, and as such are relatively dependent on host cell machinery for transcription and replication, and those that replicate in the cytoplasm, in which case they have evolved or acquired their own means of executing transcription and replication. dsDNA viruses are also commonly divided between tailed dsDNA viruses, referring to members of the realm Duplodnaviria, usually the tailed bacteriophages of the order Caudovirales, and tailless or non-tailed dsDNA viruses of the realm Varidnaviria. ===Single-stranded DNA viruses=== The second Baltimore group of DNA viruses are those that have a single-stranded DNA genome. ssDNA viruses have the same manner of transcription as dsDNA viruses. However, because the genome is single-stranded, it is first made into a double-stranded form by a DNA polymerase upon entering a host cell. mRNA is then synthesized from the double-stranded form. The double-stranded form of ssDNA viruses may be produced either directly after entry into a cell or as a consequence of replication of the viral genome. Eukaryotic ssDNA viruses are replicated in the nucleus. Most ssDNA viruses contain circular genomes that are replicated via rolling circle replication (RCR). ssDNA RCR is initiated by an endonuclease that bonds to and cleaves the positive strand, allowing a DNA polymerase to use the negative strand as a template for replication. Replication progresses in a loop around the genome by means of extending the 3'-end of the positive strand, displacing the prior positive strand, and the endonuclease cleaves the positive strand again to create a standalone genome that is ligated into a circular loop. The new ssDNA may be packaged into virions or replicated by a DNA polymerase to form a double-stranded form for transcription or continuation of the replication cycle. Parvoviruses contain linear ssDNA genomes that are replicated via rolling hairpin replication (RHR), which is similar to RCR. Parvovirus genomes have hairpin loops at each end of the genome that repeatedly unfold and refold during replication to change the direction of DNA synthesis to move back and forth along the genome, producing numerous copies of the genome in a continuous process. Individual genomes are then excised from this molecule by the viral endonuclease. For parvoviruses, either the positive or negative sense strand may be packaged into capsids, varying from virus to virus. Nearly all ssDNA viruses have positive sense genomes, but a few exceptions and peculiarities exist. The family Anelloviridae is the only ssDNA family whose members have negative sense genomes, which are circular. ==ICTV classification== The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) oversees virus taxonomy and organizes viruses at the basal level at the rank of realm. Virus realms correspond to the rank of domain used for cellular life but differ in that viruses within a realm do not necessarily share common ancestry, nor do the realms share common ancestry with each other. As such, each virus realm represents at least one instance of viruses coming into existence. Within each realm, viruses are grouped together based on shared characteristics that are highly conserved over time. Three DNA virus realms are recognized: Duplodnaviria, Monodnaviria, and Varidnaviria. ===Duplodnaviria=== Duplodnaviria contains dsDNA viruses that encode a major capsid protein (MCP) that has the HK97 fold. Viruses in the realm also share a number of other characteristics involving the capsid and capsid assembly, including an icosahedral capsid shape and a terminase enzyme that packages viral DNA into the capsid during assembly. Two groups of viruses are included in the realm: tailed bacteriophages, which infect prokaryotes and are assigned to the order Caudovirales, and herpesviruses, which infect animals and are assigned to the order Herpesvirales. The relation between caudoviruses and herpesviruses is also uncertain: they may share a common ancestor or herpesviruses may be a divergent clade from the realm Caudovirales. A common trait among duplodnaviruses is that they cause latent infections without replication while still being able to replicate in the future. Tailed bacteriophages are ubiquitous worldwide, important in marine ecology, and the subject of much research. Herpesviruses are known to cause a variety of epithelial diseases, including herpes simplex, chickenpox and shingles, and Kaposi's sarcoma. ===Monodnaviria=== Monodnaviria contains ssDNA viruses that encode an endonuclease of the HUH superfamily that initiates rolling circle replication and all other viruses descended from such viruses. The prototypical members of the realm are called CRESS-DNA viruses and have circular ssDNA genomes. ssDNA viruses with linear genomes are descended from them, and in turn some dsDNA viruses with circular genomes are descended from linear ssDNA viruses. CRESS-DNA viruses include three kingdoms that infect prokaryotes: Loebvirae, Sangervirae, and Trapavirae. The kingdom Shotokuvirae contains eukaryotic CRESS-DNA viruses and the atypical members of Monodnaviria. and geminiviruses, which infect many economically important crops. ===Varidnaviria=== Varidnaviria contains DNA viruses that encode MCPs that have a jelly roll fold folded structure in which the jelly roll (JR) fold is perpendicular to the surface of the viral capsid. Many members also share a variety of other characteristics, including a minor capsid protein that has a single JR fold, an ATPase that packages the genome during capsid assembly, and a common DNA polymerase. Two kingdoms are recognized: Helvetiavirae, whose members have MCPs with a single vertical JR fold, and Bamfordvirae, whose members have MCPs with two vertical JR folds. Most identified eukaryotic DNA viruses belong to the realm. Notable disease-causing viruses in Varidnaviria include adenoviruses, poxviruses, and the African swine fever virus. Poxviruses have been highly prominent in the history of modern medicine, especially Variola virus, which caused smallpox. Many varidnaviruses can become endogenized in their host's genome; a peculiar example are virophages, which after infecting a host, can protect the host against giant viruses. All viruses in Varidnaviria are dsDNA viruses. The following taxa that are unassigned to a realm exclusively contain dsDNA viruses: Orders: Ligamenvirales Families: Ampullaviridae, Baculoviridae, Bicaudaviridae, Clavaviridae, Fuselloviridae, Globuloviridae, Guttaviridae, Halspiviridae, Hytrosaviridae, Nimaviridae, Nudiviridae, Ovaliviridae, Plasmaviridae, Polydnaviridae, Portogloboviridae, Thaspiviridae, Tristromaviridae Genera: Dinodnavirus, Rhizidiovirus ssDNA viruses are classified into one realm and include several families that are unassigned to a realm: In Monodnaviria, all members except viruses in Papovaviricetes are ssDNA viruses. The unassigned families Anelloviridae and Spiraviridae are ssDNA virus families. Viruses in the family Finnlakeviridae contain ssDNA genomes. Finnlakeviridae is unassigned to a realm but is a proposed member of Varidnaviria.	[ "Ligation (molecular biology)", "Riboviria", "prokaryote", "Realm (virology)", "messenger RNA", "Anelloviridae", "Thaspiviridae", "Dinodnavirus", "common ancestry", "replicative transposition", "Polydnaviridae", "Ligamenvirales", "polyadenylation", "shingles", "chickenpox", "Rhizidiovirus", "Shotokuvirae", "Portogloboviridae", "cytoplasm", "Caudovirales", "Finnlakeviridae", "virophage", "Monodnaviria", "geminivirus", "Clavaviridae", "Tristromaviridae", "last universal common ancestor", "Bidensovirus", "rolling circle replication", "Plasmaviridae", "African swine fever virus", "adenovirus", "Cupin superfamily", "Sangervirae", "Baculoviridae", "reverse transcriptase", "nucleoplasmin", "genome", "Parvovirus", "encapsulin", "Herpesvirales", "Spiraviridae", "highly conserved", "Bicaudaviridae", "Sense (molecular biology)", "Poxviridae", "giant virus", "plasmid", "Fusion gene", "Papovaviricetes", "Hytrosaviridae", "endonuclease", "transcription preinitiation complex", "Varidnaviria", "RNA polymerase", "Transcription (biology)", "Kaposi's sarcoma", "virus", "International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses", "rolling hairpin replication", "poxvirus", "DNA polymerase", "smallpox", "Ampullaviridae", "Helvetiavirae", "Halspiviridae", "Bamfordvirae", "Nudiviridae", "Globuloviridae", "Ovaliviridae", "Fuselloviridae", "Nimaviridae", "Pararnavirae", "deoxyribonucleic acid", "Papillomaviridae", "Baltimore classification", "Guttaviridae", "jelly roll fold", "herpes simplex", "Trapavirae", "Duplodnaviria", "papillomavirus", "Domain (biology)", "eukaryote", "cell nucleus", "polyomavirus", "Pseudoalteromonas virus PM2", "Stem-loop", "Loebvirae" ]
8,778	Daniel Ortega	José Daniel Ortega Saavedra (; ; born 11 November 1945) is a Nicaraguan politician and dictator who has been the co-president of Nicaragua since 18 February 2025, alongside his wife Rosario Murillo. He was the 54th and 58th president of Nicaragua from 1985 to 1990 and from 2007 to 2025. He previously led Nicaragua as the first Coordinator of the Junta of National Reconstruction from 1979 to 1985. Ortega came to prominence with the overthrow and exile of US-backed dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979 during the Nicaraguan Revolution. As a leader in the Sandinista National Liberation Front (, FSLN) Ortega became leader of the ruling Junta of National Reconstruction. A Marxist–Leninist, Ortega pursued a program of nationalization, land reform, wealth redistribution, and literacy programs during his first period in office. Ortega's government was responsible for the forced displacement of 10,000 indigenous people. In 1984, Ortega won Nicaragua's first ever free and fair presidential election with over 60% of the vote as the FSLN's candidate. During his first term, he implemented policies to achieve leftist reforms across Nicaragua. Throughout the 1980s, Ortega's government faced a rebellion by US-backed rebels, known as the Contras. After a presidency marred by conflict and economic collapse, Ortega was defeated in the 1990 Nicaraguan general election by Violeta Chamorro. Ortega was an unsuccessful presidential candidate in 1996 and 2001 but won the 2006 Nicaraguan general election. In office, he allied with fellow Latin American socialists. In contrast to his previous political career, his second administration abandoned most of his earlier leftist principles, alienating many of his former revolutionary allies, alongside the students and business leaders he also alienated. Under his tenure, Nicaragua has experienced democratic backsliding. In June 2018, organizations such as Amnesty International and the Organization of American States reported that Ortega had engaged in a violent oppression campaign against anti-government protests. The violent crackdown and subsequent constriction of civil liberties have led to waves of emigration to neighboring Costa Rica, with more than 30,000 Nicaraguans filing for asylum in that country. His government jailed many potential rival candidates in the 2021 Nicaraguan general election, including Cristiana Chamorro Barrios. Ortega's government also imprisoned other opponents, such as former allies Dora María Téllez and Hugo Torres Jiménez. In August 2021, Nicaragua cancelled the operating permits of six US and European NGOs. Many critics of the Ortega government, including opposition leaders, journalists and members of civil society, fled the country in mid-2021. In his fourth term, Ortega ordered the closure of several NGOs, universities, and newspapers, and resumed his repression of the Catholic Church after a brief rapprochement, imprisoning prelate Rolando José Álvarez Lagos. ==Early life== ===Early childhood=== Ortega was born in La Libertad in Chontales Department, Nicaragua, into a working-class family. His parents, Daniel Ortega Cerda and Lidia Saavedra, were opposed to the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. Ortega's mother was imprisoned by Somoza's National Guard for being in possession of "love letters", which police said were coded political missives. Ortega and his two brothers grew up to become revolutionaries. His late brother Humberto Ortega was a former general, military leader, and published writer, and the third brother Camilo Ortega died fighting the Somoza regime in 1978. They had a sister, Germania, who died. === Juigalpa and Managua=== Seeking stable employment, the family migrated from La Libertad to the provincial capital of Juigalpa, and then to a middle-class neighborhood in Managua. In Managua, Ortega and his brother studied at the upper-middle class high school, the LaSalle Institute, where Ortega was classmates with Arnoldo Aleman, who would go on to be mayor of Managua (1990–1995) and later President of Nicaragua (1997–2002). Ortega's father Daniel Ortega Cedra detested US military intervention in Nicaragua and Washington's support for the Somoza government. He imparted this anti-American sentiment to his sons. === Early political activity=== From an early age, Ortega opposed Nicaragua's president Anastasio Somoza Debayle, and became involved in the underground movement against his government. Ortega and his brother Humberto formed the Insurrectionist, or Tercerista (Third Way) faction, culminating in the Nicaraguan Revolution. After the overthrow and exile of Somoza Debayle's government, Ortega became leader of the ruling multi-partisan Junta of National Reconstruction. Ortega was first arrested for political activities at the age of 15, and quickly joined the then-underground Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) in 1963. In 1964, Ortega travelled to Guatemala, where the police arrested him and turned him over to the Nicaraguan National Guard. After his release from detainment, Ortega arranged the assassination of his torturer, Guardsman Gonzalo Lacayo, in August 1967. === Imprisonment=== He was imprisoned in 1967 for taking part in armed robbery of a branch of the Bank of America. He told collaborators that they should be killed if they did not take part in the robbery. Ortega was released in late 1974, along with other Sandinista prisoners, in exchange for Somocista hostages. While imprisoned at the El Modelo jail, just outside Managua, Ortega wrote poems, one of which he titled "I Never Saw Managua When Miniskirts Were in Fashion". While he was incarcerated at El Modelo, his mother helped stage protests and hunger strikes for political prisoners; this resulted in improving the treatment of incarcerated Sandinistas. === Exile in Cuba=== Upon release in 1974, Ortega was exiled to Cuba. There he received training in guerrilla warfare from Fidel Castro's Marxist–Leninist government. He later returned secretly to Nicaragua. === Sectional division within the FSLN=== In the late 1970s, divisions over the FSLN's campaign against Somoza led Ortega and his brother Humberto to form the Insurrectionist, or Tercerista (Third Way) faction. The Terceristas sought to combine the distinct guerrilla war strategies of the two other factions, Tomás Borge's Guerra Prolongada Popular (GPP, or Prolonged People's War), and Jaime Wheelock's Proletarian Tendency. The Ortega brothers forged alliances with a wide array of anti-Somoza forces, including Catholic and Protestant activists, and other non-Marxist civil society groups. The Terceristas became the most effective faction in wielding political and military strength, and their push for FSLN solidarity received the support of revolutionary leaders such as Fidel Castro. three of them together. Ortega adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Ortega Murillo in 1986, through a court case. In 1998, she accused him of sexually abusing her as a child. ==Sandinista revolution and first presidency (1979–1990)== When Somoza was overthrown by the FSLN in July 1979, Ortega became a member of the five-person Junta of National Reconstruction, which included Sandinista militant Moisés Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez, businessman Alfonso Robelo, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, the widow of a murdered journalist. In September 1979, United States President Carter hosted Ortega at the White House, and warned him against arming other Central American leftist guerrilla movements. At the time, Ortega spoke truthfully when he denied Sandinista involvement in neighboring countries. When Ortega questioned the Americans about CIA support for anti-Sandinista groups, Carter and Deputy Secretary of State Warren Christopher said the reports were false. After the meeting, Carter asked Congress for $75 million in aid to Nicaragua, contingent on the Sandinista government's promise not to aid other guerrillas. The FSLN came to dominate the junta, Robelo and Chamorro resigned, and in 1981 Ortega became the coordinator of the Junta. As the only member of the FSLN National Directorate in the Junta, he was the effective leader of the country. After attaining power, the FSLN embarked upon an ambitious programme of social reform. They arranged to redistribute of land to about 100,000 families; launched a literacy drive, and made health care improvements that ended polio through mass vaccinations, and reduced the frequency of other treatable diseases. The Sandinista nationalization efforts affected mostly banks and industries owned by the extended Somoza family. More than half of all farms, businesses, and industries remained in private hands. The revolutionary government wanted to preserve a mixed economy and support private sector investment. The Superior Council of Private Enterprise (COSEP) opposed the Sandinistas' economic reform. The main organization of Nicaraguan big business was composed of prosperous families from the Pacific coast cities, who dominated commerce and banking. Ortega took a very hard line against opposition to his policies: On 21 February 1981, the Sandinista army killed 7 Miskito Indians and wounded 17. Ortega's administration forced displacement of many of the indigenous population: 10,000 individuals had been moved by 1982. The Indians formed two rebel groups – the Misura and Misurasata. They were joined in the north by Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) and in the south by former Sandinistas and peasantry who, under the leadership of Edén Pastora, were resisting forced collectivization. The FSLN also focused on improving the Nicaraguan health system, particularly through vaccination campaigns and the construction of public hospitals. These actions reduced child mortality by half, to 40 deaths per thousand. By 1982, the World Health Organization deemed Nicaragua a model for primary health care. During this period, Nicaragua won the UNESCO prize for exceptional health progress. The tactics used by the Sandinista government to fight the Contras have been widely condemned for their suppression of civil rights. On 15 March 1982, the junta declared a state of siege, which allowed it to close independent radio stations, suspend the right of association, and limit the freedom of trade unions. Nicaragua's Permanent Commission on Human Rights condemned Sandinista human rights violations, accusing them of killing and forcibly disappearing thousands of persons in the first few years of the war. At the 1984 general election Ortega won the presidency with 67% of the vote and took office on 10 January 1985. In the early phases of the campaign, Ortega enjoyed many institutional advantages, and used the full power of the press, police, and Supreme Electoral Council against the fractured opposition. In the weeks before the November election, Ortega gave a U.N. speech denouncing talks held in Rio de Janeiro on electoral reform. But by 22 October, the Sandinistas signed an accord with opposition parties to reform electoral and campaign laws, making the process more fair and transparent. While campaigning, Ortega promoted the Sandinistas' achievements, and at a rally said that "Democracy is literacy, democracy is land reform, democracy is education and public health." International observers judged the election to be the first free election held in the country in more than half a century. A report by an Irish governmentary delegation stated: "The electoral process was carried out with total integrity. The seven parties participating in the elections represented a broad spectrum of political ideologies." The general counsel of New York's Human Rights Commission described the election as "free, fair and hotly contested". A study by the US Latin American Studies Association (LASA) concluded that the FSLN (Sandinista Front) "did little more to take advantage of its incumbency than incumbent parties everywhere (including the U.S.) routinely do". However, the Reagan administration described the elections as "a Soviet-style sham", and contemporary North-American press coverage tended to cast doubt on the election's legitimacy. Thirty-three per cent of the Nicaraguan voters cast ballots for one of six opposition parties—three to the right of the Sandinistas, three to the left—which had campaigned with the aid of government funds and free TV and radio time. Two conservative parties captured a combined 23% of the vote. They held rallies across the country (a few of which were disrupted by FSLN supporters) and blasted the Sandinistas in harsh terms. Most foreign and independent observers noted this pluralism in debunking the Reagan administration charge—ubiquitous in the US media—that it was a "Soviet-style sham" election. Some opposition parties boycotted the election, allegedly under pressure from US embassy officials, and so it was denounced as being unfair by the Reagan administration. Reagan thus maintained that he was justified to continue supporting what he referred to as the Contras' "democratic resistance". The illegal intervention of the Contras continued (albeit covertly) after Ortega's democratic election. Peace talks between five Central American heads of state in July 1987 led to the signing of the Central American Peace Accords, and the beginning of a roadmap to the end of the conflict. In 1988, the Contras first entered into peace talks with the Sandinista government, although the violence continued, as did their US support. Despite US opposition, disarmament of the Contras began in 1989. ==In opposition (1990–2007)== In the 1990 presidential election, Ortega lost his reelection bid to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, his former colleague in the junta. Chamorro was supported by the US and a 14-party anti-Sandinista alliance known as the National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Oppositora, UNO), an alliance that ranged from conservatives and liberals to communists. She ran an effective campaign, presenting herself as the peace candidate and promising to end the US-funded Contra War if she won. Ortega campaigned on the slogan, "Everything Will Be Better", and promised that, with the Contra war over, he could focus on the nation's recovery. Contrary to what most observers expected, Chamorro shocked Ortega and won the election. Chamorro's UNO coalition garnered 54% of the vote, and won 51 of the 92 seats in the National Assembly. Immediately after the loss, the Sandinistas tried to maintain unity around their revolutionary posture. In Ortega's concession speech the following day he vowed to keep "ruling from below" a reference to the power that the FSLN still wielded in various sectors. He also stressed his belief that the Sandinistas had the goal of bringing "dignity" to Latin America, and not necessarily to hold on to government posts. In 1991, Ortega said elections were "an instrument to reaffirm" the FSLN's "political and ideological positions", and also "confront capitalism". However, the electoral loss led to pronounced divisions in the FSLN. Some members adopted more pragmatic positions, and sought to transform the FSLN into a modern social democratic party engaged in national reconciliation and class cooperation. Ortega and other party insiders found common ground with the radicals, who still promoted anti-imperialism and class conflict to achieve social change. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission stating that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989. This led many commentators to assume that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation. From 19 to 21 July 1991, the FSLN held a National Congress to mend the rifts between members and form a new overarching political program. The effort failed to unite the party, and intense debates over the internal governance of the FSLN continued. The pragmatists, led by the former vice president Sergio Ramirez, formed the basis of a "renovating" faction, and supported collaboration with other political forces to preserve the rule of law in Nicaragua. Under the leadership of Ortega and Tomás Borge, the radicals regrouped into the "principled" faction, and branded themselves the Izquierda Democratica (ID), or Democratic Left (DL). The DL fought the Chamorro government with disruptive labor strikes and demonstrations, and renewed calls for the revolutionary reconstruction of Nicaraguan society. During the 20–23 May 1994, extraordinary congress, Ortega ran against a fellow National Directorate member, Henry Ruiz, for the position of party secretary-general. Ortega was elected with 287 to Ruiz's 147 votes, and the DL secured the most dominant role in the FSLN. On 9 September 1994, Ortega gained more power after taking over Sergio Ramirez's seat in the Asamblea Sandinista (Sandinista Assembly). In the 1996 campaign, Ortega faced the Liberal Alliance (Alianza Liberal), headed by Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo, a former mayor of Managua. The Sandinistas softened their anti-imperialist rhetoric, with Ortega calling the US "our great neighbor", and vowing to cooperate "within a framework of respect, equality, and justice". The image change failed, as Aleman's Liberal Alliance came first with 51.03% of the vote, while Ortega's FSLN secured 37.75%. Ortega's policies became more moderate during his time in opposition, and he gradually changed much of his former Marxist–Leninist stance in favor of an agenda of democratic socialism. His Roman Catholic faith has become more public in recent years as well, leading Ortega to embrace a variety of socially conservative policies; in 2006 the FSLN endorsed a strict law banning all abortions in Nicaragua. In the run-up to the 2006 elections, Ortega displayed his ties to the Catholic Church by renewing his marriage vows before Cardinal Miguel Obando y Bravo. Ortega was instrumental in creating the controversial strategic pact between the FSLN and the Constitutional Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC). The controversial alliance of Nicaragua's two major parties is aimed at distributing power between the PLC and FSLN, and preventing other parties from rising. After sealing the agreement in January 2000, the two parties controlled the three key institutions of the state: the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Electoral Council. At the Fourth Ordinary Congress of the FSLN, held 17–18 March 2002, Ortega eliminated the National Directorate (DN). Once the main collective leadership body of the party, with nine members, the DN no longer met routinely, and only three historic members remained. Instead, the body just supported decisions already made by the secretary-general. Ortega sidelined party officials and other members while empowering his own informal circle, known as the ring of iron. The 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks doomed Ortega's chances, as the threat of a US invasion became an issue. Bolanos convinced many Nicaraguans that the renewed US hostility towards terrorism would endanger their country if the openly anti-US Ortega prevailed. Bolanos ended up with 56.3% of the vote, and Ortega won 42.3%. ===2006 presidential election=== In 2006, Daniel Ortega was elected president with 38% of the vote. This occurred despite the fact that the breakaway Sandinista Renovation Movement (MRS) continued to oppose the FSLN, running former Mayor of Managua, Herty Lewites as its candidate for president. Ortega personally attacked Lewites' Jewish background, compared him to Judas, and warned he "could end up hanged." However, Lewites died several months before the elections. Ortega emphasized peace and reconciliation in his campaign, and selected a former Contra leader, Jaime Morales Carazo, as his running mate. The FSLN also won 38 seats in the congressional elections, becoming the party with the largest representation in parliament. The split in the Constitutionalist Liberal Party helped allow the FSLN to become the largest party in Congress; however, the Sandinista vote had a minuscule split between the FSLN and MRS, and that the liberal party combined is larger than the Frente Faction. In 2010, several liberal congressmen accused the FSLN of attempting to buy votes to pass constitutional reforms that would allow Ortega to run for office for the 6th time since 1984. ==Second presidency (2007–present)== According to Tim Rogers, writing in The Atlantic, during his second term as president, Ortega took "full control of all four branches of government, state institutions, the military, and police", and in the process dismantled "Nicaragua's institutional democracy". Many journalists and governments criticize Ortega and label him a dictator. ===2008 elections=== In June 2008, the Nicaraguan Supreme Court disqualified the MRS and the Conservative Party from participation in municipal elections. In November 2008, the Supreme Electoral Council received national and international criticism following irregularities in municipal elections, but agreed to review results for Managua only, while the opposition demanded a nationwide review. For the first time since 1990, the Council decided not to allow national or international observers to witness the election. Instances of intimidation, violence, and harassment of opposition political party members and NGO representatives have been recorded. Official results show Sandinista candidates winning 94 of the 146 municipal mayoralties, compared to 46 for the main opposition Liberal Constitutional Party (PLC). The opposition claimed that marked ballots were dumped and destroyed, that party members were refused access to some of the vote counts and that tallies from many polling places were altered. As a result of the fraud allegations, the European Union suspended $70m of aid, and the US$64m. With the late-2000s recession, Ortega in 2011 characterised capitalism as in its "death throes" and portrayed the Bolivarian Alternative for the People of Our America (ALBA) was the most advanced, most Christian and fairest project. He also said God was punishing the United States with the financial crisis for trying to impose its economic principles on poor countries. "It's incredible that in the most powerful country in the world, which spends billions of dollars on brutal wars ... people do not have enough money to stay in their homes." Before the National Sandinista Council held in September 2009, Lenin Cerna, the secretary of the party organization, called for diversifying its political strategies. He declared the FSLN's future depended on implementing new plans, "so that the party can advance via new routes and in new ways, always under Ortega's leadership". Ortega gained power over the selection of candidates, allowing him to personally choose all candidates for public office. In Judicial Decision 504, issued on 19 October 2009, the Supreme Court of Justice of Nicaragua declared portions of Articles 147 and 178 of the Constitution of Nicaragua inapplicable; these provisions concerned the eligibility of candidates for president, vice-president, mayor, and vice-mayor—a decision that had the effect of allowing Ortega to run for reelection in 2011. For this decision, the Sandinista magistrates formed the required quorum by excluding the opposition magistrates and replacing them with Sandinista substitutes, violating the Nicaraguan constitution. Opposing parties, the church and human rights groups in Nicaragua denounced the decision. Throughout 2010, court rulings gave Ortega greater power over judicial and civil service appointments. While supporting abortion rights during his presidency during the 1980s, Ortega has since embraced the Catholic Church's position of strong opposition. While non-emergency abortions have long been illegal in Nicaragua, recently even abortions "in the case where the pregnancy endangers the mother's life", otherwise known as therapeutic abortions have been made illegal in the days before the 2006 election, with a six-year prison term in such cases, too—a move supported by Ortega. ===2011 election=== Ortega was re-elected president with a vote on 6 November and confirmation on 16 November 2011. During the election, the Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) blocked both domestic and international poll observers from multiple polling stations. The constitutional reforms also gave Ortega the sole power to appoint military and police commanders. In June 2016, the Nicaraguan supreme court ruled to oust Eduardo Montealegre, the leader of the main opposition party, leaving the main opposition coalition with no means of contesting the November 2016 national elections. In August 2016, Ortega chose his wife, Rosario Murillo, as his vice-presidential running-mate for re-election. According to The Washington Post, figures announced on November 7, 2016, put Daniel Ortega in line for his third consecutive term as president, also being his fourth term overall. The Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) reported Ortega and Murillo won 72.4% of the vote, with 68% turnout. Economic situation during presidency According to Tim Rogers, until the 2018 unrest, as president Ortega presided over "the fastest-growing economy in Central America" and was a "poster child for foreign investment and citizen security in a region known for gangs and unrest". On 14 March 2020, Ortega's government called a massive demonstration called "Love in the Time of COVID-19" as a show of support to him and his government. This occurred in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic which had only recently been officially declared by the WHO. According to CNN, as of mid-June 2020, Ortega had "refused to impose strict, preventive quarantine measures seen in neighboring countries" to fight the COVID-19 pandemic. According to AP News "the government threatened to ban" professional baseball players "who refuse to play baseball ... And everyone is warned to keep quiet." In hospitals "ruling-party activists ensure no information leaks out", and it quotes a doctor (anesthesiologist María Nela Escoto) complaining that in the public hospital where she works "everything is secret. They don't allow suggestions, and you can't question anything because they're watching. It's a very hostile environment." Despite attempts by Ortega's government to hide the incident through censorship of all private-owned news outlets, photos and videos of the violence made their way to social media where they sparked outrage and urged more Nicaraguans to join in on the protests. Tensions escalated quickly, as police began using tear gas canisters and rubber bullets, and eventually live ammunition on unarmed protesters. Authorities were also seen arming Sandinista Youth members with weapons to serve as paramilitary forces. On 30 May 2018, Nicaragua's Mother's Day, over 300,000 people marched to honor the mothers of students killed in the preceding protests. Despite the attendance of children, mothers and retirees, and lack of any violence by marchers, marchers were attacked in an event dubbed the "Mother's Day Massacre". 16 were killed, and 88 injured, as "police sprayed the crowd with bullets, government sharpshooters positioned on the roof of the national baseball stadium went headhunting with sniper rifles". By December 3, 22 people were dead and 565 imprisoned. Professionals involved in the protests (lawyers, engineering majors, radio broadcasters and merchants) had been reduced to lives of "ever-changing safe houses, encrypted messaging apps and pseudonyms", with the Ortega government allegedly "hunting us like deer", according to one dissident (Roberto Carlos Membreño Briceño). Human rights organization offices were raided, computers seized and observers expelled. ===Term extension=== On 20 November 2024, Ortega unveiled proposals to amend the Nicaraguan constitution in order to extend his term from five years to six and have his wife and vice president Rosario Murillo declared co-president. The measures passed in a first reading at the National Assembly on 22 November and passed in a second reading on 30 January 2025. The constitutional reform entered into force on 18 February 2025. ===Foreign policy=== Soon after the 2006 election, Ortega paid an official visit to Iran and met Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Ortega told the press that the "revolutions of Iran and Nicaragua are almost twin revolutions ... since both revolutions are about justice, liberty, self-determination, and the struggle against imperialism". On 6 March 2008, following the 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis, Ortega announced that Nicaragua was breaking diplomatic ties with Colombia "in solidarity with the Ecuadorian people". Ortega also stated, "We are not breaking relations with the Colombian people. We are breaking relations with the terrorist policy practiced by Álvaro Uribe's government". The relations were restored with the resolution at a Rio Group summit held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, on 7 March 2008. At the summit Colombia's Álvaro Uribe, Ecuador's Rafael Correa, Venezuela's Hugo Chávez and Ortega publicly shook hands in a show of good-will. The handshakes, broadcast live throughout Latin America, appeared to signal that a week of military buildups and diplomatic repercussions was over. After the handshakes, Ortega said he would re-establish diplomatic ties with Colombia. Uribe then quipped that he would send him the bill for his ambassador's plane fare. On 25 May 2008, Ortega, upon learning of the death of FARC guerrilla leader Manuel Marulanda in Colombia, expressed condolences to the family of Marulanda and solidarity with the FARC and called Marulanda an extraordinary fighter who battled against profound inequalities in Colombia. The declarations were protested by the Colombian government and criticized in the major Colombian media outlets. On 2 September 2008, during ceremonies for the 29th anniversary of the founding of the Nicaraguan army, Ortega announced that "Nicaragua recognizes the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia and fully supports the Russian government's position". Ortega's decision made Nicaragua the second country (after Russia) to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from Georgia. Under Ortega's leadership, Nicaragua joined the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. When seeking office, Ortega threatened to cut diplomatic recognition with the Republic of China (Taiwan, formerly Nationalist China) in order to restore relations with the Mainland-based People's Republic of China (as in the period from 1985 to 1990) as the legal government of China. But he did not do so. In 2007 Ortega stated that Nicaragua did not accept the One China Policy of the PRC government and that Nicaragua reserved the right to maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC. He reassured President Chen Shui Bian in 2007 that Nicaragua would not break diplomatic relations with the ROC. He explained that during the Reagan administration the United States imposed sanctions on Nicaragua. But cutting ties with Taipei was a sad and painful decision because of the friendship between Nicaragua and Taiwan's people and government. Ortega met with the ROC President Ma Ying-jeou in 2009 and both agreed to improve the diplomatic ties between both countries. However, with a trade show from China (PRC) in Managua in 2010, he is attempting a two-track policy to get benefits from both sides. In 2016 Nicaragua and China (ROC) signed an air services agreement and Ortega stated that Nicaragua's free trade deal with the ROC had benefited both nations. The ROC increased its investment in Nicaragua. In December 2021, Nicaragua once again switched recognition with the PRC. In September 2010, after a US report listed Nicaragua as a "major" drug-trafficking centre, with Costa Rica and Honduras, Ortega urged the US Congress and Obama administration to allocate more resources to assist the fight against drug trafficking. During the Libyan Civil War, Ortega was among the very few leaders who spoke out in clear defense of the embattled Muammar Gaddafi. During a telephone conversation between the two, Ortega told Gaddafi that he was "waging a great battle to defend his nation" and stated that "it's at difficult times that loyalty and resolve are put to the test." Ortega has said that Assad's victory in the 2014 election is an important step to "attain peace in Syria and a clear cut evidence that the Syrian people trust their president as a national leader and support his policies which aim at maintaining Syria's sovereignty and unity". Ortega attended the swearing-in ceremony of Nicolás Maduro for his second term on 10 January 2019. In an interview with Max Blumenthal in August 2019, Ortega stated that he was open to the idea of Bernie Sanders (who had visited him in 1985) winning the US presidency in 2020 and that Sanders's message "goes in the right direction for the U.S. to become a pole of peace, development, and cooperation". ===Environmental policy=== In 2016, Daniel Ortega did not sign the Paris Agreement because he felt the deal did not do enough to protect the climate, although he later changed his mind. Moreover, Nicaragua rejected projects of mining of the Canadian group B2 Gold which could represent a threat to the environment. According to government estimates, Nicaragua has passed from 25% renewable electricity to 52% between 2007 and 2016. ===International sanctions=== ==== United States ==== In November 2021, Joe Biden signed into law the "Reinforcing Nicaragua's Adherence to Conditions for Electoral Reform Act" (RENACER Act) which extended US sanctions against Nicaragua and gave Biden the power to exclude Nicaragua from the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) and to obstruct multilateral loans to Nicaragua. Venezuela and Russia condemned the new law. ==== Ukraine ==== In February 2021, Ukraine's parliament, the Verkhovna Rada, approved economic sanctions against President Ortega and his government. The sanctions were in response to Ortega sending a delegation to Russian-occupied Crimea in November 2020. ==Electoral history== ===1984 general election=== ===1990 general election=== ===1996 general election=== ===2001 general election=== ===2006 general election=== ===2011 general election=== ===2016 general election=== ===2021 general election=== ==Criticisms and concerns == Ortega's second presidency has been subject to much criticism and accusations of his becoming a strongman. The 2018 protests have been pointed to as being symbolic of these tensions. In 2018, Frances Robles wrote in The New York Times that the "many Ortega adult children manage everything from gasoline distribution to television stations" in Nicaragua. In the months preceding the November 2021 Nicaraguan general election, Ortega's government arrested many prominent opposition members. As of 23 July, 26 opposition leaders have been imprisoned. On 24 March 2022, the ambassador Arturo McFields, condemned the Ortega government and requested the release of political prisoners, alluding that the government people were "tired of dictatorship" and that it was not easy to denounce it. As a result, he was dismissed. The American lawyer Paul Reichler also left his position as representative due to "moral conscience", who felt that the president "was no longer the Daniel Ortega whom he respected so much and served with so much pride". Reichler found it inconceivable that someone like Ortega would have mercilessly suppressed peaceful demonstrations and imprisoned his former colleagues in inhumane conditions, and accused him of "murdering" a general by withholding medical treatment. This figure of American origin served as Nicaragua's international legal adviser before the International Court of Justice, when Managua denounced the United States for financing the counterrevolution, winning the case. The Ortega administration also ordered the closure of the Nicaraguan Language Academy for failing to register as a "foreign agent" ratified by the Sandinista parliament with the favorable vote of 75 deputies of the ruling FSLN. ===Sexual abuse allegations=== In 1998, Daniel Ortega's adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Narváez released a 48-page report in which she alleged he had sexually abused her from 1979, when she was 12, until 1990. Ortega and his wife Murillo denied the allegation. The case could not proceed in Nicaraguan courts, which have been consistently allied with Ortega, because he had immunity from prosecution as a member of parliament, and the five-year statute of limitations for sexual abuse and rape charges had expired. Narváez's complaint to the Inter-American Human Rights Commission was ruled admissible on 15 October 2001. On 4 March 2002, the Nicaraguan government accepted the commission's recommendation of a "friendly agreement". There is also the case of Elvia Junieth who was allegedly abused by the president in 2005, and, according to the family, a girl was born from that relationship that Ortega did not recognize. Ernesto Moncada Lau, another of the assistants to the Sandinista president, appears on the birth certificate as the father of the minor. Her brother died in the Tipitapa Model prison in November 2021. ==Foreign honours== Abkhazia Order of Honour and Glory, First Class Cuba Order of José Martí Mongolia Order of Sukhbaatar Peru Order of the Sun of Peru Russia Order of Friendship South Ossetia Uatsamonga Order	[ "Honduras", "RENACER Act", "Catholic Church", "Alfonso Guerra", "Jaime Wheelock", "Human Rights Commission", "Fabio Gadea Mantilla", "Rosario Murillo", "Oliver North", "democratic socialism", "Bolivarian Alternative for the People of Our America", "Somoza family", "Marxist", "Obama administration", "National Guard (Nicaragua)", "Alfonso Robelo", "2014 Syrian presidential election", "prelate", "Sandinista Popular Army", "Joe Biden", "Supreme Electoral Council (Nicaragua)", "Miami Herald", "Tomás Borge", "Iran–Contra affair", "US media", "South Ossetia", "VOA", "Zoilamérica Ortega Murillo", "Junta of National Reconstruction", "Itamaraty Palace", "Vice President of Nicaragua", "David Frost", "Francisco Urcuyo", "Ernesto Cardenal", "Mahmoud Ahmadinejad", "Eduardo Montealegre", "Álvaro Uribe", "The Independent", "Superior Council for Private Enterprise", "Excellency", "Order of Friendship", "abortion", "Roman Catholic", "Boland Amendment", "Nicaraguan Supreme Court", "Soviet Union", "Latin American Studies Association", "NGO", "Human Rights Watch", "One China Policy", "therapeutic abortion", "Taiwan", "Bank of America", "International reactions to the 2011 Libyan civil war", "abortion rights", "Nicaragua", "Rolando José Álvarez Lagos", "Cristiana Chamorro Barrios", "Cambridge", "Camilo Ortega", "Order of the Sun of Peru", "Juigalpa, Chontales", "leftist", "UNESCO", "2008 Andean diplomatic crisis", "1984 Nicaraguan general election", "La Libertad, Chontales", "Henry Ruiz", "guerrilla war", "Organization of American States", "Irish government", "Marxist–Leninist", "Paris Agreement", "Amnesty International", "Sandinista Renovation Movement", "boycott", "President of Nicaragua", "late-2000s recession", "Brasília", "CNN", "Dora María Téllez", "Nicaraguan National Guard", "wealth redistribution", "Constitutionalist Liberal Party", "First ladies and gentlemen of Nicaragua", "Contras", "The Irish Times", "Crimea", "Orders, decorations, and medals of Abkhazia", "statute of limitations", "Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Somocista", "Protestantism", "Moisés Hassan", "Enrique Bolaños", "Sandinista National Liberation Front", "Anastasio Somoza Debayle", "European Union", "Remigio Ángel González", "Santo Domingo", "sexually abused", "Constitutional Liberal Party", "Arnoldo Alemán", "Anthropologist", "president of Nicaragua", "Republic of China", "Humberto Ortega", "El Salvador", "People's Republic of China", "Xiomara Blandino", "dictator", "general", "Jimmy Carter", "FARC", "Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva", "2021 Nicaraguan general election", "Rafael Correa", "2020 United States presidential election", "Violeta Barrios de Chamorro", "Edén Pastora", "Frost Over the World", "Colombian government", "bank robbery", "Chontales Department", "Muammar Gaddafi", "National Assembly (Nicaragua)", "Common Dreams", "Arturo McFields", "guerrilla warfare", "The Toronto Star", "Iranian President", "Verkhovna Rada", "Ma Ying-jeou", "Foreign Policy", "Max Blumenthal", "World Health Organization", "Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas", "Hugo Torres Jiménez", "The Guardian", "Mainland China", "Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights", "land reform", "Nicolás Maduro", "NBC News", "Central American Peace Accords", "The Daily Beast", "Supreme Court of Justice (Nicaragua)", "Nicaraguan Center for Human Rights", "Warren Christopher", "2011 Libyan Civil War", "Prolonged People's War", "Admissible evidence", "Violeta Chamorro", "Russia", "Dominican Republic", "Protests against Daniel Ortega", "Zoilamérica Narváez", "Herty Lewites", "2006 Nicaraguan general election", "Hugo Chávez", "anti-American sentiment", "democratic backsliding", "Order of José Martí", "Costa Rica", "1996 Nicaraguan general election", "National Opposition Union (Nicaragua, 1990)", "capitalism", "Bernie Sanders", "Russian government", "University of Cambridge", "financial crisis", "Order of Sukhbaatar", "Time (magazine)", "Abkhazia", "Commander-in-chief", "Sergio Ramírez", "Al Jazeera English", "Georgia (country)", "imperialism", "Rio Group", "Jaime Morales Carazo", "Piñata", "International Court of Justice", "Nicaraguan Literacy Campaign", "The Observer", "Iran", "Colombia", "Marxism", "Manuel Marulanda", "Fidel Castro", "Miskito people", "2018–2022 Nicaraguan protests", "Cuba", "Ecuador", "Inter-American Human Rights Commission", "NPR", "socially conservative", "Exiliada", "Reuters", "CIA", "Miguel Obando y Bravo", "Major (rank)", "Guatemala", "Ronald Reagan", "National Convergence (Nicaragua)", "Uatsamonga Order", "The New York Times", "2001 Nicaraguan general election", "Venezuela", "2011 Nicaraguan general election", "1990 Nicaraguan general election", "Second Gentleman", "Nicaraguan Revolution", "La Libertad, Nicaragua", "Bernard Diederich", "The Atlantic", "Managua", "Abortion in Nicaragua", "2016 Nicaraguan general election", "Moises Omar Halleslevens Acevedo" ]
8,779	Destroyer	In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast, maneuverable, long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy, or carrier battle group and defend them against a wide range of general threats. They were originally conceived in 1885 by Fernando Villaamil for the Spanish Navy as a defense against torpedo boats, and by the time of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, these "torpedo boat destroyers" (TBDs) were "large, swift, and powerfully armed torpedo boats designed to destroy other torpedo boats". Although the term "destroyer" had been used interchangeably with "TBD" and "torpedo boat destroyer" by navies since 1892, the term "torpedo boat destroyer" had been generally shortened to simply "destroyer" by nearly all navies by the First World War. Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations; typically, a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, destroyers grew in size. The American s had a displacement of 2,200 tons, while the has a displacement of up to 9,600 tons, a difference of nearly 340%. Moreover, the advent of guided missiles allowed destroyers to take on the surface-combatant roles previously filled by battleships and cruisers. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation. At the start of the 21st century, destroyers are the global standard for surface-combatant ships, with only two nations (the United States and Russia) officially operating the heavier cruisers, with no battleships or true battlecruisers remaining. Modern guided-missile destroyers are equivalent in tonnage but vastly superior in firepower to cruisers of the World War II era, and are capable of carrying nuclear-tipped cruise missiles. At long, a displacement of 9,200 tons, and with an armament of more than 90 missiles, guided-missile destroyers such as the Arleigh Burke class are actually larger and more heavily armed than most previous ships classified as guided-missile cruisers. The Chinese Type 055 destroyer has been described as a cruiser in some US Navy reports due to its size and armament. Many NATO navies, such as the French, Spanish, Dutch, Danish, and German, use the term "frigate" for their destroyers, which leads to some confusion. ==Origins== The emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy a superior enemy battle fleet using steam launches to fire torpedoes. Cheap, fast boats armed with torpedoes called torpedo boats were built and became a threat to large capital ships near enemy coasts. The first seagoing vessel designed to launch the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons; these were replaced in 1879 by a single torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, fast enough to evade enemy picket boats. At first, the threat of a torpedo-boat attack to a battle fleet was considered to exist only when at anchor, but as faster and longer-range torpedo boats and torpedoes were developed, the threat extended to cruising at sea. In response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called "catchers" were built, which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. They needed significant seaworthiness and endurance to operate with the battle fleet, and as they inherently became larger, they became officially designated "torpedo-boat destroyers", and by the First World War were largely known as "destroyers" in English. The antitorpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French (), Italian (), Portuguese (), Czech (), Greek (, ), Dutch () and, up until the Second World War, Polish (, now obsolete). Once destroyers became more than just catchers guarding an anchorage, they were recognized to be also ideal to take over the offensive role of torpedo boats themselves, so they were also fitted with torpedo tubes in addition to their antitorpedo-boat guns. At that time, and even into World War I, the only function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks and to make such attacks on the battleships of the enemy. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future. ===Early designs=== An important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB 81. This was a large (137 ton) torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes. At , while still not fast enough to engage enemy torpedo boats reliably, the ship at least had the armament to deal with them. Another forerunner of the torpedo-boat destroyer (TBD) was the Japanese torpedo boat (Falcon), built in 1885. Designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the Isle of Dogs, London Yarrow shipyard in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached , and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat built to date. In her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for Kotaka, "considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer". The German aviso , launched in 1886, was designed as a "Torpedojäger" (torpedo hunter), intended to screen the fleet against attacks by torpedo boats. The ship was significantly larger than torpedo boats of the period, displacing some , with an armament of guns and Hotchkiss revolver cannon. ===Torpedo gunboat=== The first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes and an adequate gun armament, intended for hunting down smaller enemy boats. By the end of the 1890s, torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the TBDs, which were much faster. The first example of this was , designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, and commissioned in response to the Russian War scare. The gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly long and in beam, she displaced 550 tons. Built of steel, Rattlesnake was unarmoured with the exception of a -inch protective deck. She was armed with a single 4-inch/25-pounder breech-loading gun, six 3-pounder QF guns and four torpedo tubes, arranged with two fixed tubes at the bow and a set of torpedo-dropping carriages on either side. Four torpedo reloads were carried. He asked several British shipyards to submit proposals capable of fulfilling these specifications. In 1885, the Spanish Navy chose the design submitted by the shipyard of James and George Thomson of Clydebank. (Destroyer in Spanish) was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887. Some authors considered her as the first destroyer ever built. She displaced 348 tons, and was the first warship equipped with twin triple-expansion engines generating , for a maximum speed of , which made her one of the faster ships in the world in 1888. She was armed with one Spanish-designed Hontoria breech-loading gun, four (6-pounder) Nordenfelt guns, two (3-pdr) Hotchkiss cannons and two Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes. These ships all featured a turtleback (i.e. rounded) forecastle that was characteristic of early British TBDs. and were both built by Thornycroft, displaced 260 tons (287.8 tons full load), and were 185 feet in length. They were armed with one 12-pounder gun and three 6-pounder guns, with one fixed 18-in torpedo tube in the bow plus two more torpedo tubes on a revolving mount abaft the two funnels. Later, the bow torpedo tube was removed and two more 6-pounder guns added, instead. They produced 4,200 hp from a pair of Thornycroft water-tube boilers, giving them a top speed of 27 knots, giving the range and speed to travel effectively with a battle fleet. In common with subsequent early Thornycroft boats, they had sloping sterns and double rudders. The French navy, an extensive user of torpedo boats, built its first TBD in 1899, with the torpilleur d'escadre. The United States commissioned its first TBD, , Destroyer No. 1, in 1902, and by 1906, 16 destroyers were in service with the US Navy. ===Subsequent improvements=== Torpedo boat destroyer designs continued to evolve around the turn of the 20th century in several key ways. The first was the introduction of the steam turbine. The spectacular unauthorized demonstration of the turbine-powered at the 1897 Spithead Navy Review, which, significantly, was of torpedo-boat size, prompted the Royal Navy to order a prototype turbine-powered destroyer, of 1899. This was the first turbine warship of any kind, and achieved a remarkable on sea trials. By 1910, the turbine had been widely adopted by all navies for their faster ships. Other navies also adopted oil, for instance the USN with the of 1909. In spite of all this variety, destroyers adopted a largely similar pattern. The hull was long and narrow, with a relatively shallow draft. The bow was either raised in a forecastle or covered under a turtleback; underneath this were the crew spaces, extending to the way along the hull. Aft of the crew spaces was as much engine space as the technology of the time would allow - several boilers and engines or turbines. Above deck, one or more quick-firing guns were mounted in the bows, in front of the bridge; several more were mounted amidships and astern. Two tube mountings (later on, multiple mountings) were generally found amidships. Between 1892 and 1914, destroyers became markedly larger; initially 275 tons with a length of for the Royal Navy's first of TBDs, up to the First World War with long destroyers displacing 1,000 tons was not unusual. Construction remained focused on putting the biggest possible engines into a small hull, though, resulting in a somewhat flimsy construction. Often, hulls were built of high-tensile steel Screening the advance of a fleet when hostile torpedo craft are about Searching a hostile coast along which a fleet might pass Watching an enemy's port for the purpose of harassing his torpedo craft and preventing their return Attacking an enemy fleet Early destroyers were extremely cramped places to live, being "without a doubt magnificent fighting vessels... but unable to stand bad weather". During the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy TBD Akatsuki described "being in command of a destroyer for a long period, especially in wartime... is not very good for the health". Stating that he had originally been strong and healthy, he continued, "life on a destroyer in winter, with bad food, no comforts, would sap the powers of the strongest men in the long run. A destroyer is always more uncomfortable than the others, and rain, snow, and sea-water combine to make them damp; in fact, in bad weather, there is not a dry spot where one can rest for a moment." The Japanese destroyer-commander finished with, "Yesterday, I looked at myself in a mirror for a long time; I was disagreeably surprised to see my face thin, full of wrinkles, and as old as though I were 50. My clothes (uniform) cover nothing but a skeleton, and my bones are full of rheumatism." ===Early combat=== The TBD's first major use in combat came during the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian fleet anchored in Port Arthur at the opening of the Russo-Japanese War on 8 February 1904. Three destroyer divisions attacked the Russian fleet in port, firing a total of 18 torpedoes, but only two Russian battleships, and , and a protected cruiser, , were seriously damaged due to the proper deployment of torpedo nets. Tsesarevich, the Russian flagship, had her nets deployed, with at least four enemy torpedoes "hung up" in them, and other warships were similarly saved from further damage by their nets. While capital-ship engagements were scarce in World War I, destroyer units engaged almost continually in raiding and patrol actions. The first shot of the war at sea was fired on 5 August 1914 by , one of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla, in an engagement with the German auxiliary minelayer . Destroyers were involved in the skirmishes that prompted the Battle of Heligoland Bight, and filled a range of roles in the Battle of Gallipoli, acting as troop transports and as fire-support vessels, as well as their fleet-screening role. Over 80 British destroyers and 60 German torpedo boats took part in the Battle of Jutland, which involved pitched small-boat actions between the main fleets, and several foolhardy attacks by unsupported destroyers on capital ships. Jutland also concluded with a messy night action between the German High Seas Fleet and part of the British destroyer screen. The threat evolved by World War I with the development of the submarine, or U-boat. The submarine had the potential to hide from gunfire and close underwater to fire torpedoes. Early-war destroyers had the speed and armament to intercept submarines before they submerged, either by gunfire or by ramming. Destroyers also had a shallow enough draft that they were difficult to hit with torpedoes. The desire to attack submarines under water led to rapid destroyer evolution during the war. They were quickly equipped with strengthened bows for ramming, and depth charges and hydrophones for identifying submarine targets. The first submarine casualty credited to a destroyer was the German , rammed by on 29 October 1914. While U-19 was only damaged, the next month, successfully sank . The first depth-charge sinking was on 4 December 1916, when was sunk by HMS Llewellyn. The submarine threat meant that many destroyers spent their time on antisubmarine patrol. Once Germany adopted unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, destroyers were called on to escort merchant convoys. US Navy destroyers were among the first American units to be dispatched upon the American entry to the war, and a squadron of Japanese destroyers even joined Allied patrols in the Mediterranean. Patrol duty was far from safe; of the 67 British destroyers lost in the war, collisions accounted for 18, while 12 were wrecked. At the end of the war, the state-of-the-art was represented by the British W class. ==1918–1945== The trend during World War I had been towards larger destroyers with heavier armaments. A number of opportunities to fire at capital ships had been missed during the war, because destroyers had expended all their torpedoes in an initial salvo. The British V and W classes of the late war had sought to address this by mounting six torpedo tubes in two triple mounts, instead of the four or two on earlier models. The V and W classes set the standard of destroyer building well into the 1920s. Two Romanian destroyers and , though, had the greatest firepower of all destroyers in the world throughout the first half of the 1920s. This was largely because, between their commissioning in 1920 and 1926, they retained the armament that they had while serving in the Italian Navy as scout cruisers (esploratori). When initially ordered by Romania in 1913, the Romanian specifications envisioned three 120 mm guns, a caliber which would eventually be adopted as the standard for future Italian destroyers. Armed with three 152 mm and four 76 mm guns after being completed as scout cruisers, the two warships were officially re-rated as destroyers by the Romanian Navy. The two Romanian warships were thus the destroyers with the greatest firepower in the world throughout much of the interwar period. As of 1939, when the Second World War started, their artillery, although changed, was still close to cruiser standards, amounting to nine heavy naval guns (five of 120 mm and four of 76 mm). In addition, they retained their two twin 457 mm torpedo tubes and two machine guns, plus the capacity to carry up to 50 mines. The next major innovation came with the Japanese or "special type", designed in 1923 and delivered in 1928. The design was initially noted for its powerful armament of six 5-inch (127 mm) guns and three triple torpedo mounts. The second batch of the class gave the guns high-angle turrets for antiaircraft warfare, and the , oxygen-fueled Long Lance Type 93 torpedo. The later of 1931 further improved the torpedo armament by storing its reload torpedoes close at hand in the superstructure, allowing reloading within 15 minutes. Most other nations replied with similar larger ships. The US adopted twin 5-inch (127 mm) guns, and the subsequent and es (the latter of 1934) increased the number of torpedo tubes to 12 and 16, respectively. In the Mediterranean, the Italian Navy's building of very fast light cruisers of the prompted the French to produce exceptional destroyer designs. The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with their of 1922 displacing over 2,000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; a further three similar classes were produced around 1930. The of 1935 carried five guns and nine torpedo tubes, but could achieve speeds of , which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer. The Italians' own destroyers were almost as swift; most Italian designs of the 1930s were rated at over , while carrying torpedoes and either four or six 120 mm guns. Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament program. The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initial Type 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons, their armament was equal to smaller vessels. This changed from the Type 1936 onwards, which mounted heavy guns. German destroyers also used innovative high-pressure steam machinery; while this should have helped their efficiency, it more often resulted in mechanical problems. Once German and Japanese rearmament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on building destroyers that were smaller, but more numerous than those used by other nations. The British built a series of destroyers (the to ), which were about 1,400 tons standard displacement, and had four guns and eight torpedo tubes; the American of 1938 was similar in size, but carried five guns and ten torpedo tubes. Realizing the need for heavier gun armament, the British built the of 1936 (sometimes called Afridi after one of two lead ships). These ships displaced 1,850 tons and were armed with eight guns in four twin turrets and four torpedo tubes. These were followed by the J-class and L-class destroyers, with six guns in twin turrets and eight torpedo tubes. Antisubmarine sensors included sonar (or ASDIC), although training in their use was indifferent. Antisubmarine weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in World War I, had made no progress. ===Later combat=== During the 1920s and 1930s, destroyers were often deployed to areas of diplomatic tension or humanitarian disaster. British and American destroyers were common on the Chinese coast and rivers, even supplying landing parties to protect colonial interests. By World War II, the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, and aircraft had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the early-war fleet destroyers were ill-equipped for combating these new targets. They were fitted with new light antiaircraft guns, radar, and forward-launched ASW weapons, in addition to their existing dual-purpose guns, depth charges, and torpedoes. Increasing size allowed improved internal arrangement of propulsion machinery with compartmentation, so ships were less likely to be sunk by a single hit. two Luyang I-class destroyers, six Luyang II-class destroyers, 24 Type 052D destroyer and two Luzhou-class destroyers. China also operates two Type 052 destroyers, one Type 051B destroyer and four -class destroyers that are of older models. The Type 055 is considered to be a cruiser by NATO and the U.S. Department of Defense for its tonnage and capability matching that of the . (Taiwan) operates four s, purchased from the United States. operates two s and eight FREMM Multipurpose frigates of the Aquitaine-class variant. The French Navy does not use the term "destroyer" but rather "first-rate frigate" for these ship types, but they are marked with the NATO "D" hull code which places them in the destroyer type, as opposed to "F" for frigate. has HS Velos, a , remains ceremonially in commission due to her historical significance. operates four s, three s, three , and three destroyers. operates two s and two Orizzonte-class destroyers. operates two , two , four , two , four , five , nine , eight , and two s, along with six s. Japan also operates two and two helicopter destroyers, internationally regarded as helicopter carriers. operates three , six and three destroyers. has the which remains ceremonially in commission due to her historical significance. The Russian Navy operates two and eight destroyers. operates a single purchased from the United States for training use. operates six Type 45 or Daring-class destroyers. operates 73 active guided missile destroyers (DDGs) of a planned class of 92, and also has two active destroyer of a planned class of three, all . === Ships of equivalent to frigates === operates three s. This class's hull is MEKO 360H2 frigate. operates five s. These ships are classified as destroyers by Iran, but internationally regarded as light frigates. === Ships of note classed as frigates === operates the ENS Tahya Misr. This is one of the Aquitaine-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France. operates three s and four s. These ships are officially classified as frigates by Germany, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability. operates one Nilgiri class and three s. These ships are officially classified as frigates by India, but are larger and armed with BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles. operates the Mohammed VI. This is one of the Aquitaine-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France. operates four s. These ships are classified as frigates by the Netherlands, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability. operates four s. These ships are subclasses of Spain's Alvaro de Bazan-class, and classified as frigates, but are regarded as destroyers due to their size and armament. operates . This ship was classified as a destroyer from 1990 to 2001, when she was reclassified as a frigate. No official reason was given for this and there was no change in armament or capability, thus remaining in the destroyer type. operates five s. These ships are officially classified as a frigates by Spain, but due to their size and capabilities are regarded internationally as destroyers. They also served as the basis for Australia's Hobart-class destroyers. === Former operators === lost its entire navy upon the Empire's collapse following World War I. lost its entire navy upon its conquest by the Bolsheviks in 1921. sold its two and s to Peru in 1933, to prevent their capture by the Soviet Union. transferred its only back to Japan in 1942. decommissioned its only in 1963. decommissioned its last in 1965. decommissioned its last in 1967. decommissioned its last Z-class destroyer in 1972. decommissioned its H-class destroyer in 1972. transferred its remaining to The Philippines in 1975 following the Fall of Saigon. decommissioned its last W-class destroyer in 1976. decommissioned its only destroyer, in 1980. decommissioned both its and four s in 1982 following defense reviews. decommissioned both its s and its lone in 1986. decommissioned its last in 1991. lone was destroyed by a fire in 1992. decommissioned its lone in 1994. decommissioned its lone in 1997. decommissioned its last in 2000. decommissioned its lone in 2003. decommissioned its last in 2004. decommissioned its last s in 2005. decommissioned its last in 2006. decommissioned its last in 2007. decommissioned its last Garcia-class destroyer escort in 2008. decommissioned its last in 2011. decommissioned its last in 2015. decommissioned its last in 2017. decommissioned its last in 2018. decommissioned its last in 2023. ==Future development== plans to build 7,000-ton destroyers after the delivery of the new frigates, and TKMS presented to the Navy its most modern 7,200-ton MEKO A-400 air defense destroyer, an updated version of the German F-125-class frigates. The similarities between the projects and the high rate of commonality between requirements were also crucial for the consortium's victory. is building up to 15 s based on the Royal Navy's Type 26 frigate. They will be more powerful than the Type 26, being fitted with the Aegis Combat System and long range surface-to-air and surface-to-surface missiles. is adding six more Type 052D destroyer and sixteen more Type 055 destroyer class ships to its navy. is building five new Amiral Ronarc'h-class destroyers (classed as "first rank frigates" in the French Navy). has ordered three Frégate de défense et d'intervention (with an option on a fourth) from France. India has begun development of its Project-18 Next Generation Destroyers. is currently building 1-2 s. is currently researching development into their new DDX project to replace their Durand da le Penne-class destroyers. Is developing plans for its DDR Destroyer Revolution Project. has begun development of its KDX-IIA destroyers. These ships are to be a subclass of South Korea's s. The first unit is expected to enter service in 2019. Additionally, s are being built. has begun development of its . Design work was ongoing as of 2020. is currently developing its TF2000-class destroyer as the largest part of the MILGEM project. A total of seven ships will be constructed and will specialise in anti-air warfare. is in the early stages of developing a Type 83 destroyer design after the unveiling of these plans in the 2021 defence white paper. The class is projected to replace the current Type 45 destroyer fleet beginning in the latter 2030s. , currently has 19 additional Arleigh Burke destroyers planned or under construction. The new ships will be the upgraded "flight III" version. The United States has also started development of its DDG(X) next-generation destroyer project. Construction of the first ship is expected to start in 2028. ==Destroyers in Preservation== Many historic destroyers are preserved as museum ships in Buffalo, New York, USA in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA in Boston, Massachusetts, USA in Charleston, South Carolina, USA in Bay City, Michigan, USA in Bremerton, Washington, USA in Albany, New York, USA in Galveston, Texas, USA in Chatham, Kent, UK HMCS Hadia in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia FS Maillé-Brézé in Nantes, Pays de la Loire, France FGS Mölders in Wilhelmshaven, Lower Saxony, Germany ORP Błyskawica in Gdynia, Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland HSwMS Småland in Gothenburg, Västergötland, Sweden HS Velos in Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece TCG Gayret in Izmit, Kocaeli Province, Turkey RFS Bespokoyny in Kronshtadt, Saint Petersburg, Russia RFS Smetlivy in Sevastopol, Crimea, Russia ROKS Jeong Ju in Dangjin, South Chungcheong Province, South Korea ROCS Te Yang in Tainan City, Tainan County, Taiwan CNS Anshan in Qingdao, Shandong, China CNS Changchun in Rushan, Shandong, China CNS Taiyuan in Zhongshan, Dalian, China CNS Chongqing in Tianjin, China CNS Dalian in Liugong Island, Shandong, China CNS Jinan in Qingdao, Shandong, China CNS Nanchang in Nanchang, Jiangxi, China CNS Nanjing in Shipu, Xiangshan County, Zhejiang, China CNS Nanning in Fangchenggang, Guangxi, China CNS Xi'an in Wuhan, Hubei, China CNS Xining in Taizhou, Jiangsu, China CNS Yinchuan in Yinchuan, Ningxia, China CNS Zhuhai in Chongqing, China BNS Comandante Bauru in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ARA Santísima Trinidad being restored at Port Belgrano Naval Base, Argentina	[ "Rear Admiral", "Cammell Laird", "Royal Danish Navy", "battleship", "cruise missile", "Type 052C destroyer", "aviso", "torpedo boat", "Shipu", "Tin Can Sailors", "fuel oil", "Dangjin", "French language", "J-, K- and N-class destroyer", "depth charge", "Bremerton, Washington", "Polish language", "HSwMS Småland (J19)", "Russian destroyer Smetlivy", "Chinese destroyer Yinchuan (107)", "Battle of Gallipoli", "vertical launch system", "BrahMos", "First World War", "V and W-class destroyer", "United States Navy", "rheumatism", "Defence in a Competitive Age", "USS Sarsfield", "Shandong", "Chinese destroyer Nanning (1976)", "Dalian", "Chatham, Kent", "Type 15 frigate", "Pays de la Loire", "George Thomson (shipbuilder)", "Chilean Navy", "Bolsheviks", "torpedo boats", "Whitehead torpedo", "Fall of Saigon", "Boston, Massachusetts", "Soviet destroyer Rekordny (1939)", "Chinese destroyer Xining (108)", "United States Naval Institute", "Type 26 frigate", "Soviet destroyer Reshitelny (1940)", "Aegis Combat System", "Italian language", "DDR Destroyer Revolution", "motor torpedo boat", "Baden-Württemberg-class frigate", "Greek language", "Taizhou, Jiangsu", "Battle of Heligoland (1914)", "Tainan County", "Horizon-class frigate", "surface combatant", "Battle of Caldera Bay", "Baton Rouge, Louisiana", "Tainan City", "Thorsten Nordenfelt", "Guided missile destroyer", "esploratori", "Västergötland", "Qingdao", "Hotchkiss revolver cannon", "Garcia-class frigate", "compartmentation", "launch (boat)", "Breech-loading weapon", "Yarrow shipyards", "NATO", "frigate", "Rio de Janeiro", "U-boat", "ORP Błyskawica", "Fernando Villaamil", "Saint Petersburg", "Type 83 destroyer", "Type 051C destroyer", "Kocaeli Province", "torpedo gunboat", "Ningxia", "museum ship", "Type 93 torpedo", "Chinese destroyer Chongqing", "Dutch Navy", "Panjdeh Incident", "Type 45 destroyer", "Ukrainian–Soviet War", "Squid (weapon)", "W and Z-class destroyer", "Albany, New York", "tonnage", "minelayer", "Bay City, Michigan", "Naval fleet", "Crimea", "cruiser", "Dutch language", "Rushan, Shandong", "Zhongshan", "guided missile destroyer", "hydrophone", "torpedo", "Sejong the Great-class destroyer", "Buffalo, New York", "TF2000-class frigate", "torpedo tube", "antiaircraft", "radar cross-section", "Chongqing", "List of destroyers of the Second World War", "Schwartzkopff torpedo", "Chinese destroyer Dalian (110)", "German World War II destroyers", "submarine", "Planing (sailing)", "Izmit", "Chinese destroyer Nanjing (131)", "water-tube boiler", "Gdynia", "Guangxi", "Nathaniel Barnaby", "ARA Santísima Trinidad (D-2)", "Chinese destroyer Xi'an (106)", "People's Liberation Army Navy", "QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss", "Spanish Navy", "Jiangxi", "helicopter carrier", "navy", "Soviet destroyer Retivy (1939)", "Republic of Korea Navy", "DDG(X)", "Tianjin", "Kronshtadt", "Pomeranian Voivodeship", "Czech language", "China", "anti-submarine warfare", "ENS Tahya Misr", "Third Sea Lord", "triple-expansion engine", "Clydebank", "surface-to-surface missile", "KDX-IIA", "John I. Thornycroft & Company", "forecastle", "HMS TB 81 (1885)", "Type 052B destroyer", "Sydney, New South Wales", "United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification", "Bombardment of Cherbourg", "nuclear missile", "Nilgiri-class frigate (2019)", "MILGEM project", "Nantes", "Hubei", "QF 3 pounder Hotchkiss", "Chinese destroyer Nanchang (101)", "steam turbine", "USS Rogers (DD-876)", "South Chungcheong Province", "Thornycroft", "surface-to-air missile", "Wuhan", "MEKO 360", "Frégate de défense et d'intervention", "Lüshunkou District", "Port Belgrano Naval Base", "Naval Institute Press", "World War II", "Gothenburg", "unrestricted submarine warfare", "Type 052 destroyer", "Type 051B destroyer", "protected cruiser", "FRAM I", "Mark Peattie", "Russian destroyer Bespokoyny (1990)", "Xiangshan County, Zhejiang", "Battle of Port Arthur", "USS McAnn", "anti-air warfare", "FREMM Multipurpose frigate", "United States Department of Defense", "radar", "Charleston, South Carolina", "QF 6 pounder Nordenfelt", "destroyer tender", "German Navy", "Fangchenggang", "convoy", "Sevastopol", "Nanchang", "German destroyer Mölders", "John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher", "Yinchuan", "Russo-Japanese War", "Chinese destroyer Nanchang (163)", "Thessaloniki", "French Navy", "warship", "carrier battle group", "Hotchkiss et Cie", "Exocet", "Hedgehog (weapon)", "HMCS Haida", "Baldwin Walker", "Hamilton, Ontario", "Wilhelmshaven", "Central Macedonia", "USS Eversole (DD-789)", "Liugong Island", "USS Charrette", "Type 052D destroyer", "guided missile", "F126 frigate", "sonar", "Type 055 destroyer", "G and H-class destroyer", "hangars", "Galveston, Texas", "Romanian Navy", "dual-purpose gun", "Project 18-class destroyer", "Hontoria", "British ordnance terms", "List of destroyer classes", "Portuguese language", "torpedo net", "high-tensile steel", "self-propelled torpedo", "corvette", "Battle of Jutland", "aircraft", "helicopter", "Yarrow Shipbuilders", "scout cruiser", "French destroyer Maillé-Brézé (D627)", "Chinese destroyer Jinan (105)", "QF 12 pounder 12 cwt naval gun", "3rd Destroyer Flotilla", "Moroccan frigate Mohammed VI", "Chinese destroyer Zhuhai (1990)", "High Seas Fleet", "battlecruiser", "Russian Navy", "destroyer escort", "Battle of Santiago de Cuba", "BL 4 inch naval gun Mk I – VI", "Lower Saxony" ]
8,781	Dorothy Parker	Dorothy Parker (née Rothschild; August 22, 1893 – June 7, 1967) was an American poet and writer of fiction, plays and screenplays based in New York; she was known for her caustic wisecracks, and eye for 20th-century urban foibles. Parker rose to acclaim, both for her literary works published in magazines, such as The New Yorker, and as a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table. In the early 1930s, Parker traveled to Hollywood to pursue screenwriting. Her successes there, including two Academy Award nominations, were curtailed when her involvement in left-wing politics resulted in her being placed on the Hollywood blacklist. Dismissive of her own talents, she deplored her reputation as a "wisecracker". Nevertheless, both her literary output and reputation for sharp wit have endured. Some of her works have been set to music. == Early life and education == Also known as Dot or Dottie, Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild in 1893 to Jacob Henry Rothschild and his wife Eliza Annie (née Marston) (1851–1898) at 732 Ocean Avenue in Long Branch, New Jersey. Parker wrote in her essay "My Home Town" that her parents returned from their summer beach cottage there to their Manhattan apartment shortly after Labor Day (September 4) so that she could be called a true New Yorker. Parker's mother was of Scottish descent. Her father was the son of Sampson Jacob Rothschild (1818–1899) and Mary Greissman (b. 1824), both Prussian-born Jews. Sampson Jacob Rothschild was a merchant who immigrated to the United States around 1846, settling in Monroe County, Alabama. Dorothy's father was one of five known siblings: Simon (1854–1908); Samuel (b. 1857); Hannah (1860–1911), later Mrs. William Henry Theobald; and Martin, born in Manhattan on December 12, 1865, who perished in the sinking of the Titanic in 1912. Her mother died in Manhattan in July 1898, a month before Parker's fifth birthday. Her father remarried in 1900 to Eleanor Frances Lewis (1851–1903), a Protestant. Author Dorothy Herrmann claimed that Parker hated her father, who allegedly physically abused her, and her stepmother, whom she refused to call "mother", "stepmother", or "Eleanor", instead referring to her as "the housekeeper". However, her biographer Marion Meade refers to this account as "largely false", stating that the atmosphere in which Parker grew up was indulgent, affectionate, supportive and generous. Her stepmother died in 1903, when Parker was nine. Parker later attended Miss Dana's School, a finishing school in Morristown, New Jersey. She graduated in 1911, at the age of 18, according to Kinney, just before the school closed, although Rhonda Pettit and Marion Meade while she worked on her poetry. She sold her first poem to Vanity Fair magazine in 1914 and some months later was hired as an editorial assistant for Vogue, another Condé Nast magazine. She moved to Vanity Fair as a staff writer after two years at Vogue. In 1917, she met a Wall Street stockbroker, Edwin Pond Parker II (1893–1933) and they married before he left to serve in World War I with the U.S. Army 4th Division. == Algonquin Round Table years == Parker's career took off in 1918 while she was writing theater criticism for Vanity Fair, filling in for the vacationing P. G. Wodehouse. At the magazine, she met Robert Benchley, who became a close friend, and Robert E. Sherwood. The trio began lunching at the Algonquin Hotel almost daily and became founding members of what became known as the Algonquin Round Table. This numbered among its members the newspaper columnists Franklin P. Adams and Alexander Woollcott, as well as the editor Harold Ross, the novelist Edna Ferber, the reporter Heywood Broun, and the comedian Harpo Marx. Through their publication of her lunchtime remarks and short verses, particularly in Adams' column "The Conning Tower", Parker began developing a national reputation as a wit. Parker's caustic wit as a critic initially proved popular, but she was eventually dismissed by Vanity Fair on January 11, 1920, after her criticisms had too often offended the playwright–producer David Belasco, the actor Billie Burke, the impresario Florenz Ziegfeld, and others. Benchley resigned in protest. When Harold Ross founded The New Yorker in 1925, Parker and Benchley were part of a board of editors he established to allay the concerns of his investors. Parker's first piece for the magazine was published in its second issue. She became famous for her short, viciously humorous poems, many highlighting ludicrous aspects of her many (largely unsuccessful) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide. The next 15 years were Parker's period of greatest productivity and success. In the 1920s alone she published some 300 poems and free verses in Vanity Fair, Vogue, "The Conning Tower" and The New Yorker as well as Life, McCall's and The New Republic. Her poem "Song in a Minor Key" was published during a candid interview with New York N.E.A. writer Josephine van der Grift. Parker published her first volume of poetry, Enough Rope, in 1926. It sold 47,000 copies and garnered impressive reviews. The Nation described her verse as "caked with a salty humor, rough with splinters of disillusion, and tarred with a bright black authenticity". Although some critics, notably The New York Times reviewer, dismissed her work as "flapper verse", the book helped Parker's reputation for sparkling wit. Some of Parker's most popular work was published in The New Yorker in the form of acerbic book reviews under the byline "Constant Reader". Her response to the whimsy of A. A. Milne's The House at Pooh Corner was "Tonstant Weader fwowed up." Her reviews appeared semi-regularly from 1927 to 1933, were widely read, and were posthumously published in 1970 in a collection titled Constant Reader. Her best-known short story, "Big Blonde", published in The Bookman, was awarded the O. Henry Award as the best short story of 1929. Her short stories, though often witty, were also spare and incisive, and more bittersweet than comic; her poetry has been described as sardonic. Parker eventually separated from her husband Edwin Parker, divorcing in 1928. She had a number of affairs, her lovers including reporter-turned-playwright Charles MacArthur and the publisher Seward Collins. Her relationship with MacArthur resulted in a pregnancy. Parker is alleged to have said, "how like me, to put all my eggs into one bastard”. She had an abortion, and fell into a depression that culminated in her first attempt at suicide. Toward the end of this period, Parker began to become more politically aware and active. What would become a lifelong commitment to activism began in 1927, when she became concerned about the pending executions of Sacco and Vanzetti. Parker traveled to Boston to protest the proceedings. She and fellow Round Tabler Ruth Hale were arrested, and Parker eventually pleaded guilty to a charge of "loitering and sauntering", paying a $5 fine. == Hollywood == In February 1932, over a breakup with boyfriend John McClain, Parker attempted suicide by swallowing barbiturates. In 1932, Parker met Alan Campbell, an actor hoping to become a screenwriter. They married two years later in Raton, New Mexico. Campbell's mixed parentage was the reverse of Parker's: he had a German-Jewish mother and a Scottish father. She learned that he was bisexual and later proclaimed in public that he was "queer as a billy goat". The pair moved to Hollywood and signed ten-week contracts with Paramount Pictures, with Campbell (also expected to act) earning $250 per week and Parker earning $1,000 per week. They would eventually earn $2,000 and sometimes more than $5,000 per week as freelancers for various studios. She and Campbell "[received] writing credit for over 15 films between 1934 and 1941". In 1933, when informed that famously taciturn former president Calvin Coolidge had died, Parker remarked, "How could they tell?" In 1935, Parker contributed lyrics for the song "I Wished on the Moon", with music by Ralph Rainger. The song was introduced in The Big Broadcast of 1936 by Bing Crosby. With Campbell and Robert Carson, she wrote the script for the 1937 film A Star Is Born, for which they were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing—Screenplay. She wrote additional dialogue for The Little Foxes in 1941. Together with Frank Cavett, she received a "Writing (Motion Picture Story)" Oscar nomination for Smash-Up, the Story of a Woman (1947), starring Susan Hayward. After the United States entered the Second World War, Parker and Alexander Woollcott collaborated to produce an anthology of her work as part of a series published by Viking Press for servicemen stationed overseas. With an introduction by W. Somerset Maugham, the volume compiled over two dozen of Parker's short stories, along with selected poems from Enough Rope, Sunset Gun, and Death and Taxes. It was published in the United States in 1944 as The Portable Dorothy Parker. Hers is one of three volumes in the Portable series, including volumes devoted to William Shakespeare and the Bible, that had remained in continuous print as of 1976. During the 1930s and 1940s, Parker became an increasingly vocal advocate of civil liberties and civil rights and a frequent critic of authority figures. During the Great Depression, she was among numerous American intellectuals and artists who became involved in related social movements. She reported in 1937 on the Loyalist cause in Spain for the Communist magazine New Masses. At the behest of Otto Katz, a covert Soviet Comintern agent and operative of German Communist Party agent Willi Münzenberg, Parker helped to found the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League in 1936, which the FBI suspected of being a Communist Party front. The League's membership eventually grew to around 4,000. According to David Caute, its often wealthy members were "able to contribute as much to [Communist] Party funds as the whole American working class", although they may not have been intending to support the Party cause. Parker also chaired the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee's fundraising arm, "Spanish Refugee Appeal". She organized Project Rescue Ship to transport Loyalist veterans to Mexico, headed Spanish Children's Relief, and lent her name to many other left-wing causes and organizations. Her former Round Table friends saw less and less of her, and her relationship with Robert Benchley became particularly strained (although they would reconcile). Parker met S. J. Perelman at a party in 1932 and, despite a rocky start (Perelman called it "a scarifying ordeal"), they remained friends for the next 35 years. They became neighbors when the Perelmans helped Parker and Campbell buy a run-down farm in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, near New Hope, a popular summer destination among many writers and artists from New York. Parker was listed as a Communist by the anti-Communist publication Red Channels in 1950. The FBI compiled a 1,000-page dossier on her because of her suspected involvement in Communism during the era when Senator Joseph McCarthy was raising alarms about communists in government and Hollywood. As a result, movie studio bosses placed her on the Hollywood blacklist. Her final screenplay was The Fan, a 1949 adaptation of Oscar Wilde's Lady Windermere's Fan, directed by Otto Preminger. Her marriage to Campbell was tempestuous, with tensions exacerbated by Parker's increasing alcohol consumption and Campbell's long-term affair with a married woman in Europe during World War II. They divorced in 1947, remarried in 1950, then separated in 1952 when Parker moved back to New York. From 1957 to 1962, she wrote book reviews for Esquire. Her writing became increasingly erratic owing to her continued abuse of alcohol. She returned to Hollywood in 1961, reconciled with Campbell, and collaborated with him on a number of unproduced projects until Campbell died from a drug overdose in 1963. == Later life and death == Following Campbell's death, Parker returned to New York City and the Volney residential hotel. In her later years, she denigrated the Algonquin Round Table, although it had brought her such early notoriety: Parker occasionally participated in radio programs, including Information Please (as a guest) and Author, Author (as a regular panelist). She wrote for the Columbia Workshop, and both Ilka Chase and Tallulah Bankhead used her material for radio monologues. Parker died on June 7, 1967, of a heart attack At the time of her death, she was living at the Volney residential hotel on East 74th Street. === Burial === Following her cremation, Parker's ashes were unclaimed for several years. Finally, in 1973, the crematorium sent them to her lawyer's office; by then he had retired, and the ashes remained in his colleague Paul O'Dwyer's filing cabinet for about 17 years. In 1988, O'Dwyer brought this to public attention, with the aid of celebrity columnist Liz Smith; after some discussion, the NAACP claimed Parker's remains and designed a memorial garden for them outside its Baltimore headquarters. The plaque read: In early 2020, the NAACP moved its headquarters to downtown Baltimore and how this might affect Parker's ashes became the topic of much speculation, especially after the NAACP formally announced it would later move to Washington, D.C. The NAACP restated that Parker's ashes would ultimately be where her family wished. "It’s important to us that we do this right," said the NAACP. "Two executives from the N.A.A.C.P. spoke, and a rabbi who had attended her initial burial said Kaddish." On August 22, 2020, Parker was re-buried privately in Woodlawn, with the possibility of a more public ceremony later. In 1996, the hotel was designated as a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA, based on the contributions of Parker and other members of the Round Table. The organization's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel. Parker's birthplace at the Jersey Shore was also designated a National Literary Landmark by Friends of Libraries USA in 2005 and a bronze plaque marks the former site of her family house. In 2014, Parker was elected to the New Jersey Hall of Fame. == In popular culture == Parker inspired a number of fictional characters in several plays of her day. These included "Lily Malone" in Philip Barry's Hotel Universe (1932), "Mary Hilliard" (played by Ruth Gordon) in George Oppenheimer's Here Today (1932), "Paula Wharton" in Gordon's 1944 play Over Twenty-one (directed by George S. Kaufman), and "Julia Glenn" in the Kaufman–Moss Hart collaboration Merrily We Roll Along (1934). Kaufman's representation of her in Merrily We Roll Along led Parker, once his Round Table compatriot, to despise him. She also was portrayed as "Daisy Lester" in Charles Brackett's 1934 novel Entirely Surrounded. She is mentioned in the original introductory lyrics in Cole Porter's song "Just One of Those Things" from the 1935 Broadway musical Jubilee, which have been retained in the standard interpretation of the song as part of the Great American Songbook. Parker is a character in the novel The Dorothy Parker Murder Case by George Baxt (1984), in a series of Algonquin Round Table Mysteries by J. J. Murphy (2011– ), and in Ellen Meister's novel Farewell, Dorothy Parker (2013). She is the main character in "Love For Miss Dottie", a short story by Larry N Mayer, which was selected by writer Mary Gaitskill for the collection Best New American Voices 2009 (Harcourt). She has been portrayed on film and television by Dolores Sutton in F. Scott Fitzgerald in Hollywood (1976), Rosemary Murphy in Julia (1977), Bebe Neuwirth in Dash and Lilly (1999), and Jennifer Jason Leigh in Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle (1994). Neuwirth was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance, and Leigh received a number of awards and nominations, including a Golden Globe nomination. Television creator Amy Sherman-Palladino named her production company 'Dorothy Parker Drank Here Productions' in tribute to Parker. Tucson actress Lesley Abrams wrote and performed the one-woman show Dorothy Parker's Last Call in 2009 in Tucson, Arizona, presented by the Winding Road Theater Ensemble. She reprised the role at the Live Theatre Workshop in Tucson in 2014. The play was selected to be part of the Capital Fringe Festival in DC in 2010. In 2018, American drag queen Miz Cracker played Parker in the celebrity-impersonation game show episode of the Season 10 of Rupaul's Drag Race. In the 2018 film Can You Ever Forgive Me? (based on the 2008 memoir of the same name), Melissa McCarthy plays Lee Israel, an author who for a time forged original letters in Dorothy Parker's name. == 2007 Dorothy Parker Copyright Trial == In Silverstein v. Penguin Putnam, Inc, the plaintiff claimed copyright in certain Parker poems that had been reproduced in Penguin's Dorothy Parker: Complete Poems after appearing in Not Much Fun, a volume edited by Silverstein that had been the first collection to include these particular poems. == Adaptations == In 1982, Anni-Frid Lyngstad recorded "Threnody", set to music by Per Gessle, for her third solo album Something's Going On, after she offered him a book of poems by Dorothy Parker. In the 2010s some of her poems from the early 20th century have been set to music by the composer Marcus Paus as the operatic song cycle Hate Songs for Mezzo-Soprano and Orchestra (2014); Paus's Hate Songs was described by musicologist Ralph P. Locke as "one of the most engaging works" in recent years; "the cycle expresses Parker's favorite theme: how awful human beings are, especially the male of the species". With the authorization of the NAACP, lyrics taken from her book of poetry Not So Deep as a Well were used in 2014 by Canadian singer Myriam Gendron to create a folk album of the same title. Also in 2014, Chicago jazz bassist/singer/composer Katie Ernst issued her album Little Words, consisting of her authorized settings of seven of Parker's poems. In 2021 her book Men I'm Not Married To was adapted as an opera of the same name by composer Lisa DeSpain and librettist Rachel J. Peters. It premiered virtually as part of Operas in Place and Virtual Festival of New Operas commissioned by Baldwin Wallace Conservatory Voice Performance, Cleveland Opera Theater, and On Site Opera on February 18, 2021.	[ "David Sedaris", "Saturday Evening Post", "W. Somerset Maugham", "flapper", "Charles MacArthur", "Great Depression", "Calvin Coolidge", "Fran Lebowitz", "79th Street (Manhattan)", "University of Toronto Library", "Miz Cracker", "Morristown, New Jersey", "Can You Ever Forgive Me?", "Seward Collins", "Titanic", "Budd Schulberg", "Arnaud d'Usseau", "screenwriting", "Hollywood blacklist", "Over 21 (play)", "Wall Street", "Otto Preminger", "bisexual", "Anni-Frid Lyngstad", "Mercedes de Acosta", "P. G. 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8,783	Dylan Thomas	Dylan Marlais Thomas (27 October 1914 – 9 November 1953) was a Welsh poet and writer, whose works include the poems "Do not go gentle into that good night" and "And death shall have no dominion", as well as the "play for voices" Under Milk Wood. He also wrote stories and radio broadcasts such as A Child's Christmas in Wales and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog. He became widely popular in his lifetime, and remained so after his death at the age of 39 in New York City. By then, he had acquired a reputation, which he had encouraged, as a "roistering, drunken and doomed poet". Further appraisals following on from new critical editions of his poems have sought to explore in more depth his unique modernist poetic, setting aside the distracting legend of the "doomed poet", and seeking thereby to secure his status as a major poet of the 20th century. ==Life and career== ===Early life=== Dylan Thomas was born on 27 October 1914 in Swansea, the son of Florence Hannah (née Williams; 1882–1958), a seamstress, and David John 'Jack' Thomas (1876–1952), a teacher. His father had a first-class honours degree in English from University College, Aberystwyth, and ambitions to rise above his position teaching English literature at the local grammar school. Thomas had one sibling, Nancy Marles (1906–1953), who was eight years his senior. At the 1921 census, Nancy and Dylan are noted as speaking both Welsh and English. Their parents were also bilingual in English and Welsh, and Jack Thomas taught Welsh at evening classes. One of their Swansea relations has recalled that, at home, "Both Auntie Florrie and Uncle Jack always spoke Welsh." There are three accounts from the 1940s of Dylan singing Welsh hymns and songs, and of speaking a little Welsh. Thomas's father chose the name Dylan, which could be translated as "son of the sea" after Dylan ail Don, a character in The Mabinogion. His middle name, Marlais, was given in honour of his great-uncle, William Thomas, a Unitarian minister and poet whose bardic name was Gwilym Marles. The red-brick semi-detached house at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive (in the respectable area of the Uplands), in which Thomas was born and lived until he was 23, had been bought by his parents a few months before his birth. ====Childhood==== Thomas has written a number of accounts of his childhood growing up in Swansea, and there are also accounts available by those who knew him as a young child. Thomas wrote several poems about his childhood and early teenage years, including "Once it was the colour of saying" and "The hunchback in the park", as well as short stories such as The Fight and A Child's Christmas in Wales. Thomas's four grandparents played no part in his childhood. For the first ten years or so of his life, Thomas's Swansea aunts and uncles helped with his upbringing. These were his mother's three siblings, Polly and Bob, who lived in the St Thomas district of Swansea and Theodosia, and her husband, the Rev. David Rees, in Newton, Swansea, where parishioners recall Thomas sometimes staying for a month or so at a time. All four aunts and uncles spoke Welsh and English. In the land between Llangain and Llansteffan, his mother's family, the Williamses and their close relatives, worked a dozen farms with over a thousand acres between them. The memory of Fernhill, a dilapidated 15-acre farm rented by his maternal aunt, Ann Jones, and her husband, Jim Jones, is evoked in the 1945 lyrical poem "Fern Hill", but is portrayed more accurately in his short story, The Peaches. Thomas also spent part of his summer holidays with Jim's sister, Rachel Jones, at neighbouring Pentrewyman farm, where he spent his time riding Prince the cart horse, chasing pheasants and fishing for trout. All these relatives were bilingual, There is also an account of the young Thomas being taught how to swear in Welsh. His schoolboy friends recalled that "It was all Welsh—and the children played in Welsh...he couldn't speak English when he stopped at Fernhill...in all his surroundings, everybody else spoke Welsh..." At the 1921 census, 95% of residents in the two parishes around Fernhill were Welsh speakers. Across the whole peninsula, 13%—more than 200 people—spoke only Welsh. A few fields south of Fernhill lay Blaencwm, a pair of stone cottages to which his mother's Swansea siblings had retired, and with whom the young Thomas and his sister, Nancy, would sometimes stay. A couple of miles down the road from Blaencwm is the village of Llansteffan, where Thomas used to holiday at Rose Cottage with another Welsh-speaking aunt, Anne Williams, his mother's half-sister who had married into local gentry. Anne's daughter, Doris, married a dentist, Randy Fulleylove. The young Dylan also holidayed with them in Abergavenny, where Fulleylove had his practice. Thomas's paternal grandparents, Anne and Evan Thomas, lived at The Poplars in Johnstown, just outside Carmarthen. Anne was the daughter of William Lewis, a gardener in the town. She had been born and brought up in Llangadog, as had her father, who is thought to be "Grandpa" in Thomas's short story A Visit to Grandpa's, in which Grandpa expresses his determination to be buried not in Llansteffan but in Llangadog. Evan worked on the railways and was known as Thomas the Guard. His family had originated in another part of Welsh-speaking Carmarthenshire, in the farms that lay around the villages of Brechfa, Abergorlech, Gwernogle and Llanybydder, and which the young Thomas occasionally visited with his father. His father's side of the family also provided the young Thomas with another kind of experience; many lived in the towns of the South Wales industrial belt, including Port Talbot, Pontarddulais and Cross Hands. Thomas had bronchitis and asthma in childhood and struggled with these throughout his life. He was indulged by his mother, Florence, and enjoyed being mollycoddled, a trait he carried into adulthood, becoming skilled in gaining attention and sympathy. But Florence would have known that child deaths had been a recurring event in the family's history, and it is said that she herself had lost a child soon after her marriage. But if Thomas was protected and spoiled at home, the real spoilers were his many aunts and older cousins, those in both Swansea and the Llansteffan countryside. Some of them played an important part in both his upbringing and his later life, as Thomas's wife, Caitlin, has observed: "He couldn't stand their company for more than five minutes... Yet Dylan couldn't break away from them, either. They were the background from which he had sprung, and he needed that background all his life, like a tree needs roots.". ====Education==== Thomas's formal education began at Mrs Hole's dame school, a private school on Mirador Crescent, a few streets away from his home. He described his experience there in Reminiscences of Childhood: Never was there such a dame school as ours, so firm and kind and smelling of galoshes, with the sweet and fumbled music of the piano lessons drifting down from upstairs to the lonely schoolroom, where only the sometimes tearful wicked sat over undone sums, or to repent a little crime – the pulling of a girl's hair during geography, the sly shin kick under the table during English literature. Alongside dame school, Thomas also took private lessons from Gwen James, an elocution teacher who had studied at drama school in London, winning several major prizes. She also taught "Dramatic Art" and "Voice Production", and would often help cast members of the Swansea Little Theatre (see below) with the parts they were playing. Thomas's parents' storytelling and dramatic talents, as well as their theatre-going interests, could also have contributed to the young Thomas's interest in performance. In October 1925, Thomas enrolled at Swansea Grammar School for boys, in Mount Pleasant, where his father taught English. There are several accounts by his teachers and fellow pupils of Thomas's time at grammar school. He was an undistinguished pupil who shied away from school, preferring reading and drama activities. In his first year one of his poems was published in the school's magazine, and before he left he became its editor. Thomas's various contributions to the school magazine can be found here: During his final school years he began writing poetry in notebooks; the first poem, dated 27 April (1930), is entitled "Osiris, come to Isis". In June 1928, Thomas won the school's mile race, held at St. Helen's Ground; he carried a newspaper photograph of his victory with him until his death. In 1931, when he was 16, Thomas left school to become a reporter for the South Wales Daily Post, where he remained for some 18 months. After leaving the newspaper, Thomas continued to work as a freelance journalist for several years, during which time he remained at Cwmdonkin Drive and continued to add to his notebooks, amassing 200 poems in four books between 1930 and 1934. Of the 90 poems he published, half were written during these years. ====On the stage==== The stage was also an important part of Thomas's life from 1929 to 1934, as an actor, writer, producer and set painter. He took part in productions at Swansea Grammar School, and with the YMCA Junior Players and the Little Theatre, which was based in the Mumbles. It was also a touring company that took part in drama competitions and festivals around South Wales. Between October 1933 and March 1934, for example, Thomas and his fellow actors took part in five productions at the Mumbles theatre, as well as nine touring performances. Thomas continued with acting and production throughout his life, including his time in Laugharne, South Leigh and London (in the theatre and on radio), as well as taking part in nine stage readings of Under Milk Wood. The Shakespearian actor, John Laurie, who had worked with Thomas on both the stage and radio thought that Thomas would "have loved to have been an actor" and, had he chosen to do so, would have been "Our first real poet-dramatist since Shakespeare." Painting the sets at the Little Theatre was just one aspect of the young Thomas's interest in art. His own drawings and paintings hung in his bedroom in Cwmdonkin Drive, and his early letters reveal a broader interest in art and art theory. Thomas saw writing a poem as an act of construction "as a sculptor works at stone," later advising a student "to treat words as a craftsman does his wood or stone...hew, carve, mould, coil, polish and plane them..." Throughout his life, his friends included artists, both in Swansea and in London, as well as in America. In his free time, Thomas visited the cinema in Uplands, took walks along Swansea Bay, and frequented Swansea's pubs, especially the Antelope and the Mermaid Hotels in Mumbles. In the Kardomah Café, close to the newspaper office in Castle Street, he met his creative contemporaries, including his friend the poet Vernon Watkins and the musician and composer, Daniel Jones with whom, as teenagers, Thomas had helped to set up the "Warmley Broadcasting Corporation". This group of writers, musicians and artists became known as "The Kardomah Gang". This was also the period of his friendship with Bert Trick, a local shopkeeper, left-wing political activist and would-be poet, and with the Rev. Leon Atkin, a Swansea minister, human rights activist and local politician. In 1933, Thomas visited London for probably the first time. ===London, 1933–1939=== Thomas was a teenager when many of the poems for which he became famous were published: "And death shall have no dominion", "Before I Knocked" and "The Force That Through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower". "And death shall have no dominion" appeared in the New English Weekly in May 1933. From 1933 onwards, poet Victor Neuburg edited a section called "The Poet's Corner" in a British newspaper, the Sunday Referee. Here he encouraged new talent by awarding weekly prizes. One prize went to the then-unknown Thomas, 18 Poems was noted for its visionary qualities which led to critic Desmond Hawkins writing that the work was "the sort of bomb that bursts no more than once in three years". In December 1935, Thomas contributed the poem "The Hand That Signed the Paper" to Issue 18 of the bi-monthly New Verse. In 1936, his next collection Twenty-five Poems, published by J. M. Dent, also received much critical praise. Two years later, in 1938, Thomas won the Oscar Blumenthal Prize for Poetry; it was also the year in which New Directions offered to be his publisher in the United States. In all, he wrote half his poems while living at Cwmdonkin Drive before moving to London. During this time Thomas's reputation for heavy drinking developed. Thomas refused to align himself with them and declined to sign their manifesto. He later stated that he believed they were "intellectual muckpots leaning on a theory". He was a supporter of the left-wing No More War Movement and boasted about participating in demonstrations against the British Union of Fascists. ====Marriage==== In early 1936, Thomas met Caitlin Macnamara (1913–1994), a 22-year-old dancer of Irish and French Quaker descent. She had run away from home, intent on making a career in dance, and aged 18 joined the chorus line at the London Palladium. Laying his head in her lap, a drunken Thomas proposed. Thomas liked to assert that he and Caitlin were in bed together ten minutes after they first met. Although Caitlin initially continued her relationship with John, she and Thomas began a correspondence, and in the second half of 1936 were courting. They married at the register office in Penzance, Cornwall, on 11 July 1937. In May 1938, they moved to Wales, renting a cottage in the village of Laugharne, Carmarthenshire. They lived there intermittently for just under two years until July 1941, and did not return to live in Laugharne until 1949. Their first child, Llewelyn Edouard, was born on 30 January 1939. ===Wartime 1939–1945=== In 1939, a collection of 16 poems and seven of the 20 short stories published by Thomas in magazines since 1934, appeared as The Map of Love. Ten stories in his next book, Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog (1940), were based less on lavish fantasy than those in The Map of Love and more on real-life romances featuring himself in Wales.\|group="nb"}} There Thomas collaborated with Davenport on the satire The Death of the King's Canary, though due to fears of libel the work was not published until 1976. At the outset of the Second World War, worried about conscription, Thomas unsuccessfully sought employment in a reserved occupation with the Ministry of Information. However, an “unreliable lung”, as he described his chronic condition – coughing sometimes confined him to bed, and he had a history of bringing up blood and mucus – proved to be the grounds for the military authorities to allocate him a C3 category medical exemption which meant that he would be among the last to be called up for service. He would subsequently be recognised as engaged in essential war work through his role in broadcasting for the BBC and documentary film making, work he took up in 1941 after he and Caitlin moved to London, leaving their son with Caitlin’s mother at Blashford. Thomas produced film scripts for the Strand Film Company, work which provided him with a much needed financial mainstay throughout the war years and his first regular source of income since working for the South Wales Daily Post. In February 1941, Swansea was bombed by the Luftwaffe in a "three nights' blitz". Castle Street was one of many streets that suffered badly; rows of shops, including the Kardomah Café, were destroyed. Thomas walked through the bombed-out shell of the town centre with his friend Bert Trick. Upset at the sight, he concluded: "Our Swansea is dead". Thomas later wrote a feature programme for the radio, Return Journey, which described the café as being "razed to the snow". The programme, produced by Philip Burton, was first broadcast on 15 June 1947. The Kardomah Café reopened on Portland Street after the war. In early 1943, Thomas began a relationship with Pamela Glendower, one of several affairs he had during his marriage. The affairs either ran out of steam or were halted after Caitlin discovered his infidelity. Some of Thomas's letters from Gelli can be found in his Collected Letters whilst an extended account of Thomas's time there can be found in D. N. Thomas's book, Dylan Thomas: A Farm, Two Mansions and a Bungalow (2000). The Thomases shared the mansion with his childhood friends from Swansea, Vera and Evelyn Phillips. Vera's friendship with the Thomases in nearby New Quay is portrayed in the 2008 film The Edge of Love. In July 1944, with the threat in London of German flying bombs, Thomas moved to the family cottage at Blaencwm near Llangain, Carmarthenshire, where he resumed writing poetry, completing "Holy Spring" and "Vision and Prayer". In September that year, the Thomas family moved to New Quay in Cardiganshire (Ceredigion), where they rented Majoda, a wood and asbestos bungalow on the cliffs overlooking Cardigan Bay. It was there that Thomas wrote a radio piece about New Quay, Quite Early One Morning, a sketch for his later work, Under Milk Wood. Of the poetry written at this time, of note is Fern Hill, started while living in New Quay, continued at Blaencwm in July and August 1945 and first published in October 1945 Thomas's nine months in New Quay, said first biographer, Constantine FitzGibbon, were "a second flowering, a period of fertility that recalls the earliest days…[with a] great outpouring of poems", as well as a good deal of other material. His second biographer, Paul Ferris, agreed: "On the grounds of output, the bungalow deserves a plaque of its own." Thomas's third biographer, George Tremlett, concurred, describing the time in New Quay as "one of the most creative periods of Thomas's life." Walford Davies, who co-edited the 1995 definitive edition of the play, has noted that New Quay "was crucial in supplementing the gallery of characters Thomas had to hand for writing Under Milk Wood." ====War poetry==== Thomas’s horror of war, foreshadowed in some of his poems of the 1930s and fuelled by his lived experience of the bombing raids and fire storms of the Blitz in London, received further expression in his poems of the war period. These include elegies for an elderly man – Among Those Killed in a Dawn Raid Was a Man Aged a Hundred (1941) – and for child victims of incendiary bombing raids in Ceremony After a Fire Raid (1944) and A Refusal to Mourn the Death, by Fire, of a Child in London (1945). They were collected in Deaths and Entrances, the fourth volume of his poetry, published in 1946. The sentiments expressed in his war poems were, according to Walford Davies, representative of “the real temper of the British people of the time – the resilience and the guts”. === Making films 1941–1948 === From September 1941 Thomas worked for the Strand Film Company in London. Strand produced films for the Ministry of Information and Thomas produced film scripts for six such films in 1942: This is Colour (on aniline dye processing), New Towns for Old, Balloon Site 568 (a recruitment film), CEMA (on arts organisation), Young Farmers and Battle for Freedom. He also scripted and produced Wales – Green Mountain, Black Mountain, a British Council commission and a bi-lingual production. These Are The Men (1943) was a more ambitious piece in which Thomas's verse accompanies Leni Riefenstahl's footage of an early Nuremberg Rally. Conquest of a Germ (1944) explored the use of early antibiotics in the fight against pneumonia and tuberculosis. Our Country (1945) was a romantic tour of Britain set to Thomas's poetry. Thomas continued to work in the film industry after the war, working on feature film scripts which included: No Room at the Inn (1948), The Three Weird Sisters (1948), The Doctor and the Devils (1944 - not produced until 1985) and Rebecca's Daughters (1948 – not produced until 1992). His screenplay for The Beach of Falesá, not produced as a film, received a BBC Radio 3 production in May 2014. Altogether in his work in the film industry Thomas produced 28 film scripts (not all of which reached production) as well as acting as producer and director in some cases. When recession overtook the film industry in the late 1940s he lost his most reliable source of income. The experience he gained in his film work was a significant factor, according to Walford Davies, in the maturation of Under Milk Wood. ===Broadcasting years 1945–1949=== Although Thomas had previously written for the BBC, it was a minor and intermittent source of income. In 1943, he wrote and recorded a 15-minute talk titled "Reminiscences of Childhood" for the Welsh BBC. In December 1944, he recorded Quite Early One Morning (produced by Aneirin Talfan Davies, again for the Welsh BBC) but when Davies offered it for national broadcast BBC London turned it down. On 31 August 1945, the BBC Home Service broadcast Quite Early One Morning and, in the three years beginning in October 1945, Thomas made over a hundred broadcasts for the corporation. Thomas was employed not only for his poetry readings, but for discussions and critiques. In the second half of 1945, Thomas began reading for the BBC Radio programme, Book of Verse, broadcast weekly to the Far East. This provided Thomas with a regular income and brought him into contact with Louis MacNeice, a congenial drinking companion whose advice Thomas cherished. On 29 September 1946, the BBC began transmitting the Third Programme, a high-culture network which provided opportunities for Thomas. He appeared in the play Comus for the Third Programme, the day after the network launched, and his rich, sonorous voice led to character parts, including the lead in Aeschylus's Agamemnon and Satan in an adaptation of Paradise Lost. Thomas remained a popular guest on radio talk shows for the BBC, who regarded him as "useful should a younger generation poet be needed". He had an uneasy relationship with BBC management and a staff job was never an option, with drinking cited as the problem. Despite this, Thomas became a familiar radio voice and within Britain was "in every sense a celebrity". By late September 1945, the Thomases had left Wales and were living with various friends in London. In December, they moved to Oxford to live in a summerhouse on the banks of the Cherwell. It belonged to the historian, A. J. P. Taylor. His wife, Margaret, would prove to be Thomas's most committed patron. The publication of Deaths and Entrances in February 1946 was a major turning point for Thomas. Poet and critic Walter J. Turner commented in The Spectator, "This book alone, in my opinion, ranks him as a major poet". ====Italy, South Leigh and Prague...==== The following year, in April 1947, the Thomases travelled to Italy, after Thomas had been awarded a Society of Authors scholarship. They stayed first in villas near Rapallo and then Florence, before moving to a hotel in Rio Marina on the island of Elba. On their return, Thomas and family moved, in September 1947, into the Manor House in South Leigh, just west of Oxford, found for him by Margaret Taylor. He continued with his work for the BBC, completed a number of film scripts and worked further on his ideas for Under Milk Wood, including a discussion in late 1947 of The Village of the Mad (as the play was then called) with the BBC producer Philip Burton. He later recalled that, during the meeting, Thomas had discussed his ideas for having a blind narrator, an organist who played for a dog and two lovers who wrote to each other every day but never met. In March 1949 Thomas travelled to Prague. He had been invited by the Czech government to attend the inauguration of the Czechoslovak Writers' Union. Jiřina Hauková, who had previously published translations of some of Thomas's poems, was his guide and interpreter. In her memoir, Hauková recalls that at a party in Prague, Thomas "narrated the first version of his radio play Under Milk Wood." She describes how he outlined the plot about a town that was declared insane, mentioning the organist who played for sheep and goats and the baker with two wives. ====...and back to Laugharne==== A month later, in May 1949, Thomas and his family moved to his final home, the Boat House at Laugharne, purchased for him at a cost of £2,500 in April 1949 by Margaret Taylor. Thomas acquired a garage a hundred yards from the house on a cliff ledge which he turned into his writing shed, and where he wrote several of his most acclaimed poems. He also rented "Pelican House" opposite his regular drinking den, Brown's Hotel, for his parents who lived there from 1949 until 1953. Caitlin gave birth to their third child, a boy named Colm Garan Hart, on 25 July 1949. In October, the New Zealand poet, Allen Curnow, came to visit Thomas at the Boat House, who took him to his writing shed and "fished out a draft to show me of the unfinished Under Milk Wood" that was, says Curnow, titled The Town That Was Mad. This is the first known sighting of the script of the play that was to become Under Milk Wood. ===America, Iran... and Under Milk Wood, 1950–1953=== American poet John Brinnin invited Thomas to New York, where in February 1950 they embarked on a lucrative three-month tour of arts centres and campuses. The tour, which began in front of an audience of a thousand at the Kaufmann Auditorium of the Poetry Centre in New York, took in about 40 venues. During the tour, Thomas was invited to many parties and functions and on several occasions became drunk – going out of his way to shock people – and was a difficult guest. Thomas drank before some of his readings, though it is argued he may have pretended to be more affected by it than he actually was. The writer Elizabeth Hardwick recalled how intoxicating a performer he was and how the tension would build before a performance: "Would he arrive only to break down on the stage? Would some dismaying scene take place at the faculty party? Would he be offensive, violent, obscene?" was undertaken on behalf of British intelligence agencies. Thomas toured the country with the film crew, and his letters home vividly express his shock and anger with the poverty he saw around him. He also gave a reading at the British Council and talked with a number of Iranian intellectuals, including Ebrahim Golestan whose account of his meeting with Thomas has been translated and published. The film was never made, with Thomas returning to Wales in February, though his time in Iran allowed him to provide a few minutes of material for a BBC documentary, 'Persian Oil'. Thomas' journey through Iran has also been the subject of the 2024 documentary film Pouring Water on Troubled Oil. The film was written and directed by Nariman Massoumi, Department of Film and Television at Bristol University, with narration by Michael Sheen. Later that year, Thomas published two poems, which have been described as "unusually blunt." They were an ode, in the form of a villanelle, to his dying father, Do not go gentle into that good night, and the ribald Lament. Although he had a range of wealthy patrons, including Margaret Taylor, Princess Marguerite Caetani and Marged Howard-Stepney, Thomas was still in financial difficulty, and he wrote several begging letters to notable literary figures, including T. S. Eliot. Taylor was not keen on Thomas taking another trip to the United States, and thought that if he had a permanent address in London he would be able to gain steady work there. She bought a property, 54 Delancey Street, in Camden Town, and in late 1951 Thomas and Caitlin lived in the basement flat. Thomas would describe the flat as his "London house of horror" and did not return there after his 1952 tour of America. ====Second tour January 20 to May 16, 1952==== Thomas undertook a second tour of the United States in 1952, this time with Caitlin – after she had discovered he had been unfaithful on his earlier trip. They drank heavily, and Thomas began to suffer with gout and lung problems. The second tour was the most intensive of the four, taking in 46 engagements. The trip also resulted in Thomas recording his first poetry to vinyl, which Caedmon Records released in America later that year. One of his works recorded during this time, A Child's Christmas in Wales, became his most popular prose work in America. The original 1952 recording of the book was a 2008 selection for the United States National Recording Registry, stating that it is "credited with launching the audiobook industry in the United States". A shortened version of the first half of The Town That Was Mad was published in Botteghe Oscure in May 1952, with the title Llareggub. A Piece for Radio Perhaps. Thomas had been in Laugharne for almost three years, but his half-play had made little progress since his time living in South Leigh. By the summer of 1952, the half-play's title had been changed to Under Milk Wood because John Brinnin thought the title Llareggub would not attract American audiences. On 6 November 1952, Thomas wrote to the editor of Botteghe Oscure to explain why he hadn't been able to "finish the second half of my piece for you." He had failed shamefully, he said, to add to "my lonely half of a looney maybe-play". On 10 November 1952 Thomas's last collection Collected Poems, 1934–1952, was published by Dent; he was 38. It won the Foyle poetry prize. Reviewing the volume, critic Philip Toynbee declared that "Thomas is the greatest living poet in the English language". The winter of 1952/3 brought much personal tragedy: Thomas's father died from pneumonia just before Christmas 1952; and in the Spring of 1953 his sister died from liver cancer, one of his patrons overdosed, three friends died at young ages and Caitlin had an abortion. ====Third tour 21 April to 3 June 1953==== In April 1953, Thomas returned alone for a third tour of America. He performed a "work in progress" version of Under Milk Wood, solo, for the first time at Harvard University on 3 May. A week later, the work was performed with a full cast at the Poetry Centre in New York. He met the deadline only after being locked in a room by Brinnin's assistant, Liz Reitell, and he was still editing the script on the afternoon of the performance; its last lines were handed to the actors as they were putting on their makeup. During this penultimate tour, Thomas met the composer Igor Stravinsky who had become an admirer after having been introduced to his poetry by W. H. Auden. They had discussions about collaborating on a "musical theatrical work" for which Thomas would provide the libretto on the theme of "the rediscovery of love and language in what might be left after the world after the bomb." The shock of Thomas's death later in the year moved Stravinsky to compose his In Memoriam Dylan Thomas for tenor, string quartet and four trombones. The first performance in Los Angeles in 1954 was introduced with a tribute to Thomas from Aldous Huxley. Thomas spent the last nine or ten days of his third tour in New York mostly in the company of Reitell, with whom he had an affair. During this time, Thomas fractured his arm falling down a flight of stairs when drunk. Reitell's doctor, Milton Feltenstein, put his arm in plaster and treated him for gout and gastritis. After returning home, Thomas worked on Under Milk Wood in Laugharne. Aeronwy, his daughter, noticed that his health had "visibly deteriorated...I could hear his racking cough. Every morning he had a prolonged coughing attack...The coughing was nothing new but it seemed worse than before." She also noted that the blackouts that Thomas was experiencing were "a constant source of comment" amongst his Laugharne friends. Thomas sent the original manuscript to Douglas Cleverdon on 15 October 1953. It was copied and returned to Thomas, who lost it in a pub in London and required a duplicate to take to America. Thomas flew to the States on 19 October 1953 for what would be his final tour. He died in New York before the BBC could record Under Milk Wood. Richard Burton starred in the first broadcast in 1954, and was joined by Elizabeth Taylor in a subsequent film. In 1954, the play won the Prix Italia for literary or dramatic programmes. === Final tour and death in New York=== Thomas left Laugharne on 9 October 1953 on the first leg of his fourth trip to America. He called on his mother, Florence, to say goodbye: "He always felt that he had to get out from this country because of his chest being so bad." Thomas had suffered from chest problems for most of his life, though they began in earnest soon after he moved in May 1949 to the Boat House at Laugharne – the "bronchial heronry", as he called it. Within weeks of moving in, he visited a local doctor, who prescribed medicine for both his chest and throat. While waiting in London before his flight, Thomas stayed with the comedian Harry Locke and worked on Under Milk Wood. Locke noted that Thomas was having trouble with his chest, "terrible" coughing fits that made him go purple in the face. He was also using an inhaler to help his breathing. There were reports, too, that Thomas was also having blackouts. His visit to the BBC producer Philip Burton, a few days before he left for New York, was interrupted by a blackout. On his last night in London, he had another in the company of his fellow poet Louis MacNeice. Thomas arrived in New York on 20 October 1953 to undertake further performances of Under Milk Wood, organised by John Brinnin, his American agent and Director of the Poetry Centre. Brinnin did not travel to New York but remained in Boston to write. Thomas had an appointment at a clam house in New Jersey with Ruthven Todd on 4 November. When Todd telephoned the Chelsea that morning, Thomas said he was feeling ill and postponed the engagement. Todd thought he sounded "terrible". The poet, Harvey Breit, was another to phone that morning. He thought that Thomas sounded "bad". Thomas's voice, recalled Breit, was "low and hoarse". He had wanted to say: "You sound as though from the tomb", but instead he told Thomas that he sounded like Louis Armstrong. Later, Thomas went drinking with Reitell at the White Horse and, feeling sick again, returned to the hotel. Feltenstein came to see him three times that day, administering the cortisone secretant ACTH by injection (a tropic peptide hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland) and, on his third visit, half a grain (32.4 milligrams) of morphine sulphate. This amount was three times more than was medically appropriate and was, by affecting Thomas's breathing and consequently the oxygen supply to his brain, the precipitating cause of his death. After Reitell became increasingly concerned and telephoned Feltenstein for advice he suggested she get male assistance, so she called upon the painter Jack Heliker, who arrived before 11 pm. It then took another hour for the ambulance to arrive at St. Vincent's, even though it was only a few blocks from the Chelsea. Thomas was admitted to the emergency ward at St Vincent's Hospital at 1:58 am. He was comatose, and his medical notes state that "the impression upon admission was acute alcoholic encephalopathy damage to the brain by alcohol, for which the patient was treated without response". Feltenstein then took control of Thomas's care, even though he did not have admitting rights at St. Vincent's. The hospital's senior brain specialist, C.G. Gutierrez-Mahoney, was not called to examine Thomas until the afternoon of 6 November, some 36 hours after Thomas's admission. Caitlin, having flown from Britain, arrived at the hospital the following morning, by which time a tracheotomy had been performed. Her first words are reported to have been, "Is the bloody man dead yet?" Thomas died at noon on 9 November, having never recovered from his coma. ===Aftermath=== Rumours circulated of a brain haemorrhage, followed by competing reports of a mugging or even that Thomas had drunk himself to death. The publication of John Brinnin's 1955 biography Dylan Thomas in America cemented Thomas's reputation as a "roistering, drunken and doomed poet"; Brinnin focuses on Thomas's last few years and paints a picture of him as a drunk and a philanderer. Later biographies have criticised Brinnin's view, especially his coverage of Thomas's death. David Thomas in Fatal Neglect: Who Killed Dylan Thomas? writes that Brinnin, along with Reitell and Feltenstein, were culpable. Dr C. G. de Gutierrez-Mahoney, the doctor who treated Thomas while at St. Vincents, concluded that Feltenstein's failure to see that Thomas was gravely ill and have him admitted to hospital sooner "was even more culpable than his use of morphine". Caitlin Thomas's autobiographies, Leftover Life to Kill (1957) and My Life with Dylan Thomas: Double Drink Story (1997), describe the effects of alcohol on him and their relationship. "Ours was not only a love story, it was a drink story, because without alcohol it would never had got on its rocking feet", she wrote, and "The bar was our altar." Biographer Andrew Lycett ascribed the decline in Thomas's health to an alcoholic co-dependent relationship with his wife, who deeply resented his extramarital affairs. In contrast, Dylan biographers Andrew Sinclair and George Tremlett express the view that Thomas was not an alcoholic. Tremlett argues that many of Thomas's health issues stemmed from undiagnosed diabetes. Thomas died intestate, with assets worth £100. His body was brought back to Wales for burial in the village churchyard at Laugharne. Thomas's funeral, which Brinnin did not attend, took place at St Martin's Church in Laugharne on 24 November. Six friends from the village carried Thomas's coffin. Caitlin, without her customary hat, walked behind the coffin, with his childhood friend Daniel Jones at her arm and her mother by her side. The procession to the church was filmed and the wake took place at Brown's Hotel. Thomas's widow, Caitlin, died in 1994 and was buried alongside him. ==Poetry== ===Poetic style and influences=== Thomas's refusal to align with any literary group or movement has made him and his work difficult to categorise. However the formative influence of the modernist symbolist and surrealist movements has been discerned throughout his poetic output and as especially evident in his poetry of the 1930s, the period in which he forged a unique modernist poetic which rejected the referential, discursive and often propagandist voice of his contemporaries for a relish of exuberant word-play and language itself. Thomas took his major theme as the unity of all life in which the turmoil of sexuality and death linked the generations, envisaging men and women locked in cycles of growth, love, procreation, new growth, death, and new life. Thomas derived his imagery from sources which include the new scientific accounts of physiology and sexuality, the Bible, Welsh folklore, and Sigmund Freud as well as from the established literary canon. Whereas earlier appraisals of his work have found an impasse in its obscurity more recent accounts have given readings which have explored in depth the complexity of Thomas’s allusions, accepting that obscurity, paradox and ambiguity are integral to his work. As Thomas wrote in a letter to Glyn Jones: "My own obscurity is quite an unfashionable one, based, as it is, on a preconceived symbolism derived (I'm afraid all this sounds wooly and pretentious) from the cosmic significance of the human anatomy”. Distinguishing features of Thomas's early poetry include its verbal density, use of alliteration, sprung rhythm and internal rhyme, with some critics detecting the influence of the English poet Gerard Manley Hopkins. Thomas himself wrote to Henry Treece, who had compared the two, denying any significant influence. Thomas also employed fixed verse form, such as in the villanelle "Do not go gentle into that good night". Thomas greatly admired Thomas Hardy, who is regarded as an influence. When Thomas travelled in America, he recited some of Hardy's work in his readings. Other poets from whom critics believe Thomas drew influence include James Joyce, Arthur Rimbaud and D. H. Lawrence. William York Tindall, in his 1962 study, A Reader's Guide to Dylan Thomas, finds comparison between Thomas's and Joyce's wordplay, while he notes the themes of rebirth and nature are common to the works of Lawrence and Thomas. Although Thomas described himself as the "Rimbaud of Cwmdonkin Drive", he stated that the phrase "Swansea's Rimbaud" was coined by poet Roy Campbell. Critics have explored the origins of Thomas's mythological pasts in his works such as "The Orchards", which Ann Elizabeth Mayer believes reflects the Welsh myths of the Mabinogion. Thomas's poetry is notable for its musicality, most clear in "Fern Hill", "In Country Sleep", "Ballad of the Long-legged Bait" and "In the White Giant's Thigh". In 1951, in response to an American student's question, Thomas alluded to the formative influence of the nursery rhymes which his parents taught him when he was a child: Thomas became an accomplished writer of prose poetry, with collections such as Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog (1940) and Quite Early One Morning (1954) showing he was capable of writing moving short stories. Jacob Korg believes that one can classify Thomas's fiction work into two main bodies: vigorous fantasies in a poetic style and, after 1939, more straightforward narratives. Korg surmises that Thomas approached his prose writing as an alternate poetic form, which allowed him to produce complex, involuted narratives that do not allow the reader to rest. ===Welsh poet=== Thomas disliked being regarded as a provincial poet and decried any notion of 'Welshness' in his poetry. When he wrote to Stephen Spender in 1952, thanking him for a review of his Collected Poems, he added "Oh, & I forgot. I'm not influenced by Welsh bardic poetry. I can't read Welsh." Despite this his work was rooted in the geography of Wales. Thomas acknowledged that he returned to Wales when he had difficulty writing, and John Ackerman argues that "His inspiration and imagination were rooted in his Welsh background". Caitlin Thomas wrote that he worked "in a fanatically narrow groove, although there was nothing narrow about the depth and understanding of his feelings. The groove of direct hereditary descent in the land of his birth, which he never in thought, and hardly in body, moved out of." Head of Programmes Wales at the BBC, Aneirin Talfan Davies, who commissioned several of Thomas's early radio talks, believed that the poet's "whole attitude is that of the medieval bards." Kenneth O. Morgan counter-argues that it is a 'difficult enterprise' to find traces of cynghanedd (consonant harmony) or cerdd dafod (tongue-craft) in Thomas's poetry. Instead he believes his work, especially his earlier more autobiographical poems, are rooted in a changing country which echoes the Welshness of the past and the Anglicisation of the new industrial nation: "rural and urban, chapel-going and profane, Welsh and English, Unforgiving and deeply compassionate." While often attributed to Thomas himself, this line actually comes from the character Owen Morgan-Vaughan, in the screenplay Thomas wrote for the 1948 British melodrama The Three Weird Sisters. Robert Pocock, a friend from the BBC, recalled "I only once heard Dylan express an opinion on Welsh Nationalism. He used three words. Two of them were Welsh Nationalism." Although not expressed as strongly, Glyn Jones believed that he and Thomas's friendship cooled in the later years as he had not 'rejected enough' of the elements that Thomas disliked – "Welsh nationalism and a sort of hill farm morality". Apologetically, in a letter to Keidrych Rhys, editor of the literary magazine Wales, Thomas's father wrote that he was "afraid Dylan isn't much of a Welshman". Though FitzGibbon asserts that Thomas's negativity towards Welsh nationalism was fostered by his father's hostility towards the Welsh language. ==Critical reception== Thomas's work and stature as a poet have been much debated by critics and biographers since his death. Critical studies have been clouded by Thomas's personality and mythology, especially his drunken persona and death in New York. When Seamus Heaney gave an Oxford lecture on the poet he opened by addressing the assembly, "Dylan Thomas is now as much a case history as a chapter in the history of poetry", querying how "Thomas the Poet" is one of his forgotten attributes. The Poetry Archive notes that "Dylan Thomas's detractors accuse him of being drunk on language as well as whiskey, but whilst there's no doubt that the sound of language is central to his style, he was also a disciplined writer who re-drafted obsessively". David Holbrook, who has written three books about Thomas, stated in his 1962 publication Llareggub Revisited, "the strangest feature of Dylan Thomas's notoriety—not that he is bogus, but that attitudes to poetry attached themselves to him which not only threaten the prestige, effectiveness and accessibility to English poetry but also destroyed his true voice and, at last, him." Holbrook’s negative evaluation of Thomas’s work, based on an ad hominem psychoanalytic reading, is rejected by Rhian Barfoot as reductive and outdated viewed in the context of more recent psychoanalytic theory as found in the work of Lacan and Kristeva, where the emphasis on the semiotic and the materiality of language is seen as corresponding to Thomas’s poetic style and thus supportive of a positive critical evaluation of his work. Many critics have argued that Thomas's work is too narrow and that he suffers from verbal extravagance. Those that have championed his work have found the criticism baffling. Robert Lowell wrote in 1947: "Nothing could be more wrongheaded than the English disputes about Dylan Thomas's greatness ... He is a dazzling obscure writer who can be enjoyed without understanding." Kenneth Rexroth said, on reading Eighteen Poems: "The reeling excitement of a poetry-intoxicated schoolboy smote the Philistine as hard a blow with one small book as Swinburne had with Poems and Ballads." Philip Larkin in a letter to Kingsley Amis in 1948, wrote that "no one can 'stick words into us like pins'... like he [Thomas] can", but followed that by stating that he "doesn't use his words to any advantage". In 1956, the publication of the anthology New Lines featuring works by the British collective The Movement, which included Amis and Larkin among its number, set out a vision of modern poetry that was damning towards the poets of the 1940s. Thomas's work in particular was criticised. David Lodge, writing about The Movement in 1981 stated: "Dylan Thomas was made to stand for everything they detest, verbal obscurity, metaphysical pretentiousness, and romantic rhapsodizing." Despite criticism by sections of academia, Thomas's work has been embraced by readers more so than many of his contemporaries, and he is one of the few modern poets whose name is recognised by the general public. Several of his poems have passed into the cultural mainstream, and his work has been used by authors, musicians and film and television writers. John Goodby states that this popularity with the reading public allows Thomas's work to be classed as vulgar and common. Goodby also cites that, despite a brief period during the 1960s when Thomas was considered a cultural icon, the poet has been marginalized in critical circles due to his exuberance, in both life and work, and his refusal to know his place. Goodby believes that Thomas has been mainly snubbed since the 1970s and has become "... an embarrassment to twentieth-century poetry criticism", his work failing to fit standard narratives and thus being ignored rather than studied. In June 2022, Thomas was the subject of BBC Radio 4's In Our Time. ==Memorials== In Swansea's maritime quarter are the Dylan Thomas Theatre, home of the Swansea Little Theatre of which Thomas was once a member, and the former Guildhall, built in 1825 and now occupied by the Dylan Thomas Centre, a literature centre, where exhibitions and lectures are held and setting for the annual Dylan Thomas Festival. Outside the centre stands a bronze statue of Thomas, by John Doubleday. Another monument to Thomas stands in Cwmdonkin Park, one of his favourite childhood haunts, close to his birthplace. The memorial is a small rock in an enclosed garden within the park cut by and inscribed by the late sculptor Ronald Cour with the closing lines from "Fern Hill". Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means Time held me green and dying Though I sang in my chains like the sea. His writing shed is also preserved. In 2005, the Dylan Thomas Screenplay Award was established. The prize, administered by the Dylan Thomas Centre, is awarded at the annual Swansea Bay Film Festival. In 1982 a plaque was unveiled in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. The plaque is also inscribed with the last two lines of "Fern Hill". In 2014, the Royal Patron of The Dylan Thomas 100 Festival was Charles, Prince of Wales, who in 2013 made a recording of "Fern Hill" for National Poetry Day. In 2014, to celebrate the centenary of Thomas's birth, the British Council Wales undertook a year-long programme of cultural and educational works. Highlights included a touring replica of Thomas's work shed, Sir Peter Blake's exhibition of illustrations based on Under Milk Wood and a 36-hour marathon of readings, which included Michael Sheen and Sir Ian McKellen performing Thomas's work. The same year, Thomas was among the ten people commemorated on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail in their "Remarkable Lives" issue. ==List of works== The Collected Poems of Dylan Thomas: The New Centenary Edition. Ed. with Introduction and annotations by John Goodby. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2014 The Notebook Poems 1930–34, edited by Ralph Maud. London: Dent, 1989 Dylan Thomas: The Filmscripts, ed. John Ackerman. London: Dent, 1995 Dylan Thomas: Early Prose Writings, ed. Walford Davies. London: Dent, 1971 Collected Stories, ed. Walford Davies. London: Dent, 1983 Under Milk Wood: A Play for Voices, ed. Walford Davies and Ralph Maud. London: Dent, 1995 On the Air with Dylan Thomas: The Broadcasts, ed. R. Maud. New York: New Directions, 1991 ===Correspondence=== Ferris, Paul (ed.) (2017), Dylan Thomas: The Collected Letters, 2 vols. Introduction by Paul Ferris. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Vol I: 1931–1939 Vol II: 1939–1953 Watkins, Vernon (ed) (1957), Letters to Vernon Watkins. London: Dent. ==Media portrayals== The Edge of Love, 2008 film with Thomas portrayed by Matthew Rhys and his wife, Caitlin, played by Sienna Miller. Set Fire to the Stars, 2014 film with Thomas portrayed by Celyn Jones and John Brinnin by Elijah Wood. Dominion, 2016 film with Thomas played by Rhys Ifans and Caitlin portrayed by Romola Garai.	[ "Mervyn Peake", "Gotham Book Mart", "bronchitis", "pub", "Philip Toynbee", "In my craft or sullen art", "Great Britain commemorative stamps 2010–2019", "The Spectator", "Triumph of the Will", "General practitioner", "Lacan", "Brechfa", "Hotel Chelsea", "Rapallo", "The Times", "Luftwaffe", "John Malcolm Brinnin", "Leni Riefenstahl", "South Leigh", "Government structure of Communist Czechoslovakia", "A. J. P. Taylor", "Andrew Lycett", "The Listener (magazine)", "Bernard Knight", "Andrew Sinclair", "New Towns for Old", "Anglicisation", "Public Health Reports", "John Banting", "Peptide", "Victor Neuburg (poet)", "Llangain", "Gerard Manley Hopkins", "Thomas Hardy", "New Quay", "Black Book of Carmarthen", "Aeronwy Thomas", "The Kardomah Gang", "A Child's Christmas in Wales", "Douglas Cleverdon", "University at Buffalo Libraries", "brain haemorrhage", "villanelle", "Caitlin Thomas", "Caetani", "Prague", "Allen Curnow", "Deaths and Entrances", "anterior pituitary gland", "internal rhyme", "Kristeva", "Harry Ransom Center", "Arthur Rimbaud", "brain swelling", "Constantine Fitzgibbon", "semiotics", "Sienna Miller", "River Crest Sanitarium", "Dylan Thomas Prize", "BBC Regional Programme", "Gloucestershire", "Aneirin Talfan Davies", "reserved occupation", "The Edge of Love", "New Apocalyptics", "BBC Online", "Oscar Blumenthal", "Elba", "Fatty liver disease", "Caedmon Audio", "United States National Recording Registry", "W. H. Auden", "Bristol University", "National Poetry Day", "Respiratory distress", "Peter Blake (artist)", "BBC", "White Book of Rhydderch", "Los Angeles", "Oswell Blakeston", "Ruthven Todd", "Penzance", "Smog", "Elizabeth Hardwick (writer)", "William York Tindall", "Peter Grippe", "Jacques-Bernard Brunius", "Dylan Thomas Centre", "British Council", "Bishop Gore School", "Dominion (2016 film)", "St. Helen's Rugby and Cricket Ground", "Robert Colquhoun", "John Berryman", "Elijah Wood", "Llansteffan", "Botteghe Oscure", "Unitarianism", "sprung rhythm", "Louis Armstrong", "Paul Ferris (Welsh writer)", "Harvard University", "Ian McKellen", "seamstress", "Dylan ail Don", "And death shall have no dominion", "grammar school", "Ebrahim Golestan", "Henry Treece", "physiology", "Kenneth O. Morgan", "cerdd dafod", "Constable & Robinson", "Augustus John", "Richard Burton", "Algernon Charles Swinburne", "The Beach of Falesá", "Royal Mail", "Seamus Heaney", "Anglo-Iranian Oil Company", "Accent (poetry)", "J. M. Dent", "Mumbles", "audiobook", "David Holbrook", "William Thomas (Gwilym Marles)", "Tropic hormone", "Celyn Jones", "John F. Kennedy International Airport", "Kardomah Café", "White Horse Tavern (New York City)", "Romola Garai", "John Laurie", "London Palladium", "Do not go gentle into that good night", "Kenneth Rexroth", "BBC Radio 4", "prose poetry", "New Directions Publishing", "Swansea Bay", "University College, Aberystwyth", "Vernon Watkins", "Under Milk Wood", "No More War Movement", "Roland Penrose", "Harvey Breit", "United Kingdom", "Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog", "New English Weekly", "V-1 flying bomb", "Westminster Abbey", "Charles III of the United Kingdom", "post-mortem", "Glyn Jones (Welsh writer)", "Desert Island Discs", "Foot (prosody)", "Grain (unit)", "Reginald Caton", "T. S. Eliot", "Rio Marina", "Llangadog", "River Aeron", "Laugharne", "Boston", "ACTH", "cynghanedd", "Poetry Archive", "Poets' Corner", "Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome", "Kingsley Amis", "Wales (magazine)", "Talsarn", "The Three Weird Sisters", "Ogg", "pneumonia", "Geoffrey Grigson", "Port Talbot", "West End of London", "Stravinsky", "Intestacy", "phenobarbitone", "nervous breakdown", "Gordon Thomas (author)", "The New Yorker", "Mount Pleasant, Swansea", "Pamela Hansford Johnson", "Abbas Milani", "Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)", "Soft-shell clam", "Elizabeth Taylor", "Set Fire to the Stars", "Abergavenny", "cirrhosis", "British Union of Fascists", "Matthew Rhys", "George Tremlett", "the Blitz", "Variety (magazine)", "Edwin Muir", "Alfred Janes", "Daniel Jones (composer)", "Blashford", "John Davenport (critic)", "Agamemnon (play)", "diabetes", "Keidrych Rhys", "Oxford", "Desmond Hawkins", "Salmagundi (magazine)", "Welsh nationalism", "Rhys Ifans", "Cinema 16", "Aldous Huxley", "alliteration", "In Our Time (radio series)", "Wales", "The Mabinogion", "Walter J. Turner", "Sigmund Freud", "No Room at the Inn", "Michael Ayrton", "Iamb (foot)", "Leon Atkin", "Prix Italia", "Swansea", "Nuremberg Rally", "Uplands, Swansea", "Abergorlech", "Under Milk Wood (1972 film)", "straitjacket", "Stephen Spender", "Carmarthen", "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau", "Paradise Lost", "tuberculosis", "St. Vincent's Hospital (Manhattan)", "The Movement (literature)", "The Doctor and the Devils", "Cross Hands", "Fern Hill", "Camden Town", "delirium tremens", "surrealism", "Jiřina Hauková", "BBC Home Service", "Roy Campbell (poet)", "Chippenham", "Edith Sitwell", "James Joyce", "BBC Third Programme", "dame school", "John Doubleday (sculptor)", "Michael Sheen", "Swansea Blitz", "morphine sulphate", "Oswald Mosley", "gout", "Second World War", "South Wales Daily Post", "William Foyle", "Loren MacIver", "Rebecca's Daughters", "Ralph Maud", "Jankel Adler", "The Observer", "Louis MacNeice", "Edwin Mellen Press", "asthma", "Dylan Thomas Theatre", "Philip Burton (theatre director)", "Iran", "Llanybydder", "D. H. Lawrence", "tracheotomy", "Rayner Heppenstall", "Swansea Metropolitan University", "Florence", "Mervyn Levy", "Robert Lowell", "Cwmdonkin Park", "Dylan Thomas Boathouse", "conscription", "communist", "Dylan Thomas Screenplay Award", "Delancey Street, Camden", "Robert MacBryde", "Philip Larkin", "Brown's Hotel (Laugharne)", "New Jersey", "bardic name", "Society of Authors", "emphysema", "Gwernogle", "Harry Locke", "Pontarddulais", "Symbolism (arts)", "Sunday Referee" ]
8,785	Fern Hill	"Fern Hill" (1945) is a poem by the Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, first published in Horizon magazine in October 1945, with its first book publication in 1946 as the last poem in Deaths and Entrances. ==Creation== Thomas had started writing Fern Hill in New Quay, Cardiganshire, where he lived from 4 September 1944 to July 1945. Further work was done on the poem in July and August 1945 at Blaencwm, the family cottage in Carmarthenshire. A draft was sent to a friend in late August, and then the completed poem to his publisher on 18 September 1945. The house Fernhill is a Grade 2 listed residence just outside Llangain in Carmarthenshire. In Thomas' day, it had an orchard and fifteen acres of farmland, most of it of poor quality. Thomas had extended stays here in the 1920s with his aunt Annie and her husband, Jim Jones. They had lived at Fernhill from about 1908 to 1928, renting it from the daughter of Robert Ricketts Evans (also known as Robert Anderson Evans), an occasional hangman and public executioner who once lived in Fernhill. Thomas' own notes about Fernhill confirm that he knew the various stories about Evans the Hangman. Thomas wrote about Fernhill (calling it Gorsehill) in his short story, The Peaches, in which he describes it as a ramshackle house of hollow fear. Fernhill's dilapidated farmyard and buildings are also described in The Peaches. Jim Jones had shown little interest in farming, as his neighbours had noticed: there was "no work in him...left Fernhill farm to ruins." Jim had sold most of his farming machinery, implements and livestock before moving to Fernhill. He had also been convicted for allowing decomposing animal carcasses to lie around his fields. Fernhill, said an official survey, had an outside earth closet, water was carried in from a well in the farmyard, washing oneself was done in the kitchen, whilst meals were cooked on an open fire. Its two living rooms were lit by candles and paraffin lamps. The house, said the survey, had "extreme rising dampness" and smelt, wrote Thomas in The Peaches, "of rotten wood and damp and animals". Thomas' holidays here have been recalled in interviews with his schoolboy friends and with Annie and Jim's neighbours. A further account describes both Thomas' childhood and later years on the family farms between Llangain and Llansteffan, as well as suggesting that the poem Fern Hill was inspired not just by the house Fernhill but by another farm as well. ==Linguistic considerations== The poem starts as a straightforward evocation of his childhood visits to his Aunt Annie's farm: Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green, The night above the dingle starry, In the middle section, the idyllic scene is expanded upon, reinforced by the lilting rhythm of the poem, the dreamlike, pastoral metaphors and allusion to Eden. All the sun long it was running, it was lovely, the hay Fields high as the house, the tunes from the chimneys, it was air... With the dew, come back, the cock on his shoulder: it was all Shining, it was Adam and maiden, By the end, the poet's older voice has taken over, mourning his lost youth with echoes of the opening: Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means, Time held me green and dying Though I sang in my chains like the sea. The poem uses internal half rhyme and full rhyme as well as end rhyme. Thomas was very conscious of the effect of spoken or intoned verse and explored the potentialities of sound and rhythm, in a manner reminiscent of Gerard Manley Hopkins. He always denied having conscious knowledge of Welsh, but "his lines chime with internal consonantal correspondence, or cynghanedd, a prescribed feature of Welsh versification". ==Legacy== In 1960, American composer John Corigliano set "Fern Hill" to music as part of A Dylan Thomas Trilogy (1960–1976), a trilogy of choral symphony. The poem is also quoted in the title of the 1973 drama film Happy as the Grass Was Green and in the lyrics of the 2022 song "Blacktop" by Yeah Yeah Yeahs.	[ "Dylan Thomas", "Happy as the Grass Was Green", "half rhyme", "Llansteffan", "John Corigliano", "Yeah Yeah Yeahs", "Llangain", "Gerard Manley Hopkins", "Welsh language", "Robert Anderson Evans", "New Quay", "Cardiganshire", "Deaths and Entrances", "pastoral", "full rhyme", "Garden of Eden", "Internal rhyme", "end rhyme", "Carmarthenshire", "cynghanedd" ]
8,786	David Bowie	David Robert Jones (8 January 194710 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie ( ), was an English singer, songwriter and actor. Regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century, Bowie was acclaimed by critics and musicians, particularly for his innovative work during the 1970s. His 50-year career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, and his music and stagecraft have had a great impact on popular music. Bowie developed an interest in music from an early age. He studied art, music and design before embarking on a professional career as a musician in 1963. He released a string of unsuccessful singles with local bands and a self-titled solo album (1967) before achieving his first top-five entry on the UK singles chart with "Space Oddity" (1969). After a period of experimentation, he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era with the flamboyant and androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust. The character was spearheaded by the success of the single "Starman" and its album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (both 1972), which won him widespread popularity. In 1975, Bowie's style shifted towards a sound he characterised as "plastic soul", initially alienating many of his UK fans but garnering his first major US crossover success with the number-one single "Fame" and the album Young Americans (both 1975). In 1976, Bowie starred in the cult film The Man Who Fell to Earth and released Station to Station. In 1977, he again changed direction with the electronic-inflected album Low, the first of three collaborations with Brian Eno that came to be known as the Berlin Trilogy. "Heroes" (1977) and Lodger (1979) followed; each album reached the UK top-five and received lasting critical praise. After uneven commercial success in the late 1970s, Bowie had three number-one hits: the 1980 single "Ashes to Ashes", its album Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) and "Under Pressure" (a 1981 collaboration with Queen). He achieved his greatest commercial success in the 1980s with Let's Dance (1983). Between 1988 and 1992, he fronted the hard rock band Tin Machine before resuming his solo career in 1993. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Bowie continued to experiment with musical styles, including industrial and jungle. He also continued acting; his roles included Major Jack Celliers in Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983), Jareth the Goblin King in Labyrinth (1986), Phillip Jeffries in Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992), Andy Warhol in the biopic Basquiat (1996), and Nikola Tesla in The Prestige (2006), among other film and television appearances and cameos. He ceased touring after 2004 and his last live performance was at a charity event in 2006. He returned from a decade-long recording hiatus in 2013 with The Next Day and remained musically active until his death from liver cancer in 2016. He died two days after both his 69th birthday and the release of his final album, Blackstar. During his lifetime, his record sales, estimated at over 100 million worldwide, made him one of the best-selling musicians of all time. He is the recipient of numerous accolades, including six Grammy Awards and four Brit Awards. Often dubbed the "chameleon of rock" due to his continual musical reinventions, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996. Rolling Stone ranked him among the greatest singers, songwriters and artists of all time. As of 2022, Bowie was the best-selling vinyl artist of the 21st century. ==Early life== David Robert Jones was born on 8 January 1947 in Brixton, London. His mother, Margaret Mary "Peggy" (née Burns), was born at Shorncliffe Army Camp near Cheriton, Kent. Her paternal grandparents were Irish immigrants who had settled in Manchester. She worked as a waitress at a cinema in Royal Tunbridge Wells. His father, Haywood Stenton "John" Jones, His voice was considered "adequate" by the school choir, and he demonstrated above-average abilities in playing the recorder. At the age of nine, his dancing during the newly introduced music and movement classes was strikingly imaginative: teachers called his interpretations "vividly artistic" and his poise "astonishing" for a child. The same year, his interest in music was further stimulated when his father brought home a collection of American 45s by artists including the Teenagers, the Platters, Fats Domino, Elvis Presley and Little Richard. Upon listening to Little Richard's song "Tutti Frutti", Bowie later said that he had "heard God". Bowie was first impressed with Presley when he saw his cousin Kristina dance to "Hound Dog" soon after its release in 1956. According to Kristina, she and David "danced like possessed elves" to records of various artists. By the end of the following year, Bowie had taken up the ukulele and tea-chest bass, begun to participate in skiffle sessions with friends, and had started to play the piano; meanwhile, his stage presentation of numbers by both Presley and Chuck Berry—complete with gyrations in tribute to the original artists—to his local Wolf Cub group was described as "mesmerizing ... like someone from another planet". Having encouraged his son to follow his dreams of being an entertainer since he was a toddler, in the late 1950s David's father took him to meet singers and other performers preparing for the Royal Variety Performance, introducing him to Alma Cogan and Tommy Steele. He received a serious injury at school in 1962 when his friend George Underwood punched him in the left eye during a fight over a girl. After a series of operations during a four-month hospitalisation, his doctors determined that the damage could not be fully repaired and Bowie was left with faulty depth perception and anisocoria (a permanently dilated pupil), which gave a false impression of a change in the iris' colour, erroneously suggesting he had heterochromia iridum (one iris a different colour to the other); his eye later became one of Bowie's most recognisable features. Despite their altercation, Bowie remained on good terms with Underwood, who went on to create the artwork for Bowie's early albums. ==Music career== ===1962–1967: Early career to debut album=== Bowie formed his first band, the Konrads, in 1962 at the age of 15. Playing guitar-based rock and roll at local youth gatherings and weddings, the Konrads had a varying line-up of between four and eight members, Underwood among them. When Bowie left the technical school the following year, he informed his parents of his intention to become a pop star. His mother arranged his employment as an electrician's mate. Frustrated by his bandmates' limited aspirations, Bowie left the Konrads and joined another band, the King Bees. He wrote to the newly successful washing-machine entrepreneur John Bloom inviting him to "do for us what Brian Epstein has done for the Beatles—and make another million." Bloom did not respond to the offer, but his referral to Dick James's partner Leslie Conn led to Bowie's first personal management contract. Conn quickly began to promote Bowie. His debut single, "Liza Jane", credited to Davie Jones with the King Bees, was not commercially successful. Dissatisfied with the King Bees and their repertoire of Howlin' Wolf and Willie Dixon covers, Bowie quit the band less than a month later to join the Manish Boys, another blues outfit, who incorporated folk and soul—"I used to dream of being their Mick Jagger", he recalled. Their cover of Bobby Bland's "I Pity the Fool" was no more successful than "Liza Jane", and Bowie soon moved on again to join the Lower Third, a blues trio strongly influenced by the Who. "You've Got a Habit of Leaving" fared no better, signalling the end of Conn's contract. Declaring that he would exit the pop music world "to study mime at Sadler's Wells", Bowie nevertheless remained with the Lower Third. His new manager, Ralph Horton, later instrumental in his transition to solo artist, helped secure him a contract with Pye Records. Publicist Tony Hatch signed Bowie on the basis that he wrote his own songs. Dissatisfied with Davy (and Davie) Jones, which in the mid-1960s invited confusion with Davy Jones of the Monkees, he took on the stage name David Bowie after the 19th-century American pioneer James Bowie and the knife he had popularised. His first release under the name was the January 1966 single "Can't Help Thinking About Me", recorded with the Lower Third. It flopped like its predecessors. Bowie departed the Lower Third after the single's release, partly due to Horton's influence, and released two more singles for Pye, "Do Anything You Say" and "I Dig Everything", both of which featured a new band called the Buzz, before signing with Deram Records. Around this time Bowie also joined the Riot Squad; their recordings, which included one of Bowie's original songs and material by the Velvet Underground, went unreleased. Kenneth Pitt, introduced by Horton, took over as Bowie's manager. His April 1967 solo single, "The Laughing Gnome", on which speeded-up and high-pitched vocals were used to portray the gnome, failed to chart. Released six weeks later, his album debut, David Bowie, an amalgam of pop, psychedelia and music hall, met the same fate. It was his last release for two years. In September, Bowie recorded "Let Me Sleep Beside You" and "Karma Man", both rejected by Deram and left unreleased until 1970. The tracks marked the beginning of Bowie's working relationship with producer Tony Visconti which, with large gaps, lasted for the rest of Bowie's career. === 1968–1971: Space Oddity to Hunky Dory === Studying the dramatic arts under Lindsay Kemp, from avant-garde theatre and mime to commedia dell'arte, Bowie became immersed in the creation of personae to present to the world. Satirising life in a British prison, his composition "Over the Wall We Go" became a 1967 single for Oscar; another Bowie song, "Silly Boy Blue", was released by Billy Fury the following year. Playing acoustic guitar, Hermione Farthingale formed a group with Bowie and guitarist John Hutchinson named Feathers; between September 1968 and early 1969 the trio gave a small number of concerts combining folk, Merseybeat, poetry and mime. After the break-up with Farthingale, Bowie moved in with Mary Finnigan as her lodger. In February and March 1969, he undertook a short tour with Marc Bolan's duo Tyrannosaurus Rex, as third on the bill, performing a mime act. Continuing the divergence from rock and roll and blues begun by his work with Farthingale, Bowie joined forces with Finnigan, Christina Ostrom and Barrie Jackson to run a folk club on Sunday nights at the Three Tuns pub in Beckenham High Street. The club was influenced by the Arts Lab movement, developing into the Beckenham Arts Lab and became extremely popular. The Arts Lab hosted a free festival in a local park, the subject of his song "Memory of a Free Festival". Pitt attempted to introduce Bowie to a larger audience with the Love You till Tuesday film, which went unreleased until 1984. Feeling alienated over his unsuccessful career and deeply affected by his break-up, Bowie wrote "Space Oddity", a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom. The song earned him a contract with Mercury Records and its UK subsidiary Philips, who issued "Space Oddity" as a single on 11 July 1969, five days ahead of the Apollo 11 launch. Reaching the top five in the UK, it was his first and last hit for three years. Bowie's second album followed in November. Originally issued in the UK as David Bowie, it caused some confusion with its predecessor of the same name, and the US release was instead titled Man of Words/Man of Music; it was reissued internationally in 1972 by RCA Records as Space Oddity. Featuring philosophical post-hippie lyrics on peace, love and morality, its acoustic folk rock occasionally fortified by harder rock, the album was not a commercial success at the time. Bowie met Angela Barnett in April 1969. They married within a year. Her impact on him was immediate—he wrote his 1970 single "The Prettiest Star" for her—and her involvement in his career was far-reaching, leaving Pitt with limited influence which he found frustrating. Having established himself as a solo artist with "Space Oddity", Bowie desired a full-time band he could record with and could relate to personally. The band Bowie assembled comprised John Cambridge, a drummer Bowie met at the Arts Lab, Visconti on bass and Mick Ronson on electric guitar. Known as Hype, the bandmates created characters for themselves and wore elaborate costumes that prefigured the glam style of the Spiders from Mars. After a disastrous opening gig at the London Roundhouse, they reverted to a configuration presenting Bowie as a solo artist. Their initial studio work was marred by a heated disagreement between Bowie and Cambridge over the latter's drumming style, leading to his replacement by Mick Woodmansey. Not long after, Bowie fired his manager and replaced him with Tony Defries. This resulted in years of litigation that concluded with Bowie having to pay Pitt compensation. The studio sessions continued and resulted in Bowie's third album, The Man Who Sold the World (1970), which contained references to schizophrenia, paranoia and delusion. It represented a departure from the acoustic guitar and folk rock style established by his second album, to a more hard rock sound. Mercury financed a coast-to-coast publicity tour across the US in which Bowie, between January and February 1971, was interviewed by media. Exploiting his androgynous appearance, the original cover of the UK version unveiled two months later depicted Bowie wearing a dress. He took the dress with him and wore it during interviews, to the approval of critics – including Rolling Stones John Mendelsohn, who described him as "ravishing, almost disconcertingly reminiscent of Lauren Bacall". During the tour, Bowie's observation of two seminal American proto-punk artists led him to develop a concept that eventually found form in the Ziggy Stardust character: a melding of the persona of Iggy Pop with the music of Lou Reed, producing "the ultimate pop idol". Bowie later stated, "It's not who does it first, it's who does it second."A girlfriend recalled his "scrawling notes on a cocktail napkin about a crazy rock star named Iggy or Ziggy", and on his return to England he declared his intention to create a character "who looks like he's landed from Mars". The "Stardust" surname was a tribute to the "Legendary Stardust Cowboy", whose record he was given during the tour. Bowie later covered "I Took a Trip on a Gemini Space Ship" on 2002's Heathen. Hunky Dory (1971) found Visconti supplanted in both roles by Ken Scott producing and Trevor Bolder on bass. It again featured a stylistic shift towards art pop and melodic pop rock, with light fare tracks such as "Kooks", a song written for his son, Duncan Zowie Haywood Jones, born on 30 May. Elsewhere, the album explored more serious subjects, and found Bowie paying unusually direct homage to his influences with "Song for Bob Dylan", "Andy Warhol" and "Queen Bitch", the latter a Velvet Underground pastiche. His first release through RCA, it was a commercial failure, partly due lack of promotion from the label. Peter Noone of Herman's Hermits covered the album's track "Oh! You Pretty Things", which reached number 12 in the UK. ===1972–1974: Glam rock era=== Dressed in a striking costume, his hair dyed reddish-brown, Bowie launched his Ziggy Stardust stage show with the Spiders from Mars—Ronson, Bolder, and Woodmansey—at the Toby Jug pub in Tolworth in Kingston upon Thames on 10 February 1972. The show was hugely popular, catapulting him to stardom as he toured the UK over the next six months and creating, as described by David Buckley, a "cult of Bowie" that was "unique—its influence lasted longer and has been more creative than perhaps almost any other force within pop fandom." The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972), combining the hard rock elements of The Man Who Sold the World with the lighter experimental rock and pop of Hunky Dory, was released in June and was considered one of the defining albums of glam rock. "Starman", issued as an April single ahead of the album, was to cement Bowie's UK breakthrough: both single and album charted rapidly following his July Top of the Pops performance of the song. The album, which remained in the chart for two years, was soon joined there by the six-month-old Hunky Dory. At the same time, the non-album single "John, I'm Only Dancing" and "All the Young Dudes", a song he wrote and produced for Mott the Hoople, were successful in the UK. The Ziggy Stardust Tour continued to the United States. Bowie contributed backing vocals, keyboards and guitar to Reed's 1972 solo breakthrough Transformer, co-producing the album with Ronson. The following year, Bowie co-produced and mixed the Stooges' album Raw Power alongside Iggy Pop. His own Aladdin Sane (1973) was his first UK number-one album. Described by Bowie as "Ziggy goes to America", it contained songs he wrote while travelling to and across the US during the earlier part of the Ziggy tour, which now continued to Japan to promote the new album. Aladdin Sane spawned the UK top five singles "The Jean Genie" and "Drive-In Saturday". Bowie's love of acting led to his total immersion in the characters he created for his music. "Offstage I'm a robot. Onstage I achieve emotion. It's probably why I prefer dressing up as Ziggy to being David." With satisfaction came severe personal difficulties: acting the same role over an extended period, it became impossible for him to separate Ziggy Stardust—and later, the Thin White Duke—from his own character offstage. Ziggy, Bowie said, "wouldn't leave me alone for years. That was when it all started to go sour ... My whole personality was affected. It became very dangerous. I really did have doubts about my sanity." His later Ziggy shows, which included songs from both Ziggy Stardust and Aladdin Sane, were ultra-theatrical affairs filled with shocking stage moments, such as Bowie stripping down to a sumo wrestling loincloth or simulating oral sex with Ronson's guitar. Bowie toured and gave press conferences as Ziggy before a dramatic and abrupt on-stage "retirement" at London's Hammersmith Odeon on 3 July 1973. Footage from the final show was incorporated for the film Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, which premiered in 1979 and commercially released in 1983. After breaking up the Spiders, Bowie attempted to move on from his Ziggy persona. His back catalogue was now highly sought after: The Man Who Sold the World had been re-released in 1972 along with Space Oddity. Hunky Dory "Life on Mars?" was released in June 1973 and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart. Entering the same chart in September, his 1967 novelty record "The Laughing Gnome" reached number six. Pin Ups, a collection of covers of his 1960s favourites, followed in October, producing a UK number three hit in his version of the McCoys's "Sorrow" and itself peaking at number one, making Bowie the best-selling act of 1973 in the UK. It brought the total number of Bowie albums concurrently on the UK chart to six. ===1974–1976: "Plastic soul" and the Thin White Duke=== Bowie moved to the US in 1974, initially staying in New York City before settling in Los Angeles. Diamond Dogs (1974), parts of which found him heading towards soul and funk, was the product of two distinct ideas: a musical based on a wild future in a post-apocalyptic city, and setting George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four to music. The album went to number one in the UK, spawning the hits "Rebel Rebel" and "Diamond Dogs", and number five in the US. The supporting Diamond Dogs Tour visited cities in North America between June and December 1974. Choreographed by Toni Basil, and lavishly produced with theatrical special effects, the high-budget stage production was filmed by Alan Yentob. The resulting documentary, Cracked Actor, featured a pasty and emaciated Bowie: the tour coincided with his slide from heavy cocaine use into addiction, producing severe physical debilitation, paranoia and emotional problems. He later commented that the accompanying live album, David Live, ought to have been titled "David Bowie Is Alive and Well and Living Only in Theory". David Live nevertheless solidified Bowie's status as a superstar, charting at number two in the UK and number eight in the US. It also spawned a UK number ten hit in a cover of Eddie Floyd's "Knock on Wood". After a break in Philadelphia, where Bowie recorded new material, the tour resumed with a new emphasis on soul. The fruit of the Philadelphia recording sessions was Young Americans (1975). Sandford writes, "Over the years, most British rockers had tried, one way or another, to become black-by-extension. Few had succeeded as Bowie did now." The album's sound, which Bowie identified as "plastic soul", constituted a radical shift in style that initially alienated many of his UK devotees. Young Americans was a commercial success in both the US and the UK and yielded Bowie's first US number one, "Fame", a collaboration with John Lennon. A re-issue of the 1969 single "Space Oddity" became Bowie's first number-one hit in the UK a few months after "Fame" achieved the same in the US. He mimed "Fame" and his November single "Golden Years" on the US variety show Soul Train, earning him the distinction of being one of the first white artists to appear on the programme. The same year, Bowie fired Defries as his manager. At the culmination of the ensuing months-long legal dispute, he watched, as described by Sandford, "millions of dollars of his future earnings being surrendered" in what were "uniquely generous terms for Defries", then "shut himself up in West 20th Street, where for a week his howls could be heard through the locked attic door." Michael Lippman, Bowie's lawyer during the negotiations, became his new manager; Lippman, in turn, was awarded substantial compensation when he was fired the following year. Station to Station (1976), produced by Bowie and Harry Maslin, introduced a new Bowie persona, the Thin White Duke of its title track. Visually, the character was an extension of Thomas Jerome Newton, the extraterrestrial being he portrayed in the film The Man Who Fell to Earth the same year. Developing the funk and soul of Young Americans, Station to Stations synthesiser-heavy arrangements were influenced by electronic and German krautrock. Bowie's cocaine addiction during this period was at its peak; he often did not sleep for three to four days at a time during Station to Station recording sessions and later said he remembered "only flashes" of its making. His sanity—by his own later admission—had become twisted from cocaine; he referenced the drug directly in the album's ten-minute title track. The album's release was followed by a -month-long concert tour, the Isolar Tour, of Europe and North America. The core band that coalesced to record the album and tour—rhythm guitarist Carlos Alomar, bassist George Murray and drummer Dennis Davis—continued as a stable unit for the remainder of the 1970s. Bowie performed on stage as the Thin White Duke. The tour was highly successful but mired in political controversy. Bowie was quoted in Stockholm as saying that "Britain could benefit from a Fascist leader", and was detained by customs on the Russian/Polish border for possessing Nazi paraphernalia. Matters came to a head in London in May in what became known as the "Victoria Station incident". Arriving in an open-top Mercedes convertible, Bowie waved to the crowd in a gesture that some alleged was a Nazi salute, which was captured on camera and published in NME. Bowie said the photographer caught him in mid-wave. He later blamed his pro-fascism comments and his behaviour during the period on his cocaine addiction, the character of the Thin White Duke and his life living in Los Angeles, a city he later said "should be wiped off the face of the Earth". He later apologised for these statements, and throughout the 1980s and 1990s criticised racism in European politics and the American music industry. Nevertheless, his comments on fascism, as well as Eric Clapton's alcohol-fuelled denunciations of Pakistani immigrants in 1976, led to the establishment of Rock Against Racism. ===1976–1979: Berlin era=== In August 1976, Bowie moved to West Berlin with his old friend Iggy Pop to rid themselves of their drug addictions and escape the spotlight. Bowie's interest in German krautrock and the ambient works of multi-instrumentalist Brian Eno culminated in the first of three albums, co-produced with Visconti, that became known as the Berlin Trilogy. The album, Low (1977), was recorded in France and took influence from krautrock and experimental music and featured both short song-fragments and ambient instrumentals. Before its recording, Bowie produced Iggy Pop's debut solo album The Idiot, described by Pegg as "a stepping stone between Station to Station and Low". Low was completed in November, but left unreleased for three months. RCA did not see the album as commercially viable and was expecting another success following Young Americans and Station to Station. Bowie's former manager Tony Defries, who maintained a significant financial interest in Bowie's affairs, had tried to prevent the album from being released. Upon its release in January 1977, Low yielded the UK number three single "Sound and Vision", and its own performance surpassed that of Station to Station in the UK chart, where it reached number two. Bowie himself did not promote it, instead touring with Pop as his keyboardist throughout March and April before recording Pop's follow-up, Lust for Life. Echoing Lows minimalist, instrumental approach, the second of the trilogy, "Heroes" (1977), incorporated pop and rock to a greater extent, seeing Bowie joined by guitarist Robert Fripp. It was the only album recorded entirely in Berlin. Incorporating ambient sounds from a variety of sources including white noise generators, synthesisers and koto, the album was another hit, reaching number three in the UK. Its title track was released in both German and French and, though only reached number 24 in the UK singles chart, later became one of his best-known tracks. In contrast to Low, Bowie promoted "Heroes" extensively, performing the title track on Marc Bolan's television show Marc, and again two days later for Bing Crosby's final CBS television Christmas special, when he joined Crosby in "Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy", a version of "The Little Drummer Boy" with a new, contrapuntal verse. RCA belatedly released the recording as a single five years later in 1982, charting in the UK at number three. After completing Low and "Heroes", Bowie spent much of 1978 on the Isolar II world tour, bringing the music of the first two Berlin Trilogy albums to almost a million people during 70 concerts in 12 countries. By now he had broken his drug addiction; Buckley writes that Isolar II was "Bowie's first tour for five years in which he had probably not anaesthetised himself with copious quantities of cocaine before taking the stage. ... Without the oblivion that drugs had brought, he was now in a healthy enough mental condition to want to make friends." Recordings from the tour made up the live album Stage, released the same year. Bowie also recorded narration for an adaptation of Sergei Prokofiev's classical composition Peter and the Wolf, which was released as an album in May 1978. The final piece in what Bowie called his "triptych", Lodger (1979), eschewed the minimalist, ambient nature of its two predecessors, making a partial return to the drum- and guitar-based rock and pop of his pre-Berlin era. The result was a complex mixture of new wave and world music, in places incorporating Hijaz non-Western scales. Some tracks were composed using Eno's Oblique Strategies cards: "Boys Keep Swinging" entailed band members swapping instruments, "Move On" used the chords from Bowie's early composition "All the Young Dudes" played backwards, and "Red Money" took backing tracks from The Idiot "Sister Midnight". The album was recorded in Switzerland and New York City. Ahead of its release, RCA's Mel Ilberman described it as "a concept album that portrays the Lodger as a homeless wanderer, shunned and victimized by life's pressures and technology." Lodger reached number four in the UK and number 20 in the US, and yielded the UK hit singles "Boys Keep Swinging" and "DJ". Towards the end of the year, Bowie and Angie initiated divorce proceedings, and after months of court battles the marriage was ended in early 1980. The three albums were later adapted into classical music symphonies by American composer Philip Glass for his first, fourth and twelfth symphonies in 1992, 1997 and 2019, respectively. Glass praised Bowie's gift for creating "fairly complex pieces of music, masquerading as simple pieces". ===1980–1988: New Romantic and pop era=== Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980) produced the number one single "Ashes to Ashes", featuring the textural guitar-synthesiser work of Chuck Hammer and revisiting the character of Major Tom from "Space Oddity". The song gave international exposure to the underground New Romantic movement when Bowie visited the London club "Blitz"—the main New Romantic hangout—to recruit several of the regulars (including Steve Strange of the band Visage) to act in the accompanying video, renowned as one of the most innovative of all time. While Scary Monsters used principles established by the Berlin albums, it was considered by critics to be far more direct musically and lyrically. The album's hard rock edge included conspicuous guitar contributions from Fripp and Pete Townshend. Topping the UK Albums Chart for the first time since Diamond Dogs, Buckley writes that with Scary Monsters, Bowie achieved "the perfect balance" of creativity and mainstream success. Bowie paired with Queen in 1981 for a one-off single release, "Under Pressure". The duet was a hit, becoming Bowie's third UK number-one single. Bowie was given the lead role in the BBC's 1982 televised adaptation of Bertolt Brecht's play Baal. Coinciding with its transmission, a five-track EP of songs from the play was released as Baal. In March 1982, Bowie's title song for Paul Schrader's film Cat People was released as a single. A collaboration with Giorgio Moroder, it became a minor US hit and charted in the UK top 30. The same year, he departed RCA, having grown increasingly dissatisfied with them, and signed a new contract with EMI America Records for a reported $17 million. His 1975 severance settlement with Defries also ended in September. Bowie reached his peak of popularity and commercial success in 1983 with Let's Dance. Co-produced by Chic's Nile Rodgers, the album went platinum in both the UK and the US. Its three singles became top 20 hits in both countries, where its title track reached number one. "Modern Love" and "China Girl" each made number two in the UK, accompanied by a pair of "absorbing" music videos that Buckley said "activated key archetypes in the pop world... 'Let's Dance', with its little narrative surrounding the young Aboriginal couple, targeted 'youth', and 'China Girl', with its bare-bummed (and later partially censored) beach lovemaking scene... was sufficiently sexually provocative to guarantee heavy rotation on MTV". Then-unknown Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan guested on the album, featuring prominently on the title track. Let's Dance was followed by the six-month Serious Moonlight Tour, which was extremely successful. At the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards Bowie received two awards including the inaugural Video Vanguard Award. Tonight (1984), another dance-oriented album, found Bowie collaborating with Pop and Tina Turner. Co-produced by Hugh Padgham, it included a number of cover songs, including three Pop covers and the 1966 Beach Boys hit "God Only Knows". The album bore the transatlantic top 10 hit "Blue Jean", itself the inspiration for the Julien Temple-directed short film Jazzin' for Blue Jean, in which Bowie played the dual roles of romantic protagonist Vic and arrogant rock star Screaming Lord Byron. The short won Bowie his only non-posthumous Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. Bowie and Mick Jagger duetted on a cover of Martha and the Vandellas' "Dancing in the Street" as a fundraising single, which went to number one in the UK and number seven in the US; its video premiered during Live Aid. Bowie took an acting role in the 1986 film Absolute Beginners, and his title song rose to number two in the UK charts. He also worked with composer Trevor Jones and wrote five original songs for the 1986 film Labyrinth, which he starred in. His final solo album of the decade was 1987's Never Let Me Down, where he ditched the light sound of his previous two albums, instead combining pop rock with a harder rock sound. Peaking at number six in the UK, the album yielded the hits "Day-In Day-Out", "Time Will Crawl" and "Never Let Me Down". Bowie later described it as his "nadir", calling it "an awful album". He supported the album on the 86-concert Glass Spider Tour. The backing band included Peter Frampton on lead guitar. Contemporary critics maligned the tour as overproduced, saying it pandered to the current stadium rock trends in its special effects and dancing, although in later years critics acknowledged the tour's strengths and influence on concert tours by other artists, such as Prince, Madonna and U2. ===1989–1991: Tin Machine=== Wanting to completely rejuvenate himself following the critical failures of Tonight and Never Let Me Down, Bowie placed his solo career on hold after meeting guitarist Reeves Gabrels and formed the hard rock quartet Tin Machine. The line-up was completed by bassist and drummer Tony and Hunt Sales, who had played with Bowie on Iggy Pop's Lust for Life in 1977. Although he intended Tin Machine to operate as a democracy, Bowie dominated, both in songwriting and in decision-making. The band's 1989 self-titled debut album received mixed reviews and, according to author Paul Trynka, was quickly dismissed as "pompous, dogmatic and dull". EMI complained of "lyrics that preach" as well as "repetitive tunes" and "minimalist or no production". It reached number three in the UK and was supported by a twelve-date tour. The tour was a commercial success, but there was growing reluctance—among fans and critics alike—to accept Bowie's presentation as merely a band member. A series of Tin Machine singles failed to chart, and Bowie, after a disagreement with EMI, left the label. Like his audience and his critics, Bowie himself became increasingly disaffected with his role as just one member of a band. Tin Machine began work on a second album, but recording halted while Bowie conducted the seven-month Sound+Vision Tour, which brought him commercial success and acclaim. In October 1990, Bowie and Somali-born supermodel Iman were introduced by a mutual friend. He recalled, "I was naming the children the night we met ... it was absolutely immediate." They married in 1992. Tin Machine resumed work the same month, but their audience and critics, ultimately left disappointed by the first album, showed little interest in a second. Tin Machine II (1991) was Bowie's first album to miss the UK top 20 in nearly twenty years, and was controversial for its cover art. Depicting four ancient nude Kouroi statues, the new record label, Victory, deemed the cover "a show of wrong, obscene images" and airbrushed the statues' genitalia for the American release. Tin Machine toured again, but after the live album Tin Machine Live: Oy Vey, Baby (1992) failed commercially, Bowie dissolved the band and resumed his solo career. He continued to collaborate with Gabrels for the rest of the 1990s. ===1992–1998: Electronic period=== On 20 April 1992, Bowie appeared at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert, following the Queen singer's death the previous year. As well as performing "Heroes" and "All the Young Dudes", he was joined on "Under Pressure" by Annie Lennox, who took Mercury's vocal part; during his appearance, Bowie knelt and recited the Lord's Prayer at Wembley Stadium. Four days later, Bowie and Iman married in Switzerland. Intending to move to Los Angeles, they flew in to search for a suitable property, but found themselves confined to their hotel, under curfew: the 1992 Los Angeles riots began the day they arrived. They settled in New York instead. In 1993, Bowie released his first solo offering since his Tin Machine departure, the soul, jazz and hip-hop influenced Black Tie White Noise. Making prominent use of electronic instruments, the album, which reunited Bowie with Let's Dance producer Nile Rodgers, confirmed Bowie's return to popularity, topping the UK chart and spawning three top 40 hits, including the top 10 single "Jump They Say". Bowie explored new directions on The Buddha of Suburbia (1993), which began as a soundtrack album for the BBC television adaptation of Hanif Kureishi's novel The Buddha of Suburbia before turning into a full album; only the title track "The Buddha of Suburbia" was used in the programme. Referencing his 1970s works with pop, jazz, ambient and experimental material, it received a low-key release, had almost no promotion and flopped commercially, reaching number 87 in the UK. Nevertheless, it later received critical praise as Bowie's "lost great album". Reuniting Bowie with Eno, the quasi-industrial Outside (1995) was originally conceived as the first volume in a non-linear narrative of art and murder. Featuring characters from a short story written by Bowie, the album achieved UK and US chart success and yielded three top 40 UK singles. In a move that provoked mixed reactions from both fans and critics, Bowie chose Nine Inch Nails as his tour partner for the Outside Tour. Visiting cities in Europe and North America between September 1995 and February 1996, the tour saw the return of Gabrels as Bowie's guitarist. On 7 January 1997, Bowie celebrated his half century with a 50th birthday concert at Madison Square Garden at which he was joined in playing his songs and those of his guests, Lou Reed, Dave Grohl and the Foo Fighters, Robert Smith of the Cure, Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins, Black Francis of the Pixies, and Sonic Youth. Incorporating experiments in jungle and drum 'n' bass, Earthling (1997) was a critical and commercial success in the UK and the US, and two singles from the album—"Little Wonder" and "Dead Man Walking"—became UK top 40 hits. The song "I'm Afraid of Americans" from the Paul Verhoeven film Showgirls was re-recorded for the album, and remixed by Trent Reznor for a single release. The heavy rotation of the accompanying video, also featuring Reznor, contributed to the song's 16-week stay in the US Billboard Hot 100. Bowie received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 12 February 1997. The Earthling Tour took place in Europe and North America between June and November. In November, Bowie performed on the BBC's Children in Need charity single "Perfect Day", which reached number one in the UK. Bowie reunited with Visconti in 1998 to record "(Safe in This) Sky Life" for The Rugrats Movie. Although the track was edited out of the final cut, it was later re-recorded and released as "Safe" on the B-side of Bowie's 2002 single "Everyone Says 'Hi'. The reunion led to other collaborations with his old producer, including a limited-edition single release version of Placebo's track "Without You I'm Nothing" with Bowie's harmonised vocal added to the original recording. ===1999–2012: Neoclassicist era=== Bowie, with Gabrels, created the soundtrack for Omikron: The Nomad Soul, a 1999 computer game in which he and Iman also voiced characters based on their likenesses. Released the same year and containing re-recorded tracks from Omikron, his album Hours featured a song with lyrics by the winner of his "Cyber Song Contest" Internet competition, Alex Grant. Making extensive use of live instruments, the album was Bowie's exit from heavy electronica. Hours and a performance on VH1 Storytellers in mid-1999 represented the end of Gabrels' association with Bowie as a performer and songwriter. Sessions for Toy, a planned collection of remakes of tracks from Bowie's 1960s period, commenced in 2000, but was shelved due to EMI/Virgin's lack of faith in its commercial appeal. Bowie and Visconti continued their collaboration, producing a new album of completely original songs instead: the result of the sessions was the 2002 album Heathen. On 25 June 2000, Bowie made his second appearance at the Glastonbury Festival in England, playing almost 30 years after his first. The performance was released as a live album in November 2018. On 27 June, he performed a concert at the BBC Radio Theatre in London, which was released on the compilation album Bowie at the Beeb; this also featured BBC recording sessions from 1968 to 1972. Bowie and Iman's daughter, Alexandra, was born on 15 August. His interest in Buddhism led him to support the Tibetan cause by performing at the February 2001 and February 2003 concerts to support Tibet House US at Carnegie Hall in New York. In October 2001, Bowie opened the Concert for New York City, a charity event to benefit the victims of the September 11 attacks, with a minimalist performance of Simon & Garfunkel's "America", followed by a full band performance of "Heroes". 2002 saw the release of Heathen, and, during the second half of the year, the Heathen Tour. Taking place in Europe and North America, the tour opened at London's annual Meltdown festival, for which Bowie was that year appointed artistic director. Among the acts he selected for the festival were Philip Glass, Television and the Dandy Warhols. As well as songs from the new album, the tour featured material from Bowie's Low era. Reality (2003) followed, and its accompanying world tour, the A Reality Tour, with an estimated attendance of 722,000, grossed more than any other in 2004. On 13 June, Bowie headlined the last night of the Isle of Wight Festival 2004. On 25 June, he experienced chest pain while performing at the Hurricane Festival in Scheeßel, Germany. Originally thought to be a pinched nerve in his shoulder, the pain was later diagnosed as an acutely blocked coronary artery, requiring an emergency angioplasty in Hamburg. The remaining fourteen dates of the tour were cancelled. In the years following his recuperation from the heart attack, Bowie reduced his musical output, making only one-off appearances on stage and in the studio. He sang in a duet of his 1971 song "Changes" with Butterfly Boucher for the 2004 animated film Shrek 2. During a relatively quiet 2005, he recorded the vocals for the song "(She Can) Do That", co-written with Brian Transeau, for the film Stealth. He returned to the stage on 8 September 2005, appearing with Arcade Fire for the US nationally televised event Fashion Rocks, and performed with the Canadian band for the second time a week later during the CMJ Music Marathon. He contributed backing vocals on TV on the Radio's song "Province" for their album Return to Cookie Mountain, and joined with Lou Reed on Danish alt-rockers Kashmir's 2005 album No Balance Palace. Bowie was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award on 8 February 2006. In April, he announced, "I'm taking a year off—no touring, no albums." He made a surprise guest appearance at David Gilmour's 29 May concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The event was recorded, and a selection of songs on which he had contributed joint vocals were subsequently released. He performed again in November, alongside Alicia Keys, at the Black Ball, a benefit event for Keep a Child Alive at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York. The performance marked the last time Bowie performed his music on stage. Bowie was chosen to curate the 2007 High Line Festival. The musicians and artists he selected for the Manhattan event included electronic pop duo AIR, surrealist photographer Claude Cahun and English comedian Ricky Gervais. Bowie performed on Scarlett Johansson's 2008 album of Tom Waits covers, Anywhere I Lay My Head. In June 2008, a live album was released of a Ziggy Stardust-era concert from 1972. On the 40th anniversary of the July 1969 Moon landing—and Bowie's accompanying commercial breakthrough with "Space Oddity"—EMI released the individual tracks from the original eight-track studio recording of the song, in a 2009 contest inviting members of the public to create a remix. A live album from the A Reality Tour was released in January 2010. In late March 2011, Toy, Bowie's previously unreleased album from 2001, was leaked onto the internet, containing material used for Heathen and most of its single B-sides, as well as unheard new versions of his early back catalogue. ===2013–2016: Final years=== On 8 January 2013, his 66th birthday, his website announced a new studio album—his first in a decade—to be titled The Next Day and scheduled for release in March; the announcement was accompanied by the immediate release of the single "Where Are We Now?". A music video for the single was released onto Vimeo the same day, directed by New York artist Tony Oursler. and debuted in the UK Singles Chart at number six, his first single to enter the Top 10 for two decades (since "Jump They Say" in 1993). A second single and video, "The Stars (Are Out Tonight)", were released at the end of February. Directed by Floria Sigismondi, it stars Bowie and Tilda Swinton as a married couple. Recorded in secret between 2011 and 2012, 29 songs were recorded during the album's sessions, of which 22 saw official release in 2013, including fourteen on the standard album. Three bonus tracks were later packaged with seven outtakes and remixes on The Next Day Extra, released in November. On 1 March, the album was made available to stream for free through iTunes. Debuting at number one on the UK Albums Chart, The Next Day was his first album to top the chart since Black Tie White Noise, and was the fastest-selling album of 2013 at the time. The music video for the song "The Next Day" created some controversy due to its Christian themes and messages. According to The Times, Bowie ruled out ever giving an interview again. Later in 2013, he was featured in a cameo vocal in the Arcade Fire song "Reflektor". The success of The Next Day saw Bowie become the oldest ever recipient of a Brit Award when he won the award for British Male Solo Artist at the 2014 Brit Awards, which was collected on his behalf by Kate Moss. In mid-2014, Bowie was diagnosed with liver cancer, which he kept private. A new compilation album, Nothing Has Changed, was released in November. The album featured rare tracks and old material from his catalogue in addition to a new song, "Sue (Or in a Season of Crime)". Bowie continued working throughout 2015, secretly recording his final album Blackstar in New York between January and May. In August, it was announced that he was writing songs for a Broadway musical based on the SpongeBob SquarePants cartoon series; the final production included a retooled version of "No Control" from Outside. September saw the release of the box set Five Years (1969–1973), the first in a series of retrospective releases compiling his albums from 1969 to 1973, and a look to his "transition from folk artist to glam-rock legend". He also wrote and recorded the opening title song to the television series The Last Panthers, which aired in November. The theme that was used for The Last Panthers was also the title track for Blackstar. On 7 December, Bowie's musical Lazarus debuted in New York; he made his final public appearance at its opening night. Blackstar was released on 8 January 2016, Bowie's 69th birthday, and was met with critical acclaim. He died two days later, after which Visconti revealed that Bowie had planned the album to be his swan song, and a "parting gift" for his fans before his death. Several reporters and critics subsequently noted that most of the lyrics on the album seem to revolve around his impending death, with CNN noting that the album "reveals a man who appears to be grappling with his own mortality". Visconti also said that he had been planning a follow-up album, and had written and recorded demos of five songs in his final weeks, suggesting he believed he had a few months left. The day following his death, online viewing of Bowie's music skyrocketed, breaking the record for Vevo's most viewed artist in a single day. Blackstar debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart; nineteen of his albums were in the UK Top 100 Albums Chart, and thirteen singles were in the UK Top 100 Singles Chart. Blackstar also debuted at number one on album charts around the world, including Australia, France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand and the US Billboard 200. ===Posthumous releases=== In September 2016, Who Can I Be Now? (1974–1976), the second retrospective box set, was released covering Bowie's mid-1970s soul period; it included The Gouster, a previously unreleased 1974 album that evolved into Young Americans. An EP, No Plan, was released on 8 January 2017, which would have been Bowie's 70th birthday. Apart from "Lazarus", the EP includes three songs that Bowie recorded during the Blackstar sessions, but were left off the album and appeared on the soundtrack album for the Lazarus musical in October 2016. A music video for the title track was also released. Through the following year, a series of posthumous live albums, Cracked Actor (Live Los Angeles '74), Live Nassau Coliseum '76 and Welcome to the Blackout (Live London '78). In the two years following his death, Bowie sold five million records in the UK alone. In their top 10 list for the Global Recording Artist of the Year, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry named Bowie the second-bestselling artist worldwide in 2016, behind Drake. At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017, Bowie won all five nominated awards: Best Rock Performance; Best Alternative Music Album; Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical; Best Recording Package; and Best Rock Song. They were Bowie's first Grammy wins in musical categories. In September 2018, Loving the Alien (1983–1988), the fourth retrospective box set comprising his releases during the 1980s, was released. On 8 January 2020, on what would have been Bowie's 73rd birthday, a previously unreleased version of "The Man Who Sold the World" was released and two releases were announced: a streaming-only EP, Is It Any Wonder?, and an album, ChangesNowBowie, released in November 2020 for Record Store Day. In August, another series of live shows were released, including sets from Dallas in 1995 and Paris in 1999. These and other shows, part of a series of live concerts spanning his tours from 1995 to 1999, was released in late 2020 and early 2021 as part of the box set Brilliant Live Adventures. In September 2021, Bowie's estate signed a distribution deal with Warner Music Group, beginning in 2023, covering Bowie's recordings from 2000 through 2016. That November, the fifth retrospective box set, Brilliant Adventure (1992–2001), was released, comprising his albums from the decade of 1990, and the official release of his album Toy. The latter, which was recorded in 2000, was released separatedly on what would have been Bowie's 75th birthday. On 3 January 2022, Variety reported that Bowie's estate had sold his publishing catalogue to Warner Chappell Music, "for a price upwards of $250 million". ==Acting career== In addition to music, Bowie took acting roles throughout his career, appearing in over 30 films, television shows and theatrical productions. His acting career was "productively selective", largely eschewing starring roles for cameos and supporting parts; he once described his film career as "splashing in the kids' pool". He mostly chose projects with arthouse directors that he felt were outside the Hollywood mainstream, commenting in 2000: "One cameo for Scorsese to me brings so much more satisfaction than, say, a James Bond." Critics have believed that, had he not chosen to pursue music, he could have found great success as an actor. Others have felt that, while his screen presence was singular, his best contributions to film were the use of his songs in films such as Lost Highway, A Knight's Tale, The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou and Inglourious Basterds. === 1960s and 1970s === Bowie's acting career predated his commercial breakthrough as a musician. His first film was a short fourteen-minute black-and-white film called The Image, shot in September 1967. Concerning a ghostly boy who emerges from a troubled artist's painting to haunt him, Bowie later called the film "awful". From December 1967 to March 1968, Bowie acted in mime Lindsay Kemp's theatrical production Pierrot in Turquoise, during which he performed several songs from his self-titled debut album. The production was later adapted into the 1970 television film The Looking Glass Murders. In late January 1968, Bowie filmed a walk-on role for the BBC drama series Theatre 625 that aired in May. He also appeared as a walk-on extra in the 1969 film adaptation of Leslie Thomas's 1966 comic novel The Virgin Soldiers. Bowie's first major film role was in Nicolas Roeg's The Man Who Fell to Earth, in which he portrayed Thomas Jerome Newton, an alien from a dying planet. The actor's severe cocaine addiction at the time left him in such a fragile state of mind that he barely understood the film; he later said in 1993: "My one snapshot of that film is not having to act. Just being me as I was, was perfectly adequate for the role. I wasn't of this earth at that particular time." Bowie's role was particularly singled out for praise by film critics both on release and in later decades; Pegg argues it stands as Bowie's most significant role. In 1978, Bowie had a starring role in Just a Gigolo, directed by David Hemmings, portraying Prussian officer Paul von Przygodski, who, returning from World War I, discovers life has changed and becomes a gigolo employed by a Baroness, playing by Marlene Dietrich. The film was a critical and commercial failure, and Bowie expressed disappointment in the finished product. === 1980s === From July 1980 to January 1981, Bowie played Joseph Merrick in the Broadway theatre production The Elephant Man, which he undertook wearing no stage make-up, earning critical praise for his performance. Christiane F., a 1981 biographical film focusing on a young girl's drug addiction in West Berlin, featured Bowie in a cameo appearance as himself at a concert in Germany. Its soundtrack album, Christiane F. (1981), featured much material from his Berlin albums. The following year, he starred in the titular role in a BBC adaptation of the Bertolt Brecht play Baal. Bowie made three on-screen appearances in 1983, the first as a vampire in Tony Scott's erotic horror film The Hunger, with Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon. Bowie later said that he felt "very uncomfortable" with the role, but was happy to work with Scott. The second was in Nagisa Ōshima's Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence, based on Laurens van der Post's novel The Seed and the Sower, in which he played Major Jack Celliers, a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp. While the film itself received mixed reviews, Bowie's performance was praised. Pegg places it among his finest acting performances. Bowie's third role in 1983 was a small cameo in Mel Damski's pirate comedy Yellowbeard, heralded by several members of the Monty Python group. Bowie also filmed a 30-second introduction to the animated film The Snowman, based on Raymond Briggs's book The Snowman. In 1985, Bowie had a supporting role as hitman Colin in John Landis's Into the Night. He declined to play the villain Max Zorin in the James Bond film A View to a Kill (1985). Bowie reteamed with Julian Temple for Absolute Beginners, a rock musical film adapted from Colin MacInnes's novel Absolute Beginners about life in late 1950s London, in a supporting role as ad man Vendice Partners. The same year, Jim Henson's dark musical fantasy Labyrinth cast him as Jareth, the villainous Goblin King. Despite initially performing poorly, the film grew in popularity and became a cult film. Two years later, he played Pontius Pilate in Martin Scorsese's critically acclaimed biblical epic The Last Temptation of Christ (1988). Despite only appearing for a three-minute sequence, Pegg writes that Bowie "acquits himself well with a thoughtful, unshowy performance." === 1990s === In 1991, Bowie reteamed with Landis for an episode of the HBO sitcom Dream On and played a disgruntled restaurant employee opposite Rosanna Arquette in The Linguini Incident. Bowie portrayed the mysterious FBI agent Phillip Jeffries in David Lynch's Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992). The prequel to the television series was poorly received at the time of its release, but has since been critically reevaluated. He took a small but pivotal role as his friend Andy Warhol in Basquiat, artist/director Julian Schnabel's 1996 biopic of Jean-Michel Basquiat, another artist he considered a friend and colleague. Bowie co-starred in Giovanni Veronesi's Spaghetti Western Il Mio West (1998, released as Gunslinger's Revenge in the US in 2005) as the most feared gunfighter in the region. He played the ageing gangster Bernie in Andrew Goth's Everybody Loves Sunshine (1999, released in the US as B.U.S.T.E.D.), and appeared as the host in the second season of the television horror anthology series The Hunger. Despite having several episodes which focus on vampires and Bowie's involvement, the show had no plot connection to the 1983 film The Hunger. In 1999, Bowie voiced two characters in the Dreamcast game Omikron: The Nomad Soul, his only appearance in a video game. === 2000s and posthumous notes === In Mr. Rice's Secret (2000), Bowie played the title role as the neighbour of a terminally ill 12-year-old boy. Bowie appeared as himself in the 2001 Ben Stiller comedy Zoolander, judging a "walk-off" between rival male models, and in Eric Idle's 2002 mockumentary The Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch. In 2005, he filmed a commercial with Snoop Dogg for XM Satellite Radio. Bowie portrayed a fictionalised version of the inventor Nikola Tesla in Christopher Nolan's film The Prestige (2006), which was about the bitter rivalry between two magicians in the late 19th century. Nolan later claimed that Bowie was his only preference to play Tesla, and that he personally appealed to Bowie to take the role after he initially passed. In the same year, he voice-acted in Luc Besson's animated film Arthur and the Invisibles as the powerful villain Maltazard, and appeared as himself in an episode of the Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant television series Extras. In 2007, he voiced the character Lord Royal Highness in the SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis television film. In the 2008 film August, directed by Austin Chick, he played a supporting role as Ogilvie, a "ruthless venture capitalist". Bowie's final film appearance was a cameo as himself in the 2009 teen comedy Bandslam. In a 2017 interview with Consequence of Sound, the director Denis Villeneuve revealed his intention to cast Bowie in Blade Runner 2049 as the main villain but following his death, Villeneuve was forced to look for talent with similar "rock star" qualities, eventually casting the actor and singer Jared Leto. Talking about the casting process, Villeneuve said: "Our first thought [for the character] had been David Bowie, who had influenced Blade Runner in many ways. When we learned the sad news, we looked around for someone like that. He [Bowie] embodied the Blade Runner spirit." David Lynch also hoped to have Bowie reprise his Fire Walk With Me character for Twin Peaks: The Return but Bowie's illness prevented this. His character was portrayed via archival footage. At Bowie's request, Lynch overdubbed Bowie's original dialogue with a different actor's voice, as Bowie was unhappy with his Cajun accent in the original film. ==Other works== ===Painter and art collector=== Bowie was a painter and artist. He moved to Switzerland in 1976, purchasing a chalet in the hills north of Lake Geneva. In the new environment, his cocaine use decreased, and he devoted more time to his painting, producing a number of post-modernist pieces. When on tour, he took to sketching in a notebook, and photographing scenes for later reference. Visiting galleries in Geneva and the Brücke Museum in Berlin, Bowie became, in the words of Sandford, "a prolific producer and collector of contemporary art. ... Not only did he become a well-known patron of expressionist art: locked in Clos des Mésanges he began an intensive self-improvement course in classical music and literature, and started work on an autobiography." One of Bowie's paintings sold at auction in late 1990 for $500, and the cover for his 1995 album Outside is a close-up of a self-portrait he painted that year. His first solo show, titled New Afro/Pagan and Work: 1975–1995, was in 1995 at The Gallery in Cork Street, London. In 1997, he founded the publishing company 21 Publishing, whose first title was Blimey! – From Bohemia to Britpop: London Art World from Francis Bacon to Damien Hirst by Matthew Collings. A year later, Bowie was invited to join the editorial board of the journal Modern Painters, and participated in the Nat Tate art hoax later that year. The same year, during an interview with Michael Kimmelman for The New York Times, he said "Art was, seriously, the only thing I'd ever wanted to own." Subsequently, in a 1999 interview for the BBC, he said "The only thing I buy obsessively and addictively is art". His art collection, which included works by Damien Hirst, Derek Boshier, Frank Auerbach, Henry Moore, and Jean-Michel Basquiat among others, was valued at over £10 million in mid-2016. The items on sale represented about 65 per cent of the collection. Exhibition of the works in the auction attracted 51,470 visitors, the auction itself was attended by 1,750 bidders, with over 1,000 more bidding online. The auctions has overall sale total £32.9 million (app. $41.5 million), while the highest-selling item, Basquiat's graffiti-inspired painting Air Power, sold for £7.09 million. ===Writings=== Outside of music, Bowie dabbled in several forms of writings during his life. In the late 1990s, Bowie was commissioned for writings of various media, including an essay on Jean-Michel Basquiat for the 2001 anthology book Writers on Artists and forewords to Jo Levin's 2001 publication GQ Cool, Mick Rock's 2001 photography portfolio Blood and Glitter, his wife Iman's 2001 book I Am Iman, Q magazine's 2002 special The 100 Greatest Rock 'n' Roll Photographs and Jonathan Barnbrook's artwork portfolio Barnbrook Bible: The Graphic Design of Jonathan Barnbrook. He also heavily contributed to the 2002 Genesis Publications memoir of the Ziggy Stardust years, Moonage Daydream, which was rereleased in 2022. Bowie also wrote liner notes for several albums, including Too Many Fish in the Sea by Robin Clark, the wife of his guitarist Carlos Alomar, Stevie Ray Vaughan's posthumous Live at Montreux 1982 & 1985 (2002), the Spinners' compilation The Chrome Collection (2003), the tenth anniversary reissue of Placebo's debut album (2006) and Neu!'s Vinyl Box (2010). Bowie also wrote an appreciation piece in Rolling Stone for Nine Inch Nails in 2005 and an essay for the booklet accompanying Iggy Pop's A Million in Prizes: The Anthology the same year. ===Bowie Bonds=== "Bowie Bonds", the first modern example of celebrity bonds, were asset-backed securities of current and future revenues of the 25 albums that Bowie recorded before 1990. Issued in 1997, the bonds were bought for US$55 million by the Prudential Insurance Company of America. Royalties from the 25 albums generated the cash flow that secured the bonds' interest payments. By forfeiting 10 years worth of royalties, Bowie received a payment of US$55 million up front. Bowie used this income to buy songs owned by Defries. The bonds liquidated in 2007 and the rights to the income from the songs reverted to Bowie. ===Websites=== Bowie launched two personal websites during his lifetime. The first, an Internet service provider titled BowieNet, was developed in conjunction with Robert Goodale and Ron Roy and launched in September 1998. Subscribers to the dial-up service were offered exclusive content as well as a BowieNet email address and Internet access. The service was closed by 2006. A portion of the proceeds from the Pay-per-view showing of Bowie's 50th birthday concert in 1997 was donated to Save the Children. ==Musicianship== From the time of his earliest recordings in the 1960s, Bowie employed a wide variety of musical styles. His early compositions and performances were strongly influenced by rock and roll singers like Little Richard and Elvis Presley, and also the wider world of show business. He particularly strove to emulate the British musical theatre singer-songwriter and actor Anthony Newley, whose vocal style he frequently adopted, and made prominent use of for his 1967 debut release, David Bowie (to the disgust of Newley himself, who destroyed the copy he received from Bowie's publisher). Bowie's fascination with music hall continued to surface sporadically alongside such diverse styles as hard rock and heavy metal, soul, psychedelic folk and pop. The musicologist James E. Perone observes Bowie's use of octave switches for different repetitions of the same melody, exemplified in "Space Oddity", and later in "Heroes" to dramatic effect; the author writes that "in the lowest part of his vocal register ... his voice has an almost crooner-like richness". The voice instructor Jo Thompson describes Bowie's vocal vibrato technique as "particularly deliberate and distinctive". The authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz call him "a vocalist of extraordinary technical ability, able to pitch his singing to particular effect." Here, too, as in his stagecraft and songwriting, Bowie's roleplaying is evident: the historiographer Michael Campbell says that Bowie's lyrics "arrest our ear, without question. But Bowie continually shifts from person to person as he delivers them ... His voice changes dramatically from section to section." In addition to the guitar, Bowie also played a variety of keyboards, including piano, Mellotron, Chamberlin, and synthesisers; harmonica; alto and baritone saxophones; stylophone; viola; cello; koto (on the "Heroes" track "Moss Garden"); thumb piano; drums (on the Heathen track "Cactus"), and various percussion instruments. ==Personal life== ===Family=== Bowie married his first wife, Mary Angela Barnett, on 19 March 1970 at Bromley Register Office in Bromley, London. The couple divorced on 8 February 1980; David received custody of Duncan. After the gag order that was part of their divorce agreement ended, Angie wrote a memoir of their turbulent marriage, titled Backstage Passes: Life on the Wild Side with David Bowie. David met Somali-American model Iman in Los Angeles following the Sound+Vision Tour in October 1990. They married in a private ceremony in Lausanne on 24 April 1992. The wedding was solemnised on 6 June in Florence. The couple's marriage influenced the content of Black Tie White Noise, particularly on tracks such as "The Wedding"/"The Wedding Song" and "Miracle Goodnight". They had one daughter, Alexandria "Lexi" Zahra Jones, born on 15 August 2000. The couple resided primarily in New York City and London as well as owning an apartment in Sydney's Elizabeth Bay and Britannia Bay House on the island of Mustique. Following Bowie's death, Iman expressed gratitude that the two were able to maintain separate identities during their marriage. ===Other relationships=== Bowie began a personal and professional relationship with the singer Dana Gillespie in 1964 when he was 17 and she was 14. Their relationship lasted a decade; Bowie wrote the song "Andy Warhol" for her, Gillespie sang backing vocals on Ziggy Stardust, and Bowie and Mick Ronson produced her 1973 album Weren't Born a Man. Bowie ended contact with Gillespie following his split from Angie. Gillespie looked back on her time with Bowie fondly. Bowie met the dancer Lindsay Kemp in 1967 and enrolled in his dance class at the London Dance Centre. They became lovers and Kemp would be critical in Bowie's artistic development. Kemp later said: "I taught him...to express himself through his body... how to touch a public...just as important was the stillness and to make every movement count." Commenting in 1972, Bowie said that meeting Kemp was when his interest in image "really blossomed": this affected him, and several songs, such as "Letter to Hermione" and "An Occasional Dream", reference her; and, for the video accompanying "Where Are We Now?", he wore a T-shirt with the words "m/s Song of Norway". Bowie blamed himself for their break-up, saying in 2002 that he "was totally unfaithful and couldn't for the life of me keep it zipped". Farthingale, who spoke of deep affection for him in an interview with Pegg, said they last saw each other in 1970. David and Angie had an open marriage and dated other people during it: David had relationships with the models Cyrinda Foxe, Lulu, Bebe Buell and the Young Americans backing singer Ava Cherry; Angie had encounters with the Stooges' members Ron Asheton and James Williamson, the Ziggy Stardust Tour bodyguard Anton Jones, and the drummer Roy Martin, which inspired the song "Breaking Glass". In 1983, Bowie briefly dated the New Zealand model Geeling Ng, who starred in the video for "China Girl". While filming The Hunger the same year, Bowie had a sexual relationship with his co-star Susan Sarandon, who stated in 2014 "He's worth idolising. He's extraordinary." Between 1987 and 1990, Bowie dated the Glass Spider Tour dancer Melissa Hurley. The two began their relationship at the end of the tour when she was 22 years old. Bowie's Tin Machine collaborator Kevin Armstrong remembered her as "a genuinely kind, sweet person". She inspired the song "Amazing" on Tin Machine (1989). They announced their engagement in May 1989 but never married; Bowie broke the relationship off during the latter half of the Sound+Vision Tour, primarily due to the age difference—he was 43 at the time. He later spoke of Hurley as "such a wonderful, lovely, vibrant girl". ====Coco Schwab==== Corinne "Coco" Schwab was Bowie's personal assistant for 43 years, from 1973 until his death in 2016. Originally a receptionist at the London office of MainMan, Schwab assisted in extracting Bowie from MainMan's financial grip, after which he invited her to be his personal assistant. ===Sexuality=== Bowie's sexuality has been the subject of debate. While married to Angie, he famously declared himself gay in a 1972 interview with Melody Maker journalist Michael Watts, which generated publicity in both Britain and America; Bowie was adopted as a gay icon in both countries. According to Buckley, "If Ziggy confused both his creator and his audience, a big part of that confusion centred on the topic of sexuality." He affirmed his stance in a 1976 interview with Playboy, stating: "It's true—I am a bisexual. But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well. I suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me." His claim of bisexuality has been supported by Angie. In 1983, Bowie told Rolling Stone writer Kurt Loder that his public declaration of bisexuality was "the biggest mistake I ever made" and "I was always a closet heterosexual". On other occasions, he said his interest in homosexual and bisexual culture had been more a product of the times and the situation in which he found himself than of his own feelings. Blender asked Bowie in 2002 whether he still believed his public declaration was his biggest mistake. After a long pause, he said, "I don't think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America. I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners nor be a representative of any group of people." Bowie said he wanted to be a songwriter and performer rather than a headline for his bisexuality, and in "puritanical" America, "I think it stood in the way of so much I wanted to do." Buckley wrote that Bowie "mined sexual intrigue for its ability to shock". According to Mary Finnigan—a brief girlfriend of Bowie's in 1969—David and Angie "created their bisexual fantasy". Sandford wrote that David "made a positive fetish of repeating the quip that he and his wife had met while 'fucking the same bloke' ... Gay sex was always an anecdotal and laughing matter". The BBC's Mark Easton stated in 2016 that Britain was "far more tolerant of difference", and that gay rights and gender equality would not have "enjoyed the broad support they do today without Bowie's androgynous challenge all those years ago". ===Spirituality and religion=== Beginning in 1967 from the influence of his half-brother, Bowie became interested in Buddhism and, with commercial success eluding him, he considered becoming a Buddhist monk. Biographer Marc Spitz states that the religion reminded the young artist that other goals in life existed outside fame and material gain and one can learn about themselves through meditation and chanting. After a few months' study at Tibet House in London, he was told by his Lama, Chime Rinpoche, "You don't want to be Buddhist.... You should follow music." By 1975, Bowie admitted, "I felt totally, absolutely alone. And I probably was alone because I pretty much had abandoned God." In his will, Bowie stipulated that he be cremated and his ashes scattered in Bali "in accordance with the Buddhist rituals". After Bowie married Iman in a private ceremony in 1992, he said they knew that their "real marriage, sanctified by God, had to happen in a church in Florence". Earlier that year, he knelt on stage at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert and recited the Lord's Prayer before a television audience. Interviewed in 2005, Bowie said whether God exists "is not a question that can be answered.... I'm not quite an atheist and it worries me. There's that little bit that holds on: 'Well, I'm almost an atheist. Give me a couple of months.... I've nearly got it right. He had a tattoo of the Serenity Prayer in Japanese on his left calf. Bowie stated that "questioning [his] spiritual life [was] always ... germane" to his songwriting. Earthling showed "the abiding need in me to vacillate between atheism or a kind of gnosticism... What I need is to find a balance, spiritually, with the way I live and my demise." ==Political views== In his first ever television interview, Bowie, under the name Davie Jones, spoke out about prejudice against long-haired men after he and his then-band the Manish Boys were asked to cut their hair before a BBC television appearance. He and the Manish Boys were interviewed on the network's 12 November 1964 instalment of Tonight to champion their cause, where Bowie claimed to be a spokesperson for the nonexistent Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Long-Haired Men. He stated on the programme, "I think we all like long hair and we don't see why other people should persecute us because of it." In 1976, speaking as the Thin White Duke persona and "at least partially tongue-in-cheek", he made statements that expressed support for fascism and perceived admiration for Adolf Hitler in interviews with Playboy, NME and a Swedish publication. Bowie was quoted as saying: "Britain is ready for a fascist leader ... I think Britain could benefit from a fascist leader. After all, fascism is really nationalism... I believe very strongly in fascism, people have always responded with greater efficiency under a regimental leadership." He was also quoted as saying: "Adolf Hitler was one of the first rock stars" and "You've got to have an extreme right front come up and sweep everything off its feet and tidy everything up." These comments, along with Eric Clapton's comments in support of Enoch Powell at that time, have been named as an inspiration for the formation of the Rock Against Racism movement. Bowie retracted his comments in an interview with Melody Maker in October 1977, blaming them on mental instability caused by his drug problems, saying: "I was out of my mind, totally, completely crazed." In the same interview, Bowie described himself as "apolitical", stating "the more I travel and the less sure I am about exactly which political philosophies are commendable. The more government systems I see, the less enticed I am to give my allegiance to any set of people, so it would be disastrous for me to adopt a definitive point of view, or to adopt a party of people and say 'these are my people'." In the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie's public statements shifted sharply towards anti-racism and anti-fascism. In an interview with MTV anchor Mark Goodman in 1983, Bowie criticised the channel for not providing enough coverage of Black musicians, becoming visibly uncomfortable when Goodman suggested that the network's fear of backlash from the American Midwest was one reason for such a lack of coverage. The music videos for "China Girl" and "Let's Dance" were described by Bowie as a "very simple, very direct" statement against racism. The album Tin Machine took a more direct stance against fascism and neo-Nazism, and was criticised for being too preachy. In 1993 he released the single "Black Tie White Noise" which dealt with the 1992 Los Angeles riots. In 2007 Bowie donated $10,000 to the defence fund for the Jena Six saying, "there is clearly a separate and unequal judicial process going on in the town of Jena". When Bowie won the British Male Solo Artist award at the 2014 Brit Awards, he referenced the forthcoming Scottish independence referendum by saying, "Scotland, stay with us." This garnered a significant reaction throughout the UK on social media. ==Death== Bowie died of liver cancer in his New York City apartment on 10 January 2016. He had been diagnosed 18 months earlier, but he had not made his condition public. Tony Visconti wrote: Following Bowie's death, fans gathered at impromptu street shrines. At the mural of Bowie in his birthplace of Brixton, South London, which shows him in his Aladdin Sane character, fans laid flowers and sang his songs. Other memorial sites included Berlin, Los Angeles, and outside his apartment in New York. After news of his death, sales of his albums and singles soared. Bowie had insisted that he did not want a funeral, and according to his death certificate he was cremated in New Jersey on 12 January. As he wished in his will, his ashes were scattered in a Buddhist ceremony in Bali. David Bowie left an estate of around $100m to his wife, Iman, and his two children. He also left $2m to his long-standing assistant Corinne Schwab and $1m to his friend Marion Skene who was the nanny to his eldest child Duncan Jones. To his 15-year-old daughter Alexandria he left a 25% share in the estate and a property on Little Tonshi Mountain, near Woodstock. His 44-year-old son Duncan Jones, from his previous marriage to Angela Barnett, also received 25%. The remaining 50% of the estate went to Iman, in addition to his other properties, including their apartment on Lafayette Street in Manhattan. == Legacy == Bowie is generally regarded as one of the most influential musicians of all time. His influence was wide-reaching due to constant reinvention, leading him to be dubbed the "chameleon of rock". The biographer Thomas Forget said in 2002: "Because he succeeded in so many different styles of music, it is almost impossible to find a popular artist today that has not been influenced by David Bowie." Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph stated that Bowie had "one of the supreme careers in popular music, art and culture of the 20th century" and "he was too inventive, too mercurial, too strange for all but his most devoted fans to keep up with". Bowie's songs and stagecraft brought a new dimension to popular music in the early 1970s, strongly influencing its immediate forms and subsequent development. Perone credited Bowie with having "brought sophistication to rock music", and critical reviews frequently acknowledged the intellectual depth of his work and influence. The BBC's arts editor Will Gompertz likened Bowie to Pablo Picasso, writing that he was "an innovative, visionary, restless artist who synthesised complex avant garde concepts into beautifully coherent works that touched the hearts and minds of millions". Schinder and Schwartz credited Bowie and Marc Bolan as the founders of the glam rock genre. He also inspired the innovators of the punk rock movement and explored grunge and alternative rock styles with the band Tin Machine before those styles became popular. In The New York Times, Jon Pareles said Bowie "transcended music, art and fashion", and introduced his audiences to Philadelphia funk, Japanese fashion, German electronica and drum-and-bass dance music. Broadcaster John Peel contrasted Bowie with his progressive rock contemporaries, arguing that Bowie was "an interesting kind of fringe figure... on the outskirts of things". Peel said he "liked the idea of him reinventing himself... the one distinguishing feature about early-70s progressive rock was that it didn't progress. Before Bowie came along, people didn't want too much change"; then Bowie "subverted the whole notion of what it was to be a rock star". Buckley called Bowie "both star and icon. The vast body of work he has produced ... has created perhaps the biggest cult in popular culture. ... His influence has been unique in popular culture—he has permeated and altered more lives than any comparable figure." The BBC's Mark Easton argued that Bowie provided fuel for "the creative powerhouse that Britain has become" by challenging future generations "to aim high, to be ambitious and provocative, to take risks", concluding that he had "changed the way the world sees Britain. And the way Britain sees itself". Annie Zaleski wrote, "Every band or solo artist who's decided to rip up their playbook and start again owes a debt to Bowie". Numerous figures from the music industry whose careers Bowie had influenced paid tribute to him following his death; panegyrics on Twitter (tweets about him peaked at 20,000 a minute an hour after the announcement of his death) also came from outside the entertainment industry and pop culture, such as those from the Vatican, namely Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi, who quoted "Space Oddity", and the German Federal Foreign Office, which thanked Bowie for his part in the fall of the Berlin Wall and referenced "Heroes". On 7 January 2017, the BBC broadcast the 90-minute documentary David Bowie: The Last Five Years. A day later, which would have been Bowie's 70th birthday, a charity concert in his birthplace of Brixton was hosted by close friend and actor Gary Oldman. A David Bowie walking tour through Brixton was also launched, and other events marking his birthday weekend included concerts in New York, Los Angeles, Sydney, and Tokyo. ===David Bowie Is=== An exhibition of Bowie artefacts, called David Bowie Is, was organised by the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and shown there in 2013. The London exhibit was visited by over 300,000 people, making it one of the most successful exhibitions ever staged at the museum. Later that year the exhibition began a world tour which started in Toronto and included stops lasting a few months each throughout Europe, Asia and North America before the exhibit ended in 2018 at the Brooklyn Museum. The exhibition hosted around 2,000,000 visitors over its run. === Stardust biopic === The biopic Stardust was announced on 31 January 2019, with musician and actor Johnny Flynn as Bowie, Jena Malone as his wife Angie, and Marc Maron as his publicist. Written by Christopher Bell and directed by Gabriel Range, the film follows Bowie on his first trip to the United States in 1971. Bowie's son Duncan Jones spoke out against the film, saying he was not consulted and that the film would not have permission to use Bowie's music. The film was set to premiere at the 2020 Tribeca Film Festival, but the festival was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Critics were generally unfavourable in their reviews. ===Moonage Daydream=== A film based on Bowie's musical journey throughout his career was announced on 23 May 2022. Titled Moonage Daydream, after the song "Moonage Daydream", the film is written and directed by Brett Morgen and features never-before-seen footage, performances and music framed by Bowie's own narration. Morgan stated that "Bowie cannot be defined, he can be experienced... That is why we crafted Moonage Daydream to be a unique cinematic experience". The documentary is the first posthumous film about Bowie to be approved by his estate. After spending five years in production, the film premiered at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival, and was released theatrically in the US in IMAX on 16 September. It received positive reviews. ==Awards and achievements== Bowie's 1969 commercial breakthrough, "Space Oddity", won him an Ivor Novello Special Award For Originality. For his performance in The Man Who Fell to Earth, he won the Saturn Award for Best Actor. In the ensuing decades he received six Grammy Awards In 1999, Bowie was made a Commander of the by the French government, and received an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music. He declined the royal honour of Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2000, and turned down a knighthood in 2003. Bowie later stated "I would never have any intention of accepting anything like that. I seriously don't know what it's for. It's not what I spent my life working for." During his lifetime, Bowie sold over 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling music artists. In the UK, he was awarded nine platinum, eleven gold and eight silver albums, and in the US, five platinum and nine gold. Since 2015, Parlophone has remastered Bowie's catalogue through the "Era" box set series, starting with Five Years (1969–1973). Bowie was announced as the best-selling vinyl artist of the 21st century in 2022. The 2020 revision of Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list includes The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars at number 40, Station to Station at 52, Hunky Dory at 88, Low at 206, and Scary Monsters at 443. On the 2021 revision of the same magazine's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, Bowie's songs include "Heroes" at number 23, "Life on Mars?" at 105, "Space Oddity" at 189, "Changes" at 200, "Young Americans" at 204, "Station to Station" at 400, and "Under Pressure" at 429. Four of his songs are included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. In the BBC's 2002 poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, Bowie was ranked 29. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked him 39th on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Bowie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2005. He was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013. A poll carried out by BBC History magazine in 2013 named Bowie the best-dressed Briton in history. Days after Bowie's death, Rolling Stone contributor Rob Sheffield proclaimed him "the greatest rock star ever". The magazine also listed him as the 39th greatest songwriter of all time. In 2022, Sky Arts ranked him the most influential artist in Britain of the last 50 years "owing to his transcendent influence on British culture". He ranked 32nd on the 2023 Rolling Stone list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. ==Commemoration== In 2008, the spider Heteropoda davidbowie was named in Bowie's honour. In 2011, his image was chosen by popular vote for the B£10m note of the local currency of his birthplace, the Brixton Pound. On 5 January 2015, a main-belt asteroid was named 342843 Davidbowie. On 13 January 2016, Belgian amateur astronomers at MIRA Public Observatory created a "Bowie asterism" of seven stars which had been in the vicinity of Mars at the time of Bowie's death; the "constellation" forms the lightning bolt on Bowie's face from the cover of his Aladdin Sane album. In March 2017, Bowie featured on a series of UK postage stamps. On 25 March 2018, a statue of Bowie was unveiled in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, the town where he debuted Ziggy Stardust. The statue features a likeness of Bowie in 2002 accompanied with various characters and looks from over his career, with Ziggy Stardust at the front. Rue David Bowie in Paris is a short street near the Gare d'Austerlitz. ==Discography== David Bowie (1967) David Bowie (1969) The Man Who Sold the World (1970) Hunky Dory (1971) The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972) Aladdin Sane (1973) Pin Ups (1973) Diamond Dogs (1974) Young Americans (1975) Station to Station (1976) Low (1977) "Heroes" (1977) Lodger (1979) Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980) Let's Dance (1983) Tonight (1984) Never Let Me Down (1987) Black Tie White Noise (1993) The Buddha of Suburbia (1993) Outside (1995) Earthling (1997) Hours (1999) Heathen (2002) Reality (2003) The Next Day (2013) Blackstar (2016) Toy (posthumous, 2021) == Selected filmography == The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976) Just a Gigolo (1978) The Hunger (1983) Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983) Absolute Beginners (1986) Labyrinth (1986) The Last Temptation of Christ (1988) The Linguini Incident (1991) Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992) Basquiat (1996) Gunslinger's Revenge (1998) Everybody Loves Sunshine (1999) Mr. Rice's Secret (2000) The Prestige (2006) Arthur and the Minimoys (2006) August (2008) == Tours == Ziggy Stardust Tour (1972–73) Diamond Dogs Tour (1974) Isolar – 1976 Tour (1976) Isolar II – The 1978 World Tour (1978) Serious Moonlight Tour (1983) The Glass Spider Tour (1987) Sound+Vision Tour (1990) The Outside Tour (1995–96) Earthling Tour (1997) Hours Tour (1999) Mini Tour (2000) Heathen Tour (2002) A Reality Tour (2003–04)	[ "MTV", "Great Britain commemorative stamps 2010–2019", "Nazi salute", "Save the Children", "ChangesNowBowie", "Robin Clark", "Live Santa Monica '72", "Vox Mark III", "Billboard 200", "A Knight's Tale", "Annie Zaleski", "Kashmir (Danish band)", "Doncaster", "Mott the Hoople", "Oh! You Pretty Things", "Fame (David Bowie song)", "Krautrock", "Hours (David Bowie album)", "A View to a Kill", "Moonage Daydream", "pop rock", "Extras (TV series)", "59th Annual Grammy Awards", "Arthur and the Minimoys", "Phrygian dominant scale", "Cork Street", "sumo", "Baal (EP)", "Berlin Trilogy", "Let's Dance (David Bowie album)", "the Riot Squad", "Scarlett Johansson", "commedia dell'arte", "The Man Who Sold the World (album)", "Where Are We Now?", "Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical", "Titan Books", "Record Store Day", "Crown Publishing Group", "Butterfly Boucher", "Billboard (magazine)", "Ricky Gervais", "Philadelphia", "Blade Runner", "The Virgin Soldiers (film)", "Diamond Dogs (song)", "The Quietus", "paranoia", "Hammerstein Ballroom", "Willie Dixon", "Pye Records", "Annie Lennox", "off-Broadway", "Moonage Daydream (film)", "Toy (David Bowie album)", "I Pity the Fool", "September 11 attacks", "BBC Radio 1", "Tony Visconti", "Aylesbury", "music hall", "Stockwell Primary School", "Tonight (David Bowie album)", "schizophrenia", "Let's Dance (David Bowie song)", "Perfect Day 97", "Lexi Jones", "The Local", "Geneva", "International Business Times", "100 Greatest Britons", "Scorsese", "Meltdown (festival)", "Bobby Bland", "neo-Nazism", "1992 Los Angeles riots", "Jena Six", "Kooks (song)", "Royal Variety Performance", "Global Recording Artist of the Year", "local currency", "Visage (band)", "krautrock", "Best Short Form Music Video", "Mick Ronson", "Glass Spider Tour", "Everybody Loves Sunshine", "The Next Day", "Knock on Wood (Eddie Floyd song)", "depth perception", "Shrek 2", "Jena Malone", "The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert", "Reflektor (song)", "Let Me Sleep Beside You", "SpongeBob SquarePants", "Ivo van Hove", "John, I'm Only Dancing", "Maple Leaf Gardens", "Hugh Padgham", "Heteropoda davidbowie", "Floria Sigismondi", "The Snowman (book)", "androgynous", "swan song", "Arena (magazine)", "rock and roll", "Yahoo!", "John Bloom (businessman)", "Absolute Beginners (film)", "Showgirls", "Playboy", "The Pennsylvania Gazette", "plastic soul", "A&E Networks", "industrial rock", "Blue Jean", "Hunt Sales", "Jazzin' for Blue Jean", "List of songs recorded by David Bowie", "FBI", "Song of Norway (film)", "Live at Montreux 1982 & 1985", "Adolf Hitler", "Return to Cookie Mountain", "The Hype (band)", "Placebo (band)", "The Rugrats Movie", "Michael Kimmelman", "Federal Foreign Office", "I Dig Everything", "West Berlin", "Recorder (musical instrument)", "fall of the Berlin Wall", "occult", "The Elephant Man (play)", "Entertainment Weekly", "Hard Rock Cafe", "Aladdin Sane", "Serious Moonlight Tour", "The Daily Beast", "Ben Stiller", "You've Got a Habit of Leaving", "The Laughing Gnome", "Geeling Ng", "anti-racism", "Bromley Technical High School", "mockumentary", "Neu!", "indie rock", "Mick Woodmansey", "Pontius Pilate", "The Hunger (1983 film)", "Martha and the Vandellas", "Bebe Buell", "Tibetan Buddhism", "Carnegie Hall", "Lord's Prayer", "seizures", "Yahoo! News", "apocalypse", "Outside Tour", "Peter Frampton", "Heathen Tour", "electronic music", "Raymond Briggs", "Steve Strange", "Rock Against Racism", "George Underwood (artist)", "Blackstar (album)", "Nazi", "Agence France-Presse", "Songwriters Hall of Fame", "Lodger (album)", "Evening Standard", "Stealth (film)", "stadium rock", "Florence", "Cat People (1982 film)", "Paul Trynka", "Business Insider", "popular music", "Best Alternative Music Album", "A Million in Prizes: The Anthology", "Best Rock Performance", "Bowie knife", "Baal (play)", "The New York Times", "Random House", "Black Francis", "asteroid", "Koto (instrument)", "rock musical", "Alternative Press (magazine)", "Collider (website)", "Rolling Stone's 200 Greatest Singers of All Time", "Gary Oldman", "Lulu (singer)", "Diamond Dogs Tour", "the Concert for New York City", "Bowie at the Beeb", "Loving the Alien (1983–1988)", "City of Night", "Apollo 11", "500 Greatest Songs of All Time", "Broadcasting House", "Gianfranco Ravasi", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Raw Power", "Neu! Vinyl Box", "Bromley", "American Midwest", "Rotten Tomatoes", "The Hunger (TV series)", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Lust for Life (Iggy Pop album)", "Bromley Common", "Welcome to the Blackout (Live London '78)", "Nothing Has Changed", "Bandslam", "Golden Years (David Bowie song)", "celebrity bond", "Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time", "Repeater Books", "Low (David Bowie album)", "Outside (David Bowie album)", "The Seed and the Sower", "MOS:U.S.", "Susan Sarandon", "Eric Clapton", "Black Dog & Leventhal", "Chic (band)", "Alma Cogan", "SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis", "Dennis Davis", "Jet (magazine)", "cocaine", "Lausanne", "Los Angeles Times", "Rob Sheffield", "HarperCollins", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Station to Station (song)", "Queen Bitch", "The Linguini Incident", "anisocoria", "James Bowie", "open marriage", "Austin Chick", "Tony Defries", "dial-up", "Pete Townshend", "Brett Morgen", "Little Richard", "Legendary Stardust Cowboy", "Christiane F. (film)", "Royal Tunbridge Wells", "Tin Machine Tour", "Black Tie White Noise (song)", "Tibet House US", "Scottish independence referendum", "the Velvet Underground", "Stage (David Bowie album)", "CMJ", "Space Oddity", "Matthew Collings", "Mercedes-Benz", "Prudential Insurance Company of America", "Johnny Flynn", "A Reality Tour", "iTunes", "Gunslinger's Revenge", "The Daily Telegraph", "hard rock", "Tin Machine (album)", "New Romantic", "Owen Frampton", "the McCoys", "FT Alphaville", "cult film", "CNN", "The Idiot (album)", "Toni Basil", "Arts Lab", "Cajun", "America (Simon & Garfunkel song)", "fascism", "Charles Mingus", "T. Rex (band)", "The Next Day (song)", "AIR (French band)", "Mark Goodman", "Peter and the Wolf", "grunge", "Internet service provider", "Lost Highway (film)", "Lazarus (soundtrack)", "hitman", "gay club", "cremated", "Christian Kabbalah", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence", "Sadler's Wells", "The Prestige (film)", "The Falcon and the Snowman", "Howlin' Wolf", "Will Gompertz", "All the Young Dudes", "Isolar II – The 1978 World Tour", "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "Duncan Jones", "Can't Help Thinking About Me", "Hammersmith Odeon", "Elvis Presley", "Robert Smith (musician)", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "Metropolitan Borough of Lambeth", "Life on Mars?", "Jared Leto", "Roy Martin (musician)", "Paul Verhoeven", "ukulele", "Never Let Me Down", "The Last Panthers", "Diamond Dogs", "gnosticism", "Zoolander", "Mustique", "Daily News (New York)", "The Dance Centre", "Twin Peaks", "funk", "Nicolas Roeg", "Pat Metheny Group", "schizophrenia spectrum disorders", "stylophone", "The Guardian", "Sundridge Park", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award", "Gramophone record", "Grammy Award", "Tony Fox Sales", "Lazarus (musical)", "Station to Station", "Ambient music", "Mercury Records", "Luc Besson", "Best Rock Song", "Keep a Child Alive", "Cat People (Putting Out Fire)", "angioplasty", "House system", "hip-hop", "Sorrow (The McCoys song)", "Billboard Hot 100", "Merseybeat", "Hours Tour", "Cheriton, Kent", "magick", "the Beatles", "Billy Fury", "Parlophone", "Brixton", "Video Vanguard Award", "Paste (magazine)", "HBO", "Gabriel Range", "Kingston upon Thames", "contrapuntal", "Zero Books", "Somalis", "Andy Warhol's Pork", "anti-fascism", "Young Americans", "Little Tonshi Mountain", "the Monkees", "comic novel", "pop culture", "Modern Painters (magazine)", "Giovanni Veronesi", "Memory of a Free Festival", "Nine Inch Nails", "Glastonbury 2000", "drum 'n' bass", "DJ (David Bowie song)", "David Bowie filmography", "Little, Brown and Company", "Day-In Day-Out", "Leslie Thomas", "Official Charts Company", "Metacritic", "Pablo Picasso", "Queen (band)", "Phillip Jeffries", "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou", "The Riot Squad", "Trevor Jones (composer)", "triptych", "Lauren Bacall", "Newsweek", "Gare d'Austerlitz", "Max Zorin", "Love You till Tuesday (film)", "EP", "Warner Chappell Music", "Do Anything You Say", "Melody Maker", "TV on the Radio", "Tommy Steele", "Best Recording Package", "Christopher Nolan", "Monty Python", "Bowie: A Biography", "alternative rock", "William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham", "Cher (TV series)", "Dancing in the Street", "Saturn Award for Best Actor", "Holy See", "Modern Love (David Bowie song)", "Damien Hirst", "The Times", "Kate Moss", "CBS", "Claude Cahun", "hip hop", "Ashes to Ashes (David Bowie song)", "Neil McCormick", "Beckenham", "A Reality Tour (album)", "Tom Waits", "Tony Scott", "Consequence of Sound", "Marc Bolan", "Rolling Stone", "the Teenagers", "The Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch", "bisexual", "The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll", "Hound Dog (song)", "Inglourious Basterds", "glam rock", "Isolar – 1976 Tour", "Iggy Pop", "Isle of Wight Festival 2004", "New wave music", "Fats Domino", "Jon Pareles", "Virgin Records", "Drake (musician)", "Paul Nicholas", "This Is Not America", "Simon Bates", "Absolute Beginners (novel)", "342843 Davidbowie", "Just a Gigolo (1978 film)", "Sonic Youth", "Brian Epstein", "Changes (David Bowie song)", "Sound+Vision Tour", "Ava Cherry", "BBC", "knight", "Tina Turner", "Stardust (2020 film)", "Tribeca Film Festival", "Victory Records", "Brücke Museum", "Vimeo", "Stephen Merchant", "Anywhere I Lay My Head", "Tin Machine II", "Mary Angela Barnett", "Virgin Books", "John Coltrane", "Transformer (Lou Reed album)", "The Cut (website)", "Little Wonder (David Bowie song)", "Arthur and the Invisibles", "Schöneberg", "the Thin White Duke", "modern jazz", "Bing Crosby", "New York (magazine)", "Into the Night (1985 film)", "I'm Afraid of Americans", "Coronary circulation", "the Dandy Warhols", "Five Years (1969–1973)", "Derek Boshier", "punk rock", "Cyrinda Foxe", "Tutti Frutti (song)", "Everyone Says 'Hi'", "Chime Rinpoche", "Elizabeth Bay, New South Wales", "John Peel", "Twin Peaks: The Return", "2014 Brit Awards", "Television (band)", "Stations of the Cross", "Beckenham Arts Lab", "G. Schirmer, Inc.", "Chuck Berry", "VH1 Storytellers (David Bowie album)", "Absolute Beginners (David Bowie song)", "the Who", "avant-garde", "Trent Reznor", "Liza Jane (David Bowie song)", "Symphony No. 1 (Glass)", "Letter to Hermione", "Marlene Dietrich", "Julian Schnabel", "baritone saxophonist", "Pietà", "David Lynch", "No Balance Palace", "post-modernist", "world music", "Billy Corgan", "Major Tom", "Brit Awards", "Cracked Actor", "Pin Ups", "Iman (model)", "Statue of David Bowie", "Marc Spitz", "Christiane F. (soundtrack)", "David Bowie (1969 album)", "the Platters", "Nineteen Eighty-Four", "The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars", "Brit Award for British Male Solo Artist", "Jungle music", "Manchester", "Ziggy Stardust Tour", "John Landis", "Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame", "Nikola Tesla", "Black Tie White Noise", "Joseph Merrick", "Industrial music", "Karma Man", "Bertolt Brecht", "Goblin", "Lama", "CMJ New Music Report", "Arnold Corns", "Frank Auerbach", "Kurt Loder", "Pitchfork (website)", "Julien Temple", "Apollo program", "A New Career in a New Town (1977–1982)", "Reeves Gabrels", "UK Singles Chart", "Symphony No. 4 (Glass)", "Oblique Strategies", "Without You I'm Nothing (song)", "Beach Boys", "Yellowbeard", "gay rights", "Prince (musician)", "XM Satellite Radio", "George Orwell", "Jim Henson", "IMAX", "Art rock", "Madonna", "Rosanna Arquette", "SpongeBob SquarePants (musical)", "Hunky Dory", "David Bowie videography", "The Jean Genie", "Shorncliffe Army Camp", "Playbill", "Nat Tate", "Live Aid", "TopPop", "David Gilmour", "Spaghetti Western", "Bromley Town Hall", "Mini Tour (David Bowie)", "Time Will Crawl", "Glastonbury Festival", "the Spiders from Mars", "Martin Scorsese", "Buddhism", "Song for Bob Dylan", "Boys Keep Swinging", "Tolworth", "Brian Transeau", "Barnardo's", "NME", "Drive-In Saturday", "Mark Easton", "Ivor Novello Awards", "Madison Square Garden", "Earthling Tour", "the Cure", "God Only Knows", "Tin Machine Live: Oy Vey, Baby", "August (2008 film)", "Under Pressure", "Beat poetry", "James Williamson (musician)", "Rebel Rebel", "Giorgio Moroder", "EMI America Records", "Enoch Powell", "Peter Noone", "David Bowie: The Last Five Years", "Wembley Stadium (1923)", "hippie", "experimental music", "Sue (Or in a Season of Crime)", "Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)", "tea-chest bass", "Irish Independent", "Serenity Prayer", "Pixies (band)", "Top of the Pops", "The Buddha of Suburbia (song)", "Sotheby's", "Tony Hatch", "Art Gallery of Ontario", "Warsaw", "Ron Asheton", "Q (magazine)", "Davy Jones (musician)", "Public school (United Kingdom)", "Columbia Records", "mime", "Colin MacInnes", "Radio Times", "ARKive", "Sky Arts", "BBC News", "List of awards and nominations received by David Bowie", "Silly Boy Blue", "art pop", "Ultimate Classic Rock", "Dead Man Walking (David Bowie song)", "Heathen (David Bowie album)", "EMI Records", "The Buddha of Suburbia (novel)", "Snoop Dogg", "Cub Scout", "London Victoria station", "Brian Eno", "Musical scale", "Tony Oursler", "Denis Villeneuve", "The Image (1969 film)", "Eddie Floyd", "liver cancer", "List of best-selling music artists", "panegyric", "Hurricane Festival", "Japanese clothing", "Brilliant Live Adventures", "Jean-Michel Basquiat", "RCA Records", "Electronic music", "Henry Moore", "Brixton Pound", "proto-punk", "Simon & Garfunkel", "thumb piano", "Arcade Fire", "Sound and Vision", "Cracked Actor (Live Los Angeles '74)", "David Bowie (1967 album)", "Symphony No. 12 (Glass)", "Ziggy Stardust (character)", "Bertelsmann Music Group", "Herman's Hermits", "Angela Barnett", "Audio mixing (recorded music)", "eleven-plus", "lobotomy", "Jump They Say", "Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time", "Catherine Deneuve", "Carlos Alomar", "\"Heroes\" (David Bowie song)", "U2", "Ziggy Stardust (song)", "John Mendelsohn (musician)", "Andy Warhol", "Tilda Swinton", "China Girl (song)", "Blackstar (song)", "BBC History", "Soul music", "Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me", "James Bond", "Lake Geneva", "No Plan (EP)", "asset-backed securities", "David Live", "Manhattan", "Placebo (Placebo album)", "Alexis Petridis", "Ryko", "Puritans", "Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "Ordre des Arts et des Lettres", "Vocalion", "skiffle", "Stevie Ray Vaughan", "Ken Scott", "Mr. Rice's Secret", "Slate (magazine)", "Continuum International Publishing Group", "Paul Schrader", "progressive rock", "Deutsche Welle", "Dave Grohl", "Brilliant Adventure (1992–2001)", "vampire", "Stockholm", "Kevin Armstrong (guitarist)", "Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy", "Kenneth Pitt", "The Man Who Fell to Earth", "UK singles chart", "Omikron: The Nomad Soul", "Scheeßel", "Trevor Bolder", "Lazarus (David Bowie song)", "ABC-CLIO", "BowieNet", "Theatre 625", "Dana Gillespie", "Anthony Newley", "International Federation of the Phonographic Industry", "Death of David Bowie", "Deram Records", "Mel Damski", "George Murray (musician)", "Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (film)", "Bali", "oral sex", "David Bowie Narrates Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf", "alter ego", "Duncan Zowie Haywood Jones", "Culture Show", "Blender (magazine)", "Nile Rodgers", "Ronnie Ross", "the Smashing Pumpkins", "Foo Fighters", "Belfast Telegraph", "Arista Records", "Variety (magazine)", "Children in Need", "Reality (David Bowie album)", "expressionist art", "The Snowman (1982 film)", "Angie Bowie", "1984 MTV Video Music Awards", "Starman (song)", "Recording Industry Association of America", "The Last Temptation of Christ (film)", "MTV News", "Tonight (1957 TV programme)", "Blade Runner 2049", "Warner Music Group", "Royalties", "David Bowie discography", "atheist", "Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", "Verso", "Chuck Hammer", "Who Can I Be Now? (1974–1976)", "Royal Albert Hall", "The Little Drummer Boy", "The Prettiest Star", "Biography.com", "List of David Bowie band members", "Christopher Sandford (biographer)", "Earthling (David Bowie album)", "Alan Yentob", "Eric Idle", "Woodstock", "Pay-per-view", "2022 Cannes Film Festival", "FYI (American TV channel)", "the Stooges", "The Virgin Soldiers", "Berklee College of Music", "Labyrinth (1986 film)", "Marc Maron", "Dreamcast", "William Wilberforce", "Is It Any Wonder? (EP)", "Philip Glass", "John Lennon", "heterochromia iridum", "Laurens van der Post", "Sergei Prokofiev", "Never Let Me Down (David Bowie song)", "Lindsay Kemp", "Marc (TV series)", "Lou Reed", "gender equality", "Robert Fripp", "Mick Jagger", "convertible", "Grafton saxophone", "Dick James", "Roundhouse (venue)", "Tin Machine", "Bickley", "The Spinners (American group)", "Catholic Herald", "Hype (David Bowie band)", "Brooklyn Museum", "Psychedelic rock", "Aboriginal Australians", "Moon (2009 film)", "Basquiat (film)", "\"Heroes\" (David Bowie album)", "Reuters", "Vevo", "The Nation", "Jareth", "Daily Mirror", "Hanif Kureishi", "Westport, Connecticut", "Dream On (TV Series)", "Stockwell", "Kouroi", "David Hemmings", "Philips Records", "Brit Award", "Nagisa Ōshima", "Soul Train", "The Buddha of Suburbia (album)", "Andy Warhol (song)", "Alicia Keys", "Victoria and Albert Museum", "Live Nassau Coliseum '76" ]
8,788	Daisy cutter	Daisy cutter may refer to: Daisy cutter (fuse), a type of fuse designed to detonate an aerial bomb at or above ground level BLU-82, a type of bomb nicknamed Daisy Cutter in Vietnam In cricket, a ball that bounces multiple times before reaching the batsman A rarely used term for a sharply struck ground ball in baseball, used mostly in Vintage base ball A song on the album Uplifter by 311 A pale ale brewed by Half Acre Beer Company of Chicago, Illinois	[ "Vintage base ball", "Daisy cutter (fuse)", "BLU-82", "Uplifter", "Glossary of cricket terms", "Half Acre Beer Company" ]
8,791	Dennis Hopper	Dennis Lee Hopper (May 17, 1936 – May 29, 2010) was an American actor, filmmaker, photographer and visual artist. He was considered one of the key figures of New Hollywood. He earned prizes from the Cannes Film Festival and Venice International Film Festival as well as nominations for two Academy Awards, a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globe Awards. Hopper studied acting at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego and the Actors Studio in New York. He made his first television appearance in 1954, and soon after appeared in two of the films that made James Dean famous, Rebel Without a Cause (1955) and Giant (1956). He then played supporting roles in films like Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), The Sons of Katie Elder (1965), Cool Hand Luke (1967), Hang 'Em High (1968) and True Grit (1969). Hopper made his directorial film debut with Easy Rider (1969), which he and co-star Peter Fonda wrote with Terry Southern. The film earned Hopper a Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Debut, and an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay. He also began a prolific and acclaimed photography career in the 1960s. He became frequently typecast as mentally disturbed outsiders and rebels in such films as Mad Dog Morgan (1976), The American Friend (1977), Apocalypse Now (1979), Rumble Fish (1983), and Blue Velvet (1986). He received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination for his role in Hoosiers (1986). His later film roles included True Romance (1993), Speed (1994), Waterworld (1995) and Elegy (2009). He appeared posthumously in the long-delayed The Other Side of the Wind (2018), which had previously been filmed in the early 1970s. Other directorial credits for Hopper include The Last Movie (1971), Out of the Blue (1980), Colors (1988), and The Hot Spot (1990). He received Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie nomination for his role in Paris Trout (1991). His other television roles include in the HBO film Doublecrossed (1991), 24 (2002), the NBC series E-Ring (2005–2006), and the Starz series Crash (2008–2009). == Early life and education == Dennis Lee Hopper was born on May 17, 1936, in Dodge City, Kansas, to Marjorie Mae (née Davis; July 12, 1917 – January 12, 2007) and Jay Millard Hopper (June 23, 1916 – August 7, 1982). He had Scottish ancestors. Hopper had two younger brothers, Marvin and David. After World War II, the family moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where the young Hopper attended Saturday art classes at the Kansas City Art Institute. When he was 13, Hopper and his family moved to San Diego, where his mother worked as a lifeguard instructor and his father was a post office manager, having previously served in the Office of Strategic Services, the precursor to the Central Intelligence Agency, in World War II in the China Burma India Theater. Hopper was voted most likely to succeed at Helix High School, where he was active in the drama club, speech and choir. It was there that he developed an interest in acting, studying at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, and the Actors Studio in New York City (he studied with Lee Strasberg for five years). Hopper struck up a friendship with actor Vincent Price, whose passion for art influenced Hopper's interest in art. He was especially fond of the plays of William Shakespeare. ==Career== === 1954–1966: Early roles === Hopper was reported to have had an uncredited role in Johnny Guitar in 1954, but he was quoted as saying he was not in Hollywood when the film was made. Hopper made his debut on film in two roles with James Dean (whom he admired immensely) in Rebel Without a Cause (1955) and Giant (1956). Dean's death in a car accident in September 1955 affected the young Hopper deeply and it was shortly afterward that he got into a confrontation with veteran director Henry Hathaway on the film From Hell to Texas (1958). Hopper reportedly forced Hathaway to shoot more than 80 takes of a scene over several days before he acquiesced to Hathaway's direction. After filming was finally completed, Hathaway allegedly told Hopper that his career in Hollywood was finished. In his book Last Train to Memphis, American popular music historian Peter Guralnick says that in 1956, when Elvis Presley was making his first film in Hollywood, Hopper was roommates with fellow actor Nick Adams and the three became friends and socialized together. In 1959, Hopper moved to New York to study Method acting under Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio. In 1961, Hopper played his first lead role in Night Tide, an atmospheric supernatural thriller involving a mermaid in an amusement park. In a December 1994 interview on the Charlie Rose Show, Hopper credited John Wayne with saving his career, as Hopper acknowledged that because of his insolent behavior, he could not find work in Hollywood for seven years. Hopper stated that, because of his marriage to Brooke Hayward, he was the son-in-law of actress Margaret Sullavan, a friend of John Wayne, and Wayne hired Hopper for a role in The Sons of Katie Elder (1965), also directed by Hathaway, which enabled Hopper to restart his film career. Hopper debuted in an episode of the Richard Boone television series Medic in 1955, portraying a young epileptic. He appeared in the first episode of the popular TV series The Rifleman (1958–1963) as the troubled orphan protagonist Vernon Tippet who is exploited by his greedy uncle. The series starred Chuck Connors and the premiere episode "The Sharpshooter" was written by Sam Peckinpah. Hopper subsequently appeared in over 140 episodes of television shows such as Gunsmoke, Bonanza, Petticoat Junction, The Twilight Zone, The Barbara Stanwyck Show, The Defenders, The Investigators, The Legend of Jesse James, Entourage, The Big Valley, The Time Tunnel, and Combat!. === 1967–1986: Breakthrough and acclaim === Hopper had a supporting role as the bet-taker, "Babalugats", in Cool Hand Luke (1967). In 1968, Hopper teamed with Peter Fonda, Terry Southern and Jack Nicholson to make Easy Rider, which premiered in July 1969. With the release of True Grit a month earlier, Hopper had starring roles in two major box-office films that summer. Hopper won wide acclaim as the director for his improvisational methods and innovative editing for Easy Rider. The production was plagued by creative differences and personal acrimony between Fonda and Hopper, the dissolution of Hopper's marriage to Brooke Hayward, his unwillingness to leave the editor's desk and his accelerating abuse of drugs and alcohol. Hopper said of Easy Rider: "The cocaine problem in the United States is really because of me. There was no cocaine before Easy Rider on the street. After Easy Rider, it was everywhere". Besides showing drug use on film, it was one of the first films to portray the hippie lifestyle. Hopper became a role model for some male youths who rejected traditional jobs and traditional American culture, partly exemplified by Fonda's long sideburns and Hopper wearing shoulder-length hair and a long mustache. They were denied rooms in motels and proper service in restaurants as a result of their radical looks. Their long hair became a point of contention in various scenes during the film. Film critic Matthew Hays wrote "no other persona better signifies the lost idealism of the 1960s than that of Dennis Hopper". Hopper was unable to capitalize on his Easy Rider success for several years. In 1970 he filmed The Last Movie, cowritten by Stewart Stern and photographed by László Kovács in Peru, and completed production in 1971. It won the prestigious CIDALC Award at that year's Venice Film Festival, but Universal Studios leaders expected a blockbuster like Easy Rider, and did not like the film or give it an enthusiastic release, while American film audiences found it confounding – as convoluted as an abstract painting. On viewing the first release print, fresh from the lab, in his screening room at Universal, MCA founder Jules C. Stein rose from his chair and said, "I just don't understand this younger generation." During the tumultuous editing process, Hopper ensconced himself at the Mabel Dodge Luhan House in Taos, New Mexico, which he had purchased in 1970, for almost an entire year. In between contesting Fonda's rights to the majority of the residual profits from Easy Rider, he married singer Michelle Phillips of The Mamas and the Papas on Halloween of 1970. The marriage lasted eight days. Hopper acted in another John Wayne film, True Grit (1969), and during its production, he became well acquainted with Wayne. In both of the films with Wayne, Hopper's character is killed in the presence of Wayne's character, to whom he utters his dying words. On September 30, 1970, Hopper appeared on the second episode of season 2 of The Johnny Cash Show where he sang a duet with Cash entitled "Goin' Up Goin' Down". Cash said the song was written by Kris Kristofferson about Hopper. Hopper added that Kristofferson had written some songs for his Peruvian-shot movie The Last Movie, in which Kristofferson appeared in his debut role with Julie Adams. Hopper also recited Rudyard Kipling's famous poem If— during his appearance. Hopper was able to sustain his lifestyle and a measure of celebrity by acting in numerous low budget and European films throughout the 1970s as the archetypal "tormented maniac", including Mad Dog Morgan (1976), Tracks (1976), and The American Friend (1977). With Francis Ford Coppola's blockbuster Apocalypse Now (1979), Hopper returned to prominence as a hyper-manic Vietnam-era photojournalist. Stepping in for an overwhelmed director, Hopper won praise in 1980 for his directing and acting in Out of the Blue. Immediately thereafter, Hopper starred as an addled short-order cook "Cracker" in the Neil Young/Dean Stockwell low-budget collaboration Human Highway. Production was reportedly often delayed by his unreliable behavior. Peter Biskind states in the New Hollywood history Easy Riders, Raging Bulls that Hopper's cocaine intake had reached three grams a day by this time, complemented by 30 beers, and some marijuana and Cuba libres. After staging a "suicide attempt" (really more of a daredevil act) in a coffin using 17 sticks of dynamite during an "art happening" at the Rice University Media Center (filmed by professor and documentary filmmaker Brian Huberman), and later disappearing into the Mexican desert during a particularly extravagant bender, Hopper entered a drug rehabilitation program in 1983. Though Hopper gave critically acclaimed performances in Coppola's Rumble Fish (1983) and Sam Peckinpah's The Osterman Weekend (1983), it was not until he portrayed the gas-huffing, obscenity-screaming villain Frank Booth in David Lynch's Blue Velvet (1986) that his career truly revived. On reading the script Hopper said to Lynch: "You have to let me play Frank Booth. Because I am Frank Booth!" He won critical acclaim and several awards for this role, and in the same year received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his role as an alcoholic assistant basketball coach in Hoosiers. Also in 1986, Hopper portrayed Lt. Enright in the comedy horror The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. === 1987–2009: Later work and final roles === In 1987 he acted in the neo-noir thriller Black Widow alongside Debra Winger, the action comedy Straight to Hell, the adventure film Running Out of Luck starring Mick Jagger and the romantic comedy The Pick-up Artist starring Molly Ringwald and Robert Downey Jr. In 1988, he directed Colors, a critically acclaimed police procedural about gang violence in Los Angeles starring Sean Penn and Robert Duvall. Hopper plays an aging hippie prankster in the 1990 comedy Flashback, fleeing in a Furthur-like old bus to the tune of Steppenwolf's "Born to Be Wild". Hopper teamed with Nike in the early 1990s to make a series of television commercials. He appeared as a "crazed referee" in those ads. Hopper appeared on the final two episodes of the cult 1991 television show Fishing with John with host John Lurie. He was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie for the 1991 HBO film Paris Trout. Shortly thereafter, he played drug smuggler and DEA informant Barry Seal in the HBO film Doublecrossed. He starred as King Koopa in Super Mario Bros., a 1993 critical and commercial failure loosely based on the video game of the same name. In 1999, he starred in The Prophet's Game (a dark thriller), directed by David Worth and also starring Stephanie Zimbalist, Robert Yocum, Sondra Locke, Joe Penny and Tracey Birdsall. In 2003, Hopper was in the running for the dual lead in the indie horror drama Firecracker, but was ousted at the last minute in favor of Mike Patton. In 2005, Hopper played Paul Kaufman in George A. Romero's Land of the Dead. He portrayed villain Victor Drazen in the first season of the popular action drama 24. Hopper starred as a U.S. Army colonel in the 2005 television series E-Ring, a drama set at The Pentagon, but the series was canceled after 14 episodes aired. Hopper appeared in all 22 episodes that were filmed. He also played the part of record producer Ben Cendars in the Starz television series Crash, which lasted two seasons (26 episodes). In 2008, Hopper starred in An American Carol. In 2008 he also played The Death in Wim Wenders' Palermo Shooting. His last major feature film appearance was in the 2008 film Elegy with Ben Kingsley, Penélope Cruz and Debbie Harry. For his last performance, he was the voice of Tony, the alpha-male of the Eastern wolf pack in the 2010 animated film Alpha and Omega. He died before the movie was released. This brought the directors to dedicate the film to his memory at the beginning of the movie credits. Hopper filmed scenes for The Other Side of the Wind in 1971, appearing as himself; after decades of legal, financial and technical delays, the film was finally released on Netflix in 2018. Hopper's fascination with art began with painting lessons at the Nelson-Atkins Museum while still a child in Kansas City, Missouri. Early in his career, he painted and wrote poetry, though many of his works were destroyed in the 1961 Bel Air Fire, which burned hundreds of homes, including his and his wife's, on Stone Canyon Road in Bel Air. His painting style ranges from abstract impressionism to photorealism and often includes references to his cinematic work and to other artists. Ostracized by the Hollywood film studios due to his reputation for being a "difficult" actor, Hopper turned to photography in 1961 with a camera bought for him by his first wife Brooke Hayward. He became a prolific photographer, and noted writer Terry Southern profiled Hopper in Better Homes and Gardens as an up-and-coming photographer "to watch" in the mid-1960s. Hopper's early photography is known for portraits from the 1960s, and he began shooting portraits for Vogue and other magazines. His photographs of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s 1963 March on Washington and the 1965 civil-rights march in Selma, Alabama, were published. His intimate and unguarded images of Andy Warhol, Jane Fonda, The Byrds, Paul Newman, Jasper Johns, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Rauschenberg, James Brown, Peter Fonda, Ed Ruscha, the Grateful Dead, Michael McClure, and Timothy Leary, among others, became the subject of gallery and museum shows and were collected in several books, including 1712 North Crescent Heights. The book, whose title refers to the house where he lived with Hayward in the Hollywood Hills in the 1960s, was edited by his daughter Marin Hopper. Dennis Hopper: Photographs 1961–1967 was published in February 2011, by Taschen. German film director Wim Wenders said of Hopper that if "he'd only been a photographer, he'd be one of the great photographers of the twentieth century." and Warhol (Double Mona Lisa, 1963); During his lifetime, Hopper's own work as well as his collection was shown in monographic and group exhibitions around the world including the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota; the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; MAK Vienna: Austrian Museum of Applied Arts/Contemporary Art, Vienna; the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; and the Cinémathèque Française, Paris, and the Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Melbourne. In March 2010, it was announced that Hopper was on the "short list" for Jeffrey Deitch's inaugural show at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA). In April 2010, Deitch confirmed that Hopper's work, curated by Julian Schnabel, will indeed be the focus of his debut at MOCA. The title of the exhibition, Double Standard, was taken from Hopper's iconic 1961 photograph of the two Standard Oil signs seen through an automobile windshield at the intersection of Santa Monica Boulevard, Melrose Avenue, and North Doheny Drive on historic Route 66 in Los Angeles. The image was reproduced on the invitation for Ed Ruscha's second solo exhibition at Ferus Gallery in 1964. In 2011, Barricade Books published film historian Peter L. Winkler's biography, Dennis Hopper: The Wild Ride of a Hollywood Rebel. In 2013, HarperCollins published Hopper: A Journey into the American Dream, a biography by American writer Tom Folsom. On the Gorillaz album Demon Days, Hopper narrates the song "Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head". Hopper is also the subject of The Waterboys album released on 4 April 2025 titled Life, Death and Dennis Hopper. Written by singer songwriter Mike Scott, the album contains twenty five compositions dedicated to the actor and includes contributions from Bruce Springsteen, Fiona Apple, and Steve Earle amongst others. In the late 1980s, Hopper purchased a trio of nearly identical two-story, loft-style condominiums at 330 Indiana Avenue in Venice Beach, California – one made of concrete, one of plywood, and one of green roofing shingles – built by Frank Gehry and two artist friends of Hopper's, Chuck Arnoldi and Laddie John Dill, in 1981. In 1987, he commissioned an industrial-style main residence, with a corrugated metal exterior designed by Brian Murphy, as a place to display his artwork. ==Personal life== According to Rolling Stone magazine, Hopper was "one of Hollywood's most notorious drug addicts" for 20 years. He spent much of the 1970s and early 1980s living as an "outcast" in Taos, New Mexico, after the success of Easy Rider. Hopper was also "notorious for his troubled relationships with women", including Michelle Phillips, who divorced him after eight days of marriage. Hopper was married five times: Brooke Hayward, married 1961 – divorced 1969, 1 child, daughter Marin Hopper (b. 1962); Michelle Phillips, married October 31, 1970 – divorced November 8, 1970; Daria Halprin, married 1972 – divorced 1976, 1 child, daughter Ruthanna Hopper (b. 1972); Katherine LaNasa, married June 17, 1989 – divorced April 1992, 1 child, son Henry Hopper (b. 1990); Victoria Duffy, married April 13, 1996 – separated January 12, 2010, 1 child, daughter Galen Grier Hopper (b. 2003). Hopper has been widely reported to be the godfather of actress Amber Tamblyn; in a 2009 interview with Parade, Tamblyn explained that "godfather" was "just a loose term" for Hopper, Dean Stockwell and Neil Young, three famous friends of her father's, who were always around the house when she was growing up, and who were big influences on her life. In 1994, Rip Torn filed a defamation lawsuit against Hopper over a story Hopper told on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Hopper claimed that Torn pulled a knife on him during pre-production of the film Easy Rider. According to Hopper, Torn was originally cast in the film but was replaced with Jack Nicholson after the incident. According to Torn's suit, it was actually Hopper who pulled the knife on him. A judge ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was ordered to pay US$475,000 in damages. Hopper then appealed but the judge again ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was required to pay another US$475,000 in punitive damages. According to Newsmeat, Hopper donated US$2,000 to the Republican National Committee in 2004 and an equal amount in 2005. Hopper donated $600 to Irish political party Sinn Féin. Hopper was honored with the rank of commander of France's National Order of Arts and Letters, at a ceremony in Paris. Despite being a Republican, Hopper supported Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. Hopper confirmed this in an election day appearance on the ABC daytime show The View. He said his reason for not voting Republican was the selection of Sarah Palin as the Republican vice presidential candidate. Hopper was a longtime friend of actress Sally Kirkland, who admitted in a 2021 Reelz documentary that they had a one-night stand early on in their friendship. ===Divorce from Victoria Duffy=== On January 14, 2010, Hopper filed for divorce from his fifth wife Victoria Duffy. After citing her "outrageous conduct" and stating she was "insane", "inhuman" and "volatile", Hopper was granted a restraining order against her on February 11, 2010, and as a result, she was forbidden to come within of him or contact him. On March 9, 2010, Duffy refused to move out of the Hopper home, despite the court's order that she do so by March 15. On April 5, 2010, a court ruled that Duffy could continue living on Hopper's property, and that he must pay US$12,000 per month spousal and child support for their daughter Galen. Hopper did not attend the hearing. On May 12, 2010, a hearing was held before Judge Amy Pellman in downtown Los Angeles Superior Court. Though Hopper died two weeks later, Duffy insisted at the hearing that he was well enough to be deposed. The hearing also dealt with who would be the beneficiary on Hopper's life insurance policy, which listed his wife as a beneficiary. A very ill Hopper did not appear in court though his estranged wife did. Despite Duffy's bid to be named the sole beneficiary of Hopper's million-dollar policy, the judge ruled against her and limited her claim to one-quarter of the policy. The remaining US$750,000 was to go to his estate. ==Illness and death== On September 28, 2009, Hopper, then 73, was reportedly taken by ambulance to an unidentified Manhattan hospital wearing an oxygen mask and "with numerous tubes visible". On October 2, he was discharged after receiving treatment for dehydration. On October 29, 2009, Hopper's manager Sam Maydew reported that he had been diagnosed with advanced prostate cancer. In January 2010, it was reported that Hopper's cancer had metastasized to his bones. On March 18, 2010, he was honored with the 2,403rd star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in front of Grauman's Egyptian Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard. Surrounded by family, fans, and friends—including Jack Nicholson, Viggo Mortensen, David Lynch, and Michael Madsen—he attended its addition to the sidewalk six days later. By March 2010, Hopper reportedly weighed only and was unable to carry on long conversations. According to papers filed in his divorce court case, Hopper was terminally ill and was unable to undergo chemotherapy to treat his prostate cancer. Hopper died at his home in the coastal Venice district of Los Angeles, on May 29, 2010, at age 74. His funeral took place on June 3, 2010, at San Francisco de Asis Mission Church in Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico. His body was buried at the Jesus Nazareno Cemetery in Ranchos de Taos. The film Alpha and Omega, which was among his last film roles, was dedicated to him, as was the 2011 film Restless, which starred his son Henry Hopper. ==Filmography== Rebel Without a Cause (1955) as Goon Giant (1956) as Jordan Benedict III Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) as Billy Clanton The Rifleman (1958) first season first episode Night Tide (1961) as Johnny Drake The Twilight Zone (1963) Season 4 Episode 4 "He's Alive" as Peter Bonanza (1964) Season 5 Episode 31 as a bounty hunter The Sons of Katie Elder (1965) as Dave Hastings Combat! (1967) Season 5 Episode 22 "A Little Jazz" as Zack Fielder Cool Hand Luke (1967) as Babalugats Panic in the City (1968) as Golf Easy Rider (1969) as Billy – Also writer-director True Grit (1969) as Moon The Last Movie (1971) as Kansas – Also writer-director Kid Blue (1973) as Bickford Warner Mad Dog Morgan (1976) as Daniel Morgan The American Friend (1977) as Tom Ripley Apocalypse Now (1979) as The Photojournalist Out of the Blue (1980) as Don – Also director The Osterman Weekend (1983) as Richard Tremayne Rumble Fish (1983) as Father The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (1986) as Lefty Enright River's Edge (1986) as Feck Blue Velvet (1986) as Frank Booth Hoosiers (1986) as Shooter Colors (1988) – Director only Flashback (1990) as Huey Walker Catchfire (1990) as Milo – Also director The Indian Runner (1991) as Caesar Super Mario Bros. (1993) as King Koopa True Romance (1993) as Clifford Worley Red Rock West (1993) as Lyle from Dallas Speed (1994) as Howard Payne Waterworld (1995) as Deacon Space Truckers (1996) as John Canyon Carried Away (1996) as Joseph Svenden Basquiat (1996) as Bruno Bischofberger EDtv (1999) as Hank Pekurny Land of the Dead (2005) as Kaufman House of 9 (2005) as Father Duffy Elegy (2008) as George O'Hearn Palermo Shooting (2008) as Frank The Other Side of the Wind (2018) posthumously as Himself ==Other works== ===Books=== Dennis Hopper: Out of the Sixties, Twelvetrees Press (1986) Dennis Hopper: Flashback (1990) 1712 North Crescent Heights, Greybull Press (2001) Dennis Hopper: A System of Moments, Hartje Cantz (2001) Dennis Hopper: Photographs, 1961–1967, Taschen (2009) Dennis Hopper & the New Hollywood, Rizzoli International Publications (2009) Dennis Hopper: The Lost Album, Prestel Verlag (2014) Dennis Hopper: Drugstore Camera, Damiani (2015) Dennis Hopper: Colors, the Polaroids, Damiani (2016) Dennis Hopper: In Dreams: Scenes from the Archives, Damiani (2019) ===Exhibitions=== Solo exhibition of assemblages, Primus-Stuart Gallery, Los Angeles (1963) Los Angeles Now group exhibition, Robert Fraser Gallery, London (1966) Bomb Drop, Pasadena Art Museum, Pasadena (1968) Dennis Hopper: Black and White Photographs, Fort Worth Museum of Art, Fort Worth (1970) Dennis Hopper: Black and White Photographs, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC (1971) Dennis Hopper and Ed Ruscha, Tony Shafrazi Gallery, New York (1992) Dennis Hopper: A System of Moments, Museum für angewandte Kunst, Vienna (2001) Dennis Hopper & the New Hollywood, Cinémathèque française, Paris (2008-09) Dennis Hopper & the New Hollywood, Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Melbourne (2009-10) Dennis Hopper: Double Standard, Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Angeles (2010) The Lost Album, Gagosian, New York (2013) The Lost Album, Royal Academy of Arts, London (2014) ===Music=== Demon Days(album, 2005), Gorillaz, Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head(song) ==Archive== The moving image collection of Dennis Hopper is held at the Academy Film Archive. The Dennis Hopper Trust Collection represents Hopper's directorial efforts. ==Awards and nominations==	[ "MTV", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie", "Hollywood Hills", "chemotherapy", "Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay", "Julie Adams", "The Hot Spot", "Kansas City Art Institute", "Mike Scott", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Terry Southern", "The Indian Runner", "Jules C. Stein", "Razzie Awards", "Directors Guild of America Awards", "Katherine LaNasa", "MCA Inc.", "Chuck Connors", "Dodge City, Kansas", "Fishing with John", "William Shakespeare", "Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor", "Charlie Rose Show", "If—", "Method acting", "62nd Academy Awards", "True Romance", "epilepsy", "Chuck Arnoldi", "True Grit (1969 film)", "Ed Harris", "Dean Stockwell", "Conflict (American TV series)", "Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico", "Virginia Dwan", "State Hermitage Museum", "The Johnny Cash Show", "Sean Penn", "Dennis Hopper: Photographs, 1961–1967", "Doublecrossed", "Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor", "The Time Tunnel", "American Broadcasting Company", "Running Out of Luck", "Republican National Committee", "Steve Earle", "CableACE Awards", "Robin Rhode", "Ike & Tina Turner", "Academy Awards", "Elegy (film)", "Peter Weir", "U.S. Route 66", "Paris Trout", "Human Highway", "An American Carol", "Associated Press", "National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor", "Sarah Palin", "Frank Gehry", "Cinémathèque française", "The Pentagon", "László Kovács (cinematographer)", "Restless (2011 film)", "Jack Nicholson", "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", "Tracey Birdsall", "Golden Globe Awards", "The American Friend", "Rip Torn", "Johnny Guitar", "Agence France-Presse", "Michael McClure", "Joe Penny", "Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead", "The New York Times", "Easy Rider", "The Sons of Katie Elder", "Bruno Bischofberger", "neo-noir", "Jane Fonda", "Ruthanna Hopper", "Lee Strasberg", "Venice, Los Angeles", "The Osterman Weekend (film)", "Grauman's Egyptian Theatre", "EDtv", "National Society of Film Critics Awards", "Hang 'Em High", "CNBC", "Hollywood Boulevard", "Colors (film)", "Los Angeles Times", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Taschen", "Panic in the City", "The Other Side of the Wind", "Peter Biskind", "The Daily Telegraph", "The Big Valley", "Blue Velvet (film)", "Edward Kienholz", "Carried Away (1996 film)", "Life, Death and Dennis Hopper", "Molly Ringwald", "Texas Archive of the Moving Image", "China Burma India Theater", "Combat!", "David Worth (cinematographer)", "the Grateful Dead", "Life (magazine)", "Starz", "Super Mario Bros. (film)", "Bowser", "Elvis Presley", "New Hollywood", "The Mamas and the Papas", "Vincent Price", "Bob Colacello", "Gunsmoke", "Robert Duvall", "Independent Spirit Awards", "typecast", "Gorillaz", "Catchfire", "Francis Ford Coppola", "Mad Dog Morgan", "Helix High School", "Harper's Bazaar", "low budget", "Drug Enforcement Administration", "HBO", "Stewart Stern", "Nick Adams (actor, born 1931)", "Flashback (1990 film)", "Medic (TV series)", "New Mexico Magazine", "Debbie Harry", "Venice International Film Festival", "MTV Movie Award for Best Villain", "Tony Shafrazi", "Jasper Johns", "police procedural", "Boston Society of Film Critics", "Penélope Cruz", "King Koopa", "The Last Movie", "NBC", "abstract impressionism", "Witch Hunt (1994 film)", "The View (talk show)", "Brooke Hayward", "Billy Clanton", "Academy Award", "Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (film)", "Nelson-Atkins Museum", "Damien Hirst", "Barack Obama", "River Deep – Mountain High (album)", "Rolling Stone", "counterculture of the 1960s", "Bruce Springsteen", "Apocalypse Now", "Entourage (U.S. TV series)", "The Waterboys", "Ferus", "Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor", "Daniel Morgan (bushranger)", "Roy Lichtenstein", "Crash (2008 TV series)", "Frank Booth (Blue Velvet)", "BBC", "Alpha and Omega (film)", "Red Rock West", "Speed (1994 film)", "Ed Ruscha", "Land of the Dead", "Rumble Fish", "Night Tide", "John Wayne", "Amber Tamblyn", "Halloween", "vice presidential candidate", "The Rifleman", "Straight to Hell (film)", "Sandra Bullock", "Petticoat Junction", "Pop Art", "Stuart Gordon", "Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor", "Los Angeles Film Critics Association", "Primetime Emmy Award", "San Francisco de Asis Mission Church", "Sally Kirkland", "Victor Drazen", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie", "James Dean", "drug rehabilitation", "Taos, New Mexico", "Julian Schnabel", "Palme d'Or", "David Lynch", "The Truman Show", "Reelz", "The New Yorker", "Henry Hathaway", "Hoosiers (film)", "Rudyard Kipling", "The Pick-up Artist (1987 film)", "role model", "Tom Folsom", "Tracks (1976 film)", "2008 United States presidential election", "Robert Rauschenberg", "Stephanie Zimbalist", "Bonanza", "Easy Riders, Raging Bulls", "Keanu Reeves", "The Barbara Stanwyck Show", "E!", "Tom Ripley", "Barry Seal", "Giant (1956 film)", "Rebel Without a Cause", "Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture", "Wim Wenders", "From Hell to Texas", "Actors Studio", "Mabel Dodge Luhan House", "Robert Downey Jr.", "Cannes Film Festival", "Michelle Phillips", "24 (TV series)", "Office of Strategic Services", "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)", "Something Wild (1986 film)", "Ray Liotta", "MTV Movie Awards", "Sondra Locke", "Election Day (politics)", "Mike Patton", "The Twilight Zone", "ACMI (museum)", "Sinn Féin", "Campbell's Soup Cans", "Kid Blue", "Selma, Alabama", "Irish Independent", "Viggo Mortensen", "Palermo Shooting", "Firecracker (2005 film)", "Out of the Blue (1980 film)", "Writers Guild of America Awards", "Dennis Hopper filmography", "Kris Kristofferson", "River's Edge", "Netflix", "Search and Destroy (1995 film)", "comedy horror", "Neil Young", "Space Truckers", "Bel Air Fire", "prostate cancer", "Old Globe Theatre", "Sam Peckinpah", "Timothy Leary", "Daria Halprin", "Venice Film Festival", "Margaret Sullavan", "E-Ring", "The Defenders (1961 TV series)", "terminal illness", "The A.V. Club", "Primetime Emmy Awards", "Andy Warhol", "Cuba libre", "Ordre des Arts et des Lettres", "Montreal World Film Festival", "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2", "The Byrds", "The Investigators (1961 TV series)", "Marin Hopper", "Paul Newman", "photorealism", "Peter Guralnick", "Bel Air, Los Angeles", "Fiona Apple", "Kevin Costner", "James Brown", "Michael Madsen", "Vanity Fair (magazine)", "KTLA", "The Legend of Jesse James (TV series)", "Black Widow (1987 film)", "House of 9", "Ben Kingsley", "H.P. Lovecraft", "J. Hoberman", "Waterworld", "Mick Jagger", "Furthur (bus)", "John Lurie", "Claes Oldenburg", "Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing - Feature Film", "Academy Film Archive", "Basquiat (film)", "Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay", "Cool Hand Luke", "Russ Tamblyn", "Metastasis", "Peter Fonda", "Debra Winger", "Demon Days", "Born to Be Wild", "one-night stand" ]
8,795	Detroit Red Wings	The Detroit Red Wings (colloquially referred to as the Wings) are a professional ice hockey team based in Detroit. The Red Wings compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference. The franchise is one of the so called Original Six teams of the league. Founded in 1926, the team was known as the Detroit Cougars until 1930. For the next two seasons, the team was named the Detroit Falcons, before changing their name to the Red Wings in 1932. The Red Wings have won the most Stanley Cup championships of any NHL franchise based in the United States (11), and are third overall amongst active teams in total Stanley Cup championships, behind the Montreal Canadiens (24) and Toronto Maple Leafs (13). The Wings played their home games at Joe Louis Arena from 1979 until 2017, after playing for 52 years at Olympia Stadium. They moved into Little Caesars Arena beginning with the 2017–18 season. The Red Wings are one of the most popular and successful franchises in the NHL; fans and sports commentators refer to the Detroit area as "Hockeytown", which has been a registered trademark owned by the franchise since 1996. Between the 1931–32 and 1965–66 seasons, the Red Wings missed the playoffs only four times. They struggled between the 1966–67 and 1982–83 seasons, only making the playoffs twice in that stretch. After that, however, from 1983–84 to 2015–16, they made the playoffs 30 times in 32 seasons, including 25 straight from 1990–91 to 2015–16 (not including the cancelled 2004–05 season); in 2006, this became the longest active streak of postseason appearances in all of North American professional sports and finished tied for the third-longest streak in NHL history. Since 1983–84, the Red Wings have tallied six regular season first-place finishes and have won the Stanley Cup four times (1997, 1998, 2002, and 2008). ==History== ===Early years (1926–1949)=== Following the 1926 Stanley Cup playoffs, during which the Western Hockey League (WHL) was widely reported to be on the verge of folding, the NHL held a meeting on April 17 to consider applications for expansion franchises, at which it was reported that five different groups sought a team for Detroit. During a subsequent meeting on May 15, the league approved a franchise to the Townsend-Seyburn group of Detroit and named Charles A. Hughes as governor. WHL owners Frank and Lester Patrick made a deal to sell the league's players to the NHL and cease league operations. The new Detroit franchise purchased the players of the WHL's Victoria Cougars, who had won the Stanley Cup in 1925 and had made the Finals the previous winter, to play for the team. The new Detroit franchise also adopted the Cougars' nickname in honor of the folded franchise. Since no arena in Detroit was ready at the time, the Cougars played their first season at the Border Cities Arena in Windsor, Ontario. For the 1927–28 season, the Cougars moved into the new Detroit Olympia, which would be their home rink until December 15, 1979. This was also the first season behind the bench for Jack Adams, who would be the face of the franchise for the next 36 years as either coach or general manager. The Cougars made the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in 1929, with Carson Cooper leading the team in scoring. The Cougars were outscored 7–2 in the two-game series with the Toronto Maple Leafs. In 1930, the Cougars were renamed the Falcons, but their woes continued, as they usually finished near the bottom of the standings, even though they made the playoffs again in 1932. In 1932, the NHL let grain merchant James E. Norris, who had made two previous unsuccessful bids to buy an NHL team, purchase the Falcons. Norris' first act was to rename the team; earlier in the century, Norris had been a member of the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association (MAAA), a multi-sport club whose winged-wheel emblem derived from its cycling roots, and whose hockey team won the first Stanley Cup in 1893. Norris decided that a red version of the MAAA "Winged Wheelers" logo would be perfect for a team playing in the "Motor City", and on October 5, 1932, the club was renamed the Detroit Red Wings. Norris also placed coach Jack Adams on a one-year probation for the 1932–33 NHL season. Adams managed to pass his probationary period by leading the Red Wings to their first-ever playoff series victory, over the Montreal Maroons. The team then lost in the semifinals to the New York Rangers. In 1934, the Red Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time, with John Sorrell scoring 21 goals over 47 games and Larry Aurie leading the team in scoring. However, the Chicago Black Hawks defeated the Red Wings in the Finals, winning the best-of-five series in four games to claim their first title. Two seasons later, the Red Wings won their first Stanley Cup in 1936, defeating Toronto in four games. The Red Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive years during the early 1940s. In 1941, they were swept by the Boston Bruins, and in 1942, they lost a seven-game series to Toronto after winning the first three games. Through the rest of the decade, the team made the playoffs every year, and reached the Finals three more times. In 1946, one of the greatest players in hockey history came into the NHL with the Red Wings. Gordie Howe, a right winger from Floral, Saskatchewan, only scored seven goals and 15 assists in his first season, and would not reach his prime for a few more years. It was also the last season as head coach for Adams, who stepped down after the season to concentrate on his duties as general manager and was succeeded by minor league coach Tommy Ivan. By his second season, Howe was paired with Sid Abel and Ted Lindsay to form what would become one of the great lines in NHL history: the "Production Line". In the Finals, the Red Wings defeated the New York Rangers in seven games. In Game 7, Pete Babando scored the game winner in double overtime. After being upset by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1951 semifinals, Detroit won its fifth Stanley Cup in 1952, sweeping both the Maple Leafs and the Canadiens, with the Production Line of Howe, Abel and Lindsay joined by second-year goaltender Terry Sawchuk. Detroit became the first team in 17 years to go undefeated in the playoffs. They also scored 24 playoff goals, compared to Toronto and Montreal's combined total of 5. Abel left the Red Wings for Chicago during the off-season, and his spot on the roster was replaced by Alex Delvecchio. In December 1952, James E. Norris died. He was succeeded as team president by his daughter, Marguerite, which made her the first woman to head an NHL franchise. Following another playoff upset in 1953 at the hands of the Bruins, the Red Wings won back-to-back Stanley Cups, beating the rival powerhouse Montreal Canadiens. Both of the Stanley Cup Finals played between the two teams were decided in seven games. The seventh game during the 1954 Stanley Cup Finals was won with one of the oddest cup winning goals ever, when the 5'7" left winger Tony Leswick, known more for his relentless checking than scoring prowess, shot a puck towards the Montreal goal from the middle of the ice. Habs defenseman Doug Harvey tried to gain control of the wobbly puck with his glove but instead redirected it past Montreal goalie Gerry McNeil. The repeat of the series the season after was closely contested, as all seven games were won by the home team, with Detroit taking the seventh game. Montreal was sorely lacking its all-star Maurice Richard, who was suspended after hitting a linesman during the regular season, and the Red Wings' stars carried their team, as Lindsay scored four goals in a single game and Howe scored 20 points during the playoffs, 12 of which during the Finals, all new records in the league. The 1954–55 season ended a run of seven straight regular season titles, an NHL record. During the 1955 off-season, Marguerite Norris lost an intra-family power struggle, and was forced to turn over the Red Wings to her younger brother Bruce. Detroit and Montreal once again met, in the 1956 Stanley Cup Finals, but this time the Canadiens won the Stanley Cup, their first of five in a row. In 1957, Lindsay, who had scored 30 goals and led the league in assists with 55, teamed up with Harvey to help start the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA). As a result, he and goaltender Glenn Hall were promptly traded to Chicago. In 1959, the Red Wings missed the playoffs for the first time in 21 years. However, within a couple of years, the franchise was able to rejuvenate itself. The Red Wings made the Finals in four of the next six years between 1961 and 1966. However, they came away empty-handed. ==="Dead Wings" era (1967–1982)=== Only a year after making the Finals, the Red Wings finished a distant fifth, 24 points out of the playoffs. It was the beginning of a slump that they would not emerge from in almost 20 years. This period is derisively known as the "Dead Wings" era. One factor in the Red Wings' decline was the end of the old development system. Another factor was Ned Harkness, who was hired as coach in 1970 and was promoted to general manager midway through the season. A successful college hockey coach, Harkness tried to force his two-way style of play on a veteran Red Wings team resistant to change. They chafed under his rule in which he demanded short hair and no smoking, and put other rules in place regarding drinking and phone calls. Harkness was forced to resign in 1974, ending the period colloquially referred to as "Darkness with Harkness". During the expansion season of 1967–68, the Red Wings acquired longtime star left-winger Frank Mahovlich from the defending Cup champions in Toronto. Mahovlich would go on a line with Howe and Delvecchio, and in 1968–69, he scored a career-high 49 goals and had two All-Star seasons in Detroit. However, Mahovlich was traded to Montreal in 1971, while Howe announced his retirement the same year. Throughout the decade, the Red Wings were hampered due to a number of factors. On December 27, 1979, during the 1979–80 season, the Red Wings officially began playing at the Joe Louis Arena after leaving the Olympia, where they had played since 1927. In 1982, after 50 years of family ownership, Bruce Norris sold the Red Wings to Mike Ilitch, founder of the pizza chain Little Caesars. ===Steve Yzerman era (1983–2006)=== In 1983, the Red Wings drafted Steve Yzerman, a center from the Peterborough Petes, with their first-round pick. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year. That season, with John Ogrodnick, Ivan Boldirev, Ron Duguay, and Brad Park, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years, with Park ended up winning the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy. He was later asked to coach the Red Wings after they fired Harry Neale 35 games into the 1985–86 season, however, he was fired on June 3, 1986, after they finished last place with a 17–57–6 record for only 40 points, the worst record in the league. This was the same year that the Red Wings added enforcer Bob Probert, one of the most familiar faces of the team during the 1980s and 1990s. In the 1986–87 season, with Yzerman, now the captain following the departure of Danny Gare, joined by Petr Klima, Adam Oates, Gerard Gallant, defenseman Darren Veitch, and new head coach Jacques Demers, the Red Wings won a playoff series for only the second time in the modern era. They made it all the way to the conference finals against the powerful Edmonton Oilers, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in five games. In 1988, they won their first division title in 23 years. They did so, however, in a relatively weak division, as no other team in the Norris finished above .500. As was the case in the previous season, they made it to the conference finals only to lose again to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Oilers in five games. In 1989, Yzerman scored a career-best 65 goals, but Detroit was upset in the first round by the Chicago Blackhawks. The following season, Yzerman scored 62 goals, but the team missed the playoffs. After the season, Demers was fired and was replaced by Bryan Murray as the new head coach. Murray was unable to get them back over .500, but they returned to the playoffs. Yzerman was joined by Sergei Fedorov, who would be an award-winner and frequent all-star for the team during the 1990s. In 1991, the team signed free agent Ray Sheppard, who would score a career-best 52 goals three years later. In 1993, the Red Wings acquired top defenseman Paul Coffey. Also joining the Red Wings around this time were draft picks Vladimir Konstantinov, Nicklas Lidstrom, Vyacheslav Kozlov, Darren McCarty, and Chris Osgood. ====The Russian Five and back-to-back Stanley Cups (1994–1998)==== In 1993, former Montreal Canadiens coach Scotty Bowman was hired as the new head coach. In his second season, the lockout-shortened 1994–95 NHL season, Bowman guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years, only to be swept by the New Jersey Devils. During the 1995–96 season, the Red Wings won a then NHL record 62 games. However, after defeating the St. Louis Blues in seven games, they would fall in the conference finals to the eventual Stanley Cup champions, the Colorado Avalanche. The following season, the Red Wings acquired Brendan Shanahan and Larry Murphy. In the playoffs, they would defeat the St. Louis Blues, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and the Avalanche in the first three rounds. In the Finals, the Red Wings swept the Philadelphia Flyers. It was their first Stanley Cup since 1955, breaking the longest drought (42 years long) in the league at that time. Mike Vernon was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy. Misfortune befell the Red Wings six days after their championship; defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov, one of the members of the "Russian Five", suffered a brain injury in a limousine accident, and his career came to an abrupt end. As a result, the team dedicated the 1997–98 season to him. Also acquired at the trade deadline were defenseman Ulf Samuelsson, winger Wendel Clark, and goaltender Bill Ranford. In 2000, the Red Wings would finish second in the Central Division. Just like the previous season, however, they would lose to the Avalanche in the Western Conference semi-finals. In 2001, Detroit, the NHL's second-best team in the regular season, were upset in the playoffs by the Los Angeles Kings. During the ensuing off-season, the team acquired goaltender Dominik Hasek (the defending Vezina Trophy winner) and forwards Luc Robitaille and Brett Hull. Russian prospect Pavel Datsyuk also joined the team. Strengthened by the additions, the Red Wings posted the league's best record in the 2001–02 regular season and defeated Colorado in seven games in the conference finals after beating the Vancouver Canucks and St. Louis Blues in rounds one and two. The Red Wings then went on to capture another Stanley Cup, in five games, over the Carolina Hurricanes, with Nicklas Lidstrom winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs' MVP. The 2002 off-season saw the Red Wings promote associate coach Dave Lewis to the head coach position after Bowman's retirement. In the market for a new starting goaltender after Hasek's retirement, they signed Curtis Joseph from the Toronto Maple Leafs to a three-year, $24 million deal. Also new to the lineup was highly touted Swedish prospect Henrik Zetterberg. The Red Wings finished the season second in the Western Conference, which pitted them in the 2003 playoffs against the seventh-seeded Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The Mighty Ducks shocked the ice hockey world when they swept the Red Wings in four games en route to a Stanley Cup Finals appearance. In the off-season, long time Red Wing Fedorov signed with the Mighty Ducks as a free agent. Additionally, Hasek opted to come out of retirement and join the Red Wings for the 2003–04 season. Joseph, despite being one of the highest-paid players in the NHL, spent part of the season in the minor leagues. Hasek himself would be sidelined with a groin injury. Notwithstanding, the Red Wings would finish atop of the Central Division and the NHL standings. The Red Wings eliminated the Nashville Predators in six games in the first round of the 2004 playoffs, which led to a second round match-up with the Calgary Flames. The teams split the first four games, and headed to Detroit for a pivotal Game 5, which the Red Wings lost 1–0. They were then eliminated two nights later in Calgary by the same score in overtime. The Red Wings did not play in the 2004–05 season due to the lockout, which cancelled the entire NHL season. On July 15, 2005, Mike Babcock, former head coach in Anaheim, became the new head coach for the Red Wings. On November 21, 2005, defenseman Jiri Fischer went into cardiac arrest and collapsed on the bench during a game against the Nashville Predators. The game was cancelled because of his injury and was made up on January 23, 2006. This was the first time in NHL history a game had been postponed due to an injury. While the game was played for the full 60 minutes, the Predators were allowed to maintain their 1–0 lead from the original game and won 3–2. They opened the 2006 playoffs against the Edmonton Oilers with a 3–2 overtime victory at Joe Louis Arena, but the Oilers won four of the next five games to take the series. Continuing the shakeup of the Red Wings roster, the off-season saw the departure of Brendan Shanahan, the return of Dominik Hasek and the retirement of Steve Yzerman. Yzerman retired with the distinction of having been the longest-serving team captain in NHL history. ===The "Euro-Twins" era (2006–2017)=== The Red Wings opened the 2006–07 season with Nicklas Lidstrom as the new captain. The team retired Yzerman's jersey number 19 on January 2, 2007. The Red Wings finished first in the Western Conference and tied for first in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres were awarded the Presidents' Trophy because they had more wins. Detroit advanced to the third round of the 2007 playoffs after defeating Calgary and the San Jose Sharks both in six games, coming back to win three-straight after the Sharks had a 2–1 series lead. The Red Wings would then lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks in the conference finals in six games. To start the 2007–08 campaign, Zetterberg recorded at least a point in each of Detroit's first 17 games, setting a club record. The Wings cruised to the playoffs, where they faced the Nashville Predators. After goaltender Dominik Hasek played poorly in Games 3 and 4 of the series, both losses, head coach Mike Babcock replaced him with Chris Osgood. Osgood never left the net for the remainder of the playoffs, as the Red Wings came back in that series in six games. In the second round, they swept the Colorado Avalanche in four games. They then went on to the Stanley Cup Finals after defeating the Dallas Stars in six games in the conference finals. The Red Wings won the Stanley Cup against the Pittsburgh Penguins in Game 6 on June 4, 2008, by the score of 3–2. This was the Red Wings' fourth Stanley Cup in 11 years and their 11th overall in franchise history. Zetterberg scored the winning goal in the decisive game, and was also named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs. On July 2, 2008, the Red Wings announced the signing of Marian Hossa. On January 1, 2009, the Red Wings played the Chicago Blackhawks in the second NHL Winter Classic at Chicago's Wrigley Field, defeating them 6–4. Although they finished second in the conference to the San Jose Sharks, the Wings became the first team in NHL history to top 100 points in nine straight seasons. In the playoffs, the Red Wings swept the Columbus Blue Jackets, then defeated the eighth-seeded Anaheim Ducks in a hard-fought seven-game series. They took on the vastly improved Chicago Blackhawks in the conference finals, winning in five games. The Red Wings would face the Pittsburgh Penguins in the Finals for a second consecutive year, but this series would feature a different outcome as the Penguins defeated the Red Wings in seven games. The Red Wings became only the second NHL team to lose the Stanley Cup at home in Game 7. The Red Wings began the 2009–10 NHL season in Stockholm, losing both games to the St. Louis Blues 4–3 and 5–3, respectively. They were plagued by injuries throughout the season and lost the second most man games to injury, with only the last place Edmonton Oilers losing more. The beginning of the season was a struggle for the Red Wings, with key players out of the lineup, including Zetterberg, Tomas Holmstrom, Johan Franzen, Valtteri Filppula and Niklas Kronwall. This run helped them secure the fifth playoff seed in the Western Conference. This, however, was the first time the Red Wings did not have home ice advantage in a playoff series in ten seasons. Detroit won their first-round playoff series over the Phoenix Coyotes in seven games. In the second round, they would be defeated by the San Jose Sharks in five games. A healthier Red Wings team finished the 2010–11 NHL season with a 47–25–10 record and 104 points to win the Central Division title. They once again faced the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round of the playoffs, this time sweeping them 4–0. The Red Wings then went on to face the Sharks in round two. After losing the first three games of the series, the Red Wings won three consecutive games to force a Game 7, becoming just the eighth team in NHL history to accomplish the feat. The Red Wings lost Game 7 to the Sharks by a score of 3–2 and were eliminated. During the 2011 off-season, Red Wings defenseman Brian Rafalski retired. Detroit soon signed free agent defenseman Ian White to take his place. Long-time Red Wings Chris Osgood and Kris Draper also announced their retirement from hockey, with both soon taking positions within the club. Detroit signed goaltender Ty Conklin for his second stint with the team. Tragedy struck the organization and the rest of the NHL with the 2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash, which killed former Red Wings assistant coach Brad McCrimmon and defenseman Ruslan Salei, who had joined the KHL team during the summer. Stefan Liv, a former Red Wings goaltending prospect, was also among the fatalities. The Red Wings then added a patch to the left arm of their uniforms with the trio's initials. During the season, the Red Wings won an NHL-record 23 consecutive home games. The Red Wings also made the NHL playoffs, extending their streak of 21-straight playoff appearances, as the fifth seed. They were defeated in five games by their opening round opponent, the Nashville Predators. On May 31, 2012, Nicklas Lidstrom retired. Zetterberg was named successor to Lidstrom as team captain. On July 1, 2012, the first day of the NHL free agency period, the Red Wings signed Swiss forward Damien Brunner to a one-year, entry-level contract; forward Jordin Tootoo to a three-year, $5.7 million contract; and goaltender Jonas Gustavsson to a two-year, $3 million deal. The team won their final four games of the 2012–13 season to earn the seventh seed of the playoffs. The Red Wings' 3–0 victory over the Dallas Stars on April 27, 2013, preserved their streak of 22 consecutive playoff appearances. As the seventh seed in the 2013 playoffs, the Red Wings faced the second-seeded Anaheim Ducks. They survived a fierce battle that included four overtime games, winning the series 4–3 after a 3–2 Game 7 victory in Anaheim. The next round pitted the Red Wings against the top-seeded Chicago Blackhawks. Despite jumping out to a 3–1 series lead, the Red Wings would ultimately lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in seven games. On July 5, 2013, the Red Wings signed long time Ottawa Senators captain Daniel Alfredsson to a one-year contract and long time Florida Panther Stephen Weiss to a five-year contract. In the 2013–14 season, the Red Wings moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference as part of the NHL's realignment. The move to the Eastern Conference allowed them to play a majority of their games against teams in the Eastern Time Zone. On April 9, 2014, the Red Wings clinched their 23rd consecutive playoff appearance. They would be eliminated in the first round by the Boston Bruins. On April 9, 2015, the Red Wings clinched their 24th consecutive playoff appearance, thus extending their streak. The team was eliminated in the first round by the Tampa Bay Lightning. Petr Mrazek had earned the starting goaltender role from Jimmy Howard, and Kronwall was suspended for Game 7 as Tampa Bay erased a 3–2 deficit to win the series. Mike Babcock, concluding the final year of his contract, left the Red Wings to become the new head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Jeff Blashill, head coach of the Red Wings' top minor league affiliate, the Grand Rapids Griffins, was named his successor on June 9. On April 9, 2016, despite the Red Wings losing 3–2 to the New York Rangers, the Ottawa Senators defeated the Boston Bruins 6–1 as the Red Wings narrowly made the playoffs and extended their streak to a 25th season. They would lose in the first round to the Lightning again, this time in five games. During the off-season, Datsyuk decided to return to Russia. On February 10, 2017, club owner Mike Ilitch died. The Red Wings' playoff streak ended after 25 seasons in the 2016–17 season. The Red Wings won their last game at Joe Louis Arena 4–1 on April 9, 2017, against the New Jersey Devils. ===The opening of Little Caesars Arena and rebuilding (2017–present)=== The Red Wings played their first regular season game at Little Caesars Arena on October 5, 2017, winning 4–2 over the Minnesota Wild. The Red Wings finished the 2017–18 season with a 30–39–13 record. They missed the playoffs for the second season in a row, marking the first time since the early 1980s the team missed the playoffs in consecutive years. The Red Wings finished the 2018–19 season with a 32–40–10 record, missing the playoffs for a third consecutive season. On April 19, 2019, the Red Wings announced that Steve Yzerman rejoined the team as general manager and executive vice president. On February 21, 2020, the Red Wings became the first team to be eliminated from playoff contention before the trade deadline since the 2003–04 Pittsburgh Penguins. On March 10, 2020, the Red Wings clinched the worst overall record in NHL for the first time since the 1985–86 season. On March 12, the 2019–20 season was suspended by the NHL due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On May 26, 2020, the NHL announced that the rest of the season was over for the seven teams that did not qualify for the 24-team Stanley Cup playoffs, which included the Red Wings. With a record of 17–49–5, this was the first time since the 1985–86 season that the Red Wings finished with fewer than 20 wins. The Red Wings also became the second team since the 2004–05 NHL lockout, and the subsequent start of the salary cap era, to finish with a sub-.300 points percentage, along with the 2016–17 Colorado Avalanche. Their .275 points percentage was the worst for an NHL team since the 1999–2000 Atlanta Thrashers. On April 26, the Red Wings were eliminated from playoff contention for the fifth consecutive season. They would ultimately finish with a 19–27–10 record. The Red Wings finished the 2021–22 season at 32–40–10. They missed the playoff for the sixth consecutive season. On April 30, 2022, Jeff Blashill was fired as head coach. They then hired Derek Lalonde as their head coach on June 30, 2022. During 2022–23 season, the Red Wings would re-sign Dylan Larkin to an eight-year contract extension. The Red Wings finished the season at 35–37–10. They missed the playoffs for the seventh consecutive season. The Red Wings finished the 2023–24 season with a 41–32–9 record. However, they were eliminated from playoff contention for the eighth consecutive season via tiebreaker on April 16, 2024, after the Washington Capitals' 2–1 win over the Philadelphia Flyers. On December 26, 2024, after a slow start to the 2024–25 season, the Red Wings fired head coach Lalonde and assistant head coach Bob Boughner. Todd McLellan was hired as their new head coach, with Trent Yawney as an assistant head coach. On April 12, 2025, the Red Wings were eliminated from playoff contention for the ninth consecutive season after the Montreal Canadiens lost in overtime to the Toronto Maple Leafs. This extended their longest playoff drought in franchise history. They finished the season with a 39–35–8 record. ==Team information== ===Logo and uniforms=== The Red Wings' jerseys (traditionally known in hockey as "sweaters") have been more or less the same since the 1930s – a white or red base with red or white piping. The only significant changes have been the replacement of the word Detroit with the "winged wheel" logo in 1932, and vertical arch lettering for the players' names and block letters in 1983. The Red Wings wear the vertical arched letters in the regular season and playoffs, but use straight serifed nameplates during the preseason. The Hockey News voted the Red Wings' "winged wheel" logo the second best in the league in 2008. The Red Wings, like all NHL teams, updated their jerseys to the new Rbk Edge standard for the 2007–08 NHL season. The Red Wings kept their design as close to original as possible, the exceptions being: On the road (white) jersey, there was more red on the sleeves as the color panel began closer to the shoulder, and the letters of the captain and alternate captains were moved to the right shoulder. When Adidas became the uniform outfitter starting with the 2017–18 season, the Red Wings kept the same basic look. The Red Wings have rarely used any alternate logos or uniforms since the trend became popular in the 1990s, the sole exceptions were select games of the 1991–92 season commemorating the league's 75th anniversary, and for a commemorative game on January 27, 1994, at Chicago Stadium. Those jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the team (then the Detroit Cougars) in 1927–28. The throwbacks are primarily white with five red horizontal stripes on the body, the broadest middle stripe bearing "Detroit" in bold letters, and three red stripes on the sleeves. The Red Wings wore alternative "retro" jerseys for the 2009 Winter Classic in Chicago. The jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the Detroit Cougars during their inaugural season of 1926–27. These jerseys were white, with a single bold red stripe on the sleeves and chest, and a uniquely styled white Old English D centered on the chest stripe. These jerseys were also worn for their final 2009 regular season home game, again against the Chicago Blackhawks. The Red Wings again used an alternate jersey mimicking throwback jerseys for the 2014 Winter Classic against the Toronto Maple Leafs at Michigan Stadium. The Red Wings wore a specially designed one-time-only jersey for their Stadium Series game in Denver against the Colorado Avalanche on February 27, 2016. The majority of this jersey was the traditional red, decorated with a thick diagonal white stripe running from the player's right shoulder across the front towards the left hip. The bottom of each sleeve featured a thick white stripe from wrist to elbow. The crest on the front of the jersey was a stylized red D. The words "Red Wings" were printed in all capital letters on the left side of the collar, and the phrase "EST. 1926" was printed inside the back of the collar. These jerseys featured the current Red Wings logo on the left shoulder cap. The names and numbers were printed larger than traditional NHL jerseys to increase visibility and player identification for fans watching the game at Coors Field, a stadium traditionally used for Major League Baseball. The Red Wings unveiled a uniform patch on September 27, 2016, to honor Gordie Howe, who died on June 10, 2016. The patch was a depiction of Howe's jersey number 9 and was worn by the team above the logo on the front of the jersey on the left side of the chest for all 82 regular season games during the 2016–17 season. The Red Wings wore a specially designed one-time-only jersey for the Centennial Classic in Toronto against the Toronto Maple Leafs on January 1, 2017. It was a white jersey that had four stripes on the arms. Three of the stripes were red, while the fourth was silver. On the silver stripes were the years the Red Wings won the Stanley Cup. The logo and numbers were outlined in silver. For the 2020–21 season, the Red Wings wore special "Reverse Retro" alternate jerseys designed by Adidas. The uniform featured a white base and white sleeves inspired by the Red Wings' road uniforms of the Original Six era. Silver stripes replaced red stripes in commemoration of the team's 11 Stanley Cup championships and the 2017 Centennial Classic. A second "Reverse Retro" uniform was unveiled in the 2022–23 season, using the 1991–92 throwback uniform based on the original Cougars' uniforms but with a red base and black stripes. The Red Wings' logo received significant media attention in August 2017 when it was discovered that a white supremacist group used a modified version of it, in which the wheel's spokes consisted of the occult SS symbol Black Sun; it was the aegis of their shields during the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. As a result, the Red Wings condemned the group for the usage of the logo and threatened legal action. On February 29, 2024, the Red Wings announced their first ever jersey patch advertisement with Priority, a local waste management company. For the Red Wings' appearance in the 2025 Stadium Series, they wore white uniforms with a script "Detroit" lettering in red. The lower sleeves and socks were predominantly red, and the trademark "winged wheel" logo is on the left shoulder. The "Hockeytown" slogan was placed on the right leg. The uniforms were generally inspired by Detroit's automotive industry and hockey culture. ===Fan traditions=== The "Legend of the Octopus" is a sports tradition during Detroit Red Wings playoff games, in which an octopus is thrown onto the ice surface for good luck. During the playoffs, Joe Louis Arena was generally adorned with a giant octopus with red eyes, nicknamed "Al" after former head ice manager Al Sobotka. The 1952 playoffs featured the start of the octopus throw. The owner of a local fish market, Peter Cusimano, threw one from the stands onto the ice. The eight legs are symbolic of the eight wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. The Red Wings went on to sweep both of their opponents that year en route to a Stanley Cup championship. The NHL has, at various times, tried to eliminate this tradition but it continues to this day. Sobotka was responsible for removing the thrown creatures from the ice. When the Red Wings played at Joe Louis Arena, he was known for swinging the tossed octopuses above his head when walking off the ice. On April 19, 2008, the NHL sent a memo to the Red Wings that forbade this; they said that violating the mandate would result in a $10,000 fine. Instead, it was to up to the linesmen to remove the octopuses. In an email to the Detroit Free Press, NHL spokesman Frank Brown justified the ban because matter flew off the octopus and got on the ice when Sobotka swung it above his head. Typically during the last minute or two of games that the Red Wings are winning, especially around the end of the season and during the playoffs, fans are known to start singing along to Journey's "Don't Stop Believin'." The song is played over the PA system and continues until it is muted while the crowd sings the words "Born and raised in South Detroit," then the song resumes over the speakers in the arena. ==Broadcasters== The Red Wings' flagship radio station is WXYT-FM 97.1. If there is a conflict with Detroit Tigers baseball or Detroit Lions football, games are carried on WWJ 950. There are several affiliate stations throughout Michigan and Southwestern Ontario. The Red Wings' exclusive local television rights are held by FanDuel Sports Network Detroit. Announcers: Ken Daniels: Television play by play announcer. Mickey Redmond: Television color commentator (home games and select away games). Chris Osgood: Television color commentator (select away games that Redmond does not attend) and studio analyst (when not doing color commentating). Larry Murphy: Studio analyst and television color commentator (select away games that Redmond and Osgood do not attend). Danny DeKeyser: Studio analyst. John Keating: Television pre-game and post-game host. Trevor Thompson: Television pre-game and post-game host and reporter. Natalie Kerwin: Digital reporter. Ken Kal: Radio play by play announcer. Paul Woods: Radio analyst. Daniella Bruce: Alternate radio analyst. Jeff Riger: Primary radio intermission and post-game host. ===Honored broadcasters=== Four members of the Red Wings organization have received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award: Budd Lynch: TV and radio play by play and color – 1949–1975 (awarded 1985) Bruce Martyn: Radio play by play – 1964–1995 (awarded 1991) Mickey Redmond: TV color commentary – 1979–1981, 1986–present (awarded 2011) Dave Strader: TV play by play – 1985–1996 (awarded 2017) Lynch called the first locally televised game at Olympia for the original WWJ-TV in 1949. Freiny took over as the sole PA announcer following Lynch's death. The 12 individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame include former Red Wings executives, general managers, head coaches, and owners. In addition to players and builders, several broadcasters have been awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame. Budd Lynch, a radio play-by-play announcer, was the first Red Wings broadcaster to be awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award. Lynch also served as Detroit's public address announcer from 1985 until his death in 2012. In addition to Lynch, Bruce Martyn, Mickey Redmond, and Dave Strader have also won the award. \|- \| 4 \|\| Red Kelly \|\| D \|\| 1947–1960 \|\| February 1, 2019 \|- \| 5 \|\| Nicklas Lidstrom \|\| D \|\| 1991–2012 \|\| March 6, 2014 \|- \| 7 \|\| Ted Lindsay \|\| LW \|\| 1944–19571964–1965 \|\| November 10, 1991 \|- \| 9 \|\| Gordie Howe \|\| RW \|\| 1946–1971 \|\| March 12, 1972 \|- \| 12 \|\| Sid Abel \|\| C \|\| 1938–19431945–1952 \|\| April 29, 1995 \|- \| 19 \|\| Steve Yzerman \|\| C \|\| 1983–2006 \|\| January 2, 2007 Howe won both the Art Ross Trophy and the Hart Memorial Trophy six times each and won the Stanley Cup as a Red Wing four times. In 2007, the Red Wings retired Steve Yzerman's No. 19. Yzerman served as Detroit's captain for 19 seasons, an NHL record, and won the Stanley Cup three times as a player with the Red Wings. The most recent retired number is Red Kelly's No. 4, which was retired on February 1, 2019. The Red Wings have also made the number 6 of Larry Aurie and the number 16 of Vladimir Konstantinov no longer available for issue. However, the numbers are not considered to be officially retired. Although Aurie's number was retired in 1938 by James E. Norris, current team owners do not consider the number to be retired. Konstantinov's number has not been issued to any player since he was permanently disabled in a vehicle accident after the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals. Number 99 is also unavailable as it was retired by the league in honor of Wayne Gretzky. ===Team captains=== All the players who have served as team captain with the Detroit franchise. Art Duncan, 1926–1927 Reg Noble, 1927–1930 George Hay, 1930–1931 Carson Cooper, 1931–1932 Larry Aurie, 1932–1933 Herbie Lewis, 1933–1934 Ebbie Goodfellow, 1934–1935, 1938–1941 Doug Young, 1935–1938 Ebbie Goodfellow and Syd Howe, 1941–1942 Sid Abel, 1942–1943 Mud Bruneteau and Flash Hollett, 1943–1944 Flash Hollett, 1944–1945 Flash Hollett and Sid Abel, 1945–1946 Sid Abel, 1946–1952 Ted Lindsay, 1952–1956 Red Kelly, 1956–1958 Gordie Howe, 1958–1962 Alex Delvecchio, 1962–1973 Alex Delvecchio, Nick Libett, Red Berenson, Gary Bergman, Ted Harris, Mickey Redmond, and Larry Johnston, 1973–1974 Marcel Dionne, 1974–1975 Danny Grant and Terry Harper, 1975–1976 Danny Grant and Dennis Polonich, 1976–1977 Dan Maloney and Dennis Hextall, 1977–1978 Dennis Hextall, Nick Libett, and Paul Woods, 1978–1979 Dale McCourt, 1979–1980 Errol Thompson and Reed Larson, 1980–1981 Reed Larson, 1981–1982 Danny Gare, 1982–1986 Steve Yzerman, 1986–2006 Nicklas Lidstrom, 2006–2012 Henrik Zetterberg, 2013–2018 Dylan Larkin, 2021–present ===First-round draft picks=== 1963: Peter Mahovlich (2nd overall) 1964: Claude Gauthier (1st overall) 1965: George Forgie (3rd overall) 1966: Steve Atkinson (6th overall) 1967: Ron Barkwell (9th overall) 1968: Steve Andrascik (11th overall) 1969: Jim Rutherford (10th overall) 1970: Serge Lajeunesse (12th overall) 1971: Marcel Dionne (2nd overall) 1973: Terry Richardson (11th overall) 1974: Bill Lochead (9th overall) 1975: Rick Lapointe (5th overall) 1976: Fred Williams (4th overall) 1977: Dale McCourt (1st overall) 1978: Willie Huber (9th overall) 1979: Mike Foligno (3rd overall) 1980: Mike Blaisdell (11th overall) 1982: Murray Craven (17th overall) 1983: Steve Yzerman (4th overall) 1984: Shawn Burr (7th overall) 1985: Brent Fedyk (8th overall) 1986: Joe Murphy (1st overall) 1987: Yves Racine (11th overall) 1988: Kory Kocur (17th overall) 1989: Mike Sillinger (11th overall) 1990: Keith Primeau (3rd overall) 1991: Martin Lapointe (10th overall) 1992: Curtis Bowen (22nd overall) 1993: Anders Eriksson (22nd overall) 1994: Yan Golubovsky (23rd overall) 1995: Maxim Kuznetsov (26th overall) 1996: Jesse Wallin (26th overall) 1998: Jiri Fischer (25th overall) 2000: Niklas Kronwall (29th overall) 2005: Jakub Kindl (19th overall) 2007: Brendan Smith (27th overall) 2008: Thomas McCollum (30th overall) 2010: Riley Sheahan (21st overall) 2013: Anthony Mantha (20th overall) 2014: Dylan Larkin (15th overall) 2015: Evgeny Svechnikov (19th overall) 2016: Dennis Cholowski (20th overall) 2017: Michael Rasmussen (9th overall) 2018: Filip Zadina (6th overall) 2018: Joe Veleno (30th overall) 2019: Moritz Seider (6th overall) 2020: Lucas Raymond (4th overall) 2021: Simon Edvinsson (6th overall) 2021: Sebastian Cossa (15th overall) 2022: Marco Kasper (8th overall) 2023: Nate Danielson (9th overall) 2023: Axel Sandin Pellikka (17th overall) 2024: Michael Brandsegg-Nygard (15th overall) ==Franchise records== ===All-time leading scorers=== These players rank in the top ten in franchise history in scoring as of the end of the 2022–23 season. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season. – current Red Wings player Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game ===All-time leading goaltenders=== These players rank in the top ten in franchise history for wins as of the end of the 2018−19 season. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season. There is a four-way tie for ninth place in postseason wins, resulting in 12 players listed in that table. – current Red Wings player Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OT = Overtime losses; SO = Shutouts; GAA = Goals against average; * = current Red Wings player ===Individual records=== Most goals in a season: 65, Steve Yzerman (1988–89) Most assists in a season: 90, Steve Yzerman (1988–89) Most points in a season, rookie: 87, Steve Yzerman (1983–84) Most wins in a season: 44, Terry Sawchuk (1950–51 and 1951–52) Longest home win streak in NHL history: 23 games (November 5, 2011, to February 19, 2012) Most wins in a season in NHL history: 62 (1995–96)	[ "1998 NHL entry draft", "The Detroit News", "Anaheim Ducks", "Mike Sillinger", "1941–42 NHL season", "James Norris Memorial Trophy", "2005 NHL entry draft", "Steve Andrascik", "Brian Rafalski", "Ted Lindsay Award", "flagship (radio)", "Thomas McCollum", "List of NHL players", "Luc Robitaille", "2008 NHL entry draft", "Joe Veleno", "Montreal AAA Winged Wheelers", "1929–30 NHL season", "2016–17 NHL season", "1980 NHL entry draft", "Detroit Lions", "Dallas Stars", "Maurice Richard", "Danny DeKeyser", "Jim Rutherford", "1998 Stanley Cup Finals", "1993–94 NHL season", "Southwestern Ontario", "Frank Foyston", "1932–33 NHL season", "goaltender", "Jesse Wallin", "Atlantic Division (NHL)", "Evgeny Svechnikov", "Mike Blaisdell", "Stefan Liv", "Sid Abel", "Alex Delvecchio", "2020 NHL entry draft", "1976 NHL amateur draft", "1994 NHL entry draft", "2024–25 NHL season", "List of Stanley Cup champions", "Bill Ranford", "Danny Grant (ice hockey)", "1977 NHL amateur draft", "2004 Stanley Cup playoffs", "2009–10 NHL season", "2022–23 NHL season", "1965–66 NHL season", "National Hockey League", "Don't Stop Believin'", "Darren McCarty", "1926–27 NHL season", "Ivan Boldirev", "The Canadian Press", "Jordin Tootoo", "1965 NHL amateur draft", "Paul Woods (ice hockey)", "1987–88 NHL season", "2024–25 Montreal Canadiens season", "John Sorrell (ice hockey)", "Hockey jersey", "St. Louis Blues", "Edmonton Oilers", "John Ziegler Jr.", "Reg Noble", "Pete Babando", "Michigan", "Buffalo Sabres", "Peter Mahovlich", "Larry Johnston (ice hockey)", "Gary Bergman", "George Forgie", "1997 Stanley Cup Finals", "1926–27 Detroit Cougars season", "Red Kelly", "1931–32 NHL season", "1970–71 NHL season", "Toledo Walleye", "Brendan Smith (ice hockey)", "2018 NHL entry draft", "1992 NHL entry draft", "Jeff Blashill", "Shawn Burr", "Rick Paulas", "1936–37 NHL season", "Viacheslav Fetisov", "Fred Williams (ice hockey)", "Arizona Coyotes", "Minnesota Wild", "London", "Earl Siebert", "1971 NHL amateur draft", "Bryan Murray (ice hockey)", "2000 NHL entry draft", "1989 NHL entry draft", "Jacques Demers", "Detroit Tigers", "Pavel Datsyuk", "Jiří Hudler", "Ken Daniels", "2008 Stanley Cup Finals", "1983 NHL entry draft", "2013–14 NHL season", "2014 NHL Winter Classic", "grain trade", "NHL Players' Association", "James E. Norris", "Vyacheslav Kozlov", "2019 NHL entry draft", "The Hockey News", "Niklas Kronwall", "Journey (band)", "Ruslan Salei", "Nicklas Lidstrom", "Chris Chelios", "Dylan Larkin", "Daniel Alfredsson", "1926 Stanley Cup playoffs", "Igor Larionov", "white supremacy", "John Bucyk", "1958–59 NHL season", "Rogie Vachon", "Wendel Clark", "Nicklas Lidström", "Simon Edvinsson", "1967 NHL amateur draft", "Riley Sheahan", "2007 Stanley Cup playoffs", "Windsor, Ontario", "Art Ross Trophy", "1968 NHL amateur draft", "COVID-19 pandemic", "1955 Stanley Cup Finals", "Harry Watson (ice hockey, born 1923)", "Hart Memorial Trophy", "1979–80 NHL season", "Hockeytown", "2004–05 NHL lockout", "Red Berenson", "Dave Lewis (ice hockey)", "Ted Lindsay", "Frank J. Selke Trophy", "Gerard Gallant", "Joe Louis Arena", "Andy Bathgate", "Little Caesars Arena", "Western Canada Hockey League", "NHL Centennial Classic", "Borje Salming", "2013 NHL entry draft", "1988–89 NHL season", "2006 Stanley Cup playoffs", "2025 NHL Stadium Series", "Jim Devellano", "Frank Patrick (ice hockey)", "Florida Panthers", "Ottawa Senators", "Dino Ciccarelli", "Rick Lapointe", "Charlie Conacher", "Frank Fredrickson", "Philadelphia Flyers", "Doug Young (ice hockey)", "1933–34 NHL season", "Marcel Pronovost", "Jiří Fischer", "Paul Coffey", "Brian Kilrea", "Maxim Kuznetsov", "Jonas Gustavsson", "Michael Rasmussen (ice hockey)", "2023 NHL entry draft", "Gerry McNeil", "Willie Huber", "Ian White (ice hockey)", "Sergei Fedorov", "Vladimir Konstantinov", "Brett Hull", "Damien Brunner", "2001–02 NHL season", "Curtis Joseph", "Bob Boughner", "Bill Lochead", "Washington Capitals", "2002–03 NHL season", "2005–06 NHL season", "Sporting News", "Marguerite Norris", "1988 NHL entry draft", "Jakub Kindl", "Serge Lajeunesse", "Lester Patrick Trophy", "Errol Thompson (ice hockey)", "2003–04 Pittsburgh Penguins season", "Keith Allen (ice hockey)", "Detroit Olympia", "2019–20 NHL season", "Brent Fedyk", "New Jersey Devils", "Al Sobotka", "Valtteri Filppula", "Ned Harkness", "Lady Byng Memorial Trophy", "1963 NHL amateur draft", "Bernie Federko", "Al Arbour", "Detroit", "Larry Murphy (ice hockey)", "Axel Sandin Pellikka", "List of Detroit Red Wings seasons", "Hockey Hall of Fame", "Kory Kocur", "1940–41 NHL season", "1985–86 NHL season", "winged wheel", "Columbus Blue Jackets", "WDIV-TV", "2016 NHL entry draft", "WXYT-FM", "Brendan Shanahan", "Border Cities Arena", "1943 Stanley Cup Finals", "1974 NHL amateur draft", "American Hockey League", "Henrik Zetterberg", "Toronto Maple Leafs", "2012–13 NHL season", "Montreal Hockey Club", "Alec Connell", "Scotty Bowman", "1930–31 NHL season", "Larry Aurie", "Vancouver Canucks", "1994–95 NHL season", "NHL Official Guide & Record Book", "Detroit Free Press", "Bob Probert", "2006–07 NHL season", "Jimmy Howard", "1987 NHL entry draft", "Chicago Blackhawks", "1969 NHL amateur draft", "SS", "1950–51 NHL season", "Lester Patrick", "New York Rangers", "2000–01 NHL season", "1996 NHL entry draft", "trade deadline", "Peterborough Petes", "2010 NHL entry draft", "Chris Osgood", "1967–68 NHL season", "limousine", "Unite the Right rally", "Charlottesville, Virginia", "Terry Sawchuk", "Harry Neale", "2017 NHL entry draft", "Little Caesars", "1991 NHL entry draft", "Original Six", "1991–92 NHL season", "2020–21 NHL season", "Charles A. 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8,796	Demiurge	In the Platonic, Neopythagorean, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy, the demiurge () is an artisan-like figure responsible for fashioning and maintaining the physical universe. Various sects of Gnostics adopted the term demiurge. Although a fashioner, the demiurge is not necessarily the same as the creator figure in the monotheistic sense, because the demiurge itself and the material from which the demiurge fashions the universe are both considered consequences of something else. Depending on the system, they may be considered either uncreated and eternal or the product of some other entity. Some of these systems are monotheistic while others are henotheistic or polytheistic. The word demiurge is an English word derived from demiurgus, a Latinised form of the Greek or . It was originally a common noun meaning "craftsman" or "artisan", but gradually came to mean "producer", and eventually "creator." The philosophical usage and the proper noun derive from Plato's Timaeus, written 360 BC, where the demiurge is presented as the creator of the universe. The demiurge is also described as a creator in the Platonic ( 310–90 BC) and Middle Platonic ( 90 BC–AD 300) philosophical traditions. In the various branches of the Neoplatonic school (third century onwards), the demiurge is the fashioner of the real, perceptible world after the model of the Ideas, but (in most Neoplatonic systems) is still not itself "the One". Within the vast spectrum of Gnostic traditions views of the Demiurge range dramatically. It is generally understood and agreed upon to be a lesser divinity who governs the material universe. However the nature of its rule over the material realm differs from sect to sect. Sethian Gnosticism portrays the Demiurge as an oppressive, ignorant ruler, intentionally binding souls in an inherently corrupt material realm. In contrast, Valentinian Gnosticism sees the Demiurge as a well-meaning but limited figure whose rule reflects ignorance rather than malice. ==Platonism and Neoplatonism== ===Plato and the Timaeus=== Plato, as the speaker Timaeus, refers to the Demiurge frequently in the Socratic dialogue Timaeus (28a ff.), 360 BC. The main character refers to the Demiurge as the entity who "fashioned and shaped" the material world. Timaeus describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent, and so it desires a world as good as possible. The result of his work is a universe as a living god with lesser gods, such as the stars, planets, and gods of traditional religion, inside it. Plato argues that the cosmos needed a Demiurge because the cosmos needed a cause that makes Becoming resemble Being. Timaeus is a philosophical reconciliation of Hesiod's cosmology in his Theogony, syncretically reconciling Hesiod to Homer, though other scholars have argued that Plato's theology 'invokes a broad cultural horizon without committing to any specific poetic or religious tradition'. Moreover, Plato believed that the Demiurge created other, so-called "lower" gods who, in turn, created humanity. Some scholars have argued that the lower gods are gods of traditional mythology, such as Zeus and Hera. ===Middle Platonism=== In Middle Platonist and Numenius's Neo-Pythagorean cosmogonies, the Demiurge is second God as the nous or thought of intelligibles and sensibles (Middle Platonism and Neo-Pythagoreanism overlapped: both originating in the early 1st century BC and extending through to the end of the 2nd century AD or even into the 3rd century). ===Neoplatonism=== The work of Plotinus and other later Platonists in the 3rd century AD to further clarify the Demiurge is known as Neoplatonism. To Plotinus, the second emanation represents an uncreated second cause (see Pythagoras' Dyad). Plotinus sought to reconcile Aristotle's energeia with Plato's Demiurge, which, as Demiurge and mind (nous), is a critical component in the ontological construct of human consciousness used to explain and clarify substance theory within Platonic realism (also called idealism). In order to reconcile Aristotelian with Platonian philosophy, ====Henology==== The first and highest aspect of God is described by Plato as the One (Τὸ Ἕν, 'To Hen'), the source, or the Monad. This is the God above the Demiurge, and manifests through the actions of the Demiurge. The Monad emanated the demiurge or Nous (consciousness) from its "indeterminate" vitality due to the monad being so abundant that it overflowed back onto itself, causing self-reflection. This self-reflection of the indeterminate vitality was referred to by Plotinus as the "Demiurge" or creator. The second principle is organization in its reflection of the nonsentient force or dynamis, also called the one or the Monad. The dyad is energeia emanated by the one that is then the work, process or activity called nous, Demiurge, mind, consciousness that organizes the indeterminate vitality into the experience called the material world, universe, cosmos. Plotinus also elucidates the equation of matter with nothing or non-being in The Enneads which more correctly is to express the concept of idealism or that there is not anything or anywhere outside of the "mind" or nous (cf. pantheism). Plotinus' form of Platonic idealism is to treat the Demiurge, nous, as the contemplative faculty (ergon) within man which orders the force (dynamis) into conscious reality. In this, he claimed to reveal Plato's true meaning: a doctrine he learned from Platonic tradition that did not appear outside the academy or in Plato's text. This tradition of creator God as nous (the manifestation of consciousness), can be validated in the works of pre-Plotinus philosophers such as Numenius, as well as a connection between Hebrew and Platonic cosmology (see also Philo). The Demiurge of Neoplatonism is the Nous (mind of God), and is one of the three ordering principles: Arche (Gr. 'beginning') – the source of all things, Logos (Gr. 'reason/cause') – the underlying order that is hidden beneath appearances, Harmonia (Gr. 'harmony') – numerical ratios in mathematics. Before Numenius of Apamea and Plotinus' Enneads, no Platonic works ontologically clarified the Demiurge from the allegory in Plato's Timaeus. The idea of Demiurge was, however, addressed before Plotinus in the works of Christian writer Justin Martyr who built his understanding of the Demiurge on the works of Numenius. ====Iamblichus==== Later, the Neoplatonist Iamblichus changed the role of the "One", effectively altering the role of the Demiurge as second cause or dyad, which was one of the reasons that Iamblichus and his teacher Porphyry came into conflict. The figure of the Demiurge emerges in the theoretic of Iamblichus, which conjoins the transcendent, incommunicable “One,” or Source. Here, at the summit of this system, the Source and Demiurge (material realm) coexist via the process of henosis. Iamblichus describes the One as a monad whose first principle or emanation is intellect (nous), while among "the many" that follow it there is a second, super-existent "One" that is the producer of intellect or soul (psyche). The "One" is further separated into spheres of intelligence; the first and superior sphere is objects of thought, while the latter sphere is the domain of thought. Thus, a triad is formed of the intelligible nous, the intellective nous, and the psyche in order to reconcile further the various Hellenistic philosophical schools of Aristotle's actus and potentia (actuality and potentiality) of the unmoved mover and Plato's Demiurge. Then within this intellectual triad Iamblichus assigns the third rank to the Demiurge, identifying it with the perfect or Divine nous with the intellectual triad being promoted to a hebdomad (pure intellect). In the theoretic of Plotinus, nous produces nature through intellectual mediation, thus the intellectualizing gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods. ==Gnosticism== Gnosticism presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable God or Supreme Being and the demiurgic "creator" of the material, identified in some traditions with Yahweh, the God of the Hebrew Bible. Several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme Being, with his creation initially having the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in materiality. In other systems, the Demiurge is instead portrayed as "merely" incompetent or foolish: his creation is an unconscious attempt to replicate the divine world (the pleroma) based on faint recollections, and thus ends up fundamentally flawed. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge is a proposed solution to the problem of evil: while the divine beings are omniscient and omnibenevolent, the Demiurge who rules over our own physical world is not. ===Angels=== Psalm 82 begins, "God stands in the assembly of El , in the midst of the gods he renders judgment", indicating a plurality of gods, although it does not indicate that these gods were co-actors in creation. Philo had inferred from the expression "Let us make man" of the Book of Genesis that God had used other beings as assistants in the creation of man, and he explains in this way why man is capable of vice as well as virtue, ascribing the origin of the latter to God, of the former to his helpers in the work of creation. The earliest Gnostic sects ascribe the work of creation to angels, some of them using the same passage in Genesis. So Irenaeus tells of the system of Simon Magus, of the system of Menander, of the system of Saturninus, in which the number of these angels is reckoned as seven, and of the system of Carpocrates. In Basilides's system, he reports, the world was made by the angels who occupy the lowest heaven; but special mention is made of their chief, who is said to have been the God of the Jews, to have led that people out of the land of Egypt, and to have given them their law. The prophecies are ascribed not to the chief but to the other world-making angels. The Latin translation, confirmed by Hippolytus of Rome, makes Irenaeus state that according to Cerinthus (who shows Ebionite influence), creation was made by a power quite separate from the Supreme God and ignorant of him. Theodoret, who here copies Irenaeus, turns this into the plural number "powers", and so Epiphanius of Salamis represents Cerinthus as agreeing with Carpocrates in the doctrine that the world was made by angels. ===Yaldabaoth=== In the Archontic, Sethian, and Ophite systems, which have many affinities with the doctrine of Valentinus, the making of the world is ascribed to a company of seven archons, whose names are given, but still more prominent is their chief, "Yaldabaoth" (also known as "Yaltabaoth" or "Ialdabaoth"). In the Apocryphon of John AD 120–180, the demiurge declares that he has made the world by himself: Now the archon ["ruler"] who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas ["fool"], and the third is Samael ["blind god"]. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come. He is demiurge and maker of man, but as a ray of light from above enters the body of man and gives him a soul, Yaldabaoth is filled with envy; he tries to limit man's knowledge by forbidding him the fruit of knowledge in paradise. At the consummation of all things, all light will return to the Pleroma. But Yaldabaoth, the demiurge, with the material world, will be cast into the lower depths. Yaldabaoth is frequently called "the Lion-faced", leontoeides, and is said to have the body of a serpent. The demiurge is also described as having a fiery nature, applying the words of Moses to him: "the Lord our God is a burning and consuming fire". Hippolytus claims that Simon used a similar description. In Pistis Sophia, Yaldabaoth has already sunk from his high estate and resides in Chaos, where, with his forty-nine demons, he tortures wicked souls in boiling rivers of pitch, and with other punishments (pp. 257, 382). He is an archon with the face of a lion, half flame, and half darkness. In the Nag Hammadi text On the Origin of the World, the three sons of Yaldabaoth are listed as Yao, Eloai, and Astaphaios. Under the name of Nebro (rebel), Yaldabaoth is called an angel in the apocryphal Gospel of Judas. He is first mentioned in "The Cosmos, Chaos, and the Underworld" as one of the twelve angels to come "into being [to] rule over chaos and the [underworld]". He comes from heaven, and it is said his "face flashed with fire and [his] appearance was defiled with blood". Nebro creates six angels in addition to the angel Saklas to be his assistants. These six, in turn, create another twelve angels "with each one receiving a portion in the heavens". ====Names==== The etymology of the name Yaldabaoth has been subject to many speculative theories. Until 1974, etymologies deriving from the unattested Aramaic: בהותא, romanized: bāhūthā, supposedly meaning "chaos", represented the majority view. Following an analysis by the Jewish historian of religion Gershom Scholem published in 1974, this etymology no longer enjoyed any notable support. His analysis showed the unattested Aramaic term to have been fabulated and attested only in a single corrupted text from 1859, with its claimed translation having been transposed from the reading of an earlier etymology, whose explanation seemingly equated "darkness" and "chaos" when translating an unattested supposed plural form of . "Samael" literally means "Blind God" or "God of the Blind" in Hebrew (). This being is considered not only blind, or ignorant of its own origins, but may, in addition, be evil; its name is also found in Judaism as the Angel of Death and in Christian demonology. This link to Judeo-Christian tradition leads to a further comparison with Satan. Another alternative title for the demiurge is "Saklas", Aramaic for "fool". In the Apocryphon of John, Yaldabaoth is also known as both Sakla and Samael. The angelic name "Ariel" (Hebrew: 'the lion of God') has also been used to refer to the Demiurge and is called his "perfect" name; in some Gnostic lore, Ariel has been called an ancient or original name for Ialdabaoth. The name has also been inscribed on amulets as "Ariel Ialdabaoth", and the figure of the archon inscribed with "Aariel". ===Marcion=== According to Marcion, the title God was given to the Demiurge, who was to be sharply distinguished from the higher Good God. The former was díkaios, severely just, the latter agathós, or loving-kind; the former was the "god of this world", the God of the Old Testament, the latter the true God of the New Testament. Christ, in reality, is the Son of the Good God. The true believer in Christ entered into God's kingdom; the unbeliever remained forever the slave of the Demiurge. And as Achamoth herself was only the daughter of Sophía the last of the thirty Aeons, the Demiurge was distant by many emanations from the Propatôr, or Supreme God. In this most common form of Gnosticism the Demiurge had an inferior though not intrinsically evil function in the universe as the head of the animal, or psychic world. According to one variant of the Valentinian system, the Demiurge is also the maker, out of the appropriate substance, of an order of spiritual beings, the devil, the prince of this world, and his angels. But the devil, as being a spirit of wickedness, is able to recognise the higher spiritual world, of which his maker the Demiurge, who is only animal, has no real knowledge. The devil resides in this lower world, of which he is the prince, the Demiurge in the heavens; his mother Sophia in the middle region, above the heavens and below the Pleroma. The Valentinian Heracleon interpreted the devil as the principle of evil, that of hyle (matter). As he writes in his commentary on John 4:21, The mountain represents the Devil, or his world, since the Devil was one part of the whole of matter, but the world is the total mountain of evil, a deserted dwelling place of beasts, to which all who lived before the law and all Gentiles render worship. But Jerusalem represents the creation or the Creator whom the Jews worship. ... You then who are spiritual should worship neither the creation nor the Craftsman, but the Father of Truth. This vilification of the creator was held to be inimical to Christianity by the early fathers of the church. In refuting the beliefs of the gnostics, Irenaeus stated that "Plato is proved to be more religious than these men, for he allowed that the same God was both just and good, having power over all things, and himself executing judgment." ===Cathars=== Catharism apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world from Gnosticism. Gilles Quispel writes, "There is a direct link between ancient Gnosticism and Catharism. The Cathars held that the creator of the world, Satanael, had usurped the name of God, but that he had subsequently been unmasked and told that he was not really God." ==Neoplatonism and Gnosticism== Gnosticism attributed falsehood or evil to the concept of the Demiurge or creator, though in some Gnostic traditions the creator is from a fallen, ignorant, or lesser—rather than evil—perspective, such as that of Valentinius. ===Plotinus=== The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus addressed within his works Gnosticism's conception of the Demiurge, which he saw as un-Hellenic and blasphemous to the Demiurge or creator of Plato. Plotinus, along with his teacher Ammonius Saccas, was the founder of Neoplatonism. In the ninth tractate of the second of his Enneads, Plotinus criticizes his opponents for their appropriation of ideas from Plato: Of note here is the remark concerning the second hypostasis or Creator and third hypostasis or World Soul. Plotinus criticizes his opponents for "all the novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own" which, he declares, "have been picked up outside of the truth"; they attempt to conceal rather than admit their indebtedness to ancient philosophy, which they have corrupted by their extraneous and misguided embellishments. Thus their understanding of the Demiurge is similarly flawed in comparison to Plato's original intentions. Whereas Plato's Demiurge is good wishing good on his creation, Gnosticism contends that the Demiurge is not only the originator of evil but is evil as well. Hence the title of Plotinus' refutation: "Against Those That Affirm the Creator of the Kosmos and the Kosmos Itself to be Evil" (generally quoted as "Against the Gnostics"). Plotinus argues of the disconnect or great barrier that is created between the nous or mind's noumenon (see Heraclitus) and the material world (phenomenon) by believing the material world is evil. The majority of scholars tend to understand Plotinus' opponents as being a Gnostic sect—certainly (specifically Sethian), several such groups were present in Alexandria and elsewhere about the Mediterranean during Plotinus' lifetime. Plotinus specifically points to the Gnostic doctrine of Sophia and her emission of the Demiurge. Though the former understanding certainly enjoys the greatest popularity, the identification of Plotinus' opponents as Gnostic is not without some contention. Christos Evangeliou has contended that Plotinus' opponents might be better described as simply "Christian Gnostics", arguing that several of Plotinus' criticisms are as applicable to orthodox Christian doctrine as well. Also, considering the evidence from the time, Evangeliou thought the definition of the term "Gnostics" was unclear. Of note here is that while Plotinus' student Porphyry names Christianity specifically in Porphyry's own works, and Plotinus is to have been a known associate of the Christian Origen, none of Plotinus' works mention Christ or Christianity—whereas Plotinus specifically addresses his target in the Enneads as the Gnostics. A. H. Armstrong identified the so-called "Gnostics" that Plotinus was attacking as Jewish and Pagan, in his introduction to the tract in his translation of the Enneads. Armstrong alluding to Gnosticism being a Hellenic philosophical heresy of sorts, which later engaged Christianity and Neoplatonism. John D. Turner, professor of religious studies at the University of Nebraska, and famed translator and editor of the Nag Hammadi library, stated that the text Plotinus and his students read was Sethian Gnosticism, which predates Christianity. It appears that Plotinus attempted to clarify how the philosophers of the academy had not arrived at the same conclusions (such as dystheism or misotheism for the creator God as an answer to the problem of evil) as the targets of his criticism. Emil Cioran also wrote his Le mauvais démiurge ("The Evil Demiurge"), published in 1969, influenced by Gnosticism and Schopenhauerian interpretation of Platonic ontology, as well as that of Plotinus.	[ "Sophia (Gnosticism)", "Treatise", "Origen", "International Society for Neoplatonic Studies", "syncretism", "monotheism", "Potentiality and actuality", "Hebrew Bible", "apocryphal", "wikt:harmonia", "Psalm 82", "Pythagoras", "Chaos (cosmogony)", "Homer", "hypostasis (philosophy and religion)", "James M. Robinson", "Mediterranean", "ontological", "Gnosticism", "Ophites", "Irenaeus", "Valentinius", "Dyad (symbol)", "Bernard de Montfaucon", "Pistis Sophia", "Aristotle", "Justin (gnostic)", "Aramaic", "Basilides", "Ancient Greece", "Heracleon", "Satan", "Gilles Quispel", "Greek language", "Western philosophy", "New York City", "Christian demonology", "Plato", "Gershom Scholem", "Tenth intellect", "problem of evil", "cosmogony", "archon (Gnosticism)", "Astaphaios", "Platonic realism", "Neopythagorean", "Creator deity", "Campbell Bonner", "substance theory", "Saklas", "On the Origin of the World", "ratios", "Book of Genesis", "Menander (gnostic)", "allegory", "Middle Platonism", "Justin Martyr", "Porphyry (philosopher)", "Simon Magus", "The Enneads", "New Testament", "darkness", "energeia", "Platonism", "the devil", "Monad (philosophy)", "A. H. Armstrong", "Ariel (angel)", "archon", "wikt:benevolence", "Heraclitus", "Arche", "phenomenon", "Analogy of the divided line", "Egypt", "Actus et potentia", "Zeus", "William Smith (lexicographer)", "Septuagint", "Barbelo", "Philo", "Refutation of All Heresies", "Theory of Forms", "Urizen", "Theodoret", "Old Testament", "Iamblichus of Chalcis", "Personifications of death", "Problem of the creator of God", "philosophy", "Devil in Christianity", "Yao (Gnosticism)", "Collège de France", "Christianity", "idealism", "Sentience", "God in Judaism", "Psyche (psychology)", "Bloomsbury Academic", "perception", "John D. Turner", "Ebionites", "Platonic idealism", "Panarion", "pantheism", "Catharism", "Alexandria", "List of Latinised names", "universe", "Marvin Meyer", "unmoved mover", "London", "Gospel of Judas", "Hesiod", "Schopenhauer", "Logos", "Enneads", "Ammonius Saccas", "Neo-Pythagorean", "On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis", "artisan", "Numenius of Apamea", "Valentinianism", "Neo-Pythagoreanism", "El (deity)", "Nous", "Abraxas", "Pantheon (gods)", "Epiphanius of Salamis", "nous", "wikt:ff.", "Apocryphon of John", "Emil Cioran", "Saturninus of Antioch", "deity", "Dialogue with Trypho", "Archontics", "Albinus (philosopher)", "Emanationism", "Henry Wace (Anglican priest)", "Aeon (Gnosticism)", "Judaism", "Polytheism", "Form of the Good", "Neoplatonism", "Cerinthus", "God", "dystheism", "Henotheism", "Timaeus (dialogue)", "Azazil", "Plotinus", "Hippolytus of Rome", "Samael", "noumenon", "pleroma", "Theogony", "henosis", "Paris", "Marcion of Sinope", "wikt:triad", "Pleroma", "Yahweh", "Academia.edu", "Socratic dialogue", "Sethianism", "Nag Hammadi library", "Carpocrates", "Anima mundi", "misotheism", "mathematics" ]
8,798	Doubravka of Bohemia	Doubravka of Bohemia, Dobrawa (, ; ca. 940/45 – 977) was a Bohemian princess of the Přemyslid dynasty and by marriage Duchess of the Polans. She was the daughter of Boleslaus I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia, whose wife may have been the mysterious Biagota. According to earlier sources, Doubravka urged her husband Mieszko I of Poland to accept baptism in 966, the year after their marriage. Modern historians believe, however, that the change of religion by Mieszko was one of the points discussed in the Polish-Bohemian agreement concluded soon before his marriage with Doubravka. Her role in his conversion is not considered now to be as important as it is often represented in medieval chronicles. ==Early life== Doubravka's date of birth is not known. The only indication is communicated by the chronicler Cosmas of Prague, who stated that the Bohemian princess at the time of her marriage with Mieszko I was an old woman. The passage is regarded as tendentious and of little reliability, and some researchers believe that the statement was made with malicious intent. It is possible that in the statement about Doubravka's age, Cosmas was making a reference to the age difference between her and her sister Mlada. That would give him a basis for determining Doubravka as "old." (The word Mlada means Young). It also found that Cosmas confuses Doubravka with Mieszko I's second wife Oda, who at the time of her marriage was around 19–25 years old, a relatively advanced age for a bride according to the customs of the Middle Ages. Some researchers have taken up speculative views, such as Jerzy Strzelczyk, who assumed that in the light of contemporary concepts and habits of marriage of that time (when as a rule marriages were contracted with teenage girls) is assumed that Doubravka had passed her early youth, so, it's probable that she was in her late teens or twenties. Nothing is known about Doubravka's childhood and youth. In 1895 Oswald Balzer refuted reports that previous to her marriage with Mieszko I, Doubravka was married to Gunther, Margrave of Merseburg and they had a son, Gunzelin. This view is based on the fact that Thietmar of Merseburg in his chronicles named Gunzelin, Gunther's son, brother of Bolesław I the Brave, Doubravka's son. Currently, historians believed that Gunzelin and Bolesław I are in fact cousins or brothers-in-law. ==Marriage and Christianization of Poland== In the second half of 964 an alliance between Boleslav I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia, and Mieszko I of Poland was concluded. In order to consolidate the agreement, in 965 Boleslav I's daughter Doubravka was married to Mieszko I. The marriage cemented the Polish-Bohemian alliance, which continued even after Doubravka's death. Two independent sources attribute to Doubravka an important role in the conversion to Christianity of Mieszko I and Poland. The first is the chronicles of Thietmar, who was born two years before the death of Doubravka. He wrote that the Bohemian princess tried to persuade her husband to accept Christianity (even at the cost of breaking their marriage and with it the Polish-Bohemian alliance). In the end, she finally obtained the conversion of Mieszko I and with him, of all Poland. In turn, the 12th-century chronicler Gallus Anonymus says that Doubravka came to Poland surrounded by secular and religious dignitaries. She agreed to marry Mieszko I providing that he was baptized. The Polish ruler accepted, and only then was able to marry the Bohemian princess. Modern historians agree that the baptism of Mieszko I was dictated by political benefits and should not be attributed to any action of Doubravka. She is held to have had virtually no role in the conversion of her husband. Historians note that the narrative of the conversion of Mieszko I thanks to Doubravka formed part of the tradition of the Church which stressed the conversion of Pagan rulers through the influence of women. Doubravka did have a significant role in the Christianization of the Poles. In her wedding procession, she arrived in Poland with Christian clergymen, among them possibly Jordan, ordained the first bishop of Poland in 968. Tradition attributes to Doubravka the establishment of the Holy Trinity and St. Wit Churches in Gniezno and the Church of the Virgin Mary in Ostrów Tumski, Poznań. ==Children== Doubravka and Mieszko I had at least one son, Bolesław the Brave (b. 967 – d. 17 June 1025). A daughter, called Świętosława or Sigrid the Haughty, married first King Eric the Victorious of Sweden and later King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, by whom she was the mother of Canute the Great. Gunhilda of Poland, who married Swyen Forkbeard, is usually identified as this daughter. There is a hypothesis asserting the existence of another daughter of Mieszko I who was married to a Pomeranian Slavic prince. She could have been the daughter of either Doubravka or one of Mieszko's previous pagan wives. Also, a theory has been advanced (apparently recorded by Thietmar of Prague and supported by Oswald Balzer in 1895) that Vladivoj (c. 981 – January 1003), who ruled as duke of Bohemia from 1002 until 1003, was another son of Doubravka and Mieszko I. Czech historiography has supported the notion of mixed Piast-Přemyslid parentage for Vladivoj. ==Death and burial== Doubravka died in 977. In his study of 1888, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote that "her tomb was discovered in Gniezno Cathedral. It was a simple stone marked with a cross. Purple robes and a weighty gold loincloth were the only objects found in her tomb." A similar view of Doubravka's burial place was expressed earlier, in 1843, by Edward Raczyński in his study Wspomnienia Wielkopolski to jest województw poznańskiego, kaliskiego i gnieźnieńskiego (Memories of the Greater Poland districts of Poznań, Kalisz and Gniezno). However, the burial place of the Bohemian princess is now considered to be unknown. Doubravka's death weakened the Polish-Bohemian alliance, which finally collapsed in the mid-980s.	[ "Polish-Bohemian alliance", "Bolesław the Brave", "List of Polish consorts", "Bohemia", "Oswald Balzer", "Cosmas of Prague", "Bolesław I the Brave", "Józef Ignacy Kraszewski", "Mieszko I of Poland", "Gunhilda of Poland", "Jerzy Strzelczyk", "Gniezno Cathedral", "Jan Matejko", "Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia", "Gunther, Margrave of Merseburg", "Świętosława", "Gunzelin, Margrave of Meissen", "Bishop of Poznań", "Poland", "Vladivoj, Duke of Bohemia", "Edward Raczyński (1786–1845)", "Thietmar of Merseburg", "Thietmar of Prague", "Sweyn Forkbeard", "Biagota", "Ostrów Tumski, Poznań", "Eric the Victorious", "Mlada (abbess)", "Gniezno", "Jordan (Bishop of Poland)", "Přemyslid dynasty", "medieval", "Poznań", "Sigrid the Haughty", "Oda von Haldensleben", "Canute the Great", "Oda of Haldensleben", "Gallus Anonymus", "Gorka (wife of Siemomysł)", "baptism" ]
8,799	D. B. Cooper	D. B. Cooper, also known as Dan Cooper, was an unidentified man who hijacked Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305, a Boeing 727 aircraft, in United States airspace on November 24, 1971. During the flight from Portland, Oregon, to Seattle, Washington, Cooper told a flight attendant he had a bomb, and demanded $200,000 in ransom () and four parachutes upon landing in Seattle. After releasing the passengers in Seattle, Cooper instructed the flight crew to refuel the aircraft and begin a second flight to Mexico City, with a refueling stop in Reno, Nevada. About thirty minutes after taking off from Seattle, Cooper opened the aircraft's aft door, deployed the staircase, and parachuted into the night over southwestern Washington. Cooper's true identity and whereabouts have never been determined conclusively. In 1980, a small portion of the ransom money was found along the riverbanks of the Columbia River near Vancouver, Washington. The discovery of the money renewed public interest in the mystery but yielded no additional information about Cooper's identity or fate, and the remaining money was never recovered. For forty-five years after the hijacking, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) maintained an active investigation and built an extensive case file but ultimately did not reach any definitive conclusions. The crime remains the only documented unsolved case of air piracy in the history of commercial aviation. The FBI speculates Cooper did not survive his jump for several reasons: the inclement weather, Cooper's lack of proper skydiving equipment, the forested terrain into which he jumped, his lack of detailed knowledge of his landing area and the disappearance of the remaining ransom money, suggesting it was never spent. In July 2016, the FBI officially suspended active investigation of the case, although reporters, enthusiasts, professional investigators and amateur sleuths continue to pursue numerous theories for Cooper's identity, success and fate. Cooper's hijacking — and several imitators during the next year — immediately prompted major upgrades to security measures for airports and commercial aviation. Metal detectors were installed at airports, baggage inspection became mandatory and passengers who paid cash for tickets on the day of departure were selected for additional scrutiny. Boeing 727s were retrofitted with eponymous "Cooper vanes", designed to prevent the aft staircase from being lowered in-flight. By 1973, aircraft hijacking incidents had decreased, as the new security measures dissuaded would-be hijackers whose only motive was money. == Hijacking == On Thanksgiving Eve, November 24, 1971, a man carrying a black attaché case approached the flight counter for Northwest Orient Airlines at Portland International Airport. Using cash, the man bought a one-way ticket on , a thirty-minute trip north to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (Sea-Tac). On his ticket, the man listed his name as "Dan Cooper". Eyewitnesses described Cooper as a white male in his mid-40s, with dark hair and brown eyes, wearing a black or brown business suit, a white shirt, a thin black tie, a black raincoat and brown shoes. With a crew of six (consisting of Captain William A. Scott, First Officer William "Bill" J. Rataczak, Flight Engineer Harold E. Anderson and flight attendants Alice Hancock, Tina Mucklow and Florence Schaffner) and thirty-six passengers aboard, including Cooper, Flight 305 left Portland on-schedule at 2:50 pm PST. Shortly after takeoff, Cooper handed a note to flight attendant Schaffner, who was sitting in the jump seat at the rear of the airplane, directly behind Cooper. Assuming the note was a lonely businessman's telephone number, Schaffner dropped the note unopened into her purse. Cooper then leaned toward her and whispered, "Miss, you'd better look at that note. I have a bomb." Schaffner opened the note. In neat, all-capital letters printed with a felt-tip pen, Cooper had written, "Miss—I have a bomb in my briefcase and want you to sit by me." Schaffner returned the note to Cooper, sat down as he requested, and asked quietly to see the bomb. He opened his briefcase, and she saw two rows of four red cylinders, which she assumed were dynamite. Attached to the cylinders were a wire and a large, cylindrical battery, which resembled a bomb. Cooper closed the briefcase and told Schaffner his demands. She wrote a note with Cooper's demands, brought it to the cockpit and informed the flight crew of the situation. Captain Scott directed her to remain in the cockpit for the remainder of the flight and take notes of events as they happened. With Schaffner in the cockpit, flight attendant Mucklow sat next to Cooper to act as a liaison between him and the flight crew. Cooper then made additional demands: upon landing at Sea-Tac, fuel trucks were to meet the plane and all passengers were to remain seated while Mucklow brought the money aboard. He said he would release the passengers after he had the money. The last items brought aboard would be the four parachutes. Scott informed Sea–Tac air traffic control of the situation, who contacted the Seattle Police Department (SPD) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The passengers were told their arrival in Seattle would be delayed because of a "minor mechanical difficulty". Donald Nyrop, the president of Northwest at the time, authorized payment of the ransom and ordered all employees to cooperate with the hijacker and comply with his demands. For approximately two hours, Flight 305 circled Puget Sound to give the SPD and the FBI sufficient time to assemble Cooper's ransom money and parachutes, and to mobilize emergency personnel. During the flight from Portland to Seattle, Cooper demanded Mucklow remain by his side at all times. She later said Cooper appeared familiar with the local terrain; while looking out the window, he remarked, "Looks like Tacoma down there", as the aircraft flew above it. When told the parachutes were coming from McChord Air Force Base, Cooper correctly noted McChord was only a twenty-minute drive from Sea-Tac. She later described the hijacker's demeanor: "[Cooper] was not nervous. He seemed rather nice and he was not cruel or nasty." While the airplane circled Seattle, Mucklow chatted with Cooper and asked why he chose Northwest Airlines to hijack. He laughed and replied, "It's not because I have a grudge against your airlines, it's just because I have a grudge," then explained the flight simply suited his needs. He asked where she was from; she answered she was originally from Pennsylvania, but was living in Minneapolis at the time. Cooper responded that Minnesota was "very nice country." She asked where he was from, but he became upset and refused to answer. He asked if she smoked and offered her a cigarette. She replied she had quit, but accepted the cigarette. FBI records note Cooper spoke briefly to an unidentified passenger while the airplane maintained its holding pattern over Seattle. In his interview with FBI agents, passenger George Labissoniere stated he visited the restroom directly behind Cooper on several occasions. After one visit, Labissoniere said the path to his seat was blocked by a passenger wearing a cowboy hat, questioning Mucklow about the supposed mechanical problem delaying them. Labissoniere said Cooper was initially amused by the interaction, then became irritated and told the man to return to his seat, but "the cowboy" ignored Cooper and continued to question Mucklow. Labissoniere claimed he eventually persuaded "the cowboy" to return to his seat. Mucklow's version of the interaction differed from Labissoniere's. She said a passenger approached her and asked for a sports magazine to read because he was bored. She and the passenger moved to an area directly behind Cooper, where they both looked for magazines. The passenger took a copy of The New Yorker and returned to his seat. When Mucklow returned to sit with Cooper, he said, "If that is a sky marshal, I don't want any more of that", but she reassured him there were no sky marshals on the flight. Despite his brief interaction with Cooper, "the cowboy" was not interviewed by the FBI and was never identified. The $200,000 ransom was received from Seattle First National Bank in a bag weighing approximately . The money—10,000 unmarked $20 bills, most of which had serial numbers beginning with "L" (indicating issuance by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco)—was photographed on microfilm by the FBI. Seattle police obtained the two front (reserve) parachutes from a local skydiving school and the two back (main) parachutes from a local stunt pilot. ===Passengers released=== Around 5:24 PST, Scott was informed the parachutes had been delivered to Sea-Tac and notified Cooper they would be landing soon. At 5:46 PST, Flight 305 landed at Sea-Tac. With Cooper's permission, Scott parked the aircraft on a partially-lit runway, away from the main terminal. Cooper demanded only one representative of the airline approach the plane with the parachutes and money, and the only entrance and exit would be through the aircraft's front door via mobile stairs. Northwest's Seattle operations manager, Al Lee, was designated to be the courier. To avoid the possibility Cooper might mistake Lee's airline uniform for a law enforcement officer, he changed into civilian clothes for the task. With the passengers remaining seated, a ground crew attached a mobile stair. Per Cooper's directive, Mucklow exited the aircraft through the front door and retrieved the ransom money. When she returned, she carried the money bag past the seated passengers to Cooper in the last row. Cooper then agreed to release the passengers. so Hancock and Schaffner debarked. When Mucklow brought the final parachute to Cooper, she gave him printed instructions for using the parachutes, but Cooper said he didn't need them. A problem with the refueling process caused a delay, so a second truck and then a third were brought to the aircraft to complete the refueling. During the delay, Mucklow said Cooper complained the money was delivered in a cloth bag instead of a knapsack as he had directed, and he now had to improvise a new way to transport the money. Using a pocket knife, he cut the canopy from one of the reserve parachutes, and stuffed some of the money into the empty parachute bag. An FAA official requested a face-to-face meeting with Cooper aboard the aircraft, but Cooper denied the request. Cooper became impatient, saying, "This shouldn't take so long," and, "Let's get this show on the road." He then gave the cockpit crew his flight plan and directives: a southeast course toward Mexico City at the minimum airspeed possible without stalling the aircraft—approximately —at a maximum altitude. Cooper also specified the landing gear must remain deployed, the wing flaps must be lowered 15 degrees and the cabin must remain unpressurized. First Officer Rataczak informed Cooper that the configuration limited the aircraft's range to about , so a second refueling would be necessary before entering Mexico. Cooper and the crew discussed options, and agreed on Reno–Tahoe International Airport as the refueling stop. Cooper further directed the aircraft take off with the rear exit door open and its airstair extended. Northwest officials objected for reasons of safety, but Cooper countered by saying, "It can be done, do it," but then did not insist and said he would lower the staircase once they were airborne. Cooper demanded Mucklow remain aboard to assist the operation. ===Back in the air=== Around 7:40 pm, Flight 305 took off, with only Cooper, Mucklow, Scott, Rataczak and Flight Engineer Anderson aboard. Two F-106 fighters from McChord Air Force Base and a Lockheed T-33 trainer—diverted from an unrelated Air National Guard mission—followed the 727. All three jets maintained "S" flight patterns to stay behind the slow-moving 727, and out of Cooper's view. After takeoff, Cooper told Mucklow to lower the aft staircase. She told him and the flight crew she feared being sucked out of the aircraft. The flight crew suggested she come to the cockpit and retrieve an emergency rope with which she could tie herself to a seat. Cooper rejected the suggestion, stating he did not want her going up front or the flight crew coming back to the cabin. She continued to express her fear to him, and asked him to cut some cord from one of the parachutes to create a safety line for her. He said he would lower the stairs himself, instructed her to go to the cockpit, close the curtain partition between the Coach and First Class sections and not return. Before she left, Mucklow begged Cooper, "Please, please take the bomb with you." At approximately 8:13 p.m., the aircraft's tail section suddenly pitched upward, forcing the pilots to trim and return the aircraft to level flight. In his interview with the FBI, Rataczak said the sudden upward pitch occurred while the flight was near the suburbs north of Portland. With the aft cabin door open and the staircase deployed, the flight crew remained in the cockpit, unsure if Cooper was still aboard. Mucklow used the intercom to inform Cooper they were approaching Reno and that he needed to raise the stairs so the airplane could land safely. She repeated her requests as the pilots made the final approach to land, but neither Mucklow nor the flight crew received a reply from Cooper. At 11:02 pm, with the aft staircase still deployed, Flight 305 landed at Reno–Tahoe International Airport. FBI agents, state troopers, sheriff's deputies and Reno police established a perimeter around the aircraft but, fearing the hijacker and the bomb were still aboard, did not approach the plane. Scott searched the cabin, confirmed Cooper was no longer aboard and, after a thirty-minute search, an FBI bomb squad declared the cabin safe. ==Investigation== In addition to sixty-six latent fingerprints aboard the plane, FBI agents interviewed eyewitnesses in Portland, Seattle and Reno, and developed a series of composite sketches. Local police and FBI agents immediately began questioning possible suspects. United Press International wire service reporter Clyde Jabin republished Long's error, and as other media sources repeated the error, the hijacker's pseudonym became "D. B. Cooper". Acting on the possibility the hijacker may have used his real name (or the same alias in a previous crime), Portland police discovered and interviewed a Portland citizen named D. B. Cooper. The Portland Cooper had a minor police record, but was quickly eliminated as a suspect. Due to the number of variables and parameters, precisely defining the area to search was difficult. The jet's airspeed estimates varied, the environmental conditions along the flight path varied with the aircraft's location and altitude, and only Cooper knew how long he remained in free-fall before pulling his ripcord. The T-33 pilots did not make visual contact with the 727. On December 6, 1971, after the incident, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover approved the use of an Air Force SR-71 Blackbird to retrace and photograph Flight 305's flightpath, and attempt to locate the items Cooper carried during his jump. The SR-71 made five flights to retrace Flight 305's route, but due to poor visibility, the photography attempts were unsuccessful. In an experimental recreation, flying the same aircraft used in the hijacking in the same flight configuration, FBI agents pushed a sled out of the open airstair and were able to reproduce the upward motion of the tail section and brief change in cabin pressure described by the flight crew at 8:13 pm. Initial extrapolations placed Cooper's landing zone within an area on the southernmost outreach of Mount St. Helens, a few miles southeast of Ariel, Washington, near Lake Merwin, an artificial lake formed by a dam on the Lewis River. Search efforts concentrated on Clark and Cowlitz counties, encompassing the terrain immediately south and north of the Lewis River in southwest Washington. FBI agents and sheriff's deputies searched large areas of the largely forested terrain on foot and by helicopter. Door-to-door searches of local farmhouses were also performed. Other search parties ran patrol boats along Lake Merwin and Yale Lake, the reservoir immediately to its east. Neither Cooper nor any of the equipment he presumably carried was found. Using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters from the Oregon Army National Guard, the FBI coordinated an aerial search along the entire flight path (known as Victor 23 in U.S. aviation terminology, and as "Vector 23" in most Cooper {{Nowrap\|literature) Ultimately, the extensive search and recovery operation uncovered no significant material evidence related to the hijacking. Based on early computer projections produced for the FBI, Cooper's drop zone was first estimated to be between Ariel dam to the north and the town of Battle Ground, Washington, to the south. In March 1972, after a joint investigation with Northwest Orient Airlines and the Air Force, the FBI determined Cooper probably jumped over the town of La Center, Washington. In 2019, the FBI released a report detailing the burglary of a grocery store, about three hours after Cooper jumped, near Heisson, Washington. Heisson, an unincorporated community, was within the calculated drop zone Northwest Airlines presented to the FBI. In the report, the FBI noted the burglar took only survival items, such as beef jerky and gloves. However, the report notes that the burglar wore "military type boots with a corregated sole", while Cooper was described as wearing slip-on shoes. ===Search for ransom money=== A month after the hijacking, the FBI distributed lists of the ransom serial numbers to financial institutions, casinos, racetracks, businesses with routine transactions involving large amounts of cash, and to law-enforcement agencies around the world. Northwest Orient offered a reward of 15% of the recovered money, to a maximum of $25,000. In early 1972, U.S. Attorney General John N. Mitchell released the serial numbers to the general public. In early 1973, with the ransom money still missing, The Oregon Journal republished the serial numbers and offered $1,000 () to the first person to turn in a ransom bill to the newspaper or any FBI field office. In Seattle, the Post-Intelligencer made a similar offer with a $5,000 reward. The offers remained in effect until Thanksgiving 1974, and though several near matches were reported, no genuine bills were found. In 1975, Northwest Orient's insurer, Global Indemnity Co., complied with an order from the Minnesota Supreme Court and paid the airline's $180,000 () claim on the ransom money. ===Later developments=== Analysis of the flight data indicated the first estimated location of Cooper's landing zone was inaccurate. Captain Scott—who was flying the aircraft manually because of Cooper's speed and altitude demands—determined the flight path was farther east than initially reported. ===Investigation suspended=== On July 8, 2016, when Cooper was assumed to be at least 85 years old if alive, the FBI announced active investigation of the Cooper case was suspended, citing the need to deploy investigative resources and manpower on issues of greater and more urgent priority. Local field offices would continue to accept any legitimate physical evidence, related specifically to the parachutes or to the ransom money. The 66-volume case file compiled during the 45-year course of the investigation would be preserved for historical purposes at FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C., and on the FBI website. All of the evidence is open to the public. The crime remains the only documented unsolved case of air piracy in commercial aviation history. ==Physical evidence== During their forensic search of the aircraft, FBI agents found four major pieces of evidence, each with a direct physical link to Cooper: a black clip-on tie, a mother-of-pearl tie clip, a hair from Cooper's headrest, and eight filter-tipped Raleigh cigarette butts from the armrest ashtray. ===Clip-on necktie=== FBI agents found a black clip-on necktie in seat 18-E, where Cooper had been seated. Attached to the tie was a gold tie-clip with a circular mother-of-pearl setting in the center of the clip. The FBI determined the tie had been sold exclusively at JCPenney department stores, but had been discontinued in 1968. By late 2007, the FBI had built a partial DNA profile from samples found on Cooper's tie in 2001. The FBI also made public a file of previously unreleased evidence, including Cooper's airplane ticket, composite sketches, fact sheets, and posted a request for information about Cooper's identification. In March 2009, a group of "citizen sleuths" using GPS, satellite imagery, and other technologies unavailable in 1971, the group included paleontologist Tom Kaye from the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture in Seattle, scientific illustrator Carol Abraczinskas, computer scientist Sean Christo, and metallurgist Alan Stone. Although the CRT obtained little new information about the buried ransom money or Cooper's landing zone, they found, analyzed, and identified hundreds of organic and metallic particles on Cooper's tie. Using electron microscopy, the CRT identified Lycopodium spores, the source of which was likely pharmaceutical. The team also found minute particles of unalloyed titanium on the tie, along with particles of bismuth, antimony, cerium, strontium sulfide, aluminum, and titanium-antimony alloys. or another aeronautical engineering company, at a chemical manufacturing plant, or at a metal fabrication and production facility. The material with the most significance, explained Kaye, was the unalloyed titanium. During the 1970s, the use of pure titanium was rare and would only be used in aircraft fabrication facilities, or at chemical companies combining titanium and aluminum to store extremely corrosive substances. The cerium and strontium sulfide were used by Boeing's supersonic transport development project, and by Portland factories in which cathode-ray tubes were manufactured, such as Teledyne and Tektronix. Cooper researcher Eric Ulis has speculated that the titanium-antimony alloys are linked to Rem-Cru Titanium Inc., a metals manufacturer and Boeing contractor. ===Hair samples=== FBI agents found two hair samples in Cooper's seat: a single strand of limb hair on the seat, and a single strand of brown Caucasian head hair on the headrest. The limb hair was destroyed after the FBI Crime Laboratory determined the sample lacked enough unique microscopic characteristics to be useful. However, the FBI Crime Laboratory determined the head hair was suitable for future comparison, and preserved the hair on a microscope slide. During their attempts to build Cooper's DNA profile in 2002, the FBI discovered the hair sample had been lost. ===Cigarette butts=== In the armrest ashtray of seat 18-E, FBI agents found eight Raleigh filter-tipped cigarette butts. The butts were sent to the FBI Crime Laboratory, but investigators were unable to find fingerprints and returned the butts to the Las Vegas field office. In 1998, the FBI sought to extract DNA from the cigarette butts, but discovered the butts had been destroyed while in the custody of the Las Vegas field office. ===Recovered ransom money=== On February 10, 1980, eight-year-old Brian Ingram was vacationing with his family on the Columbia River at a beachfront known as Tina (or Tena) Bar, about downstream from Vancouver, Washington, and southwest of Ariel. As he raked the sandy riverbank to build a campfire, he uncovered three packets of the ransom cash, totaling about $5,800. The bills had disintegrated from lengthy exposure to the elements, but were still bundled in rubber bands. FBI technicians confirmed the money was indeed a portion of the ransom: two packets of 100 twenty-dollar bills each, and a third packet of 90, all arranged in the same order as when given to Cooper. The discovery caused new conjecture, and ultimately raised more questions than it answered. Initial statements by investigators and scientific consultants were founded on the assumption the bundled bills washed freely into the Columbia River from one of its many connecting tributaries. An Army Corps of Engineers hydrologist noted the bills had disintegrated in a "rounded" fashion and were "matted together", indicating they "had been deposited by river action", as opposed to having been buried deliberately. The finding supported the hypothesis Cooper had landed near the Washougal River, which merges with the Columbia upstream from the discovery site, and not in or near Lake Merwin, the Lewis River, or any of its tributaries feeding the Columbia River downstream from Tina Bar. The "free-floating" hypothesis neither explained the ten bills missing from one packet, nor explained how the three packets remained together after separating from the rest of the money. Physical evidence was incompatible with geological evidence; Himmelsbach wrote free-floating bundles would have washed up on the bank "within a couple of years" of the hijacking; otherwise, the rubber bands would have long since deteriorated. Geological evidence suggested the bills arrived at Tina Bar after 1974, when the Army Corps of Engineers performed a dredging operation on a nearby section of the river. Geologist Leonard Palmer of Portland State University found two distinct layers of sand and sediment between the clay deposited on the riverbank by the dredge and the sand layer in which the bills were buried, indicating the bills arrived long after dredging had been completed. In late 2020, analysis of diatoms found on the bills suggests the bundles found at Tina Bar were not submerged in the river or buried dry at the time of the hijacking in November 1971. Only diatoms that bloom during springtime were found, indicating the money had entered the water at least several months after the hijacking. In 1986, after protracted negotiations, the recovered bills were divided equally between Brian Ingram and Northwest Orient's insurer Royal Globe Insurance; the FBI retained 14 examples as evidence. Ingram sold fifteen of his bills at auction in 2008 for about $37,000 (). The Columbia River ransom money remains the only confirmed physical evidence from the hijacking found outside the aircraft. Cossey further described the main parachutes as being like military parachutes because they were rigged to open immediately upon the ripcord being pulled and were incapable of being steered. When the airplane landed in Reno, FBI agents discovered two parachutes Cooper left behind: one reserve (front) parachute and one main (back) parachute. The reserve parachute had been opened and three shroud lines had been cut out, but the main parachute left behind was still intact. The unused main parachute was described by FBI agents as a Model NB6 (Navy Backpack 6) and is on display at the Washington State Historical Society Museum. One of the two reserve (front) parachutes Cooper was given was an unusable training parachute intended to only be used for classroom demonstrations. According to Cossey, the reserve parachute's internal canopy was sewn together so skydiving students could get the feel of pulling a ripcord on a packed parachute without the canopy actually deploying. This non-functional reserve parachute was not found in the aircraft when it landed in Reno, causing FBI agents to speculate Cooper was not an experienced parachutist because someone with experience would have realized this reserve parachute was a "dummy parachute". Although Cooper lacked the ability to attach this "dummy" parachute to his main harness as a reserve parachute, it was not found in the airplane, so what he did with it is unknown. Cossey speculated Cooper removed the sewn-together canopy and used the empty reserve container as an extra money bag. Tina Mucklow's testimony was in line with Cossey's speculation, stating she recalled Cooper attempting to pack money inside a parachute container. In November 1978, a deer hunter found a 727's instruction placard for lowering the aft airstair. The placard was found near a logging road about east of Castle Rock, Washington, north of Lake Merwin, but within Flight 305's basic flight path. ==Theories, hypotheses and conjecture== During the 45-year span of its active investigation, the FBI periodically made public some of its working hypotheses and tentative conclusions, drawn from witness testimony and the scarce physical evidence. ===Sketches=== During the first year of the investigation, the FBI used eyewitness testimony from the passengers and flight crew to develop sketches of Cooper. The first sketch, officially titled Composite A, was completed a few days after the hijacking and was released on November 28, 1971. According to witnesses, the Composite A sketch—jokingly known as "Bing Crosby"—was not an accurate likeness of Cooper. The Composite A sketch, said witnesses, showed a young man with a narrow face, and did not resemble Cooper or capture his disinterested, "let's get this over with" look. Flight attendant Florence Schaffner repeatedly told the FBI the Composite A sketch was a very poor likeness of Cooper. After multiple eyewitnesses said Composite A was not an accurate rendering, FBI artists developed a second composite sketch. Completed in late 1972, the second Composite B sketch was intended to depict more accurately Cooper's age, skin tone, and face shape. Eyewitnesses to whom Composite B was shown said the sketch was more accurate, but the Composite B Cooper looked too "angry" or "nasty". One flight attendant said the Composite B sketch looked like a "hoodlum" and remembered Cooper as "more refined in appearance". Moreover, said witnesses, the Composite B sketch depicted a man older than Cooper, with a lighter complexion. Using the criticisms of Composite B, FBI artists made adjustments and improvements to the Composite B sketch. On January 2, 1973, the FBI finalized revised Composite B, their third sketch of Cooper. Of the new sketch, one flight attendant said revised Composite B was, "a very close resemblance" to the hijacker. Opined another flight attendant, "the hijacker would be easily recognized from this sketch." In April 1973, the FBI concluded the revised Composite B sketch was the best likeness of Cooper they could develop, and should be considered the definitive sketch of Cooper. ===Suspect profiling=== Flight attendants Schaffner and Mucklow, who spent the most time interacting with Cooper, were interviewed on the same night in separate cities and gave nearly identical descriptions: a man in his mid-40s, approximately tall and , with olive-toned skin, brown eyes, short combed-back black hair, and no discernible accent. University of Oregon student Bill Mitchell, who sat across from Cooper during the three-hour flight, gave the FBI several interviews and provided detailed descriptions of Cooper for what subsequently became Composite Sketch B. Mitchell's descriptions of Cooper were similar to those provided by the flight attendants, except Mitchell described Cooper as to . Since Mitchell was tall, he described himself as "way bigger" than Cooper and referred to Cooper as "slight". Robert Gregory, one of the only other passengers besides Mitchell who provided the FBI with a full description of Cooper, also described Cooper as tall. Gregory stated he believed Cooper to be of Mexican-American or Native American descent. In May 1973, the FBI internally released an eight-page suspect profile of Cooper. The profile suggested Cooper was a military-trained parachutist and not a sports skydiver: in addition to his familiarity with the military parachutes with which he was provided, Cooper's age would have made him an outlier in the sport-skydiving community and would have increased the likelihood of being recognized by a club member. Multiple eyewitnesses noted Cooper's athletic build, so the FBI profile suggested Cooper probably exercised regularly despite his age. FBI profilers suspected Cooper was an Air Force veteran familiar with Seattle and the surrounding areas. Cooper recognized Tacoma as the jet circled Puget Sound, and in his conversation with Mucklow, Cooper correctly noted McChord AFB's proximity to Seattle-Tacoma Airport, a detail with which most civilians would be unfamiliar. Cooper's mannerisms—such as his vocabulary, planning, his thorough retrieval of evidence, and his use of aviation terminology—led the FBI to conclude Cooper was not a common criminal: Cooper was clearly intelligent, not impulsive or easily rattled, a careful and procedure-oriented planner, adept at anticipating contingencies and adaptive strategies, with meticulous and methodical tendencies. Profilers also noted Cooper's ability to quickly and competently adapt to various situations as they arose indicated he probably preferred to work independently, and neither needed nor wanted an accomplice. Cooper's financial situation was probably desperate. According to retired FBI chief investigator Ralph Himmelsbach, extortionists and other criminals who steal large amounts of money nearly always do so because they need it urgently; otherwise, the crime is not worth the considerable risk. The FBI considered—but ultimately dismissed—the possibility Cooper was a "thrill seeker" who made the jump, "just to prove it could be done". Because Cooper spilled the only drink he was served and never requested another, the FBI theorized Cooper was neither a heavy drinker nor an alcoholic. Moreover, an alcoholic would likely have been incapable of refusing further alcoholic beverages throughout the stressful and lengthy hijacking. By calculating the number of cigarettes Cooper smoked throughout the hijacking, the FBI believed Cooper smoked about one pack of cigarettes a day. Agents theorized Cooper's alias was based on the adventure hero Dan Cooper, a fictional Royal Canadian Air Force test pilot and the main character of a popular French-language Belgian comic book series, one cover of which depicted Dan Cooper skydiving. === Knowledge and planning === Based on the evidence and Cooper's tactics, the FBI speculated Cooper planned the hijacking carefully using detailed, specific knowledge of aviation, the local terrain, and the 727's capabilities. Cooper chose a seat in the last row of the rear cabin for three reasons: to observe and respond to any action in front of him, to minimize the possibility of being approached or attacked by someone behind him, and to make himself less conspicuous to the rest of the passengers. To ensure he would not be deliberately supplied with sabotaged equipment, Cooper demanded four parachutes to force the assumption he might compel one or more hostages to jump with him. FBI agent Ralph Himmelsbach noted Cooper's choice of a bomb—instead of other weapons previously used by hijackers—thwarted any multidirectional attempts to rush him. Cooper was careful to avoid leaving evidence. Before he jumped, Cooper demanded Mucklow return to him all notes either written by him, or on his behalf. Mucklow said she used the last match in his paper matchbook to light one of his cigarettes, and when she attempted to dispose of the empty matchbook, he demanded she return it to him. Although Cooper meticulously attempted to retrieve evidence, he left his clip-on tie in his seat. Cooper was clearly familiar with the 727's capabilities and confidential features, but the 727's design was the primary reason Cooper chose the aircraft. With its aft airstair and the placement of its three engines, the 727 was one of the only passenger jets from which a parachute jump could be easily made. Mucklow told the FBI Cooper appeared to be familiar with the 727's typical refueling time and procedures. By specifying a 15° flap setting, Cooper displayed specific knowledge of aviation tactics and the 727's capabilities. Unlike most commercial jet airliners, the 727 could remain in slow, low-altitude flight without stalling. The flap setting Cooper specifically requested allowed him to control the 727's airspeed and altitude without entering the cockpit, where he could have been overpowered by the three pilots. First Officer Bill Rataczak, who spoke with Cooper on the intercom during the hijacking, told the FBI, "[Cooper] displayed a specific knowledge of flying and aircraft in general." The most significant knowledge Cooper displayed was a feature both secret and unique to the 727: the aft airstair could be operated during flight, and the single activation switch in the rear of the cabin could not be overridden from the cockpit. Cooper knew how to operate the aft staircase, and had clearly planned to use it for his escape. The FBI speculated Cooper knew the Central Intelligence Agency was using 727s to drop agents and supplies into enemy territory during the Vietnam War. Since no situation on a passenger flight would necessitate such an operation, civilian crews were neither informed the aft airstair could be lowered midflight, nor were they aware its operation could not be overridden from the cockpit. Cooper appeared to be familiar with parachutes, although his experience level is unknown. Mucklow said Cooper, "appeared to be completely familiar with the parachutes which had been furnished to him", and told a journalist, "Cooper put on [his] parachute as though he did so every day". Cooper's familiarity with the military-style parachutes he was given has resulted in speculation that Cooper was a military parachutist and not a civilian skydiver. Larry Carr, who directed the investigative team from 2006 to 2009, does not believe Cooper was a paratrooper. Instead, Carr speculates Cooper had been an Air Force aircraft cargo loader. An aircraft cargo-loading assignment would provide him with aviation knowledge and experience: cargo loaders have basic jump training, wear emergency parachutes, and know how to dispatch items from planes in flight. As a cargo loader, Cooper would be familiar with parachutes, "but not necessarily sufficient knowledge to survive the jump he made". === Cooper's fate === From the beginning of their investigation, FBI agents did not believe Cooper survived his jump. The FBI provided several reasons and facts to support their conclusion: Cooper's apparent lack of skydiving experience, his lack of proper equipment for his jump and survival, the temperature and inclement weather on the night of the hijacking, the wooded terrain into which Cooper jumped, his lack of knowledge of his landing area, and the unused ransom money. First, Cooper appeared to lack the necessary skydiving knowledge, skills, and experience for the type of jump he attempted. Carr said: "We originally thought Cooper was an experienced jumper, perhaps even a paratrooper." He further said: "We concluded after a few years this was simply not true. No experienced parachutist would have jumped in the pitch-black night, in the rain, with a wind in his face wearing loafers and a trench coat. It was simply too risky." and jumped into a 15 °F (−9 °C) wind at 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in November over Washington without proper protection against the extreme wind chill. However, FBI agents were not unanimous in their assessments of Cooper's ultimate fate. A senior FBI agent anonymously opined in a 1976 article in The Seattle Times, "I think [Cooper] made it. I think he slept in his own bed that night. It was a clear night. A lot of the country is pretty flat ... he could have just walked out. Right down the road. Hell, they weren't even looking for him there at the time. They thought he was somewhere else. He could just walk down the road." Conclusive evidence of Cooper's death has not been found. In the months after Cooper's hijacking, five men attempted copycat hijackings, and all five survived their parachute escapes. The survival of the copycats—several of whom had circumstances and conditions similar to Cooper's jump—forced FBI lead case agent Ralph Himmelsbach to reevaluate his opinions and theories regarding Cooper's chances for survival. Himmelsbach cited three examples of hijackers who survived jumps in conditions similar to Cooper's escape: Martin McNally, Frederick Hahneman, and Richard LaPoint. Hijacker Martin McNally jumped using only a reserve chute, without protective gear, at night, over Indiana. Unlike Cooper, who appeared to be familiar with parachutes, McNally had to be shown how to put on his parachute. Additionally, McNally's pilot increased the airspeed to , nearly twice the airspeed of Flight 305 at the time of Cooper's jump. The increased windspeed caused a violent jump for McNally: the money bag was immediately torn from him, "yet he had landed unharmed except for some superficial scratches and bruises". 49-year-old Frederick Hahneman hijacked a 727 in Pennsylvania and survived after jumping at night into a Honduran jungle. A third copycat, Richard LaPoint, hijacked a 727 in Nevada. Wearing only trousers, a shirt, and cowboy boots, LaPoint jumped into the freezing January wind over northern Colorado and landed in the snow. In 2008, Himmelsbach admitted he originally thought Cooper had only a fifty-percent chance of survival, but subsequently revised his assessment. By 1976, most published legal analyses concurred the impending expiration of the statute of limitations for prosecution of the hijacker would make little difference. Since the statute's interpretation varies from case to case and from court to court, a prosecutor could argue Cooper had forfeited legal immunity on any of several valid technical grounds. In November 1976, a Portland grand jury returned an indictment in absentia against "John Doe, a.k.a. Dan Cooper" for air piracy and violation of the Hobbs Act. The indictment formally enabled prosecution to be continued, should the hijacker be apprehended at any time in the future. ===Ted Braden=== Theodore Burdette Braden Jr. (1928–2007) was a Special Forces commando during the Vietnam War, a master skydiver, and a convicted felon. He was believed by many within the Special Forces community, both at the time of the hijacking and during subsequent years, to have been Cooper. Born in Ohio, Braden first joined the military at the age of 16 in 1944, serving with the 101st Airborne during World War II. He eventually became one of the military's best parachutists, often representing the Army in international skydiving tournaments, and his military records list him as having made 911 jumps. During the 1960s, Braden was a team leader within the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MACVSOG), a classified commando unit of Green Berets which performed unconventional warfare operations during the Vietnam War. He also served as a military skydiving instructor, teaching HALO jumping techniques to members of Project Delta. Braden spent 23 months in Vietnam, conducting classified operations within both North and South Vietnam, as well as Laos and Cambodia. In December 1966, Braden deserted his unit in Vietnam and made his way to the Congo to serve as a mercenary, but only served there a brief time before being arrested by CIA agents and taken back to the United States for a court-martial. Despite having committed a capital offense by deserting in wartime, Braden was given an honorable discharge and prohibited from re-enlisting in the military in exchange for his continued secrecy about the MACVSOG program. Braden was profiled in the October 1967 issue of Ramparts magazine, wherein he was described by fellow Special Forces veteran and journalist Don Duncan as being someone with a "secret death wish" who "continually places himself in unnecessary danger but always seems to get away with it", specifically referring to Braden's disregard for military skydiving safety regulations. Duncan also claimed that during Braden's time in Vietnam, he was "continuously involved in shady deals to make money". After his military discharge in 1967, the details of Braden's life are largely unknown, but at the time of the hijacking he was a truck driver for Consolidated Freightways, which was headquartered in Vancouver, Washington, just across the Columbia River from Portland and not far from the suspected dropzone of Ariel, Washington. It is also known that during the early 1970s he was investigated by the FBI for stealing $250,000 during a trucking scam he had allegedly devised, but he was never charged for this supposed crime. In 1980, Braden was indicted by a Federal grand jury for driving an 18-wheeler full of stolen goods from Arizona to Massachusetts, but it is unknown whether there was a conviction in that case. Two years later Braden was arrested in Pennsylvania for driving a stolen vehicle with fictitious plates and for having no driver's license. Braden was eventually sent to Federal prison during the late 1980s, serving time in Pennsylvania, but the precise crime is unknown. Despite his ability as a soldier, he was not well liked personally and was described by a family member as "the perfect combination of high intelligence and criminality". From his time working covert operations in Vietnam, he likely would have possessed the then-classified knowledge about the ability and proper specifications for jumping from a 727, perhaps having done it himself on MACVSOG missions. Physically, Braden's military records list him at , which is shorter than the height description of at least given by the two flight attendants, but this military measurement would have been taken in his stocking feet and he may have appeared somewhat taller in shoes. However, he possessed a dark complexion from years of outdoor military service, had short dark hair, a medium athletic build, and was 43 years of age at the time of the hijacking, which are features all in line with the descriptions of Cooper. ===Kenneth Christiansen=== In 2003, Minnesota resident Lyle Christiansen watched a television documentary about the Cooper hijacking and became convinced that his late brother Kenneth (1926–1994) was Cooper. The next year, an episode of the History series Brad Meltzer's Decoded also summarized the circumstantial evidence linking Christiansen to the Cooper case. Christiansen enlisted in the Army in 1944 and was trained as a paratrooper. World War II had ended by the time he was deployed in 1945, but he made occasional training jumps while stationed in Japan with occupation forces during the late 1940s. After leaving the Army, he joined Northwest Orient in 1954 as a laborer stationed at Northwest Airlines' Far East stopover on Shemya Island in the Aleutians. He subsequently became a flight attendant, and then a purser, based in Seattle. ===Jack Coffelt=== Bryant "Jack" Coffelt (1917–1975) was a con man, ex-convict, and purported government informant who claimed to have been the chauffeur and confidant of Abraham Lincoln's last undisputed descendant, great-grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith. In 1972, he began claiming he was Cooper and attempted through an intermediary – a former cellmate named James Brown – to sell his story to a Hollywood production company. He said he landed near Mount Hood, about southeast of Ariel, injuring himself and losing the ransom money in the process. Photos of Coffelt bear a resemblance to the composite drawings, although he was in his mid-fifties in 1971. He was reportedly in Portland on the day of the hijacking and sustained leg injuries around that time which were consistent with a skydiving mishap. Coffelt's account was reviewed by the FBI, which concluded that it differed in several details from information that had not been made public and was therefore a fabrication. Brown continued peddling the story long after Coffelt died in 1975. Multiple media venues, including the CBS news program 60 Minutes, considered and rejected it. ===Lynn Cooper=== Lynn Doyle "L. D." Cooper (1931–1999), a leather worker and Korean War veteran, was proposed as a suspect in July 2011 by his niece, Marla Cooper. As an eight-year-old, she recalled Cooper and another uncle planning something "very mischievous", involving the use of "expensive walkie-talkies", at her grandmother's house in Sisters, Oregon, southeast of Portland. The next day Flight 305 was hijacked; and though the uncles ostensibly were turkey hunting, L. D. Cooper came home wearing a bloody shirt—the result, he said, of an auto accident. In August 2011, New York magazine published an alternative witness sketch, reportedly based on a description by Flight 305 eyewitness Robert Gregory, depicting horn-rimmed sunglasses, a "russet"-colored suit jacket with wide lapels, and marcelled hair. The article observed that L. D. Cooper had wavy hair that looked marcelled (as did Duane Weber, see below). The FBI announced that no fingerprints had been found on a guitar strap made by L. D. Cooper. One week later, they added that his DNA did not match the partial DNA profile obtained from the hijacker's tie, but acknowledged that there is no certainty that the hijacker was the source of the organic material obtained from the tie. After discharge, Dayton worked with explosives for construction work and aspired to a professional airline career, but could not obtain a commercial pilot's license. Dayton had gender reassignment surgery in 1969, and changed her name to Barbara; she is believed to be the first person to have had this type of surgery in Washington. She claimed to have staged the hijacking two years later, presenting as a man, in order to "get back" at the airline industry and the FAA, whose insurmountable rules and conditions had prevented her from becoming an airline pilot. Dayton said that the ransom money was hidden in a cistern near Woodburn, Oregon, a suburban area south of Portland. She eventually recanted the entire story, ostensibly after learning that hijacking charges could still be brought. She also did not match the physical description particularly closely. ===William Gossett=== William Pratt Gossett (1930–2003) was a Marine Corps, Army, and Army Air Forces veteran who had military service in Korea and Vietnam. His military experience included jump training and wilderness survival. Gossett was known to be obsessed with the Cooper hijacking. According to Galen Cook, a lawyer who has collected information related to Gossett for years, he once showed his sons a key to a Vancouver, British Columbia, safe deposit box which, he claimed, contained the long-missing ransom money. The FBI has no direct evidence implicating Gossett and cannot reliably place him in the Pacific Northwest at the time of the hijacking. "There is not one link to the D. B. Cooper case," said Special Agent Carr, "other than the statements [Gossett] made to someone." ===Joe Lakich=== Joe Lakich (1921–2017) was a retired U.S. Army Major and Korean War veteran whose daughter Susan Giffe was killed less than two months before the hijacking, as a consequence of a botched hostage negotiation conducted by the FBI. The events culminating in the death of Lakich's daughter would be studied by hostage negotiators for decades as an example of what not to do during a hostage situation. He and his wife later sued the FBI, and ultimately an Appeals Court ruled in their favor, holding that the FBI acted negligently during the hostage negotiation. It is speculated that few people during that era would have contact with such materials, and that Cooper may have worked in a manufacturing environment working on electronics as engineer or manager. When the hijacking occurred, Lakich was working in Nashville as a production supervisor at an electronics capacitor factory and would have likely been exposed to the materials found on the tie. When Cooper was asked by Tina Mucklow why he was committing the hijacking, he replied: "It's not because I have a grudge against your airlines, it's just because I have a grudge." It is believed by some that this "grudge" was Lakich's anger toward the FBI for their failed efforts at rescuing his daughter less than two months earlier. ===John List=== John Emil List (1925–2008) was an accountant and war veteran who murdered his wife, three teenage children, and 85-year-old mother in Westfield, New Jersey, fifteen days before the Cooper hijacking, withdrew $200,000 from his mother's bank account, and disappeared. He came to the attention of the Cooper task force due to the timing of his disappearance, multiple matches to the hijacker's description, and the reasoning that "a fugitive accused of mass murder has nothing to lose". After his capture in 1989, List denied any involvement in the Cooper hijacking: no substantial evidence implicates him, and the FBI no longer considers him a suspect. List died in prison in 2008. ===Ted Mayfield=== Theodore Ernest Mayfield (1935–2015) was a Special Forces veteran, pilot, competitive skydiver, and skydiving instructor. He served prison time in 1994 for negligent homicide after two of his students died when their parachutes failed to open and was later found indirectly responsible for thirteen additional skydiving deaths due to faulty equipment and training. In 2010, he was sentenced to three years' probation for piloting an airplane 26 years after losing his pilot's license and rigging certificates. He was suggested repeatedly as a suspect early in the investigation, according to FBI Agent Ralph Himmelsbach, who knew Mayfield from a prior dispute at a local airport. He was ruled out, based partly on the fact that he telephoned Himmelsbach less than two hours after Flight 305 landed in Reno to volunteer advice on standard skydiving practices and possible landing zones, as well as information on local skydivers. ===Richard McCoy=== Richard McCoy, Jr. (1942–1974) was an Army veteran who served two tours of duty in Vietnam, first as a demolition expert and later with the Green Berets as a helicopter pilot. After his military service, he became a warrant officer in the Utah National Guard and an avid recreational skydiver, with aspirations of becoming a Utah State Trooper. On April 7, 1972, McCoy staged the best-known of the copycat hijackings. He boarded United Airlines' (a with aft stairs) in Denver, Colorado, and, brandishing what later proved to be a paperweight resembling a hand grenade and an unloaded pistol, he demanded four parachutes and $500,000. He was arrested on April 9 with the ransom cash in his possession and, after trial and conviction, received a 45-year sentence. Two years later, he escaped from Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary with several accomplices by crashing a garbage truck through the main gate. Tracked down three months later in Virginia Beach, McCoy was killed in a shootout with FBI agents. In their 1991 book, D.B. Cooper: The Real McCoy, parole officer Bernie Rhodes and former FBI agent Russell Calame asserted that they had identified McCoy as Cooper. They cited obvious similarities in the two hijackings, claims by McCoy's family that the tie and mother-of-pearl tie clip left on the airplane belonged to McCoy, and McCoy's own refusal to admit or deny that he was Cooper. A proponent of their claim was the FBI agent who killed McCoy. "When I shot Richard McCoy," he said, "I shot D. B. Cooper at the same time." skydiving skill much greater than thought to be possessed by the hijacker, In addition, all three of the stewardesses from the Cooper hijacking were shown photographs of McCoy and agreed that he was not their hijacker. They were even able to point to specific differences in the two men, specifically that Cooper's nose wasn't as broad as McCoy's, that Cooper had more hair than McCoy, and that Cooper's ears did not protrude as much as McCoy's. McCoy's photo was also shown to the ticket agent who sold Cooper his ticket, the gate agent, and the passenger seated closest to Cooper (Bill Mitchell), and they too concluded that McCoy and Cooper were not the same. In 2024, McCoy's two children publicly stated that their father had been D. B. Cooper after a parachute was found by YouTuber Dan Gryder on the property formerly owned by McCoy's mother. Gryder claims to have handed this parachute over to the FBI, though the FBI have not confirmed this. ===Sheridan Peterson=== Sheridan Peterson (1926–2021) served with the Marine Corps during World War II and was employed later as a technical editor at Boeing, based in Seattle. Investigators became interested in Peterson as a suspect soon after the skyjacking because of his experience as a smokejumper and love of taking physical risks, as well as his similar appearance and age (44) to the Cooper description. His involvement in the civil rights movement and assisting refugees in Vietnam during the Vietnam War could have potentially radicalized him to pursue hijacking. Peterson often teased the media about whether he was really Cooper. Entrepreneur Eric Ulis, who spent years investigating the crime, said he was "98% convinced" that Peterson was Cooper; when pressed by FBI agents, Peterson insisted he was in Nepal at the time of the hijacking. He died in 2021. Police later arrested him in Fullerton, California, on an additional charge of forging federal pilot certificates; the airplane he claimed to have ditched was found, repainted, in a nearby hangar. Cooper investigators noted his physical resemblance to Cooper composite sketches even though he was only 28 in 1971, In 2016, Rackstraw was featured as a suspect by a History channel program, along with a book. On September 8, 2016, Thomas J. Colbert, the author of the book, and attorney Mark Zaid filed a lawsuit to compel the FBI to release its Cooper case file by the Freedom of Information Act. In 2017, Colbert and a group of volunteer investigators uncovered what they believed to be "a decades-old parachute strap" at an undisclosed location in the Pacific Northwest. This was followed later in 2017 with a piece of foam, which they suspected was part of Cooper's parachute backpack. In January 2018, Tom and Dawna Colbert reported that they had obtained a confession letter originally written in December 1971 containing codes that matched three units Rackstraw was a part of while in the Army. One of the Flight 305 flight attendants reportedly "did not find any similarities" between photos of Rackstraw from the 1970s and her recollection of Cooper's appearance. Rackstraw's attorney termed the renewed allegations "the stupidest thing I've ever heard", and Rackstraw himself told People magazine, "It's a lot of [expletive], and they know it is". Rackstraw said to Colbert, "I told everybody I was [the hijacker]", before explaining the admission was a stunt. He died in 2019. ===Walter Reca=== Walter R. Reca (1933–2014) was a former military paratrooper and intelligence operative. He was proposed as a suspect by his friend Carl Laurin in 2018. In 2008, Reca told Laurin via a recorded telephone call that he was the hijacker. Reca gave Laurin permission in a notarized letter to share his story after his death. He also allowed Laurin to tape their telephone conversations about the crime during a six-week period in late 2008. In over three hours of recordings, Reca shared details about his version of the hijacking. He also confessed to his niece, Lisa Story. From Reca's description of the terrain on his way to the drop zone, Laurin concluded that he landed near Cle Elum, Washington. After Reca described an encounter with a dump truck driver at a roadside cafe after he landed, Laurin located Jeff Osiadacz, who was driving his dump truck near Cle Elum the night of the hijacking and met a stranger at the Teanaway Junction Café just outside of town. The man asked Osiadacz to give his friend directions to the café by telephone, presumably to be picked up, and he complied. Laurin convinced Joe Koenig, a former member of the Michigan State Police, of Reca's guilt. Koenig later published a book on Cooper, titled Getting The Truth: I Am D.B. Cooper. These claims have aroused skepticism. Cle Elum is well north and east of Flight 305's known flight path, more than north of the drop zone assumed by most analysts, and even further from Tina Bar, where a portion of the ransom money was found. Reca was a military paratrooper and private skydiver with hundreds of jumps to his credit, in contradiction to the FBI's publicized profile of an amateur skydiver at best. Reca also did not resemble the composite portrait the FBI assembled, which Laurin and Osiadacz used to explain why Osiadacz's suspicions were not aroused at the time. ===William Smith=== In November 2018, The Oregonian published an article proposing William J. Smith (1928–2018), of Bloomfield, New Jersey, as a suspect. The article was based on research conducted by an Army data analyst who sent his findings to the FBI in mid-2018. Smith, a New Jersey native, was a World War II veteran. After high school, he enlisted with the United States Navy and volunteered for combat air crew training. After his discharge, he worked for the Lehigh Valley Railroad and was affected by the Penn Central Transportation Company's bankruptcy in 1970, the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history at that time. The article proposed that the loss of his pension created a grudge against the corporate establishment and transportation field, as well as a sudden need for money. Smith was 43 at the time of the hijacking. In his high school yearbook, a list of alumni killed in World War II lists an Ira Daniel Cooper, possibly the source for the hijacker's pseudonym. According to the analyst, aluminum spiral chips found on the clip-on tie could have come from a locomotive maintenance facility. Smith's information about the Seattle area may have come from his close friend Dan Clair, who was stationed at Fort Lewis during the war. The analyst noted that the man who claimed to be Cooper in Max Gunther's 1985 book identified himself as "Dan LeClair". The FBI said that it would be inappropriate to comment on tips related to Smith. The FBI eliminated Weber as an active suspect in July 1998 when his fingerprints did not match any of those processed in the hijacked plane, and no other direct evidence could be found to implicate him. Encouraged by Cooper's apparent success, fifteen similar hijackings—all unsuccessful—were attempted in 1972. boarded Hughes Airwest Flight 800 at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas on January 20. Brandishing what he claimed was a bomb while the DC-9 was on the taxiway, he demanded $50,000, two parachutes, and a helmet. After releasing the 51 passengers and two flight attendants, he ordered the airplane on an eastward trajectory toward Denver, then bailed out over the treeless plains of northeastern Colorado. Authorities, tracking the locator-equipped parachute and his footprints in the snow and mud, apprehended him a few hours later. Richard McCoy Jr., a former Army Green Beret, hijacked a United Airlines 727-100 on April 7 after it left Denver, diverted it to San Francisco, then bailed out over Utah with $500,000 in ransom money. After being given a life sentence in September 1972, he was paroled in 1984. Robb Heady, a 22-year-old former Army paratrooper hijacked United Airlines Flight 239 from Reno to San Francisco on June 2, 1972. Carrying his own parachute and using a .357 () revolver, he demanded $200,000 in ransom money. He jumped from the airplane and was captured the next morning. Martin McNally, an unemployed service-station attendant, used a submachine gun on June 23 to commandeer an American Airlines 727 en route from St. Louis, Missouri, to Tulsa, Oklahoma, then diverted it eastward to Indiana and bailed out with $500,000 in ransom. McNally lost the ransom money as he exited the aircraft, but landed safely near Peru, Indiana, and was apprehended a few days later in a Detroit suburb. When interviewed in a 2020 podcast retrospective, McNally said he had been inspired by Cooper. With the advent of universal luggage searches in 1973 (see Airport security), the general incidence of hijackings dropped dramatically. two parachutes, and the assassination of his boss. A quick-thinking flight attendant drugged Tripp's alcoholic drink with Valium. After a ten-hour standoff, during which Tripp reduced his demands to three cheeseburgers and a ground vehicle in which to escape, he was apprehended. ==Aftermath== ===Airport security=== Despite the initiation of the federal Sky Marshal Program the previous year, 31 hijackings were committed in U.S. airspace in 1972; 19 of them were for the specific purpose of extorting money. In early 1973, the FAA began requiring airlines to search all passengers and their bags. Amid multiple lawsuits charging that such searches violated Fourth Amendment protections against search and seizure, federal courts ruled that they were acceptable when applied universally and when limited to searches for weapons and explosives. As a direct result of the hijacking, the installation of peepholes was mandated in all cockpit doors; this enables the cockpit crew to observe passengers without opening the cockpit door. In 1984, it was purchased by the charter company Key Airlines, re-registered N29KA, and incorporated into the Air Force's civilian charter fleet that shuttled workers between Nellis Air Force Base and the Tonopah Test Range during the F-117 Nighthawk development program. In 1996, the aircraft was scrapped for parts in a Memphis aircraft boneyard. Some commenters alleged possible association with the Cooper case, but authorities responded that they had no reason to believe that any such association exists. Woodinville officials announced later that burglary was most likely the motive for the crime. ==In popular culture== Himmelsbach famously termed Cooper a "rotten sleazy crook", but his bold and unusual crime inspired a cult following that was expressed in song, movies, and literature. Novelty shops sold t-shirts emblazoned with "D. B. Cooper, Where Are You?" An annual convention, known as CooperCon, is held every year in late November in Seattle, Washington. The event, founded by Cooper researcher Eric Ulis in 2018, is a multi-day gathering of Cooper researchers and enthusiasts. Originally held in Vancouver, Washington, it was relocated to Seattle beginning in 2023. CooperCon replaced the annual D. B. Cooper Days, which ended when the owner of the Ariel Store Pub died and the pub was forced to close.	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Edgar Hoover", "air piracy", "Royal Canadian Air Force", "The New Yorker", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Fullerton, California", "warrant officer", "Nora Ephron", "Ramparts (magazine)", "forgery", "Valium", "Cold case", "Unincorporated area", "Federal Aviation Administration", "cabin pressurization", "History (American TV network)", "Frederick Hahneman", "intercom", "safe deposit box", "Westfield, New Jersey", "Time (magazine)", "stall (fluid dynamics)", "commercial aviation", "Sisters, Oregon", "Minneapolis", "High-altitude military parachuting", "Thomas J. Colbert", "John Doe", "skydiving", "dredging", "Columbia Journalism Review", "Congressional Research Service", "Samuel Byck", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "San Diego Union-Tribune", "Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Pacific Northwest", "Abraham Lincoln", "WFMZ-TV", "Tektronix", "Puget Sound", "civil rights movement", "McChord Field", "Director of the FBI", "Fort Lewis (Washington)", "Dan Cooper (comics)", "The Portland Oregonian", "Clark County, Washington", "Paul Joseph Cini", "marcelled", "aircraft boneyard", "Battle Ground, Washington", "Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group", "negligent homicide", "airspeed", "paleontologist", "Federal Air Marshal Service", "Portland, Oregon", "Hydrology", "Reno Police Department", "Seattle-Tacoma International Airport", "strontium sulfide", "McDonnell Douglas DC-8", "bomb squad", "Virginia Beach, Virginia", "statute of limitations", "White House", "Fingerprint", "St. Louis Post-Dispatch", "purser", "Seattle", "cleft palate", "KRNV-DT", "D. 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8,805	Distributism	Distributism is an economic theory asserting that the world's productive assets should be widely owned rather than concentrated. It has influenced Anglo Christian Democratic movements, and has been recognized as one of many influences on the social market economy. Distributism views laissez-faire capitalism and state socialism as equally flawed and exploitative, due to their extreme concentration of ownership. Instead, it favours small independent craftsmen and producers; or, if that is not possible, economic mechanisms such as cooperatives and member-owned mutual organisations, as well as small to medium enterprises and vigorous anti-trust laws to restrain or eliminate overweening economic power. Christian democratic political parties such as the American Solidarity Party have advocated distributism alongside social market economy in their economic policies and party platform. == Overview == According to distributists, the right to property is a fundamental right, and the means of production should be spread as widely as possible rather than being centralised under the control of the state (statocracy), a few individuals (plutocracy), or corporations (corporatocracy). Therefore, distributism advocates a society marked by widespread property ownership. Cooperative economist Race Mathews argues that such a system is key to creating a just social order. Distributism has often been described in opposition to both laissez-faire capitalism and state socialism which distributists see as equally flawed and exploitative. Furthermore, some distributists argue that state capitalism and state socialism are the logical conclusion of capitalism as capitalism's concentrated powers eventually capture the state. Thomas Storck argues: "Both socialism and capitalism are products of the European Enlightenment and are thus modernising and anti-traditional forces. In contrast, distributism seeks to subordinate economic activity to human life as a whole, to our spiritual life, our intellectual life, our family life." A few distributists, including Dorothy Day, were influenced by the economic ideas of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and his mutualist economic theory. The lesser-known anarchist branch of distributism of Day and the Catholic Worker Movement can be considered a form of free-market libertarian socialism due to their opposition to state capitalism and state socialism. Some have seen it more as an aspiration, successfully realised in the short term by the commitment to the principles of subsidiarity and solidarity (built into financially independent local cooperatives and small family businesses). However, proponents also cite such periods as the Middle Ages as examples of the long-term historical viability of distributism. Particularly influential in the development of distributist theory were Catholic authors G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, == Background == The mid-to-late 19th century witnessed an increase in the popularity of political Catholicism across Europe. According to historian Michael A. Riff, a common feature of these movements was opposition to secularism, capitalism, and socialism. Affirmed in the encyclical was the right of all men to own property, the necessity of a system that allowed "as many as possible of the people to become owners", the duty of employers to provide safe working conditions and sufficient wages, and the right of workers to unionise. Common and government property ownership was expressly dismissed as a means of helping the poor. Around the start of the 20th century, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc drew together the disparate experiences of the various cooperatives and friendly societies in Northern England, Ireland, and Northern Europe into a coherent political theory which specifically advocated widespread private ownership of housing and control of industry through owner-operated small businesses and worker-controlled cooperatives. In the United States in the 1930s, distributism was treated in numerous essays by Chesterton, Belloc and others in The American Review, published and edited by Seward Collins. Pivotal among Belloc's and Chesterton's other works regarding distributism are The Servile State and Outline of Sanity. == Economic theory == === Private property === In Rerum novarum, Leo XIII states that people are likely to work harder and with greater commitment if they possess the land on which they labour, which in turn will benefit them and their families as workers will be able to provide for themselves and their household. He puts forward the idea that when men have the opportunity to possess property and work on it, they will "learn to love the very soil which yields in response to the labor of their hands, not only food to eat, but an abundance of the good things for themselves and those that are dear to them". He also states that owning property is beneficial for a person and his family and is, in fact, a right due to God having "given the earth for the use and enjoyment of the whole human race". G. K. Chesterton presents similar views in his 1910 book, What's Wrong with the World. Chesterton believes that whilst God has limitless capabilities, man has limited abilities in terms of creation. Therefore, man is entitled to own property and treat it as he sees fit, stating: "Property is merely the art of the democracy. It means that every man should have something that he can shape in his own image, as he is shaped in the image of heaven. But because he is not God, but only a graven image of God, his self-expression must deal with limits; properly with limits that are strict and even small." According to Belloc, the distributive state (the state which has implemented distributism) contains "an agglomeration of families of varying wealth, but by far the greater number of owners of the means of production". This broader distribution does not extend to all property but only to productive property; that is, that property which produces wealth, namely, the things needed for man to survive. It includes land, tools, and so on. Distributism allows society to have public goods such as parks and transit systems. Distributists accept that wage labour will remain a small part of the economy, with small business owners hiring employees, usually young, inexperienced people. === Redistribution of wealth and productive assets === Distributism requires either direct or indirect distribution of the means of production (productive assets)⁠—in some ideological circles including the redistribution of wealth—to a wide portion of society instead of concentrating it in the hands of a minority of wealthy elites (as seen in its criticism of certain varieties of capitalism) or the hands of the state (as seen in its criticism of certain varieties of communism and socialism). while more socialist-oriented supporters support distributism-influenced libertarian socialism. Examples of methods of distributism include direct productive property redistribution, taxation of excessive property ownership, and small-business subsidization. === Guild system === Distributists advocate in favour of the return of a guild system to help regulate industries to promote moral standards of professional conduct and economic equality among members of a guild. Such moral standards of professional conduct would typically focus on business conduct, working conditions and other issues in relation to industry specific matters such as workplace training standards. === Banks === Distributism favours cooperative and mutual banking institutions such as credit unions, building societies and mutual banks. This is considered to be the preferred alternative to private banks. == Social theory == === Human family === G. K. Chesterton considered one's home and family the centrepiece of society. He recognized the family unit and home as centrepieces of living and believed that every man should have his property and home to enable him to raise and support his family. Distributists recognize that strengthening and protecting the family requires that society be nurturing. === Subsidiarity === Distributism puts great emphasis on the principle of subsidiarity. This principle holds that no larger unit (whether social, economic, or political) should perform a function that a smaller unit can perform. In Quadragesimo anno, Pope Pius XI provided the classical statement of the principle: "Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do". === Social security === The Democratic Labour Party of Australia espouses distributism and does not hold the view of favouring the elimination of social security who, for instance, wish to "[r]aise the level of student income support payments to the Henderson poverty line". The American Solidarity Party has a platform of favouring an adequate social security system, stating: "We advocate for social safety nets that adequately provide for the material needs of the most vulnerable in society". == Politics == The position of distributists, when compared to other political philosophies, is somewhat paradoxical and complicated (see triangulation). Firmly entrenched in an organic but very English Catholicism, advocating culturally traditional and agrarian values, directly challenging the precepts of Whig history—Belloc was nonetheless an MP for the Liberal Party, and Chesterton once stated, "As much as I ever did, more than I ever did, I believe in Liberalism. But there was a rosy time of innocence when I believed in Liberals". Distributism does not favour one political order over another (political accidentalism). While some distributists such as Dorothy Day have been anarchists, it should be remembered that most Chestertonian distributists are opposed to the mere concept of anarchism. Chesterton thought that distributism would benefit from the discipline that theoretical analysis imposes and that distributism is best seen as a widely encompassing concept inside of which any number of interpretations and perspectives can fit. This concept should fit a political system broadly characterized by widespread ownership of productive property. In the United States, the American Solidarity Party generally adheres to Distributist principles as its economic model. Ross Douthat and Reihan Salam view their Grand New Party, a roadmap for revising the Republican Party in the United States, as "a book written in the distributist tradition". The Brazilian political party, Humanist Party of Solidarity, was a distributist party, alongside the National Distributist Party in England, and the Democratic Labour Party in Australia. In the first round of the 2024 Romanian presidential election, candidate Călin Georgescu, a independent candidate who advocates for a system based on distributism and sovereigntism received 23% of votes and qualified for the second round. == Influence == === E. F. Schumacher === Distributism is known to have influenced the economist E. F. Schumacher, a convert to Catholicism. === Mondragon Corporation === The Mondragon Corporation, based in the Basque Country in a region of Spain and France, was founded by a Catholic priest, Father José María Arizmendiarrieta, who seems to have been influenced by the same Catholic social and economic teachings that inspired Belloc, Chesterton, Father Vincent McNabb, and the other founders of distributism. === Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic === Distributist ideas were put into practice by The Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic, a group of artists and craftsmen who established a community in Ditchling, Sussex, England, in 1920, with the motto "Men rich in virtue studying beautifulness living in peace in their houses". The guild sought to recreate an idealised medieval lifestyle in the manner of the Arts and Crafts Movement. It survived for almost 70 years until 1989. === Big Society === The Big Society was the flagship policy idea of the 2010 UK Conservative Party general election manifesto. Some distributists claim that the rhetorical marketing of this policy was influenced by aphorisms of the distributist ideology and promotes distributism. It purportedly formed a part of the legislative programme of the Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement. == List of distributist parties == === Current === Australia – Democratic Labour Party Romania – Pirate Party Romania United Kingdom – National Distributist Party, British National Party, National Front United States – American Solidarity Party Mexico - Nationalist Front of Mexico === Historical === United Kingdom – Distributist League (1926–1940), Third Way (1990–2006) Brazil – Humanist Party of Solidarity (1995–2019) == Notable distributists == === Historical === Herbert Agar Hilaire Belloc L. Brent Bozell Jr. Cecil Chesterton G. K. Chesterton Seward Collins Gustavo Corção Dorothy Day Adam Doboszyński Horacio de la Costa J. P. de Fonseka Eric Gill Douglas Hyde Saunders Lewis Peter Maurin Vincent McNabb Arthur Penty Hilary Pepler Óscar Romero Dorothy L. Sayers William Purcell Witcutt === Contemporary === Dale Ahlquist Albert Bikaj Phillip Blond Allan C. Carlson David W. Cooney Charles A. Coulombe Sean Domencic Călin Georgescu Bill Kauffman Race Mathews John C. Médaille John Papworth Joseph Pearce Douglas Rushkoff John Sharpe Richard Williamson == Key texts == Rerum novarum (1891), papal encyclical by Pope Leo XIII. Quadragesimo anno (1931), papal encyclical by Pope Pius XI. Centesimus Annus (1991), papal encyclical by Pope John Paul II. Evangelii gaudium (2013), apostolic exhortation by Pope Francis. What's Wrong with the World (1910) by G. K. Chesterton – eText. The Outline of Sanity (1927) by G. K. Chesterton. Utopia of Usurers (1917) by G. K. Chesterton. The Servile State (1912) by Hilaire Belloc. An Essay on The Restoration of Property (1936) by Hilaire Belloc . Jobs of Our Own (1999) by Race Mathews .	[ "Catholic Church", "Hilary Pepler", "Common ownership", "Manchester University Press", "Basque Country (historical territory)", "Seward Collins", "anarchist", "statocracy", "Secular Party of Australia", "corporatocracy", "Europe", "Social solidarity", "E. F. Schumacher", "Bill Kauffman", "Cecil Chesterton", "government ownership", "Mondragon Corporation", "Republican Party (United States)", "University of Minnesota Press", "University of Queensland Press", "Rowman and Littlefield", "Lexington Books", "Big Society", "Christian Democratic", "Pope Pius XI", "Catholic Worker Movement", "Quadragesimo anno", "List of UK Conservative Party general election manifestos", "Horacio de la Costa", "BBC", "Agrarianism", "subsidiarity", "Charles A. Coulombe", "Rerum novarum", "state socialism", "Third Way (UK organisation)", "private bank", "Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement", "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon", "right to property", "Douglas Hyde (author)", "means of production", "Paulist Press", "Joseph Pearce", "social order", "Friendly society", "Pirate Party Romania", "Cornell University Press", "Social market economy", "political Catholicism", "Ross Douthat", "cooperative", "Anarchism", "Gustavo Corção", "Dale Ahlquist", "National Distributist Party", "Adam Doboszyński", "Reihan Salam", "Richard Williamson (bishop)", "Catholic University of America Press", "plutocracy", "Hilaire Belloc", "British National Party", "mutual organization", "Democratic Labour Party (Australia, 1980)", "2024 Romanian presidential election", "Small and medium-sized enterprises", "competition law", "Routledge", "libertarian socialism", "Whig history", "Scarecrow Press", "encyclical", "Patrick Allitt", "L. Brent Bozell Jr.", "family business", "Dorothy L. Sayers", "The American Review (literary journal)", "Christian democratic", "Race Mathews", "Eric Gill", "William Purcell Witcutt", "Mutualism (economic theory)", "Dorothy Day", "communism", "José María Arizmendiarrieta", "Arts and Crafts Movement", "Trade union", "John Sharpe (publisher)", "American Solidarity Party", "National Front (UK)", "Nationalist Front of Mexico", "Allan C. Carlson", "Triangulation (politics)", "economic theory", "The Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic", "J. P. de Fonseka", "Age of Enlightenment", "Saunders Lewis", "Louisiana State University", "Douglas Rushkoff", "sovereigntism", "Cambridge University Press", "Vincent McNabb", "Humanist Society of New South Wales", "Pope Leo XIII", "working conditions", "John Papworth", "Organic (model)", "Catholic Church in England and Wales", "socialism", "social market economy", "capitalism", "Arthur Penty", "Peter Maurin", "Óscar Romero", "Ditchling", "Distributist League", "G. K. Chesterton", "laissez-faire", "Humanist Party of Solidarity", "Catholic social teaching", "secularism", "The Servile State", "Călin Georgescu", "Herbert Agar", "Phillip Blond", "Cooperative economist", "Penn State University Press", "Middle Ages", "Redistribution of income and wealth" ]
8,807	Dehydroepiandrosterone	{{Chembox \| ImageFile = Dehydroepiandrosteron.svg \| ImageSize = 225px \| ImageAlt = \| ImageClass = skin-invert-image \| ImageFile1 = Dehydroepiandrosterone molecule ball.png \| ImageSize1 = 235px \| ImageAlt1 = \| IUPACName = 3β-Hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one \| SystematicName = (3aS,3bR,7S,9aR,9bS,11aS)-7-Hydroxy-9a,11a-dimethyl-2,3,3a,3b,4,6,7,8,9,9a,9b,10,11,11a-tetradecahydro-1H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-1-one \| OtherNames = Androstenolone; Prasterone; Androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one; 5,6-Didehydroepiandrosterone; Dehydroisoepiandrosterone \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 443682301 \| Section1 = \| Section2 = \| Section3 = \| Section6 = {{Chembox Pharmacology \| ATCvet = yes \| ATCCode_prefix = A14 \| ATCCode_suffix = AA07 \| ATC_Supplemental = (combination with estrogen) \| AdminRoutes = By mouth, vaginal (insert), intramuscular injection (as prasterone enanthate), injection (as prasterone sodium sulfate) \| Bioavail = 50% \| Excretion = Urine \| HalfLife = : 25 minutes: 11 hours It is one of the most abundant circulating steroids in humans. DHEA is produced in the adrenal glands, the gonads, and the brain. It functions as a metabolic intermediate in the biosynthesis of the androgen and estrogen sex steroids both in the gonads and in various other tissues. However, DHEA also has a variety of potential biological effects in its own right, binding to an array of nuclear and cell surface receptors, and acting as a neurosteroid and modulator of neurotrophic factor receptors. In the United States, DHEA is sold as an over-the-counter supplement, and medication called prasterone. ==Biological function== ===As an androgen=== DHEA and other adrenal androgens such as androstenedione, although relatively weak androgens, are responsible for the androgenic effects of adrenarche, such as early pubic and axillary hair growth, adult-type body odor, increased oiliness of hair and skin, and mild acne. DHEA is potentiated locally via conversion into testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in the skin and hair follicles. ===As an estrogen=== DHEA is a weak estrogen. ==Biological activity== ===Hormonal activity=== ====Androgen receptor==== Although it functions as an endogenous precursor to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT, DHEA has been found to possess some degree of androgenic activity in its own right, acting as a low affinity (Ki = 1 μM), weak partial agonist of the androgen receptor (AR). However, its intrinsic activity at the receptor is quite weak, and on account of that, due to competition for binding with full agonists like testosterone, it can actually behave more like an antagonist depending on circulating testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) levels, and hence, like an antiandrogen. However, its affinity for the receptor is very low, and for that reason, is unlikely to be of much significance under normal circumstances. ====Estrogen receptors==== In addition to its affinity for the androgen receptor, DHEA has also been found to bind to (and activate) the ERα and ERβ estrogen receptors with Ki values of 1.1 μM and 0.5 μM, respectively, and EC50 values of >1 μM and 200 nM, respectively. Though it was found to be a partial agonist of the ERα with a maximal efficacy of 30–70%, the concentrations required for this degree of activation make it unlikely that the activity of DHEA at this receptor is physiologically meaningful. Remarkably however, DHEA acts as a full agonist of the ERβ with a maximal response similar to or actually slightly greater than that of estradiol, and its levels in circulation and local tissues in the human body are high enough to activate the receptor to the same degree as that seen with circulating estradiol levels at somewhat higher than their maximal, non-ovulatory concentrations; indeed, when combined with estradiol with both at levels equivalent to those of their physiological concentrations, overall activation of the ERβ was doubled. Other nuclear receptor targets of DHEA besides the androgen and estrogen receptors include the PPARα, PXR, and CAR. In addition to direct interactions, DHEA is thought to regulate a handful of other proteins via indirect, genomic mechanisms, including the enzymes CYP2C11 and 11β-HSD1 – the latter of which is essential for the biosynthesis of the glucocorticoids such as cortisol and has been suggested to be involved in the antiglucocorticoid effects of DHEA – and the carrier protein IGFBP1. ===Neurosteroid activity=== ====Neurotransmitter receptors==== DHEA has been found to directly act on several neurotransmitter receptors, including acting as a positive allosteric modulator of the NMDA receptor, as a negative allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor, and as an agonist of the σ1 receptor. DHEA was subsequently also found to bind to TrkB and TrkC with high affinity, though it only activated TrkC not TrkB. DHEA and DHEA-S bound to these receptors with affinities in the low nanomolar range (around 5 nM), which were nonetheless approximately two orders of magnitude lower relative to highly potent polypeptide neurotrophins like NGF (0.01–0.1 nM). Subsequent research has suggested that DHEA and/or DHEA-S may in fact be phylogenetically ancient "ancestral" ligands of the neurotrophin receptors from early on in the evolution of the nervous system. ===Other activity=== ====G6PDH inhibitor==== DHEA is an uncompetitive inhibitor of (Ki = 17 μM; IC50 = 18.7 μM), and is able to lower levels and reduce NADPH-dependent free radical production. It is thought that this action may possibly be responsible for much of the antiinflammatory, antihyperplastic, chemopreventative, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, and antiobesic, as well as certain immunomodulating activities of DHEA (with some experimental evidence to support this notion available). However, it has also been said that inhibition of G6PDH activity by DHEA in vivo has not been observed and that the concentrations required for DHEA to inhibit G6PDH in vitro are very high, thus making the possible contribution of G6PDH inhibition to the effects of DHEA uncertain. ====Miscellaneous==== DHEA has been found to competitively inhibit TRPV1. == DHEA in regards to aging == DHEA levels peak in early adulthood and gradually decline with age. By supplementing with DHEA, some individuals aim to restore hormone levels, potentially improving energy levels, mood, and libido. ]] ===Biosynthesis=== DHEA is produced in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex under the control of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and by the gonads under the control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). It is also produced in the brain. DHEA is synthesized from cholesterol via the enzymes cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1; P450scc) and 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (CYP17A1), with pregnenolone and 17α-hydroxypregnenolone as intermediates. It is derived mostly from the adrenal cortex, with only about 10% being secreted from the gonads. Approximately 50 to 70% of circulating DHEA originates from desulfation of DHEA-S in peripheral tissues. Calorie restriction has also been shown to increase DHEA in primates. Some theorize that the increase in endogenous DHEA brought about by calorie restriction is partially responsible for the longer life expectancy known to be associated with calorie restriction. ===Distribution=== In the circulation, DHEA is mainly bound to albumin, with a small amount bound to sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). The small remainder of DHEA not associated with albumin or SHBG is unbound and free in the circulation. This occurs naturally in the adrenal cortex and during first-pass metabolism in the liver and intestines when exogenous DHEA is administered orally. DHEA-S in turn can be converted back into DHEA in peripheral tissues via steroid sulfatase (STS). The terminal half-life of DHEA is short at only 15 to 30 minutes. In contrast, the terminal half-life of DHEA-S is far longer, at 7 to 10 hours. ====Pregnancy==== During pregnancy, DHEA-S is metabolized into the sulfates of 16α-hydroxy-DHEA and 15α-hydroxy-DHEA in the fetal liver as intermediates in the production of the estrogens estriol and estetrol, respectively. ===Levels=== Prior to puberty in humans, DHEA and DHEA-S levels elevate upon differentiation of the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex. Adult men: 180–1250 ng/dL Adult women: 130–980 ng/dL Pregnant women: 135–810 ng/dL Prepubertal children (<1 year): 26–585 ng/dL Prepubertal children (1–5 years): 9–68 ng/dL Prepubertal children (6–12 years): 11–186 ng/dL Adolescent boys (Tanner II–III): 25–300 ng/dL Adolescent girls (Tanner II–III): 69–605 ng/dL Adolescent boys (Tanner IV–V): 100–400 ng/dL Adolescent girls (Tanner IV–V): 165–690 ng/dL ===Measurement=== As almost all DHEA is derived from the adrenal glands, blood measurements of DHEA-S/DHEA are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome tend to have elevated levels of DHEA-S. ==Chemistry== DHEA, also known as androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one, is a naturally occurring androstane steroid and a 17-ketosteroid. It is closely related structurally to androstenediol (androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol), androstenedione (androst-4-ene-3,17-dione), and testosterone (androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one). These isomers are also technically "DHEA", since they are dehydroepiandrosterones in which hydrogens are removed from the epiandrosterone skeleton. Dehydroandrosterone (DHA) is the 3α-epimer of DHEA and is also an endogenous androgen. ==History== DHEA was first isolated from human urine in 1934 by Adolf Butenandt and Kurt Tscherning.	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8,811	Discrete Fourier transform	In mathematics, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) converts a finite sequence of equally-spaced samples of a function into a same-length sequence of equally-spaced samples of the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which is a complex-valued function of frequency. The interval at which the DTFT is sampled is the reciprocal of the duration of the input sequence. An inverse DFT (IDFT) is a Fourier series, using the DTFT samples as coefficients of complex sinusoids at the corresponding DTFT frequencies. It has the same sample-values as the original input sequence. The DFT is therefore said to be a frequency domain representation of the original input sequence. If the original sequence spans all the non-zero values of a function, its DTFT is continuous (and periodic), and the DFT provides discrete samples of one cycle. If the original sequence is one cycle of a periodic function, the DFT provides all the non-zero values of one DTFT cycle. The DFT is used in the Fourier analysis of many practical applications. Consider the unitary form \mathbf{U} defined above for the DFT of length N, where \mathbf{U}_{m,n} = \frac 1{\sqrt{N}}\omega_N^{(m-1)(n-1)} = \frac 1{\sqrt{N}}e^{-\frac{i 2\pi}N (m-1)(n-1)}. This matrix satisfies the matrix polynomial equation: \mathbf{U}^4 = \mathbf{I}. This can be seen from the inverse properties above: operating \mathbf{U} twice gives the original data in reverse order, so operating \mathbf{U} four times gives back the original data and is thus the identity matrix. This means that the eigenvalues \lambda satisfy the equation: \lambda^4 = 1. Therefore, the eigenvalues of \mathbf{U} are the fourth roots of unity: \lambda is +1, −1, +i, or −i. Since there are only four distinct eigenvalues for this N\times N matrix, they have some multiplicity. The multiplicity gives the number of linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue. (There are N independent eigenvectors; a unitary matrix is never defective.) The problem of their multiplicity was solved by McClellan and Parks (1972), although it was later shown to have been equivalent to a problem solved by Gauss (Dickinson and Steiglitz, 1982). The multiplicity depends on the value of N modulo 4, and is given by the following table: Otherwise stated, the characteristic polynomial of \mathbf{U} is: \det (\lambda I - \mathbf{U})= (\lambda-1)^{\left\lfloor \tfrac {N+4}{4}\right\rfloor} (\lambda+1)^{\left\lfloor \tfrac {N+2}{4}\right\rfloor} (\lambda+i)^{\left\lfloor \tfrac {N+1}{4}\right\rfloor} (\lambda-i)^{\left\lfloor \tfrac {N-1}{4}\right\rfloor}. No simple analytical formula for general eigenvectors is known. Moreover, the eigenvectors are not unique because any linear combination of eigenvectors for the same eigenvalue is also an eigenvector for that eigenvalue. Various researchers have proposed different choices of eigenvectors, selected to satisfy useful properties like orthogonality and to have "simple" forms (e.g., McClellan and Parks, 1972; Dickinson and Steiglitz, 1982; Grünbaum, 1982; Atakishiyev and Wolf, 1997; Candan et al., 2000; Hanna et al., 2004; Gurevich and Hadani, 2008). One method to construct DFT eigenvectors to an eigenvalue \lambda is based on the linear combination of operators: \mathcal{P}_\lambda=\frac{1}{4}\left( \mathbf{I}+\lambda^{-1}\mathbf{U}+\lambda^{-2}\mathbf{U}^2+\lambda^{-3} \mathbf{U}^3\right) For an arbitrary vector \mathbf{v}, vector \mathbf{u}(\lambda)=\mathcal{P}_{\lambda}\mathbf{v} satisfies: \textbf{U}\mathbf{u}(\lambda)=\lambda \mathbf{u}(\lambda) hence, vector \mathbf{u}(\lambda) is, indeed, the eigenvector of DFT matrix \mathbf{U}. Operators \mathcal{P}_{\lambda} project vectors onto subspaces which are orthogonal for each value of \lambda. A straightforward approach to obtain DFT eigenvectors is to discretize an eigenfunction of the continuous Fourier transform, of which the most famous is the Gaussian function. Since periodic summation of the function means discretizing its frequency spectrum and discretization means periodic summation of the spectrum, the discretized and periodically summed Gaussian function yields an eigenvector of the discrete transform: F(m) = \sum_{k\in\mathbb{Z}} \exp\left(-\frac{\pi\cdot(m+N\cdot k)^2}{N}\right). The closed form expression for the series can be expressed by Jacobi theta functions as F(m) = \frac1{\sqrt{N}}\vartheta_3\left(\frac{\pi m}N, \exp\left(-\frac{\pi}N \right)\right). Several other simple closed-form analytical eigenvectors for special DFT period N were found (Kong, 2008 and Casper-Yakimov, 2024): For DFT period N = 2L + 1 = 4K + 1, where K is an integer, the following is an eigenvector of DFT: F(m) = \prod_{s=K+1}^L \left[\cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}m\right) - \cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}s\right)\right] For DFT period N = 2L = 4K, where K is an integer, the following are eigenvectors of DFT: F(m) = \sin\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}m\right) \prod_{s=K+1}^{L-1}\left[\cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}m\right)- \cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}s\right)\right] F(m) = \cos\left(\frac{\pi}{N}m\right)\prod_{s=K+1}^{3K-1} \sin\left(\frac{\pi(s-m)}{N}\right) For DFT period N = 4K - 1, where K is an integer, the following are eigenvectors of DFT: F(m) = \sin\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}m\right)\prod_{s=K+1}^{3K-2} \sin\left(\frac{\pi(s-m)}{N}\right) F(m) = \left(\cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}m\right)-\cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}K\right)\pm\sin\left(\frac{2\pi}{N}K\right)\right)\prod_{s=K+1}^{3K-2} \sin\left(\frac{\pi(s-m)}{N}\right) The choice of eigenvectors of the DFT matrix has become important in recent years in order to define a discrete analogue of the fractional Fourier transform—the DFT matrix can be taken to fractional powers by exponentiating the eigenvalues (e.g., Rubio and Santhanam, 2005). For the continuous Fourier transform, the natural orthogonal eigenfunctions are the Hermite functions, so various discrete analogues of these have been employed as the eigenvectors of the DFT, such as the Kravchuk polynomials (Atakishiyev and Wolf, 1997). The "best" choice of eigenvectors to define a fractional discrete Fourier transform remains an open question, however. === Uncertainty principles === ==== Probabilistic uncertainty principle ==== If the random variable is constrained by \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} \|X_n\|^2 = 1 , then P_n=\|X_n\|^2 may be considered to represent a discrete probability mass function of , with an associated probability mass function constructed from the transformed variable, Q_m = N \|x_m\|^2 . For the case of continuous functions P(x) and Q(k), the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that D_0(X)D_0(x)\ge\frac{1}{16\pi^2} where D_0(X) and D_0(x) are the variances of \|X\|^2 and \|x\|^2 respectively, with the equality attained in the case of a suitably normalized Gaussian distribution. Although the variances may be analogously defined for the DFT, an analogous uncertainty principle is not useful, because the uncertainty will not be shift-invariant. Still, a meaningful uncertainty principle has been introduced by Massar and Spindel. However, the Hirschman entropic uncertainty will have a useful analog for the case of the DFT. The Hirschman uncertainty principle is expressed in terms of the Shannon entropy of the two probability functions. In the discrete case, the Shannon entropies are defined as H(X)=-\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} P_n\ln P_n and H(x)=-\sum_{m=0}^{N-1} Q_m\ln Q_m , and the entropic uncertainty principle becomes H(X)+H(x) \ge \ln(N) . The equality is obtained for P_n equal to translations and modulations of a suitably normalized Kronecker comb of period A where A is any exact integer divisor of N. The probability mass function Q_m will then be proportional to a suitably translated Kronecker comb of period B=N/A. ==== Deterministic uncertainty principle ==== There is also a well-known deterministic uncertainty principle that uses signal sparsity (or the number of non-zero coefficients). Let \left\\|x\right\\|_0 and \left\\|X\right\\|_0 be the number of non-zero elements of the time and frequency sequences x_0,x_1,\ldots,x_{N-1} and X_0,X_1,\ldots,X_{N-1}, respectively. Then, N \leq \left\\|x\right\\|_0 \cdot \left\\|X\right\\|_0. As an immediate consequence of the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means, one also has 2\sqrt{N} \leq \left\\|x\right\\|_0 + \left\\|X\right\\|_0. Both uncertainty principles were shown to be tight for specifically chosen "picket-fence" sequences (discrete impulse trains), and find practical use for signal recovery applications. === DFT of real and purely imaginary signals === If x_0, \ldots, x_{N-1} are real numbers, as they often are in practical applications, then the DFT X_0, \ldots, X_{N-1} is even symmetric: x_n \in \mathbb{R} \quad \forall n \in \{0,\ldots,N-1 \} \implies X_k = X_{-k \mod N}^* \quad \forall k \in \{0,\ldots,N-1 \}, where X^\, denotes complex conjugation. It follows that for even N X_0 and X_{N/2} are real-valued, and the remainder of the DFT is completely specified by just N/2-1 complex numbers. If x_0, \ldots, x_{N-1} are purely imaginary numbers, then the DFT X_0, \ldots, X_{N-1} is odd symmetric: x_n \in i \mathbb{R} \quad \forall n \in \{0,\ldots,N-1 \} \implies X_k = -X_{-k \mod N}^ \quad \forall k \in \{0,\ldots,N-1 \}, where X^\, denotes complex conjugation. ==Generalized DFT (shifted and non-linear phase)== It is possible to shift the transform sampling in time and/or frequency domain by some real shifts a and b, respectively. This is sometimes known as a generalized DFT (or GDFT), also called the shifted DFT or offset DFT, and has analogous properties to the ordinary DFT: X_k = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n e^{-\frac{i 2 \pi}{N} (k+b) (n+a)} \quad \quad k = 0, \dots, N-1. Most often, shifts of 1/2 (half a sample) are used. While the ordinary DFT corresponds to a periodic signal in both time and frequency domains, a=1/2 produces a signal that is anti-periodic in frequency domain (X_{k+N} = - X_k) and vice versa for b=1/2. Thus, the specific case of a = b = 1/2 is known as an odd-time odd-frequency discrete Fourier transform (or O2 DFT). Such shifted transforms are most often used for symmetric data, to represent different boundary symmetries, and for real-symmetric data they correspond to different forms of the discrete cosine and sine transforms. Another interesting choice is a=b=-(N-1)/2, which is called the centered DFT (or CDFT). The centered DFT has the useful property that, when N is a multiple of four, all four of its eigenvalues (see above) have equal multiplicities (Rubio and Santhanam, 2005) The term GDFT is also used for the non-linear phase extensions of DFT. Hence, GDFT method provides a generalization for constant amplitude orthogonal block transforms including linear and non-linear phase types. GDFT is a framework to improve time and frequency domain properties of the traditional DFT, e.g. auto/cross-correlations, by the addition of the properly designed phase shaping function (non-linear, in general) to the original linear phase functions (Akansu and Agirman-Tosun, 2010). The discrete Fourier transform can be viewed as a special case of the z-transform, evaluated on the unit circle in the complex plane; more general z-transforms correspond to complex shifts a and b above. ==Multidimensional DFT== The ordinary DFT transforms a one-dimensional sequence or array x_n that is a function of exactly one discrete variable n. The multidimensional DFT of a multidimensional array x_{n_1, n_2, \dots, n_d} that is a function of d discrete variables n_\ell = 0, 1, \dots, N_\ell-1 for \ell in 1, 2, \dots, d is defined by: X_{k_1, k_2, \dots, k_d} = \sum_{n_1=0}^{N_1-1} \left(\omega_{N_1}^{~k_1 n_1} \sum_{n_2=0}^{N_2-1} \left( \omega_{N_2}^{~k_2 n_2} \cdots \sum_{n_d=0}^{N_d-1} \omega_{N_d}^{~k_d n_d}\cdot x_{n_1, n_2, \dots, n_d} \right) \right) , where \omega_{N_\ell} = \exp(-i 2\pi/N_\ell) as above and the d output indices run from k_\ell = 0, 1, \dots, N_\ell-1. This is more compactly expressed in vector notation, where we define \mathbf{n} = (n_1, n_2, \dots, n_d) and \mathbf{k} = (k_1, k_2, \dots, k_d) as d-dimensional vectors of indices from 0 to \mathbf{N} - 1, which we define as \mathbf{N} - 1 = (N_1 - 1, N_2 - 1, \dots, N_d - 1): X_\mathbf{k} = \sum_{\mathbf{n}=\mathbf{0}}^{\mathbf{N}-1} e^{-i 2\pi \mathbf{k} \cdot (\mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N})} x_\mathbf{n} \, , where the division \mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N} is defined as \mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N} = (n_1/N_1, \dots, n_d/N_d) to be performed element-wise, and the sum denotes the set of nested summations above. The inverse of the multi-dimensional DFT is, analogous to the one-dimensional case, given by: x_\mathbf{n} = \frac{1}{\prod_{\ell=1}^d N_\ell} \sum_{\mathbf{k}=\mathbf{0}}^{\mathbf{N}-1} e^{i 2\pi \mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{N})} X_\mathbf{k} \, . As the one-dimensional DFT expresses the input x_n as a superposition of sinusoids, the multidimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of plane waves, or multidimensional sinusoids. The direction of oscillation in space is \mathbf{k} / \mathbf{N}. The amplitudes are X_\mathbf{k}. This decomposition is of great importance for everything from digital image processing (two-dimensional) to solving partial differential equations. The solution is broken up into plane waves. The multidimensional DFT can be computed by the composition of a sequence of one-dimensional DFTs along each dimension. In the two-dimensional case x_{n_1,n_2} the N_1 independent DFTs of the rows (i.e., along n_2) are computed first to form a new array y_{n_1,k_2}. Then the N_2 independent DFTs of y along the columns (along n_1) are computed to form the final result X_{k_1,k_2}. Alternatively the columns can be computed first and then the rows. The order is immaterial because the nested summations above commute. An algorithm to compute a one-dimensional DFT is thus sufficient to efficiently compute a multidimensional DFT. This approach is known as the row-column algorithm. There are also intrinsically multidimensional FFT algorithms. === The real-input multidimensional DFT === For input data x_{n_1, n_2, \dots, n_d} consisting of real numbers, the DFT outputs have a conjugate symmetry similar to the one-dimensional case above: X_{k_1, k_2, \dots, k_d} = X_{N_1 - k_1, N_2 - k_2, \dots, N_d - k_d}^ , where the star again denotes complex conjugation and the \ell-th subscript is again interpreted modulo N_\ell (for \ell = 1,2,\ldots,d). == Applications == The DFT has seen wide usage across a large number of fields; we only sketch a few examples below (see also the references at the end). All applications of the DFT depend crucially on the availability of a fast algorithm to compute discrete Fourier transforms and their inverses, a fast Fourier transform. === Spectral analysis === When the DFT is used for signal spectral analysis, the \{x_n\} sequence usually represents a finite set of uniformly spaced time-samples of some signal x(t)\,, where t represents time. The conversion from continuous time to samples (discrete-time) changes the underlying Fourier transform of x(t) into a discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which generally entails a type of distortion called aliasing. Choice of an appropriate sample-rate (see Nyquist rate) is the key to minimizing that distortion. Similarly, the conversion from a very long (or infinite) sequence to a manageable size entails a type of distortion called leakage, which is manifested as a loss of detail (a.k.a. resolution) in the DTFT. Choice of an appropriate sub-sequence length is the primary key to minimizing that effect. When the available data (and time to process it) is more than the amount needed to attain the desired frequency resolution, a standard technique is to perform multiple DFTs, for example to create a spectrogram. If the desired result is a power spectrum and noise or randomness is present in the data, averaging the magnitude components of the multiple DFTs is a useful procedure to reduce the variance of the spectrum (also called a periodogram in this context); two examples of such techniques are the Welch method and the Bartlett method; the general subject of estimating the power spectrum of a noisy signal is called spectral estimation. A final source of distortion (or perhaps illusion) is the DFT itself, because it is just a discrete sampling of the DTFT, which is a function of a continuous frequency domain. That can be mitigated by increasing the resolution of the DFT. That procedure is illustrated at . The procedure is sometimes referred to as zero-padding, which is a particular implementation used in conjunction with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. The inefficiency of performing multiplications and additions with zero-valued "samples" is more than offset by the inherent efficiency of the FFT. As already stated, leakage imposes a limit on the inherent resolution of the DTFT, so there is a practical limit to the benefit that can be obtained from a fine-grained DFT. Steps to Perform Spectral Analysis of Audio Signal 1.Recording and Pre-Processing the Audio Signal Begin by recording the audio signal, which could be a spoken password, music, or any other sound. Once recorded, the audio signal is denoted as x[n], where n represents the discrete time index. To enhance the accuracy of spectral analysis, any unwanted noise should be reduced using appropriate filtering techniques. 2.Plotting the Original Time-Domain Signal After noise reduction, the audio signal is plotted in the time domain to visualize its characteristics over time. This helps in understanding the amplitude variations of the signal as a function of time, which provides an initial insight into the signal's behavior. 3.Transforming the Signal from Time Domain to Frequency Domain The next step is to transform the audio signal from the time domain to the frequency domain using the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The DFT is defined as: X[k] = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x[n] \cdot e^{-j \frac{2 \pi}{N}kn} where N is the total number of samples, k represents the frequency index, and X[k] is the complex-valued frequency spectrum of the signal. The DFT allows for decomposing the signal into its constituent frequency components, providing a representation that indicates which frequencies are present and their respective magnitudes. 4.Plotting the Magnitude Spectrum The magnitude of the frequency-domain representation X[k] is plotted to analyze the spectral content. The magnitude spectrum shows how the energy of the signal is distributed across different frequencies, which is useful for identifying prominent frequency components. It is calculated as: \|X[k]\| = \sqrt{\text{Re}(X[k])^2 + \text{Im}(X[k])^2} === Example === Analyze a discrete-time audio signal in the frequency domain using the DFT to identify its frequency components ==== Given Data ==== Let's consider a simple discrete-time audio signal represented as: x[n] = \{ 1, 0.5, -0.5, -1 \} where n represents discrete time samples of the signal. 1.Time-Domain Signal Representation The given time-domain signal is: x[0] = 1, \quad x[1] = 0.5, \quad x[2] = -0.5, \quad x[3] = -1 ===== 2.DFT Calculation ===== The DFT is calculated using the formula: X[k] = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x[n] \cdot e^{-j \frac{2 \pi}{N}kn} where N is the number of samples (in this case, N=4). Let's compute X[k] for k=0,1,2,3 For k=0: X[0] = 1 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 0 \cdot 0} + 0.5 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 0 \cdot 1} + (-0.5) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 0 \cdot 2} + (-1) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 0 \cdot 3} X[0] = 1 + 0.5 - 0.5 - 1 = 0 For k=1: X[1] = 1 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 1 \cdot 0} + 0.5 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 1 \cdot 1} + (-0.5) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 1 \cdot 2} + (-1) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 1 \cdot 3} X[1] = 1 + 0.5(-j) + (-0.5)(-1) + (-1)(j) X[1] = 1 - 0.5j + 0.5 - j = 1.5 - 1.5j For k=2: X[2] = 1 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 2 \cdot 0} + 0.5 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 2 \cdot 1} + (-0.5) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 2 \cdot 2} + (-1) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 2 \cdot 3} X[2] = 1 + 0.5(-1) + (-0.5)(1) + (-1)(-1) X[2] = 1 - 0.5 - 0.5 + 1 = 1 For k=3: X[3] = 1 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 3 \cdot 0} + 0.5 \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 3 \cdot 1} + (-0.5) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 3 \cdot 2} + (-1) \cdot e^{-j \frac{2\pi}{4} \cdot 3 \cdot 3} X[3] = 1 + 0.5j + (-0.5)(-1) + (-1)(-j) X[3] = 1 + 0.5j + 0.5 + j = 1.5 + 1.5j ===== 3.Magnitude Spectrum ===== The magnitude of X[k] represents the strength of each frequency component: \|X[0]\| = 0, \quad \|X[1]\| = \sqrt{(1.5)^2 + (-1.5)^2} = \sqrt{4.5} \approx 2.12 \|X[2]\| = 1, \quad \|X[3]\| = \sqrt{(1.5)^2 + (1.5)^2} = \sqrt{4.5} \approx 2.12 The resulting frequency components indicate the distribution of signal energy at different frequencies. The peaks in the magnitude spectrum correspond to dominant frequencies in the original signal. === Optics, diffraction, and tomography === The discrete Fourier transform is widely used with spatial frequencies in modeling the way that light, electrons, and other probes travel through optical systems and scatter from objects in two and three dimensions. The dual (direct/reciprocal) vector space of three dimensional objects further makes available a three dimensional reciprocal lattice, whose construction from translucent object shadows (via the Fourier slice theorem) allows tomographic reconstruction of three dimensional objects with a wide range of applications e.g. in modern medicine. === Filter bank === See and . ===Data compression=== The field of digital signal processing relies heavily on operations in the frequency domain (i.e. on the Fourier transform). For example, several lossy image and sound compression methods employ the discrete Fourier transform: the signal is cut into short segments, each is transformed, and then the Fourier coefficients of high frequencies, which are assumed to be unnoticeable, are discarded. The decompressor computes the inverse transform based on this reduced number of Fourier coefficients. (Compression applications often use a specialized form of the DFT, the discrete cosine transform or sometimes the modified discrete cosine transform.) Some relatively recent compression algorithms, however, use wavelet transforms, which give a more uniform compromise between time and frequency domain than obtained by chopping data into segments and transforming each segment. In the case of JPEG2000, this avoids the spurious image features that appear when images are highly compressed with the original JPEG. ===Partial differential equations=== Discrete Fourier transforms are often used to solve partial differential equations, where again the DFT is used as an approximation for the Fourier series (which is recovered in the limit of infinite N). The advantage of this approach is that it expands the signal in complex exponentials e^{inx}, which are eigenfunctions of differentiation: {\text{d} \big( e^{inx} \big) }/\text{d}x = in e^{inx}. Thus, in the Fourier representation, differentiation is simple—we just multiply by in. (However, the choice of n is not unique due to aliasing; for the method to be convergent, a choice similar to that in the trigonometric interpolation section above should be used.) A linear differential equation with constant coefficients is transformed into an easily solvable algebraic equation. One then uses the inverse DFT to transform the result back into the ordinary spatial representation. Such an approach is called a spectral method. ===Polynomial multiplication=== Suppose we wish to compute the polynomial product c(x) = a(x) · b(x). The ordinary product expression for the coefficients of c involves a linear (acyclic) convolution, where indices do not "wrap around." This can be rewritten as a cyclic convolution by taking the coefficient vectors for a(x) and b(x) with constant term first, then appending zeros so that the resultant coefficient vectors a and b have dimension . Then, \mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} * \mathbf{b} Where c is the vector of coefficients for c(x), and the convolution operator *\, is defined so c_n = \sum_{m=0}^{d-1}a_m b_{n-m\ \mathrm{mod}\ d} \qquad\qquad\qquad n=0,1\dots,d-1 But convolution becomes multiplication under the DFT: \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{c}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{a})\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{b}) Here the vector product is taken elementwise. Thus the coefficients of the product polynomial c(x) are just the terms 0, ..., deg(a(x)) + deg(b(x)) of the coefficient vector \mathbf{c} = \mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{a})\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{b})). With a fast Fourier transform, the resulting algorithm takes O(N log N) arithmetic operations. Due to its simplicity and speed, the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm, which is limited to composite sizes, is often chosen for the transform operation. In this case, d should be chosen as the smallest integer greater than the sum of the input polynomial degrees that is factorizable into small prime factors (e.g. 2, 3, and 5, depending upon the FFT implementation). ====Multiplication of large integers==== The fastest known algorithms for the multiplication of very large integers use the polynomial multiplication method outlined above. Integers can be treated as the value of a polynomial evaluated specifically at the number base, with the coefficients of the polynomial corresponding to the digits in that base (ex. 123 = 1 \cdot 10^2 + 2 \cdot 10^1 + 3 \cdot 10^0). After polynomial multiplication, a relatively low-complexity carry-propagation step completes the multiplication. ==== Convolution ==== When data is convolved with a function with wide support, such as for downsampling by a large sampling ratio, because of the Convolution theorem and the FFT algorithm, it may be faster to transform it, multiply pointwise by the transform of the filter and then reverse transform it. Alternatively, a good filter is obtained by simply truncating the transformed data and re-transforming the shortened data set. ==Some discrete Fourier transform pairs== ==Generalizations== === Representation theory === The DFT can be interpreted as a complex-valued representation of the finite cyclic group. In other words, a sequence of n complex numbers can be thought of as an element of n-dimensional complex space \mathbb{C}^n or equivalently a function f from the finite cyclic group of order n to the complex numbers, \mathbb{Z}_n \mapsto \mathbb{C}. So f is a class function on the finite cyclic group, and thus can be expressed as a linear combination of the irreducible characters of this group, which are the roots of unity. From this point of view, one may generalize the DFT to representation theory generally, or more narrowly to the representation theory of finite groups. More narrowly still, one may generalize the DFT by either changing the target (taking values in a field other than the complex numbers), or the domain (a group other than a finite cyclic group), as detailed in the sequel. === Other fields === Many of the properties of the DFT only depend on the fact that e^{-\frac{i 2 \pi}{N}} is a primitive root of unity, sometimes denoted \omega_N or W_N (so that \omega_N^N = 1). Such properties include the completeness, orthogonality, Plancherel/Parseval, periodicity, shift, convolution, and unitarity properties above, as well as many FFT algorithms. For this reason, the discrete Fourier transform can be defined by using roots of unity in fields other than the complex numbers, and such generalizations are commonly called number-theoretic transforms (NTTs) in the case of finite fields. For more information, see number-theoretic transform and discrete Fourier transform (general). === Other finite groups === The standard DFT acts on a sequence x0, x1, ..., xN−1 of complex numbers, which can be viewed as a function {0, 1, ..., N − 1} → C. The multidimensional DFT acts on multidimensional sequences, which can be viewed as functions \{0, 1, \ldots, N_1-1\} \times \cdots \times \{0, 1, \ldots, N_d-1\} \to \mathbb{C}. This suggests the generalization to Fourier transforms on arbitrary finite groups, which act on functions G → C where G is a finite group. In this framework, the standard DFT is seen as the Fourier transform on a cyclic group, while the multidimensional DFT is a Fourier transform on a direct sum of cyclic groups. Further, Fourier transform can be on cosets of a group. ==Alternatives== There are various alternatives to the DFT for various applications, prominent among which are wavelets. The analog of the DFT is the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). From the point of view of time–frequency analysis, a key limitation of the Fourier transform is that it does not include location information, only frequency information, and thus has difficulty in representing transients. As wavelets have location as well as frequency, they are better able to represent location, at the expense of greater difficulty representing frequency. For details, see comparison of the discrete wavelet transform with the discrete Fourier transform.	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8,815	Dual polyhedron	In geometry, every polyhedron is associated with a second dual structure, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other. Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all can also be constructed as geometric polyhedra. Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron. Duality preserves the symmetries of a polyhedron. Therefore, for many classes of polyhedra defined by their symmetries, the duals belong to a corresponding symmetry class. For example, the regular polyhedrathe (convex) Platonic solids and (star) Kepler–Poinsot polyhedraform dual pairs, where the regular tetrahedron is self-dual. The dual of an isogonal polyhedron (one in which any two vertices are equivalent under symmetries of the polyhedron) is an isohedral polyhedron (one in which any two faces are equivalent [...]), and vice versa. The dual of an isotoxal polyhedron (one in which any two edges are equivalent [...]) is also isotoxal. Duality is closely related to polar reciprocity, a geometric transformation that, when applied to a convex polyhedron, realizes the dual polyhedron as another convex polyhedron. ==Kinds of duality== There are many kinds of duality. The kinds most relevant to elementary polyhedra are polar reciprocity and topological or abstract duality. ===Polar reciprocation=== In Euclidean space, the dual of a polyhedron P is often defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a sphere. Here, each vertex (pole) is associated with a face plane (polar plane or just polar) so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, and the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. When the sphere has radius r and is centered at the origin (so that it is defined by the equation x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = r^2), then the polar dual of a convex polyhedron P is defined as where q \cdot p denotes the standard dot product of q and p. Typically when no sphere is specified in the construction of the dual, then the unit sphere is used, meaning r=1 in the above definitions. For each face plane of P described by the linear equation x_0x + y_0y + z_0z = r^2, the corresponding vertex of the dual polyhedron P^\circ will have coordinates (x_0,y_0,z_0). Similarly, each vertex of P corresponds to a face plane of P^\circ, and each edge line of P corresponds to an edge line of P^\circ. The correspondence between the vertices, edges, and faces of P and P^\circ reverses inclusion. For example, if an edge of P contains a vertex, the corresponding edge of P^\circ will be contained in the corresponding face. For a polyhedron with a center of symmetry, it is common to use a sphere centered on this point, as in the Dorman Luke construction (mentioned below). Failing that, for a polyhedron with a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere (one with all edges as tangents), this can be used. However, it is possible to reciprocate a polyhedron about any sphere, and the resulting form of the dual will depend on the size and position of the sphere; as the sphere is varied, so too is the dual form. The choice of center for the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If a polyhedron in Euclidean space has a face plane, edge line, or vertex lying on the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will go to infinity. Since Euclidean space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, may be formed by adding the required 'plane at infinity'. Some theorists prefer to stick to Euclidean space and say that there is no dual. Meanwhile, found a way to represent these infinite duals, in a manner suitable for making models (of some finite portion). The concept of duality here is closely related to the duality in projective geometry, where lines and edges are interchanged. Projective polarity works well enough for convex polyhedra. But for non-convex figures such as star polyhedra, when we seek to rigorously define this form of polyhedral duality in terms of projective polarity, various problems appear. Because of the definitional issues for geometric duality of non-convex polyhedra, argues that any proper definition of a non-convex polyhedron should include a notion of a dual polyhedron. ====Canonical duals==== Any convex polyhedron can be distorted into a canonical form, in which a unit midsphere (or intersphere) exists tangent to every edge, and such that the average position of the points of tangency is the center of the sphere. This form is unique up to congruences. If we reciprocate such a canonical polyhedron about its midsphere, the dual polyhedron will share the same edge-tangency points, and thus will also be canonical. It is the canonical dual, and the two together form a canonical dual compound. ====Dorman Luke construction==== For a uniform polyhedron, each face of the dual polyhedron may be derived from the original polyhedron's corresponding vertex figure by using the Dorman Luke construction. ===Topological duality=== Even when a pair of polyhedra cannot be obtained by reciprocation from each other, they may be called duals of each other as long as the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges of one correspond to the edges of the other, in an incidence-preserving way. Such pairs of polyhedra are still topologically or abstractly dual. The vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron form a graph (the 1-skeleton of the polyhedron), embedded on the surface of the polyhedron (a topological sphere). This graph can be projected to form a Schlegel diagram on a flat plane. The graph formed by the vertices and edges of the dual polyhedron is the dual graph of the original graph. More generally, for any polyhedron whose faces form a closed surface, the vertices and edges of the polyhedron form a graph embedded on this surface, and the vertices and edges of the (abstract) dual polyhedron form the dual graph of the original graph. An abstract polyhedron is a certain kind of partially ordered set (poset) of elements, such that incidences, or connections, between elements of the set correspond to incidences between elements (faces, edges, vertices) of a polyhedron. Every such poset has a dual poset, formed by reversing all of the order relations. If the poset is visualized as a Hasse diagram, the dual poset can be visualized simply by turning the Hasse diagram upside down. Every geometric polyhedron corresponds to an abstract polyhedron in this way, and has an abstract dual polyhedron. However, for some types of non-convex geometric polyhedra, the dual polyhedra may not be realizable geometrically. ==Self-dual polyhedra== Topologically, a polyhedron is said to be self-dual if its dual has exactly the same connectivity between vertices, edges, and faces. Abstractly, they have the same Hasse diagram. Geometrically, it is not only topologically self-dual, but its polar reciprocal about a certain point, typically its centroid, is a similar figure. For example, the dual of a regular tetrahedron is another regular tetrahedron, reflected through the origin. Every polygon is topologically self-dual, since it has the same number of vertices as edges, and these are switched by duality. But it is not necessarily self-dual (up to rigid motion, for instance). Every polygon has a regular form which is geometrically self-dual about its intersphere: all angles are congruent, as are all edges, so under duality these congruences swap. Similarly, every topologically self-dual convex polyhedron can be realized by an equivalent geometrically self-dual polyhedron, its canonical polyhedron, reciprocal about the center of the midsphere. There are infinitely many geometrically self-dual polyhedra. The simplest infinite family is the pyramids. Another infinite family, elongated pyramids, consists of polyhedra that can be roughly described as a pyramid sitting on top of a prism (with the same number of sides). Adding a frustum (pyramid with the top cut off) below the prism generates another infinite family, and so on. There are many other convex self-dual polyhedra. For example, there are 6 different ones with 7 vertices and 16 with 8 vertices. A self-dual non-convex icosahedron with hexagonal faces was identified by Brückner in 1900. Other non-convex self-dual polyhedra have been found, under certain definitions of non-convex polyhedra and their duals. ==Dual polytopes and tessellations== Duality can be generalized to n-dimensional space and dual polytopes; in two dimensions these are called dual polygons. The vertices of one polytope correspond to the (n − 1)-dimensional elements, or facets, of the other, and the j points that define a (j − 1)-dimensional element will correspond to j hyperplanes that intersect to give a (n − j)-dimensional element. The dual of an n-dimensional tessellation or honeycomb can be defined similarly. In general, the facets of a polytope's dual will be the topological duals of the polytope's vertex figures. For the polar reciprocals of the regular and uniform polytopes, the dual facets will be polar reciprocals of the original's vertex figure. For example, in four dimensions, the vertex figure of the 600-cell is the icosahedron; the dual of the 600-cell is the 120-cell, whose facets are dodecahedra, which are the dual of the icosahedron. ===Self-dual polytopes and tessellations=== The primary class of self-dual polytopes are regular polytopes with palindromic Schläfli symbols. All regular polygons, {a} are self-dual, polyhedra of the form {a,a}, 4-polytopes of the form {a,b,a}, 5-polytopes of the form {a,b,b,a}, etc. The self-dual regular polytopes are: All regular polygons, {a}. Regular tetrahedron: {3,3} In general, all regular n-simplexes, {3,3,...,3} The regular 24-cell in 4 dimensions, {3,4,3}. The great 120-cell {5,5/2,5} and the grand stellated 120-cell {5/2,5,5/2} The self-dual (infinite) regular Euclidean honeycombs are: Apeirogon: {∞} Square tiling: {4,4} Cubic honeycomb: {4,3,4} In general, all regular n-dimensional Euclidean hypercubic honeycombs: {4,3,...,3,4}. The self-dual (infinite) regular hyperbolic honeycombs are: Compact hyperbolic tilings: {5,5}, {6,6}, ... {p,p}. Paracompact hyperbolic tiling: {∞,∞} Compact hyperbolic honeycombs: {3,5,3}, {5,3,5}, and {5,3,3,5} Paracompact hyperbolic honeycombs: {3,6,3}, {6,3,6}, {4,4,4}, and {3,3,4,3,3}	[ "Order-4 square tiling honeycomb", "Java (programming language)", "prism (geometry)", "Isogonal figure", "Infinite-order apeirogonal tiling", "Pyramid (geometry)", "dot product", "Apeirogon", "Harmonices Mundi", "5-polytope", "Hasse diagram", "PDF", "Honeycomb (geometry)", "Order-6 hexagonal tiling honeycomb", "polyhedron", "elongated pyramid", "Self-dual polygon", "duality (projective geometry)", "Conway polyhedron notation", "Graph theory", "dual graph", "midsphere", "Cubic honeycomb", "Dual uniform polyhedron", "regular polytope", "regular polygon", "Icosahedral honeycomb", "Isotoxal figure", "Euclidean space", "Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra", "n-skeleton", "Square tiling", "dual polygon", "tetrahedron", "projective geometry", "center of symmetry", "Face (geometry)", "palindromic", "16-cell honeycomb honeycomb", "polytope", "Canonical polyhedron", "Order-6 hexagonal tiling", "Kepler", "Isohedral figure", "Triangular tiling honeycomb", "Regular icosahedron", "Order-5 pentagonal tiling", "Symmetry", "reflection through the origin", "Uniform dual polyhedron", "polar reciprocation", "Order-5 120-cell honeycomb", "octahedron", "canonical polyhedron", "24-cell", "Self-dual graph", "Vertex (geometry)", "partially ordered set", "Schlegel diagram", "Abstract polytope", "Order-5 dodecahedral honeycomb", "hypercubic honeycomb", "Platonic solid", "vertex figure", "grand stellated 120-cell", "4-polytope", "uniform polyhedron", "120-cell", "geometry", "Coxeter diagram", "600-cell", "simplex", "Uniform polytope", "dodecahedron", "Discrete Mathematics (journal)", "Schläfli symbol", "Dual polygon", "great 120-cell" ]
8,816	Double bass	The double bass (), also known as the upright bass, the acoustic bass, the bull fiddle, or simply the bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched chordophone in the modern symphony orchestra (excluding rare additions such as the octobass). It has four or five strings, and its construction is in between that of the gamba and the violin family. The bass is a standard member of the orchestra's string section, along with violins, violas, and cellos, as well as the concert band, and is featured in concertos, solo, and chamber music in Western classical music. The bass is used in a range of other genres, such as jazz, blues, rock and roll, rockabilly, country music, bluegrass, tango, folk music and certain types of film and video game soundtracks. The instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, with scholars divided on whether the bass is derived from the viol or the violin family. Being a transposing instrument, the bass is typically notated one octave higher than tuned to avoid excessive ledger lines below the staff. The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a bass guitar, viol, or the lowest-sounding four strings of a standard guitar), rather than fifths, with strings usually tuned to E1, A1, D2 and G2. The double bass is played with a bow (arco), or by plucking the strings (pizzicato), or via a variety of extended techniques. In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm. Classical music and jazz use the natural sound produced acoustically by the instrument, as does traditional bluegrass. In funk, blues, reggae, and related genres, the double bass is often amplified. ==Terminology== A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist", "double bassist", "double bass player", "contrabassist", "contrabass player" or "bass player". The names contrabass and double bass refer (respectively) to the instrument's range, and to its use one octave lower than the cello (i.e. the cello part was the main bass line, and the "double bass" originally played a copy of the cello part; only later was it given an independent part). The terms for the instrument among classical performers are contrabass (which comes from the instrument's Italian name, ), string bass (to distinguish it from brass bass instruments in a concert band, such as tubas), or simply bass. In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres outside of classical music, this instrument is commonly called the upright bass, standup bass or acoustic bass to distinguish it from the (usually electric) bass guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, the instrument is also referred to as a "bass fiddle" or "bass violin" (or more rarely as "doghouse bass" or "bull fiddle"). While not a member of the violin-family of instruments, the construction of the upright bass is quite different from that of the acoustic bass guitar, as the latter is a derivative of the electric bass guitar, and usually built like a larger and sturdier variant of a viola de gamba, its ancestor. The double bass is sometimes confusingly called the violone, bass violin or bass viol. ==Description== A typical double bass stands around from scroll to endpin. Whereas the traditional "full-size" ( size) bass stands on average , the more common size bass (which has become the most widely used size in the modern era, even among orchestral players) stands on average from scroll to endpin. Other sizes are also available, such as a size or size, which serve to accommodate a player's height and hand size. These names of the sizes do not reflect the true size relative to a "full size" bass; a bass is not half the length of a bass, but is only about 15% smaller. Double basses are typically constructed from several types of wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and ebony for the fingerboard. It is uncertain whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of the violin, but it is traditionally aligned with the violin family. While the double bass is nearly identical in construction to other violin family instruments, it also embodies features found in the older viol family. The standard notes of the open strings are E1, A1, D2, and G2, the same as an acoustic or electric bass guitar. However, the resonance of the wood, combined with the violin-like construction and long scale length gives the double bass a much richer tone than the bass guitar, in addition to the ability to use a bow, while the fretless fingerboard accommodates smooth glissandos and legatos. ==Playing style== Like other violin and viol-family string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato). When employing a bow, the player can either use it traditionally or strike the wood of the bow against the string. In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, except for some solos and occasional written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing. Bowed notes in the lowest register of the instrument produce a dark, heavy, mighty, or even menacing effect, when played with a fortissimo dynamic; however, the same low pitches played with a delicate pianissimo can create a sonorous, mellow accompaniment line. Classical bass students learn all of the different bow articulations used by other string section players (e.g., violin and cello), such as détaché, legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé ("hammered"-style), sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato and sautillé. Some of these articulations can be combined; for example, the combination of sul ponticello and tremolo can produce eerie, ghostly sounds. Classical bass players do play pizzicato parts in orchestra, but these parts generally require simple notes (quarter notes, half notes, whole notes), rather than rapid passages. Classical players perform both bowed and pizz notes using vibrato, an effect created by rocking or quivering the left hand finger that is contacting the string, which then transfers an undulation in pitch to the tone. Vibrato is used to add expression to string playing. In general, very loud, low-register passages are played with little or no vibrato, as the main goal with low pitches is to provide a clear fundamental bass for the string section. Mid- and higher-register melodies are typically played with more vibrato. The speed and intensity of the vibrato is varied by the performer for an emotional and musical effect. In jazz, rockabilly and other related genres, much or all of the focus is on playing pizzicato. In jazz and jump blues, bassists are required to play rapid pizzicato walking basslines for extended periods. Jazz and rockabilly bassists develop virtuoso pizzicato techniques that enable them to play rapid solos that incorporate fast-moving triplet and sixteenth note figures. Pizzicato basslines performed by leading jazz professionals are much more difficult than the pizzicato basslines that classical bassists encounter in the standard orchestral literature, which are typically whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and occasional eighth note passages. In jazz and related styles, bassists often add semi-percussive "ghost notes" into basslines, to add to the rhythmic feel and to add fills to a bassline. The double bass player stands, or sits on a high stool, and leans the instrument against their body, turned slightly inward to put the strings comfortably in reach. This stance is a key reason for the bass's sloped shoulders, which mark it apart from the other members of the violin family—the narrower shoulders facilitate playing the strings in their higher registers. Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the viol family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family. The double bass's proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it is deeper (the distance from front to back is proportionally much greater than the violin). In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viol family. Many very old double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques. Before these modifications, the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family. The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a viol), rather than fifths (see Tuning below). The instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viol family is one that has not been entirely resolved. In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to instruments in the violin family, and very different from the internal structure of viols. Double bass professor Larry Hurst argues that the "modern double bass is not a true member of either the violin or viol families". He says that "most likely its first general shape was that of a violone, the largest member of the viol family. Some of the earliest basses extant are violones, (including C-shaped sound holes) that have been fitted with modern trappings." Some existing instruments, such as those by Gasparo da Salò, were converted from 16th-century six-string contrabass violoni. The metal tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with metal screws. While tuning mechanisms generally differ from the higher-pitched orchestral stringed instruments, some basses have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs projecting from the side of the pegbox, in imitation of the tuning pegs on a cello or violin. ====Travel instruments==== Several manufacturers make travel instruments, which are double basses that have features which reduce the size of the instrument so that the instrument will meet airline travel requirements. Travel basses are designed for touring musicians. One type of travel bass has a much smaller body than normal, while still retaining all of the features needed for playing. While these smaller-body instruments appear similar to electric upright basses, the difference is that small-body travel basses still have a fairly large hollow acoustic sound chamber, while many EUBs are solid body, or only have a small hollow chamber. A second type of travel bass has a hinged or removable neck and a regular sized body. The hinged or removable neck makes the instrument smaller when it is packed for transportation. ===Strings=== The history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of string technology, as it was the advent Professor Larry Hurst argues that had "it not been for the appearance of the overwound gut string in the 1650s, the double bass would surely have become extinct", Gut strings are also more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and break more easily than steel strings. Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in baroque ensembles, rockabilly bands, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass bands. In some cases, the low E and A are wound in silver, to give them added mass. Gut strings provide the dark, "thumpy" sound heard on 1940s and 1950s recordings. The late Jeff Sarli, a blues upright bassist, said that "Starting in the 1950s, they began to reset the necks on basses for steel strings." Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the "slapping" upright bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings, because gut does not hurt the plucking fingers as much. A less expensive alternative to gut strings is nylon strings; the higher strings are pure nylon, and the lower strings are nylon wrapped in wire, to add more mass to the string, slowing the vibration, and thus facilitating lower pitches. The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique over the last hundred years. Steel strings can be set up closer to the fingerboard and, additionally, strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not use the low E string in higher positions because older gut strings, set up high over the fingerboard, could not produce clear tone in these higher positions. However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when they use modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings. ===Bows=== The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below). The "French" or "overhand" bow is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral string instrument family, while the "German" or "Butler" bow is typically broader and shorter, and is held in a "hand shake" (or "hacksaw") position. These two bows provide different ways of moving the arm and distributing force and weight on the strings. Proponents of the French bow argue that it is more maneuverable, due to the angle at which the player holds the bow. Advocates of the German bow claim that it allows the player to apply more arm weight on the strings. The differences between the two, however, are minute for a proficient player, and modern players in major orchestras use both bows. ====German bow==== The German bow (sometimes called the Butler bow) is the older of the two designs. The design of the bow and the manner of holding it descend from the older viol instrument family. With older viols, before frogs had screw threads to tighten the bow, players held the bow with two fingers between the stick and the hair to maintain tension of the hair. Proponents of the use of German bow claim that the German bow is easier to use for heavy strokes that require a lot of power. Compared to the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog, and the player holds it with the palm angled upwards, as with the upright members of the viol family. When held in the traditionally correct manner, the thumb applies the necessary power to generate the desired sound. The index finger meets the bow at the point where the frog meets the stick. The index finger also applies an upward torque to the frog when tilting the bow. The little finger (or "pinky") supports the frog from underneath, while the ring finger and middle finger rest in the space between the hair and the shaft. ====French bow==== The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by 19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more similar to the traditional bows of the smaller string family instruments. It is held as if the hand is resting by the side of the performer with the palm facing toward the bass. The thumb rests on the shaft of the bow, next to the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side of the bow. Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do the style of piece; a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the bow is used for virtuoso or more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve and sturdier grip on the bow sacrifices some power for easier control in strokes such as detaché, spiccato, and staccato. ====Bow construction and materials==== Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from . In general, a bass bow is shorter and heavier than a cello bow. Pernambuco, also known as Brazilwood, is regarded as an excellent quality stick material, but due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are increasingly being used. Inexpensive student bows may be constructed of solid fiberglass, which makes the bow much lighter than a wooden bow (even too light to produce a good tone, in some cases). Student bows may also be made of the less valuable varieties of brazilwood. Snakewood and carbon fiber are also used in bows of a variety of different qualities. The frog of the double bass bow is usually made out of ebony, although snakewood and buffalo horn are used by some luthiers. The frog is movable, as it can be tightened or loosened with a knob (like all violin family bows). The bow is loosened at the end of a practice session or performance. The bow is tightened before playing, until it reaches a tautness that is preferred by the player. The frog on a quality bow is decorated with mother of pearl inlay. Bows have a leather wrapping on the wooden part of the bow near the frog. Along with the leather wrapping, there is also a wire wrapping, made of silver in quality bows. The hair is usually horsehair. Part of the regular maintenance of a bow is having the bow "rehaired" by a luthier with fresh horsehair and having the leather and wire wrapping replaced. The double bass bow is strung with either white or black horsehair, or a combination of the two (known as "salt and pepper"), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string instruments. Some of the lowest-quality, lowest cost student bows are made with synthetic hair. Synthetic hair does not have the tiny "barbs" that real horsehair has, so it does not "grip" the string well or take rosin well. ====Rosin==== String players apply rosin to the bow hair so it "grips" the string and makes it vibrate. Double bass rosin is generally softer and stickier than violin rosin to allow the hair to grab the thicker strings better, but players use a wide variety of rosins that vary from quite hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on the weather, the humidity, and the preference of the player. The amount used generally depends on the type of music being performed as well as the personal preferences of the player. Some brands of rosin, such as Wiedoeft or Pop's double bass rosin, are softer and more prone to melting in hot weather. ==Mechanism of sound production== Owing to their relatively small diameters, the strings themselves do not move much air and therefore cannot produce much sound on their own. The vibrational energy of the strings must somehow be transferred to the surrounding air. To do this, the strings vibrate the bridge and this in turn vibrates the top surface. Very small amplitude but relatively large force variations (due to the cyclically varying tension in the vibrating string) at the bridge are transformed to larger amplitude ones by combination of bridge and body of the bass. The bridge transforms the high force, small amplitude vibrations to lower force higher amplitude vibrations on the top of the bass body. The top is connected to the back by means of a sound post, so the back also vibrates. Both the front and back transmit the vibrations to the air and act to match the impedance of the vibrating string to the acoustic impedance of the air. ==Specific sound and tone production mechanism== Because the acoustic bass is a non-fretted instrument, any string vibration due to plucking or bowing will cause an audible sound due to the strings vibrating against the fingerboard near to the fingered position. This buzzing sound gives the note its character. ==Pitch== The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at approximately 41 Hz or a C1 (≈33 Hz), or sometimes B0 (≈31 Hz), when five strings are used. This is within about an octave above the lowest frequency that the average human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch. The top of the instrument's fingerboard range is typically near D5, two octaves and a fifth above the open pitch of the G string (G2), as shown in the range illustration found at the head of this article. Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard can be accomplished by pulling the string slightly to the side. Double bass symphony parts sometimes indicate that the performer should play harmonics (also called flageolet tones), in which the bassist lightly touches the string–without pressing it onto the fingerboard in the usual fashion–in the location of a note and then plucks or bows the note. Bowed harmonics are used in contemporary music for their "glassy" sound. Both natural harmonics and artificial harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point, extend the instrument's range considerably. Natural and artificial harmonics are used in plenty of virtuoso concertos for the double bass. Orchestral parts from the standard Classical repertoire rarely demand the double bass exceed a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1 to G3, with occasional A3s appearing in the standard repertoire (an exception to this rule is Orff's Carmina Burana, which calls for three octaves and a perfect fourth). The upper limit of this range is extended a great deal for 20th- and 21st-century orchestral parts (e.g., Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kijé Suite (1933) bass solo, which calls for notes as high as D4 and E4). The upper range a virtuoso solo player can achieve using natural and artificial harmonics is hard to define, as it depends on the skill of the particular player. The high harmonic in the range illustration found at the head of this article may be taken as representative rather than normative. Five-string instruments have an additional string, typically tuned to a low B below the E string (B0). On rare occasions, a higher string is added instead, tuned to the C above the G string (C3). Four-string instruments may feature the C extension extending the range of the E string downwards to C1 (sometimes B0). Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of the double bass's range lies below the standard bass clef, it is notated an octave higher than it sounds to avoid having to use excessive ledger lines below the staff. Thus, when double bass players and cellists are playing from a combined bass-cello part, as used in many Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they will play in octaves, with the basses one octave below the cellos. This transposition applies even when bass players are reading the tenor and treble clef (which are used in solo playing and some orchestral parts). The tenor clef is also used by composers for cello and low brass parts. The use of tenor or treble clef avoids excessive ledger lines above the staff when notating the instrument's upper range. Other notation traditions exist. Italian solo music is typically written at the sounding pitch, and the "old" German method sounded an octave below where notation except in the treble clef, where the music was written at pitch. ==Tuning== ===Regular tuning=== The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths (for example, the violin's four strings are, from lowest-pitched to highest-pitched: G–D–A–E). The standard tuning (lowest-pitched to highest-pitched) for bass is E–A–D–G, starting from E below second low C (concert pitch). This is the same as the standard tuning of a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings of standard guitar tuning. Prior to the 19th-century, many double basses had only three strings; "Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) favored the three-stringed instrument popular in Italy at the time", Many cobla bands in Catalonia still have players using traditional three-string double basses tuned A–D–G. Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of a standard double bass. Notes below low E appear regularly in the double bass parts found in later arrangements and interpretations of Baroque music. In the Classical era, the double bass typically doubled the cello part an octave below, occasionally requiring descent to C below the E of the four-string double bass. In the Romantic era and the 20th century, composers such as Wagner, Mahler, Busoni and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E. There are several methods for making these notes available to the player. Players with standard double basses (E–A–D–G) may play the notes below "E" an octave higher or if this sounds awkward, the entire passage may be transposed up an octave. The player may tune the low E string down to the lowest note required in the piece: D or C. Four-string basses may be fitted with a "low-C extension" (see below). Or the player may employ a five-string instrument, with the additional lower string tuned to C, or (more commonly in modern times) B, three octaves and a semitone below middle C. Several major European orchestras use basses with a fifth string. ===C extension=== Most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a C extension. This is an extra section of fingerboard mounted on the head of the bass. It extends the fingerboard under the lowest string and gives an additional four semitones of downward range. The lowest string is typically tuned down to C1, an octave below the lowest note on the cello (as it is quite common for a bass part to double the cello part an octave lower). More rarely this string may be tuned to a low B0, as a few works in the orchestral repertoire call for such a B, such as Respighi's The Pines of Rome. In rare cases, some players have a low B extension, which has B as its lowest note. There are several varieties of extensions: In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are no mechanical aids attached to the fingerboard extension except a locking nut or "gate" for the E note. To play the extension notes, the player reaches back over the area under the scroll to press the string to the fingerboard. The advantage of this "fingered" extension is that the player can adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes on the extension, and there are no mechanical noises from metal keys and levers. The disadvantage of the "fingered" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid alternations between low notes on the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline that quickly alternates between G1 and D1. The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden "fingers" or "gates" that can be closed to press the string down and fret the C, D, E, or E notes. This system is particularly useful for basslines that have a repeating pedal point such as a low D because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical finger the lowest string sounds a different note when played open. The most complicated mechanical aid for use with extensions is the mechanical lever system nicknamed the machine. This lever system, which superficially resembles the keying mechanism of reed instruments such as the bassoon, mounts levers beside the regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the E-string side), which remotely activate metal "fingers" on the extension fingerboard. The most expensive metal lever systems also give the player the ability to "lock" down notes on the extension fingerboard, as with the wooden "finger" system. One criticism of these devices is that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises. Once a mechanical "finger" of the wooden "finger" extension or the metal "finger" machine extension is locked down or depressed, it is not easy to make microtonal pitch adjustments or glissando effects, as is possible with a hand-fingered extension. Five-string basses, in which the lowest string is normally B0, may use either a two semitone extension, providing a low A, or the very rare low G extension. ===Other tuning variations=== A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C1–G1–D2–A2 low to high). This tuning was used by the jazz player Red Mitchell and is used by some classical players, notably the Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. Advocates of tuning the bass in fifths point out that all of the other orchestral strings are tuned in fifths (violin, viola, and cello), so this puts the bass in the same tuning approach. Fifth tuning provides a bassist with a wider range of pitch than a standard E–A–D–G bass, as it ranges (without an extension) from C1 to A2. Some players who use fifths tuning who play a five-string bass use an additional high E3 string (thus, from lowest to highest: C–G–D–A–E). Some fifth tuning bassists who only have a four string instrument and who are mainly performing soloistic works use the G–D–A–E tuning, thus omitting the low C string but gaining a high E. Some fifth tuning bassists who use a five-string use a smaller scale instrument, thus making fingering somewhat easier. The Berlioz–Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (first published in 1844) states that "A good orchestra should have several four-string double-basses, some of them tuned in fifths and thirds." The book then shows a tuning of E1–G1–D2–A2) from bottom to top string. "Together with the other double-basses tuned in fourths, a combination of open strings would be available, which would greatly increase the sonority of the orchestra." In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F1–B1–E2–A2). This higher tuning is called "solo tuning", whereas the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning". Solo tuning strings are generally thinner than regular strings. String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is often employed that has a lighter gauge. Strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral tuning and published solo music is arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some popular solos and concerti, such as the Koussevitsky Concerto are available in both solo and orchestral tuning arrangements. Solo tuning strings can be tuned down a tone to play in orchestra pitch, but the strings often lack projection in orchestral tuning and their pitch may be unstable. Some contemporary composers specify highly specialized scordatura (intentionally changing the tuning of the open strings). Changing the pitch of the open strings makes different notes available as pedal points and harmonics. A variant and much less-commonly used form of solo tuning used in some Eastern European countries is (A1–D2–G2–C3), which omits the low E string from orchestral tuning and then adds a high C string. The tololoche in Mexico (a smaller variant of the double bass) also uses the A-D-G-C tuning. Some bassists with five-string basses use a high C3 string as the fifth string, instead of a low B0 string. Adding the high C string facilitates the performance of solo repertoire with a high tessitura (range). Another option is to utilize both a low C (or low B) extension and a high C string. ====Five strings==== When choosing a bass with a fifth string, the player may decide between adding a higher-pitched string (a high C string) or a lower-pitched string (typically a low B). To accommodate the additional fifth string, the fingerboard is usually slightly widened, and the top slightly thicker, to handle the increased tension. Most five-string basses are therefore larger in size than a standard four-string bass. Some five-stringed instruments are converted four-string instruments. Because these do not have wider fingerboards, some players find them more difficult to finger and bow. Converted four-string basses usually require either a new, thicker top, or lighter strings to compensate for the increased tension. ====Six strings==== The six-string double bass has both a high C and a low B, making it very useful, and it is becoming more practical after several updates. It is ideal for solo and orchestral playing because it has a more playable range. This can be achieved on a six-string violone in D by restringing it with double bass strings, making the tuning B0–E1–A1–D2–G2–C3. ==Playing and performance considerations== ===Body and hand position=== Double bassists either stand or sit to play the instrument. The instrument height is set by adjusting the endpin such that the player can reach the desired playing zones of the strings with bow or plucking hand. Bassists who stand and bow sometimes set the endpin by aligning the first finger in either first or half position with eye level, although there is little standardization in this regard. Players who sit generally use a stool about the height of the player's trousers inseam length. Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo and sat to play in the orchestra or opera pit. Now, it is unusual for a player to be equally proficient in both positions, so some soloists sit (as with Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, Thierry Barbé, and others) and some orchestral bassists stand. When playing in the instrument's upper range (above G3, the G below middle C), the player shifts the hand from behind the neck and flattens it out, using the side of the thumb to press down the string. This technique—also used on the cello—is called thumb position. While playing in thumb position, few players use the fourth (little) finger, as it is usually too weak to produce reliable tone (this is also true for cellists), although some extreme chords or extended techniques, especially in contemporary music, may require its use. ===Physical considerations=== Rockabilly style can be very demanding on the plucking hand, due to rockabilly's use of "slapping" on the fingerboard. Performing on bass can be physically demanding, because the strings are under relatively high tension. Also, the space between notes on the fingerboard is large, due to scale length and string spacing, so players must hold their fingers apart for the notes in the lower positions and shift positions frequently to play basslines. As with all non-fretted string instruments, performers must learn to place their fingers precisely to produce the correct pitch. For bassists with shorter arms or smaller hands, the large spaces between pitches may present a significant challenge, especially in the lowest range, where the spaces between notes are largest. However, the increased use of playing techniques such as thumb position and modifications to the bass, such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at lower tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument. Bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large jumps in range. These parts are usually given to the cello section, since the cello is a smaller instrument on which these techniques are more easily performed. ===Volume=== Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other instruments, due to its low musical pitch. In a large orchestra, usually between four and eight bassists play the same bassline in unison to produce enough volume. In the largest orchestras, bass sections may have as many as ten or twelve players, but modern budget constraints make bass sections this large unusual. When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber music, composers typically ensure the orchestration is light so it does not obscure the bass. While amplification is rarely used in classical music, in some cases where a bass soloist performs a concerto with a full orchestra, subtle amplification called acoustic enhancement may be used. The use of microphones and amplifiers in a classical setting has led to debate within the classical community, as "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a given hall should not be altered". In many genres, such as jazz and blues, players use amplification via a specialized amplifier and loudspeakers. A piezoelectric pickup connects to the amplifier with a -inch cable. Bluegrass and jazz players typically use less amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players. In the latter cases, high overall volume from other amplifiers and instruments may cause unwanted acoustic feedback, a problem exacerbated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume. The feedback problem has led to technological fixes like electronic feedback eliminator devices (essentially an automated notch filter that identifies and reduces frequencies where feedback occurs) and instruments like the electric upright bass, which has playing characteristics like the double bass but usually little or no soundbox, which makes feedback less likely. Some bassists reduce the problem of feedback by lowering their onstage volume or playing further away from their bass amp speakers. In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings against the fingerboard is an important part of the bass playing style. Since piezoelectric pickups are not good at reproducing the sounds of strings being slapped against the fingerboard, bassists in these genres often use both piezoelectric pickups (for the low bass tone) and a miniature condenser mic (to pick up the percussive slapping sounds). These two signals are blended together using a simple mixer before the signal is sent to the bass amp. ===Transportation=== The double bass's large size and relative fragility make it cumbersome to handle and transport. Most bassists use soft cases, referred to as gig bags, to protect the instrument during transport. These range from inexpensive, thin unpadded cases used by students (which only protect against scratches and rain) to thickly padded versions for professional players, which also protect against bumps and impacts. Some bassists carry their bow in a hard bow case; more expensive bass cases have a large pocket for a bow case. Players also may use a small cart and end pin-attached wheels to move the bass. Some higher-priced padded cases have wheels attached to the case. Another option found in higher-priced padded cases are backpack straps, to make it easier to carry the instrument. Hard flight cases have cushioned interiors and tough exteriors of carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass, or Kevlar. The cost of good hard cases–several thousand US dollars–and the high airline fees for shipping them tend to limit their use to touring professionals. ===Accessories=== Double bass players use various accessories to help them to perform and rehearse. Three types of mutes are used in orchestral music: a wooden mute that slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to the bridge and a wire device with brass weights that fits onto the bridge. The player uses the mute when the Italian instruction con sordino ("with mute") appears in the bass part, and removes it in response to the instruction senza sordino ("without mute"). With the mute on, the tone of the bass is quieter, darker, and more somber. Bowed bass parts with a mute can have a nasal tone. Players use a third type of mute, a heavy rubber practice mute, to practice quietly without disturbing others (e.g., in a hotel room). A quiver is an accessory for holding the bow. It is often made of leather and it attaches to the bridge and tailpiece with ties or straps. It is used to hold the bow while a player plays pizzicato parts. A wolf tone eliminator is used to lessen unwanted sympathetic vibrations in the part of a string between the bridge and the tailpiece which can cause tone problems for certain notes. It is a rubber tube cut down the side that is used with a cylindrical metal sleeve which also has a slot on the side. The metal cylinder has a screw and a nut that fastens the device to the string. Different placements of the cylinder along the string influence or eliminate the frequency at which the wolf tone occurs. It is essentially an attenuator that slightly shifts the natural frequency of the string (and/or instrument body) cutting down on the reverberation. The wolf tone occurs because the strings below the bridge sometimes resonate at pitches close to notes on the playing part of the string. When the intended note makes the below-the-bridge string vibrate sympathetically, a dissonant "wolf note" or "wolf tone" can occur. In some cases, the wolf tone is strong enough to cause an audible "beating" sound. The wolf tone often occurs with the note G on the bass. In orchestra, instruments tune to an A played by the oboist. Due to the three-octave gap between the oboist's tuning A and the open A string on the bass (for example, in an orchestra that tunes to 440 Hz, the oboist plays an A4 at 440 Hz and the open A1 of the bass is 55 Hz) it can be difficult to tune the bass by ear during the short period that the oboist plays the tuning note. Violinists, on the other hand, tune their A string to the same frequency as the oboist's tuning note. There is a method commonly used to tune a double bass in this context by playing the A harmonic on the D string (which is only an octave below the oboe A) and then matching the harmonics of the other strings. However, this method is not foolproof, since some basses' harmonics are not perfectly in tune with the open strings. To ensure the bass is in tune, some bassists use an electronic tuner that indicates pitch on a small display. Bassists who play in styles that use a bass amp, such as blues, rockabilly, or jazz, may use a stompbox-format electronic tuner, which mutes the bass pickup during tuning. A double bass stand is used to hold the instrument in place and raise it a few inches off the ground. A wide variety of stands are available, and there is no one common design. ==Classical repertoire== ===Solo works for double bass=== ====1700s==== The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th century and many of the most popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the double bass. The double bass, then often referred to as the Violone, used different tunings from region to region. The "Viennese tuning" (A1–D2–F2–A2) was popular, and in some cases a fifth string or even sixth string was added (F1–A1–D2–F2–A2). The popularity of the instrument is documented in Leopold Mozart's second edition of his Violinschule, where he writes "One can bring forth difficult passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually beautiful performances of concertos, trios, solos, etc." The earliest known concerto for double bass was written by Joseph Haydn 1763, and is presumed lost in a fire at the Eisenstadt library. The earliest known existing concertos are by Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who composed two concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass. Other composers that have written concertos from this period include Johann Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos). While many of these names were leading figures to the music public of their time, they are generally unknown by contemporary audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's concert aria, Per questa bella mano, K.612 for bass, double bass obbligato, and orchestra contains impressive writing for solo double bass of that period. It remains popular among both singers and double bassists today. The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and a louder sound. The leading double bassists from the mid-to-late 18th century, such as Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Mathias Sperger employed the "Viennese" tuning. Bassist Johann Hindle (1792–1862), who composed a concerto for the double bass, pioneered tuning the bass in fourths, which marked a turning point for the double bass and its role in solo works. Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an acquaintance of Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven. His playing was known all the way from his homeland, Italy, to the Tsardom of Russia and he found a prominent place performing in concerts with the Philharmonic Society of London. Beethoven's friendship with Dragonetti may have inspired him to write difficult, separate parts for the double bass in his symphonies, such as the impressive passages in the third movement of the Fifth Symphony, the second movement of the Seventh Symphony, and last movement of the Ninth Symphony. These parts do not double the cello part. Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works for bass and piano. During Rossini's stay in London in the summer of 1824, he composed his popular Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti frequently played on a three string double bass tuned G–D–A from top to bottom. The use of only the top three strings was popular for bass soloists and principal bassists in orchestras in the 19th century, because it reduced the pressure on the wooden top of the bass, which was thought to create a more resonant sound. As well, the low E-strings used during the 19th century were thick cords made of gut, which were difficult to tune and play. ====1800s==== In the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni Bottesini was considered the "Paganini of the double bass" of his time, a reference to the violin virtuoso and composer. Bottesini's bass concertos were written in the popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which exploit the double bass in a way that was not seen beforehand. They require virtuosic runs and great leaps to the highest registers of the instrument, even into the realm of natural and artificial harmonics. Many 19th century and early 20th century bassists considered these compositions unplayable, but in the 2000s, they are frequently performed. During the same time, a prominent school of bass players in the Czech region arose, which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin Findeisen, Josef Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly, and Adolf Mišek. Simandl and Hrabe were also pedagogues whose method books and studies remain in use in the 2000s. ====1900s–present==== The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge Koussevitzky, best known as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, who popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument. Because of improvements to the double bass with steel strings and better set-ups, the bass is now played at a more advanced level than ever before and more and more composers have written works for the double bass. In the mid-century and in the following decades, many new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikos Skalkottas's Concerto (1942), Eduard Tubin's Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik Larsson's Concertino (1957), Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), Hans Werner Henze's Concerto (1966) and Frank Proto's Concerto No. 1 (1968). The Solo For Contrabass is one of the parts of John Cage's Concert For Piano And Orchestra and can be played as a solo, or with any of the other parts both orchestral and/or piano. Similarly, his solo contrabass parts for the orchestral work Atlas Eclipticalis can also be performed as solos. Cage's indeterminate works such as Variations I, Variations II, Fontana Mix, Cartridge Music et al. can be arranged for a solo contrabassist. His work 26.1.1499 for a String Player is often realized by a solo contrabass player, although it can also be played by a violinist, violist, or cellist. From the 1960s through the end of the century Gary Karr was the leading proponent of the double bass as a solo instrument and was active in commissioning or having hundreds of new works and concerti written especially for him. Karr was given Koussevitzky's famous solo double bass by Olga Koussevitsky and played it in concerts around the world for 40 years before, in turn, giving the instrument to the International Society of Bassists for talented soloists to use in concert. Another important performer in this period, Bertram Turetzky, commissioned and premiered more than 300 double bass works. In the 1970s, 1980 and 1990s, new concerti included Nino Rota's Divertimento for Double Bass and Orchestra (1973), Alan Ridout's concerto for double bass and strings (1974), Jean Françaix's Concerto (1975), Frank Proto's Concerto No. 2, Einojuhani Rautavaara's Angel of Dusk (1980), Gian Carlo Menotti's Concerto (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985), Henry Brant's Ghost Nets (1988) and Frank Proto's "Carmen Fantasy for Double Bass and Orchestra" (1991) and "Four Scenes after Picasso" Concerto No. 3 (1997). Peter Maxwell Davies' lyrical Strathclyde Concerto No. 7, for double bass and orchestra, dates from 1992. In the first decade of the 21st century, new concerti include Frank Proto's "Nine Variants on Paganini" (2002), Kalevi Aho's Concerto (2005), John Harbison's Concerto for Bass Viol (2006), André Previn's Double Concerto for violin, double bass, and orchestra (2007) and John Woolrich's To the Silver Bow, for double bass, viola and strings (2014). Reinhold Glière wrote an Intermezzo and Tarantella for double bass and piano, Op. 9, No. 1 and No. 2 and a Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op. 32 No. 1 and No. 2. Paul Hindemith wrote a rhythmically challenging Double Bass Sonata in 1949. Frank Proto wrote his Sonata "1963" for Double Bass and Piano. In the Soviet Union, Mieczysław Weinberg wrote his Sonata No. 1 for double bass solo in 1971. Giacinto Scelsi wrote two double bass pieces called Nuits in 1972, and then in 1976, he wrote Maknongan, a piece for any low-voiced instrument, such as double bass, contrabassoon, or tuba. Vincent Persichetti wrote solo works—which he called "Parables"—for many instruments. He wrote Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 in 1974. Sofia Gubaidulina penned a Sonata for double bass and piano in 1975. In 1976 American minimalist composer Tom Johnson wrote "Failing – a very difficult piece for solo string bass" in which the player has to perform an extremely virtuosic solo on the bass whilst simultaneously reciting a text which says how very difficult the piece is and how unlikely he or she is to successfully complete the performance without making a mistake. In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Géza Frid wrote a set of variations on The Elephant from Saint-Saëns' Le Carnaval des Animaux for scordatura double bass and string orchestra. In 1987 Lowell Liebermann wrote his Sonata for Contrabass and Piano Op. 24. Fernando Grillo wrote the "Suite No. 1" for double bass (1983/2005). Jacob Druckman wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled Valentine. US double bass soloist and composer Bertram Turetzky (born 1933) has performed and recorded more than 300 pieces written by and for him. He writes chamber music, baroque music, classical, jazz, renaissance music, improvisational music and world music US minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register that he scored for timpani and double bass. Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti, whose composing career spans from the 1930s to the first decade of the 21st century, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled Naked Angel Face per contrabbasso. Fellow Italian composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece called Lem for contrabbasso in the same year. In 1989, French composer Pascal Dusapin (born 1955) wrote a solo piece called In et Out for double bass. In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained Lebanese composer Karim Haddad composed Ce qui dort dans l'ombre sacrée ("He who sleeps in the sacred shadows") for Radio France's Presence Festival. Renaud Garcia-Fons (born 1962) is a French double bass player and composer, notable for drawing on jazz, folk, and Asian music for recordings of his pieces like Oriental Bass (1997). Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's Synchronisms No.11 for double bass and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's Figment III, for solo double bass. The German composer Gerhard Stäbler wrote Co-wie Kobalt (1989–90), "...a music for double bass solo and grand orchestra". Charles Wuorinen added several important works to the repertoire, Spinoff trio for double bass, violin and conga drums, and Trio for Bass Instruments double bass, tuba and bass trombone, and in 2007 Synaxis for double bass, horn, oboe and clarinet with timpani and strings. The suite "Seven Screen Shots" for double bass and piano (2005) by Ukrainian composer Alexander Shchetynsky has a solo bass part that includes many unconventional methods of playing. The German composer Claus Kühnl wrote Offene Weite / Open Expanse (1998) and Nachtschwarzes Meer, ringsum… (2005) for double bass and piano.In 1997 Joel Quarrington commissioned the American / Canadian composer Raymond Luedeke to write his "Concerto for Double Bass and Orchestra", a piece he performed with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, with the Saskatoon Symphony Orchestra, and, in a version for small orchestra, with the Nova Scotia Symphony Orchestra. Composer Raymond Luedeke also composed a work for double bass, flute, and viola with narration, "The Book of Questions", with text by Pablo Neruda. In 2004 Italian double bassist and composer Stefano Scodanibbio made a double bass arrangement of Luciano Berio's 2002 solo cello work Sequenza XIV with the new title Sequenza XIVb. ===Chamber music with double bass=== Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass, its use in chamber music has not been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles such as the string quartet or piano trio. Despite this, there is a substantial number of chamber works that incorporate the double bass in both small and large ensembles. There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation of piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass. The most famous is Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major, known as "The Trout Quintet" for its set of variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's Die Forelle. Other works for this instrumentation written from roughly the same period include those by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, George Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise Farrenc, Ferdinand Ries, Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and Hermann Goetz. Later composers who wrote chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon Deak, Frank Proto, and John Woolrich. Slightly larger sextets written for piano, string quartet, and double bass have been written by Felix Mendelssohn, Mikhail Glinka, Richard Wernick, and Charles Ives. In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with double bass. Antonín Dvořák's String Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Serenade in G major, K.525 ("Eine kleine Nachtmusik") are the most popular pieces in this repertoire, along with works by Miguel del Águila (Nostalgica for string quartet and bass), Darius Milhaud, Luigi Boccherini (3 quintets), Harold Shapero, and Paul Hindemith. Another example is Alistair Hinton's String Quintet (1969–77), which also includes a major part for solo soprano; at almost 170 minutes in duration, it is almost certainly the largest such work in the repertoire. Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by Gioachino Rossini, for two violins, cello, and double bass written at the age of twelve over the course of three days in 1804. These remain his most famous instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind quartet. Rossini and Dragonetti composed duos for cello and double bass, as did Johannes Matthias Sperger, a major soloist on the "Viennese" tuning instrument of the 18th century. Franz Anton Hoffmeister wrote four String Quartets for Solo Double Bass, Violin, Viola, and Cello in D Major. Frank Proto has written a Trio for Violin, Viola and Double Bass (1974), 2 Duos for Violin and Double Bass (1967 and 2005), and The Games of October for Oboe/English Horn and Double Bass (1991). Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E major, Op. 20, one of his most famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. When the clarinetist Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz Schubert for similar forces, he added one more violin for his Octet in F major, D.803. Paul Hindemith used the same instrumentation as Schubert for his own Octet. In the realm of even larger works, Mozart included the double bass in addition to 12 wind instruments for his "Gran Partita" Serenade, K.361 and Martinů used the double bass in his nonet for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello and double bass. Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include Sergei Prokofiev's Quintet in G minor, Op. 39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and double bass; Miguel del Águila's Malambo for bass flute and piano and for string quartet, bass and bassoon; Erwin Schulhoff's Concertino for flute/piccolo, viola, and double bass; Frank Proto's Afro-American Fragments for bass clarinet, cello, double bass and narrator and Sextet for clarinet and strings; Fred Lerdahl's Waltzes for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; Mohammed Fairouz's Litany for double bass and wind quartet; Mario Davidovsky's Festino for guitar, viola, cello, and double bass; and Iannis Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello, and double bass. There are also new music ensembles that utilize the double bass such as Time for Three and PROJECT Trio. ===Orchestral passages and solos=== A double bass section of a modern orchestra typically uses eight double bassists, usually in unison. Smaller orchestras may have four double basses, and in exceptional cases, bass sections may have as many as ten members. If some double bassists have low C extensions, and some have regular (low E) basses, those with the low C extensions may play some passages an octave below the regular double basses. Also, some composers write divided (divisi) parts for the basses, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" players. Composers writing divisi parts for bass often write perfect intervals, such as octaves and fifths, but in some cases use thirds and sixths. Where a composition calls for a solo bass part, the principal bass invariably plays that part. The section leader (or principal) also determines the bowings, often based on bowings set out by the concertmaster. In some cases, the principal bass may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing bass. The principal bass also leads entrances for the bass section, typically by lifting the bow or plucking hand before the entrance or indicating the entrance with the head, to ensure the section starts together. Major professional orchestras typically have an assistant principal bass player, who plays solos and leads the bass section if the principal is absent. While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples. Johannes Brahms, whose father was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and prominent parts for the double bass in his symphonies. Richard Strauss assigned the double bass daring parts, and his symphonic poems and operas stretch the instrument to its limits. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Saëns' The Carnival of the Animals is a satirical portrait of the double bass, and American virtuoso Gary Karr made his televised debut playing "The Swan" (originally written for the cello) with the New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein. The third movement of Gustav Mahler's first symphony features a solo for the double bass that quotes the children's song Frere Jacques, transposed into a minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kijé Suite features a difficult and very high double bass solo in the "Romance" movement. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra contains a prominent passage for the double bass section. ===Double bass ensembles=== Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist, and several composers have written or arranged for such ensembles. Compositions for four double basses exist by Gunther Schuller, Jacob Druckman, James Tenney, Claus Kühnl, Robert Ceely, Jan Alm, Bernhard Alt, Norman Ludwin, Frank Proto, Joseph Lauber, Erich Hartmann, Colin Brumby, Miloslav Gajdos and Theodore Albin Findeisen. David A. Jaffe's "Who's on First?", commissioned by the Russian National Orchestra is scored for five double basses. Bertold Hummel wrote a Sinfonia piccola for eight double basses. Larger ensemble works include Galina Ustvolskaya's Composition No. 2, "Dies Irae" (1973), for eight double basses, piano, and wooden cube, José Serebrier's "George and Muriel" (1986), for solo bass, double bass ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's What of my music! (1979), for soprano, percussion, and 30 double basses. Double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members), Bass Instinct (6 members), Bassiona Amorosa (6 members), the Chicago Bass Ensemble (4+ members), Ludus Gravis founded by Daniele Roccato and Stefano Scodanibbio, The Bass Gang (4 members), the London Double Bass Ensemble (6 members) founded by members of the Philharmonia Orchestra of London who produced the LP Music Interludes by London Double Bass Ensemble on Bruton Music records, Brno Double Bass Orchestra (14 members) founded by the double bass professor at Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts and principal double bass player at Brno Philharmonic Orchestra – Miloslav Jelinek, and the ensembles of Ball State University (12 members), Shenandoah University, and the Hartt School of Music. The Amarillo Bass Base of Amarillo, Texas once featured 52 double bassists, and The London Double Bass Sound, who have released a CD on Cala Records, have 10 players. In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble, such as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's Lower Wacker Consort. There is an increasing number of published compositions and arrangements for double bass ensembles, and the International Society of Bassists regularly features double bass ensembles (both smaller ensembles as well as very large "mass bass" ensembles) at its conferences, and sponsors the biennial David Walter Composition Competition, which includes a division for double bass ensemble works. ==Use in jazz== Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture of marches, ragtime, and Dixieland) was initially a marching band with a tuba or sousaphone (or occasionally bass saxophone) supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind instruments around the 1920s. Many early bassists doubled on both the brass bass (tuba) and string bass, as the instruments were then often referred to. Bassists played improvised "walking" bass lines—scale- and arpeggio-based lines that outlined the chord progression. Because an unamplified upright bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings to produce a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and made the bass more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies. For more about the slap style, see Modern playing styles, below. Jazz bass players are expected to improvise an accompaniment line or solo for a given chord progression. They are also expected to know the rhythmic patterns that are appropriate for different styles (e.g., Afro-Cuban). Bassists playing in a big band must also be able to read written-out bass lines, as some arrangements have written bass parts. Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz. Examples include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in bebop. Paul Chambers (who worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album) achieved renown for being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with the bow. Terry Plumeri furthered the development of arco (bowed) solos, achieving horn-like technical freedom and a clear, vocal bowed tone, while Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz. A number of other bassists, such as Ray Brown, Slam Stewart and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, were central to the history of jazz. Stewart, who was popular with the beboppers, played his solos with a bow combined with octave humming. Notably, Charles Mingus was a highly regarded composer as well as a bassist noted for his technical virtuosity and powerful sound. Scott LaFaro influenced a generation of musicians by liberating the bass from contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies. Since the commercial availability of bass amplifiers in the 1950s, jazz bassists have used amplification to augment the natural volume of the instrument. While the electric bass guitar was used intermittently in jazz as early as 1951, beginning in the 1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist Sonny Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to commonly substitute the bass guitar for the upright bass. Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz however, the upright bass is still the dominant bass instrument in jazz. The sound and tone of the plucked upright bass is distinct from that of the fretted bass guitar. The upright bass produces a different sound than the bass guitar, because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, instead having a continuous tonal range on the uninterrupted fingerboard. As well, bass guitars usually have a solid wood body, which means that their sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the strings, instead of the upright bass's acoustic reverberation. Demonstrative examples of the sound of a solo double bass and its technical use in jazz can be heard on the solo recordings Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland or Emergence (1986) by Miroslav Vitouš. Holland also recorded an album with the representative title Music from Two Basses (1971) on which he plays with Barre Phillips while he sometimes switches to cello. ==Use in bluegrass and country== The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is almost always plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section, and is responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in , or time. The bass also maintains the chord progression and harmony. The Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use the size bass, but the full-size and size basses are also used. Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello. The cellist Natalie Haas points out that in the US, you can find "...old photographs, and even old recordings, of American string bands with cello". However, "The cello dropped out of sight in folk music, and became associated with the orchestra." The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because it is easier to transport than the large and somewhat fragile upright bass. However, the bass guitar has a different musical sound. Many musicians feel the slower attack and percussive, woody tone of the upright bass gives it a more "earthy" or "natural" sound than an electric bass, particularly when gut strings are used. Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in time; beats 1 and 2 in time, and on the downbeat in time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are usually simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout most of a song. There are two main exceptions to this rule. Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic walkup or walkdown, in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is a chord change. In addition, if a bass player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or play a pentatonic scale-influenced bassline. An early bluegrass bassist to rise to prominence was Howard Watts (also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe's Blue Grass Boys beginning in 1944. The classical bassist Edgar Meyer has frequently branched out into newgrass, old-time, jazz, and other genres. "My all-time favorite is Todd Phillips", proclaimed Union Station bassist Barry Bales in April 2005. "He brought a completely different way of thinking about and playing bluegrass. An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western music. While the upright bass is still occasionally used in country music, the electric bass has largely replaced its bigger cousin in country music, especially in the more pop-infused country styles of the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country. ===Slap-style bass=== Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing. When bluegrass bass players slap the string by pulling it until it hits the fingerboard or hit the strings against the fingerboard, it adds the high-pitched percussive "clack" or "slap" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like the clacks of a tap dancer. Slapping is a subject of minor controversy in the bluegrass scene. Even slapping experts such as Mike Bub say, "Don't slap on every gig", or in songs where it is not appropriate. As well, bluegrass bassists who play slap-style on live shows often slap less on records. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do slap bass on recordings. While bassists such as Jack Cook slap bass on the occasional faster "Clinch Mountain Boys song", bassists such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales [rarely] slap bass. Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD acknowledges that slap bass "...has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have recorded". He notes that "Even in traditional bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most of what I've done has been on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien)." Schatz states that he would be "... more likely to use it [slap] in a live situation than on a recording—for a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I wouldn't be obliterating someone's solo". Another bluegrass method, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass, by Earl Gately, also teaches bluegrass slap bass technique. German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as demonstrated in this video. ==Use in popular music== In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the standard bass instrument in the emerging style of rock and roll music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets being but one example. In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and blues developed, incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and swing. Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five. The upright bass remained an integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues, with strong elements also derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players using their instruments in these contexts faced inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback howls. As well, the upright bass is large and awkward to transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands. In some groups, the slap bass was utilized as band percussion in lieu of a drummer; such was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the forerunner group to the Comets), which did not use drummers on recordings and live performances until late 1952; prior to this the slap bass was relied on for percussion, including on recordings such as Haley's versions of "Rock the Joint" and "Rocket 88". In 1951, Leo Fender released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass guitar. The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in magnetic pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune than an upright bass, thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly amplified stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the upright bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene. The upright bass began making a comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of folk and country music, as part of the roots rock and Americana trends. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Some popular bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass, such as the Barenaked Ladies. A trend for "unplugged" performances on MTV, in which rock bands performed with solely acoustic instruments, further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars. Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass, although he has increasingly played bass guitar throughout the band's career. Chris Wyse of alternative rock group Owl uses a combination of electric and double bass. Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays an upright bass. Shannon Birchall, of the Australian folk-rock group the John Butler Trio, makes extensive use of upright basses, performing extended live solos in songs such as Betterman. On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured quite prominently on the songs "Teenagers" and "In Ear Park". Norwegian ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra use the upright bass exclusively both live and on their recordings. French contemporary pop duet "What a day" uses double bass extended pizzicato technique with vocals and type writer Hank Williams III's bass players (Jason Brown, Joe Buck and Zach Shedd, most notably) have used upright basses for recording as well as during the country and Hellbilly sets of Hank III's live performances before switching to electric bass for the Assjack set. The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded upon the rockabilly tradition of slap bass. Bassists such as Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge have developed the ability to play rapid slap bass that in effect turns the bass into a percussion instrument. ==Modern playing styles== In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively played with the fingers, pizzicato style. The pizzicato style varies between different players and genres. Some players perform with the sides of one, two, or three fingers, especially for walking basslines and slow tempo ballads, because this is purported to create a stronger and more solid tone. Some players use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play fast-moving solo passages or to pluck lightly for quiet tunes. The use of amplification allows the player to have more control over the tone of the instrument, because amplifiers have equalization controls that allow the bassist to accentuate certain frequencies (often the bass frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies (often the high frequencies, so that there is less finger noise). An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency responsiveness of the instrument's hollow body, which means that the very low pitches may not be as loud as the higher pitches. With an amplifier and equalization devices, a bass player can boost the low frequencies, which changes the frequency response. In addition, the use of an amplifier can increase the sustain of the instrument, which is particularly useful for accompaniment during ballads and for melodic solos with held notes. In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it is sometimes played in the slap style. This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are "slapped" against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line, producing a snare drum-like percussive sound. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in addition to the expected pitch. Notable slap style bass players, whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line. ==Double bassists== ===Historical=== Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor Franz Simandl (1840–1912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue Édouard Nanny (1872–1943) Virtuoso, composer Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor ===Modern=== François Rabbath (1931–) Virtuoso, composer Gary Karr (1941– ) Virtuoso Edgar Meyer (1960– ) Virtuoso, composer, teacher ===Contemporary (1900s)=== ====Classical==== Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass players are known as much for their contributions to pedagogy as for their performing skills, such as US bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910–1987), known for his teaching at the Eastman School of Music and, for 44 summers at the Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan and French bassist François Rabbath (b. 1931) who developed a new bass method that divided the entire fingerboard into six positions. Bassists noted for their virtuoso solo skills include American pedagogue and performer Gary Karr (b. 1941), Finnish composer Teppo Hauta-aho (b. 1941), Italian composer Fernando Grillo, and US player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see the List of contemporary classical double bass players. ====Jazz==== Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942) whose short tenure in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his death from tuberculosis) introduced new melodic and harmonic solo ideas for the instrument; bassist Ray Brown (1926–2002), known for backing Beboppers Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum and Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern Jazz Quartet; hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937), who has appeared on 3,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, including LPs by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note Records artists; and Paul Chambers (1935–1969), a member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the landmark modal jazz recording Kind of Blue) and many other 1950s and 1960s rhythm sections, was known for his virtuosic improvisations. The experimental post 1960s era, and free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced several influential bassists. Charles Mingus (1922–1979), who was also a composer and bandleader, produced music that fused hard bop with black gospel music, free jazz, and classical music. Free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden (1937–2014) is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette Coleman, and for his role in the 1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group. Eddie Gómez and George Mraz, who played with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, and are both acknowledged to have furthered expectations of pizzicato fluency and melodic phrasing. Fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his dexterity on both the upright bass and the electric bass. Terry Plumeri is noted for his horn-like arco fluency and vocal-sounding tone. In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, one of the new "young lions" was Christian McBride (born 1972), who has performed with a range of veterans ranging from McCoy Tyner to fusion gurus Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea, and who has released albums such as 2003's Vertical Vision. Another young bassist of note is Esperanza Spalding (born 1984) who, at 27 years of age, had already won a Grammy for Best New Artist. ====Other popular genres==== In addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well known in bluegrass and newgrass circles. Todd Phillips is another prominent bluegrass player. Well-known rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets) and Lee Rocker (with 1980s-era rockabilly revivalists the Stray Cats). Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century include Scott Owen (from the Australian band The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie Dixon (1915–1992) was one of the most notable figures in the history of rhythm and blues. In addition to being an upright bassist, he wrote dozens of R&B hits and worked as a producer. He also plays bass on numerous Chuck Berry's rock and roll hits. Many other rockabilly bands like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use this instrument in their work. See also the List of double bassists in popular music. ==Pedagogy and training== The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre and country. Classical double bass has a history of pedagogy dating back several centuries, including teaching manuals, studies, and progressive exercises that help students to develop the endurance and accuracy of the left hand, and control for the bowing hand. Classical training methods vary by country: many of the major European countries are associated with specific methods (e.g., the Édouard Nanny method in France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany). In classical training, the majority of the instruction for the right hand focuses on the production of bowing tone; little time is spent studying the varieties of pizzicato tone. In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as jazz and blues, a great deal of time and effort is focused on learning the varieties of different pizzicato styles used for music of different styles of tempi. For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to perform a wide range of pizzicato tones, including using the sides of the fingers to create a full, deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the fingers for fast walking basslines or solos, and performing a variety of percussive ghost notes by raking muted or partially muted strings. ===Formal training=== Of all of the genres, classical and jazz have the most established and comprehensive systems of instruction and training. In the classical milieu, children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and performing in children's or youth orchestras. Teens who aspire to becoming professional classical bassists can continue their studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance. Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral experience for double bass players. Universities offer a range of double bass programs, including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and orchestral, opera, or chamber music training festivals, which give students the opportunity to play a wide range of music. Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M.) are four-year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur orchestra experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education. Usually, bass performance students perform several recitals of solo double bass music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque suites. Master of music degrees (M.mus.) in double bass performance consist of private lessons, ensemble experience, coaching in playing orchestral double bass parts, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two solo recitals. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required credential for people who wish to become a professor of double bass at a university or conservatory. Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D.) degrees in double bass performance provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission is highly selective. Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination-recital, are required. Students perform a number of recitals (around six), including a lecture-recital with an accompanying doctoral dissertation, advanced coursework, and a minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A. program. Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned the instrument informally, or from getting classical training early on, as in the case of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities began to introduce diplomas and degrees in jazz performance. Students in jazz diploma or Bachelor of Music programs take individual bass lessons, get experience in small jazz combos with coaching from an experienced player, and play in jazz big bands. As with classical training programs, jazz programs also include classroom courses in music history and music theory. In a jazz program, these courses focus on the different eras of jazz history. such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion. The theory courses focus on the musical skills used in jazz improvisation and in jazz comping (accompanying) and the composition of jazz tunes. There are also jazz summer camps and training festivals/seminars, which offer students the chance to learn new skills and styles. ===Informal training=== In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the pedagogical systems and training sequences are not as formalized and institutionalized. There are not degrees in blues bass performance, or conservatories offering multiple-year diplomas in rockabilly bass. However, there are a range of books, playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play rockabilly-style slap bass). As such, performers in these other genres tend to come from a variety of routes, including informal learning by using bass method books or DVDs, taking private lessons and coaching, and learning from records and CDs. In some cases, blues or rockabilly bassists may have obtained some initial training through the classical or jazz pedagogy systems (e.g., youth orchestra or high school big band). In genres such as tango, which use a lot of bowed passages and jazz-style pizzicato lines, the bassists tend to come from classical or jazz training routes. ==Careers== Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country. Most bassists earn their living from a mixture of performance and teaching jobs. The first step to getting most performance jobs is by playing at an audition. In some styles of music, such as jazz-oriented stage bands, bassists may be asked to sight read printed music or perform standard pieces (e.g., a jazz standard such as Now's the Time) with an ensemble. Similarly, in a rock or blues band, auditionees may be asked to play various rock or blues standards. An upright bassist auditioning for a blues band might be asked to play in a Swing-style walking bassline, a rockabilly-style "slapping" bassline (in which the strings are percussively struck against the fingerboard) and a 1950s ballad with long held notes. A person auditioning for a role as a bassist in some styles of pop or rock music may be expected to demonstrate the ability to perform harmony vocals as a backup singer. In some pop and rock groups, the bassist may be asked to play other instruments from time to time, such as electric bass, keyboards or acoustic guitar. The ability to play electric bass is widely expected in country groups, in case the band is performing a classic rock or new country song. ===Classical music=== In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras and for admission into university or Conservatory programs or degrees. At a classical bass audition, the performer typically plays a movement from a J.S. Bach suite for solo cello or a movement from a bass concerto and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature. The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging parts of bass parts and bass solos from the orchestral literature. Some of the most commonly requested orchestral excerpts at bass auditions are from Beethoven's Symphonies Nos. 5, 7 and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan; Mozart's Symphonies Nos. 35, 39 and 40; Brahms' Symphonies Nos. 1 and 2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5; Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4; Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J. S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in B; Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique, Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4; and the bass solos from Verdi's opera Otello, Mahler's Symphony No. 1, Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.	[ "Electric Bass guitar", "wolf tone", "MTV", "violas", "Grammy Awards", "catgut", "European classical music", "jump blues", "Octobass", "Slap bass", "Czech lands", "Serge Koussevitzky", "spiccato", "harmony vocals", "Bill Evans", "Tympany Five", "B.Mus.", "bass violin", "Christopher Rouse (composer)", "orchestration", "Franz Simandl", "In Ear Park", "Fred Lerdahl", "McCoy Tyner", "Willie Dixon", "Mike Bub", "Owl (band)", "Todd Phillips", "rosin", "Kim Nekroman", "bass bar", "AFI (band)", "tremolo", "Bass instrument", "Jan Ladislav Dussek", "gospel music", "Mieczysław Weinberg", "Carmina Burana (Orff)", "Otello", "Mikhail Glinka", "List of contemporary classical double bass players", "bebop", "Ginastera", "Per questa bella mano", "Gary Karr", "Colin Brumby", "guitar", "electric bass", "Mendelssohn", "Joel Quarrington", "Brahms", "sul ponticello", "Bruton Music", "horsehair", "bass amp", "Michigan", "sound post", "Tololoche", "Hank Williams III", "staccato", "rock and roll", "Johann Baptist Cramer", "Christian McBride", "Grammy", "bandleader", "ghost note", "Jacob Druckman", "Glass-reinforced plastic", "artificial harmonic", "soundpost", "string quartet", "concert pitch", "piano trio", "Bass guitar", "Bovinae", "viol", "London Double Bass Ensemble", "Joseph Haydn", "Jeff Bradetich", "f-hole", "stopped note", "octobass", "soundtrack", "Assjack", "Suzi Quatro", "roots rock", "Lowell Liebermann", "ebony", "Riders in the Sky (band)", "Chordophone", "tuberculosis", "bass stack", "Stray Cats", "Art Tatum", "vibrato", "nonet (music)", "Berlioz", "Elliott Carter", "Louise Farrenc", "Piccolo bass", "Miles Davis Quintet", "André Previn", "John Butler Trio", "Harmonic", "Ottorino Respighi", "Oscar Peterson", "Catalonia", "cellos", "John Harbison", "Modern Jazz Quartet", "Bertram Turetzky", "Acoustic bass guitar", "endpin", "Die Forelle", "Fiberglass", "Sinfonia concertante", "Emergence (Miroslav Vitouš album)", "Leo Fender", "Jazz fusion", "Tiger Army", "fill (music)", "Philharmonic Society of London", "Joe Buck (musician)", "Franz Anton Hoffmeister", "Jean Françaix", "Violone", "country western music", "Charles Ives", "violins", "Koussevitsky Concerto", "bridge (instrument)", "Eine kleine Nachtmusik", "bass viol", "Ornette Coleman", "Gustav Mahler", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "country music", "Symphonie Fantastique", "Richard Wagner", "Precision Bass", "Barre Phillips", "Department of Eagles", "Reverend Horton Heat", "International Society of Bassists", "Nino Rota", "chamber music", "sautillé", "Louis Jordan", "standard tuning", "bass instrument amplifier", "Snakewood", "willow", "snare drum", "rhythm and blues", "François Rabbath", "Eastman School of Music", "Bogdon Box Bass", "HorrorPops", "Claus Kühnl", "Ferdinand Troyer", "Jon Deak", "Hans Werner Henze", "Bertold Hummel", "Esperanza Spalding", "Brno Philharmonic Orchestra", "scordatura", "Nikos Skalkottas", "free jazz", "Bill Monroe", "Wenzel Pichl", "Bass drum", "Gasparo da Salò", "walkdown", "J.S. Bach suite for solo cello", "Strings (music)", "Miles Davis", "George Onslow (composer)", "electric guitar", "Ein Heldenleben", "Charles Mingus", "Mohammed Fairouz", "Barry Bales", "Viol", "violin family", "Cologne", "obbligato", "Einojuhani Rautavaara", "Gerhard Stäbler", "Édouard Nanny", "sight reading", "M.mus.", "traditional bluegrass", "Graphite-reinforced plastic", "bass clef", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)", "middle C", "Free Jazz", "string instrument", "Mario Davidovsky", "Cello", "virtuoso", "Richard Wernick", "Fifths tuning", "Toronto Symphony Orchestra", "Dizzy Gillespie", "Bob Cranshaw", "String instrument", "Leonard Bernstein", "Dave Holland (bassist)", "Peter Maxwell Davies", "YouTube", "Scott Owen", "extended techniques", "Luciano Berio", "laminate", "Terry Plumeri", "Eddie Gómez", "Todd Phillips (musician)", "Sofia Gubaidulina", "Johannes Brahms", "Bluegrass music", "The Carnival of the Animals", "bluegrass music", "Camille Saint-Saëns", "Lee Rocker", "Karim Haddad", "Pascal Dusapin", "Eduard Tubin", "maple", "Red Mitchell", "Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen", "Scott LaFaro", "Double bass concerto", "Jaco Pastorius", "Brazilwood", "Audio feedback", "Kay Musical Instrument Company", "Miroslav Vitouš", "classical music", "Charlie Parker", "Lars-Erik Larsson", "electric upright bass", "Felix Mendelssohn", "electronic tuner", "Interlochen", "Jazz", "José Serebrier", "acoustic bass guitar", "Chick Corea", "Bill Black", "Charles Wuorinen", "Colin Matthews", "John Cage", "mother of pearl", "viola", "Boston Symphony Orchestra", "Vincent Persichetti", "Ludwig Manoly", "tuba", "Blue Note Records", "tololoche", "Sylvano Bussotti", "Stanley Clarke", "The Seekers", "martelé (bowstroke)", "hard bop", "Kevlar", "Amarillo, Texas", "Trout Quintet", "Oscar Pettiford", "octave", "scroll (music)", "Swing (genre)", "Ferruccio Busoni", "Machine head", "viola da gamba", "magnetic pickup", "Kaizers Orchestra", "Triple contrabass viol", "orchestra", "sousaphone", "wiktionary:luthier", "video game music", "List of classical double bass players", "unison", "chord progression", "violin", "ragtime", "Hermann Goetz", "Prokofiev", "piano quintet", "Baroque music", "audition", "psychobilly", "Emerald Tears", "machine head", "graphite", "New York Philharmonic", "classic rock", "notch filter", "hearing range", "Athol Guy", "tuning peg", "Ralph Vaughan Williams", "Larry Hurst", "improvisation", "détaché", "fundamental bass", "The Living End", "Alfred Planyavsky", "Progressive bluegrass", "Gunther Schuller", "John Woolrich", "Franz Schubert", "bass saxophone", "The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra", "Shannon Birchall", "Duke Ellington", "Chuck Berry", "Charlie Haden", "Rossini", "Contrabass violin", "Ferdinand Ries", "violone", "Hartt School of Music", "cobla", "Stravinsky", "Géza Frid", "Luigi Boccherini", "fret", "folk music", "Bernhard Romberg", "Gioachino Rossini", "Antonio Capuzzi", "acoustic impedance", "audio feedback", "pedagogue", "Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts", "David A. Jaffe", "Barenaked Ladies", "Thelonious Monk", "Bach: Unaccompanied Cello Suites Performed on Double Bass", "rockabilly", "Benjamin Britten", "Slapping (music)", "Leopold Kozeluch", "Jim Creeggan", "gig bag", "Mahler", "Liberation Music Orchestra", "pedal point", "Chris Wyse", "Beethoven", "Mozart", "Raymond Luedeke", "Ray Brown (musician)", "PROJECT Trio", "Classical music", "carbon fiber", "Galina Ustvolskaya", "Bazantar", "Herbie Hancock", "Franco Donatoni", "Walking bassline", "Sequenza XIV", "Bohuslav Martinů", "legato", "Viola", "Diyingehu", "Reinhold Glière", "Patricia Day", "walking bass", "Perfect fifth", "Domenico Dragonetti", "Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition", "Alan Ridout", "Bill Haley & His Comets", "plywood", "Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf", "Niccolò Paganini", "Rocket 88", "Stefano Scodanibbio", "Gran Partita", "spruce", "Saskatoon Symphony Orchestra", "Iannis Xenakis", "Missy Raines", "Free jazz", "George Mraz", "Leopold Mozart", "Music from Two Basses", "opera", "Renaud Garcia-Fons", "Shenandoah University", "effects pedal", "Henry Brant", "semitone", "Lieutenant Kijé Suite", "Electric upright bass", "Richard Strauss", "Tchaikovsky", "chordophone", "Johann Nepomuk Hummel", "Doctor of Musical Arts", "Lieutenant Kijé (Prokofiev)", "Shostakovich", "Saint-Saëns", "jazz", "Perfect fourth", "Classical period (music)", "Johannes Matthias Sperger", "Wes Montgomery", "List of double bassists in popular music", "M.Mus.", "Marshall Lytle", "Strauss", "Tango music", "jazz standard", "Germany", "viola de gamba", "Treatise on Instrumentation", "worm gear", "pegbox", "Americana (music)", "bass guitar", "Franz Limmer", "bassline", "harmonics", "thumb position", "Rock the Joint", "Vertical Vision", "Virtuoso", "Anton Zimmermann", "perfect interval", "Britten", "Giacinto Scelsi", "Bow (music)", "Edgar Meyer", "Gian Carlo Menotti", "Darius Milhaud", "backup singer", "Johann Baptist Wanhal", "attenuation", "scientific pitch notation", "Ball State University", "James Tenney", "Sonny Rollins", "pitch (music)", "Harold Shapero", "condenser mic", "Slam Stewart", "treble clef", "Dixieland", "Lieutenant Kije Suite", "luthier", "flageolet tone", "jam band", "Frank Proto", "audio mixer", "Teppo Hauta-aho", "concert band", "mute (music)", "sul tasto", "fiberglass", "Category:Double-bassists", "Jimmy Blanton", "glissando", "polka", "Sub-bass", "Erich Hartmann (musician)", "silver", "sforzando (musical direction)", "cello", "blues", "bow (music)", "Jerry McCoury", "Le Carnaval des Animaux", "Kind of Blue", "Nekromantix", "Geoff Kresge", "Jimbo Wallace", "Nova Scotia Symphony Orchestra", "Giovanni Bottesini", "Music school", "Paul Chambers", "Tom Johnson (composer)", "Chicago Symphony Orchestra", "Alexander Shchetynsky", "Romantic music", "youth orchestra", "Philip Glass", "bass amplifier", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "concerto", "Kalevi Aho", "Sergei Prokofiev", "bass instrument amplification", "Pablo Neruda", "Erwin Schulhoff", "tailpiece", "tenor clef", "Verdi", "Adolf Mišek", "Jim & Jesse", "Miguel del Águila", "pizzicato", "transposing instrument", "acoustic enhancement", "Paul Hindemith", "Oscar G. Zimmerman", "Basso profundo", "frog (music)", "Antonín Dvořák", "Strathclyde Concerto", "string section" ]
8,817	Deicide (band)	Deicide is an American death metal band from Tampa, Florida. Formed in 1987 by drummer/composer Steve Asheim and guitarist brothers Eric and Brian Hoffman as "Carnage", then hiring bassist/vocalist/lyricist Glen Benton and becoming "Amon". They changed the band name to Deicide in 1989. The band rose to mainstream success in 1992 with their second album Legion, and is credited as the second-best-selling death metal band of the Soundscan Era, after Cannibal Corpse. Since their debut album in 1990, Deicide has released thirteen studio albums, one live album, two compilation albums and two live DVDs. In November 2003, their first two albums, Deicide and Legion, were ranked second and third place respectively in best-selling death metal albums of the SoundScan era. Carnage played cover songs by Slayer, Exodus, Celtic Frost and Dark Angel. The new band, called Amon, consisted of Benton (bass and vocals), Hoffman, Hoffman's brother Eric (guitars) and Steve Asheim (drums). Within a month, they had recorded the Feasting the Beast 8-track demo in Benton's garage and had started playing the occasional gig in the Tampa area. In 1989, Amon recorded their second demo, Sacrificial, at Morrisound with producer Scott Burns. Malevolent Creation guitarist Phil Fasciana recalls an early Carnage show: "It was like Slayer intensified a thousand times. [...] I guess Carnage had hollowed out a mannequin and filled it with fuckin' blood and guts from a butcher shop... and then they threw the fuckin' thing on the floor. Morbid Angel had these pit bulls with them back then and they were just tearing the meat up. It was a really weird scene, man. There was blood and meat everywhere." The Hoffman brothers said that they would let the animal visera sit in the sun all day prior to its use in their stage theatrics. ===As Deicide (1989–2004)=== While still under the name Carnage, Benton reportedly stormed into Roadrunner Records' A&R man Monte Conner's office and slammed the demo down on his desk, belting out "sign us, you fucking asshole!" The next day contracts were issued to the band. This version of events was partially later denied by Benton, who claimed he indeed visited the office but never used profanities. In 1989 the band's name was changed to Deicide at the request of Roadrunner Records due to multiple other bands already using "Carnage" as a band name. Deicide then released their self-titled debut album, also produced by Scott Burns at Morrisound, in 1990. Their debut featured re-recorded versions of all six of the Sacrificial tunes that had secured them their record deal. The band did not tour on the album because Glen Benton felt the band was worth more than the monetary offers they were receiving from promoters. Deicide's second full-length album Legion was released on June 9, 1992. In 1992, Deicide was on tour in Europe with Atrocity from Germany and Gorefest, a Dutch death metal band. In Stockholm, during the Gorefest set, a bomb was discovered on-stage. It exploded in the club in which they were playing. The bomb was located to the rear of the stage, behind a heavy, fireproof door. The explosion was big enough to deform the door and blow it off its hinges. Deicide managed to play three songs before the police decided to stop the concert and evacuate the club. At first, Benton blamed that attack on the Norwegian black metal scene, where Deicide's brand of death metal was despised by some. Many people blamed animal rights activists who were angered at Deicide's lyrical themes of animal sacrifice. On November 25, 2004, the Hoffmans departed from the band due to animosity relating to royalties and publishing. The Hoffman brothers later went on to reform Amon. They later attempted to sue Glen Benton for the rights to the Deicide name. Eric Hoffman recalled, "We were actually going to use the Deicide name [for the new band], but [Glen and Steve] got on the bandwagon faster than us. [...] They basically took the name, and Glen writes all the lyrics, so the kids are familiar with that." Benton told Decibel, "They can't do a goddamned thing to me, dude. I own the fucking name. They went behind my back and filed on my trademark, so I'm in the process of suing them to get their names off it. And I will win. They abandoned their jobs, and now they wanna come back. Well, there's no coming back, man. Sorry." \| quote = Those two are a couple of idiots, man. I hate Eric and Brian Hoffman more than anything in this world, and I will not rest until I put shit straight with the fans. Up 'til now, everybody thinks I kicked them out of the band, but nobody kicked anybody out. They quit on their own, and I wanna set the record straight in regard to those two fuckin' pricks. [...] It's real simple: Eric Hoffman has a fucking steroid problem, and he's bi-polar. Brian married some young broad who's running his life for him. What initially happened is that when our publishing deal ended with Roadrunner, and our new deal started with Earache, we put them on notice that our publishing was no longer gonan be split four ways — it's gonna be based on who writes what. That's the industry standard. Brian writes one song for the album, Eric writes two songs and they wanna get paid for all the songs Steve wrote. That's not fuckin' fair. And I wrote all the lyrics, so I'm entitled to 50% of the publishing. Why should I give those two money? They've been losing thousands of dollars for me and Steve for ten years now. If it was one of those things where they showed up and did their jobs, we wouldn't have a fucking problem. That's why the deal we signed [with Roadrunner] in '90 was set up like that. Back then, everybody wrote and contributed and it was a fuckin' group effort. But now me and Steve are the Lennon and McCartney of the band, doing all the writing, and those two wanna get paid for our hard work. Fuck that. }} Shortly after, the guitar roles were then filled by former Cannibal Corpse guitarist Jack Owen, and Vital Remains guitarist Dave Suzuki. Following the tour, Suzuki was replaced by guitarist Ralph Santolla. Santolla stated he was a Catholic, which had received a small amount of shock and ridicule from some metal fans. In spite of this, Deicide's eighth studio album The Stench of Redemption, which was released on August 22, 2006, received positive reviews from critics, who praised the album's guitar work and emphasis on melody.In January 2007, Benton left the European tour and returned home to the United States as a result of legal issues at home. Asheim announced that Seth van Loo, from opening act Severe Torture, and Garbaty "Yaha", from the Polish death metal band Dissenter, would be replacing Benton starting on January 9 in the Netherlands, until Benton could rejoin the tour. Benton rejoined the band in Paris on January 13. On May 24, 2007, it was announced Ralph Santolla had left Deicide. Subsequently, he joined Florida's Obituary and appeared on their album Xecutioner's Return as well as the tour. On July 20, 2007, guitarist Jack Owen announced that Deicide would be "on hiatus" and he had temporarily joined Ohio-based deathrash band Estuary for touring purposes. The band embarked on a Balkan tour, dubbed "Balkans AssassiNation Tour", in October 2007 alongside Krisiun, Incantation and Inactive Messiah. Owen called the tour a "death metal vacation." By November 2007, Deicide began work on their ninth studio album at Florida's Morrisound Studios. Entitled Till Death Do Us Part, the follow-up to The Stench of Redemption, promised to be the band's "most savage and aggressive [offering] to date", according to a press release. Drummer Steve Asheim recorded drum tracks and Benton started recording vocals in December 2007. In April 2008, two songs off the album were posted online. It was finally released on April 28, 2008. As the record was coming out, Benton considered retiring from music, in the midst of personal matters including a custody battle. On January 6, 2009, Deicide posted a blog on their official Myspace page saying they had signed a worldwide record deal with Century Media, with Ralph Santolla returning to the band for a European tour. They were said to be working on material for a summer 2010 release. In early 2009, they toured with Vital Remains and Order of Ennead. Guitarist Kevin Quirion of Order of Ennead joined the band in the summer of 2009. In June 2010, Glen Benton revealed that the next Deicide album was to be titled To Hell with God. It was produced by Mark Lewis at Audiohammer Studios in Sanford, Florida, and was released on February 15, 2011. The eleventh studio album In the Minds of Evil was released on November 26, 2013. On October 9, 2014, The Village Voice reported that Deicide had started working on new material for their twelfth studio album. By November 2016, it became apparent that guitarist Jack Owen was no longer in the band, and had been replaced by Monstrosity guitarist Mark English without an official announcement. Owen said, "it was a problem with new stuff I was writing. I walked into practice and Steve had re-recorded it and changed notes here and there for three or four songs that I had. It was stupid at the time. But he's, like, 'Hey, I changed the notes so I get writing credit.' And I'm, like, 'That's not how the songs go, though.' And Glen's like, 'It is now.' [Laughs] So I literally walked out and ghosted them. [Laughs] Later on, it was like, 'Hey, dude, you're out.'" Benton said Ashiem took two of Owen’s tracks and turned them into "one good song." Benton later expressed regret for “being a smartass” during the incident. Owen went on to join Six Feet Under in February 2017. Benton has stated that the band has “no hard feelings” towards Owen and that they were happy for him in joining Six Feet Under. On March 10, 2017, Deicide announced a short U.S. tour which would begin in May and also issued an update on the album: "the new record is almost completed, right now its down to scheduling, this run of shows were setting up is to introduce and work in our new guitarist Mark English, that and I need a break from this thing called Florida…". Deicide's twelfth studio album, Overtures of Blasphemy, was released on September 14, 2018. On June 6, 2018, former guitarist Ralph Santolla died due to complications following a heart attack and was taken off life support since being in a coma for a week. In February 2019, Deicide parted ways with Mark English and replaced him with Autumn's End vocalist/guitarist Chris Cannella. On April 17, 2021, the band performed in front of an audience of full capacity at The Verona in New Port Richey amid the COVID-19 pandemic, as all restrictions for businesses were lifted and mask mandate enforcements for local cities in Florida were removed as the state was moved into Stage 3 in late September 2020. A U.S. tour followed soon after, with Kataklysm, Internal Bleeding and Begat the Nephilim. On January 19, 2022, Chris Cannella left the band and was replaced by new guitarist Taylor Nordberg. The thirteenth album Banished by Sin was released through Reigning Phoenix Music on April 26, 2024. It was the "album of the month" on metallian.com. The band toured Europe in 2024. ==Musical style and legacy== Deicide have been called "Florida’s most notorious and despised death metal export." The band's first three studio albums -- Deicide, Legion and Once Upon the Cross -- are considered classics in the death metal genre. Dom Lawson of Metal Hammer wrote, “in terms of defining the sound of Floridian death metal in the early 90s, few bands are either as iconic or as notorious.” Despite this, frontman Glen Benton prefers not to use the "death metal" terminology. Greg Prato of AllMusic loosely referred to Deicide as blackened death metal. Additionally, Deicide's albums following their debut album have been called brutal death metal. According to Benton, Deicide was initially influenced by extreme metal acts such as Venom, Possessed and Death. Music journalist T Coles assessed, "though few would accuse Deicide of having pop sensibilities, there was something fun and catchy about them. This is in part thanks to Glen Benton's vocals; individual words are barked out, retaining the evil vibe, and the staccato delivery builds tension before breaking it back down with chaotic guitar solos." Benton's high shrieks have drawn comparisons to black metal. Both the Hoffman brothers tended to play technical solos at fast speeds and with overlapping riffs, which allowed Deicide to achieve the definitive heavy sound and complex song structures the band would become known for. Their guitar tone preferences heard on early Deicide releases have been noted for their extreme high frequency. According to Zeke Ferrington of Gear Gods, "It sounds like they plugged their pedals into a BBE Sonic Maximizer, then straight into the [mixing desk] with a HPF at 800hz and an upper mid boost." Deicide's lyrics explore vehement anti-Christian themes, as well as themes of blasphemy, Satanism, suicide, human sacrifice, deicide, and hell. Some of the band's song titles include "Death to Jesus", "Fuck Your God", "Kill the Christian", "Behead the Prophet", "Scars of the Crucifix", and "Christ Don't Care". Despite this, drummer Steve Asheim has denied belief in Satan or any other fire deity, explaining: "The whole point of Satanic music is to blaspheme against the Church [...] Life is short enough without having to waste it doing this whole organized praying, hoping, wishing-type thing on some superior being." ==Controversy and censorship== Deicide has received considerable controversy throughout their career. Most of the controversy surrounded frontman Benton for a rash of shocking interviews and wild statements. Benton has repeatedly branded an inverted cross into his forehead on at least 12 different occasions. During an interview with NME magazine, he shot and killed a squirrel with a pellet gun to prevent any further damage to his electrical system in the attic at the location the interview was held. This act garnered negative attention from critics and some animal rights activists. Benton had professed beliefs in theistic Satanism during Deicide's early years, claimed to slaughter rodents for fun, and that he held beliefs in demonic possession and that he was possessed. Such statements had eventually been concluded as tongue-in-cheek and little more than sensationalism by band members questioned alternatively. Additionally, Benton claimed in the early 1990s that he would commit suicide at the age of 33 to "mirror" a lifespan opposite that of Jesus Christ. However, he passed that age in 2000 and did not commit suicide, rebutting in 2006 that these statements had been "asinine remarks" and that "only cowards and losers" choose to kill themselves.) and with various festivals such as Hellfest, after several graves had been spray-painted with "When Satan Rules His World", a reference to a song from Deicide's 1995 album Once upon the Cross. In addition, their music video for "Homage for Satan", which features blood-splattered zombies on a rampaging mission to capture a priest, was banned from UK music TV channel Scuzz. Deicide also caused controversy when Benton tossed rotting animal meat into the crowd. Benton recalled, “I didn’t think playing shows with rotting meat as part of our set-up was gonna cause that much of a shitstorm. Within three shows of that stuff I had the authorities bearing down on me, so it was a very short-lived moment in Deicide history.” ==Band members== ===Current members=== Steve Asheim – drums , guitars Glen Benton – bass, lead vocals Kevin Quirion – guitars, backing vocals Taylor Nordberg – guitars, backing vocals === Former members === Eric Hoffman – guitars Brian Hoffman – guitars Ralph Santolla – guitars Jack Owen – guitars Mark English – guitars Chris Cannella – guitars, backing vocals === Live members === Dave Suzuki – guitars Seth Van Loo – vocals Dariusz "Garbaty Yaha" Kułpiński – bass, lead vocals ===Recording timeline=== ===Timeline=== ==Discography== Deicide (1990) Legion (1992) Once upon the Cross (1995) Serpents of the Light (1997) Insineratehymn (2000) In Torment in Hell (2001) Scars of the Crucifix (2004) The Stench of Redemption (2006) Till Death Do Us Part (2008) To Hell with God (2011) In the Minds of Evil (2013) Overtures of Blasphemy (2018) Banished by Sin (2024)	[ "The Sydney Morning Herald", "guitar solo", "Jack Owen", "Steve Asheim", "high frequency", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Florida", "To Hell with God", "Scars of the Crucifix", "Till Death Do Us Part (Deicide album)", "New Port Richey, Florida", "Drum kit", "Floridian death metal", "Scuzz", "theistic Satanism", "suicide", "Malevolent Creation", "Deicide discography", "Tampa, Florida", "pop music", "Morbid Angel", "Insineratehymn", "Air gun", "Audio frequency", "Metal Hammer", "Death growl", "Decibel (magazine)", "anti-Christian", "Adrift (band)", "Animal rights movement", "fire deity", "Signal processing", "Legion (Deicide album)", "anti-Christianity", "Scott Burns (producer)", "Xecutioner's Return", "Monstrosity (band)", "Dark Angel (band)", "Banished by Sin", "AllMusic", "Slayer", "Morrisound Recording", "brutal death metal", "Possessed (band)", "Prayer", "Valparaiso", "Obituary (band)", "Century Media Records", "Metal Storm (webzine)", "Blabbermouth.net", "Kataklysm", "Stockholm", "staccato", "deicide", "Deicide (album)", "Atrocity (band)", "Jesus Christ", "Incantation (American band)", "Cross of St. Peter", "Dave Suzuki", "Roadrunner Records", "A&R", "Bass guitar", "Celtic Frost", "Loudwire", "mixing desk", "hell", "black metal", "Soundscan Era", "deathrash", "The Village Voice", "Reigning Phoenix Music", "Ralph Santolla", "SoundScan", "Blabbermouth", "Cannibal Corpse", "Gear Gods", "sensationalism", "Six Feet Under (band)", "Glen Benton", "In Torment in Hell", "human sacrifice", "Vital Remains", "Earache Records", "riffs", "The Stench of Redemption", "Hellfest", "blasphemy", "Exodus (band)", "Tone (musical instrument)", "Christian Church", "blackened death metal", "tongue-in-cheek", "Overtures of Blasphemy", "Venom (band)", "Krisiun", "Electric guitar", "Ultimate Guitar Archive", "Serpents of the Light", "Death metal", "God", "death metal", "Gorefest", "Monte Conner", "Death (metal band)", "Order of Ennead", "Metaltown", "About.com", "Century Media", "Multitrack recording", "extreme metal", "Guitar pedals", "NME", "Allmusic", "Once upon the Cross", "In the Minds of Evil", "Satanism" ]
8,822	Daniel Williamson	Daniel Williamson may refer to: Danny Williamson (footballer) (born 1973), former English footballer A DJ, stage name LTJ Bukem Daniel Alexander Williamson (1823–1903), British artist Dan Williamson, New Zealand rower	[ "Dan Williamson", "LTJ Bukem", "Danny Williamson (footballer)", "Daniel Alexander Williamson" ]
8,824	Division of labour	The division of labour is the separation of the tasks in any economic system or organisation so that participants may specialise (specialisation). Individuals, organisations, and nations are endowed with or acquire specialised capabilities, and either form combinations or trade to take advantage of the capabilities of others in addition to their own. Specialised capabilities may include equipment or natural resources as well as skills. Training and combinations of equipment and other assets acting together are often important. For example, an individual may specialise by acquiring tools and the skills to use them effectively just as an organisation may specialise by acquiring specialised equipment and hiring or training skilled operators. The division of labour is the motive for trade and the source of economic interdependence. An increasing division of labour is associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and the increasing complexity of industrialised processes. The concept and implementation of division of labour has been observed in ancient Sumerian (Mesopotamian) culture, where assignment of jobs in some cities coincided with an increase in trade and economic interdependence. Division of labour generally also increases both producer and individual worker productivity. After the Neolithic Revolution, pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies, which increased the population and led to specialisation of labour, including new classes of artisans, warriors, and the development of elites. This specialisation was furthered by the process of industrialisation, and Industrial Revolution-era factories. Accordingly, many classical economists as well as some mechanical engineers, such as Charles Babbage, were proponents of division of labour. Also, having workers perform single or limited tasks eliminated the long training period required to train craftsmen, who were replaced with less-paid but more productive unskilled workers. == Pre-modern theories == === Plato === In Plato's Republic, the origin of the state lies in the natural inequality of humanity, which is embodied in the division of labour: Silvermintz (2010) noted that "Historians of economic thought credit Plato, primarily on account of arguments advanced in his Republic, as an early proponent of the division of labour." === Xenophon === Xenophon, in the 4th century BC, makes a passing reference to division of labour in his Cyropaedia (a.k.a. Education of Cyrus). === Augustine of Hippo === A simile used by Augustine of Hippo shows that the division of labour was practised and understood in late Imperial Rome. In a brief passage of his The City of God, Augustine seems to be aware of the role of different social layers in the production of goods, like household (familiae), corporations (collegia) and the state. ===Medieval Muslim scholars=== The division of labour was discussed by multiple medieval Persian scholars. They considered the division of labour between members of a household, between members of society and between nations. For Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and al-Ghazali the division of labour was necessary and useful. The similarity of the examples provided by these scholars with those provided by Adam Smith (such as al-Ghazali's needle factory and Tusi's claim that exchange, and by extension the division of labour, are the consequences of the human reasoning capability and that no animals have been observed to exchange one bone for another) led some scholars to conjecture that Smith was influenced by the medieval Persian scholarship. == Modern theories == === William Petty === Sir William Petty was the first modern writer to take note of the division of labour, showing its has worth in existence and usefulness in Dutch shipyards. Classically, the workers in a shipyard would build ships as units, finishing one before starting another. But the Dutch had it organised with several teams each doing the same tasks for successive ships. People with a particular task to do must have discovered new methods that were only later observed and justified by writers on political economy. Petty also applied the principle to his survey of Ireland. His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training. === Bernard de Mandeville === Bernard de Mandeville discussed the matter in the second volume of The Fable of the Bees (1714). This elaborates many matters raised by the original poem about a 'Grumbling Hive'. He says: === David Hume === - David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature === Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau === In his introduction to The Art of the Pin-Maker (Art de l'Épinglier, 1761), Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau writes about the "division of this work": The contradiction has led to some debate over Smith's opinion of the division of labour. Alexis de Tocqueville agreed with Smith: "Nothing tends to materialize man, and to deprive his work of the faintest trace of mind, more than extreme division of labor." Adam Ferguson shared similar views to Smith, though was generally more negative. The specialisation and concentration of the workers on their single subtasks often leads to greater skill and greater productivity on their particular subtasks than would be achieved by the same number of workers each carrying out the original broad task, in part due to increased quality of production, but more importantly because of increased efficiency of production, leading to a higher nominal output of units produced per time unit. Smith uses the example of a production capability of an individual pin maker compared to a manufacturing business that employed 10 men:One man draws out the wire; another straights it; a third cuts it; a fourth points it; a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business; to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind, where ten men only were employed, and where some of them consequently performed two or three distinct operations. But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There are in a pound upwards of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day.Smith saw the importance of matching skills with equipment—usually in the context of an organisation. For example, pin makers were organised with one making the head, another the body, each using different equipment. Similarly, he emphasised a large number of skills, used in cooperation and with suitable equipment, were required to build a ship. In modern economic discussion, the term human capital would be used. Smith's insight suggests that the huge increases in productivity obtainable from technology or technological progress are possible because human and physical capital are matched, usually in an organisation. See also a short discussion of Adam Smith's theory in the context of business processes. Babbage wrote a seminal work "On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures" analysing perhaps for the first time the division of labour in factories. === Immanuel Kant === In the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), Immanuel Kant notes the value of the division of labour:All crafts, trades and arts have profited from the division of labour; for when each worker sticks to one particular kind of work that needs to be handled differently from all the others, he can do it better and more easily than when one person does everything. Where work is not thus differentiated and divided, where everyone is a jack-of-all-trades, the crafts remain at an utterly primitive level. === Karl Marx === Marx argued that increasing the specialisation may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work. He described the process as alienation: workers become more and more specialised and work becomes repetitive, eventually leading to complete alienation from the process of production. The worker then becomes "depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine." Additionally, Marx argued that the division of labour creates less-skilled workers. As the work becomes more specialised, less training is needed for each specific job, and the workforce, overall, is less skilled than if one worker did one job entirely. Among Marx's theoretical contributions is his sharp distinction between the economic and the social division of labour. That is, some forms of labour co-operation are purely due to "technical necessity", but others are a result of a "social control" function related to a class and status hierarchy. If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by power relationships. He also argues that in a communist society, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do. === Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson === Henry David Thoreau criticised the division of labour in Walden (1854), on the basis that it removes people from a sense of connectedness with society and with the world at large, including nature. He claimed that the average man in a civilised society is less wealthy, in practice, than one in a "savage" society. The answer he gave was that self-sufficiency was enough to cover one's basic needs. === Émile Durkheim === In his seminal work, The Division of Labor in Society, Émile Durkheim observes that the division of labour appears in all societies and positively correlates with societal advancement because it increases as a society progresses. Durkheim arrived at the same conclusion regarding the positive effects of the division of labour as his theoretical predecessor, Adam Smith. In The Wealth of Nations, Smith observes the division of labour results in "a proportionable increase of the productive powers of labor." While they shared this belief, Durkheim believed the division of labour applied to all "biological organisms generally," while Smith believed this law applied "only to human societies." This difference may result from the influence of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species on Durkheim's writings. As social solidarity cannot be directly quantified, Durkheim indirectly studies solidarity by "classify[ing] the different types of law to find...the different types of social solidarity which correspond to it." criminal laws and their respective punishments as promoting mechanical solidarity, a sense of unity resulting from individuals engaging in similar work who hold shared backgrounds, traditions, and values; and civil laws as promoting organic solidarity, a society in which individuals engage in different kinds of work that benefit society and other individuals. Durkheim believes that organic solidarity prevails in more advanced societies, while mechanical solidarity typifies less developed societies. He explains that in societies with more mechanical solidarity, the diversity and division of labour is much less, so individuals have a similar worldview. Similarly, Durkheim opines that in societies with more organic solidarity, the diversity of occupations is greater, and individuals depend on each other more, resulting in greater benefits to society as a whole. === Ludwig von Mises === Marx's theories, including his negative claims regarding the division of labour, have been criticised by the Austrian economists, notably Ludwig von Mises. The primary argument is that the economic gains accruing from the division of labour far outweigh the costs, thus developing on the thesis that division of labour leads to cost efficiencies. It is argued that it is fully possible to achieve balanced human development within capitalism and alienation is downplayed as mere romantic fiction. According to Mises, the idea has led to the concept of mechanisation in which a specific task is performed by a mechanical device, instead of an individual labourer. This method of production is significantly more effective in both yield and cost-effectiveness, and utilises the division of labour to the fullest extent possible. Mises saw the very idea of a task being performed by a specialised mechanical device as being the greatest achievement of division of labour. === Friedrich A. Hayek === In "The Use of Knowledge in Society", Friedrich A. Hayek states: == Globalisation and global division of labour == The issue reaches its broadest scope in the controversies about globalisation, which is often interpreted as a euphemism for the expansion of international trade based on comparative advantage. This would mean that countries specialise in the work they can do at the lowest relative cost measured in terms of the opportunity cost of not using resources for other work, compared to the opportunity costs experienced by countries. Critics, however, allege that international specialisation cannot be explained sufficiently in terms of "the work nations do best", rather that this specialisation is guided more by commercial criteria, which favour some countries over others. The OECD advised in June 2005 that: Few studies have taken place regarding the global division of labour. Information can be drawn from ILO and national statistical offices. In one study, Deon Filmer estimated that 2.474 billion people participated in the global non-domestic labour force in the mid-1990s. Of these: around 15%, or 379 million people, worked in industry; a third, or 800 million worked in services and over 40%, or 1,074 million, in agriculture. The majority of workers in industry and services were wage and salary earners—58 per cent of the industrial workforce and 65 per cent of the services workforce. But a large portion was self-employed or involved in family labour. Filmer suggests the total of employees worldwide in the 1990s was about 880 million, compared with around a billion working on their own account on the land (mainly peasants), and some 480 million working on their own account in industry and services. The 2007 ILO Global Employment Trends Report indicated that services have surpassed agriculture for the first time in human history: Different people try different things, and that which is most effective cost-wise (produces the most and best output with the least input) will generally be adopted. Often, techniques that work in one place or time do not work as well in another. === Styles of division of labour === Two styles of management that are seen in modern organisations are control and commitment: Control management, the style of the past, is based on the principles of job specialisation and the division of labour. This is the assembly-line style of job specialisation, where employees are given a very narrow set of tasks or one specific task. Commitment division of labour, the style of the future, is oriented on including the employee and building a level of internal commitment towards accomplishing tasks. Tasks include more responsibility and are coordinated based on expertise rather than a formal position. Job specialisation is advantageous in developing employee expertise in a field and boosting organisational production. However, disadvantages of job specialisation included limited employee skill, dependence on entire department fluency, and employee discontent with repetitive tasks. This claim, however, is often disputed by various sources, particularly: Marxists claim hierarchy is created to support the power structures in capitalist societies which maintain the capitalist class as the owner of the labour of workers, in order to exploit it. Anarchists often add to this analysis by defending that the presence of coercive hierarchy in any form is contrary to the values of liberty and equality. Anti-imperialists see the globalised labour hierarchy between first world and third world countries necessitated by companies (through unequal exchange) that create a labour aristocracy by exploiting the poverty of workers in the developing world, where wages are much lower. These increased profits enable these companies to pay higher wages and taxes in the developed world (which fund welfare in first world countries), thus creating a working class satisfied with their standard of living and not inclined to revolution. This concept is further explored in dependency theory, notably by Samir Amin There can be motivational advantages to a reduced division of labour (which has been termed ‘job enlargement’ and 'job enrichment'). Jobs that are too specialised in a narrow range of tasks are said to result in demotivation due to boredom and alienation. Hence, a Taylorist approach to work design contributed to worsened industrial relations. There are also limitations to the division of labour (and the division of work) that result from workflow variations and uncertainties. These help to explain issues in modern work organisation, such as task consolidations in business process re-engineering and the use of multi-skilled work teams. For instance, one stage of a production process may temporarily work at a slower pace, forcing other stages to slow down. One answer to this is to make some portion of resources mobile between stages so that those resources must be capable of undertaking a wider range of tasks. Another is to consolidate tasks so that they are undertaken one after another by the same workers and other resources. Stocks between stages can also help to reduce the problem to some extent but are costly and can hamper quality control. Modern flexible manufacturing systems require both flexible machines and flexible workers. In project-based work, the coordination of resources is a difficult issue for the project manager as project schedules and resulting resource bookings are based on estimates of task durations and so are subject to subsequent revisions. Again, consolidating tasks so that they are undertaken consecutively by the same resources and having resources available that can be called on at short-notice from other tasks can help to reduce such problems, though at the cost of reduced specialisation. There are also advantages in a reduced division of labour where knowledge would otherwise have to be transferred between stages. For example, having a single person deal with a customer query means that only that one person has to be familiar with the customer's details. It is also likely to result in the query being handled faster due to the elimination of delays in passing the query between different people. == Gendered division of labour == The clearest exposition of the principles of sexual division of labour across the full range of human societies can be summarised by a large number of logically complementary implicational constraints of the following form: if women of childbearing ages in a given community tend to do X (e.g., preparing soil for planting) they will also do Y (e.g., the planting); while for men the logical reversal in this example would be that if men plant, they will prepare the soil. White, Brudner, and Burton's (1977) "Entailment Theory and Method: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labor", using statistical entailment analysis, shows that tasks more frequently chosen by women in these order relations are those more convenient in relation to child rearing. This type of finding has been replicated in a variety of studies, including those on modern industrial economies. These entailments do not restrict how much work for any given task could be done by men (e.g., in cooking) or by women (e.g., in clearing forests), but are only least-effort or role-consistent tendencies. To the extent that women clear forests for agriculture, for example, they tend to do the entire agricultural sequence of tasks on those clearings. In theory, these types of constraints could be removed by provisions of child care, but ethnographic examples are lacking. == Industrial organisational psychology == Job satisfaction has been shown to improve as an employee is given the task of a specific job. Students who have received PhDs in a chosen field later report increased satisfaction compared to their previous jobs. This can be attributed to their high levels of specialisation. The higher the training needed for the specialised job position, the higher is the level of job satisfaction as well, although many highly specialised jobs can be monotonous and produce high rates of burnout periodically. == Division of work == In contrast to division of labour, division of work refers to the division of a large task, contract, or project into smaller tasks—each with a separate schedule within the overall project schedule. Division of labour, instead, refers to the allocation of tasks to individuals or organisations according to the skills and/or equipment those people or organisations possess. Often division of labour and division of work are both part of the economic activity within an industrial nation or organisation. == Disaggregated work == A job divided into elemental parts is sometimes called "disaggregated work". Workers specialising in particular parts of the job are called professionals. The workers doing a portion of a non-recurring work may be called contractors, freelancers, or temporary workers. Modern communication technologies, particularly the Internet, gave rise to the sharing economy, which is orchestrated by online marketplaces for various kinds of disaggregated work.	[ "Elhanan Helpman", "Charles Darwin", "A Treatise on Human Nature", "self-sufficiency", "Murray Rothbard", "third world", "Duke University", "Kyriarchy", "Augustine of Hippo", "University of Chicago Press", "Precariat", "Howard F. 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Anderson", "general contractor", "meritocracy", "Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau", "Anarchism", "OECD", "The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics", "File:Duhamel.jpg", "International Labour Organization", "subtasks", "Richard Florida", "Stephanie Coontz", "The Fable of the Bees", "business process reengineering", "industrial nation", "Martin Neil Baily", "A Treatise on the Family", "ethnographic", "Price system", "The City of God", "Adam Ferguson", "Discretionary Time", "Marx, Karl", "international trade", "entailment", "industrialisation", "Classical economics", "Newly industrialised country", "first world", "Output (economics)", "Economies of scale", "Temporary work", "New international division of labour", "Control (management)", "George Stigler", "Origins of the State", "Competence (human resources)", "Civil law (legal system)", "Marx's theory of alienation", "Sumer", "Pin Factory", "organic solidarity", "shipyard", "Winner and loser culture", "Penguin Classics", "André Gorz", "Ludwig von Mises", "commerce", "Departmentalization", "communism", "Mechanical and organic solidarity", "mechanisation", "Henry David Thoreau", "information and communications technology", "Monthly Review Press", "Adam Smith", "Charles Babbage", "political economy", "Herbert Gintis", "Doctor of Philosophy", "labour aristocracy", "trade", "economic system", "World Bank", "T. 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8,826	Davy lamp	The Davy lamp is a safety lamp used in flammable atmospheres, invented in 1815 by Sir Humphry Davy. It consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen. It was created for use in coal mines, to reduce the danger of explosions due to the presence of methane and other flammable gases, called firedamp or minedamp. == History == German polymath Alexander von Humboldt, working for the German Bureau of Mines, had concerns for the health and welfare of the miners and invented a kind of respirator and "four lamps of different construction suitable for employment in various circumstances. The respirator was to prevent the inhaling of injurious gases, and to supply the miner with good air; the lamps were constructed to burn in the most inflammable kind of fire-damp without igniting the gas. They were the forerunners of Davy's later invention, and were frequently made use of by the miners." Davy's invention was preceded by that of William Reid Clanny, an Irish doctor at Bishopwearmouth, who had read a paper to the Royal Society in May 1813. The more cumbersome Clanny safety lamp was successfully tested at Herrington Mill, and he won medals, from the Royal Society of Arts. The first trial of a Davy lamp with a wire sieve was at Hebburn Colliery on 9 January 1816. and a paper describing the lamp was formally presented at a Royal Society meeting in London on 9 November.{{efn\| The mean maximum quenching diameter (the maximum hole diameter through which a flame (not an explosion) will not pass) for drilled holes in 1/32" thick brass plate was reported in 1968 to be 0.139 inches for methane/air mixtures. Davy's letter read at the 3 November meeting in Newcastle reported that his work on samples of firedamp had shown that explosions in flammable mixtures of firedamp with air would not pass through tubes of diameter less than 1/8". and raised a subscription for him of £1,000. In 1833, a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp. == Design and theory == The lamp consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen. The screen acts as a flame arrestor; air (and any firedamp present) can pass through the mesh freely enough to support combustion, but the holes are too fine to allow a flame to propagate through them and ignite any firedamp outside the mesh. The Davy lamp was fueled by oil or naphtha (lighter fluid). The lamp also provided a test for the presence of gases. If flammable gas mixtures were present, the flame of the Davy lamp burned higher with a blue tinge. Lamps were equipped with a metal gauge to measure the height of the flame. Miners could place the safety lamp close to the ground to detect gases, such as carbon dioxide, that are denser than air and so could collect in depressions in the mine; if the mine air was oxygen-poor (asphyxiant gas), the lamp flame would be extinguished (black damp or chokedamp). A methane-air flame is extinguished at about 17% oxygen content (which will still support life), so the lamp gave an early indication of an unhealthy atmosphere, allowing the miners to get out before they died of asphyxiation. == Impact == In 1816, the Cumberland Pacquet reported a demonstration of the Davy lamp at William Pit, Whitehaven. Placed in a blower "... the effect was grand beyond description. At first a blue flame was seen to cap the flame of the lamp, – then succeeded a lambent flame, playing in the cylinder; and shortly after, the flame of the firedamp expanded, so as to completely fill the wire gauze. For some time, the flame of the lamp was seen through that of the firedamp, which became ultimately extinguished without explosion. Results more satisfactory were not to be wished..." Another correspondent to the paper commented "The Lamp offers absolute security to the miner... With the excellent ventilation of the Whitehaven Collieries and the application of Sir HUMPHRY's valuable instrument, the accidents from the explosion of' (carbureted) 'hydrogene which have occurred (although comparatively few for such extensive works) will by this happy invention be avoided". More generally, the Select Committee on Accidents in Mines reported in 1835 that the introduction of the Davy lamp had led to an increase in mine accidents; The lamps had to be provided by the miners themselves, not the owners, as traditionally the miners had bought their own candles from the company store. Miners still preferred the better illumination from a naked light, and mine regulations insisting that only safety lamps be used (in response to an explosion at the St Hilda pit in 1839) to consider the prevention of accidents in mines had shown that mine ventilation in the North-East was generally deficient, with an insufficient supply of fresh air giving every opportunity for explosive mixtures of gas to accumulate. A subsequent select committee in 1852 concurred with this view; firedamp explosions could best be prevented by improving mine ventilation (by the use of steam ejectors: the committee specifically advised against fan ventilation), which had been neglected because of over-reliance on the safety of the Davy lamp. The practice of using a Davy lamp and a candle together was not entirely absurd, however, if the Davy lamp is understood to be not only a safe light in an explosive atmosphere, but also a gauge of firedamp levels. In practice, however, the warning from the lamp was not always noticed in time, especially in the working conditions of the era. The Mines Regulation Act 1860 therefore required coal mines to have an adequate amount of ventilation, constantly produced, to dilute and render harmless noxious gases so that work areas were – under ordinary circumstances – in a fit state to be worked (areas where a normally safe atmosphere could not be ensured were to be fenced off "as far as possible"): it also required safety lamps to be examined and securely locked by a duly authorized person before use. Even when new and clean, illumination from the safety lamps was very poor, and the problem was not fully resolved until electric lamps became widely available in the late 19th century. == Successors == A modern-day equivalent of the Davy lamp has been used in the Olympic flame torch relays. It was used in the relays for the Sydney, Athens, Turin, Beijing, Vancouver and Singapore Youth Olympic Games. It was also used for the Special Olympics Shanghai, Pan American and Central African games and for the London 2012 Summer Olympics relay. The National Mining Museum Scotland at Newtongrange, Scotland, also celebrated the 200th anniversary of the invention. In 2016, the Royal Institution of Great Britain, where the Davy lamp prototype is displayed, decided to have the invention 3D scanned, reverse engineered and presented to the museum visitors in a more accessible digital format via a virtual reality cabinet. At first sight it appears to be a traditional display cabinet but has a touch screen with various options for visitors to view and reference the virtual exhibits inside.	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8,827	Docklands Light Railway	The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) is an automated light metro system primarily serving the redeveloped Docklands area of London and providing a direct connection between London's two major financial districts, Canary Wharf and the City of London. First opened on 31 August 1987, the DLR has been extended multiple times, giving a total route length of . Lines now reach north to Stratford, south to Lewisham, west to and in the City of London financial district, and east to Beckton, London City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal. An extension to Thamesmead is currently being proposed. Normal operations are automated, so there is minimal staffing on the 149 trains (which have no driving cabs) and at major interchange stations; the four below-ground stations are staffed, to comply with health and safety regulations for underground stations. The DLR was the first major railway infrastructure project in Britain where access for disabled people was considered, with level access into the train from platforms and lifts at all stations. The DLR is operated and maintained by franchisee KeolisAmey Docklands (a joint venture of transport company Keolis and infrastructure support provider Amey) for Transport for London (TfL). Passenger numbers have increased as the network has expanded since its launch. In the financial year 2023/24, there were 98.9million passenger journeys. ==History== ===Background=== In the 18th and 19th century, new docks were built east of the City of London to cater for the rapidly growing city. The last of these docks opened in 1921 in the Royal Docks. From the early 1960s, the docks began to decline as cargo was containerised and mechanised. The older docks did not have space to expand, and could not handle larger vessels. The docks had been connected to the national railway network via the London and Blackwall Railway (L&BR), which was closed in 1966 for lack of traffic. From the mid-1960s, the docks gradually closed down - leading to major job losses and economic deprivation. In 1972, the London Docklands Study team commissioned Travis Morgan & Partners to propose redevelopment of the area. In 1973, they proposed, among other recommendations, that a "minitram" people-mover system capable of carrying up to 20 people in each unit should be constructed to connect the Docklands with the planned Fleet line tube railway terminus at Fenchurch Street railway station. However, when the Thatcher Government came to power, the plans to extend the Jubilee line were halted and the new government insisted that a lower-cost option should be pursued. In July 1981, the government established the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) to coordinate the redevelopment of the Docklands. The need to provide a cheap public transport solution led to it commissioning London Transport to evaluate a number of exclusively light rail options, using trams or tram like vehicles. The cost of extending the Jubilee line to the area was now estimated to be around £450million. The core of the route ran alongside the Great Eastern line out of London and south along the former London & Blackwall Railway line through the Isle of Dogs. Three terminus options were proposed at the west end, at Tower Hill, Minories and Aldgate East. The Tower Hill option would have required a low-level interchange to be constructed alongside the existing Underground station, but this would have been a very costly venture. The Minories option, a high-level station virtually on the site of the old Minories railway station, was selected and became the current Tower Gateway DLR terminus. Two southern terminus options were put forward, at Cubitt Town (today's Island Gardens station) and Tiller Road, on the west side of Millwall Dock, with two possible routes to reach them. A "western" route would have run from the Westferry station alongside West Ferry Road via Cuba Street, then either terminating at Tiller Road or continuing over Millwall Docks Cut to a terminus at Cubitt Town. The "central" option required the West India Docks to be infilled or bridged and would run down the middle of the peninsula, through what was at the time an area of derelict warehouses. Ultimately this latter option was chosen, though the 1981 London Transport report warned that without extensive development around Canary Wharf the area would be "very isolated with poor traffic prospects" – as indeed it was, for a number of years. The northern terminus was proposed at Mile End, with options including street running down Burdett Road towards Limehouse or along the Mile End Road to turn south before using an old railway alignment to reach Poplar. A final report prepared by the GLC, LDDC, government departments and London Transport was published in June 1982, proposing a north–south route from Mile End to the Isle of Dogs, and an east–west route linking the Isle of Dogs to the City of London. Even during the development of the line, proposals for future extensions were being envisaged and investigated. === Parliamentary process and construction === Following the publishing of the report, the Departments of the Environment and Transport agreed to provide £77million towards construction of the extension, with a deadline of 1987. The funding agreement also included conditions to maximise the use of modern technology, and that no ongoing subsidy would be available from government. Initially, the system was planned to be manually operated and having some stretches of street running. During the Parliamentary process, the northern terminus of the line was changed to Stratford, as part of efforts to segregate the line from road and other railway traffic, as the LDDC were pushing for the line to use a "high tech automated system". The two Acts of Parliament that authorised the line to be built were passed in 1984 and 1985. Construction of the system began shortly after in 1985, with the joint venture careful to minimise costs in light of the £77million budget. ===Initial system (1987–1990)=== The railway was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 30 July 1987, and passenger services began on 31 August. The initial system comprised two routes, from and Stratford to , with a total length of . A total of eleven units supplied by Linke-Hofmann-Busch comprised the first generation of the Docklands Light Railway rolling stock. The system was lightweight, with stations designed for trains of only a single articulated vehicle. The three branches totalled , had 15 stations, and were connected by a flat triangular junction near . Services ran from Tower Gateway to Island Gardens and from Stratford to Island Gardens; the north side of the junction was used only for access to the Poplar depot. The stations were mostly of a common design and constructed from standard components. A common feature was a short half-cylindrical glazed blue canopy. All stations were above ground and were generally unstaffed. ===Extensions to the City and the Royal Docks (1991–1994)=== The initial system had a relatively low capacity, but the Docklands area very quickly developed into a major financial centre and employment zone, increasing traffic. In particular Tower Gateway, at the edge of the City of London, attracted criticism for its poor connections, as it did not connect directly with the nearby Tower Hill tube station or Fenchurch Street railway station. The criticism arose partly because the system usage was higher than expected. Plans were developed, before the system opened, to extend it to in the west and Beckton in the east. Stations and trains were extended to two-unit length, and the system was expanded into the heart of the City of London to through a tunnel, which opened in 1991 at a cost of £295million. This extension left on a stub. The original trains were not suitable for underground usage due to not meeting the fire safety laws for underground trains. The east of Docklands needed better transport connections to encourage development, and a fourth branch, towards Beckton, was planned, with several route options available. A route from via and the north side of the Royal Docks complex was chosen, and opened in March 1994 at a cost of £280million. and for this reason two additional stations at Thames Wharf (not to be confused with the later Thames Wharf proposal on the Woolwich branch) and Connaught were omitted. As part of this extension, one side of the original flat triangular junction was replaced by a grade-separated junction west of Poplar. Poplar was rebuilt to give cross-platform interchange between the Stratford and Beckton lines, with a new grade-separated junction built east of the station at the divergence of the Stratford and Beckton lines. As part of the extension, a new, larger, depot was built at Beckton. ===Extension to Greenwich & Lewisham (1996–1999)=== Early on, Lewisham London Borough Council commissioned a feasibility study into extending the system under the River Thames. This led the council to advocate an extension via Greenwich and Deptford, terminating at Lewisham railway station. The ambitions of the operators were supported by politicians in Parliament, including the future Labour Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, and Lord Whitty. The extension would be designed, built, financed and maintained by a private consortium as a Private finance initiative, with Government contributing around £50 million of the £200 million construction cost. Construction began in 1996, with the extension opening ahead of schedule on 20 November 1999. It left the Island Gardens route south of the Crossharbour turn-back sidings, and dropped gently to , where a street-level station replaced the high-level one on the former London & Blackwall Railway viaduct. The line then entered a tunnel, following the route of the viaduct to a shallow subsurface station at , accessible by stairs or a lift. It crossed under the Thames to in the centre of Greenwich, and surfaced at Greenwich railway station, with cross-platform interchange between the northbound track and the London-bound main line. The line snaked on a concrete viaduct to , before descending to at street level, close to Lewisham town centre, terminating in two platforms between and below the main-line platforms at Lewisham railway station, with buses stopping outside the station. The extension quickly proved profitable. ===Extensions to London City Airport & Woolwich (2004–2009)=== An extension to London City Airport from the existing Beckton branch was explored in the mid-90s, at first via travelator from Royal Albert, and then in 1998 via a proposed lift-bridge over the dock with an intermediate station at West Silvertown. The government initially supported this proposal, and in 1999 was developed to the route known today with a further extension to King George V. At this time, the further route to Woolwich Arsenal was developed with an intermediate station at Woolwich Reach, but was viewed as a longer-term aspiration. The Woolwich Reach station (on the south bank of the Thames, at the site of the Marlborough Road ventilation and escape shaft), was descoped in 2000. The extension was aided by a five-year programme of investment for public transport across London that was unveiled by Mayor of London Ken Livingstone on 12 October 2004. On 2 December 2005, an eastward branch along the approximate route of the former Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway on the southern side of the Royal Docks complex opened from Canning Town to via . A further extension from to Woolwich Arsenal opened on 10 January 2009, providing interchange with National Rail services. with construction beginning in June 2005, the same month that the contracts were finalised. The tunnels under the Thames were completed on 23 July 2007, and formally opened by Boris Johnson, Mayor of London on 12 January 2009. Following completion, the project was shortlisted for the 2009 Prime Minister's Better Public Building Award. The original station was closed in mid-2008 for complete reconstruction. The two terminal tracks either side of a narrow island platform were replaced by a single track between two platforms, one for arriving passengers and the other for departing (Spanish solution). It reopened on 2 March 2009. As part of an upgrade to allow three-car trains, strengthening work was necessary at the Delta Junction north of . It was decided to include this in a plan for further grade separation to eliminate the conflict between services to Stratford and from Bank. A new timetable was introduced, with improved frequencies at peak hours. The new grade-separated route from Bank to Canary Wharf is used throughout the day, bypassing West India Quay station until mid-evening. Work on this project proceeded concurrently with the three-car upgrade work and the 'diveunder' (sometimes referred to as a flyunder but DLR have coined the term in this instance 'diveunder'), and the improved timetable came into use on 24 August 2009. ===Upgrade to three-car trains (2007–2011)=== With the development of the eastern Docklands as part of the Thames Gateway initiative and London's staging of the 2012 Summer Olympics, several extensions and enhancements were undertaken. Capacity was increased by upgrading for trains with three cars, each with four doors per side. The alternative of more frequent trains was rejected as the signalling changes needed would have cost no less than upgrading to longer trains and with fewer benefits. The railway had been built for single-car operation, and the upgrade required both strengthening viaducts to take heavier trains and lengthening many platforms. The extra capacity was useful for the 2012 Summer Olympics, which increased the use of London's transport network. The main contractor for the expansion and alteration works was Taylor Woodrow. Elverson Road, Royal Albert, Gallions Reach and Cutty Sark have not been extended for three-car trains; such extension may be impossible in some cases. Selective door operation is used, with emergency walkways in case a door fails to remain shut. station is underground, and both costs and the risk to nearby historic buildings prevent platform extension. The tunnel has an emergency walkway. Additional work beyond that needed to take the three-car trains was also carried out at some stations. This included replacing canopies with more substantial ones along the full platform length. A new station has been built east of the former location as nearby curves precluded lengthening. now has a third platform. For this upgrade DLR purchased an additional 31 cars compatible with existing rolling stock. The works were originally planned as three phases: Bank-Lewisham, Poplar-Stratford, and the Beckton branch. The original £200million contract was awarded on 3 May 2007. Work started in 2007 and Bank-Lewisham was originally due to be completed in 2009. However, the work programme for the first two phases was merged and the infrastructure work was completed by the end of January 2010. The Lewisham-Bank route now runs three-car trains exclusively. They started running on the Beckton branch on 9 May 2011. Stratford to Lewisham and Bank to Woolwich Arsenal services sometimes operate as three-car trains; other routes run the longer trains when required. ===Extension to Stratford International (2011)=== In addition to the three-car station extensions, partly funded from the 2012 Olympics budget, a line was opened from Canning Town to Stratford and Stratford International railway station along the former North London Line of the national railway system, with additional stations. It parallels the London Underground Jubilee line for much of its length. The extension to Stratford International, taking over the North London Line from Canning Town to Stratford, links the Docklands area with domestic high-speed services on High Speed 1. It was an important part of transport improvements for the 2012 Olympic Games, much of which were held on a site adjoining Stratford International. The first contract for construction work was awarded on 10 January 2007 and construction started in mid-2007. Originally scheduled to open in mid-2010, the line opened on 31 August 2011. On 11 November 2015 the Mayor of London announced that all stations on this line would be rezoned from zone 3 to zone 2/3. New stations were , , , , and Stratford International. Of these, Canning Town, West Ham and Stratford are former North London Line stations, and Stratford High Street was built on the site of railway station. From Canning Town to Stratford the extension runs parallel to the Jubilee line of the London Underground. As well as providing interchange with the adjacent Jubilee line stations, there are additional DLR stations at Star Lane, Abbey Road and Stratford High Street. At Stratford new platforms were built for the North London Line at the northern end of the station. The old platforms (formerly 1 and 2) adjacent to the Jubilee line were rebuilt for the DLR, renumbered 16 (towards Stratford International) and 17 (towards Beckton/Woolwich Arsenal). Interchange between the Stratford International branch and DLR trains via Poplar is possible although the platforms are widely separated and at different levels. There is no physical connection between the two branches. ===Relocation of Pudding Mill Lane station (2014)=== One of the tunnel portals for Elizabeth line is on the original site of Pudding Mill Lane station. As a consequence, work was carried out to divert the DLR between City Mill River and the River Lea onto a new viaduct further south. This included a replacement station, which opened on 28 April 2014. The former station stood on the only significant section of single track on the system, between Bow Church and Stratford. The opportunity was taken to double the track in three stages, to improve capacity. There was originally no provision for works beyond the realigned section in the Crossrail Act. ==Current system== ===Network=== The DLR has of tracks, with 45 stations. The three lines shown on the TfL DLR map have six branches: to Lewisham in the south, and Stratford International in the north, and Woolwich Arsenal in the east, and Central London in the west, splitting to and . The northern, southern and south-eastern branches terminate at the National Rail stations at Stratford, Stratford International, Lewisham and Woolwich Arsenal. Other interchanges with National Rail are at Limehouse, Greenwich and West Ham, while out-of-station interchanges for Oyster card holders are available between Shadwell DLR station and the Windrush line station of the same name, and between Fenchurch Street and the DLR's western termini of Tower Gateway and Bank. Between Limehouse and Tower Gateway, the DLR runs parallel to the London, Tilbury and Southend line. ===Map=== ===Services=== The following services are operated in normal off-peak service from 26 September 2022: At peak times, these same services run, but with the frequency increased by 25 per cent. Additionally, in the morning peak, alternate StratfordCanary Wharf services extend to Lewisham. At terminal stations, trains reverse direction in the platforms, except at Bank where there is a reversing headshunt in the tunnel beyond the station. During service disruption or planned engineering work, trains can also turn back at and . There is also capability for an additional shuttle from Canning Town to Prince Regent when exhibitions are in progress at the ExCeL exhibition centre, although this is not supported by any additional turnback infrastructure. Trains serve every station on the route, but trains from Bank to Lewisham do not call at because they are routed along the diveunder track to avoid junction conflicts. When required, such as during engineering works or for special events, other routes may be operated, such as Beckton to Lewisham if the Bank and Tower Gateway branch is closed. ====Future services==== The new rolling stock to be introduced from 2024 onwards will support service improvements. The station platforms match the floor height of the cars, giving level access for passengers with wheelchairs or pushchairs. an art programme called DLR Art, similar to that on the London Underground, Art on the Underground. Alan Williams was appointed to produce the first temporary commission, called "Sidetrack", which portrays the ordinary and extraordinary sights, often unfamiliar to passengers, on the system and was displayed throughout the network. ===Fares and ticketing=== The system is part of the London fare zone system, and Travelcards that cover the appropriate zones are valid. Tickets can be purchased from ticket machines at the entrances to platforms, and are required before accessing the platform. Passengers using Oyster pay-as-you-go and contactless bank-cards need to touch both in and out of the system using card readers on automatic gates and platforms. There are no ticket barriers at DLR-only stations: correct ticketing is enforced by random on-train inspections by Passenger Service Agents (PSAs). There are barriers at Bank, , West Ham and , where the DLR platforms are within a London Underground or National Rail barrier line. There are also ticket barriers at Woolwich Arsenal, which are the only barriers staffed by DLR staff; at this station passengers can pass between the DLR and Southeastern platforms within the paid area. Users of payment cards who have failed to touch in at the start of the journey, and other passengers without a correct ticket, may be liable to a £100 penalty fare or prosecution for fare evasion. ===Rolling stock=== The DLR is equipped with 149 high-floor bi-directional single-articulated electric multiple units (EMUs). Each car has four double doors on each side, and two or three cars make up a train. Consoles at each door opening allow a PSA to control door closure and make announcements whilst patrolling the train. With the absence of a driver's position, the fully glazed car ends provide a forward and rear view for passengers. The operational top speed is . Despite having high floors and being automated, the cars are derived from a German light-rail design intended for street running. All cars look similar but there have been several different types, some still in service, others sold to other operators. Units were purchased from Bombardier in 2005 and delivered between 2007 and 2010. ====Future rolling stock==== In 2017, TfL opened bidding for new full-length, walk-through trains, subsequently awarded to CAF in 2019 and expected in service between 2024 and 2026, following delivery and testing on the network of the initial units from January 2023. ===Depots=== The network has two depots, at Poplar and Beckton. Poplar was opened with the initial line in 1987. Due to the constrained site, a new, larger, depot at Beckton was opened in 1994 and is now the main maintenance depot and primary control centre for the network. Track maintenance, off-peak train stabling, as well as the Operating and Maintenance Centre (OMC for TfL Staff) and the Hilton, Ritz and Dorchester Buildings houses the KeolisAmey Docklands franchise staff and the secondary back-up control centre are based at Poplar. === Electrification === Traction power is provided at 750 V DC via an unusual bottom contact third rail system. ===Signalling technology=== Originally, the DLR used signalling based on a fixed-block technology developed by GEC-General Signal and General Railway Signal. This was replaced in 1994 with a moving-block TBTC (Transmission Based Train Control) system developed by Alcatel, called SelTrac. The SelTrac system was bought by Thales in 2007 and updates are provided by Thales Rail Signalling Solutions. The same technology is used by rapid transit systems including Vancouver's SkyTrain, Toronto's SRT, the San Francisco Municipal Railway and Hong Kong's MTR. The SelTrac S40 system has also been adopted by the London Underground Jubilee line and Northern line. Transmissions occur via an inductive loop cable between each train's Vehicle On-Board Controller (VOBC) and the control centre (VCC, SMC) at Beckton. If this link is broken and communication is lost between the VOBC and VCC, SMC, the train stops until it is authorised to move again. If the whole system fails the train can run in restricted manual at for safety until the system is restored and communication is re-established. Emergency brakes can be applied if the train breaks the speed limit during manual control or overshoots a fixed stopping point, or if it leaves the station when the route has not been set. == Corporate affairs == ===Infrastructure and ownership=== Initially, DLR was a wholly owned subsidiary of London Regional Transport. In 1992, ownership was transferred to the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC). With the winding up of the LDDC in 1998, ownership passed to Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions – before passing to Transport for London (TfL) in 2000. part of the London Rail division of TfL, which also manages London Overground, London Trams, the IFS Cloud Cable Car and the Elizabeth line. The infrastructure is maintained by the private company awarded the DLR franchise by TfL – currently KeolisAmey Docklands. In 2011, Transport Trading Limited (a subsidiary of TfL) bought out the companies responsible for the City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal extensions, leaving only the Lewisham extension under private ownership until 31 March 2021, when the concession reverted to TfL. === Operations === Initially operated by London Regional Transport, the DLR was transferred to the LDDC in 1992. The LDDC appointed Brown and Root to run the system in 1993. In 1997, the first franchise was awarded to Serco Docklands Limited for seven years; operations began in April 1997. A management buyout backed by Serco management later sold its shares to Serco. A two-year extension was granted in 2002. In February 2005 TfL announced that Balfour Beatty/Keolis, First Carillion, RATP/Transdev and Serco had been shortlisted to operate the franchise, and in November 2005 TfL announced that Serco had retained the franchise for seven years from May 2006. In July 2012, TfL called for expressions of interest in bidding for the next DLR franchise, and in January 2013 Serco's contract was extended until September 2014. In April 2013, TfL announced that Go-Ahead/Colas Rail, Keolis/Amey, Serco and Stagecoach had been shortlisted to bid for the next franchise. However, on 30 August, just before the bid submission date of 9 September 2013, Go-Ahead/Colas Rail pulled out. The franchise was awarded to KeolisAmey Docklands Limited, with a handover date of 7 December 2014, expiring in April 2021 with an option for extension without going to tender. In August 2023, TfL went out for tender for the next DLR franchise, with KeolisAmey Docklands contract being extended to 2025 while bidding took place. In February 2024, TfL announced that KeolisAmey, ComfortDelGro and Connecting Docklands (a joint venture of AtkinsRéalis and Go-Ahead Group) had been shortlisted to bid for the next franchise. In October 2024, TfL announced that KeolisAmey retained the franchise, being awarded an eight-year contract to operate and maintain the DLR from 1 April 2025. ===Performance=== Within a year of launch, annual passenger numbers reached 17 million, and more than 80 million in 2011. The most recent figures show 116.8 million annual passengers in the financial year to 31 March 2020. but the system has since become highly reliable. The Parliamentary Transport Select Committee favourably reviewed light rail in 2005, and due to the success of the DLR, proposals for similar systems elsewhere emerged. The North and West London Light Railway was a plan for an orbital railway serving the other side of London. The DLR has been successful, as have other recent light rail systems, although it was earlier criticised for having been designed with insufficient capacity to meet the demand that quickly arose. DLR stated that this is because if evacuation is required, they would slow down the process. DLR cars, especially older rolling stock, were not designed with bicycles in mind – if they were allowed, they might obstruct doors and emergency exits. Since January 2014, full-size bicycles have been allowed on DLR trains at off-peak hours and weekends (except Bank Station, where bicycles are not permitted for safety reasons). ===Business trends=== The key available trends in recent years for the Docklands Light Railway are (years ending 31 March): Activities in financial years 2020/21 and 2021/22 were severely reduced by the impact of the coronavirus pandemic. ==Future developments== ===Thamesmead extension=== Mooted throughout the 2010s, an extension across the River Thames to Thamesmead was first proposed in November 2019 as part of the Thamesmead and Abbey Wood OAPF (Opportunity Area Planning Framework). Technical and feasibility work began in late 2020. Stations would be located at Beckton Riverside and Thamesmead. Public consultation into the extension began in 2024. Estimated to cost around £1bn, the extension could open in the "early 2030s". ===Thames Wharf station=== As part of the construction of the London City Airport extension, a gap in the viaduct due west of the western end of Royal Victoria Dock, between and stations, was passively safeguarded for a future station when development came forward on the brownfield and industrial sites. A station was also initially proposed at Oriental Road; however this was discounted at an early stage and the site is now flanked by several developments. The potential of development on the land at Thames Wharf was on hold for until the late 2010s, as the area was being safeguarded for the route of the Silvertown Tunnel, a new Thames river crossing currently under construction on the site. As part of the 2018 budget, the Chancellor announced funding for the DLR to support development in the Royal Docks. Following completion of the Silvertown Tunnel in the mid-2020s, ===Tower Gateway station to Tower Hill interchange=== In July 2014, a Transport Supporting Paper from the London Infrastructure Plan 2050 by the Mayor of London considered the closure of Tower Gateway DLR station and the branch serving it, with a replacement interchange being provided via new platforms at Tower Hill Underground station. This would increase train frequencies to Bank by approximately 30 per cent, thereby unlocking more capacity on the Bank branch.{{#tag:ref\|It has been proven that almost all DLR passengers heading to the city get on DLR services to Bank instead of Tower Gateway, but only 75 per cent of services head to the former. and was anticipated that the project could be completed and open for use by 2017, at a cost of around £750million. In November 2008, the Mayor of London Boris Johnson announced that due to financial constraints the extension, along with a number of other transport projects, had been cancelled. The Barking Riverside development is instead served by an extension of the London Overground to the new Barking Riverside station, which opened in July 2022. ===Bank to Charing Cross=== In February 2006 a proposal to extend the DLR to station from DLR branch was revealed. While not confirmed, it is probable that the Charing Cross scheme would use the overrun tunnels between Charing Cross Jubilee platforms and slightly west of . These tunnels were intended to be incorporated into the abandoned Phase 2 of the Fleet Line (Phase 1 became the original Jubilee line, prior to the Jubilee line Extension). However they would need enlargement because the DLR loading gauge is larger than tube gauge and current safety regulations require an emergency walkway in the tunnel. Two reasons driving the proposal are capacity problems at Bank, having just one interchange between the DLR and the central portion of Underground, and the difficult journeys faced by passengers from Kent and South Coast between their rail termini and the DLR. Intermediate stations would be at City Thameslink/Ludgate Circus and Aldwych, which was intended for future connection with the proposed but now abandoned Cross River Tram. ===City Thameslink to Euston and St Pancras=== In 2011, strategy documents proposed a DLR extension to and . Transport for London have considered driving a line from via north to the rail termini. The main benefit of such an extension would be to broaden the available direct transport links to the Canary Wharf site. It would create a new artery in central London and help relieve the Northern and Circle lines and provide another metro line to serve the High Speed line into Euston. ===Lewisham to Catford and Beckenham Junction=== This possible extension was considered during the latest Horizon Study. The route would follow the Southeastern line and terminate between and stations. It has been seen as attractive to the district, as has the current terminus at Lewisham, built in an earlier extension. A map published in 2010 by Transport for London suggests that a further extension from Catford to has also been considered. When the Lewisham extension was first completed there were proposals to continue further to Beckenham to link it up with the Tramlink system. However, the way in which Lewisham station was built impedes this possible extension and it would prove costly to redevelop. ===Lewisham to Bromley North=== Another proposal is to by taking over the Bromley North Line, a short National Rail branch line which has no direct services into Central London. The scheme being considered by Transport for London and the London Borough of Bromley would convert the branch line to DLR operation. Although Lewisham Council planned to re-route the A20 road and redevelop the area south of Lewisham DLR station, the plans published in 2012 have no safeguarded route for an extension, making one unlikely. == Accidents and incidents == On 10 March 1987, before the system opened, a test train crashed through buffer stops at the original high-level terminus and was left hanging from the end of the elevated track. The accident has largely been attributed to unauthorised tests being run before the correct installation of the wayside safety system had been verified; an omission in the wayside system allowed the train to travel too fast on the approach to the terminus. The train was being driven manually at the time. However, inside sources have stated these tests were being done to test the ATP if the train was entering the station too quickly, and after six successful tests, a software issue involving asynchronous computer systems caused the train to not receive the instructions to activate the ATP, cut off power from the motors, and apply the brakes soon enough to prevent the train from slowing down, causing the train to go through the buffers. Following this, the software was reworked and the braking distance was changed to ensure such incidents wouldn't happen in practice, and as a result may have possibly prevented a far more tragic incident from occurring. On 22 April 1991, two trains collided at a junction on the bridge during morning rush hour, requiring a shutdown of the system and evacuation of passengers by ladder. One train was travelling automatically; the other was under manual control. On 9 February 1996, the Provisional IRA blew up a lorry under a bridge near , killing two people and injuring many others. This caused £85 million of damage and marked an end to an IRA ceasefire in force at the time. Significant disruption was caused and a train was stranded at Island Gardens, unable to move until the track was rebuilt.	[ "Mile End tube station", "City of London", "Windrush line", "London Trams", "Stratford, London", "Ken Livingstone", "London Borough of Southwark", "Buckingham Group", "San Francisco Municipal Railway", "North and West London Light Railway", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Railway Age", "grade separation", "Royal Albert DLR station", "Beckenham", "Travelcard", "Poplar DLR depot", "London Borough of Lewisham", "Hansard", "Canary Wharf DLR station", "DBFO", "Brown and Root", "Spanish solution", "London Docklands", "London Borough of Tower Hamlets", "medium-capacity rail system", "Dagenham Dock", "North Greenwich, Isle of Dogs", "Isle of Dogs", "rapid transit", "Railway signalling", "Morgan Sindall", "Carillion", "Arup Group", "Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions", "General Electric Company", "The Independent", "Mowlem", "Fenchurch Street railway station", "Woolwich", "Greater London", "ExCeL", "Rail transport in Great Britain", "Arup Group Limited", "electric multiple unit", "Moving block signalling", "Barking Riverside", "List of tram and light rail transit systems", "Docklands Light Railway extension to Thamesmead", "London cable car", "John Prescott", "National Rail", "ComfortDelGro", "List of Docklands Light Railway stations", "Alcatel", "Boris Johnson", "Tunnels underneath the River Thames", "United Press International", "London Plan", "Silvertown Tunnel", "First Thatcher ministry", "Royal Borough of Greenwich", "High Speed 1", "Greater London Council", "London Underground ticketing", "General Railway Signal", "London Regional Transport", "Transport for London", "London City Airport", "Docklands Light Railway rolling stock", "Bromley North Line", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "tram", "Bi-directional vehicle", "Crossharbour DLR station", "Lewisham", "Westferry DLR station", "AtkinsRéalis", "Northern line", "SkyTrain (Vancouver)", "The Bolton News", "The Daily Telegraph", "Stratford station", "Bank–Monument station", "West Ham station", "Canary Wharf", "King George V DLR station", "Transdev", "Port of Tilbury", "Greater London Authority", "Thames Gateway", "London Borough of Newham", "Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles", "kit-of-parts", "Taylor Woodrow", "Lord Whitty", "Stratford International", "Colas Rail", "Greenwich station", "Greenwich", "Limehouse station", "Beckton Riverside", "Selective door operation", "Royal Docks", "London, Tilbury and Southend line", "Pound sterling", "Oyster card", "light rail", "Beckton DLR depot", "Brownfield land", "2012 Olympic Games", "Pudding Mill Lane DLR station", "Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway", "River Thames", "Street running train", "Bank and Monument stations", "A20 road (England)", "cross-platform interchange", "buffer stop", "Aldwych station", "Light rail", "London Docklands Development Corporation", "East London Advertiser", "Mayor of London", "Articulated vehicle", "District line", "Dartford Cable Tunnel", "Lewisham station", "2018 United Kingdom budget", "Department for Transport", "Lewisham London Borough Council", "Transport in London", "loading gauge", "Essex", "headshunt", "Elizabeth line", "Modern Railways", "Tower Gateway DLR station", "West India Docks", "Barking Riverside railway station", "Line 3 Scarborough", "1996 Docklands bombing", "London", "RATP Group", "c2c", "joint venture", "Woolwich foot tunnel", "London and Blackwall Railway", "Containerization", "Elizabeth II", "Southeastern (train operating company)", "Cross River Tram", "Tramlink", "Stratford International station", "Canning Town Station", "Deptford", "London Overground", "Thales Group", "VOBC", "Thamesmead", "London Borough of Bromley", "Stratford International railway station", "2012 Summer Olympics", "rush hour", "Woolwich Arsenal station", "Tower Hill tube station", "Bombardier Inc.", "Bow Church DLR station", "Balfour Beatty", "Linke-Hofmann-Busch", "What Do They Know", "Great Recession", "West Ham Station", "Aldgate East tube station", "Transport Select Committee", "House of Commons Library", "Greenwich Line", "Greenwich Foot Tunnel", "Island Gardens DLR station", "Act of Parliament (UK)", "Stagecoach Group", "Go-Ahead Group", "Labour Party (UK)", "RISKS Digest", "Keolis", "ExCeL London", "Great Eastern Main Line", "Medium-capacity rail system", "Custom House station", "Serco", "Amberley Publishing", "Track bed", "Crossings of the River Thames", "Minories railway station", "Private finance initiative", "MTR", "Jubilee line", "Charing Cross railway station", "Millwall Dock", "North London Line", "Elevated railway", "Art on the Underground", "London Rail", "Kent", "Crossrail Act 2008", "Surrey Quays railway station", "Shadwell railway station", "Beckton", "Royal Victoria Dock", "SelTrac", "Cutty Sark DLR station", "Amey plc", "City Thameslink railway station", "London City Airport DLR station", "London Underground" ]
8,828	Dundee	{{Infobox settlement \| name = Dundee \| native_name = \| settlement_type = City, lieutenancy and council area \| image_skyline = \| imagesize = \| image_alt = \| image_caption = \| image_flag = Dundee City Flag.png \| flag_alt = \| flag_link = \| image_shield = CoA of Dundee ext.svg \| shield_alt = \| shield_link = \| image_blank_emblem = \| blank_emblem_size = \| blank_emblem_type = \| blank_emblem_link = \| etymology = ('Tay Fort') \| nickname = \| motto = \| image_map = Dundee UK location map.svg \| map_alt = \| map_caption = Dundee shown within Scotland \| coordinates = \| subdivision_type = Sovereign state \| subdivision_name = United Kingdom \| subdivision_type1 = Country \| subdivision_name1 = Scotland \| subdivision_type2 = Council Area \| subdivision_name2 = Dundee City \| subdivision_type3 = Lieutenancy Area \| subdivision_name3 = Dundee \| established_title = Founded \| established_date = 11th century AD \| established_title1 = Burgh charter \| established_date1 = 1191 \| established_title2 = City status \| established_date2 = 26 January 1889 \| established_title3 = Unitary authority \| established_date3 = 1 April 1996 \| named_for = \| seat_type = AdministrativeHQ \| seat = Dundee City Chambers \| parts_type = \| parts = \| government_footnotes = \| government_type = Council \| governing_body = Dundee City Council \| leader_title = Control \| leader_name = \| leader_title1 = \| leader_name1 = \| leader_title2 = \| leader_name2 = \| leader_title3 = MPs \| leader_name3 = \| leader_title4 = MSPs \| leader_name4 = \| area_footnotes = \| area_total_km2 = \| area_land_km2 = \| area_water_km2 = \| area_rank = Subdivisions of Scotland#Council areas\| \| population_footnotes = it forms one of the 32 council areas used for local government in Scotland. Within the boundaries of the historic county of Angus, the city developed into a burgh in the late 12th century and established itself as an important east coast trading port. Rapid expansion was brought on by the Industrial Revolution, particularly in the 19th century when Dundee was the centre of the global jute industry. This, along with its other major industries, gave Dundee its epithet as the city of "jute, jam and journalism". With the decline of traditional industry, the city has adopted a plan to regenerate and reinvent itself as a cultural centre. In pursuit of this, a £1 billion master plan to regenerate and to reconnect the Waterfront to the city centre started in 2001 and is expected to be completed within a 30-year period. The V&A Dundee – the first branch of the V&A to operate outside of London – is the main centrepiece of the waterfront project. Today, Dundee is promoted as "One City, Many Discoveries" in honour of Dundee's history of scientific activities and of the RRS Discovery, Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic exploration vessel, which was built in Dundee and is now berthed at Discovery Point. Dundee is an international research and development hub in technology, medicine and life sciences, with technological industries having arrived since the 1980s. Dundee was named as a "City of the Future" by Cognizant in 2021, the only UK city to be featured. Dundee has also been a leading city in electric vehicles, having one of the largest fleets of electric vehicles in the country. The city was named as the electric vehicle capital of Europe in 2018, and it has continuously been branded as the electric vehicle capital of Scotland and the United Kingdom. In 2014, Dundee was recognised by the United Nations as the UK's first UNESCO City of Design for its diverse contributions to fields including medical research, comics and video games. Since 2015, Dundee's international profile has risen. GQ magazine named Dundee the "Coolest Little City in Britain" in 2015 and The Wall Street Journal ranked Dundee at number 5 on its "Worldwide Hot Destinations" list for 2018. ==Etymology== The name "Dundee" is made up of two parts: the common Celtic place-name element dun, meaning fort; and a second part that may derive from a Celtic element, cognate with the Gaelic dè, meaning 'fire'. == History == ===Early history=== While earlier evidence for human occupation is abundant, Dundee's success and growth as a seaport town arguably came as a result of William the Lion's charter, granting Dundee to his younger brother, David (later Earl of Huntingdon), in the late 12th century. The situation of the town and its promotion by Earl David as a trading centre led to a period of prosperity and growth. The earldom was passed down to David's descendants, amongst whom was John Balliol. The town became a Royal Burgh on John's coronation as king in 1292. The town and its castle were occupied by English forces for several years during the First War of Independence and recaptured by Robert the Bruce in early 1312. The original burghal charters were lost during the occupation and subsequently renewed by Bruce in 1327. The burgh suffered considerably during the conflict known as the Rough Wooing of 1543 to 1550, and was occupied by the English forces of Andrew Dudley from 1547. In 1548, unable to defend the town against an advancing Scottish force, Dudley ordered that the town be burnt to the ground. In 1645, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Dundee was again besieged, this time by the Royalist Marquess of Montrose. The town was finally destroyed by Parliamentarian forces led by George Monck in 1651. The town played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Jacobite cause when John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount Dundee raised the Stuart standard on the Dundee Law in 1689. The town was held by the Jacobites in the 1715–16 rising, and on 6 January 1716 the Jacobite claimant to the throne, James VIII and III (the Old Pretender), made a public entry into the town. Many in Scotland, including many in Dundee, regarded him as the rightful king. A notable resident of Dundee was Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan of Camperdown, Baron of Lundie (1 July 1731 to 4 August 1804). He was born in Dundee on 1 July 1731, the son of Alexander Duncan of Lundie, Provost of Dundee. Adam was educated in Dundee and later joined the Royal Navy on board the sloop Trial. He rose to be admiral and in October 1797 defeated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown (north of Haarlem). This was seen as one of the most significant actions in naval history. ===18th and 19th centuries=== The economy of medieval Dundee centred on the export of raw wool, with the production of finished textiles being a reaction to recession in the 15th century. Two government Acts in the mid 18th century had a profound effect on Dundee's industrial success: the textile industry was revolutionised by the introduction of large four-storey mills, stimulated in part by the 1742 Bounty Act which provided a government-funded subsidy on Osnaburg linen produced for export. Expansion of the whaling industry was triggered by the second Bounty Act, introduced in 1750 to increase Britain's maritime and naval skill base. Dundee, and Scotland more generally, saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, with the city's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821. The phasing out of the linen export bounty between 1825 and 1832 stimulated demand for cheaper textiles, particularly for cheaper, tough fabrics. The discovery that the dry fibres of jute could be lubricated with whale oil (of which Dundee had a surfeit, following the opening of its gasworks) to allow it to be processed in mechanised mills resulted in the Dundee mills rapidly converting from linen to jute, which sold at a quarter of the price of flax. Interruption of Prussian flax imports during the Crimean War and of cotton during the American Civil War resulted in a period of inflated prosperity for Dundee and the jute industry dominated Dundee throughout the latter half of the 19th century. Unprecedented immigration, notably of Irish workers, led to accelerated urban expansion, and at the height of the industry's success, Dundee supported 62 jute mills, employing some 50,000 workers. Cox Brothers, who owned the massive Camperdown Works in Lochee, were one of the largest jute manufacturers in Europe and employed more than 5,000 workers. The rise of the textile industries brought with it an expansion of supporting industries, notably of the whaling, maritime and shipbuilding industries, and extensive development of the waterfront area started in 1815 to cope with increased demand for port capacity. At its height, 200 ships per year were built there, including Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic research vessel, the . This ship is now on display at Discovery Point in the city. A significant whaling industry was also based in Dundee, largely existing to supply the jute mills with whale oil. Whaling ceased in 1912 and shipbuilding ceased in 1981. While the city's economy was dominated by the jute industry, it also became known for smaller industries. Most notable among these were James Keiller's and Sons, established in 1795, which pioneered commercial marmalade production, and the publishing firm DC Thomson, which was founded in the city in 1905. Dundee was said to be built on the 'three Js': Jute, Jam and Journalism. The town was also the location of one of the worst rail disasters in British history, the Tay Bridge disaster. The first Tay Rail Bridge was opened in 1878. It collapsed some 18 months later during a storm, as a passenger train passed over it, resulting in the loss of 75 lives. The most destructive fire in the city's history came in 1906, reportedly sending "rivers of burning whisky" through the street. ===20th and 21st centuries=== The jute industry fell into decline in the early 20th century, partly due to reduced demand for jute products and partly due to an inability to compete with the emerging industry in Calcutta. This gave rise to unemployment levels far in excess of the national average, peaking in the inter-war period, but major recovery was seen in the post-war period, thanks to the arrival first of American light engineering companies like Timex and NCR, and subsequent expansion into microelectronics. Dundee was the first city in Scotland to gain official city status, after Queen Victoria signed a patent announcing the transition of Dundee from a royal burgh into a city. Dundee would officially gain city status on 26 January 1889. The patent still exists and is kept in storage in the city archives. A £1 billion master plan to regenerate Dundee Waterfront is expected to last for a 30-year period between 2001 and 2031. The aims of the project are to reconnect the city centre to the waterfront; to improve facilities for walking, cyclists and buses; to replace the existing inner ring road with a pair of east/west tree-lined boulevards; and to provide a new civic square and a regenerated railway station and arrival space at the western edge. A new Victoria and Albert Museum opened on 15 September 2018. A new Eden Project attraction is also set to open in Dundee by the 2030s. == Governance == === Representation === Dundee City is one of 32 council areas of Scotland, administered by Dundee City Council. For elections to the House of Commons at Westminster, the city area and portions of the Angus council area are divided into two constituencies. The constituencies of Arbroath and Broughty Ferry and Dundee West are represented by Stephen Gethins (Scottish National Party) and Chris Law (Scottish National Party), respectively, both of whom were elected and re-elected respectively at the 2024 general election. For elections to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood, the city area is divided across three constituencies. The Dundee City East constituency and the Dundee City West constituency are entirely within the city area. The Angus South (Holyrood) constituency includes north-eastern and north-western portions of the city area. Joe Fitzpatrick (SNP) is the current MSP for the Dundee West constituency and Graeme Dey (SNP) is the current MSP for the Angus South constituency. Winston Churchill served as one of two MPs for Dundee from 1908 to 1922. ===Administrative history=== Dundee appears to have been made a burgh sometime between 1181 and 1195. It was then raised to royal burgh status on the coronation of John Balliol as King of Scotland in 1292. Dundee was declared a city in 1889, being the first Scottish place to have the title of city explicitly conferred on it rather than assuming it by customary usage. The city's boundaries were enlarged on numerous occasions, notably in 1913 when it absorbed the neighbouring burgh of Broughty Ferry. From 1975 to 1996, Dundee was governed by the City of Dundee District Council, one of three district-level authorities within the Tayside region. The district was created under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 and covered a larger area than the pre-1975 city, taking in the burgh of Monifieth and most of the landward district of Monifieth (covering a number of villages north of Dundee) from Angus, and the parish of Longforgan (which included Invergowrie) from Perthshire. In 1996, the Dundee City council area was created under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. Monifieth and the villages north of Dundee itself were transferred back to Angus, and the Longforgan area (including Invergowrie) was transferred to Perth and Kinross, largely reinstating the pre-1975 boundaries. Some controversy has ensued as a result of these boundary changes, with Dundee city councillors arguing for the return of Monifieth and Invergowrie. ===Independence referendum=== On 18 September 2014, Dundee was one of four council areas to vote "Yes" in the Scottish independence referendum, with 57.3% voting "Yes" on a 78.8% turnout. With the highest Yes vote for any local authority in Scotland, some in the Yes Scotland campaign nicknamed Dundee the "Yes City", including former First Minister Alex Salmond. == Geography == Dundee sits on the north bank of the Firth of Tay on the eastern, North Sea Coast of Scotland. The city lies NNE of Edinburgh and NNW of London. The town is bisected by a line of hills stretching from Balgay Hill (elevation of 143 m) in the west end of the city, through the Dundee Law (174 m) which occupies the centre of the built up area, to Gallow Hill (83 m), between Baxter Park and the Eastern Cemetery. North of this ridge lies a valley through which cuts the Dighty Water burn, the elevation falling to around 45 m. North of the Dighty valley lie the Sidlaw Hills, the most prominent hill being Craigowl Hill (455 m). The western and eastern boundaries of the city are marked by two burns that are tributaries of the River Tay. On the westernmost boundary of the city, the Lochee burn meets the Fowlis burn, forming the Invergowrie burn, which meets the Tay at Invergowrie basin. Differential weathering of a series of igneous intrusions has yielded a number of prominent hills in the landscape, most notably the Dundee Law (a late Silurian/early Devonian Mafic rock intrusion) and Balgay hill (a Felsic rock intrusion of similar age). === Urban environment === Very little of pre-Reformation Dundee remains, the destruction suffered in the War of the Rough Wooing being almost total, with only scattered, roofless shells remaining. The area occupied by the medieval burgh of Dundee extends between East Port and West Port, which formerly held the gates to the walled city. The shoreline has been altered considerably since the early 19th century through development of the harbour area and land reclamation. Several areas on the periphery of the burgh saw industrial development with the building of textile mills from the end of the 18th century. Their placement was dictated by the need for a water supply for the modern steam powered machinery, and areas around the Lochee Burn (Lochee), Scouring Burn (Blackness) and Dens Burn (Dens Road area) saw particular concentrations of mills. The post war period saw expansion of industry to estates along the Kingsway. Working-class housing spread rapidly and without control throughout the Victorian era, particularly in the Hawkhill, Blackness Road, Dens Road and Hilltown areas. Despite the comparative wealth of Victorian Dundee as a whole, living standards for the working classes were very poor. A general lack of town planning coupled with the influx of labour during the expansion of the jute industry resulted in insanitary, squalid and cramped housing for much of the population. While gradual improvements and slum clearance began in the late 19th century, the building of the groundbreaking Logie housing estate marked the beginning of Dundee's expansion through the building of planned housing estates, under the vision of city architect James Thomson, whose legacy also includes the housing estate of Craigiebank and the beginnings of an improved transport infrastructure by planning the Kingsway bypass. Modernisation of the city centre continued in the post-war period. The medieval Overgate was demolished in the early 1960s to make way for a shopping centre, followed by construction of the inner ring road and the Wellgate Shopping Centre. The Tay Road Bridge, completed in 1966, had as its northern landfall the docklands of central Dundee, and the new associated road system resulted in the city centre being cut off from the river. An acute shortage of housing in the late 1940s was addressed by a series of large housing estates built in the northern environs, including the Fintry, Craigie, Charleston and Douglas areas in the 1950s and early 1960s. These were followed by increasingly cost-effective and sometimes poorly planned housing throughout the 1960s. Much of this, in particular the high-rise blocks of flats at Lochee, Kirkton, Trottick, Whitfield, Ardler and Menzieshill, and the prefabricated Skarne housing blocks at Whitfield, has been demolished since the 1990s or is scheduled for future demolition. Areas of Dundee: === Climate === The climate, like the rest of lowland Scotland, is Oceanic (Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb). Mean temperature and rainfall are typical for the east coast of Scotland, and with the city's sheltered estuarine position, mean daily maxima are slightly higher than coastal areas to the North, particularly in spring and summer. The summers are still chilly when compared with similar latitudes in continental Europe, something compensated for by the mild winters, similar to the rest of the British Isles. The nearest official Met Office weather station is Mylnefield, Invergowrie which is about west of the City Centre. A record high of was recorded in July 2013. The warmest month was July 2006, with an average temperature of (average high , average low ). In an 'average' year the warmest day should reach , and in total just 1.86 days should equal or exceed a temperature of per year, illustrating the rarity of such warmth. On average, 4.73 days should record a minimum temperature at or below -5 °C and there are 53.26 days of air frost on average. From 1991 to 2020, Mylnefield averaged 0.9 ice days, 50 days with precipitation of more than 5mm and 19.56 days with more than 10mm. The weather station is in plant hardiness zone 10a. \| source 2 = KNMI/ Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute Meteoclimat The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland. The age group from 30 to 44 forms the largest portion of the population (20%). \|- ! !style="padding:2px;"\|City of Dundee !style="padding:2px;"\|Scotland !style="padding:2px;"\|United Kingdom \|- ! style="text-align:left;"\|Total population \| 147,268 \|\| 5,295,403 \|\| 63,182,000 \|- ! style="text-align:left;"\|Foreign born \| 9% \|\| 7% \|\| 12.7% \|- ! style="text-align:left;"\|Over 75 years old \| 8.3% \|\| 7.7% \|\| 7.9% \|- ! style="text-align:left;"\|Unemployed \| 5.7% \|\| 4.8% \|\| 7.4% \|} Natives of Dundee are called Dundonians and are often recognisable by their distinctive dialect of Scots as well as their accent, which most noticeably substitutes the monophthong /ɛ/ (pronounced "eh") in place of the diphthong /aj/ (pronounced "ai"). Dundee, and Scotland more generally, saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, with the city's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821. The city has also attracted immigrants from Italy, fleeing poverty and famine, in the 19th century Jews, fleeing from the Russia controlled portions of partitioned Poland and from German occupation in the 20th. Today, Dundee has a sizeable ethnic minority population, and has around 4,000 Asian residents which is the fourth-largest Asian community in Scotland. The city also has 1.0% of residents from a Black/African/Caribbean background. ===Students=== Dundee has a higher proportion of university students – one in seven of the population – than any other town in Europe, except Heidelberg and Tübingen. The 14.2% come from all around the world to attend the local universities and colleges. Dundee is a major attraction for Northern Irish students who make up 5% of the total student population. The city's universities are believed to hold the highest percentage of Northern Irish students outside of Northern Ireland and have a big impact on the local economy and culture. However, this has declined in recent years due to the increase of tuition fees for students elsewhere in the UK. Dundee also has a lot of students from abroad, mostly from the Republic of Ireland and other EU countries but with an increasing number from countries from the Far East and Nigeria. === Ethnicity === The proportion of people residing in Dundee born outside the UK was 12.9% in 2022, compared with 9.0% in 2011 and 4.9% in 2001. Below are the fifteen largest overseas-born groups in Dundee according to the 2022 census, alongside the two previous censuses. ===Religion=== The Church of Scotland Presbytery of Dundee is responsible for overseeing the worship of 37 congregations in and around the Dundee area, although changing population patterns have led to some of the churches becoming linked charges. Due to their city centre location, the City Churches, Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) and the Steeple Church, are the most prominent Church of Scotland buildings in Dundee. They are on the site of the medieval parish kirk of St Mary, of which only the 15th-century west tower survives. The attached church was once the largest parish church in medieval Scotland. Dundee was unusual among Scottish medieval burghs in having two parish kirks; the second, dedicated to St Clement, has disappeared, but its site was approximately that of the present City Square. Other presbyterian groups include the Free Church which meet at St. Peters (the historic church of Robert Murray M'Cheyne). In the Middle Ages Dundee was also the site of houses of the Dominicans (Blackfriars), and Franciscans (Greyfriars), and had a number of hospitals and chapels. These establishments were sacked during the Scottish Reformation, in the mid-16th century, and were reduced to burial grounds, now Barrack Street (also referred to as the Dek-tarn street) and The Howff burial ground, respectively. St. Paul's Cathedral is the seat of the Scottish Episcopal Diocese of Brechin. It is charged with overseeing the worship of 9 congregations in the city, as well as a further 17 in Angus, the Carse of Gowrie and parts of Aberdeenshire. Since 2018 the diocese has been led by Bishop Andrew Swift. St. Andrew's Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dunkeld, led by Bishop Stephen Robson. The diocese is responsible for overseeing 15 congregations in Dundee and 37 in the surrounding area, including St Mary, Our Lady of Victories Church in the city. There are Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalist, Pentecostal and Salvation Army churches in the city, and non-mainstream Christian groups are also well represented, including the Unitarians, the Society of Friends, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, Christadelphians, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Muslims are served by the Dundee Central Mosque, built in 2000 to replace their former premises on the Hilltown. There are three other mosques in the city including Jamia Masjid Tajdare Madina on Victoria Road, Jame Masjid Bilal on Dura Street and Al Maktoum Mosque on Wilkie's Lane. Alongside these there is an Islamic Society on the University of Dundee campus. The Sikh community is served by the Guru Nanak Gurdwara on Victoria Road, which serves its community in Dundee. A recorded Jewish community has existed in the city since the early 19th century. There is a small Orthodox synagogue at Dudhope Park which was built in the 1960s, with the Hebrew Burial Grounds located to the east. Dundee Buddhist Group is a Buddhist Temple based in Reform Street. There is also a Hindu mandir in Taylor's Lane, situated in the West End of the city. == Economy == In 1911 40% of the city's population was employed in the jute industry. By 1951 this had dropped to 20%, and now is effectively zero. The period following World War II was notable for the transformation of the city's economy. While jute still employed one-fifth of the working population, new industries were attracted and encouraged. NCR Corporation selected Dundee as the base of operations for the UK in late 1945, primarily because of the lack of damage the city had sustained in the war, good transport links and high productivity from long hours of sunshine. Production started in the year before the official opening of the plant on 11 June 1947. A fortnight after the tenth anniversary of the plant the 250,000th cash register was produced. By the 1960s, NCR had become the principal employer of the city producing cash registers, and later ATMs, at several of its Dundee plants. The firm developed magnetic-strip readers for cash registers and produced early computers. Astral, a Dundee-based firm that manufactured and sold refrigerators and spin dryers was merged into Morphy Richards and rapidly expanded to employ over 1,000 people. The development in Dundee of a Michelin tyre-production facility helped to absorb the unemployment caused by the decline of the jute industry, particularly with the abolition of the jute control by the Board of Trade on 30 April 1969. Employment in Dundee changed dramatically during the 1980s with the loss of nearly 10,000 manufacturing jobs due to closure of the shipyards, cessation of carpet manufacturing and the disappearance of the jute trade. To combat growing unemployment and declining economic conditions, Dundee was declared an Enterprise Zone in January 1984. In 1983, the first ZX Spectrum home computers were produced in Dundee by Timex. In the same year the company broke production records, despite a sit-in by workers protesting against job cuts and plans to demolish one of the factory buildings to make way for a supermarket. Timex closed its Dundee plant in 1993 following an acrimonious six-month industrial dispute. The Michelin Tyre factory closed in June 2020, with the loss of 850 jobs. Dundee is a regional employment and education centre, with around 325,000 people within 30 minutes' drive of the city centre and 860,000 people within one hour. Many people from North East Fife, Angus and Perth and Kinross commute to the city. As of 2015, there were 395 employers who employed 250 or more staff; over a five-year period (2011–2015) the number of registered enterprises in Dundee increased by 20.9% from 2,655 to 3,210. Rockstar North, developer of Lemmings and the Grand Theft Auto series was founded in Dundee as DMA Design by David Jones; an undergraduate of the Abertay University. Rockstar Games returned to Dundee in 2020 when they acquired Ruffian Games to form Rockstar Dundee. Other game development studios in Dundee include Denki, Dynamo Games, 4J Studios and Outplay Entertainment, among others. Dundee is also a key retail destination for North East Scotland and has been ranked fourth in Retail Rankings in Scotland. The city centre offers a wide variety of retailers, department stores and independent/specialist stores. The Murraygate and High Street forms the main pedestrian area and is home to a number of main anchors such as Marks and Spencer, Accessorise. == Transport == ===Road=== Dundee is served by the A90 road, which connects the city to the M90 and Perth in the west with Forfar and Aberdeen in the north. The part of the road that is in the city is a dual carriageway and forms the city's main bypass on its north side, known as the Kingsway. East of the A90's Forfar Road junction, the Kingsway East continues as the A972 and meets the A92 at the Scott Fyffe roundabout. Travelling east, the A92 connects the city to Arbroath and Montrose and to the south with Fife, via the Tay Road Bridge. The A930 links the city with coastal settlements to the east, including Monifieth and Carnoustie. Progressing westward from where the A92 meets the Tay Road Bridge at the Riverside Roundabout, the A85 follows the southern boundary of the city along Riverside Drive and towards the A90 at the Swallow Roundabout. The A85 multiplexes with the A90 and diverges again at Perth. Also meeting the A92 and A85 at the Riverside Roundabout is the A991 Inner Ring Road, which surrounds the perimeter of the city centre, returning to the A92 on the east side of the Tay Road Bridge. The A923 Dundee to Dunkeld road meets the A991 at the Dudhope Roundabout, and the A929 links the A991 to the A90 via Forfar Road. ===Bus=== Dundee has an extensive network of bus routes. The Seagate bus station is the city's main terminus for journeys out of town. Xplore Dundee operates most of the intra-city services, with other more rural services operated by Stagecoach Strathtay and Moffat & Williamson. The city's two railway stations are the main Dundee station, near the waterfront, which has now finished re-construction as part of the waterfront re-development programme and the much smaller Broughty Ferry station at the eastern end of the city. There are also many inter-city bus services offered by Megabus, Citylink and National Express. ===Rail, air and sea=== Passenger services at Dundee are provided by ScotRail, CrossCountry, Caledonian Sleeper and London North Eastern Railway. There are other nearby stations at Invergowrie, Balmossie and Monifieth. No freight trains have served the city since the Freightliner terminal in Dundee was closed in the 1980s. Dundee Airport offers commercial flights to Heathrow Airport, Kirkwall Airport, and Sumburgh (Shetland) by Loganair. The airport is capable of serving small aircraft and is located west of the city centre, adjacent to the River Tay. The nearest major international airport is Edinburgh Airport, to the south. The cargo port of Dundee is one of the largest economic generators in the city and is operated by Forth Ports. Seafarers arriving at the port are offered welfare and pastoral assistance by seafarers charity Apostleship of the Sea. The seaport in recent years has saw a significant increase in cruises arriving at port. In 2023, Ambassador Cruise Line made Dundee a port call following the launch of their second ship Ambition. Cruises from Dundee depart to Norway, Denmark, France, Spain, Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands. == Education == Dundee is home to two universities and a student population of approximately 20,000. The University of Dundee became an independent entity in 1967, after 70 years of being incorporated into the University of St Andrews. It was founded in 1881 by Mary Ann Baxter and her distant cousin John Boyd Baxter as University College, Dundee, and teaching began in 1883. It fully merged with the University of St Andrews in 1897 and was reorganised as Queen's College, Dundee in 1954. Significant research in biomedical fields is carried out in the School of Life Sciences. The university is also home to Dundee Law School, situated in the Scrymgeour Building on the main campus and the School of Medicine, based at the city's Ninewells Hospital. The university also incorporates the Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design and the teacher training college. Abertay University was founded as Dundee Institute of Technology in 1888. Previously, the buildings formed Bell Street Technical College, a further education college. It was granted university status in 1994 under the Further and Higher Education Act, 1992. The university is noted for its computing and creative technology courses, particularly in the fields of computer games technology and cyber-security. Notable alumni include David Jones, founder of DMA Design (now known as Rockstar North), Sir Brian Souter, founder of Stagecoach, and Lord Iain McNicol, former General Secretary of the Labour Party. Dundee College is the city's umbrella further education college, which was established in 1985 as an institution of higher education and vocational training. As of 2013, it merged with Angus College in Arbroath, to become Dundee and Angus College (D&A college). The Al-Maktoum College of Higher Education was established in Dundee in Blackness Road in 2002. It is a research-led institution of higher education which are currently offering programmes accredited by SQA in the study of Islam and Muslims, Arabic language and Islamic Economics and Finance. It is an independent institution. It is named after its patron, Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum. Schools in Dundee have a pupil enrolment of over 20,300. There are 37 primary state schools and 8 secondary state schools in the city. There are 11 primary and 2 secondary Roman Catholic denominational schools which, as in the rest of Scotland, are open to children of all denominations. The remainder are non-denominational. There is also one specialist school that caters for pupils with learning difficulties aged between five and 18 from Dundee and the surrounding area. Dundee has one independent school, the High School of Dundee, which was founded in the 13th century by the Abbot and monks of Lindores Abbey. The current building was designed by George Angus in a Greek Revival style and built in 1832–34. Notable students in the early modern period included Thomas Thomson, Hector Boece, and the brothers James, John and Robert Wedderburn who were the authors of The Gude and Godlie Ballatis, used early in the Scottish Reformation as a vehicle to spread Protestant theology. According to Blind Harry's largely apocryphal work The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace, William Wallace was also educated in Dundee. == Culture == Dundee made a bid to be named the 2017 UK City of Culture, and on 19 June 2013 was named as one of the four short-listed cities alongside Hull, Leicester and Swansea Bay. Ultimately, Dundee's bid was unsuccessful, with Hull winning the contest. Dundee came in fifth place in a newspaper survey regarding numbers of cultural venues in the United Kingdom, ahead of other Scottish cities. In August 2021, Dundee made a joint bid with Perth and Kinross, Angus and Fife for the UK City of Culture again in 2025 under the title of 'Tay Cities'. Dundee also went to bid to become the European Capital of Culture in 2023 but due to the United Kingdom voting to leave the European Union in June 2016, Dundee's bid, along with those of other British cities submitting bids, was discontinued by the European Commission. ===Museums and galleries=== The city's main museum and art gallery, McManus Galleries, is in Albert Square. The exhibits include work by James McIntosh Patrick, Alberto Morrocco and David McClure amongst the collection of fine and decorative art, items from Dundee's history and natural history artefacts. Dundee Contemporary Arts (abbreviated DCA) opened in 1999 is an international art centre in the Nethergate close to Dundee Rep, which houses two contemporary art galleries, a two-screen arthouse cinema, a print studio, a visual research centre and a café bar. Britain's only full-time public observatory, Mills Observatory at the summit of the city's Balgay Hill, was given to the city by linen manufacturer and keen amateur scientist John Mills in 1935. Dundee Science Centre in the Greenmarket is a science centre based on the five senses with a series of interactive shows and exhibits. Verdant Works is a museum dedicated to the once dominant jute industry in Dundee and is based in a former jute mill. The University of Dundee also runs several public museums and galleries, including the D'Arcy Thompson Zoology Museum and the Tayside Medical History Museum. The university, through Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design also offers the Cooper Gallery for contemporary art, and its archives including: the abcD (artists' books collection Dundee); the REWIND Archive (video art collection); and the Richard Demarco Digital Archive. The V&A Dundee Museum of Design opened in September 2018 and is built south of Craig Harbour onto the River Tay in a building designed by Kengo Kuma. It was officially opened by the Earl and Countess of Strathearn in 2019. It is the centrepiece of the city's waterfront redevelopment. The new museum may bring another 500,000 extra visitors to the city and create up to 900 jobs. The city's archival records are mostly kept by two archives: Dundee City Archives, operated by Dundee City Council and the University of Dundee's Archive Services. Dundee City Archives holds the official records of the city and of the former Tayside Regional Council. The archive also holds the records of various people, groups and organisations connected to the city. The university's Archive Services hold a wide range of material relating to the university and its predecessor institutions and to individuals associated with the university, such as D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson. Archive Services also holds the archives of several individuals, businesses and organisations based in Dundee and the surrounding area. The records held include a substantial number of business archives relating to the jute and linen industry in Dundee; records of other businesses including the archives of the Alliance Trust and the department store G. L. Wilson; the records of the Brechin Diocese of the Scottish Episcopal Church; and the NHS Tayside Archive. The same archive also holds the Michael Peto collection which includes thousands of the photojournalist's photographs, negatives, slides, publications and papers. ===Literature=== Dundee has a strong literary heritage, with several authors having been born, lived or studied in the city. These include A. L. Kennedy, Rosamunde Pilcher, Kate Atkinson, Thomas Dick, Mary Shelley, Mick McCluskey, John Burnside and Neil Forsyth. The Dundee International Book Prize is a biennial competition open to new authors, offering a prize of £10,000 and publication by Polygon Books. Past winners have included: Andrew Murray Scott, Claire-Marie Watson and Malcolm Archibald. William McGonagall, regularly cited as the "world's worst poet", worked and wrote in the city, often giving performances of his work in pubs and bars. Many of his poems are about the city and events therein, such as his work The Tay Bridge Disaster. Dundee's poetic heritage is represented by the 2013 poetry anthology Whaleback City edited by W. N. Herbert and Andy Jackson (Dundee University Press) containing poems by McGonagall, Don Paterson, Douglas Dunn, John Burnside and many others. City of Recovery Press was founded in Dundee, and has become a controversial figure in documenting the darker side of the city. === Cinema === The Dundee Mountain Film Festival (DMFF), held in the last weekend of November, presents the best presenters and films of the year in mountaineering, mountain culture and adventure sport, along with an art and trade exhibition. DMFF is also one of the members of International Alliance for Mountain Film (IAMF) among other important international mountain film festivals. Dundee Contemporary Arts hosts an annual horror film festival called Dundead, which started in 2011. It also hosts the Discovery Film Festival, an international film festival targeted for young audiences. The city also has two Multiplex cinemas, Odeon and Cineworld. === Theatre, drama, dance === Dundee is home to a full-time repertory ensemble, which originated in 1939. One of its alumni, Hollywood actor Brian Cox, is a native of the city. The Dundee Repertory Theatre, built in 1982, is also the base for the Scottish Dance Theatre company. The Whitehall Theatre opened in 1969. The Little Theatre at the foot of the Hilltown is home to and maintained by Dundee Dramatic Society. === Music === Dundee's principal concert auditorium, the Caird Hall (named after its benefactor, the jute baron James Key Caird) in the City Square regularly hosts the Royal Scottish National Orchestra. Various smaller venues host local and international musicians during Dundee's annual Jazz, Guitar and Blues Festivals. Dundee has hosted the National Mod a number of times – 1902, 1913, 1937, 1959 and 1974. Dundee also hosted BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend back in 2006 and was due to host for a second time in 2020 but it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Dundee hosted the event again on 26th-28 May 2023 at Camperdown Park in the north-west of the city. Popular music groups such as the 1970s soul-funk outfit Average White Band, the Associates, the band Spare Snare, Danny Wilson, the Hazey Janes, and the Indie rock bands the View and the Law are from Dundee. Musician, songwriter and performer Michael Marra was born and raised in Dundee. Ricky Ross of Deacon Blue and singer-songwriter KT Tunstall are former pupils of the High School of Dundee, although Tunstall is not a native of the city. The Northern Irish indie rock band Snow Patrol was formed by students at the University of Dundee. Brian Molko, lead singer of Placebo, grew up in the city as did Ian Cussick, singer of Lake. At the end of June, Dundee hosts an annual blues festival known as the Dundee Blues Bonanza. === Media === Dundee is home to DC Thomson & Co. Ltd, established in 1905, which produces over 200 million magazines, newspapers and comics every year; these include The Beano, The Dandy and The Press and Journal. STV North's Tayside news and advertising operations are based in the Seabraes area of the city, from where an STV News Tayside opt-out bulletin is broadcast, (though not on Digital Satellite), within the nightly regional news programme, STV News at Six. The city also had a community internet TV station called The Dundee Channel which was launched on 1 September 2009. Dundee formerly had three local radio stations that were based in the city. Radio Tay was launched on 17 October 1980. The station split frequencies in January 1995, launching Tay FM for a younger audience and Tay AM playing classic hits (now called Greatest Hits Radio Tayside & Fife). Neither Tay FM or Greatest Hits Radio are based within the city of Dundee, with their only locally targeted show (Tay FM breakfast) being broadcast from a Bauer studio in Edinburgh. In 1999, Discovery 102 was launched, later to be renamed Wave 102 following a claim by The Discovery Channel that the station could mistakenly be linked to its brand. The station was further rebranded to Wave FM and Pure Radio. The 102FM frequency now carries a relay of Aberdeen-based radio station Original 106 (Scotland) which features news, content and commercials tailored for Tayside. === Landmarks === The city and its landscape are dominated by The Law and the Firth of Tay. The Law, a large hill to the north of the City Centre was the site of an Iron Age Hill Fort, upon which the Law War Memorial, designed by Thomas Braddock, was erected in 1921 to commemorate the fallen of World War I. The waterfront, much altered by reclamation in the 19th century, retains several of the docks that once were the hub of the jute and whaling industries, including the Camperdown and Victoria Docks. The Victoria Dock is the home of the frigate HMS Unicorn and the North Carr Lightship, while Captain Scott's RRS Discovery occupies Craig Pier, from where the ferries to Fife once sailed. The oldest building in the city is St Mary's Tower, which dates from the late 15th century. This forms part of the City Churches, which consist of St Clement's Church, dating to 1787–8 and built by Samuel Bell, Old St Paul's and St David's Church, built in 1841–42 by William Burn, and St Mary's Church, rebuilt in 1843–44, also by Burn, following a fire. Other significant churches in the city include the Gothic Revival St Paul's Episcopal Cathedral, built by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1853 on the former site of Dundee Castle in the High Street, and the Catholic St. Andrew's Cathedral, built in 1835 by George Mathewson in Nethergate. As a result of the destruction suffered during the Rough Wooing, little of the mediaeval city (aside from St Mary's Tower) remains and the earliest surviving domestic structures date from the Early Modern Era. A notable example is the Wishart Arch (or East Port) in Cowgate. It is the last surviving portion of the city walls. Dating from prior to 1548, it owes its continued existence to its association with the Protestant martyr George Wishart, who is said to have preached to plague victims from the East Port in 1544. Another is the building complex on the High Street known as Gardyne's Land, parts of which date from around 1560. The Howff burial ground in the northern part of the City Centre also dates from this time; it was given to the city by Mary Queen of Scots in 1564, having previously served as the grounds of a Franciscan abbey. Several castles can be found in Dundee, mostly from the Early Modern Era. The earliest parts of Mains Castle in Caird Park were built by David Graham in 1562 on the site of a hunting lodge of 1460. Dudhope Castle, originally the seat of the Scrymgeour family, dates to the late 16th century and was built on the site of a keep of 1460. Claypotts Castle, a striking Z plan castle in West Ferry, was built by John Strachan and dates from 1569 to 1588. In 1495 Broughty Castle was built and remained in use as a major defensive structure until 1932, playing a role in the Anglo-Scottish Wars and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The castle stands on a shallow tip projecting into the Firth, alongside two beaches, one of sand, the other of pebbles. The ruins of Powrie Castle, north of Fintry, date from the 16th-century castle north. North of the City Churches, at the end of Reform Street, lies the High School of Dundee, built in 1829–34 by George Angus in a Greek Revival style. Another school building of note is Morgan Academy on Forfar Road, built in 1863, designed by John Dick Peddie in a Dutch Gothic style. Dundee's industrial history as a centre for textile production is apparent throughout the city. Numerous former jute mills remain standing and while some lay derelict, many have been converted for other uses. Of particular note are the Tay Works, built by the Gilroy Brothers –1865, Camperdown Works in Lochee, which built and owned by Cox Brothers, one of Europe's largest jute manufacturing companies, and begun in 1849, and Upper Dens Mill and Lower Dens Works, built by the Baxter Brothers in the mid-19th century. A more recent landmark is the Tower Building of the University of Dundee built between 1959 and 1961. At the time of its construction only the Old Steeple was taller in the city. The Tower was built to replace the original college buildings which stood on the site. The building houses the university's main administration and includes galleries and the university's Archive, Records Management and Museum Services. Many 1960s landmark multi-storey housing buildings were demolished in the late 2000s. The former Tayside House block, nicknamed 'Faulty Towers' by many local people, was demolished in 2013 as part of the waterfront redevelopment program. According to the architectural historian Charles McKean and his co-authors of Lost Dundee, the best views in the city were from Tayside House, because these were the only views from which the building itself could not be seen. == Sport and recreation == === Football === Dundee has two professional football clubs: Dundee, founded in 1893, and Dundee United, founded in 1909 as Dundee Hibernian. Dundee FC and Dundee United currently play in the Scottish Premiership. Their grounds the ScotFoam Stadium and Tannadice Park are just 100 metres apart, closer together than any other football stadiums in the UK. The Dundee derby is one of the most highly anticipated fixtures in Scottish football. Dundee is one of four British cities to have produced two European Cup semi-finalists. Dundee lost to A.C. Milan in 1963 and Dundee United lost to A.S. Roma in 1984. Dundee also reached the semi-finals of the forerunner to the UEFA Cup in 1968 and Dundee United were runners-up in the UEFA Cup in 1987. There are also seven junior football teams in the area: Dundee North End, East Craigie, Lochee Harp, Lochee United, Dundee Violet, Broughty Athletic and Downfield. === Ice hockey === Dundee Stars, the main ice hockey team, play at the Dundee Ice Arena. The team joined the Elite League in the 2010/2011 season. They are one of three professional ice hockey teams in Scotland, and play against teams from England, Wales and Northern Ireland in the Elite League. In the 2013/2014 season, Dundee Stars won the Gardiner Conference trophy, their only one to date. The majority of the players are from Canada and the United States. Marc LeFebvre is the current head coach and general manager of the Dundee Stars. There also is an amateur ice hockey team, Dundee Rockets, who play in the Scottish National League. === Rugby === The city is also home to six rugby union teams. Dundee High School Former Pupils play in Scottish National League Division One, the second tier of Scottish club rugby. The remainder of the teams compete in the Caledonia Regional League – Harris Academy FP play in Caledonia Division One, Morgan Academy FP and Panmure in Caledonia Division Two Midlands, Dundee University Medics and Stobswell in Caledonia Division Three Midlands. === Athletics === Liz McColgan and Eilish McColgan both hail from Dundee and have been members of the Dundee Hawkhill Harriers athletics club. === Other sports === Local sports clubs include Dundee Handball Club, Grove Menzieshill Hockey Club; Dundee Wanderers Hockey Club, Dundee Volleyball Club, Dundee Northern Lights Floorball Club, Dundee Hawkhill Harriers, Dundee City Aquatics, Dundee Hurricanes, Dundee Roller Derby and Dundee & Angus Radio Controlled Car Klub (DARCCK). The Olympia Leisure Centre, opened in 2013, has a swimming pool. There is a velodrome, Caird Park Velodrome. == Public services == Dundee and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water. Dundee, along with parts of Perthshire and Angus is supplied from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla. Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc, part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group. Waste management is handled by Dundee City Council. There is a kerbside recycling scheme that currently only serves 15,500 households in Dundee. Cans, glass and plastic bottles are collected on a weekly basis. Compostable material and non-recyclable material are collected on alternate weeks. Paper is collected for recycling on a four-weekly basis. Recycling centres and points are at a number of locations in Dundee. Items accepted include steel and aluminium cans, cardboard, paper, electrical equipment, engine oil, fridges and freezers, garden waste, gas bottles, glass, liquid food and drinks cartons, plastic bottles, plastic carrier bags, rubble, scrap metal, shoes and handbags, spectacles, textiles, tin foil, wood and yellow pages. Recent figures taken in 2008, suggest the city council has a recycling rate of 36.1%. Law enforcement is provided by Police Scotland. The headquarters of the Dundee Branch of Police Scotland is situated in West Bell Street. There are also four police stations which serve the city: Maryfield, Lochee, Downfield and Longhaugh. There is one ambulance station for the city; on West School Road. The Scottish Fire and Rescue Service operate three fire stations, covering the city and surrounding villages. The main station is at Blackness Road and there is a control room at Macalpine Road fire station. == Sister cities == Chronologically: Orléans, France (1946) Zadar, Croatia (1959) Alexandria, United States (1962) Würzburg, Germany (1962) West Dundee, United States (2013) ==Freedom of the City== The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Dundee. ===Individuals=== William Arrol: 1889. Henry Morton Stanley: 1890. William Harcourt: 1898. Sir John Leng: 1902. Whitelaw Reid: 1906. H. H. Asquith: October 1912. Emma Grace Marryat: 1918. David Middleton Greig: 1920. Agnes Husband: 1926. Thomas Johnston: 1947. Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother: 1954. Maurice McManus: 1981. Nelson Mandela: 9 October 1993. Aung San Suu Kyi: 2008. Ramsay MacDonald Stanley Baldwin Rev. William Macmillan James McLean ===Military units=== The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment): 1954.	[ "Ballumbie", "Pitkerro", "ScotRail", "Camperdown, Dundee", "EU countries", "Neil Forsyth", "Alliance Trust", "Shires of Scotland", "Balmossie railway station", "Westminster Palace", "1908 Dundee by-election", "A.C. 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Kennedy", "Placebo (band)", "Met Office", "Dundee City Council", "Stephen Gethins", "Mill of Mains", "Nigeria", "whaling", "Differential weathering", "Baptist", "1906 Dundee fire", "Home Bargains", "West Dundee, Illinois", "Thomas Thomson (chemist)", "Black Scottish people", "Greatest Hits Radio Tayside & Fife", "dual carriageway", "Freedom of the City", "Olympia Leisure Centre (2013)", "City Centre, Dundee", "whale oil", "Computer security", "Fintry, Dundee", "Caledonian Sleeper", "Social Security Scotland", "Nablus", "Sabhal Mòr Ostaig", "Stagecoach Group", "Dundee Hurricanes", "First War of Scottish Independence", "Royal National Mòd", "Scotland", "History of Dundee", "Lord Provost of Dundee", "Invergowrie", "computer games", "British Asian", "Victoria & Albert Museum", "Roman Catholic Church", "Asian-Scots", "Rosamunde Pilcher", "Old Red Sandstone", "ethnic minority", "Norway", "Rockstar North", "Brittle Bone Society", "Denki", "St Andrews", "Dundee North End F.C.", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Royal Burgh", "Irish Briton", "Asda", "Kellas, Angus", "List of Lord Provosts of Dundee", "Baxter Park", "Tayside Regional Council", "Burnside of Duntrune", "United Kingdom Census 2011", "Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute", "Tay Rail Bridge", "M&S", "Iain McNicol", "Kolkata", "James, John and Robert Wedderburn", "Keiller's marmalade", "Sunday Herald", "Cupar", "Methodism", "Gardyne's Land, Dundee", "Associates (band)", "CrossCountry", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "Liz McColgan", "War of the Rough Wooing", "The Dandy", "Care Inspectorate (Scotland)", "Iron Age", "East Craigie F.C.", "Charles McKean", "Automatic Teller Machine", "Tannadice Park", "Silurian", "Alexandria, Virginia", "T. 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Hughes", "mandir", "Elite Ice Hockey League", "Firth of Tay", "Scottish independence referendum", "UNESCO", "Asian people", "Dundee City Chambers", "A92 road", "The Gude and Godlie Ballatis", "Unitarianism", "Chris Law", "World War I", "MS Ambition", "Average White Band", "Robert Falcon Scott", "Diocese of Brechin (Episcopalian)", "Tesco", "William the Lion", "Apostleship of the Sea", "Blues", "Abbot", "Caird Park Velodrome", "Sidlaw Hills", "A929 road", "Scottish Citylink", "monk", "Brian Souter", "Mafic", "Jacobitism", "Osnaburg", "Ian Cussick", "2010–11 EIHL season", "Bucklerheads", "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum", "Broughty Athletic F.C.", "North East Scotland (Scottish Parliament electoral region)", "Muslim", "Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973", "soul-funk", "Scots language", "Ordnance Survey", "Bridgefoot, Angus", "Harris Academy RFC", "burgh", "Dundee West (UK Parliament constituency)", "Menzieshill", "Dunkeld", "Scottish Ambulance Service", "Health care", "Scottish National Party", "Dundee Stars", "Camperdown Works", "Tay Bridge disaster", "Sovereign state", "Morgan Academy FP RFC", "Michael Peto", "St Mary", "Scotland in the Early Modern Era", "Tom Johnston (British politician)", "Dundee Central Mosque", "Dundee Rockets", "Ninewells Hospital", "Rockstar Dundee", "Aberdeen", "Compostable", "Tokheim", "V&A Dundee", "Dundee Science Centre", "List of local government areas in Scotland (1930–1975)", "Scottish Hydro Electric", "Dynamo Games", "Perth, Scotland", "Pitlochry", "Deacon Blue", "Kingennie", "Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother", "Dundee Law", "Stanley Baldwin", "Multiplex (movie theater)", "Forth Ports", "GSS coding system", "St Marys, Dundee", "Backwater Reservoir", "Jazz", "Henry Morton Stanley", "Thomas Dick (scientist)", "Angus South (Scottish Parliament constituency)", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "burn (topography)", "Mary Ann Baxter", "Dundee Museum of Transport", "Earl of Huntingdon", "Scottish National League Division One", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "Loganair", "Scottish Dance Theatre", "James Key Caird", "Dryburgh, Dundee", "Perth and Kinross", "Black Watch", "Kirkwall Airport", "David, Earl of Huntingdon", "British nationality law", "Michelin", "Middle Ages", "The Law (Scotland band)", "Hilltown, Dundee", "sit-in", "Society of Friends", "Member of the Scottish Parliament", "A991 road", "Mills Observatory", "mountain film", "Indie rock", "Köppen climate classification", "Andrew Dudley", "biotechnology", "NCR Corporation", "Denmark", "Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "Graeme Dey", "Fife", "Claypotts Castle", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "extrusive rock", "Longforgan", "Abertay University", "Dundee F.C.", "Black people", "Balgowan, Dundee", "Royal Scottish National Orchestra", "River Tay", "Netherlands", "the ScotFoam Stadium", "Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's)", "Claverhouse", "White people", "Forfar", "Dundee Airport", "Industrial Revolution", "Kingston upon Hull", "Scottish Fire and Rescue Service", "advection", "Dundee HSFP", "Local government in Scotland", "Dundee railway station", "Original 106 (Scotland)", "association football", "British Mixed", "Diocese of Dunkeld", "Verdant Works", "St Paul's Cathedral, Dundee", "Tay FM", "Downfield F.C.", "Dundee United F.C.", "Hinduism in Scotland", "European Commission", "British African-Caribbean community", "Black British", "Ricky Ross (musician)", "Coupar Angus", "biomedical", "Floorball", "British Indian", "Liff, Angus", "Congregationalist", "The Discovery Channel", "Rough Wooing", "William Wallace", "county of city", "Board of Trade", "council areas of Scotland", "Scottish National League (ice hockey)", "brown forest soil", "Yahoo! Music", "Caird Hall", "Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum", "United Kingdom", "Mesolithic", "Yes Scotland", "Accent (dialect)", "List of provosts of Dundee", "Scottish Reformation", "Scottish Parliament Building", "Gowrie Park", "Kengo Kuma", "Brian Molko", "John Balliol", "tuff", "Ramsay MacDonald", "House of Stuart", "Arbroath and Broughty Ferry (UK Parliament constituency)", "Wave 102", "Oceanic climate", "Boxing the compass", "The Howff", "Edinburgh", "Craigowl Hill", "RRS Discovery", "Craigiebank, Dundee", "UK City of Culture", "Invergowrie railway station", "royal burgh", "Danny Wilson (band)", "Sumburgh Airport", "Spare Snare", "Strathmartine", "Scottish Episcopal Church", "Franciscan", "The Wall Street Journal", "Downfield, Dundee", "4J Studios", "Primark", "Blind Harry", "George Wishart", "Royal Bank of Scotland", "Presbyterian polity", "Grand Theft Auto", "Ardler", "Michael Marra", "William Arrol", "Angus, Scotland", "Aung San Suu Kyi", "Hector Boece", "John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount Dundee", "Queen Victoria", "monophthong", "Dundee in the 1922 general election", "White British", "A972 road", "M90 motorway", "rugby union", "Blackness, Dundee", "Dundee Ice Arena", "National Express Coaches", "Seagate bus station", "Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom", "Shona Robison", "Perthshire", "European Cup 1962-63", "Next (clothing)", "Freightliner Group", "Broughty Castle", "Clothes dryer", "Edinburgh Airport", "ice hockey", "electric vehicle", "Lochee Harp F.C.", "Hill Fort", "Dubai", "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "British Chinese", "Buddhism", "Logie, Dundee", "observatory", "Law, Dundee", "Balmerino", "American Civil War", "Scottish Social Services Council", "refrigerators", "Ambassador Cruise Line", "NME", "further education", "BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend", "A85 road", "A923 road", "Scottish Premiership", "British Summer Time", "McManus Galleries", "Dominican Order", "Dudhope Castle", "David Jones (video game developer)", "Alberto Morrocco", "Subdivisions of Scotland", "Broughty Ferry", "Slum clearance in the United Kingdom", "Kirkton, Dundee", "Snow Patrol", "Birkhill, Angus", "Whitfield, Dundee", "Stirling", "DD postcode area", "Caledonia Regional League", "University of Dundee", "British Arabs", "diphthong", "Islam", "video game development", "William McGonagall", "H. H. Asquith", "Woodside, Dundee", "Arbroath", "photojournalist", "ISO 3166-2:GB", "Eden Project", "Christadelphians", "martyr", "UEFA Cup 1986-87", "Scottish Parliament", "Irish Traveller", "anticline", "Richard Demarco", "Gley soil", "St Mary, Our Lady of Victories Church, Dundee", "Steeple Church", "Kate Atkinson (writer)", "Lake (German band)", "John Leng (politician)", "repertory", "Aviva", "Monifieth", "Dundee Contemporary Arts", "David Middleton Greig", "home computers", "Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994", "Political make-up of local councils in the United Kingdom", "Belgium", "Panmure RFC", "British Bangladeshi", "Evening Telegraph (Dundee)", "Enterprise Zone", "culvert", "Dundee College", "Scottish Qualifications Authority", "London North Eastern Railway", "Morgan Academy", "Dundee City East (Scottish Parliament constituency)", "Tübingen", "Tayside", "David McClure (artist)", "Whitelaw Reid", "List of towns and cities in Scotland by population", "Wormit", "Dundee Violet F.C.", "Orthodox Judaism", "Monifieth railway station", "Tay Road Bridge", "Mains Castle", "University of Dundee School of Medicine", "European Union", "University of St Andrews", "William Harcourt (politician)", "The Beano", "A.S. Roma", "John Dick Peddie", "John Burnside (writer)", "Swansea Bay", "Tay Bridge", "cash register", "Charleston, Dundee", "W. L. Gore and Associates", "Franciscans", "Zadar", "National Records of Scotland", "European Champion Clubs' Cup", "British Pakistani", "Spar (retailer)", "Seventh-day Adventist", "City status in the United Kingdom", "Pentecostalism", "Stobswell", "Buddhism in Scotland", "Megabus (Europe)", "local government in Scotland", "Lochee United F.C.", "Stagecoach Strathtay", "Dundee International Book Prize", "Dundee Repertory Theatre", "Sikhism in Scotland", "The Perfume Shop", "STV News at Six", "blues", "Poles in the United Kingdom", "Brian Cox (actor)", "Würzburg", "HMS Unicorn (1824)", "Timex Group", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Andrew Swift (bishop)", "Carnoustie", "Dundee derby", "igneous intrusion", "Other Black", "Robert the Bruce", "Prussia", "James Francis Edward Stuart", "The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace", "the Hazey Janes", "Leicester", "Celtic languages", "Dundee and Angus College", "Further and Higher Education Act, 1992", "William Burn", "Felsic", "River Isla, Perthshire", "Agnes Husband", "European Capital of Culture", "Douglas, Dundee", "North Carr Lightship", "Sir Winston Churchill", "Crimean War", "Hindu", "Monsoon Accessorize", "Scottish burgh", "Joe Fitzpatrick", "Dundee Handball Club", "Alexander Crawford Lamb", "STV North", "central Lowlands", "Irreligion in the United Kingdom", "A90 road", "DC Thomson", "European Cup 1983-84", "Broughty Ferry railway station", "Salvation Army", "Lindores Abbey", "NHS Tayside", "United Kingdom constituencies", "Eilish McColgan", "Heidelberg", "2024 United Kingdom general election", "Scottish Episcopal" ]
8,829	Do Not Adjust Your Set	Do Not Adjust Your Set is a British television series produced originally by Rediffusion, London, and then by the fledgling Thames Television for British commercial television channel ITV from 26 December 1967 to 14 May 1969. The show took its name from the message (frequently seen on the TV screen in those days) that was displayed when there was a problem with transmission or technical difficulties. It helped launch the careers of Denise Coffey, David Jason, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin; the last three became members of the Monty Python comedy troupe soon afterward. Although originally conceived as a children's programme, it quickly acquired a fandom amongst adults, including future Python members John Cleese and Graham Chapman. The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, a satirical comedy/art/pop group, also performed songs in each programme and frequently appeared as extras in sketches. The programme itself comprised a series of satirical sketches, often presented in a surreal, absurd and discontinuous style – anticipating Monty Python's Flying Circus, which began five months after the last episode of Do Not Adjust Your Set. Several surreal animations between sketches were crafted for the second series by Terry Gilliam, who soon graduated to Python along with Palin, Jones and Idle. One recurring feature of the show was Captain Fantastic, a superhero parody featuring David Jason in farcical and morbid adventures against villainess Mrs. Black (Coffey). These segments were shot entirely on location in London. The feature was so popular with the young audience that after Do Not Adjust Your Set itself ended, Captain Fantastic briefly continued in its own capacity in the children's magazine show Magpie. Only 14 of the original 29 episodes currently exist. == Awards == In June 1968, an episode of Do Not Adjust Your Set was submitted to the 1968 Prix Jeunesse International Television Festival in Munich. It won first prize in the 12–15 years category. ==Home media== Nine of the 14 episodes from the first (Rediffusion) series were released on DVD in the UK and the US on 25 August 2005. Both releases use the same NTSC Region 0 discs made from telerecordings of the original videotapes. In this DVD release, the episodes are numbered 1 to 9, although, in fact, they are episodes 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 from series 1 (a similar fault was made on the release of At Last the 1948 Show). The sole surviving episode from series 2 and Do Not Adjust Your Stocking were not included. Contrary to claims on the packaging, Terry Gilliam's animations also do not appear on this release, although Gilliam does appear as one of the additional writers in the credits for episodes 3 and 4. The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band was seen playing their song "Death Cab for Cutie" (also performed in the Beatles' film Magical Mystery Tour) on the DVD in episode 7. On 16 September 2019, the British Film Institute released a comprehensive DVD set of the surviving videos and animations from both series. It includes the previously missing fourth episode of the first series, which was rediscovered (but only after the earlier DVD release) when it was noticed that a copy had been sent to the jury of the Prix de Jeunesse award. This edition survives as a domestic recording on a Phillips 1500 cassette made by Thames Television in 1976, which was discovered by Kaleidoscope in 2015, when a copy was returned from Munich. It is thus the only series 1 episode with magnetic rather than optical sound quality. The BFI release features episodes with their original numbering. They include the Christmas special and some Terry Gilliam animations (restored from his own masters) that appeared in otherwise lost episodes. ==Episodes== ===Christmas Special (1967)=== The very first episode, an introductory special meant for Boxing Day 1967, was accidentally switched with the first regular episode in all regions except for London. ===Series 1 (1968)=== The first series was produced by Rediffusion, thirteen episodes were broadcast from 26 December 1967 to 28 March 1968, on Thursdays at 17:25. Three episodes from this series are currently missing from the archives, nine episodes survive as telerecordings and a further edition (Episode 4) survives on a domestic tape recording. Several cast changes occurred over the course of this series, Tim Brooke-Taylor filled in for Michael Palin for the studio recording for Episode 9, as the latter was having his appendix removed. The following edition, Neil Innes was absent from the taping since he had the flu, so Eric Idle filled in for him when performing the vocals/ piano parts for the Bonzo's musical number 'Love is a Cylindrical Piano'. ===Specials (1968)=== A summer special was broadcast on 29 July 1968. It was the last episode to be produced by Rediffusion, since it was transmitted on their final day of broadcasting before Thames Television took over as the franchise holder for the London region (weekdays only) the following day. The Christmas special was the first episode to be produced by Thames. For a 1986 repeat, David Jason demanded to be removed from the show, thus creating an abridged version of 25 minutes. This edition was also notable for featuring the first animated sketch by Terry Gilliam, who would go on to contribute further material for the subsequent series. ===Series 2 (1969)=== The second and final series, thirteen episodes were broadcast from 19 February 1969 to 14 May 1969, on Wednesdays at 17:20. Most of the episodes from this series are currently missing from the archives, although audio recordings survive from several missing episodes Only Episode 2 survives intact, it's also the only episode from the entire series run to exist on its original 2" master videotape. Animated sequences by Terry Gilliam including 'Beware of the Elephants' and 'Learning to Live with an Elephant' also exist on b&w 35mm film.	[ "Associated-Rediffusion", "Magpie (TV series)", "Teddington Studios", "Monty Python", "Humphrey Barclay", "Captain Fantastic (TV series)", "Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band", "Monty Python's Flying Circus", "villainess", "ITV (TV network)", "the Beatles", "Political satire", "Munich", "David Jason", "Magical Mystery Tour (film)", "Death Cab for Cutie (song)", "Boxing Day", "Terry Jones", "Terry Gilliam", "At Last the 1948 Show", "farcical", "Denise Coffey", "Michael Palin", "Tim Brooke-Taylor", "Graham Chapman", "superhero", "Thames Television", "NTSC", "Eric Idle", "Wembley Studios", "John Cleese", "Appendix (anatomy)", "Neil Innes", "British Comedy Guide", "British Film Institute", "telerecording" ]
8,832	West Memphis Three	The West Memphis Three are three freed men convicted as teenagers of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas, United States. Damien Echols was sentenced to death, Jessie Misskelley Jr. to life imprisonment plus two 20-year sentences, and Jason Baldwin to life imprisonment. During the trial, the prosecution asserted that the juveniles killed the children as part of a Satanic ritual. Due to the dubious nature of the evidence, the lack of physical evidence connecting the men to the crime, and the suspected presence of emotional bias in court, the case generated widespread controversy and was the subject of several documentaries. Celebrities and musicians held fundraisers to support efforts to free the men. In July 2007, new forensic evidence was presented. A report jointly issued by the state and the defense team stated, "Although most of the genetic material recovered from the scene was attributable to the victims of the offenses, some of it cannot be attributed to either the victims or the defendants." Following a 2010 decision by the Arkansas Supreme Court regarding newly produced DNA evidence and potential juror misconduct, the West Memphis Three negotiated a plea bargain with prosecutors. On August 19, 2011, they entered Alford pleas, which allowed them to assert their innocence while acknowledging that prosecutors have enough evidence to convict them. Judge David Laser accepted the pleas and sentenced the three to time served. They were released with 10-year suspended sentences, having served 18 years. The boys were allegedly last seen together by three neighbors, who in affidavits told of seeing them playing together around 6:30 pm the evening they disappeared and seeing Terry Hobbs, Steve Branch's stepfather, calling them to come home. Initial police searches made that night were limited. A more thorough police search for the children began around 8:00 am on May 6, led by the Crittenden County Search and Rescue personnel. Searchers canvassed all of West Memphis but focused primarily on Robin Hood Hills, where the boys were reported last seen. Despite a shoulder-to-shoulder search of Robin Hood Hills by a human chain, searchers found no sign of the missing boys. Around 1:45 pm, juvenile Parole Officer Steve Jones spotted a boy's black shoe floating in a muddy creek that led to a major drainage canal in Robin Hood Hills. A subsequent search of the ditch revealed the bodies of three boys. They had been stripped naked and were hogtied with their own shoelaces, their right ankles tied to their right wrists behind their backs, the same with their left arms and legs. Their clothing was found in the creek, some of it twisted around sticks that had been thrust into the muddy ditch bed. The clothing was mostly turned inside-out; two pairs of the boys' underwear were never recovered. Christopher Byers had lacerations to various parts of his body and mutilation of his scrotum and penis. The autopsies by forensic pathologist Frank J. Peretti indicated that Byers died of "multiple injuries", Police initially suspected the boys had been raped; ==Victims== Steve Edward Branch, Christopher Byers and Michael Moore were all second graders at Weaver Elementary School. Each had achieved the rank of "Wolf" in the local Cub Scout pack and were best friends. ===Steve Edward Branch=== Steve Branch was the son of Steven and Pamela Branch, who divorced when he was an infant. His mother was awarded custody and later married Terry Hobbs. Branch was eight years old, 4 ft. 2 tall, weighed 65 lbs, and had blond hair. He was last seen wearing blue jeans and a white T-shirt, and riding a black and red bicycle. He was an honor student. He lived with his mother, Pamela Hobbs, his stepfather, Terry Hobbs, and a four-year-old half-sister, Amanda. Steve Edward Branch is buried in Mount Zion Cemetery in Steele, Missouri. ===Christopher Mark Byers=== Christopher Byers was born to Melissa DeFir and Ricky Murray. His parents divorced when he was four years old and shortly afterward his mother married John Mark Byers, who adopted the boy. Byers was eight years old, 4 ft. tall, weighed 52 lbs, and had light brown hair. He was last seen wearing blue jeans, dark shoes, and a white long-sleeved shirt. He lived with his mother, Sharon Melissa Byers, his adoptive father, John Mark Byers, and his stepbrother, Shawn Ryan Clark, aged 13. According to his mother, Christopher was a typical eight-year-old. "He still believed in the Easter Bunny and Santa Claus". ===James Michael Moore=== Michael Moore was the son of Todd and Dana Moore. He was eight years old, 4 ft. 2 tall, weighed 55 lbs, and had brown hair. He was last seen wearing blue pants, a blue Boy Scouts of America shirt, and an orange and blue Boy Scout hat, and riding a light green bicycle. Moore enjoyed wearing his scout uniform even when he was not at meetings. He was considered the leader of the three. He lived with his parents and his nine-year-old sister, Dawn. ==Suspects== ===Baldwin, Echols, and Misskelley=== At the time of their arrests, Jessie Misskelley Jr. was 17 years old, Jason Baldwin was 16 years old, and Damien Echols was 18 years old. Baldwin and Echols had been previously arrested for vandalism and shoplifting respectively, and Misskelley had a reputation for his temper and for engaging in fistfights with other teenagers at school. Misskelley and Echols had dropped out of high school; however, Baldwin earned high grades and demonstrated a talent for drawing and sketching, and was encouraged by one of his teachers to study graphic design in college. At the time of his arrest, Echols was working part-time with a roofing company and expecting a child with his girlfriend, Domini Teer. ==="Mr. Bojangles"=== The sighting of a black male as a possible alternate suspect was implied during the beginning of the Misskelley trial. According to local West Memphis police officers, on the evening of May 5, 1993, at 8:42 pm, workers in the Bojangles' restaurant located about a mile from the crime scene in Robin Hood Hills reported seeing a black male who seemed "mentally disoriented" inside the restaurant's ladies' room. The man was bleeding and had brushed against the restroom walls. Officer Regina Meeks responded to the call, taking the restaurant manager's report through the eatery's drive-through window. By then, the man had left, and police did not enter the restroom on that date. The day after the victims' bodies were found, Bojangles' manager Marty King, thinking there was a possible connection to the bleeding man found in the bathroom, reported the incident to police officers who then inspected the ladies' room. The man reportedly wore a "blue cast type brace on his arm that had white Velcro on it", which would have made it difficult to tie up and murder three young boys. King gave the officers a pair of sunglasses he thought the man had left behind, and the detectives took some blood samples from the walls and tiles of the restroom. Police detective Bryn Ridge testified that he later lost those blood scrapings. A hair identified as belonging to a black male was later recovered from a sheet wrapped around one of the victims.}} After a month had passed with little progress in the case, police continued to focus their investigation upon Echols, interrogating him more frequently than any other person. Nonetheless, they claimed he was not regarded as a direct suspect but a source of information. Misskelley quickly recanted his confession, citing intimidation, coercion, fatigue, and veiled threats from police. Though he was informed of his Miranda rights, Misskelley later claimed he did not fully understand them. Portions of Misskelley's statements to the police were leaked to the press and reported on the front page of the Memphis Commercial Appeal before any of the trials began. The physical evidence presented at the trial of Echols and Baldwin consisted of two green threads found at the crime scene that a state witness claimed are microscopically similar to a green child's T-shirt found in Echols's sister's closet, and one red rayon fiber that state witnesses said is similar to a women's robe found in Baldwin's home. Under further questioning, the state witness conceded that many fibers are microscopically similar to each other and that the discovery proved nothing. ===Vicki Hutcheson=== Vicki Hutcheson, a new resident of West Memphis, would play an important role in the investigation, though she would later recant her testimony, claiming her statements were fabricated due in part to coercion from police. On May 6, 1993 (before the victims were found later the same day), Hutcheson took a polygraph exam by Detective Don Bray at the Marion Police Department, to determine whether or not she had stolen money from her West Memphis employer. Hutcheson's young son, Aaron, was also present, and proved such a distraction that Bray was unable to administer the polygraph. Aaron, a playmate of the murdered boys', mentioned to Bray that the boys had been killed at "the playhouse." When the bodies proved to have been discovered near where Aaron indicated, Bray asked Aaron for further details, and Aaron claimed that he had witnessed the murders committed by Satanists who spoke Spanish. Aaron's further statements were wildly inconsistent, and he was unable to identify Baldwin, Echols, or Misskelley from photo line-ups, and there was no "playhouse" at the location Aaron indicated. A police officer leaked portions of Aaron's statements to the press contributing to the growing belief that the murders were part of a Satanic rite. On or about June 1, 1993, Hutcheson agreed to police suggestions to place hidden microphones in her home during an encounter with Echols. Misskelley agreed to introduce Hutcheson to Echols. During their conversation, Hutcheson reported that Echols made no incriminating statements. Police said the recording was "inaudible", but Hutcheson claimed the recording was audible. On June 2, 1993, Hutcheson told police that about two weeks after the murders were committed, she, Echols, and Misskelley attended a Wiccan meeting in Turrell, Arkansas. Hutcheson claimed that, at the Wiccan meeting, a drunken Echols openly bragged about killing the three boys. Misskelley was first questioned on June 3, 1993, a day after Hutcheson's purported confession. Hutcheson was unable to recall the Wiccan meeting location and did not name any other participants in the purported meeting. Hutcheson was never charged with theft. She claimed she had implicated Echols and Misskelley to avoid facing criminal charges, and to obtain a reward for the discovery of the murderers. ===Misskelley's trial=== During Misskelley's trial, Richard Ofshe, an expert on false confessions and police coercion, and Professor of Sociology at UC Berkeley, testified that the brief recording of Misskelley's interrogation was a "classic example" of police coercion. Critics have also stated that Misskelley's various "confessions" were in many respects inconsistent with each other, as well as with the particulars of the crime scene and murder victims, including (for example) an "admission" that Misskelley watched Damien rape one of the boys. Police had initially suspected that the victims had been raped because their anuses were dilated. However, there was no forensic evidence indicating that the murdered boys had been raped. Dilation of the anus is a normal post-mortem condition. The court sentenced him to life plus 40 years in prison. His conviction was appealed, but the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed the conviction. ===Echols' and Baldwin's trial=== Three weeks later, Echols and Baldwin went on trial. The prosecution accused the three young men of committing a Satanic murder. The prosecution called Dale W. Griffis, a graduate of the unaccredited Columbia Pacific University, as an expert in the occult to testify the murders were a Satanic ritual. On March 19, 1994, Echols and Baldwin were found guilty on three counts of murder. The court sentenced Echols to death and Baldwin to life in prison. ==Aftermath== ===Criticism of the investigation=== There has been widespread criticism of the handling of the crime scene by the police. According to Leveritt, "Police records were a mess. To call them disorderly would be putting it mildly." The State's experts had examined the actual bodies for any marks, and others conducted expert photo analysis of injuries. Upon further examination, it was concluded that if these marks were bite marks, they did not match the teeth of any of the three convicted. ==Appeals and new evidence== In May 1994, the three defendants appealed their convictions; the convictions were upheld on direct appeal. In June 1996, Misskelley's lawyer, Dan Stidham, was preparing an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 2007, Echols petitioned for a retrial, based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 which might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted. The petition failed when the original trial judge, Judge David Burnett, disallowed presentation of this information in his court. This ruling was in turn thrown out by the Arkansas Supreme Court as to all three defendants on November 4, 2010. ===John Mark Byers' knife (1993)=== John Mark Byers, the adoptive father of victim Christopher Byers, gave a knife to cameraman Doug Cooper, who was working with documentary makers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky while filming the first Paradise Lost feature. The knife was a folding hunting knife manufactured by Kershaw. According to the statements given by Berlinger and Sinofsky, Cooper informed them of his receipt of the knife on December 19, 1993. After the documentary crew returned to New York, Berlinger and Sinofsky were reported to have discovered what appeared to be blood on the knife. HBO executives ordered them to return the knife to the West Memphis Police Department. The knife was not received at the West Memphis Police Department until January 8, 1994. Byers initially claimed the knife had never been used. However, after blood was found on the knife, Byers stated that he had used it only once, to cut deer meat. When told the blood matched both his and Chris' blood type, Byers said he had no idea how that blood might have gotten on the knife. During interrogation, West Memphis police suggested to Byers that he might have left the knife out accidentally, and Byers agreed with this. John Mark Byers had his teeth removed in 1997, after the first trial but before an imprint could be made. His stated reasons for the removal are apparently contradictory. He has claimed both that the seizure medication he was taking caused periodontal disease, and that he planned the removal because of other kinds of dental problems which had troubled him for years. After an expert examined autopsy photos and noted what he thought might be the imprint of a belt buckle on Byers' corpse, the elder Byers revealed to the police that he had spanked his stepson shortly before the boy disappeared. She further asserted that the police had implied that if she did not cooperate with them they would take away her child. The prosecutors, while conceding that no DNA evidence tied the accused to the crime scene, said: "The State stands behind its convictions of Echols and his codefendants." Pamela Hobbs' May 5, 2009, declaration in the United States District Court, Eastern District of Arkansas, Western Division, indicates that "one hair was consistent with the hair of [Terry's] friend, David Jacoby" (Point 16), and: In 2013, written statements from two men, Billy Wayne Stewart and Bennie Guy, were introduced in the court. They both claimed to have had information on the case linking Terry Hobbs to the murders, but were ignored by police initially. At the time, legal experts agreed that this issue could result in the reversal of the convictions of Jason Baldwin and Damien Echols. ===Request for retrial (2007–2010)=== On October 29, 2007, papers were filed in federal court by Echols's defense lawyers seeking a retrial or his immediate release from prison. The filing cited DNA evidence linking Terry Hobbs (stepfather of one of the victims) to the crime scene, and new statements from Hobbs' now ex-wife. Also presented in the filing was new expert testimony that the supposed knife marks on the victims, including the injuries to Byers' genitals, were in fact the result of animal predation after the bodies had been dumped. On September 10, 2008, Circuit Court Judge David Burnett denied the request for a retrial, citing the DNA tests as inconclusive. That ruling was appealed to the Arkansas Supreme Court, which heard oral arguments in the case on September 30, 2010. ===Arkansas Supreme Court ruling (2010)=== On November 4, 2010, the Arkansas Supreme Court ordered a lower judge to consider whether newly analyzed DNA evidence might exonerate the three. In early December 2010, David Burnett was elected to the Arkansas State Senate. Circuit Court Judge David Laser was selected to replace David Burnett and preside in the evidentiary hearings mandated by the successful appeal. ===Plea deal and release (2011)=== After weeks of negotiations, on August 19, 2011, Echols, Baldwin and Misskelley were released from prison as part of a plea deal, making the hearings ordered by the Arkansas Supreme Court unnecessary. Under the deal, Judge David Laser vacated the previous convictions, including the capital murder convictions for Echols and Baldwin, and ordered a new trial. Each man then entered an Alford plea to lesser charges of first- and second-degree murder while verbally stating their innocence. Judge Laser then sentenced them to time served, a total of 18 years and 78 days, and they were each given a suspended imposition of sentence for 10 years. If they re-offend they can be sent back to prison for 21 years. As part of the plea deal, the three men cannot pursue civil action against the state for wrongful imprisonment. Many of the men's supporters, and opponents who still believe them guilty, were unhappy with the unusual plea deal. In 2011, supporters pushed Arkansas Governor Mike Beebe to pardon Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley based on their innocence. Beebe said he would deny the request unless there was evidence showing someone else committed the murders. Prosecutor Scott Ellington said the Arkansas state crime laboratory would help seek other suspects by running searches on any DNA evidence produced in private laboratory tests during the defense team's investigation. This would include running the results through the FBI's Combined DNA Index System database. Ellington said that, although he still considered the men guilty, the three would likely be acquitted if a new trial were held because of the powerful legal counsel representing them now, the loss of evidence over time, and the change of heart among some of the witnesses. In 2007, Pamela Hobbs, the mother of victim Stevie Branch, joined those who have publicly questioned the verdicts, calling for a reopening of the verdicts and further investigation of the evidence. In late 2007, John Mark Byers—who was previously vehement in his belief that Echols, Misskelley, and Baldwin were guilty—also announced that he now believes that they are innocent. "I had made the comment if it were ever proven the three were innocent, I'd be the first to lead the charge for their freedom," said Byers, and take "every opportunity that I have to voice that the West Memphis Three are innocent and the evidence and proof prove they're innocent." Byers has spoken to the media on behalf of the convicted, and has expressed his desire for justice for the families of both the victims and the three accused. John E. Douglas, a former longtime FBI agent and current criminal profiler, said that the murders were more indicative of a single murderer intent on degrading and punishing the victims, than of a trio of "unsophisticated" teenagers. Douglas believed that the perpetrator had a violent history and was familiar with the victims and with local geography. Douglas served as FBI Unit Chief of the Investigative Support Unit of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime for 25 years. He stated in his report for Echols's legal team that there was no evidence the murders were linked to satanic rituals and that post-mortem animal predation could explain the alleged knife injuries. He said that the victims had died from a combination of blunt force trauma and drowning, in a crime which he believed was driven by personal cause. ==Documentaries, publications, and studies== Three films, Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills, Paradise Lost 2: Revelations, and Paradise Lost 3: Purgatory, directed by Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky, have documented this case and are strongly critical of the verdict. The films marked the first time Metallica allowed their music to be used in a movie, which drew attention to the case. There have been a number of books about the case, also arguing that the suspects were wrongly convicted: Devil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three by Mara Leveritt, Blood of Innocents by Guy Reel, and The Last Pentacle of the Sun: Writings in Support of the West Memphis Three, edited by Brett Alexander Savory & M. W. Anderson, and featuring dark fiction and non-fiction by well-known writers of speculative fiction. In 2005, Damien Echols completed his memoir, Almost Home, Vol 1, offering his perspective of the case. A biography of John Mark Byers by Greg Day named Untying the Knot: John Mark Byers and the West Memphis Three was published in May 2012. Many songs were written about the case, and two albums were released in support of the defendants. In 2000, The album Free the West Memphis 3 was released by KOCH Records. Organized by Eddie Spaghetti of the band Supersuckers, the album featured a number of original songs about the case and other recordings by artists such as Steve Earle, Tom Waits, L7, and Joe Strummer. In 2002, Henry Rollins worked with other vocalists from various rock, hip hop, punk, and metal groups and members of Black Flag and the Rollins Band on the compilation album Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three. All money raised from sales of the album was donated to the legal funds of the West Memphis Three. Metalcore band Zao's 2002 album Parade of Chaos included a track inspired by the case named "Free The Three". On April 28, 2011, the band Disturbed released a song entitled "3" as a download on their website. The song is about the West Memphis Three, with 100% of the proceeds going to their benefit foundation for their release. A website by Martin David Hill, containing approximately 160,000 words and intending to be a "thorough investigation", collates and discusses many details surrounding the murders and investigation, including some anecdotal information. Investigative journalist Aphrodite Jones undertook an exploration of the case on her Discovery Network show True Crime with Aphrodite Jones following the DNA discoveries. The episode premiered May 5, 2011, with extensive background information included on the show's page at the Investigation Discovery site. In August 2011, White Light Productions announced that the West Memphis Three would be featured on their new program Wrongfully Convicted. In January 2010, the CBS television news journal 48 Hours aired "The Memphis 3", an in-depth coverage of the history of the case, including interviews with Echols and supporters. On September 17, 2011, 48 Hours re-aired the episode with the update of their release and interviews from Echols and his wife, and Baldwin. Piers Morgan Tonight aired an episode on September 29, 2011, about the three's plans for the future and continued investigations on the case. Atom Egoyan directed a feature film of the case based on Mara Leveritt's book, titled Devil's Knot, starring Colin Firth and Reese Witherspoon, which was produced by Worldview Entertainment. The film premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in U.S. theaters on May 9, 2014. ==Defendants== ===Jessie Misskelley=== Jessie Misskelley Jr. (born July 10, 1975) was arrested in connection to the murders of May 5, 1993. After a reported 12 hours of interrogation by police, Misskelley, who has an IQ of 72, confessed to the murders, and implicated Baldwin and Echols. However, the confession was at odds with facts known by police, such as the time of the murders. On August 19, 2011, Misskelley, along with Baldwin and Echols, entered an Alford plea. Judge David Laser then sentenced them to 18 years and 78 days, the amount of time they had served, and also levied a suspended sentence of 10 years. All three were released from prison that same day. ===Charles Jason Baldwin=== Charles Jason Baldwin (born April 11, 1977) along with Misskelley and Echols, entered an Alford plea on August 19, 2011. Baldwin said in a 2011 interview with Piers Morgan that he worked for a construction company and he was learning how to drive. ===Damien Wayne Echols=== Damien Wayne Echols (born Michael Wayne Hutchison, December 11, 1974) was on death row, locked-down 23 hours per day at the Varner Unit Supermax. From prison in 1999, he married landscape architect Lorri Davis. On August 19, 2011, Echols, along with Baldwin and Misskelley, was released from prison after their attorneys and the judge handling the upcoming retrial agreed to a deal. Under the terms of the Alford guilty plea, Echols and his co-defendants accepted the sufficiency of evidence supporting the three counts of first degree murder while maintaining their innocence. DNA evidence at the scene was not found to include any from Echols or his co-defendants. He moved to New York City after his release. ====Appeal==== Echols' mental stability during the years immediately prior to the murders and during his trial was the focus of his appellate legal team in their appeal attempts. In his efforts to win a new trial, Echols, 27 at the time of the appeal, claimed he was incompetent to stand trial because of a history of mental illness. The record on appeal spells out a long history of Echols' mental health problems, including a May 5, 1992, Arkansas Department of Youth Services referral for possible mental illness, a year to the day before the murders. Hospital records for his treatment in Little Rock 11 months before the killings show a history of self-mutilation and assertions to hospital staff that he gained power by drinking blood, that he had inside him the spirit of a woman who had killed her husband, and that he was having hallucinations. He also told mental health workers that he was "going to influence the world." Echols' lawyers claimed that his condition worsened during the trial, when he developed a "psychotic euphoria that caused him to believe he would evolve into a superior entity" and eventually be transported to a different world. His psychosis dominated his perceptions of everything going on in court, Woods wrote. Echols sought to overturn his conviction based on trial error, including juror misconduct, as well as the results of a DNA Status Report filed on July 17, 2007, which concluded "none of the genetic material recovered at the scene of the crimes was attributable to Mr. Echols, Echols' co-defendant, Jason Baldwin, or defendant Jessie Misskelley .... Although most of the genetic material recovered from the scene was attributable to the victims of the offenses, some of it cannot be attributed to either the victims or the defendants." Advanced DNA and other scientific evidence – combined with additional evidence from several different witnesses and experts – released in October 2007 had cast strong doubts on the original convictions. A hearing on Echols' petition for a writ of habeas corpus was held in the Federal District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas. ====Release==== On August 19, 2011, Echols, along with Baldwin and Misskelley, entered an Alford plea, while asserting their innocence. Echols self-published the memoir, Almost Home: My Life Story Vol. 1 (2005), while still in prison. After his release, he has worked on a number of additional media projects. Music Echols co-wrote the lyrics to the song "Army Reserve", on Pearl Jam's self-titled album (2006). Echols and punk musician Michale Graves, the latter a former vocalist for Misfits, released an album titled Illusions in October 2007. Art Echols began creating art while on death row as a "side effect of my spiritual, magical practice." The Copro Gallery in Los Angeles exhibited Echols' artwork (March 19 – April 16, 2016). The focus of the exhibit, titled 'SALEM,' draws attention to the comparison between the historical U.S. Salem witch trials and Echols' own experience during a modern-day U.S. witch-hunt known for false accusations of Satanic ritual abuse. On March 23, 2016, Echols gave a presentation about his art processes at the Rubin Museum of Art. Spoken word The transcript of Echols' spoken word performance in The Moth is included in a written compilation of 50 stories from the show's archives, published in 2013. Written works Echols' poetry has appeared in the Porcupine Literary Arts magazine (volume 8, issue 2). He has written non-fiction for the Arkansas Literary Forum. Since his release, he has published a non-fiction book about both his childhood and incarceration, Life After Death (2012), which includes material from his 2005 memoir. He and Lorri Davis, a NYC landscape architect who initiated a correspondence with Echols in 1999 and ultimately became his wife, co-authored Yours for Eternity: A Love Story on Death Row (2014) Television Echols provided the voice of Darryl, a fish man (i.e., a fish situated on a robot body), in episode 3 of the animated Netflix series The Midnight Gospel (2020). In August 2021, ten years after release from prison, Echols reiterated that he would not give up seeking any evidence that remained, so it could be retested to exonerate the three and lead to those actually responsible. In response to Echols' requests since early 2020 that remaining evidence undergo specialized DNA testing, officials told his legal team that such evidence had been lost or destroyed years ago in a fire, of which there is no public record. A FOIA request was submitted and the receiving attorney said any evidence testing would have to be ordered by a judge. Echols attorneys filed a Motion for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief in the Circuit Court of Crittendon County First Division, and asked for an expedited hearing. In December 2021, Echols' team was able to review remaining evidence and planned to move forward with new testing. In June 2022, a judge rejected a January request for DNA testing of the evidence. Echols' lawyers appealed the case to the Arkansas Supreme Court in January 2023. The state said in February that the appeal should be dismissed because the case was initially filed in the wrong county – Crittenden rather than Craighead County, where Echols' conviction was entered. In March, Echols' team responded that such a dismissal reason is irrelevant because both counties are within Arkansas' 2nd Judicial Circuit. In April 2023, the state supreme court ruled in favor of Echols's appeal for DNA testing. In April 2024, the Arkansas Supreme Court again reversed a lower court's order denying Echols' postconviction motion for DNA testing for lack of jurisdiction.	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Douglas", "Turrell, Arkansas", "Human leukocyte antigen", "KATV", "Colin Firth", "Free Lance-Star", "mental illness", "occult", "Piers Morgan Tonight", "Columbia Pacific University", "Toronto International Film Festival", "KUAR", "Salem, Massachusetts", "The Chicks", "Bible Belt", "Seattle Post Intelligencer", "Moral panic", "Bruton v. United States", "affidavit", "darts", "Devil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three", "Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three", "spanking", "2012 Sundance Film Festival", "Central Park Five", "KATV-TV", "witch-hunt", "Arkansas Online", "Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.", "Norfolk Four", "Henry Rollins", "capital murder", "Wicca", "vandalism", "The Midnight Gospel", "Punk rock", "L7 (band)", "Marion, Arkansas", "Turner Broadcasting System", "1991 Austin yogurt shop murders", "The Moth", "David Burnett (politician)", "Kershaw Knives", "Arkansas Times", "Worldview Entertainment", "University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Law", "Cub Scout pack", "Amy J. Berg", "hogtie", "IMDb", "Free the West Memphis 3", "Peter Jackson", "Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills", "WREG", "hunting knife", "The New York Times", "Paradise Lost 2: Revelations", "time served", "Damien Echols", "DNA profiling", "emotional bias", "Richard Ofshe", "Satanism", "The Associated Press", "Metallica" ]
8,833	Donald Dewar	Donald Campbell Dewar (21 August 1937 – 11 October 2000) was a Scottish statesman and politician who served as the inaugural first minister of Scotland and leader of the Labour Party in Scotland from 1999 until his death in 2000. He was widely regarded as the "Father of the Nation" during his tenure as first minister, and the "Architect of Devolution" whilst serving as Secretary of State for Scotland from 1997 to 1999. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Glasgow Anniesland (formerly Glasgow Garscadden) from 1978 to 2000. Dewar was also Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the equivalent seat from 1999 to 2000. Born in Glasgow, Dewar studied history, and later law, at the University of Glasgow. Before entering politics, he worked as a solicitor in Glasgow. At the age of 28, he was elected to the House of Commons, representing Aberdeen South from 1966 to 1970. After losing his seat, he returned to law and hosted his own Friday evening talk show on Radio Clyde. Dewar was re-elected in the 1978 Glasgow Garscadden by-election and served as the MP until his death in 2000. Following Labour's landslide victory in 1997, he was appointed Secretary of State for Scotland by Prime Minister Tony Blair. As the Scottish secretary, he was an advocate of Scottish devolution, and campaigned for a Scottish Parliament in the 1997 Scottish devolution referendum. Following a successful campaign, Dewar worked on creating the Scotland Act 1998. Dewar led the Labour campaign through the first Scottish Parliament election and was elected a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Glasgow Anniesland. On 7 May 1999, he was appointed Leader of the Labour Party in Scotland and he led coalition talks with the Scottish Liberal Democrats. Following successful talks, the Labour-Liberal Democrat coalition was announced. Dewar was elected as first minister on 13 May 1999, by a vote of the parliament, and formed the first Scottish Executive cabinet. As first minister, he set out the legislative programme for the Executive which included: an Education bill to improve standards in Scottish schools; land reform to give right of access to the countryside, a bill to abolish the feudal system of land tenure; and a bill to establish national parks in Scotland. He grew up in a middle-class household in Kelvingrove as the only child of Dr. Alasdair Dewar, a consultant dermatologist, and Mary Howat Dewar ( Bennett). Both of Dewar's parents had ill health during his childhood; his father contracted tuberculosis and his mother suffered from a benign brain tumour when he was young. Dewar attended a small school in the Scottish Borders during the Second World War. From the age of nine, he was educated at Mosspark Primary School and then The Glasgow Academy. He made few friends at school and blamed his "shyness and gauche manner" on his experience as being an only child. who would later become leader of the Liberal Democrats, and Lord Irvine of Lairg, who would serve as Lord Chancellor. He met Alison McNair at Glasgow University, who he would later marry in 1964. Dewar was an editor of the Glasgow University Guardian and sales manager for Glasgow University Magazine in 1960. He served as chairman of the University Labour Club from 1961 from 1962 and president of the Glasgow University Union. Dewar was an Honorary Secretary of the Students' Representative Council. In 1962, he campaigned for Albert Luthuli, the banned African National Congress leader, as University Rector. In his maiden speech to the House of Commons on 4 May 1966, Dewar spoke against a proposed increase on potato tax. His speech became his first political success: as the tax was repealed the following year. Dewar was made a member of the public accounts committee and in October 1967, he was appointed a Parliamentary Private Secretary to the President of the Board of Trade, Anthony Crosland. Dewar remained in that position at the Department of Education until 1969, in which year he opposed a visit to Aberdeen by the Springbok rugby team and staged a silent vigil near the team's ground. In April 1968, he was proposed for a Minister of State position by Roy Jenkins, but was not appointed. Dewar lost his constituency seat to the Conservative candidate Iain Sproat at the 1970 general election by over 1,000 votes. ==Out of parliament== Dewar spent much of the 1970s looking for another parliamentary seat. He hosted a Friday evening talk show on Radio Clyde, and in June 1971 was beaten by Dennis Canavan when he applied for the seat of West Stirlingshire. He worked as a solicitor for much of that decade and became a reporter on children's panels and was involved with the Lanarkshire local authority. Dewar became a partner in Ross Harper Murphy, in 1975. ==Return to parliament (1979–1999)== ===1978 Glasgow Garscadden by-election=== Donald Dewar was selected for the seat of Glasgow Garscadden by a majority of three, after Dewar's friend in the Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers, MP Willie Small, died unexpectedly. He was returned to parliament at a by-election on 13 April 1978, a crucial victory which was seen as halting the rise of the Scottish National Party. ===1979 devolution referendum=== In Scotland's first referendum on devolution, held in March 1979, he campaigned for a "Yes" vote alongside the Conservative Alick Buchanan-Smith and the Liberal Russell Johnston. Though they won a narrow majority, it fell short of the 40% required, contributing to the downfall of the Callaghan Government, in May 1979. ===Front bench opposition=== Dewar gained a parliamentary platform as chairman of the Scottish Affairs Select Committee. After a year honing his inquisitorial skills, he joined the front bench in November 1980 as a Scottish affairs spokesman when Michael Foot became party leader. In 1981, as the Labour Party divided itself further due to internal disagreement, Dewar was almost deselected in his constituency by hard left activists, but he successfully defended himself against this threat. He rose quickly through the ranks, becoming Shadow Scottish Secretary in November 1983. On 21 December 1988, Dewar was in Lockerbie after the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, as the member of the Shadow Cabinet in charge of Scottish affairs. In 1992, John Smith made him Shadow Social security Secretary and three years later, Dewar was made a Chief Whip for the Labour Party by Tony Blair. ==Secretary of State for Scotland (1997–1999) == At the 1997 general election, he became MP for Glasgow Anniesland, which was mostly the same constituency with minor boundary changes. Labour won this election by a landslide, and Dewar was given the post of Secretary of State for Scotland. He was able to start the devolution process he dreamt of years earlier, and worked on creating the Scotland Act, popularly referred to as "Smith's unfinished business". When ratified, this was to give Scotland its first Parliament for nearly 300 years. In January 1998, he confirmed that he would stand for a seat in the Scottish Parliament. The first elections to the Scottish Parliament were held on 6 May 1999, with Dewar leading the Scottish Labour Party against their main opponents, the Scottish National Party led by Alex Salmond. He was elected as the Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Glasgow Anniesland, having the unusual distinction of being both an MP and MSP for the same constituency. ==First Minister of Scotland (1999–2000)== ===Election=== On 13 May 1999, Dewar was elected by the Scottish Parliament for the nominee for First Minister of Scotland, after receiving 71 votes by MSPs. On 17 May, he received the Royal Warrant of Appointment by Her Majesty the Queen at Holyroodhouse and was officially sworn in at the Court of Session. === Entering government === Although Scottish Labour won more seats than any other party, they did not have a majority in Parliament to allow them to form an Executive without the help of a smaller party. A deal was agreed with the Scottish Liberal Democrats to form a coalition, with Dewar agreeing to their demand for the abolition of up front tuition fees for university students. On 13 May 1999, Dewar was nominated as first minister, and was officially appointed by the Queen on 17 May at a ceremony in the Palace of Holyroodhouse. He later travelled to the Court of Session to be sworn in by the lord president and receive the Great Seal of Scotland. Dewar made his initial appointments to the first Scottish cabinet in over 300 years in May 1999. Before the formal announcement of his cabinet appointments, Dewar said that he was "confident" that he had "chosen a strong team who will serve Scotland well". Dewar decided to re–organise most of the former portfolios of the preceding Scottish Office, the department of the UK Government responsible for Scotland prior to the establishment of the Scottish Executive and Scottish Parliament. The only exception to this was the creation of a new ministerial post for justice and the introduction of new ministerial posts for children and education, social inclusion, local government and housing, a minister to be responsible for rural affairs and the first Scottish finance minister who would be directly responsible for the budget of the Scottish Parliament. Some of the key appointments to Dewar's cabinet included Jim Wallace as the deputy first minister and Minister for Justice, Henry McLeish was appointed as the Minister for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning and Sam Galbraith who was appointed as the Minister for Health. === Legislation proposals === Ahead of forming the coalition with the Scottish Liberal Democrats, Dewar was urged not to succumb to pressure to scrap tuition fees in Scotland, mostly by the then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown and education secretary David Blunkett of the UK Government. The Scottish Liberal Democrats claimed that any agreement to form a coalition administration with the Scottish Labour Party would require a commitment for tuition fees to be scrapped, and that the party would "not compromise" on the issue. On 16 June, Dewar set out the legislative programme for the Executive which included: an Education bill to improve standards in Scottish schools; land reform to give right of access to the countryside, a bill to abolish the feudal system of land tenure; and a bill to establish national parks in Scotland. On 23 March 2000, Dewar presided over the launch of a consultation paper by his Minister for Justice, Jim Wallace, on stalking and harassment in Scotland. The Scottish Executive intended for the consultation paper to be used as an exercise to consult with the public to determine whether existing Scots law was sufficient to protect victims of stalking and harassment or whether to determine that new laws should be introduced. Wallace claimed that the "Scottish Executive was well aware of the devastating consequences stalking can have". === Adult literacy rates === In May 2000, a report indicated that 400,000 Scots were unable to source employment as a result of poor adult literacy rates, with the estimated total being roughly one million adults deemed as "functionally illiterate". In response, Henry McLeish, the Minister for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning in the Dewar government confirmed that "efforts would be made to gather exact statistics to tackle the issue". Dewar and the government were criticised due to there being a considerable lack of opportunities and programmes available to provide basic adult education similar to programmes that had already been established in England and in Wales. === Social justice and poverty === During his tenure as first minister, Dewar claiming that tackling poverty was the main agenda for the Scottish Executive. To reduce the level of poverty in Scotland, Dewar vowed that Scottish Executive policy would largely follow the policy agenda as set by the UK Government, claiming that the "exchange of ideas with Westminster is vital" but claimed that "we must never be afraid to take a different path when that is in Scotland's interest". Dewar supported an increase in spending available from the UK Government to be used by the Scottish Executive and had indicated that additional funds could be used to progress the executive's work on tackling poverty. Under Dewar, the Scottish Executive also spearheaded policy relating to social justice, including deprivation and disadvantage. Dewar stated that the executive was committed to tackling the core root of the issues to be "sure that all our children have the best start in life" whilst also advocating the role education and employment plays in social justice. Following his surgery, Dewar publicly thanked NHS Scotland for their "care and commitment" in which he claimed "did so much for me over this period". Upon resuming his post of first minister in August 2000, Dewar praised Wallace's tenure as acting first minister, acknowledging his "distinction, style and energy" and praised his "success at question time is only the most visible aspect of a job well done". Additionally, Dewar issued a public message of thanks to both the Scottish Parliament and cabinet colleagues for messages following his surgery. Upon resuming his government duties, Dewar was said to be "in fine form" with Dewar claiming he was "looking forward to working with colleagues to drive forward the Executive's agenda". === Lobbygate scandal === One of the first scandals to hit the new Scottish Parliament occurred when allegations that the lobbying arm of public relations company Beattie Media had privileged access to ministers were published, prompting Dewar to ask the standards committee to investigate the reports. The minister for finance, Jack McConnell, was called to appear before the standards committee during the investigation although he was later cleared of any wrongdoing and the committee declared there was no evidence he had been influenced from lobbying by Beattie Media. Dewar also threatened to sack any minister or aide who briefed the media against another member of the Scottish Executive, following public rows between Jack McConnell and Health Minister Susan Deacon over the budget allocated to health . === 2000 SQA examinations controversy === The introduction in Scotland of the reformed examinations system in 2000 was criticised in the press and by the Government after a series of administrative and computer errors led to several thousand incorrect Higher and Intermediate certificates being sent out by post. In a statement to the Scottish Parliament, Dewar stated he "greatly regrets" the errors made by the SQA but assured the parliament that he was aware that "many people are working hard to put matters right". Dewar announced that independent consultants had been drafted in by the Scottish Executive to investigate the issue. The crisis took several months to resolve, and several management figures including the Chief Executive, Ron Tuck, resigned or lost their jobs as a result. On 15 August 2000, it was announced that several senior officials with the Scottish Qualification Authority (SQA) would be facing disciplinary action as a result of the error. BBC News suggested that Chief Executive Ron Tuck and the Minister for Education Sam Galbraith were "kept in the dark" about the problems. It had been announced that concerns were raised months prior to the error being made that exam results would not be ready when expected but assurances continued to be provided that results would be issued on time and when expected. Bill Morton became the new Chief Executive of the SQA, the organisations third in only five days, and upon his appointment said that the reassessing of exam results was his priority and that of the SQA. ===International relations and visits=== ==Personal life== Dewar was an atheist who while "sceptical of religion" His political style in relation to religion was characterised as one of "quiet, non-interfering, practical secularism"; On 20 July 1964, Dewar married Alison Mary McNair, with whom he had two children: a daughter, Marion, and a son, Ian. In 1972, McNair separated from Dewar and entered a relationship with the then Derry Irvine, a prominent Scottish barrister in London. Dewar and his wife divorced in 1973, and he never remarried. Dewar and Lord Irvine of Lairg never reconciled, even though they later served in the same Cabinet from May 1997 until 1999. In September 2009, Dennis Canavan said Dewar reacted callously when Canavan's son was diagnosed with skin cancer in 1989. The disease eventually killed him. Canavan said Dewar remarked, "Oh no! That's all we need. He was mad enough before but I shudder to think what he'll be like now." Dewar amassed a personal fortune in excess of £2,000,000 including public utility shares, antiques and artwork with a value of over £400,000.< ==Death and funeral== In early 2000, Dewar was admitted to the Glasgow Royal Infirmary after tests at Stobhill Hospital highlighted "minor irregularity" in his heart. In May 2000, tests revealed he had a faulty aortic valve and he underwent a four-hour heart operation to repair a leaking heart valve. His personal spokesperson, David Whitton, stated "he is as concerned about his health as anyone else would be". Although Dewar was not going under surgery, considerations over whether to cancel foreign trips to Japan were under close watch. Dewar was forced to take a three-month break and Deputy First Minister Jim Wallace took over as acting first minister. After returning to office, Dewar was described as being "visibly tired" and fears for his health at this stage were officially dismissed following a First Minister's Question Time. Dewar dealt with the 2000 exam results controversy and the lorry drivers' strike, and attended the Labour Party conference in Brighton, but on 29 September 2000 he told the historian Tom Devine in Dublin that if he did not feel any better, he would have to reappraise the situation in a few months' time. On 10 October 2000, Dewar sustained a seemingly harmless fall outside his official residence at Bute House following a meeting of the Scottish Cabinet. He seemed fine at first, but later that day suffered a massive brain haemorrhage which was possibly triggered by the anticoagulant medication he was taking following his heart surgery. At 7pm, five hours after his fall, Dewar was admitted to the Western General Hospital in Edinburgh after his condition rapidly deteriorated. By 9pm, he was put on a life-support machine in the hospital's intensive care unit. Dewar's condition worsened and he failed to regain consciousness. On 11 October at 12:18pm, after his children gave permission for his life support to be switched off, Dewar was officially pronounced dead, aged 63. === Funeral === Dewar's funeral service was held at Glasgow Cathedral, he was cremated on 18 October 2000 and his ashes were scattered at Lochgilphead in Argyll. === Guests === ==== Royal family ==== The Duke of Rothesay ==== Heads of government ==== Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and Cherie Blair Bertie Ahern, Taoiseach (Irish Prime Minister) "Although he has become something of a political legend, Donald would have abhorred any attempt to turn him into some kind of secular saint. He would have been horrified at a Diana-style out-pouring of synthetic grief at his untimely death." — Iain Macwhirter, Sunday Herald, 15 October 2000. Dewar was succeeded by Henry McLeish as First Minister. == Legacy == Dewar's commitment to re-establishing the Scottish Parliament and his tireless work on the Scotland Act 1998 has led to his epithet the "Father of the Nation" and the "Father of Devolution". His advocacy for Scottish devolution began in the 1960s, at a time when devolution was fairly unpopular among Labour politicians. However, he persevered to gain support from all parties. Although Dewar did not associate with Scottish nationalism or support attempts for independence, he was a "great unionist" and saw the new Parliament as a "journey not a destination", which left many Labour supporters questioning devolution. His leadership prioritised semi-proportional representation for Scottish parliamentary elections. At the time, many thought this, and devolution, would "end the Scottish National Party's success". However, in the late-2000s Labour's popularity plummeted in Scotland while the SNP's popularity grew rapidly.\|212x212px]]Dewar received nicknames such as "Donald Dour" for his stiff, matter-of-fact tone and "The Gannet" due to his large appetite. In May 2002, then Prime Minister Tony Blair unveiled a statue of Dewar at the top of Glasgow's Buchanan Street. In keeping with his famously unkempt appearance, it showed Dewar wearing a slightly crumpled jacket. The statue was taken down in October 2005 to be cleaned, and was re-erected on a high plinth in December to protect it from vandalism. On the base of the statue was inscribed the opening words of the Scotland Act: "There Shall Be A Scottish Parliament", a phrase to which Dewar himself famously said, "I like that!" Dewar called the Old Royal High School on Calton Hill in Edinburgh a "nationalist shibboleth", mainly because it had been the proposed site of the Scottish Assembly in the 1979 referendum. Dewar's opposition to the Calton Hill site partly contributed to the selection of the Holyrood site, which proved expensive. The First ScotRail Class 334 train 334001 was named Donald Dewar in his memory. The "Dewar Arts Award" was created by the Scottish Executive in 2002 dedicated to his memory. This award supports talented young Scottish artists.	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Salmond", "Lord Advocate", "Priscilla Tweedsmuir", "First Minister of Scotland", "Michael Forsyth, Baron Forsyth of Drumlean", "Glasgow Garscadden", "Home Secretary", "Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers", "Glasgow Royal Infirmary", "David Steel", "1997 United Kingdom general election", "Old Royal High School", "John Swinney", "Downing Street Press Secretary", "Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland", "Shadow cabinet", "Lord Chancellor", "Parliamentary Private Secretary", "Colin Boyd, Baron Boyd of Duncansby", "Neil Kinnock", "First Minister's Questions (Scottish Parliament)", "advocacy", "Lochgilphead", "2000 Glasgow Anniesland by-election", "Scottish devolution", "Cabinet of the United Kingdom", "African National Congress", "National parks of Scotland", "Great Seal of Scotland", "shibboleth", "Sarah Jane Brown", "Scottish Labour", "Tom Clarke (politician)", "Gordon Brown", "Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000", "James Douglas-Hamilton", "England", "Elections in Scotland", "Russell Johnston", "Scottish Parliament Building", "Kelvingrove, Glasgow", "Higher (Scottish)", "Glasgow University Dialectic Society", "Glasgow University Union", "Alastair Goodlad", "Deputy First Minister of Scotland", "intensive care unit", "Scottish nationalism", "Dublin", "Buchanan Street", "Senator of the College of Justice", "Edinburgh", "Secretary of State for Scotland", "Father of the Nation", "Scottish Liberal Democrats", "Scottish National Party", "Scottish Qualification Authority", "Brighton", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "barrister", "David Whitton", "Argyll", "Mosspark", "Pan Am Flight 103", "1966 United Kingdom general election", "Lord President of the Court of Session", "Master of Arts (Scotland)", "Brussels", "Anthony Crosland", "semi-proportional representation", "Henry McLeish", "Scottish Government Cabinet", "Single-sex education", "The Guardian", "Middle class", "Shadow Secretary of State for Social Security", "John Robertson (Glasgow MP)", "Wales", "Menzies Campbell", "2000 SQA examinations controversy", "William Small (Scottish politician)", "leader of the Labour Party in Scotland", "Leader of the Labour Party in Scotland", "brain hemorrhage", "Elizabeth II", "independent school", "Scotland Act 1998", "tuberculosis", "Albert Luthuli", "Rector of the University of Glasgow", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Welfare spending", "Minister for Communities and Housing", "Trades Union Congress", "Jack Straw", "Minister for Justice", "Scots law", "University of Glasgow", "Court of Session", "Chief executive officer", "Leader of the Labour Party (UK)", "2000 Glasgow Anniesland by-elections", "Opposition Chief Whip", "British Rail Class 334", "John Smith (Labour Party leader)", "Iain Sproat", "Second World War", "Holyroodhouse", "Jack McConnell", "Michael Meacher", "Derek Foster, Baron Foster of Bishop Auckland", "Labour Party (UK)", "Roy Jenkins", "The Glasgow Academy", "Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)", "anticoagulant", "Glasgow", "Leader of the Liberal Democrats", "Charles III", "Unionism in the United Kingdom", "independence", "Scottish Borders", "Bill Butler (politician)", "Hillhead", "Minister for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning", "skin cancer", "poverty", "Bruce Millan", "Minister of State", "Minister for Health", "Chancellor of the Exchequer", "David Trimble", "Wendy Alexander", "Leader of the Scottish Labour Party", "Alick Buchanan-Smith (politician)", "Glasgow Anniesland (Scottish Parliament constituency)", "Scottish cabinet" ]
8,835	Digimon	{{Infobox media franchise \| image = Digimon_Logo.svg \| caption = English version logo for Digimon \| title = Digimon \| creator = Bandai ==Conception and creation== The Digimon franchise began as a series of virtual pets created by WiZ and Bandai, intended as a masculine counterpart to the more female-oriented Tamagotchi pets. It was released in June 1997 short for Digital Monster. This device shows to players a virtual pet composed entirely of data and designed to play and fight. In February 1998, the DigiMon fighting game, compatible with Windows 95 and developed by Rapture Technologies, Inc., was announced. The one-shot manga C'mon Digimon, designed by Tenya Yabuno, was published in the Japanese magazine V-Jump by Shueisha in 1997. A second generation of virtual pets was marketed six months after the launch of the first, followed by a third in 1998. Each player starts with a baby-level digital creature that has a limited number of attacks and transformations and to make the creature stronger by training and nourishing the creature; The first Digimon were created by Japanese designer Kenji Watanabe, influenced by American comics, which were beginning to gain popularity in Japan, and as such began to make his characters look stronger and "cool." Other types of Digimon, which until the year 2000 totalled 279, came from extensive discussions and collaborations between the Bandai company members. The original Digital Monster model that was released in 1997 sold units worldwide, including 13 million units in Japan and 1 million overseas, up until March 2004. By 2005, more than Digital Monster units had been sold worldwide. ==Premise== Several media in the franchise are contained within their own continuity; however, they all share a similar setting and premise. For instance, most Digimon stories begin with a human child, who comes into contact with a Digimon. This generally occurs either through an accidental entrance into the so-called Digital World or an encounter with a Digimon who has come into the human world. The child or children then often find themselves equipped with a "digivice", which is a device modelled after the series' virtual pets; this device enables them to empower their partner Digimon. While some Digimon act like wild beasts, there are many who form small societies and follow governing bodies. Digimon can change through evolution (or "digivolution" in most English-language dubs), where they absorb additional data that allows them to change forms. This process is normally linear, but there are other methods, depending upon the media within the franchise. For example, "Jogress" (a portmanteau of "joint progress"; "DNA Digivolution" in most English-language dubs) is when two or more Digimon combine into a single being. Though evolution can occur naturally, Digimon can progress into stronger forms more quickly, when they are partnered with a human. ==Media== ===Anime=== ====Television series==== Multiple Digimon anime series have been produced by Toei Animation since 1999. The first of these was Digimon Adventure; it began as a short film, but after its storyboard was finished, a request for the film to become a television series was made. The film debuted in theaters a day before the series debuted on TV. There are seven Digimon series were adapted into English for release in Western markets, with the first four treated as a single show under the collective title Digimon: Digital Monsters. The sixth series, Digimon Fusion, was only partially dubbed; its third season was never dub into English. ====Films==== Several Digimon featurette films were released in Japan, with some of them seasonal tie-ins for their respective television series. Footage from the first three films was used for the American-produced Digimon: The Movie. ====OVA==== ====Distribution and localization==== In the United States, the first three series that made up Digimon: Digital Monsters first aired on Fox Kids from August 14, 1999 to June 8, 2002. The localized series was produced by Saban Entertainment, which would be acquired by The Walt Disney Company during the show's Fox Kids run. Some scenes from the original shows were modified or omitted in order to comply with Fox's standards and practices. The show also featured more jokes and added dialogue, along with a completely different musical score. As a cross-promotional stunt, 2001 and 2002 saw Digi-Bowl specials co-produced with Fox Sports; NFL on Fox commentator Terry Bradshaw provided interstitial segments in-between episodes as if the episodes were actually a football game. Disney's acquisition of Saban would result in Digimon airing on Disney's TV networks and programming blocks. Reruns of the show would begin airing on the cable network ABC Family on March 4, 2002, while the fourth series, Digimon Frontier, premiered on UPN's Disney's One Too block. UPN aired the series until late August 2003, when they severed their ties to Disney. Saban would announce that they would be producing an English dub for Digimon Xros Wars, retitled Digimon Fusion, for broadcast on Nickelodeon in the United States starting September 7, 2013. Saban Capital Group would later sell most of Saban Brands' entertainment properties to Hasbro in 2018 and shutter the division in July of that year. The Digimon Adventure tri. series would be distributed in North America by Eleven Arts. The English dub would utilize localized names from Saban's original dub, reunite several voice actors from the original cast, and feature a remixed version of the English opening theme, while retaining the original Japanese score. Shout! Factory would acquire the broadcast and home media distribution rights for the films. ====International==== In Canada, the English versions of Digimon were broadcast on YTV, with the exception of Data Squad, which aired in Family Channel's Jetix block. YTV would eventually acquire Digimon Fusion, but only the first 26 episodes were shown. In the United Kingdom, Digimon first aired on Fox Kids. ITV's children's slot CITV would broadcast Adventure, Adventure 02 and several episodes of Tamers during after school hours from 2001–2002. The rest of Tamers aired on Fox Kids from 2002–03. Digimon Frontier was originally announced to be broadcast on Jetix, but the series was later dropped. The series eventually saw a release on October 29, 2018. In 2011, Digimon Data Squad aired on Kix!. According to Fox Kids' (2000–03) and Kix's (2010–) BARB Television ratings, Adventure, Adventure 02 & Tamers have been the most popular series'/seasons in the United Kingdom and was consistently in the weekly top 10 broadcasts for both channels for new episodes. Broadcast rights and merchandising sub-licensing rights for Digimon Fusion in the UK have been acquired by ITV Studios Global Entertainment. Digimon Fusion had aired since Spring 2014 on digital terrestrial channel, CITV. In the Philippines, Digimon was first aired on ABS-CBN in Filipino English language from June 2, 2000 to October 21, 2001. And later, it was shift to Filipino in April 6, 2002. ===Manga=== Digimon first appeared in narrative form in the one-shot manga C'mon Digimon, released in the summer of 1997. C'mon Digimon spawned the popular Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 manga, written by Hiroshi Izawa, which began serialization on November 21, 1998. The following are the known Digimon manga: ====Digimon Next==== Written by Tatsuya Hamazaki and illustrated by Takeshi Okano, was serialized in Shueisha's magazine V Jump from 2005 to 2008. Shueisha collected its chapters in four tankōbon volumes, released from July 4, 2006, to February 4, 2008. The story follow Tsurugi Tatsuno and his digimon partner, Greymon (later Agumon). Tsurugi makes contact with the Digital World through his virtual pet device called Digimon Mini and a "Battle Terminal", a virtual reality interface. Digimon can use the technology to materialize in the human world as well. ====Digimon Dreamers==== In 2021, a manga called Digimon Dreamers was announced. ====Yuen Wong Yu manhua==== A Chinese manhua was written and drawn by (余遠鍠 Yu Yuen-wong), who based its storyline on the television series. This adaptation covers Digimon Adventure in five volumes, Digimon Adventure 02 in two, Digimon Tamers in four, and Digimon Frontier in three. The original stories are heavily abridged, though on rare occasions events play out differently from the anime. The Chinese-language version was published by Rightman Publishing Ltd. in Hong Kong. Yu also wrote D-Cyber. Two English versions were also released. The first one was published by Chuang Yi in Singapore. The second one, which was adapted by Lianne Sentar, was released by Tokyopop in North America.The three volumes for Digimon Frontier have been released by Chuang Yi in English. These have not been released by TOKYOPOP in North America or Europe. However, the Chuang Yi releases of Digimon Frontier were distributed by Madman Entertainment in Australia. ====Dark Horse==== Dark Horse Comics published American-style Digimon comic books, adapting the first thirteen episodes of the English dub of Digimon Adventure in 2001. The story was written by Daniel Horn and Ryan Hill, and illustrated by Daniel Horn and Cara L. Niece. ====Panini==== The Italian publishing company Panini published Digimon titles in several ways in different countries. Germany had their own adaptations of episodes, the UK reprinted the Dark Horse titles and translated some of the German adaptations of Adventure 02 episodes. Eventually the UK comics had their own original stories, which appeared in both the UK's Digimon Magazine and the UK Fox Kids companion magazine Wickid. These original stories roughly followed the continuity of Adventure 02. When the comic switched to the Tamers series the storylines adhered to continuity more strictly; sometimes it would expand on subject matter not covered by the original Japanese anime (such as Mitsuo Yamaki's past) or the English adaptations of the television shows and movies (such as Ryo's story or the movies that remained undubbed until 2005). In a money saving venture, the original stories were later removed from Digimon Magazine, which returned to printing translated German adaptations of Tamers episodes. Eventually, both magazines were cancelled. ===Video games=== The Digimon series has inspired various video games, including the Digimon World and Digimon Story sub-series of role-playing games. Other genres have included life simulation, adventure, video card game, strategy, and racing games. By March 2001, Bandai had sold approximately video games worldwide, including 400,000 in Japan. In February 2010, a website for the MMORPG Digimon Battle Online was launched. On September 22, 2011, online game publisher Joymax announced the release of an MMORPG game called Digimon Masters, which was developed by the Korean publisher DIGITALIC. In June 2021 it was announced that they were developing a new MMORPG titled Digimon Super Rumble. In 2011, a new entry in the Digimon World series was announced after a seven-year hiatus, titled Digimon World Re:Digitize. The game would be released in Japan on July 19, 2012, followed by an enhanced version for Nintendo 3DS released in 2013. Digimon Story: Cyber Sleuth was first released in Japan in 2015. It would be the first game in the Digimon Story series to be released in North America under its original title; Digimon World DS and Digimon World Dawn and Dusk were originally marketed as entries in the Digimon World series, with the latter game being the last to be released in the West for nine years until Cyber Sleuth's release on February 2, 2016. There have also been several mobile games. Digimon Links was active from March 2016 to July 2019, and was similar to the Story games in that the player raised digimon in a farm and fought enemies using a team of three of their Digimon. It was succeeded by Digimon ReArise, which launched June 2018 in Japan and October 2019 in America. ===Web novel=== In February 2023, Bandai announced a web novel titled to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the franchise. The novel will serialize on the Digimon Web website for about a year, starting on April 3, simultaneously in English, Chinese, and Japanese. ===Webcomic=== In December 2023, Bandai announced a webcomic titled Digimon Liberator for Spring 2024. ===Card game=== The Digimon Collectible Card Game is a card game based on Digimon, first introduced in Japan in 1997 and published by Bandai. The third season (Digimon Tamers) utilized this aspect of the franchise by making the card game an integral part of the season. Versions of the card game are also included in some of the Digimon video games including Digital Card Battle and Digimon World 3. During the fourth anime (Digimon Frontier), Bandai created the D-Tector Card Game to tie in to their own D-Tector virtual pet toys. This was a West-only card game. From February 25, 2011 to September 28, 2012, Digimon Jintrix was an online card game supported by physical card releases. It was followed up by the mobile game Digimon Crusader, which lasted from December 2012 to December 2017. In 2020 a new card game was launched to coincide with Digimon Adventure: using a new system, this was released in the West in January 2021.	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8,837	David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty	Admiral of the Fleet David Richard Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty, (17 January 1871 – 12 March 1936) was a Royal Navy officer. After serving in the Mahdist War and then the response to the Boxer Rebellion, he commanded the Battle Cruiser Fleet at the Battle of Jutland in 1916, a tactically indecisive engagement after which his aggressive approach was contrasted with the caution of his commander Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. He is remembered for his comment at Jutland that "There seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today", after two of them exploded. Later in the war he succeeded Jellicoe as Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet, in which capacity he received the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet at the end of the war. He then followed Jellicoe's path a second time, serving as First Sea Lord—a position that Beatty held longer (7 years 9 months) than any other First Sea Lord. While First Sea Lord, he was involved in negotiating the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 in which it was agreed that the United States, Britain and Japan should set their navies in a ratio of 5:5:3, with France and Italy maintaining smaller ratio fleets of 1.75 each. ==Family and childhood== Beatty was born into an Anglo-Irish family at Howbeck Lodge in the parish of Stapeley, near Nantwich, Cheshire, on 17 January 1871. He was the second son of five children born to Captain David Longfield Beatty and Katherine (or Katrine) Edith Beatty (née Sadleir), both from Ireland: David Longfield had been an officer in the Fourth Hussars where he formed a relationship with Katrine, the wife of another officer. After the affair between David Longfield and Katrine became known, David Longfield's father (Beatty's grandfather), David Vandeleur Beatty (1815–1881), arranged for his son to be posted to India in the hope that the scandalous relationship might end. David Longfield resigned from the regiment on 21 November 1865, with the honorary rank of Captain. He took up residence with Katrine in Cheshire and in 1869 sold his commission. David Longfield was unable to marry Katrine until Katrine had obtained a divorce on 21 February 1871, after the birth of their first two sons. Beatty's birth certificate recorded his mother's surname as Beatty, and his parents' eventual marriage at St Michael's Church in Liverpool was kept secret. Beatty's early education concentrated on horsemanship, hunting and learning to be a gentleman. Beatty had a close relationship with his elder brother Charles, who became his ally against their oppressive and overbearing father. They remained close throughout life, so much so that the only time Beatty felt despair was at his brother's death. Beatty later wrote to his wife about Charles, we lived together, played together, rode together, fought together. His brothers would later join the British Army, but early on young David developed an interest in ships and the sea and expressed a desire to join the Royal Navy. In 1881 Beatty's grandfather died and David Longfield succeeded to the 18th century mansion, 'Borodale', outside Enniscorthy, in County Wexford. After retiring from the army David Longfield established a business training horses first in Cheshire and then at 'The Mount', near Rugby, Warwickshire. On inheriting and following the death of his wife at 'The Mount', David Longfield returned to Ireland abandoning the training business. Beatty was educated at Kilkenny College and in 1882 entered Burney's Naval Academy at Gosport, which was a 'crammer' for boys wishing to take the entrance examinations for the Royal Navy. ==Early career== Beatty joined the Royal Navy as a cadet passing into the training ship HMS Britannia tenth out of ninety-nine candidates in January 1884. During his two years at Britannia, moored at Dartmouth, he was beaten three times for various infractions. He passed out of Britannia eighteenth out of the thirty-three remaining cadets at the end of 1885. Beatty was given orders to join the China Station in January 1886, but the posting did not appeal to his mother, who wrote to Lord Charles Beresford, then a senior naval officer, member of parliament and personal friend, to use his influence to obtain something better. Beatty was, in February 1886, instead appointed to , flagship of Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, Queen Victoria's second son, who was Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Squadron. This proved an excellent social opening for Beatty, who established a longstanding relationship with the Duke's eldest daughter, Marie, and with other members of the court. Alexandra was a three-masted sailing ship with auxiliary steam power, nonetheless, remaining flagship in a navy which was steadily transitioning from sail to steam. Life in the Mediterranean fleet was considerably easier than cadet life, with visits to friendly ports all around the Mediterranean, but Beatty was concerned to work diligently towards naval examinations, which would determine seniority and future promotion prospects. Beatty was promoted to midshipman on 15 May 1886 Beatty left HMS Alexandra in March 1889 and joined the cruiser in July 1889 for manoeuvres before joining the sailing corvette in September 1889, in which he was promoted to sub-lieutenant on 14 May 1890. Next he attended courses at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich during which he was somewhat distracted from his naval career by the delights of London. Beatty scored a first-class examination pass in Torpedoes, but only seconds in Seamanship, Gunnery and Pilotage, and a third in Navigation. A biography states that "his cabin at Greenwich was full of photographs of actresses, some of which were signed in the most endearing terms". After attending the gunnery school, , he undertook a posting to a torpedo boat in July 1891 and then a tour in from 19 January 1892. Promoted to lieutenant on 25 August 1892, he rejoined HMS Ruby in August 1892 and then transferred to the battleship in September 1893 (which had only recently been involved in the fleet accident where she had rammed and sunk the battleship ). Beatty was again seconded to the Egyptian government for the next phase of the campaign. This was now at Lord Kitchener's specific request, for the Khartoum expedition. Beatty first commanded the gunboat El Teb but this was capsized attempting to ascend the Fourth Cataract. This battle marked the effective end of resistance to the expeditionary force, but the gunboats were called into service to transport troops to Fashoda, south along the White Nile, where a small force of French troops had made a difficult land crossing and staked a claim to the area. Despite the ensuing crisis, the French were persuaded to withdraw without incident. Kitchener commended Beatty for his efforts in the campaign and as a result Beatty was promoted to commander, ahead of 400 other lieutenants, ==Boxer Rebellion== Beatty was appointed executive officer of the small battleship , flagship of the China Station, on 20 April 1899. In the summer of 1900 the rebellion reached Peking, where the German legation was attacked and foreign nationals withdrew to the relative safety of the Legation Quarter. Government troops joined forces with the rebels and the railway to the Treaty Port of Tientsin was interrupted. Admiral Sir Edward Seymour, then the Commander-in-Chief of the China Station, sent reinforcements to Peking, but they were insufficient to defend the legation. An attempt was therefore made to send more troops from Tientsin, where British ships had been joined by French, German, Russian, American, Austrian, Italian and Japanese. The international naval brigade force of naval marines placed itself under the senior officer present, which was Seymour. After an urgent call for help from the legation, Seymour set out on 10 June 1900 with 2,000 troops to attempt to break through to Peking in the Seymour Expedition. The force got about halfway before abandoning the attempt because the railway line had been torn up. By now rebels had begun destroying the track behind the force, cutting it off from Tientsin. On 11 June 1900, Beatty and 150 men from HMS Barfleur landed as part of a force of 2,400 defending Tientsin from 15,000 Chinese troops plus Boxers. On 16 June 1900 the Taku forts were bombarded and captured to ensure ships could still reach the port. Fierce fighting broke out throughout the foreign areas and railway station, and Beatty was injured. Beatty returned to Britain, where he required an operation to restore proper use of his left arm. ==Marriage== Beatty had returned from leave after the Sudan campaign, but finding life in Ireland at the family home not to his taste, stayed instead with his brother at Newmarket, Suffolk. The location allowed him good hunting, and access to aristocratic houses where his recent heroic reputation from the campaign made him an honoured guest. Out hunting one day he chanced to meet Ethel Tree, daughter of Chicago department store founder Marshall Field. Beatty was immediately taken with her, for her good looks and her ability to hunt. The immediate difficulty with the match was that Ethel was married already to Arthur Tree, with a son, Ronald Tree. After the Boxer Campaign, the couple had at first exchanged letters, which Beatty signed 'Jack', as Ethel was still a married woman and discretion was advised. Ethel became involved with another man and the exchange of letters ceased but on Beatty's return she sent him a telegram and letter inviting him to resume their friendship. Beatty did not respond until after surgery on his arm in September 1900 when he wrote, "I landed from China with my heart full of rage, and swore I did not care if I ever saw you again, or if I were killed or not. And now I have arrived with the firm determination not to see you at all in my own mind... Unfortunately I shall go on loving you to the bitter end... To me always a Queen, if not always mine, Good-bye." Despite this estrangement, the couple again met foxhunting and resumed a discreet relationship. Marshall Field was at first unimpressed by the impecunious Beatty as a future son-in-law, but was persuaded by his heroic reputation, impressive record of promotion and future prospects. There was the possibility that Field might revoke the settlement he had made on his daughter at the time of her first marriage and the new couple would have no means of support. Beatty's father was also unhappy about the match, fearing a repeat of the difficulties he had faced with his own relationship with a married woman, but with the added risk of publicity because both Beatty and Ethel were famous and the risk that Beatty's illegitimacy might be exposed. Beatty went so far as to consult a fortune teller, Mrs. Roberts, who predicted a fine outcome to the match. Ethel wrote to Arthur, telling him that it was her firm intention never to live with him again as his wife, though not naming any particular person or reason. Arthur agreed to co-operate, and filed for divorce in America on the grounds of desertion, which was granted 9 May 1901. Beatty and Ethel married on 22 May 1901 at the registry office, St. George's, Hanover Square, London, with no family attending. Although Arthur Tree was himself from a wealthy American family, he now had to adjust to reduced circumstances without Ethel's support. He elected to remain in Britain and their son Ronald remained with him. Ronald and his mother were never reconciled from his perception that she had deserted his father, but he visited in later life and became friendly with Beatty. Ronald later became a member of parliament and, during the Second World War became a link between the British and United States governments, lending his country house, Ditchley Park near Oxford, to Winston Churchill for weekend visits when the official residences were considered unsafe. Beatty and Ethel set up home at Hanover Lodge in Regent's Park, London. The couple had two sons, David Field Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty (1905–1972) born at the Capua Palace in Malta, and the Hon. Peter Randolph Louis Beatty (1910–1949). His marriage to a very wealthy heiress allowed Beatty an independence that most other officers lacked. She is reputed to have commented after he was threatened with disciplinary action following the straining of his ship's engines, "What? Court-martial my David? I'll buy them a new ship." ==Advancement== In May 1902 Beatty was passed fit for sea duty and was appointed captain of the cruiser on 2 June, spending two months in exercises with the Channel Fleet under Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson before joining the Mediterranean Fleet. Beatty took command of the cruiser in the Mediterranean Fleet in November 1903 and then commanded the cruiser in the Mediterranean Fleet from October 1904. he became captain of the battleship in the Atlantic Fleet in December 1908. Churchill had met Beatty when Beatty was commander of a gunboat on the Nile supporting the army at the Battle of Omdurman, in which Churchill took part as a cavalry officer. A "probably apocryphal" story relates that as Beatty walked into Churchill's office at the Admiralty, Churchill looked him over and said, "You seem very young to be an Admiral." Unfazed, Beatty replied, "And you seem very young to be First Lord." Churchill – who was himself only thirty-eight years old in 1912 – took to him immediately and he was appointed Naval Secretary. Beatty became Rear-Admiral Commanding the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron on 1 March 1913. Beatty was late taking up his new post, choosing not to cut short a holiday in Monte Carlo. On his eventual arrival, he set about drafting standing orders regarding how the squadron was to operate. He noted, "Captains...to be successful must possess, in a marked degree, initiative, resource, determination, and no fear of accepting responsibility". He went on "...as a rule instructions will be of a very general character so as to avoid interfering with the judgement and initiative of captains...The admiral will rely on captains to use all the information at their disposal to grasp the situation quickly and anticipate his wishes, using their own discretion as to how to act in unforeseen circumstances..." The approach outlined by Beatty contradicted the views of many within the navy, who felt that ships should always be closely controlled by their commanding admiral, and harked back to reforms attempted by Admiral George Tryon. It is argued that Tryon had attempted to introduce greater independence and initiative amongst his captains, which he believed would be essential in the confusion of a real war situation, but had ironically been killed in an accident caused by captains rigorously obeying incorrect but precise orders issued by Tryon himself. Beatty chose Lieutenant Ralph Seymour as his flag lieutenant, despite Seymour being unknown to him. Seymour had aristocratic connections, which may have appealed to Beatty since he sought connections in society, but it was also the case that Seymour's sister was a longstanding close friend of Churchill's wife. Appointments by influence were common in the navy at this time, but the significance of Beatty's choice lay in Seymour's relative inexperience as a signals officer, which later resulted in difficulties in battle. ==First World War== On the eve of the First World War in 1914, Beatty was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath and promoted to acting vice-admiral in February 1915 and given command of the Battle Cruiser Fleet a month later. He was confirmed in the rank of vice-admiral on 9 August 1915. He led the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron at the actions at Heligoland Bight (1914), Dogger Bank (1915) and Jutland (1916). Jutland proved to be decisive in Beatty's career, despite the loss of two of his battlecruisers. Beatty is reported to have remarked (to his Flag Captain, Ernle Chatfield, later First Sea Lord in the early 1930s), "there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today," after two of them had exploded within half an hour during the battle. Under Beatty's command the Grand Fleet maintained its dominance of the North Sea until the end of the War. ==First Sea Lord== Beatty was promoted to substantive full admiral on 1 January 1919 and to Admiral of the Fleet on 1 May 1919. He was created 1st Earl Beatty, Viscount Borodale and Baron Beatty of the North Sea and Brooksby on 18 October 1919. He became First Sea Lord on 1 November 1919. During the First Labour Government of 1924, with Japan increasingly hostile to the UK, Beatty lobbied the Clynes Committee for construction of the Singapore Naval Base to continue. Beatty wrote out, but did not send, a threat of resignation. The government were trying to cut back on the numbers of cruisers constructed; the other Sea Lords attributed the building of the Kent class to Beatty's lobbying, but government desire to alleviate shipyard unemployment was probably a more important factor. Despite further rumours that he would resign, Beatty remained in office when the Conservatives took power in the autumn of 1924. Supported by the First Lord of the Admiralty William Bridgeman, he clashed with the new Chancellor of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, once again over the number of cruisers required by the Royal Navy. At this stage of his career Churchill was opposed to what he saw as excessive defence spending. This may seem odd in light of his previous and subsequent reputation, but in the 1920s no major war seemed to be on the horizon. Beatty also at this time pressed hard for the return of responsibility for naval aviation from the newly formed Royal Air Force to the Royal Navy. By the time of his retirement from the Royal Navy in July 1927 a great deal of time was being spent preparing for the Coolidge Conference in Geneva, although Beatty did not himself attend as he had to remain in London to supervise the deployment of naval and marine forces against nationalist unrest in China and Egypt. On his last day in office (30 July) he attended a Cabinet at which Bridgeman reported the breakdown of the Geneva Conference as the Americans refused to accept any gun smaller than 8-inch for their cruisers, and after leaving office he congratulated Bridgeman that the Americans had not been able to achieve "command of the sea at any cost". Beatty was appointed a member of the Privy Council on 25 July 1927. Stephen Roskill wrote that whilst Beatty and his disciple Chatfield deserve some praise for the Royal Navy's comparative readiness in 1939, his main achievement was to maintain the morale of the Navy at a time of serious defence cuts, and that without his strong leadership the Royal Navy might have suffered more events like the Invergordon Mutiny of 1931. ==Retirement and death== Beatty spent much of his life (when not at sea) in Leicestershire, and lived at Brooksby Hall and Dingley Hall. In July 1930 he denounced the London Naval Treaty in the House of Lords as "a great and deplorable blunder to which we are about to be committed by signing away the sea power by which the British Empire came into being". Beatty also claimed: "If any sane man erects an edifice, or has great possessions, he protects them by insurance. The Navy is the insurance company of the economic unity of the Empire. Under the Naval Treaty of London the Navy will be totally and entirely inadequate to provide that insurance". Beatty's old commander Admiral John Jellicoe died on 19 November 1935. Already suffering from heart failure, and sick with influenza, Beatty defied doctors' orders and left his bed to act as a pallbearer, saying, "What will the Navy say if I fail to attend Jellicoe's funeral?" He was so obviously ill that, as the funeral procession passed up Fleet Street, a bystander sent a glass of brandy out to him. He also insisted on attending the funeral of King George V in January 1936. These acts hastened his own death. Beatty died at around 1 am on 12 March 1936. At Beatty's funeral his coffin was draped in the Union Flag flown by his flagship in 1919. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Lang, said "In him something of the spirit of Nelson seemed to have come back". The Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, called in the House of Commons for a public memorial to Beatty to be erected, but no action was taken until after the Second World War, when busts of Beatty and Jellicoe were unveiled in Trafalgar Square on 21 October (Trafalgar Day) 1948. ==Assessment== The outcome of the Battle of Jutland was inconclusive, leading to controversy and a search for someone to blame, especially since the British lost more ships. Beatty was particularly unhappy with the official account of the battle and other historians took sides in support of him or Jellicoe. Beatty did not publish his analysis of the battle, while Jellicoe wrote two memoirs. A number of serious errors have been identified in Beatty's handling of the Battle Cruiser Fleet at the Battle of Jutland: He failed to engage the German battlecruisers (the I Scouting Group) with all his ships, thus throwing away a two-to-one numerical superiority and instead fighting six-to-five. Beatty was given command of the 5th Battle Squadron to replace a squadron of battlecruisers away for training. These were four of the most powerful ships in the world, but he positioned them so far away from his six battlecruisers that they were unable to take part in most of the engagement with Admiral Hipper's squadron of five battlecruisers. Beatty did not take advantage of the time available to him between sighting the enemy and the start of fighting to position his battlecruisers to most effectively attack the enemy. At the point the German ships opened fire with accurately determined ranges for their guns, Beatty's ships were still manoeuvring, some could not see the enemy because of their own smoke, and hardly any had the opportunity of a period of steady course as they approached to properly determine target range. As a result, the German ships had a significant advantage in early hits, with obvious benefit. During this time he also lost the potential advantage of the larger guns on his ships: they could have commenced firing at a longer range than the German ships. He did not ensure that signals sent to his ships were handled properly and received by the intended ships. Lost signals added to the confusion and lost opportunities during the battle. This issue had already arisen in previous battles, where the same signals officer, Ralph Seymour, had been involved, but no changes had been made. Although Beatty was supposed to act as a fast armoured scout and report to Jellicoe the exact position of the German ships he encountered, or to keep in contact with the German fleet while he retreated to the main British Grand Fleet, he failed to do so. This information was important to Jellicoe to know how best to position the main fleet to make the most of its eventual engagement with the German High Seas Fleet. Despite this, Jellicoe succeeded in positioning his ships to good advantage, relying on other closer cruisers for final knowledge of the German's position, but necessitating last-minute decisions. Additionally, the gunnery of Beatty's ships was generally poor compared to the rest of the fleet. This was partly a consequence of his ships being stationed at Rosyth, rather than Scapa Flow with the main fleet, since local facilities at Rosyth were limited, but this was a problem identified months before Jutland which Beatty had failed to correct. After the war a report of the battle was prepared by the Admiralty under First Sea Lord Rosslyn Wemyss. Before the report was published, Beatty was himself appointed First Sea Lord, and immediately requested amendments to the report. When the authors refused to comply, he ordered it to be destroyed and instead had prepared an alternative report, which proved highly critical of Jellicoe. Considerable argument broke out as a result, with significant numbers of servicemen disputing the published version, including Admiral Reginald Bacon, who wrote his own book about the battle, criticising the version sponsored by Beatty and highly critical of Beatty's own part in the battle. Besides encouraging the publication of books and articles designed to praise his role at the Battle of Jutland and denigrate Jellicoe's, after his retirement Beatty assisted with the preparation of a 5,200 line poem "The Epic of Jutland" by Shane Leslie. In 2022 U.S. Air Force Academy military historian Chuck Steele found Beatty's failures to improve communications between vessels before Jutland more glaring in light of his own personal awareness of how that had kept earlier victories at Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank from being as overwhelming as they could have been. Gordon Moore, Steele writes, was transferred to the Canary Islands after the latter engagement not for his failures in it but for complaining about Beatty's poor communications to Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty and a strong supporter of Beatty's. Steele also argues that Beatty should also have known how to effectively use his battle cruisers due to the role they had played in smashing the German East Asia Squadron at the Falkland Islands. He faults Beatty for having learned too much from his earlier experience leading troops on land, and Churchill and others for being too impressed with Beatty as the supposed second coming of Horatio Nelson to see that unlike Nelson Beatty did not appreciate the value of newer naval technology. ==Honours and awards== (ribbon bar, as it would look today) ===British=== Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO)-17 November 1896 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB)-31 May 1916 (KCB: 19 June 1914; Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)-25 June 1917 (KCVO: 17 June 1916 Member Fourth Class (present-day Lieutenant)(MVO): 28 April 1905) Member of the Order of Merit (OM)-3 June 1919 Earl Beatty, Viscount Borodale of Wexford in the County of Wexford, Baron Beatty of the North Sea and of Brooksby in the County of Leicester-18 October 1919 In June 1920, the Great Central Railway gave the name Earl Beatty to one of their newly built 4-6-0 express passenger locomotives, no. 1164 of class 9P (LNER class B3). It carried the name until withdrawal in September 1947. In 1925, he became the President of the Society for Nautical Research. ===Foreign=== Order of Majid, 4th Class (Nishan-i-Majidieh) of the Ottoman Empire-3 October 1898 Order of St George, Fourth Class of the Russian Empire-25 August 1916 Grand Officer of the Military Order of Savoy of the Kingdom of Italy-11 August 1917 Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun of the Empire of Japan-29 August 1917 Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur of France-23 May 1919 (Grand Officer-15 September 1916) Croix de Guerre of France-15 February 1919 Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania of the Kingdom of Romania-17 March 1919 Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer of the Kingdom of Greece-21 June 1919 Distinguished Service Medal (United States)-16 September 1919 Grand Cordon with Brilliants of the Order of the Precious Brilliant Golden Grain of the Republic of China – 22 January 1920 Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers of the Empire of Japan – 20 January 1922 ===Namesakes=== Admiral Beatty Avenue in Mount Roskill, Auckland, was named as a tribute to Beatty in the late 1920s. Beatty Secondary School (Singapore), was named after him in 1953. ===Arms=== ==Quotations==	[ "Trafalgar Day", "Channel Fleet", "Legion d'Honneur", "Canary Islands", "Calvin Coolidge", "Second Baldwin ministry", "Naval Secretary", "Dingley, Northamptonshire", "apocryphal", "St Paul's Cathedral", "Liverpool", "Marie of Edinburgh", "Sudan", "David Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty", "Stephen Roskill", "First World War", "Ottoman Empire", "Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener", "Rector of the University of Edinburgh", "Rugby, Warwickshire", "Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "Peter Beatty", "Leicestershire", "Russian Empire", "Gosport", "Burney's Academy", "George V of the United Kingdom", "Great Central Railway", "Army Council (1904)", "Captain (Royal Navy)", "Shane Leslie", "Nantwich", "sale of commissions", "Member of the Order of Merit", "Arthur Wilson (Royal Navy officer)", "Beijing", "Order of the Medjidieh", "Distinguished Service Order", "Stapeley", "GCR Class 9P", "Battle of Omdurman", "Freedom of the City of London", "Royal Naval College (Greenwich)", "Washington Naval Treaty", "Admiralty (United Kingdom)", "The Right Honourable", "Boxer Rebellion", "Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)", "Order of the Paulownia Flowers", "4-6-0", "Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)", "commander", "Kilkenny College", "County-class cruiser", "Franz von Hipper", "William Bridgeman, 1st Viscount Bridgeman", "Dartmouth, Devon", "London Naval Treaty", "Stanley Colville", "Seymour Expedition", "Khartoum", "Mount Roskill", "Navy Distinguished Service Medal", "Commander-in-Chief, China", "HMS Prince of Wales (1860)", "David Lloyd George", "Monte Carlo", "Cosmo Lang", "Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath", "cruiser", "Edward Hobart Seymour", "Earl Beatty", "Brooksby Hall", "Reginald Bacon", "John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe", "Beneficiary", "Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)", "Marshall Field", "Aide-de-Camp", "First MacDonald ministry", "British Army", "Winston Churchill", "East Asia Squadron", "George Tryon", "Ralph Seymour (naval officer)", "County Wexford", "4th Queen's Own Hussars", "Anglo-Irish people", "Invergordon Mutiny", "Geneva Naval Conference", "Order of the Star of Romania", "John Robert Clynes", "Order of Merit", "I Scouting Group", "Reaktion Books", "cadet", "rear-admiral", "Dongola", "Order of St George", "Tianjin", "Empress Dowager Cixi", "Leo Amery", "Mediterranean Fleet", "Battle of the Falkland Islands", "Order of the Precious Brilliant Golden Grain", "Arrogant-class cruiser", "Gordon Moore (Royal Navy officer)", "Royal Navy", "Oxford", "Ronald Tree (politician)", "Fashoda", "Sir Charles Madden, 1st Baronet", "midshipman", "Grand Fleet", "1st Battlecruiser Squadron", "sub-lieutenant", "Malta", "Order of the Bath", "Royal Marines", "Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order", "Fourth Sea Lord", "Capua Palace", "Atlantic Fleet (United Kingdom)", "Ernle Chatfield, 1st Baron Chatfield", "Ditchley", "Auckland", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Singapore Naval Base", "Newmarket, Suffolk", "Kingdom of Italy", "Baron Wester Wemyss", "naval artillery", "Queen Victoria", "Military Order of Savoy", "Alfred Winsloe", "Order of the Redeemer", "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson", "First Lord of the Admiralty", "Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener", "U.S. Air Force Academy", "Battle of Heligoland Bight (1914)", "Railway Correspondence and Travel Society", "Lord Charles Beresford", "Dudley de Chair", "influenza", "Cecilia Beaux", "Fashoda Crisis", "admiral", "5th Battle Squadron", "Second World War", "Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty", "Ethel Beatty", "Stanley Baldwin", "Kingdom of Greece", "Home Fleet", "Society for Nautical Research", "vice-admiral", "Governor General of Canada", "Ernest Troubridge", "Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale", "First Sea Lord", "Secretary of State for the Colonies", "Borodale", "Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)", "Bryan Godfrey-Faussett", "naval brigade", "Empire of Japan", "Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)", "Battle of Jutland", "Trafalgar Square", "Kingdom of Romania", "Enniscorthy", "Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig", "gun laying", "Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea", "Order of the Rising Sun", "China Station", "Royal Air Force", "Scapa Flow", "David Field Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty", "High Seas Fleet", "battlecruiser", "Rosslyn Wemyss, 1st Baron Wester Wemyss", "Mahdist War", "Battle Cruiser Fleet", "Edward VII" ]
8,838	Dictum of Kenilworth	The Dictum of Kenilworth (), issued on 31 October 1266, was a pronouncement designed to reconcile the rebels of the Second Barons' War with the royal government of England. After the baronial victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, Simon de Montfort took control of royal government, but at the Battle of Evesham the next year Montfort was killed, and King Henry III restored to power. A group of rebels held out in the stronghold of Kenilworth Castle, however, and their resistance proved difficult to crush. A siege of the castle was started, but through papal intervention King Henry later entered on a more conciliatory path. A commission was appointed to draw up an arrangement that would be acceptable to both sides. The resulting Dictum of Kenilworth offered the rebels the right to buy back forfeited estates, at prices depending on their level of involvement in the rebellion. After initial resistance, the terms were eventually accepted. By the summer of 1267, the country was pacified, and this spirit of reconciliation would last until the 1290s. The Dictum of Kenilworth was later incorporated into the Statute of Marlborough. ==Background== At the Battle of Lewes in 1264, the rebellious barons, led by Simon de Montfort, had defeated the royal army and taken King Henry III captive. For the next year, the reins of government were in Montfort's hands, but his support soon began to crumble. On 4 August 1265, Montfort faced an army led by Prince Edward (later King Edward I) and the powerful Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the royalist side, at the Battle of Evesham. The battle resulted in a complete royal victory; Montfort was killed, and King Henry III was restored to full power. Part of the rebellious forces held out, however, and their stronghold was the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle. In the summer of 1266, a siege of the castle was initiated, but the effort proved futile. There were rumours that Montfort's son Simon the Younger was planning an invasion of England from Normandy, and this was the hope that the rebels hung on to. It was in this situation that the papal legate Ottobuono Fieschi exerted his influence, to make the king pursue a more conciliatory policy. In August, the king summoned a parliament at Kenilworth, where the siege was ongoing. He commissioned a number of earls, barons and bishops to draft a treaty of reconciliation. ==The Dictum of Kenilworth== The commission was created by parliament appointing three bishops and three barons, who then selected one more bishop, two earls, and three more barons. This committee was given until All Saints Day (1 November) to come up with provisions for a settlement. The result, known as the Dictum of Kenilworth, was made public on 31 October 1266. The primary point of the Dictum was the re-establishment of royal authority. The Provisions of Oxford, that had been forced on the king were repudiated, and it was made clear that the appointment of ministers was entirely a royal prerogative. King Henry in turn reconfirmed Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest. At the same time, Henry was faced with the increasing veneration of the fallen Simon de Montfort, whom some were already starting to consider a martyr and a possible saint. The rebels had previously been completely disinherited, and their land taken into the king's hands. The Dictum instead extended a pardon, and restored land to their previous owners, contingent on payment of certain penalties that were proportional to the level of involvement in the rebellion. It was traditional to value land at ten times its annual yield, and most of the rebels were subsequently fined at half of this amount: five times the annual yield of their lands. Robert Ferrers, Earl of Derby, was singled out in particular for his central involvement in the rebellion, and for him the multiple was seven rather than five. The same was the case for Henry de Hastings, who was the commander of Kenilworth Castle. Those who had not taken part in the fighting themselves, but had incited others to rise up against the king, were fined at two years' value, while those who had been compelled to fight, or played only a minor part, had to pay one year's value of their land. The proceedings from the fines were awarded to royal supporters, some of whom had already been awarded parts of the rebels' land, and now had to give it back. ==Aftermath== Hostilities did not end with the publication of the Dictum. The garrison at Kenilworth refused to accept the terms given, and held out until 14 December, when deprivation forced them to surrender. In April 1267, the earl of Gloucesterwho had been central both to the royal victory at Evesham and to the drafting of the Dictumturned against the king. He occupied the city of London, and set himself up as the champion of the disinherited. After negotiations involving both Edward and Ottobuono, Gloucester relented, and by June a settlement was reached. Gloucester had forced a change to the conditions of the Dictum, whereby the disinherited were allowed to recover their lands before they had paid their fines rather than after; an arrangement that made repayment much easier. In the summer of that year, Prince Edward moved at the Isle of Ely, where the last of the rebels still held out, and forced them into submission under terms favourable to the rebels. In November 1267, parliament met at Marlborough in Wiltshire. Here an important provision was issued that would become known to history as the Statute of Marlborough. This statute incorporated the clauses of the Dictum of Kenilworth that dealt with the restoration of royal power, and reconciliation between the loyalists and the rebels. The Statute of Marlborough became a basis for royal government, and the relationship between the king and his subjects, and as such the Dictum lived on in English constitutional history. The spirit of peace and reconciliation established by the Dictum of Kenilworth lasted for the remainder of Henry III's reign and into the 1290s. When his father died in 1272, Edward felt in a safe enough position to wait until 1274 before returning home to claim the throne.	[ "royal prerogative", "Latin", "Edward I of England", "Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford", "Statute of Marlborough", "Kenilworth", "Charter of the Forest", "Kenilworth Castle", "John I de Balliol", "Alan la Zouche (died 1270)", "E. F. Jacob", "Battle of Evesham", "Walter Branscombe", "F. M. Powicke", "Warin Basingbourne", "Ninth Crusade", "Henry de Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings", "Magna Carta", "Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby", "John Maddicott", "Oxford Dictionary of English", "Marlborough, Wiltshire", "Richard Carew (bishop)", "Roger de Somery", "Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester", "Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester", "Nicholas of Ely", "Isle of Ely", "Warwickshire", "Philip Basset", "Calends", "English Monarchs series", "Robert Walerand", "edict", "Second Barons' War", "Pope Adrian V", "Peter Coss", "David Carpenter (historian)", "Normandy", "London", "Walter Giffard", "wikt:award", "Michael Prestwich", "Edict", "Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford", "Holy Land", "Siege of Kenilworth", "England", "Henry III of England", "Provisions of Oxford", "Battle of Lewes", "Simon de Montfort the Younger" ]
8,839	London Docklands	London Docklands is an area of London encompassing the city’s former docks. It is located in inner east and southeast London, in the boroughs of Southwark, Tower Hamlets, Lewisham, Newham and Greenwich. The docks were formerly part of the Port of London, at one time the world's largest port. After the docks closed, the area had become derelict and poverty-ridden by the 1980s. The Docklands' regeneration began later that decade; it has been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use. The name "London Docklands" was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in 1971 and has since been almost universally adopted. The redevelopment created wealth, but also led to some conflict between the new and old communities in the area. ==Establishment== In Roman and medieval times, ships arriving in the River Thames tended to dock at small quays in the present-day City of London or Southwark, an area known as the Pool of London. However, these gave no protection against the elements, were vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside. The Howland Great Dock in Rotherhithe (built in 1696, and later to form the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels. It was a major commercial success, and provided for two phases of expansion during the Georgian and Victorian eras. The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened in 1802), followed by the London (1805), the East India (also 1805), the Surrey (1807), the Regent's Canal Dock (1820), St Katharine (1828) and the West India South (1829). The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria (1855), Millwall (1868) and Royal Albert (1880). The King George V Dock (1921) was a late addition. ==Development== Three principal kinds of docks existed. Wet docks were where ships were laid up at anchor and loaded or unloaded. Dry docks, which were far smaller, took individual ships for repairing. Ships were built at dockyards along the riverside. In addition, the river was lined with innumerable warehouses, piers, jetties and dolphins (mooring points). The various docks tended to specialise in different forms of produce. The Surrey Docks concentrated on timber, for instance; Millwall took grain; St Katharine took wool, sugar and rubber; and so on. The docks required an army of workers, chiefly lightermen (who carried loads between ships and quays aboard small barges called lighters) and quayside workers, who dealt with the goods once they were ashore. Some of the workers were highly skilled: the lightermen had their own livery company or guild, while the deal porters (workers who carried timber) were famous for their acrobatic skills. Most were unskilled and worked as casual labourers. They assembled at certain points, such as pubs, each morning, where they were selected more or less at random by foremen. For these workers, it was effectively a lottery whether they would get work on any particular day. This arrangement continued until as late as 1965, although it was somewhat regularised after the creation of the National Dock Labour Scheme in 1947. The main dockland areas were originally low-lying marshes, mostly unsuitable for agriculture and lightly populated. With the establishment of the docks, the dock workers formed a number of tight-knit local communities with their own distinctive cultures and slang. Due to poor communications with other parts of London, they tended to develop in some isolation. Road access to the Isle of Dogs, for example, was only via two swing bridges. Local sentiment there was so strong that Ted Johns, a local community campaigner, and his supporters, in protest at the lack of social provision from the state, unilaterally declared independence for the area, set up a so-called "Island Council" with Johns himself as its elected leader, and blocked off the two access roads. ==20th century== The docks were originally built and managed by a number of competing private companies. From 1909, they were managed by the Port of London Authority (PLA) which amalgamated the companies in a bid to make the docks more efficient and improve labour relations. The PLA constructed the last of the docks, the King George V, in 1921, as well as greatly expanding the Tilbury docks. German bombing during the Second World War caused massive damage to the docks, with 380,000 tons of timber destroyed in the Surrey Docks in a single night. Nonetheless, following post-war rebuilding they experienced a resurgence of prosperity in the 1950s. Before the later Docklands' redevelopment and gentrification, the dock workers often made ends meet with petty and not so petty criminality, such as theft from the not yet containerized cargo, smuggling and fencing. As a result, the docks became "centres of excellence for criminal practice". Many of Britain's most proficient criminals learnt their trade here, including those behind the Hatton Garden heist, the Great Train Robbery, the Brink's-Mat robbery, the Security Express robbery and the Tonbridge cash depot robbery. inexpensive development, costing only £77 million in its first phase, as it relied on reusing disused railway infrastructure and derelict land for much of its length. The LDDC originally requested a full London Underground line, but the Government refused to fund it. The LDDC also built the Limehouse Link tunnel, a cut and cover road tunnel linking the Isle of Dogs to The Highway (the A1203 road) at a cost of over £150 million per kilometre, one of the most expensive stretches of road ever built. The LDDC also contributed to the development of London City Airport (IATA airport code LCY), opened in October 1987 on the spine of the Royal Docks. The London Underground's Jubilee line was extended eastwards in 1999; it now serves Rotherhithe/Surrey Quays at Canada Water station, the Isle of Dogs at Canary Wharf tube station, Greenwich at North Greenwich tube station and the nearby Royal Docks at Canning Town station. The DLR was extended in 1994 to serve much of the Royal Docks area when the Beckton branch was opened. The Isle of Dogs branch was extended further south, and in 1999 it began serving Greenwich town centre—including the Cutty Sark museum—Deptford and finally Lewisham. In 2005, a new branch of the DLR opened from Canning Town to serve what used to be the eastern terminus of the North London Line, including a station at London City Airport. It was then further extended to Woolwich Arsenal in 2009. ===Future developments=== Further development projects are being proposed and put into practice within the London Dockland area, such as: Extensions of the DLR, possibly to Dagenham. Further development of Canada Water. Redevelopment of Blackwall Basin and Wood Wharf, east of Canary Wharf. New skyscrapers to be built at Canary Wharf, including the Riverside South towers, the Heron Quays West double-skyscraper development and the North Quay project, consisting of three towers. In the early 21st century, redevelopment is spreading into the more suburban parts of east and southeast London, and into the parts of the counties of Kent and Essex that abut the Thames Estuary. See Thames Gateway and Lower Lea Valley for further information on this trend. ===Docklands series buses=== ====History==== The numbers of several London Buses routes are prefixed D for Docklands; all run on the north bank of the River Thames as part of the London bus network, and act as feeder buses to the DLR. The D network was developed in the early stages of Docklands redevelopment; it was originally much larger, but as transport rapidly improved across east London, the need for the D routes reduced. Today only four remain, running primarily in Tower Hamlets and briefly into Newham and Hackney. Stagecoach London operate routes D6, D7 and D8, and Blue Triangle operate route D3. ==21st century== The population of the Docklands has more than doubled during the last 30 years, and the area has become a major business centre. Canary Wharf has emerged as one of Europe's biggest clusters of skyscrapers and a major extension to the financial services district of the City of London. Although most of the old wharfs and warehouses have been demolished, some have been restored and converted into flats. Many of the docks themselves have survived and are now used as marinas or watersports centres; a major exception is the Surrey Commercial Docks, which are now largely filled in. Although large ships can—and occasionally still do—visit the old docks, all of the commercial traffic has moved downriver further east. The revival of the Docklands has had major effects in other run-down surrounding areas. Greenwich and Deptford are undergoing large-scale redevelopment, chiefly as a result of the improved transport links making them more attractive to commuters. The Docklands' redevelopment has, however, had some less beneficial aspects. The massive property boom and consequent rise in house prices has led to friction between the new arrivals and the old Docklands communities, who have complained of being squeezed out. It has also made for some of the most striking disparities to be seen anywhere in Britain: luxury executive flats constructed alongside run-down public housing estates. The Docklands' status as a symbol of Margaret Thatcher's Britain has also made it a target for terrorists. After a failed attempt to bomb Canary Wharf in 1992, a large IRA bomb exploded at South Quay on 9 February 1996. Two people died in the explosion, forty people were injured and an estimated £150 million of damage was caused. This bombing ended an IRA ceasefire. James McArdle was sentenced to 25 years of jail time but released in 2000 under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement and royal prerogative of mercy officially signed by Queen Elizabeth II. In a further sign of regeneration in the area, the Docklands now has its own symphony orchestra, Docklands Sinfonia; which was formed in January 2009 and is based at St Anne's Limehouse. ===Economy=== The offices of The Independent group of publications were at one time situated in the Docklands. In 2008, Independent News & Media announced that The Independent would be moving its offices to Northcliffe House in Kensington. London's Docklands has become one of the world's leading global internet hubs since the opening in 1990 of the carrier-neutral Telehouse campus, which hosts the vast majority of LINX's internet peering traffic, occupying over 73,000 square metres. In August 2016, Telehouse Europe opened the $177 million North Two data centre of 24,000 square metres that became the only UK data centre to own a 132 kV on-campus grid substation that is directly connected to the National Grid, reducing transmission losses and improving power density and service continuity.	[ "Central Electricity Generating Board", "City of London", "Surrey Quays", "London Docks", "Kevin d'Arcy", "Press Gazette", "London Borough of Southwark", "London Borough of Hackney", "Good Friday Agreement", "timber", "Port of Felixstowe", "London Borough of Lewisham", "Blackwall Basin", "Wood Wharf", "East End of London", "Great Train Robbery (1963)", "enterprise zone", "London Borough of Tower Hamlets", "Dagenham", "Isle of Dogs", "Rotherhithe", "Michael Heseltine", "Lighter (barge)", "British timber trade", "The Independent", "University of East London", "Canada Water station", "Stepney Historical Trust", "Thames Estuary", "Limehouse Studios", "Port of London", "Securitas depot robbery", "Port of London Authority", "Royal Borough of Greenwich", "St Katharine Docks", "Greater London Council", "Docklands Sinfonia", "London City Airport", "livery company", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "Lewisham", "Canning Town station", "Brink's-Mat robbery", "Heron Quays West", "Security Express robbery", "Canary Wharf", "Port of Tilbury", "Greenland Dock", "Thames Gateway", "London Borough of Newham", "Cutty Sark", "Southwark", "Greenwich", "Pool of London", "dockyard", "Royal Docks", "British Gas Corporation", "Georgian era", "Canada Water", "St Anne's Limehouse", "Limehouse Link tunnel", "Safeguarded wharf", "River Thames", "East India Docks", "London Docklands Development Corporation", "Island History Trust", "Lower Lea Valley", "Burrells Wharf", "Docklands Light Railway", "Roman Britain", "British Rail", "swing bridge", "Canary Wharf tube station", "List of locations in the Port of London", "Dry dock", "Essex", "National Grid (Great Britain)", "Victorian era", "The History Press", "world's largest port", "The Blitz", "Surrey Commercial Docks", "West India Docks", "Dock (maritime)", "1996 Docklands bombing", "Riverside South (Canary Wharf)", "lightermen", "London", "Regent's Canal Dock", "Hatton Garden heist", "Kensington", "Containerization", "National Dock Labour Scheme", "World War II", "Elizabeth II", "Blue Triangle", "quango", "London Buses", "royal prerogative of mercy", "Deptford", "Stagecoach London", "North Greenwich tube station", "Woolwich Arsenal station", "Secretary of State for the Environment", "Independent News & Media", "Wet dock", "labour relations", "King George V Dock, London", "Margaret Thatcher", "North Quay, London", "IATA airport code", "Telehouse Europe", "London Internet Exchange", "Heron Quays", "cut and cover", "Jubilee line", "The Highway (London)", "deal porters", "Millwall Dock", "North London Line", "Royal Albert Dock, London", "Kent", "Royal Victoria Dock", "Beckton", "Middle Ages", "London City Airport DLR station", "London Underground" ]
8,840	Diesel multiple unit	A diesel multiple unit or DMU is a multiple-unit train powered by on-board diesel engines. A DMU requires no separate locomotive, as the engines are incorporated into one or more of the carriages. Diesel-powered single-unit railcars are also generally classed as DMUs. Diesel-powered units may be further classified by their transmission type: diesel–mechanical DMMU, diesel–hydraulic DHMU, or diesel–electric DEMU. ==Design== The diesel engine may be located above the frame in an engine bay or under the floor. Driving controls can be at both ends, on one end, or in a separate car. ==Types by transmission== DMUs are usually classified by the method of transmitting motive power to their wheels. ===Diesel–mechanical === In a diesel–mechanical multiple unit (DMMU), the rotating energy of the engine is transmitted via a gearbox and driveshaft directly to the wheels of the train, like a car. The transmissions can be shifted manually by the driver, as in the great majority of first-generation British Rail DMUs, but in most applications, gears are changed automatically. ===Diesel–hydraulic=== In a diesel–hydraulic multiple unit (DHMU), a hydraulic torque converter, a type of fluid coupling, acts as the transmission medium for the motive power of the diesel engine to turn the wheels. Some units feature a hybrid mix of hydraulic and mechanical transmissions, usually reverting to the latter at higher operating speeds as this decreases engine RPM and noise. ===Diesel–electric === In a diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU), a diesel engine drives an electrical generator or an alternator which produces electrical energy. The generated current is then fed to electric traction motors on the wheels or bogies in the same way as a conventional diesel–electric locomotive. In other designs, such as the British Rail Class 207 or the Stadler GTW and Stadler FLIRT DMU, some cars within the consist may be entirely unpowered or only feature electric motors, obtaining electric current from other cars in the consist which have a generator and engine. With diesel–electric transmission, some DMU can be no other than an EMU without pantograph or contact shoes (for use on the former British Rail Southern Region), which "is substituted" by one or more on-board diesel generators; this kind of DEMU can be potentially upgraded to electro-diesel multiple unit (EDMU), becoming a bi-mode multiple units train (BMU), just adding one or two pantographs or contact shoes (with opportune converters, if necessary) and related modifications on the electric system. ==Around the world== ===Europe=== ==== Belgium ==== NMBS/SNCB uses its NMBS/SNCB Class 41 DMUs on the few remaining unelectrified lines. As electrification progresses, the DMUs become less and less important. ==== Croatia ==== Diesel multiple units cover large number of passenger lines in Croatia which are operated by the national passenger service operator HŽ Putnički Prijevoz. On Croatian Railways, DMUs have important role since they cover local, regional and distant lines all across the country. The country's two largest towns, Zagreb and Split, are connected with an inter-city service that is provided by DMU tilting trains "RegioSwinger" (Croatian series 7123) since 2004. Those trains may also cover other lines in the country depending on need and availability. Luxury DMU series 7021, built in France, started to operate for Yugoslav Railways in 1972 and after 1991 still remained in service of Croatian Railways until 2005. Units 7121 and 7122 (which came as a replacement for 7221 units), together with the newest series 7022 and 7023 built in 2010s Croatia, cover many of the country's local and regional services on unelectrified or partly electrified lines. ==== Czech Republic ==== Diesel multiple units also cover large number of passenger lines in the Czech Republic which are operated by the national operator České dráhy. They have important role since they cover local, regional and distant lines all across the country. Those trains may also cover other lines in the country depending on need and availability too. Also, the DMUs were manufactured for foreign carriers. The tables of cars and units are divided into vehicles operated until 1987, when the ČSD used the series designations proposed by Vojtěch Kryšpín, and vehicles created after this date, which no longer have Kryšpín's designations (with some exceptions). In addition, these new cars are the new vehicles are already different in both countries. ====Estonia==== Elron has since 2015 a Stadler FLIRT fleet, with 20 trains DEMU version. ====Germany==== Germany has employed DMUs for both commuter and express services for many decades. The SVT 877 Fliegender Hamburger DMU, introduced in 1933, made the run from Berlin to Hamburg in an astonishing 138 minutes, and its derivative SVT 137 broke the land speed record in 1936. After World War 2, the VT 11.5 DMU was the flagship of the glamorous Trans Europ Express. Since 1968, DB has designated DMUs with class numbers beginning in 6. While DB and regional transport authorities generally prefer electric power for commuter rail, many local and rural lines remain un-electrified, and DMUs are invaluable in providing services to those areas. DMUs in service as of 2021 include the Adtranz Class 612 tilting train ("Regio Swinger"), the Alstom Coradia LINT (Classes 620–623, 640 and 648), the Siemens Desiro (Class 642) and the Bombardier Talent (Class 643/644). From 2001 to 2016 there was even a DMU version of DB's high-speed Intercity Express, the Class 605 ICE TD. ====Greece==== Diakopto–Kalavryta railway ====Ireland==== In the Republic of Ireland the Córas Iompair Éireann (CIÉ), which controlled the republic's railways between 1945 and 1986, introduced DMUs in the mid-1950s and they were the first diesel trains on many main lines. ====Romania==== DMUs are used mostly on shorter or less frequently travelled routes in remote areas. The national railway company CFR still uses, along with other DMU models, Class 77 and 78 DMUs, locally built by Malaxa between the 1930s and 50s and refurbished in the 70s. The main DMU in use is the Class 96 Siemens Desiro aka Săgeata Albastră (The Blue Arrow). Private operators also largely use DMU units, mainly purchased from various French and German operators. ====Slovakia==== In the present, several types of DMUs operate in Slovakia. Was the most common type in Slovakia is a Class 812 ZSSK based on the ČD Class 810. These are used almost exclusively for hauling passenger trains on non-electrified regional lines and these trains often excel in low travel speeds. In the past, however, in Slovakia there were a number of express trains driven by motor coaches, which often overcame heavier trains driven by steam locomotives at cruising speed, and classic sets. A typical example can be, for example, the Slovenská strela motor express train led on the Bratislava-Prague route by a motor car of the same name, or the Tatran express from Bratislava to Košice. Representatives of high-speed motor wagons were, for example, motor wagons of the M262 or M286 series, which, however, lost their application in high-speed wagons due to the gradual electrification of main lines and were, like the current wagons currently used for passenger trains. ====United Kingdom==== The first significant use of DMUs in the United Kingdom was by the Great Western Railway, which introduced its small but successful series of diesel–mechanical GWR railcars in 1934. The London & North Eastern Railway and London, Midland & Scottish Railway also experimented with DMUs in the 1930s, the LMS both on its own system, and on that of its Northern Irish subsidiary, but development was curtailed by World War II. After nationalisation, British Railways (BR) revived the concept in the early 1950s. At that time there was an urgent need to move away from expensive steam traction which led to many experimental designs using diesel propulsion and multiple units. The early DMUs proved successful, and under BR's 1955 Modernisation Plan the building of a large fleet was authorised. These BR "First Generation" DMUs were built between 1956 and 1963. BR required that contracts for the design and manufacture of new locomotives and rolling stock be split between numerous private firms as well as BR's own workshops, while different BR Regions laid down different specifications. The result was a multitude of different types, one of which was: 'Intercity' units, which were more substantially constructed, and shared many features with contemporary hauled coaching stock. They were built for express services on important secondary routes on the Scottish, North Eastern and Western regions. In 1960, British Railways introduced its Blue Pullman high-speed DEMUs. These were few in number and relatively short-lived, These trains run with a streamlined power car at each end and (typically) seven to nine intermediate trailer cars. Although originally classified as DEMUs, the trailer cars are very similar to loco-hauled stock, and the power cars were later reclassified as locomotives under Class 43. By the early 1980s, many of the surviving First Generation units were reaching the end of their design life, leading to spiralling maintenance costs, poor reliability and a poor public image for the railway. A stopgap solution was to convert some services back to locomotive haulage, as spare locomotives and hauled coaching stock were available, but this also increased operating costs. Commencing in the mid '80s, British Rail embarked upon its so called "Sprinterisation" programme, to replace most of the first generation DMUs and many locomotive-hauled trains with three new families of DMU: Class 140–144 Pacer railbuses, ultra-low-cost diesel–mechanical units (later converted to hydraulic) utilising four-wheeled chassis and lightweight bus bodywork, designed for provincial branch line and stopping services. Sprinter a family of diesel–hydraulic DMUs. These fall into three sub-groups; Class 150 Sprinters (for branch line/commuter service), Class 153 / 155 / 156 Super Sprinters (for longer cross country services), and Class 158 / 159 Express units (for secondary express services); Networker diesel–hydraulic units, of Class 165 Network Turbo (standard commuter version) and Class 166 Network Express (for longer distance commuter services). These took over the remaining non-electric commuter services into London. Following the impact of the privatisation of British Rail in the late 1990s, several other DMU families have been introduced: Class 168 Clubman and Class 170/171/172 Bombardier Turbostar, a development of the earlier Networkers. These are built by Adtranz and later Bombardier at Derby Litchurch Lane Works and are the most numerous and widespread of the post-privatisation designs. Purchased by Anglia Railways, Central Trains, Chiltern Railways, London Midland, London Overground Rail Operations, Midland Mainline and ScotRail. All are diesel-hydraulic except for the Class 172, which is diesel-mechanical. Class 175 Alstom Coradia diesel-hydraulic multiple units were designed by Alstom as a rival to the 170 Turbostar, but bought only by First North Western Class 180 Adelante diesel-hydraulic multiple units were an Alstom design for express services built only for First Great Western Class 185 Siemens Desiro, built by Siemens introduced in 2006 by First TransPennine Express Class 195/196/197 CAF Civity, built by CAF for Arriva Rail North, West Midlands Trains and Transport for Wales Class 220/221/222 Voyagers/Meridian diesel-electric multiple units built by Bombardier in Bruges for Hull Trains, Midland Mainline and Virgin CrossCountry In 2018, the first bi and tri-mode electro-diesel multiple units were introduced: Class 800/802s are being built by Hitachi for Great Western Railway, Hull Trains, London North Eastern Railway and TransPennine Express Class 755 Stadler FLIRT are to be operated by Abellio Greater Anglia Class 769s are being converted by Brush Traction from Class 319s for Arriva Rail North, Great Western Railway and KeolisAmey Wales Class 230s were converted by Vivarail from London Underground D78 Stock for West Midland Trains and Transport for Wales. After the collapse of Vivarail in 2022, the West Midlands units were withdrawn from service. ===North America=== ====Canada==== Canada generally follows similar buffer strength requirements to the US, but new services are evaluated on a case-by-case basis. As a result, several types of lightweight DMUs have been used: The O-Train Trillium Line in Ottawa, Ontario uses European-standard Alstom Coradia LINT (previously Bombardier Talent) DMUs on conventional railway tracks under a specific safety agreement with Transport Canada. Via Rail operates Budd Rail Diesel Cars on its Sudbury – White River train. Réseau Charlevoix (Le Massif) operates a shuttle in the Charlevoix region, Québec, using ex-Deutsche Bahn DB Class 628 units. Canadian National operates the small custom-built Kaoham Shuttle between Lillooet, and D'Arcy via Seton Portage, northeast of Vancouver, in a partnership with the Seton Lake Indian Band. Union Pearson Express uses Nippon Sharyo DMU trains for express service between Union Station and Pearson Airport. ====Costa Rica==== Costa Rica has purchased several Apolo 2400 series DMU railcars from the former narrow gauge operator in Spain, which are run in commuter service. ====Mexico==== 42 X'Trapolis Tsíimin K'áak train sets have been ordered for Tren Maya, 10 of which are DMU and 32 are EDMU. ====United States==== A type of diesel multiple units in the U.S. was the Budd Rail Diesel Car (RDC). The RDC was a single passenger car with two diesel engines and two sets of controls. In the United States, DMU systems must be FRA-compliant to be permitted on freight rail corridors. The Federal Railway Administration has mandated higher coupling strength requirements than European regulators, effectively prohibiting the use of lighter weight European-style inter-city rail DMUs on U.S. main line railways without timesharing with freight operations or special waivers from the FRA. This has greatly restricted the development of DMUs within the U.S. as no other country requires the much heavier FRA compliant vehicles, and no export market for them exists. Operations using FRA-compliant vehicles: Since February 2009, TriMet is using FRA-compliant Colorado Railcar DMUs for its rush-hour WES Commuter Rail service, a suburb-to-suburb line between Beaverton and Wilsonville, Oregon. The opening of the line was delayed from fall 2008 to early 2009 due to delays in getting the vehicles. TriMet also has four refurbished former Alaska RR and Trinity Railway Express RDCs as backup trainsets for when one or more Colorado Railcar DMUs is out of service. Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit, also referred to as SMART, operates Nippon Sharyo DMUs (the same as those in Toronto) on its route between Larkspur and Santa Rosa, California. Service commenced in 2017. Operations using non FRA-compliant vehicles: Capital Metro uses Stadler GTW cars to operate Capital MetroRail, a commuter rail line serving the Greater Austin, Texas area. In Denton County, Texas, DCTA also uses Stadler GTW cars to operate its A-train service. DCTA has secured from the FRA the first-ever alternative vehicle technology waiver to use these cars on active freight corridors. TEXRail in Tarrant County, Texas is a commuter rail line operated by Trinity Metro which uses Stadler FLIRT DMUs. The vehicles are FRA Alternate Compliant. The line has 9 stops with termini at DFW Airport and T&P Station. NJ Transit operates the River Line from Camden, NJ to Trenton, NJ, every 15 minutes during peak hours and every 30 minutes at other times. It uses modified Stadler GTW trains of one or two cars. The line is classified as light rail because it utilizes imported European made DMUs that do not meet FRA crash guidelines. The cars may not operate with the freight rail service that shares the line, so evening operating hours are restricted to Saturday nights. This line currently carries over 7,500 passengers on a typical weekday, exceeding expectations. NCTD operates the Sprinter line using Desiro Classic DMUs built by Siemens. Opened March 2008, The line operates every half-hour daily, except limitations in the morning and at night on Saturday, Sunday and on holidays. The line runs from Oceanside, CA, where transfer is possible with Coaster commuter rail service to San Diego, to Escondido, CA. Like the NJT River Line, it is classified as light rail due to the use of European made DMUs, but does not run at a more typical light rail frequency. The eBART expansion of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system implements Stadler GTW diesel multiple unit train service from Pittsburg/Bay Point station east along the Highway 4 corridor to the town of Antioch. Future expansions in this direction could also connect the eBART service to Oakley, Brentwood, Byron, and beyond to Tracy and Stockton. The DMU system was chosen as a less-expensive alternative to the existing third-rail BART design. Service began on 25 May 2018. Arrow utilizes Stadler FLIRT trainsets along its service route in Redlands, California. Proposed operations: The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority approved an allocation of $250,000 for a feasibility study of DMUs for "future transportation options for the region" on 5 July 2006 (Ara Najarian, Metro Board Member). Chicago's commuter rail line, Metra, is studying the use of DMUs on its newly proposed lines (STAR line, SES). They claim these DMUs will have better acceleration, be more fuel efficient, and seat more customers than the current diesel locomotive and double decker rail cars that are currently in use. Seattle area – The Central Puget Sound's regional transit agency Sound Transit, along with the Puget Sound Regional Council evaluated the feasibility of both DMU and diesel locomotive technology for operation in the Eastside BNSF Corridor in response to a state legislative request. The Eastside BNSF corridor runs from the City of Snohomish in the north to Renton in the south of the metro area. Sound Transit has no plans to operate passenger rail service in the eastside BNSF corridor, but has committed limited funds to provide capital improvements in the event another public or private operator proposes to operate the service. Anchorage Mat-Su area – As part of a joint U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and ARRC Chugach Forest Whistle Stop project, a self-propelled rail car was purchased and delivered spring 2009. The diesel multiple unit (DMU) may be available for flexible demonstration service during winter months. The Long Island Rail Road, the busiest commuter railroad in the United States, is exploring the possibility of operating DMUs on some of its lesser traveled routes in non-electrified territory (on the Montauk, Greenport, Port Jefferson, and Oyster Bay branches), where operation of its current fleet of C3 bilevel railcars pulled by DE30AC/DM30AC locomotives is uneconomical and inefficient. A proposal to use DMUs on Boston's Fairmount Line was initially approved, but was canceled in 2016. NJ Transit's Passaic–Bergen–Hudson Transit Project is studying the re-introduction passenger service on a portion of the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway (NYSW) right-of-way in Passiac, Bergen and Hudson counties using newly built, FRA-compliant diesel multiple units. Dallas Area Rapid Transit is rebuilding the Cotton Belt Rail Line as the Silver Line, which will utilize Stadler FLIRT units. ===Asia/Australasia=== ====Australia==== DMUs were first introduced to Australia in the late mid-20th century for use on quiet branch lines that could not justify a locomotive hauled service. Today, DMUs are widely used throughout Australia's southern states: Adelaide Metro use 3000 class DMUs on their suburban network. NSW TrainLink use Xplorer DMUs on services from Sydney to Canberra (ACT), Griffith, Broken Hill, Armidale and Moree. Endeavour DMUs are used on services to Bathurst, Moss Vale and Goulburn on the Southern Highlands Line, Kiama to Bomaderry and on the Hunter Line. Hunter railcar DMUs are also used on the Hunter Line. Victoria's V/Line uses Sprinter and V/Locity DMUs on all medium distance services. Western Australia's Transwa operates the Prospector, AvonLink and Australind on medium and long distance country services. In Queensland, heritage DMUs are used on the Savannahlander and Gulflander tourist trains. ====Bangladesh==== Chinese manufactured (CNR Tangshan) DEMU was introduced in Bangladesh from 25 May 2013. DEMU is the country's first-ever commuter train service starting its journey on the Chittagong–Faujdarhat line. These DEMUs also operate on the Chittagong Circular Railway and on the Bangladesh Railway's service between Dhaka and Narayanganj. However, these trains faced reliability issues soon after the final delivery in 2015, with all 20 trains becoming inoperable past 2018. In 2020, technicians from Bangladesh Railway were able to repair one of the inoperative trains to working condition. However, the proposed project to repair the rest of the trains were deemed to be too expensive in the long run. By January 2025, after 10 years of service, Bangladesh Railway announced its intention to sell the DEMU trains as scrap. The service of several hundreds (in sum even thousands) of diesel railcars and DMUs started in 1950s following the improvement of fuel supply that was critical during World War II. ====Kenya==== In 2021, Kenya acquired DMUs from France to operate in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area. These trains connect the city with settlements outside Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta International Airport and the Nairobi Terminus. ====Malaysia==== The Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) has a total of 13 DMU KTM Class 61 ordered from CRRC for the West Coast Line and are assembled locally at CRRCs Batu Gajah factory from 2016 to 2020. The first scheduled service is expected from 1 September along the Gemas-Johor Bahru route, replacing old non-automotive stock. ====Philippines==== The Philippine National Railways (PNR) was one of the first adopters of diesel multiple unit trains in Asia. Initially built as gasoline-powered railmotors, the locally assembled Manila Railroad RMC class of 1929 was the first to be powered by diesel traction. Some units were also converted to streamliner units by 1932 for first-class services on the South Main Line between Manila and Legazpi, Albay. Since then, generations of DMUs were used chiefly for short-distance commuter services by the PNR in the island of Luzon. Even without active inter-city rail services in the present-day, DMUs are still used on the PNR Metro Commuter Line in Metro Manila and the Bicol Commuter service in the Bicol Region. Three generations of DMUs are in use: second-hand DMUs handed over by JR East such as the KiHa 35, 52 and 59 series originally built in the 1960s and acquired in the early 2010s, the Rotem DMUs of 2009 built by Korean manufacturer Hyundai Rotem, and the 8000 and 8100 classes built by Indonesian firm PT INKA. From 2022 onwards, the PNR will purchase standard gauge DMUs for its upcoming inter-city rail network in Luzon and Mindanao. This is compared to the 3 ft 6 in gauge of the rolling stock that is currently in active service. This move should allow access to better technology and increase line speeds. ==== China ==== On 14 January 2014, CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles announced that hybrid electric multiple units were put into production. At the end of 2014, the first batch of hybrid EMUs, one train each with battery-catenary power supply (EEMU) and catenary power supply-internal combustion engine (DEMU), rolled off the assembly line in Changchun. From 2016 to 2020, the vehicles were tested in Hohhot and Beijing Academy of Railway Sciences. In September 2022, the first CJ-5 train used by the Xi'an-Huxian Railway arrived in Xi'an. The No. 0506 train, which uses an internal combustion engine and a battery hybrid, was used as a vehicle during the initial operation of the Xi'an-Huxian Railway. During the operation period, it will be temporarily managed by Xi'an Metro. ====South Korea==== Korail used to operates many DMUs. The DHC (Diesel Hydraulic Car), which made its debut for the 1988 Seoul Olympics, was able to reach speeds up to and served Saemaul-ho trains. These train have retired on 2008. ====Sri Lanka==== DMUs were first introduced to Sri Lanka in 1940. The aim of this was connecting minor railway stations and stops on the main line where most express trains don't have a halt. ====Taiwan==== The DMUs are now usually used on the Taiwan Railway Administration Hualien–Taitung Line, North-Link Line, South-Link Line. DMUs in Taiwan are classified as Class DR. Class DR2700 – built by Tokyu Car Corporation in 1966; was the fastest train on the West Coast line Class DR2800 – built by Tokyu Car Corporation in 1982 and 1984 Class DR2900 Class DR3000 Class DR3100 Thailand The State Railway of Thailand ASR class is a diesel multiple unit operated by the State Railway of Thailand. Built by British Rail Engineering Limited at Derby Litchurch Lane Works in England, it is based on the British Rail Class 158. Twenty carriages were built in 1990/91. All were painted in the same Regional Railways livery as the Class 158s. Numbers 2501 – 2512 (with cockpit) 12 Unit Numbers 2113 – 2120 (no cockpit) 8 Unit ==Manufacturers== DMU manufacturers include: Alstom AnsaldoBreda, Italy BEML, India BHEL, India Bombardier Transportation of Montreal, Canada British Rail Engineering Limited, United Kingdom (1962–1980s) British Railways, United Kingdom (1950s–1962) Budd Company of United States CAF Colorado Railcar, US (Rader Railcar 1988–1997, Colorado Railcar 1997–2008, US Railcar 2009–present) CRRC, China DMZ, Russia EIKON International Ferrovias Del Bajio S.A. de C.V., Mexico Ganz-MÁVAG, Hungary Hyundai Rotem of Seoul, South Korea INKA, Indonesia Integral Coach Factory, Chennai, India Luganskteplovoz, Ukraine Materfer, Argentina Metrovagonmash, Russia Niigata Transys of Tokyo, Japan Nippon Sharyo/Sumitomo, Japan Pojazdy Szynowe Pesa Bydgoszcz RVR, Latvia Siemens Mobility DMU Stadler Rail of Bussnang, Switzerland Torzhoksky car-building factory, Russia TÜVASAŞ of Adapazarı, Turkey	[ "Elron (rail transit)", "Tilting train", "Kaoham Shuttle", "North-Link Line", "Keretapi Tanah Melayu", "Connolly station", "diesel generator", "British Rail Class 207", "KeolisAmey Wales", "British Rail Class 172", "Philippine National Railways", "Railroad Safety Appliance Act", "New South Wales Hunter railcar", "express train", "Bathurst railway station, New South Wales", "Via Rail", "wheel", "Luganskteplovoz", "British Rail Class 221", "commuter rail", "British Rail Class 222", "railcar", "multiple unit", "WDM-2", "Vojtěch Kryšpín", "Japanese National Railways", "Bussnang", "Industri Kereta Api", "Transport Canada", "Trans Europ Express", "Armidale railway station", "V/Line Sprinter", "Arriva Rail North", "Goulburn railway station", "Narayanganj", "Integral Coach Factory", "Yorkgate railway station", "Fairmount Line", "AnsaldoBreda", "St Pancras railway station", "South-Link Line", "Trenton, NJ", "Alstom Coradia", "Anglia Railways", "State Railway of Thailand", "British Rail Classes 251 and 261", "KiHa 59 series", "Virgin CrossCountry", "fr:Rame automotrice", "Toronto Pearson International Airport", "Câmpulung Moldovenesc", "Dublin Suburban Rail", "Fliegender Hamburger", "Brush Traction", "Gulflander", "San Diego", "Ganz-MÁVAG", "PT Industri Kereta Api", "Suburban Transit Access Route (Metra)", "Denton County", "PNR Hyundai Rotem DMU", "Great Western Railway (train operating company)", "Xi'an–Huyi railway", "Capital MetroRail", "HŽ series 7021", "Savannahlander", "British Rail Class 319", "London & North Eastern Railway", "Kihani 5000", "Saemaul-ho", "DCTA", "Railway Gazette International", "torque converter", "Moss Vale railway station", "Bomaderry railway station", "Bangladesh Railway", "Electric multiple unit", "Jalandhar District", "RegioSwinger", "Regional rail", "SouthEast Service (Metra)", "MEMU", "KiHa 52", "Cape May Seashore Lines", "Y1 (railcar)", "AvonLink", "CAF Civity", "Transwa", "TriMet", "HŽ series 7221", "ScotRail (National Express)", "British Rail Class 220", "EIKON International", "Taiwan Railway Administration", "Xi'an", "Bicol Region", "automobile", "WES Commuter Rail", "CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles", "Capital Metro", "Colorado Railcar", "Split, Croatia", "Hyundai Rotem", "freight rail", "Stadler FLIRT", "traction motor", "Demikhovsky Machine-building Plant", "Nippon Sharyo DMU", "British Rail Class 769", "British Rail Class 800", "New South Wales Endeavour railcar", "Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited", "O-Train", "multiple-unit", "British Rail Class 158", "Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles", "Deutsche Bahn", "Dallas Area Rapid Transit", "Peterborough railway station", "Passaic County, New Jersey", "Alaska Railroad", "Legazpi, Albay", "Alstom Coradia LINT", "Dhaka", "NIR Class 3000", "New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway", "KTM Class 61", "DFW Airport/Terminal B station", "British Rail Class 159", "electro-diesel multiple unit", "V/Line", "DR2700 series", "Bombardier Voyager", "New South Wales Xplorer", "West Midlands Trains", "Manchester Piccadilly station", "FAUR", "Indonesia", "Texas", "Escondido, CA", "British Rail Class 171", "Ottawa", "Antioch station (BART)", "PNR 8100 class", "Networker (train)", "Hull Trains", "Oceanside, CA", "Pittsburg/Bay Point station", "Canadian National", "British Rail Class 170", "Talent (train)", "Colorado Railcar DMU", "locomotive", "Bay Area Rapid Transit", "North Eastern Region of British Railways", "Diesel locomotive", "Sprinter (British Rail)", "streamliner", "Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit", "Sumitomo", "Midland Mainline (train operating company)", "Stadler Flirt", "Diakopto–Kalavryta railway", "PNR 8000 class", "Canberra railway station", "railbus", "First North Western", "Budd Rail Diesel Car", "Main Southern railway line", "contact shoe", "NJ Transit", "HŽ series 7121", "Seton Lake Indian Band", "standard-gauge railway", "Moree railway station", "diesel engine", "Great Western Railway", "France", "KiHa 35", "Chittagong Circular Railway", "Ferrovias Del Bajio S.A. de C.V.", "London Underground D78 Stock", "Puget Sound Regional Council", "Scottish Region of British Railways", "Electro-diesel multiple unit", "British Rail Class 150", "Yugoslav Railways", "Australind (train)", "Xi'an Metro", "Western Region of British Railways", "DR2800 series", "British Rail Class 153", "British Rail Class 197", "Bruges", "CRRC", "British Rail Class 755", "Hunter railway line", "Vancouver", "Ian Allan Publishing", "electrical energy", "River Line (NJ Transit)", "Pojazdy Szynowe Pesa Bydgoszcz", "Bombardier Turbostar", "State Railway of Thailand ASR class", "Tren Maya", "Long Island Rail Road", "DB Class VT 11.5", "Passaic–Bergen–Hudson Transit Project", "Coupler (railway)", "London Midland", "British Rail Class 185", "Trains (magazine)", "Wilsonville, Oregon", "commons:Category:Elektriraudtee Classes 2200, 2300 and 2400", "United States", "Vivarail", "3000 class railcar", "Bombardier Transportation", "Seton Portage, British Columbia", "Siemens Mobility", "Port Jefferson Branch", "TÜVASAŞ", "Transport for Wales Rail", "History of rail transport in Great Britain 1948–1994", "Zagreb", "Arrow (rail service)", "inter-city rail", "Redlands, California", "Central railway station, Sydney", "The Prospector (train)", "British Rail Class 155", "Adtranz", "Croatia", "Budd Company", "Charlevoix", "InterCity 125", "British Rail", "Camden, NJ", "Korail", "Union Pearson Express", "TEXRail", "GWR railcars", "Chicago", "DE30AC", "ČD Class 810", "V/Line VLocity", "British Rail Class 196", "Adapazarı", "bogie", "Sri Lanka Railways", "Victoria (state)", "First Great Western", "Sudbury – White River train", "Greenport Branch", "Tarrant County, Texas", "Córas Iompair Éireann", "Alternator", "British Rail Class 195", "X'Trapolis Tsíimin K'áak", "commons:File:TEXRail Stadler FLIRT DFW Airport Nov 2019.jpg", "Trillium Line", "Mindanao", "DR2900 series", "DRG Class SVT 137", "eBART", "Transmission (mechanics)", "London Overground Rail Operations", "Griffith railway station", "Australian Capital Territory", "Niigata Transys", "Tokyo", "Lillooet, British Columbia", "Metrovagonmash", "Broken Hill railway station", "Metro Manila", "Chennai", "ČSD", "Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca", "St. Louis Southwestern Railway", "TransPennine Express", "Hualien–Taitung Line", "Metra", "Nippon Sharyo", "British Rail Class 175", "West Coast line (Taiwan)", "Montreal", "DBAG Class 612", "Pacer (British Rail)", "Montauk Branch", "T&P Station", "Intercity Express", "Battery electric multiple unit", "Siemens Desiro", "Bergen County, New Jersey", "North County Transit District", "Bdnews24.com", "diesel–electric locomotive", "British Rail Class 168", "Alstom", "British Rail Class 43 (HST)", "London, Midland & Scottish Railway", "consist", "Adelaide Metro", "ICE TD", "Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority", "Motor coach (rail)", "Rolling stock of the Romanian Railways", "British Rail Class 165", "Beaverton, Oregon", "Torzhoksky car-building factory", "Chiltern Railways", "Southern Region of British Railways", "London North Eastern Railway", "Charlevoix tourist train", "electrical generator", "Northern Counties Committee", "IE 2700 and 2750 Classes", "Tokyu Car Corporation", "Rail Coach Factory", "Croatian Railways", "WDM-3A", "Regional Railways", "Stadler Rail", "Central Trains", "Limerick railway station", "Luzon", "Sound Transit", "Abellio Greater Anglia", "LMS railcars", "light rail", "Ottawa, Ontario", "South Korea", "impact of the privatisation of British Rail", "Hakodate Main Line", "České dráhy", "DB Class 628", "Coaster (rail service)", "Trinity Metro", "Stadler GTW", "Silver Line (DART)", "HŽ series 7022", "Kiama railway station", "PNR Metro Commuter Line", "BEML", "Derby Litchurch Lane Works", "Union Station (Toronto)", "First TransPennine Express", "British Rail Class 156", "DM30AC", "3 ft 6 in gauge railways", "British Rail Engineering Limited", "Le Massif", "Seoul", "Pantograph (transport)", "World War II", "Federal Railway Administration", "NSW TrainLink", "Hitachi", "Căile Ferate Române", "Trinity Railway Express", "C3 (railcar)", "Kiha 43000", "British Rail Class 230", "Oyster Bay Branch", "British Rail Class 802", "NMBS/SNCB Class 41", "East Japan Railway Company", "Materfer", "D'Arcy, British Columbia", "A-train (Denton County)", "Sprinter (rail service)", "Hudson County, New Jersey", "Greater Austin", "Bombardier Talent", "British Rail Class 166", "British Rail class 180" ]
8,843	Donald A. Wollheim	{{Infobox writer \|name = Donald A. Wollheim \|image = Wollheim, Donald.jpg \|image_size = 200px \|caption = \|pseudonym = David GrinnellArthur CookeMillard Verne GordonMartin PearsonBraxton WellsGraham ConwayLawrence WoodsDarrell G. Raynor \|birth_name = Donald Allen Wollheim \|birth_date = \|birth_place = New York City, New York, U.S. \|death_date = \|death_place = New York City, New York, U.S. \|occupation = \|period = 1934–1990 Martin Pearson, and Darrell G. Raynor. A founding member of the Futurians, he was a leading influence on science fiction development and fandom in the 20th-century United States. ==Profile== ===Involvement in science fiction fandom=== The 1979 first edition of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction calls Wollheim "one of the first and most vociferous SF fans." He published numerous fanzines and co-edited the early Fanciful Tales of Time and Space. His importance to early fandom is chronicled in the 1974 book The Immortal Storm by Sam Moskowitz and in the 1977 book The Futurians by Damon Knight. Wollheim was a member of the New York Science Fiction League, one of the clubs established by Hugo Gernsback to promote science fiction. When payment was not forthcoming for the first story he sold to Gernsback, Wollheim formed a group with several other authors, and successfully sued for payment. He was expelled from the Science Fiction League as "a disruptive influence" when he was nineteen. He was not paid for the story, and when he learned that other authors had not been paid either, he said so in the Bulletin of the Terrestrial Fantascience Guild. Publisher Hugo Gernsback eventually settled with Wollheim and the other authors out of court for $75. However, when Wollheim submitted another story ("The Space Lens") under the pseudonym Millard Verne Gordon, His third known story was published in Fanciful Tales of Time and Space, Fall 1936, a fanzine that he edited himself. His daughter Betsy declared: "In true editorial fashion, he was honest about the quality of his own writing. He felt it was fair to middling at best. He always knew that his great talent was as an editor." ===Career as editor and publisher=== Robert Silverberg said that Wollheim was "one of the most significant figures in 20th century American science fiction publishing," adding, "A plausible case could be made that he was the most significant figure—responsible in large measure for the development of the science fiction paperback, the science fiction anthology, and the whole post-Tolkien boom in fantasy fiction." It resulted in Wollheim's editing two of the earliest periodicals devoted to science fiction, the Cosmic Stories and Stirring Science Stories magazines starting in February 1941. After the magazines were cancelled later in 1941, Wollheim was able to find another publisher, Manhattan Fiction Publications, and a fourth issue of Stirring appeared, dated March 1942. Wartime constraints prevented ongoing publication, and there were no more issues of either title. Wollheim edited the first science fiction anthology to be mass-marketed, The Pocket Book of Science Fiction (1943). During this period he also edited eighteen issues of the influential Avon Fantasy Reader as well as three of the Avon Science Fiction Reader. These periodicals contained mostly reprints and a few original stories. In 1952 Wollheim left Avon to work for A. A. Wyn at the Ace Magazine Company and spearheaded a new paperback book list, Ace Books. In 1953 he introduced science fiction to the Ace lineup, This account was disputed by Tolkien, who claimed that he never received any communication from Ace prior to publication of their version. In any case, Tolkien had previously authorized paperback editions of The Hobbit and Tree and Leaf. The authorized Ballantine paperback edition of The Lord of the Rings was then published in November, 1965. Ace subsequently agreed to cease publishing the unauthorized edition and to pay Tolkien for their sales following a grassroots campaign by Tolkien's U.S. fans. A 1993 court determined that the copyright loophole suggested by Ace Books was invalid and its paperback edition was found to have been a violation of copyright under U.S. law (at this time, the U.S. had yet to join the International Copyright Convention, and most laws on the books existed to protect domestic creations from foreign infringement. Houghton Mifflin was technically in violation of the law when they exceeded their import limits and failed to renew their interim copyright). In the Locus obituary for Donald Wollheim, however, more details emerge: {{blockquote\|Houghton-Mifflin had imported sheets instead of printing their own edition, but they didn't want to sell paperback rights. Ace printed the first paperback edition and caused such a furor that Tolkien rewrote the books enough to get a new copyright, then sold them to Ballantine. The rest is history. Although Ace and Wollheim have become the villains in the Tolkien publishing gospel, it's probable that the whole Tolkien boom would not have happened if Ace hadn't published them. Upon Wollheim's death in 1990, the prolific editor Robert Silverberg argued (above) that he may have been "the most significant figure" in American SF publishing. The novel was never published, but Jordan went on to write the immensely successful The Wheel of Time series for a different publisher. Marion Zimmer Bradley referred to him as "a second father", Frederick Pohl called him "a founder", From 1975 on, Wollheim received several special awards for his contributions to science fiction and to fantasy, Mike Mars, Astronaut (1961) Mike Mars Flies the X-15 (1961) Mike Mars at Cape Canaveral (renamed Mike Mars at Cape Kennedy when published in paperback in 1966) (1961) Mike Mars in Orbit (1961) Mike Mars Flies the Dyna-Soar (1962) Mike Mars, South Pole Spaceman (1962) Mike Mars and the Mystery Satellite (1963) Mike Mars Around the Moon (1964) ====Nonfiction==== A Year Among the Girls (as Darrell G. Raynor) (1966) (concerning his crossdressing experiences and Casa Susanna) The Universe Makers: Science Fiction Today (1971): a "survey and behind-the-scenes look" at science fiction from the Golden Age onward)	[ "grassroots", "Lin Carter", "Mimic (film)", "Brian Stableford", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1968", "Samuel R. Delany", "Copyright law of the United States", "Richard Wilson (author)", "H. G. Wells", "The Wheel of Time", "James Blish", "The 1975 Annual World's Best SF", "Ambrose Bierce", "cross-dressing", "American people", "Damon Knight", "Lignin", "EMP Museum", "Fritz Leiber", "Michael Coney", "Avon Fantasy Reader", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1971", "Stirring Science Stories", "DAW Books", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1969", "The 1974 Annual World's Best SF", "Thomas Burnett Swann", "Bud Webster", "The Secret of the Martian Moons", "Ursula K. Le Guin", "Poul Anderson", "Golden Age of Science Fiction", "Guillermo del Toro", "University of Kansas", "New York City", "Betsy Wollheim", "Avram Davidson", "Isaac Asimov", "The 1977 Annual World's Best SF", "The 1988 Annual World's Best SF", "Ballantine Books", "Fanciful Tales of Time and Space", "Edwin Charles Tubb", "Dune (novel)", "Internet Archive", "The 1976 Annual World's Best SF", "Times Without Number", "International Copyright Convention", "The 1979 Annual World's Best SF", "Celia S. Friedman", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1970", "New American Library", "Cosmic Stories", "Robert A. W. Lowndes", "woman", "List of science fiction authors", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Hannes Bok", "Robert Silverberg", "Thomas Sigismund Stribling", "The 1972 Annual World's Best SF", "Fantasy Amateur Press Association", "The 1987 Annual World's Best SF", "Winston Science Fiction", "A. Merritt", "Kenneth Bulmer", "Stephen Vincent Benét", "Hugo Gernsback", "New York (state)", "The 1984 Annual World's Best SF", "Robert Jordan", "Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1966", "Wonder Stories", "Theodore Sturgeon", "The 1990 Annual World's Best SF", "Houghton Mifflin", "Philip K. Dick", "Judith Merril", "Andre Norton", "The 1978 Annual World's Best SF", "Catskills", "Locus Publications", "fantasy fiction", "Frederik Pohl", "The 1982 Annual World's Best SF", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1967", "Avon Science Fiction Reader", "The Hobbit", "The 1983 Annual World's Best SF", "Twentieth-Century Science-Fiction Writers", "Cyril Kornbluth", "Virginia Kidd", "Algis Budrys", "Philcon", "Jennifer Roberson", "Ace Double", "A. E. van Vogt", "Tad Williams", "upstate New York", "fantasy", "Robert Scholes", "Casa Susanna", "Worldcon", "Jack Vance", "Barrington Bayley", "John Brunner (novelist)", "Science fiction", "William S. Burroughs", "Roger Zelazny", "Futurians", "H. P. Lovecraft", "The Lord of the Rings", "Tanith Lee", "Sébastien Lifshitz", "List of science fiction editors", "American Experience (season 35)", "Robert A. Heinlein", "The 1985 Annual World's Best SF", "The Secret of the Ninth Planet", "A. A. Wyn", "C. S. Lewis", "Gordon R. Dickson", "Downbelow Station", "The 1989 Annual World's Best SF", "Junkie (novel)", "Michael Shea (author)", "crossdressing", "World's Best Science Fiction: 1965", "Avon (publishers)", "Tree and Leaf", "The 1980 Annual World's Best SF", "John W. Campbell", "Terry Carr", "Larry T. Shaw", "The 1973 Annual World's Best SF", "science fiction fandom", "Leigh Brackett", "C. J. Cherryh", "historical fantasy", "NASA", "The 1986 Annual World's Best SF", "Jack Gaughan", "The Secret of Saturn's Rings", "John B. Michel", "Ace Books", "Arthur W. Saha", "A. Bertram Chandler", "Marion Zimmer Bradley", "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", "The 1981 Annual World's Best SF" ]
8,844	Digital cinema	Digital cinema is the digital technology used within the film industry to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Whereas film reels have to be shipped to movie theaters, a digital movie can be distributed to cinemas in a number of ways: over the Internet or dedicated satellite links, or by sending hard drives or optical discs such as Blu-ray discs, then projected using a digital video projector instead of a film projector. Typically, digital movies are shot using digital movie cameras or in animation transferred from a file and are edited using a non-linear editing system (NLE). The NLE is often a video editing application installed in one or more computers that may be networked to access the original footage from a remote server, share or gain access to computing resources for rendering the final video, and allow several editors to work on the same timeline or project. Alternatively a digital movie could be a film reel that has been digitized using a motion picture film scanner and then restored, or, a digital movie could be recorded using a film recorder onto film stock for projection using a traditional film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and does not necessarily use traditional television or other traditional high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates. In digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K (2048×1080 or 2.2 megapixels) or 4K (4096×2160 or 8.8 megapixels). The 2K and 4K resolutions used in digital cinema projection are often referred to as DCI 2K and DCI 4K. DCI stands for Digital Cinema Initiatives. As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most theaters across the world converted to digital video projection. Digital cinema technology has continued to develop over the years with 3D, RPX, 4DX and ScreenX, allowing moviegoers more immersive experiences. ==History== The transition from film to digital video was preceded by cinema's transition from analog to digital audio, with the release of the Dolby Digital (AC-3) audio coding standard in 1991. Its main basis is the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), a lossy audio compression algorithm. It is a modification of the discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm, which was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972 and was originally intended for image compression. The DCT was adapted into the MDCT by J.P. Princen, A.W. Johnson and Alan B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987, and then Dolby Laboratories adapted the MDCT algorithm along with perceptual coding principles to develop the AC-3 audio format for cinema needs. In conjunction with Texas Instruments, the movie was publicly demonstrated in five theaters across the United States (Philadelphia, Portland (Oregon), Minneapolis, Providence, and Orlando). ===Foundations=== In the United States, on June 18, 1999, Texas Instruments' DLP Cinema projector technology was publicly demonstrated on two screens in Los Angeles and New York for the release of Lucasfilm's Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. In Europe, on February 2, 2000, Texas Instruments' DLP Cinema projector technology was publicly demonstrated, by Philippe Binant, on one screen in Paris for the release of Toy Story 2. From 1997 to 2000, the JPEG 2000 image compression standard was developed by a Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) committee chaired by Touradj Ebrahimi (later the JPEG president). In contrast to the original 1992 JPEG standard, which is a DCT-based lossy compression format for static digital images, JPEG 2000 is a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) based compression standard that could be adapted for motion imaging video compression with the Motion JPEG 2000 extension. JPEG 2000 technology was later selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004. ===Initiatives=== On January 19, 2000, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, in the United States, initiated the first standards group dedicated towards developing digital cinema. By December 2000, there were 15 digital cinema screens in the United States and Canada, 11 in Western Europe, 4 in Asia, and 1 in South America. Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI) was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of many motion picture studios (Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony Pictures, Universal and Warner Bros.) to develop a system specification for digital cinema. In April 2004, in cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material (the ASC/DCI StEM material) for testing of 2K and 4K playback and compression technologies. DCI selected JPEG 2000 as the basis for the compression in the system the same year. Initial tests with JPEG 2000 produced bit rates of around 75125 Mbit/s for 2K resolution and 100200 Mbit/s for 4K resolution. In 2005 the UK Film Council Digital Screen Network launched in the UK by Arts Alliance Media creating a chain of 250 2K digital cinema systems. The roll-out was completed in 2006. This was the first mass roll-out in Europe. AccessIT/Christie Digital also started a roll-out in the United States and Canada. By mid 2006, about 400 theaters were equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month. In August 2006, the Malayalam digital movie Moonnamathoral, produced by Benzy Martin, was distributed via satellite to cinemas, thus becoming the first Indian digital cinema. This was done by Emil and Eric Digital Films, a company based at Thrissur using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore-based DG2L Technologies. In January 2007, Guru became the first Indian film mastered in the DCI-compliant JPEG 2000 Interop format and also the first Indian film to be previewed digitally, internationally, at the Elgin Winter Garden in Toronto. This film was digitally mastered at Real Image Media Technologies in India. In 2007, the UK became home to Europe's first DCI-compliant fully digital multiplex cinemas; Odeon Hatfield and Odeon Surrey Quays (in London), with a total of 18 digital screens, were launched on 9 February 2007. By March 2007, with the release of Disney's Meet the Robinsons, about 600 screens had been equipped with digital projectors. In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema Virtual Print Fee (VPF) agreements (with 20th Century Fox and Universal Pictures). In March 2009 AMC Theatres announced that it closed a $315 million deal with Sony to replace all of its movie projectors with 4K digital projectors starting in the second quarter of 2009; it was anticipated that this replacement would be finished by 2012. As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most theaters across the world converted to digital video projection. In January 2011, the total number of digital screens worldwide was 36,242, up from 16,339 at end 2009 or a growth rate of 121.8 percent during the year. There were 10,083 d-screens in Europe as a whole (28.2 percent of global figure), 16,522 in the United States and Canada (46.2 percent of global figure) and 7,703 in Asia (21.6 percent of global figure). Worldwide progress was slower as in some territories, particularly Latin America and Africa. As of 31 March 2015, 38,719 screens (out of a total of 39,789 screens) in the United States have been converted to digital, 3,007 screens in Canada have been converted, and 93,147 screens internationally have been converted. By the end of 2017, virtually all of the world's cinema screens were digital (98%). Digital cinema technology has continued to develop over the years with 3D, RPX, 4DX and ScreenX, allowing moviegoers with more immersive experiences. Despite the fact that today, virtually all global movie theaters have converted their screens to digital cinemas, some major motion pictures even as of 2019 are shot on film. For example, Quentin Tarantino released his latest film Once Upon a Time in Hollywood in 70 mm and 35 mm in selected theaters across the United States and Canada. ==Elements== In addition to the equipment already found in a film-based movie theatre (e.g., a sound reinforcement system, screen, etc.), a DCI-compliant digital cinema requires a DCI-compliant digital projector and a powerful computer known as a server. Movies are supplied to the theatre as a set of digital files called a Digital Cinema Package (DCP). For a typical feature film, these files will be anywhere between 90 GB and 300 GB of data (roughly two to six times the information of a Blu-ray disc) and may arrive as a physical delivery on a conventional computer hard drive or via satellite or fibre-optic broadband Internet. As of 2013, physical deliveries of hard drives were most common in the industry. Promotional trailers arrive on a separate hard drive and range between 200 GB and 400 GB in size. Ingest of DCP files may be done at each cabin’s projector-server or may be stored in a central server called a Digital Cinema Library sharing its content over the cinema local area network (LAN) and managed by the Theater Management System (software). Regardless of how the DCP arrives, it first needs to be copied onto the internal hard drives of the server, either via an eSATA connection, or via a closed network, a process known as "ingesting." DCPs can be, and in the case of feature films almost always are, encrypted, to prevent illegal copying and piracy. The necessary decryption keys are supplied separately, usually as email attachments or via download, and then "ingested" via USB. Keys are time-limited and will expire after the end of the period for which the title has been booked. They are also locked to the hardware (server and projector) that is to screen the film, so if the theatre wishes to move the title to another screen or extend the run, a new key must be obtained from the distributor. Several versions of the same feature can be sent together. The original version (OV) is used as the basis of all the other playback options. Version files (VF) may have a different sound format (e.g. 7.1 as opposed to 5.1 surround sound) or subtitles. 2D and 3D versions are often distributed on the same hard drive. The playback of the content is controlled by the server using a "playlist". As the name implies, this is a list of all the content that is to be played as part of the performance. The playlist will be created by a member of the theatre's staff using proprietary software that runs on the server. In addition to listing the content to be played the playlist also includes automation cues that allow the playlist to control the projector, the sound system, auditorium lighting, tab curtains and screen masking (if present), etc. The playlist can be started manually, by clicking the "play" button on the server's monitor screen, or automatically at pre-set times. The Theater Manager System (TMS) is a central system software for the whole cinema house, handling the central cinema content library and preparing the playback sessions (playlists) with the correct KDM keys and the selected cinema content moved to each projector. ==Technology and standards== ===Digital Cinema Initiatives=== Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI), a joint venture of the six major studios, published the first version (V1.0) of a system specification for digital cinema in July 2005. The main declared objectives of the specification were to define a digital cinema system that would "present a theatrical experience that is better than what one could achieve now with a traditional 35mm Answer Print", to provide global standards for interoperability such that any DCI-compliant content could play on any DCI-compliant hardware anywhere in the world and to provide robust protection for the intellectual property of the content providers. The DCI specification calls for picture encoding using the ISO/IEC 15444-1 "JPEG2000" (.j2c) standard and use of the CIE XYZ color space at 12 bits per component encoded with a 2.6 gamma applied at projection. Two levels of resolution for both content and projectors are supported: 2K (2048×1080) or 2.2 MP at 24 or 48 frames per second, and 4K (4096×2160) or 8.85 MP at 24 frames per second. The specification ensures that 2K content can play on 4K projectors and vice versa. Smaller resolutions in one direction are also supported (the image gets automatically centered). Later versions of the standard added additional playback rates (like 25 fps in SMPTE mode). For the sound component of the content the specification provides for up to 16 channels of uncompressed audio using the "Broadcast Wave" (.wav) format at 24 bits and 48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling. Playback is controlled by an XML-format Composition Playlist, into an MXF-compliant file at a maximum data rate of 250 Mbit/s. Details about encryption, key management, and logging are all discussed in the specification as are the minimum specifications for the projectors employed including the color gamut, the contrast ratio and the brightness of the image. While much of the specification codifies work that had already been ongoing in the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), the specification is important in establishing a content owner framework for the distribution and security of first-release motion-picture content. ===National Association of Theatre Owners=== In addition to DCI's work, the National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO) released its Digital Cinema System Requirements. The document addresses the requirements of digital cinema systems from the operational needs of the exhibitor, focusing on areas not addressed by DCI, including access for the visually impaired and hearing impaired, workflow inside the cinema, and equipment interoperability. In particular, NATO's document details requirements for the Theatre Management System (TMS), the governing software for digital cinema systems within a theatre complex, and provides direction for the development of security key management systems. As with DCI's document, NATO's document is also important to the SMPTE standards effort. ===E-Cinema=== The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) began work on standards for digital cinema in 2000. It was clear by that point in time that HDTV did not provide a sufficient technological basis for the foundation of digital cinema playback. In Europe, India and Japan however, there is still a significant presence of HDTV for theatrical presentations. Agreements within the ISO standards body have led to these non-compliant systems being referred to as Electronic Cinema Systems (E-Cinema). ==Projectors== Only four manufacturers make DCI-approved digital cinema projectors; these are Barco, Christie, Sharp/NEC and Sony. Except for Sony, who used to use their own SXRD technology, all use the Digital light processing (DLP) technology developed by Texas Instruments (TI). D-Cinema projectors are similar in principle to digital projectors used in industry, education, and domestic home cinemas, but differ in two important respects. First, projectors must conform to the strict performance requirements of the DCI specification. Second, projectors must incorporate anti-piracy devices intended to enforce copyright compliance such as licensing limits. For these reasons all projectors intended to be sold to theaters for screening current release movies must be approved by the DCI before being put on sale. They now pass through a process called CTP (compliance test plan). Because feature films in digital form are encrypted and the decryption keys (KDMs) are locked to the serial number of the server used (linking to both the projector serial number and server is planned in the future), a system will allow playback of a protected feature only with the required KDM. ===DLP Cinema=== Three manufacturers have licensed the DLP Cinema technology developed by Texas Instruments (TI): Christie Digital Systems, Barco, and NEC. While NEC is a relative newcomer to Digital Cinema, Christie is the main player in the U.S. and Barco takes the lead in Europe and Asia. Initially DCI-compliant DLP projectors were available in 2K only, but from early 2012, when TI's 4K DLP chip went into full production, DLP projectors have been available in both 2K and 4K versions. Manufacturers of DLP-based cinema projectors can now also offer 4K upgrades to some of the more recent 2K models. Early DLP Cinema projectors, which were deployed primarily in the United States, used limited 1280×1024 resolution or the equivalent of 1.3 MP (megapixels). Digital Projection Incorporated (DPI) designed and sold a few DLP Cinema units (is8-2K) when TI's 2K technology debuted but then abandoned the D-Cinema market while continuing to offer DLP-based projectors for non-cinema purposes. Although based on the same 2K TI "light engine" as those of the major players they are so rare as to be virtually unknown in the industry. They are still widely used for pre-show advertising but not usually for feature presentations. TI's technology is based on the use of digital micromirror devices (DMDs). These are MEMS devices that are manufactured from silicon using similar technology to that of computer chips. The surface of these devices is covered by a very large number of microscopic mirrors, one for each pixel, so a 2K device has about 2.2 million mirrors and a 4K device about 8.8 million. Each mirror vibrates several thousand times a second between two positions: In one, light from the projector's lamp is reflected towards the screen, in the other away from it. The proportion of the time the mirror is in each position varies according to the required brightness of each pixel. Three DMD devices are used, one for each of the primary colors. Light from the lamp, usually a Xenon arc lamp similar to those used in film projectors with a power between 1 kW and 7 kW, is split by colored filters into red, green and blue beams which are directed at the appropriate DMD. The 'forward' reflected beam from the three DMDs is then re-combined and focused by the lens onto the cinema screen. Later projectors may use lasers instead of xenon lamps. ===Sony SXRD=== Alone amongst the manufacturers of DCI-compliant cinema projectors Sony decided to develop its own technology rather than use TI's DLP technology. SXRD (Silicon X-tal (Crystal) Reflective Display) projectors have only ever been manufactured in 4K form and, until the launch of the 4K DLP chip by TI, Sony SXRD projectors were the only 4K DCI-compatible projectors on the market. Unlike DLP projectors, however, SXRD projectors do not present the left and right eye images of stereoscopic movies sequentially, instead they use half the available area on the SXRD chip for each eye image. Thus during stereoscopic presentations the SXRD projector functions as a sub 2K projector, the same for HFR 3D Content. However, Sony decided in late April 2020 that they would no longer manufacture digital cinema projectors. ===Stereo 3D images=== In late 2005, interest in digital 3D stereoscopic projection led to a new willingness on the part of theaters to co-operate in installing 2K stereo installations to show Disney's Chicken Little in 3D film. Six more digital 3D movies were released in 2006 and 2007 (including Beowulf, Monster House and Meet the Robinsons). The technology combines a single digital projector fitted with either a polarizing filter (for use with polarized glasses and silver screens), a filter wheel or an emitter for LCD glasses. RealD uses a "ZScreen" for polarisation and MasterImage uses a filter wheel that changes the polarity of projector's light output several times per second to alternate quickly the left-and-right-eye views. Another system that uses a filter wheel is Dolby 3D. The wheel changes the wavelengths of the colours being displayed, and tinted glasses filter these changes so the incorrect wavelength cannot enter the wrong eye. XpanD makes use of an external emitter that sends a signal to the 3D glasses to block out the wrong image from the wrong eye. ===Laser=== RGB laser projection produces the purest BT.2020 colors and the brightest images. ==LED screens== In Asia, on July 13, 2017, an LED screen for digital cinema developed by Samsung Electronics was publicly demonstrated on one screen at Lotte Cinema World Tower in Seoul. The first installation in Europe is in Arena Sihlcity Cinema in Zürich. These displays do not use a projector; instead they use a LED video wall, and can offer higher contrast ratios, higher resolutions, and overall improvements in image quality. Sony already sells MicroLED displays as a replacement for conventional cinema screens. ==Effect on distribution== Digital distribution of movies has the potential to save money for film distributors. Making thousands of prints for a wide-release movie can be expensive. In contrast, at the maximum 250 megabit-per-second data rate (as defined by DCI for digital cinema), a feature-length movie can be stored on an off-the-shelf 300 GB hard drive for $50 and a broad release of 4000 'digital prints' might cost $200,000. In addition hard drives can be returned to distributors for reuse. With several hundred movies distributed every year, the industry saves billions of dollars. The digital-cinema roll-out was stalled by the slow pace at which exhibitors acquired digital projectors, since the savings would be seen not by themselves but by distribution companies. The Virtual Print Fee model was created to address this by passing some of the saving on to the cinemas. As a consequence of the rapid conversion to digital projection, the number of theatrical releases exhibited on film is dwindling. As of 4 May 2014, 37,711 screens (out of a total of 40,048 screens) in the United States have been converted to digital, 3,013 screens in Canada have been converted, and 79,043 screens internationally have been converted. of a feature film by Bernard Pauchon, Alain Lorentz, Raymond Melwig and Philippe Binant. Then, reliable file delivery of DCPs via Internet emerged, thanks to higher bandwidth connections in cinemas, first with bonded DSL lines, then with fiber connection to the Internet. ===Live broadcasting to cinemas or event cinema === Digital cinemas can deliver live broadcasts (mainly via satellite digital television) or broadband Internet (streaming media) from performances or events. This began initially with live broadcasts from the New York Metropolitan Opera delivering regular live broadcasts into cinemas and has been widely imitated ever since. Leading territories providing the content are the UK, the US, France and Germany. The Royal Opera House, Sydney Opera House, English National Opera and others have found new and returning audiences captivated by the detail offered by a live digital broadcast featuring handheld and cameras on cranes positioned throughout the venue to capture the emotion that might be missed in a live venue situation. In addition these providers all offer additional value during the intervals e.g. interviews with choreographers, cast members, a backstage tour which would not be on offer at the live event itself. Other live events in this field include live theatre from NT Live, Branagh Live, Royal Shakespeare Company, Shakespeare's Globe, the Royal Ballet, Mariinsky Ballet, the Bolshoi Ballet and the Berlin Philharmoniker. In the last ten years this initial offering of the arts has also expanded to include live and recorded music events such as Take That Live, One Direction Live, Andre Rieu, live musicals such as the recent Miss Saigon and a record-breaking Billy Elliot Live In Cinemas. Live sport, documentary with a live question and answer element such as the recent Oasis documentary, lectures, faith broadcasts, stand-up comedy, museum and gallery exhibitions, TV specials such as the record-breaking Doctor Who fiftieth anniversary special The Day Of The Doctor, have all contributed to creating a valuable revenue stream for cinemas large and small all over the world. Subsequently, live broadcasting, formerly known as Alternative Content, has become known as Event Cinema and a trade association now exists to that end. Ten years on the sector has become a sizeable revenue stream in its own right, earning a loyal following amongst fans of the arts, and the content limited only by the imagination of the producers it would seem. Theatre, ballet, sport, exhibitions, TV specials and documentaries are now established forms of Event Cinema. Worldwide estimations put the likely value of the Event Cinema industry at $1bn by 2019. Event Cinema currently accounts for on average between 1-3% of overall box office for cinemas worldwide but anecdotally it's been reported that some cinemas attribute as much as 25%, 48% and even 51% (the Rio Bio cinema in Stockholm) of their overall box office. It is envisaged ultimately that Event Cinema will account for around 5% of the overall box office globally. Event Cinema saw six worldwide records set and broken over from 2013 to 2015 with notable successes Dr Who ($10.2m in three days at the box office – event was also broadcast on terrestrial TV simultaneously), Pompeii Live by the British Museum, Billy Elliot, Andre Rieu, One Direction, Richard III by the Royal Shakespeare Company. Event Cinema is defined more by the frequency of events rather than by the content itself. Event Cinema events typically appear in cinemas during traditionally quieter times in the cinema week such as the Monday-Thursday daytime/evening slot and are characterised by the One Night Only release, followed by one or possibly more 'Encore' releases a few days or weeks later if the event is successful and sold out. On occasion more successful events have returned to cinemas some months or even years later in the case of NT Live where the audience loyalty and company branding is so strong the content owner can be assured of a good showing at the box office. ==Pros and cons== === Pros === The digital formation of sets and locations, especially in the time of growing film series and sequels, is that virtual sets, once computer generated and stored, can be easily revived for future films. Considering digital film images are documented as data files on hard disk or flash memory, varying systems of edits can be executed with the alteration of a few settings on the editing console with the structure being composed virtually in the computer's memory. A broad choice of effects can be sampled simply and rapidly, without the physical constraints posed by traditional cut-and-stick editing. Paul Thomas Anderson, David O. Russell and Quentin Tarantino Steven Spielberg has stated that though digital projection produces a much better image than film if originally shot in digital, it is "inferior" when it has been converted to digital. He attempted at one stage to release Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull solely on film. Paul Thomas Anderson recently was able to create 70-mm film prints for his film The Master. Film critic Roger Ebert criticized the use of DCPs after a cancelled film festival screening of Brian DePalma's film Passion at New York Film Festival as a result of a lockup due to the coding system. The theoretical resolution of 35 mm film is greater than that of 2K digital cinema. 2K resolution (2048×1080) is also only slightly greater than that of consumer based 1080p HD (1920x1080). However, since digital post-production techniques became the standard in the early 2000s, the majority of movies, whether photographed digitally or on 35 mm film, have been mastered and edited at the 2K resolution. Moreover, 4K post production was becoming more common as of 2013. As projectors are replaced with 4K models the difference in resolution between digital and 35 mm film is somewhat reduced. Digital cinema servers utilize far greater bandwidth over domestic "HD", allowing for a difference in quality (e.g., Blu-ray colour encoding 4:2:0 48 Mbit/s MAX datarate, DCI D-Cinema 4:4:4 250 Mbit/s 2D/3D, 500 Mbit/s HFR3D). Each frame has greater detail. Owing to the smaller dynamic range of digital cameras, correcting poor digital exposures is more difficult than correcting poor film exposures during post-production. A partial solution to this problem is to add complex video-assist technology during the shooting process. However, such technologies are typically available only to high-budget production companies. A theater can purchase a film projector for as little as $10,000 (though projectors intended for commercial cinemas cost two to three times that; to which must be added the cost of a long-play system, which also costs around $10,000, making a total of around $30,000–$40,000) from which they could expect an average life of 30–40 years. By contrast, a digital cinema playback system—including server, media block, and projector—can cost two to three times as much, and would have a greater risk of component failure and obsolescence. (In Britain the cost of an entry-level projector including server, installation, etc., would be £31,000 [$50,000].) Archiving digital masters has also turned out to be both tricky and costly. In a 2007 study, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences found the cost of long-term storage of 4K digital masters to be "enormously higher - 1100% higher - that of the cost of storing film masters." The short history of digital storage media has been one of innovation and, therefore, of obsolescence. Archived digital content must be periodically removed from obsolete physical media to up-to-date media. The expense of digital image capture is not necessarily less than the capture of images onto film; indeed, it is sometimes greater.	[ "Texas Instruments", "Christopher Nolan", "RAID", "Film stock", "Digital distribution", "1990s in film", "Orlando, Florida", "Side by Side (2012 film)", "Digital Signal Processing (journal)", "Dolby Laboratories", "Springer Science & Business Media", "Steven Spielberg", "Sony Pictures", "hard drive", "Blu-ray", "Internet", "digital data", "Broadcast Wave Format", "XML", "Monster House (film)", "Frame rate", "NEC", "Motion JPEG 2000", "Warner Bros.", "Toy Story 2", "movie theater", "The Last Broadcast (film)", "Brian DePalma", "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood", "video projector", "France Télécom", "hard drives", "Philadelphia", "image compression", "5.1 surround sound", "AMC Theatres", "motion picture", "Digital intermediate", "4K resolution", "American Society of Cinematographers", "high-definition video", "Portland, Oregon", "video coding standard", "key management", "Mbit/s", "Charles S. Swartz", "SXRD", "Digital Cinema Initiatives", "Digital cinematography", "digital master", "Chicken Little (2005 film)", "Universal Pictures", "gamma correction", "Barco NV", "Moonnamathoral", "Meet the Robinsons", "Doctor Who", "Simon & Schuster", "Single reel", "Roger Ebert", "Broadcasting", "Passion (2012 film)", "Christie (audiovisual company)", "3D film", "contrast ratio", "Barco (manufacturer)", "Sihlcity", "Virtual Print Fee", "Digital 3D", "sound reinforcement system", "Media Block", "Digital Cinema Package", "Commercial off-the-shelf", "feature film", "Dolby Digital", "Color suite", "audio compression (data)", "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull", "movie projector", "Cinematography", "Lotte Cinema", "communications satellite", "Digital light processing", "discrete cosine transform", "2K resolution", "Walt Disney Studios (division)", "Rec. 2020", "70mm Film", "stereoscopy", "JPEG2000", "Indian film", "digital video", "Sony", "20th Century Fox", "Paramount Pictures", "Joint Photographic Experts Group", "JPEG 2000", "film industry", "MEMS", "The Hindu", "Samsung Electronics", "New York Film Festival", "server (computing)", "JPEG", "joint venture", "high-definition television", "The Times (Trenton)", "Seoul", "color gamut", "Providence, Rhode Island", "MGM", "Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace", "David O. Russell", "Beowulf (2007 film)", "Paul Thomas Anderson", "35 mm movie film", "XpanD 3D", "Display resolution", "CIE 1931 color space", "bit rate", "digital images", "discrete wavelet transform", "digital cinematography", "Gigabyte", "Material Exchange Format", "lossy compression", "Jean-Michel Frodon", "Motion Picture Association of America", "SMPTE", "Guru (2007 film)", "film recorder", "Audio Engineering Society", "Minneapolis", "polarized glasses", "N. Ahmed", "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences", "Quentin Tarantino", "audio coding standard", "non-linear editing system", "Dina Iordanova", "Taylor & Francis", "University of Surrey", "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers", "IMDb", "video compression", "megapixel", "1080p HD", "modified discrete cosine transform", "motion picture film scanner", "National Association of Theatre Owners", "digital movie camera", "digital audio", "perceptual coding", "Xenon arc lamp", "video wall", "satellite", "The Master (2012 film)", "Malayalam", "ZScreen", "Dolby 3D", "film distributor", "RealD", "LED display", "major film studios", "optical disc" ]
8,845	Democratic Progressive Party	The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) is a centre to centre-left Taiwanese nationalist political party in Taiwan. As the dominant party in the Pan-Green Coalition, one of the two main political camps in Taiwan, the DPP is currently the ruling party in Taiwan, leading a minority government that controls the presidency and the central government. Founded in 1986 by Hsu Hsin-liang, Roger Hsieh and Lin Shui-chuan, a year prior to the end of martial law, the DPP is one of two major parties in Taiwan, the other being the Kuomintang (KMT), a Chinese nationalist party previously ruling the country as a one-party state, and its smaller allies in the Pan-Blue Coalition. It has traditionally been associated with a strong advocacy of human rights, emerging against the authoritarian White Terror that was initiated by the KMT, as well as the promotion of Taiwanese nationalism and identity. Lai Ching-te is the current chairperson of the DPP from 2023, who also serves as the incumbent President and is the third member of the DPP to hold the presidency; he succeeded fellow DPP member Tsai Ing-wen in May 2024. The DPP is a longtime member of Liberal International and a founding member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats. It represented Taiwan in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO). The DPP is widely classified as socially liberal, having been founded as a party for human rights, including factions within the party supporting same-sex marriage and other LGBT rights. On foreign policy, the DPP is more willing to increase military expenditures to prevent military intimidation from the People's Republic of China (PRC) owing to the ambiguous political status of Taiwan. It favors closer ties with democratic nations such as Japan and the United States, as well as the nations of ASEAN as part of its New Southbound Policy. In its policy on cross-strait relations, the DPP as a ruling party chooses to keep the status quo of Taiwan, instead of approaching de jure independence, despite being a pro-independence group in its party platform. The party considers that Taiwan is already a sovereign country under the name "Republic of China" and is never subordinate to the PRC. The DPP is frequently accused by the PRC government of being a primary force in Taiwan to "prevent the Chinese nation from achieving complete reunification" and "halt the process of national rejuvenation" due to the party's outspoken advocacy of the Taiwanese nationalism, its supportive attitude to Taiwanese enjoying the right to decide their own future, and its firm opposition to the notion of "One China", including the alleged "1992 Consensus" narratives by both the PRC and the KMT. ==History== The DPP's roots were in the Tangwai movement, which formed in opposition to the Kuomintang's one-party authoritarian rule under the "party-state" system during martial law. This movement culminated in the formation of the DPP as an alternative, but still illegal, party on 28 September 1986 by eighteen organizing members at Grand Hotel Taipei, with a total of 132 people joining the party in attendance. The new party members contested the 1986 election as "nonpartisan" candidates since competing parties would remain illegal until the following year. These early members of the party, like the tangwai, drew heavily from the ranks of family members and defense lawyers of political prisoners, as well as intellectuals and artists who had spent time abroad. These individuals were strongly committed to political change toward democracy and freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association. The tangwai were not a unified political unit and consisted of factions which carried over into the early DPP. At its founding the DPP consisted of three factions: the Kang group, a moderate faction led by Kang Ning-hsiang, New Tide faction, consisting of intellectuals and social activists led by Wu Nai-ren and Chiou I-jen, and the Progress Faction led by Lin Cheng-chieh, a waishengren opposed to independence. Moderates would later coalesce around the Formosa faction, founded by those arrested during the Formosa Incident after their release from prison. In the early days of the party, the Formosa faction focused on winning elections by wielding the star power of its leaders, while New Tide would focus on ideological mobilization and developing grassroots support for social movements. As a result, the Formosa faction would become more moderate, often bending to public opinion, while New Tide would become more ideologically cohesive. By 1988 the Formosa Faction would dominate high-level positions within the party. The party did not at the outset give explicit support to an independent Taiwanese national identity, partially because moderates such as Hsu Hsin-liang were concerned that such a move that could have invited a violent crackdown by the Kuomintang and alienate voters, but also because some members such as Lin Cheng-chieh supported unification. Partially due to their waning influence within the party and partially due to their ideological commitment, between 1988 and 1991 the New Tide Faction would push the independence issue, bolstered by the return of pro-independence activists from overseas who were previously barred from Taiwan. In 1991, in order to head off the New Tide, party chairman Hsu Hsin-liang of the moderate Formosa faction agreed to include language in the party charter which advocated for the drafting of a new constitution as well as declaration of a new Republic of Taiwan via referendum (which resulted in many pro-unification members leaving the party). However, the party would quickly begin to walk back on this language, and eventually in 1999 the party congress passed a resolution that Taiwan was already an independent country, under the official name "Republic of China", and that any constitutional changes should be approved by the people via referendum, while emphasizing the use of the name "Taiwan" in international settings. Despite its lack of electoral success, the pressure that the DPP created on the ruling KMT via its demands are widely credited in the political reforms of the 1990s, most notably the direct popular election of Republic of China's president and all representatives in the National Assembly and Legislative Yuan, as well the ability to open discuss events from the past such as the February 28 Incident and its long aftermath of martial law, and space for a greater variety of political views and advocacy. Once the DPP had representation in the Legislative Yuan, the party used the legislature as a forum to challenge the ruling KMT. In 1996, DPP Chairman Shih Ming-teh united with the New Party to run for the President of the Legislative Yuan, but lost by one vote. The vote that was missing was legislator Chang Chin-cheng's failure to vote for Shih. As a result, Chang was expelled from the DPP. Post-democratization, the DPP shifted their focus to anti-corruption issues, in particular regarding KMT connections to organized crime as well as "party assets" illegally acquired from the government during martial law. Meanwhile, factions continued to form within the DPP as a mechanism for coalition-building within the party; notably, future President Chen Shui-bian would form the Justice Alliance faction. ===2000–2008: in minority government=== The DPP won the presidency with the election of Chen Shui-bian in March 2000 with a plurality, due to Pan-Blue voters splitting their vote between the Kuomintang and independent candidate James Soong, ending 91 years of KMT rule in the Republic of China. Chen softened the party's stance on independence to appeal to moderate voters, appease the United States, and placate China. He also promised not to change the ROC state symbols or declare formal independence as long as the People's Republic of China did not attack Taiwan. Further, he advocated for economic exchange with China as well as the establishment of transportation links. The DPP initially responded to criticism from the Israeli and German representative offices in Taiwan by saying the advertisement was meant to highlight "people who dared to express their opinions," and claimed some had deliberately misrepresented the content. The DPP's then chair Frank Hsieh later said the advertisement would be retired to avoid causing misunderstanding among victims of Nazism. In 2002, the DPP became the first party other than the KMT to reach a plurality in the Legislative Yuan following the 2001 legislative election. However, a majority coalition between the KMT, People First Party, and New Party prevented it from taking control of the chamber. This coalition was at odds with the presidency from the beginning, and led to President Chen's abandonment of the centrist positions that he ran his campaign on. ====Separate identity from China==== On 30 September 2007, the DPP approved a resolution asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal nation". It struck an accommodating tone by advocating general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name without calling for abandonment of the name Republic of China. ===2008–2016: return to opposition=== In the national elections held in early months of 2008, the DPP won less than 25% of the seats (38.2% vote share) in the new Legislative Yuan while its presidential candidate, former Kaohsiung mayor Frank Hsieh, lost to KMT candidate Ma Ying-jeou by a wide margin (41.55% vs. 58.45%). In May, the DPP elected moderate Tsai Ing-wen as their new leader over fundamentalist Koo Kwang-ming. The DPP vowed to reflect on public misgivings towards the party. Chairperson Tsai insisted on the need for the party to remember its history, defend the Republic of China's sovereignty and national security, and maintain its confidence. The party re-emerged as a voice in Taiwan's political debate when Ma's administration reached the end of its first year in office. The DPP marked the anniversary with massive rallies in Taipei and Kaohsiung. Tsai's address to the crowd in Taipei on 17 May proclaimed a "citizens' movement to protect Republic of China" seeking to "protect our democracy and protect Republic of China." === 2016–2024: in majority government === On 16 January 2016, Taiwan held a general election for its presidency and for the Legislative Yuan. The DPP gained the presidential seat, with the election of Tsai Ing-wen, who received 56.12% of the votes, while her opponent Eric Chu gained 31.2%. In addition, the DPP gained a majority of the Legislative Yuan, winning 68 seats in the 113-seat legislature, up from 40 in 2012 election, thus giving them the majority for the first time in its history. President Tsai won reelection in the 2020 Taiwanese presidential election on 11 January 2020, and the Democratic Progressive Party retained its legislative majority, winning 61 seats. === 2024–present: return to minority government === The 13 January 2024 presidential election and legislative elections led to the election of Lai Ching-te who won with 40.1% of the votes, while his opponents, Hou Yu-ih of the KMT had 33.5% of the votes, and Ko Wen-je of the Taiwan People's Party with 26.5% of the vote. In addition, this election made the DPP the first party to win three consecutive presidential terms since direct elections were introduced in 1996. The DPP was unable to retain its majority in the Legislative Yuan, losing ten seats. ==Ideology and policies== The DPP is a centrist to center-left party generally described as progressive. as well as social democratic. The party takes a Taiwanese nationalist position, advocating for strengthening Taiwanese identity; Programs supported by the party include moderate social welfare policies involving the rights of women, senior citizens, children, young people, labor, minorities, indigenous peoples, farmers, and other disadvantaged sectors of the society. Furthermore, its platform includes a legal and political order based on human rights and democracy; balanced economic and financial administration; fair and open social welfare; educational and cultural reform; and, independent defense and peaceful foreign policy with closer ties to United States and Japan. The party is socially liberal and has a progressive stance that includes support for gender equality and same-sex marriage under Tsai's leadership, and also has a conservative base that includes support from the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan. === Stance on Taiwanese independence === The primary political axis in Taiwan involves the issue of Taiwan independence versus Chinese unification. Although the differences tend to be portrayed in polarized terms, both major coalitions have developed modified, nuanced and often complex positions. Though opposed in the philosophical origins, the practical differences between such positions can sometimes be subtle. The current official position of the party is that Taiwan is an independent and sovereign country whose territory consists of Taiwan and its surrounding smaller islands and whose sovereignty derives only from the ROC citizens living in Taiwan (similar philosophy of self-determination), based on the 1999 "Resolution on Taiwan's Future". It considers Taiwan an independent nation under the name of Republic of China, making a formal declaration of independence unnecessary. By contrast, the KMT or pan-blue coalition agrees that the Republic of China is an independent and sovereign country that is not part of the PRC, but argues that a one China principle (with different definitions across the strait) can be used as the basis for talks with China. The KMT also opposes Taiwan independence and argues that efforts to establish a Taiwanese national identity separated from the Chinese national identity are unnecessary and needlessly provocative. Some KMT conservative officials have called efforts from DPP "anti-China" (opposing migrants from mainland China, who DPP officials did not recognize as Taiwanese, but Chinese). At the other end of the political spectrum, the acceptance by the DPP of the symbols of the Republic of China is opposed by the Taiwan Solidarity Union. The first years of the DPP as the ruling party drew accusations from the opposition as a self-styled Taiwanese nationalist party, the DPP was itself inadequately sensitive to the ethnographic diversity of Taiwan's population. Where the KMT had been guilty of Chinese chauvinism, the critics charged, the DPP might offer nothing more as a remedy than Hoklo chauvinism. The DPP argues that its efforts to promote a Taiwanese national identity are merely an effort to normalize a Taiwanese identity repressed during years of authoritarian Kuomintang rule. === Support === Since the democratization of Taiwan in the 1990s, the DPP has had its strongest performance in the Hokkien-speaking counties and cities of Taiwan, compared with the predominantly Hakka and Mandarin-speaking counties, that tend to support the Kuomintang. The deep-rooted hostility between Taiwanese aborigines and (Taiwanese) Hoklo, and the effective KMT networks within aboriginal communities contribute to aboriginal skepticism against the DPP and the aboriginals' tendency to vote for the KMT. Aboriginals have criticized politicians for abusing the "indigenization" movement for political gains, such as aboriginal opposition to the DPP's "rectification" by recognizing the Truku for political reasons, where the Atayal and Seediq slammed the Truku for their name rectification. In 2008, the majority of mountain townships voted for Ma Ying-jeou. However, the DPP share of the aboriginal vote has been rising. == Corruption == The DPP has been plagued by frequent corruption scandals which has increased feeling amongst voters that fraud is an acceptable practice within the party. Former DPP president of Taiwan Chen Shui-bian has also been involved in a raft of corruption scandals that continue to affect the party's reputation. Chen was sentenced to life imprisonment on corruption charges in 2009 that his supporters said were politically motivated. Chen was acquitted of embezzling millions of New Taiwan Dollars from a special presidential fund while he was in power, but was found guilty of money laundering and forging documents, and was given an additional two-year sentence. As Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen prepared to leave office in 2024, she declined to comment on whether or not she would pardon Chen of his corruption convictions. In 2024, the former DPP Premier of the Republic of China Cheng Wen-tsan was detained on corruption charges relating to his time as Taoyuan mayor, former DPP Tainan Council speaker Lai Mei-hui received a 2-year suspended sentence for corruption, and prosecutors began an investigation into DPP Legislator Lin I-chin for allegedly fraudulently claiming public funds. ==Structure== The DPP National Party Congress selects, for two-year terms, the 30 members of the Central Executive Committee and the 11 members of the Central Review Committee. The Central Executive Committee, in turn, chooses the 10 members of the Central Standing Committee. Since 2012, the DPP has had a "China Affairs Committee" to deal with Cross-Strait relations; the name caused some controversy within the party and in the Taiwan media, with critics suggesting that "Mainland Affairs Committee" or "Cross-Strait Affairs Committee" would show less of a hostile "One Country on Each Side" attitude. === Factions === For many years the DPP officially recognized several factions within its membership, such as the New Tide faction (), the Formosa faction (), the Justice Alliance faction () and Welfare State Alliance faction (). Different factions endorse slightly different policies and are often generationally identifiable, representing individuals who had entered the party at different times. In 2006, the party ended recognition of factions. The factions have since stated that they will comply with the resolution. However, the factions are still referred to by name in national media. As of 2022, Taiwan News identified at least 7 factions within the party: New Tide faction () - William Lai, Chen Chu, Tsai Chi-chang, Chiu Tai-san, Pan Men-an, Lai Pin-yu TNCPA () - Lin Chia-lung, Fifi Chen Ting-fei, Lin You-chang Green Fellowship Association () - Ho Chih-wei Taiwan Forward() - Lin Kun-hai, Hsu Kuo-yung Su Faction() - Su Tseng-chang Ing Faction ()- Tsai Ing-wen, Chen Ming-wen, Kuan Bi-ling Democracy Living Water Connection() - Cho Jung-tai, Luo Wen-jia, Lin Fei-fan ===Chair=== Current Chair: Lai Ching-te ===Secretary-General=== Current Secretary-General: Lin Hsi-yao (since May 2020) ===Legislative Yuan leader (caucus leader)=== Shih Ming-teh (1 February 1993 – 1 February 2002) Ker Chien-ming (since 1 February 2002) ==Election results== ===Presidential elections=== ===Legislative elections=== ===Local elections=== ===National Assembly elections===	[ "ASEAN", "Kang Ning-hsiang", "LGBT rights in Taiwan", "Taiwanese nationalism", "1992 Consensus", "Tangwai movement", "President of the Republic of China", "Black gold (politics)", "1997 Taiwanese local elections", "2005 Taiwan National Assembly election", "Zhongzheng District", "German Institute Taipei", "Green", "human rights", "Formosa Incident", "Green Fellowship Association", "Nazism", "Chen Chien-jen", "Shih Ming-teh", "Freedom in the World", "Wong Chin-chu", "social welfare", "Anti-communism", "Government of China", "Justice Alliance faction", "Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats", "The News Lens", "Liberalism", "Lin Kun-hai", "centrism", "Taiwan Solidarity Union", "Progressivism in Taiwan", "Huang Hsin-chieh", "self-determination", "Lin Fei-fan", "Chinese imperialism", "2014 Taiwanese local elections", "1996 Taiwan presidential election", "People First Party (Republic of China)", "3-19 shooting incident", "Social democracy", "List of major liberal parties considered left", "2010 Taiwanese municipal elections", "Taiwan Value", "Lin Hsi-yao", "Chai Trong-rong", "Hsu Hsin-liang", "Taiwan Times", "Welfare State Alliance faction", "Progressivism", "Chiou I-jen", "Taiwan News", "Lin I-chin", "Hou Yu-ih", "Cheng Wen-tsan", "Kaohsiung", "2006 Democratic Progressive Party chairmanship election", "Centrism", "William Lai", "New Party (Taiwan)", "Republic of China independence", "Republic of Taiwan", "2016 Taiwan general election", "Sunflower Student Movement", "Special municipality (Taiwan)", "right-wing", "Pan-Green Coalition", "World Scientific", "Liberal International", "Taipei Times", "Taiwan", "Centre-left politics", "Yu Shyi-kun", "List of presidents of the Republic of China", "Hsieh Tsung-min", "Taiwan consensus", "February 28 Incident", "Cross-Strait relations", "Anti-imperialism", "Martial law in Taiwan", "Chiu Tai-san", "China Times", "Premier of the Republic of China", "Su Faction", "political party", "Democracy Living Water Connection", "1989 Taiwanese legislative election", "Lee Teng-hui", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)", "2018 Taiwanese local elections", "Referendums in Taiwan", "Kuomintang", "2024 Taiwanese presidential election", "2004 Taiwan legislative election", "Dang Guo", "2000 Taiwan presidential election", "Township (Taiwan)", "One China principle", "New Taiwan dollar", "2012 Taiwan presidential election", "Independent politician", "Chairperson of the Democratic Progressive Party", "United States", "2024 Taiwanese legislative election", "Taoyuan, Taiwan", "2002 Taiwanese municipal elections", "2004 Taiwan presidential election", "2020 Taiwanese presidential election", "Presbyterian Church in Taiwan", "Chinese Communist Party", "1996 Taiwan National Assembly election", "National Assembly of the Republic of China", "Taiwanese Mandarin", "James Soong", "Culture of Taiwan", "Taiwanese people", "Ko Wen-je", "Green Terror (Taiwan)", "1996 Taiwanese presidential election", "Hsiao Bi-khim", "1998 Taiwanese municipal elections", "White Terror (Taiwan)", "Populism", "One-party state", "Victims of Nazi Germany", "Pan-Blue", "big tent", "Ho Chih-wei", "Taiwanese Hokkien", "International Journal of Communication", "Lin Yu-chang", "2004 Taiwanese cross-Strait relations referendum", "Lin Chia-lung", "Resolution (law)", "Lin Shui-chuan", "2001 Taiwanese local elections", "democracy", "Routledge", "Wu Nai-ren", "New Southbound Policy", "Business International Corporation", "Jacobin magazine", "Tsai Chi-chang", "2008 Taiwan legislative election", "Roger Hsieh", "2022 Taiwanese local elections", "Taiwanese aborigines", "Lin Yi-hsiung", "cross-strait relations", "1994 Taiwanese municipal elections", "Ker Chien-ming", "Neocolonialism", "One China", "Hoklo people", "opposition party", "Peng Ming-min", "Cho Jung-tai", "Taiwan independence movement", "Adolf Hitler", "Hsu Kuo-yung", "one-party state", "1991 Taiwan National Assembly election", "party platform", "China", "County-administered city", "Four Noes and One Without", "Ma Ying-jeou", "Chen Chu", "TNCPA", "2006 Taiwanese municipal elections", "Government of the Republic of China", "Taiwan Forward", "Major party", "Legislative Yuan", "Lin Cheng-chieh", "Koo Kwang-ming", "Lai Ching-te", "Freedom House", "Huadu (Taiwan)", "2016 Taiwanese legislative election", "Su Jia-chyuan", "Same-sex marriage in Taiwan", "2016 Taiwanese presidential election", "Pan Men-an", "Luo Wen-jia", "Grand Hotel (Taipei)", "Taiwanese Hakka", "Social liberalism", "Kuan Bi-ling", "1992 Taiwan legislative election", "New Tide faction", "Wu Shu-jen", "The Economist", "Edinburgh University Press", "direct popular election", "2005 Taiwanese local elections", "New Party (Republic of China)", "One Country on Each Side", "2012 Taiwan legislative election", "Su Tseng-chang", "chauvinism", "Chinese unification", "anti-China", "Lai Pin-yu", "Ing Faction", "1998 Taiwan legislative election", "1995 Taiwan legislative election", "Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization", "minority government", "Formosa faction", "Eric Chu", "Tsai Ing-wen", "Self-determination", "Annette Lu", "2008 Taiwan presidential election", "Taiwan the Formosa", "Frank Hsieh", "gender equality", "2020 Taiwanese legislative election", "The China Quarterly", "ruling party", "Authoritarianism", "Taipei", "Mainland Affairs Council", "1986 Taiwan legislative election", "Resolution on Taiwan's Future", "Anti-Secession Law", "waishengren", "2001 Taiwan legislative election", "Chen Shui-bian", "The Nation", "Chinese nationalism", "Pan-Blue Coalition", "Taiwan independence", "Taiwan People's Party", "2020 Taiwan presidential election", "The New York Times", "Chang Chin-cheng", "2016 Taiwan presidential election", "Foreign relations of Taiwan", "Chen Ming-wen", "Japan", "Huang Shin-chieh", "Human rights in Taiwan", "political status of Taiwan", "Chen Ting-fei", "2009 Taiwanese local elections" ]
8,846	Datura	Datura is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae). They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets or mad apple (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus Brugmansia). Other English common names include moonflower, devil's weed, and hell's bells. All species of Datura are extremely poisonous and psychoactive, especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression, arrhythmias, fever, delirium, hallucinations, anticholinergic toxidrome, psychosis, and death if taken internally. Due to their effects and symptoms, Datura species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as hallucinogens by various groups throughout history. Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with witchcraft and sorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including the Western world. Certain common Datura species have also been used ritualistically as entheogens by some Native American groups. Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in some species have long been considered traditional medicines in both the New and Old Worlds due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and atropine, which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as Hyoscyamus niger, Atropa belladonna, and Mandragora officinarum. ==Etymology== The generic name Datura is taken from Hindi धतूरा ' "thorn-apple", ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर ' "white thorn-apple" (referring to Datura metel of Asia). In the Ayurvedic text Sushruta Samhita, different species of Datura are also referred to as ' and '. Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in The Scarlet Letter as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name is toloache. The Mexican common name (also spelled ) derives from the Nahuatl , meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of Datura species belonging to section Dutra of the genus). The term "Jimsonweed" is said to come from the American colony Jamestown. In Jamestown datura was common, and was referred to as "Jamestown-Weed" by one Virginian, Robert Beverley. This then turned into the term "Jimsonweed". ==Description== Datura species are herbaceous, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials, which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of Brugmansia), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule, 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations. Datura belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade, henbane, and mandrake. All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions, and witches' brews, most notably Datura stramonium. In India, D. metel has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac, having been used in Ayurveda as a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in Ganesh Chaturthi, a festival devoted to the deity Ganesha. Datura species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: D. ferox (native to China), D. metel (native to India and Southeast Asia), and D. leichardthii (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America. A group of South American species formerly placed in the genus Datura are now placed in the distinct genus Brugmansia (Brugmansia differs from Datura in that it is woody (the species being shrubs or small trees) and has indehiscent fruits.) The solanaceous tribe Datureae, to which Datura and Brugmansia belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus Trompettia J. Dupin, featuring the species Trompettia cardenasiana, which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genus Iochroma. Datura specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of Datura, D. arenicola is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section Discola [not to be confused with the species name D. discolor] within the genus. The specific name arenicola means "loving (i.e. "thriving in") sand". {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Image !! Scientific name !! Common name !! Distribution \|- \| \|\| Datura arenicola Gentry ex Bye & Luna \|\| Sand thorn-apple, Baja datura, Vizcaíno Desert datura \|\| Baja California Sur, Mexico \|- \| \|\| D. ceratocaula Jacq.\|\| torna loco, Sister of Ololiuhqui, swamp datura \|\| Mexico. \|- \| \|\| D. discolor Bernh. (syn. D. kymatocarpa, D. reburra)\|\| desert thorn-apple \|\|Sonoran Desert of western North America \|- \| \|\| D. ferox L.\|\| long-spined thorn-apple \|\|southeastern China (disputed Datura, as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs, also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing dementia. In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting Datura. Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well. Although most poisonings occur with more common species of Datura such as D. stramonium, several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths from D. ferox intoxication. Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning. In some parts of Europe and India, Datura has been a popular poison for suicide and murder. From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting Datura. A group called Thugs (practicers of thuggee) were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in rituals devoted to the Hindu goddess Kali. They were alleged to employ Datura in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier. Datura toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including Brachygastra lecheguana, during the Datura blooming season. These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect Datura nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested Datura used as an ingredient in stew. In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivating Datura plants is prohibited. Muscle stiffness, urinary retention, temporary paralysis, disrobing, emotional bluntness, dysphoria, and confusion are often reported, and pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect. The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer. ===Treatment=== Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute Datura poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized. Gastric lavage and the administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of the Datura. The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of Datura find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically. Adequate knowledge of Datura properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience. The Southern Paiute believe Datura can help locate missing objects. In ancient Mexico, Datura also played an important role in the religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers. It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well. In modern-day Mexico, some datura species are still used for sorcery and other occult practices, mostly in the southern region of Veracruz, specifically in the city of Catemaco. Bernardino de Sahagún, in around 1569, called attention to Datura in these words: "It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected." In Western culture, the same species (Datura stramonium) has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as the early modern period, predominately in New England and Western Europe. During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow D. stramonium in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations. ==Gallery== File:Datura stramonium RF.jpg\|D. stramonium (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany File:Datura wrightii, Twentynine Palms California - 2014-07.jpg \| D. wrightii in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S. File:Datura Flower on the plant (Lateral View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 01.jpg\|Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India File:Datura Flower on the plant (Top View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 02.jpg\|Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India	[ "traditional medicine", "New World", "ethnobotanist", "Western culture", "atropine", "Columbian Exchange", "Pre-Columbian era", "New England", "leaf", "fruit", "aphrodisiac", "butterfly", "Benzodiazepines", "Caterpillar", "Cosmopolitan distribution", "Datura quercifolia", "photophobia", "witchcraft", "Ganesh Chaturthi", "Carl Linnaeus", "El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve", "Western Europe", "International Society for Horticultural Science", "Europe", "Mandragoreae", "shrub", "Datura arenicola", "OED", "Alzheimer's Society", "Datura metel", "deadly nightshade", "Nathaniel Hawthorne", "dysphoria", "Datura kymatocarpa", "moth", "Veracruz", "New York City", "suicide", "Brachygastra lecheguana", "weed", "Mexico", "deities", "Datura leichhardtii", "Hyoscyameae", "adolescent", "Datura ferox", "Western world", "tropane alkaloids", "hyperthermia", "Agitated delirium", "alkaloid", "potions", "amnesia", "Hyoscyamus niger", "reality", "tachycardia", "Delusions", "Datura innoxia", "incantations", "Sushruta Samhita", "Substance intoxication", "urinary retention", "Hinduism", "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants", "Catemaco", "United States", "List of poisonous plants", "respiratory depression", "medicine men", "Iochroma", "Oxford University Press", "Virginia", "entheogen", "Shiva", "Southern Paiute", "Bernardino de Sahagún", "honey wasp", "Haitian Vodou", "Ferdinand von Mueller", "George Bentham", "Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin", "Brugmansia", "Ololiuhqui", "Anticholinergics", "Sanskrit", "Datura discolor", "Nahuatl", "Johann Jakob Bernhardi", "necromancer", "sand", "Scopolamine", "physostigmine", "Solandra", "Vespertine (biology)", "India", "early modern period", "flower", "Gastric lavage", "dementia", "Mandragora officinarum", "delirium", "medicinal", "confusion", "flying ointment", "flowering plant", "Datura stramonium", "Sonoran Desert", "Eduard von Regel", "Vision (spirituality)", "Wade Davis (anthropologist)", "Divination", "cows", "Hallucinogens", "Lepidoptera", "perennial plant", "Datura lanosa", "fever", "Navajo", "California", "Datura ceratocaula", "scopolamine", "deliriant", "Ganesha", "Witchcraft", "seed", "Witch trials in the early modern period", "International Cultivar Registration Authority", "hallucinations", "Christian Rätsch", "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention", "Hypercompe indecisa", "henbane", "Datura suaveolens", "ritual sacrifice", "The Scarlet Letter", "Magic (supernatural)", "ritual", "fantasy", "occult", "Ayurveda", "murder", "honey", "capsule (fruit)", "indehiscent", "Thuggee", "genus", "Toxidrome", "Jamestown, Virginia", "poison", "cultivar", "Zombie", "Antimuscarinic", "Datura wrightii", "Baja California Sur", "Agra", "Herbaceous plant", "Havasupai", "Perennial plant", "tree", "Philip Miller", "Mike Dash", "Solanaceae", "disrobing", "anticholinergic", "Native Americans in the United States", "Psychoactive plant", "arrhythmias", "Genus", "Hindi", "poisonous", "Atropa belladonna", "Carl Sigismund Kunth", "mydriasis", "annual plant", "USA Today", "Reduced affect display", "activated charcoal", "Trompettia", "Datura reburra", "Old World", "Aztec religion", "Kali", "Capsule (fruit)", "psychosis", "Datureae" ]
8,847	Commutator subgroup	In mathematics, more specifically in abstract algebra, the commutator subgroup or derived subgroup of a group is the subgroup generated by all the commutators of the group. The commutator subgroup is important because it is the smallest normal subgroup such that the quotient group of the original group by this subgroup is abelian. In other words, G/N is abelian if and only if N contains the commutator subgroup of G. So in some sense it provides a measure of how far the group is from being abelian; the larger the commutator subgroup is, the "less abelian" the group is. == Commutators == For elements g and h of a group G, the commutator of g and h is [g,h] = g^{-1}h^{-1}gh. The commutator [g,h] is equal to the identity element e if and only if gh = hg , that is, if and only if g and h commute. In general, gh = hg[g,h]. However, the notation is somewhat arbitrary and there is a non-equivalent variant definition for the commutator that has the inverses on the right hand side of the equation: [g,h] = ghg^{-1}h^{-1} in which case gh \neq hg[g,h] but instead gh = [g,h]hg. An element of G of the form [g,h] for some g and h is called a commutator. The identity element e = [e,e] is always a commutator, and it is the only commutator if and only if G is abelian. Here are some simple but useful commutator identities, true for any elements s, g, h of a group G: [g,h]^{-1} = [h,g], [g,h]^s = [g^s,h^s], where g^s = s^{-1}gs (or, respectively, g^s = sgs^{-1}) is the conjugate of g by s, for any homomorphism f: G \to H , f([g, h]) = [f(g), f(h)]. The first and second identities imply that the set of commutators in G is closed under inversion and conjugation. If in the third identity we take H = G, we get that the set of commutators is stable under any endomorphism of G. This is in fact a generalization of the second identity, since we can take f to be the conjugation automorphism on G, x \mapsto x^s , to get the second identity. However, the product of two or more commutators need not be a commutator. A generic example is [a,b][c,d] in the free group on a,b,c,d. It is known that the least order of a finite group for which there exists two commutators whose product is not a commutator is 96; in fact there are two nonisomorphic groups of order 96 with this property. == Definition == This motivates the definition of the commutator subgroup [G, G] (also called the derived subgroup, and denoted G' or G^{(1)}) of G: it is the subgroup generated by all the commutators. It follows from this definition that any element of [G, G] is of the form [g_1,h_1] \cdots [g_n,h_n] for some natural number n, where the gi and hi are elements of G. Moreover, since ([g_1,h_1] \cdots [g_n,h_n])^s = [g_1^s,h_1^s] \cdots [g_n^s,h_n^s], the commutator subgroup is normal in G. For any homomorphism f: G → H, f([g_1,h_1] \cdots [g_n,h_n]) = [f(g_1),f(h_1)] \cdots [f(g_n),f(h_n)], so that f([G,G]) \subseteq [H,H]. This shows that the commutator subgroup can be viewed as a functor on the category of groups, some implications of which are explored below. Moreover, taking G = H it shows that the commutator subgroup is stable under every endomorphism of G: that is, [G,G] is a fully characteristic subgroup of G, a property considerably stronger than normality. The commutator subgroup can also be defined as the set of elements g of the group that have an expression as a product g = g1 g2 ... gk that can be rearranged to give the identity. === Derived series === This construction can be iterated: G^{(0)} := G G^{(n)} := [G^{(n-1)},G^{(n-1)}] \quad n \in \mathbf{N} The groups G^{(2)}, G^{(3)}, \ldots are called the second derived subgroup, third derived subgroup, and so forth, and the descending normal series \cdots \triangleleft G^{(2)} \triangleleft G^{(1)} \triangleleft G^{(0)} = G is called the derived series. This should not be confused with the lower central series, whose terms are G_n := [G_{n-1},G]. For a finite group, the derived series terminates in a perfect group, which may or may not be trivial. For an infinite group, the derived series need not terminate at a finite stage, and one can continue it to infinite ordinal numbers via transfinite recursion, thereby obtaining the transfinite derived series, which eventually terminates at the perfect core of the group. === Abelianization === Given a group G, a quotient group G/N is abelian if and only if [G, G]\subseteq N. The quotient G/[G, G] is an abelian group called the abelianization of G or G made abelian. It is usually denoted by G^{\operatorname{ab}} or G_{\operatorname{ab}}. There is a useful categorical interpretation of the map \varphi: G \rightarrow G^{\operatorname{ab}}. Namely \varphi is universal for homomorphisms from G to an abelian group H: for any abelian group H and homomorphism of groups f: G \to H there exists a unique homomorphism F: G^{\operatorname{ab}}\to H such that f = F \circ \varphi. As usual for objects defined by universal mapping properties, this shows the uniqueness of the abelianization G^{\operatorname{ab}} up to canonical isomorphism, whereas the explicit construction G\to G/[G, G] shows existence. The abelianization functor is the left adjoint of the inclusion functor from the category of abelian groups to the category of groups. The existence of the abelianization functor Grp → Ab makes the category Ab a reflective subcategory of the category of groups, defined as a full subcategory whose inclusion functor has a left adjoint. Another important interpretation of G^{\operatorname{ab}} is as H_1(G, \mathbb{Z}), the first homology group of G with integral coefficients. === Classes of groups === A group G is an abelian group if and only if the derived group is trivial: [G,G] = {e}. Equivalently, if and only if the group equals its abelianization. See above for the definition of a group's abelianization. A group G is a perfect group if and only if the derived group equals the group itself: [G,G] = G. Equivalently, if and only if the abelianization of the group is trivial. This is "opposite" to abelian. A group with G^{(n)}=\{e\} for some n in N is called a solvable group; this is weaker than abelian, which is the case n = 1. A group with G^{(n)} \neq \{e\} for all n in N is called a non-solvable group. A group with G^{(\alpha)}=\{e\} for some ordinal number, possibly infinite, is called a hypoabelian group; this is weaker than solvable, which is the case α is finite (a natural number). === Perfect group === Whenever a group G has derived subgroup equal to itself, G^{(1)} =G, it is called a perfect group. This includes non-abelian simple groups and the special linear groups \operatorname{SL}_n(k) for a fixed field k. == Examples == The commutator subgroup of any abelian group is trivial. The commutator subgroup of the general linear group \operatorname{GL}_n(k) over a field or a division ring k equals the special linear group \operatorname{SL}_n(k) provided that n \ne 2 or k is not the field with two elements. The commutator subgroup of the alternating group A4 is the Klein four group. The commutator subgroup of the symmetric group Sn is the alternating group An. The commutator subgroup of the quaternion group Q = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k} is [Q,Q] = {1, −1}. === Map from Out === Since the derived subgroup is characteristic, any automorphism of G induces an automorphism of the abelianization. Since the abelianization is abelian, inner automorphisms act trivially, hence this yields a map \operatorname{Out}(G) \to \operatorname{Aut}(G^{\mbox{ab}})	[ "category of groups", "Simple group", "quaternion group", "special linear group", "generating set of a group", "Characteristic subgroup", "Addison-Wesley", "quotient group", "Trivial group", "perfect core", "adjoint functors", "Field (mathematics)", "abstract algebra", "Index of a subgroup", "free group", "solvable group", "Conjugacy class", "perfect group", "Artin transfer (group theory)", "Universal property", "ordinal number", "functor", "perfect radical", "reflective subcategory", "identity element", "commutator", "symmetric group", "Graduate Texts in Mathematics", "subgroup (mathematics)", "general linear group", "abelian group", "group (mathematics)", "lower central series", "Solvable group", "group homology", "Nilpotent group", "Set (mathematics)", "finite field", "Klein four group", "normal series", "Group homomorphism", "fully characteristic subgroup", "alternating group", "category of abelian groups", "Special linear group", "inner automorphism", "Springer Science+Business Media", "automorphism", "natural number", "if and only if", "John Wiley & Sons", "normal subgroup", "transfinite recursion", "division ring", "mathematics", "endomorphism" ]
8,848	December 19	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 1154 – Henry II of England is crowned at Westminster Abbey. 1187 – Pope Clement III is elected. 1490 – Anne, Duchess of Brittany, is married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor by proxy. 1562 – The Battle of Dreux takes place during the French Wars of Religion. ===1601–1900=== 1606 – The ships , , and depart England carrying settlers who founded, at Jamestown, Virginia, the first of the thirteen colonies that became the United States. 1675 – The Great Swamp Fight, a pivotal battle in King Philip's War, gives the English settlers a bitterly won victory. 1776 – Thomas Paine publishes one of a series of pamphlets in The Pennsylvania Journal entitled "The American Crisis". 1777 – American Revolutionary War: George Washington's Continental Army goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. 1783 – William Pitt the Younger becomes the youngest Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at 24. 1793 – War of the First Coalition: The Siege of Toulon ends when Napoleon's French artillery forces the British to abandon the city, securing southern France from invasion. 1796 – French Revolutionary Wars: Two British frigates under Commodore Horatio Nelson and two Spanish frigates under Commodore Don Jacobo Stuart engage in battle off the coast of Murcia. 1828 – Vice President of the United States John C. Calhoun sparks the Nullification Crisis when he anonymously publishes the South Carolina Exposition and Protest, protesting the Tariff of 1828. 1900 – Hopetoun Blunder: The first Governor-General of Australia John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun, appoints Sir William Lyne premier of the new state of New South Wales, but he is unable to persuade other colonial politicians to join his government and is forced to resign. 1900 – French parliament votes amnesty for all involved in scandalous army treason trial known as Dreyfus affair. ===1901–present=== 1907 – Two hundred thirty-nine coal miners die in the Darr Mine Disaster in Jacobs Creek, Pennsylvania. 1912 – William Van Schaick, captain of the steamship which caught fire and killed over one thousand people, is pardoned by U.S. President William Howard Taft after years in Sing Sing prison. 1920 – King Constantine I is restored as King of the Hellenes after the death of his son Alexander of Greece and a plebiscite. 1924 – The last Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost is sold in London, England. 1924 – German serial killer Fritz Haarmann is sentenced to death for a series of murders. 1927 – Three Indian revolutionaries, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan Singh and Ashfaqulla Khan, are executed by the British Raj for participation in the Kakori conspiracy. 1929 – The Indian National Congress promulgates the Purna Swaraj (the Declaration of the Independence of India). 1932 – BBC World Service begins broadcasting as the BBC Empire Service. 1940 – Risto Ryti, the Prime Minister of Finland, is elected President of the Republic of Finland in a presidential election, which is exceptionally held by the 1937 electoral college. 1941 – World War II: Adolf Hitler appoints himself as head of the Oberkommando des Heeres. 1941 – World War II: Limpet mines placed by Italian divers heavily damage and in Alexandria harbour. 1941 – Twenty-eight men die when German submarine U-574, is struck by HMS Stork (L81), commanded by Captain Frederic John Walker of Royal Navy, off Punta Delgada, as also by depth charges. 1945 – John Amery, British Fascist, is executed at the age of 33 by the British Government for treason. 1946 – Start of the First Indochina War. 1956 – Irish-born physician John Bodkin Adams is arrested in connection with the suspicious deaths of more than 160 patients. Eventually he is convicted only of minor charges. 1961 – India annexes Daman and Diu, part of Portuguese India. 1967 – Harold Holt, the Prime Minister of Australia, is officially presumed dead. 1972 – Apollo program: The last crewed lunar flight, Apollo 17, carrying Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and Harrison Schmitt, returns to Earth. 1974 – Nelson Rockefeller is sworn in as Vice President of the United States under President Gerald Ford under the provisions of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. 1977 – The 5.8 Bob–Tangol earthquake strikes Kerman Province in Iran, destroying villages and killing 665 people. 1981 – Sixteen lives are lost when the Penlee lifeboat goes to the aid of the stricken coaster Union Star in heavy seas. 1983 – The original FIFA World Cup trophy, the Jules Rimet Trophy, is stolen from the headquarters of the Brazilian Football Confederation in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1984 – The Sino-British Joint Declaration, stating that China would resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong and the United Kingdom would restore Hong Kong to China with effect from July 1, 1997, is signed in Beijing by Deng Xiaoping and Margaret Thatcher. 1985 – Aeroflot Flight 101/435 is hijacked to China by its first officer. 1986 – Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the Soviet Union, releases Andrei Sakharov and his wife from exile in Gorky. 1995 – The United States Government restores federal recognition to the Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi Native American tribe. 1997 – SilkAir Flight 185 crashes into the Musi River, near Palembang in Indonesia, killing 104. 1998 – President Bill Clinton is impeached by the United States House of Representatives, becoming the second president of the United States to be impeached. 1999 – Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-103, the third Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission. 2000 – The Leninist Guerrilla Units wing of the Communist Labour Party of Turkey/Leninist attack a Nationalist Movement Party office in Istanbul, Turkey, killing one person and injuring three. 2001 – A record high barometric pressure of is recorded at Tosontsengel, Khövsgöl, Mongolia. 2001 – Argentine economic crisis: December riots: Riots erupt in Buenos Aires, Argentina. 2005 – Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101 crashes into the Government Cut channel immediately after takeoff from Miami Seaplane Base, killing 20. 2012 – Park Geun-hye is elected the first female president of South Korea. 2013 – Spacecraft Gaia is launched by the European Space Agency. 2016 – Russian ambassador to Turkey Andrei Karlov is assassinated while at an art exhibition in Ankara. The assassin, Mevlüt Mert Altıntaş, is shot and killed by a Turkish guard. 2016 – A vehicular attack in Berlin, Germany, kills 12 and injures 56 people at a Christmas market. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1343 – William I, Margrave of Meissen (d. 1407) 1498 – Andreas Osiander, German Protestant theologian (d. 1552) 1554 – Philip William, Prince of Orange (d. 1618) 1587 – Dorothea Sophia, Abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 1645) ===1601–1900=== 1683 – Philip V of Spain (d. 1746) 1699 – William Bowyer, English printer (d. 1777) 1714 – John Winthrop, American astronomer and educator (d. 1779) 1778 – Marie Thérèse of France (d. 1851) 1796 – Manuel Bretón de los Herreros, Spanish poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1873) 1797 – Antoine Louis Dugès, French obstetrician and naturalist (d. 1838) 1817 – James J. Archer, American lawyer and general (d. 1864) 1820 – Mary Livermore, American journalist and activist (d. 1905) 1825 – George Frederick Bristow, American violinist and composer (d. 1898) 1831 – Bernice Pauahi Bishop, American philanthropist (d. 1884) 1849 – Henry Clay Frick, American businessman and financier (d. 1919) 1852 – Albert Abraham Michelson, Prussian-American physicist, chemist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1931) 1853 – Charles Fitzpatrick, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec (d. 1942) 1861 – Italo Svevo, Italian author and playwright (d. 1928) 1863 – Wallace Bryant, American archer (d. 1953) 1865 – Minnie Maddern Fiske, American actress and playwright (d. 1932) 1873 – Alphonse Kirchhoffer, French fencer (d. 1913) 1875 – Mileva Marić, Serbian physicist (d. 1948) 1875 – Carter G. Woodson, American historian and author, founded Black History Month (d. 1950) 1875 – Grace Marie Bareis, American mathematician (d. 1962) 1876 – Bernard Friedberg, Austrian-Israeli scholar and author (d. 1961) 1884 – Antonín Zápotocký, Czech politician, President of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (d. 1957) 1888 – Fritz Reiner, Hungarian-American conductor (d. 1963) 1891 – Edward Bernard Raczyński, Polish politician and diplomat, 4th President-in-exile of Poland (d. 1993) 1894 – Ford C. Frick, American journalist and businessman (d. 1978) 1895 – Ingeborg Refling Hagen, Norwegian author and educator (d. 1989) 1899 – Martin Luther King Sr., American pastor, missionary, and activist (d. 1984) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Rudolf Hell, German engineer, invented the Hellschreiber (d. 2002) 1901 – Oliver La Farge, American anthropologist and author (d. 1963) 1901 – Fritz Mauruschat, German footballer and manager (d. 1974) 1902 – Ralph Richardson, English actor (d. 1983) 1903 – George Davis Snell, American geneticist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996) 1905 – Irving Kahn, American businessman (d. 2015) 1905 – Giovanni Lurani, Italian race car driver, engineer, and journalist (d. 1995) 1906 – Leonid Brezhnev, Ukrainian-Russian marshal, engineer, and politician, 4th Head of State of the Soviet Union (d. 1982) 1907 – Jimmy McLarnin, Irish-American boxer, actor, and golfer (d. 2004) 1909 – W. A. Criswell, American pastor and author (d. 2002) 1910 – Jean Genet, French novelist, playwright, and poet (d. 1986) 1914 – Mel Shaw, American animator and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1915 – Édith Piaf, French singer-songwriter and actress (d. 1963) 1915 – Claudia Testoni, Italian hurdler, sprinter, and long jumper (d. 1998) 1916 – Roy Ward Baker, English director and producer (d. 2010) 1916 – Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, German political scientist, journalist, and academic (d. 2010) 1918 – Professor Longhair, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1980) 1918 – Lee Rich, American producer and production manager (d. 2012) 1920 – Little Jimmy Dickens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015) 1920 – David Susskind, American talk show host and producer (d. 1987) 1922 – Eamonn Andrews, Irish radio and television host (d. 1987) 1923 – Robert V. Bruce, American historian and author (d. 2008) 1923 – Gordon Jackson, Scottish-English actor and singer (d. 1990) 1924 – Carlo Chiti, Italian engineer (d. 1994) 1924 – Doug Harvey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1989) 1924 – Gary Morton, American comedian and producer (d. 1999) 1924 – Edmund Purdom, British-Italian actor (d. 2009) 1924 – Michel Tournier, French journalist and author (d. 2016) 1924 – Cicely Tyson, American actress (d. 2021) 1925 – Tankred Dorst, German author and playwright (d. 2017) 1925 – William Schutz, American psychologist and academic (d. 2002) 1925 – Robert B. Sherman, American songwriter and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1926 – Bobby Layne, American football player and coach (d. 1986) 1926 – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (d. 2015) 1927 – James Booth, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1928 – Eve Bunting, Irish-American author and academic (d. 2023) 1928 – Nathan Oliveira, American painter and sculptor (d. 2010) 1929 – Bob Brookmeyer, American trombonist, pianist, and composer (d. 2011) 1929 – Gregory Carroll, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013) 1929 – David Douglas, 12th Marquess of Queensberry, Scottish potter 1929 – Howard Sackler, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 1982) 1930 – Knut Helle, Norwegian historian and professor (d. 2015) 1930 – Wally Olins, English businessman and academic (d. 2014) 1931 – Ginger Stanley, American model, actress and stunt woman (d. 2023) 1932 – Salvador Elizondo, Mexican author, poet, playwright, and critic (d. 2006) 1932 – Lola Hendricks, African American civil rights activist (d. 2013) 1932 – Wayne Tippit, American actor (d. 2009) 1933 – Kevan Gosper, Australian runner and politician (d. 2024) 1933 – Christopher Smout, Scottish historian and academic 1934 – Al Kaline, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2020) 1934 – Pratibha Patil, Indian lawyer and politician, 12th President of India 1934 – Casper R. Taylor, Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 2023) 1935 – Tony Taylor, Cuban baseball player and coach (d. 2020) 1935 – Bobby Timmons, American pianist and composer (d. 1974) 1935 – Joanne Weaver, American baseball player (d. 2000) 1938 – Jay Arnette, American basketball player 1940 – Phil Ochs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1976) 1941 – Lee Myung-bak, South Korean businessman and politician, 10th President of South Korea 1941 – Maurice White, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2016) 1942 – Cornell Dupree, American guitarist (d. 2011) 1942 – Gene Okerlund, American sports announcer (d. 2019) 1943 – James L. Jones, American general and politician, 22nd United States National Security Advisor 1943 – Elaine Joyce, American actress, singer, and dancer 1943 – Ross M. Lence, American political scientist and academic (d. 2006) 1944 – William Christie, American-French harpsichord player and conductor 1944 – Mitchell Feigenbaum, American physicist and mathematician (d. 2019) 1944 – Martin Hume Johnson, English physiologist and academic 1944 – Richard Leakey, Kenyan paleontologist and politician (d. 2022) 1944 – Alvin Lee, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1944 – Tim Reid, American actor and director 1944 – Steve Tyrell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1944 – Zal Yanovsky, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) 1945 – John McEuen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1946 – Rosemary Conley, English businesswoman, author, and broadcaster 1946 – Robert Urich, American actor and producer (d. 2002) 1947 – Jimmy Bain, Scottish bass player and songwriter (d. 2016) 1948 – Ken Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2022) 1949 – Orna Berry, Israeli computer scientist and businesswoman 1949 – Claudia Kolb, American swimmer 1949 – Sebastian, Danish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1949 – Lenny White, American musician 1950 – Eleanor J. Hill, American lawyer and diplomat 1951 – Mohammad Reza Aref, Iranian engineer and politician, 2nd Vice President of Iran 1951 – Alan Rouse, English mountaineer and author (d. 1986) 1952 – Walter Murphy, American pianist and composer 1954 – Jeff Allam, English race car driver 1954 – Tim Parks, English author and translator 1955 – Lincoln Hall, Australian mountaineer and author (d. 2012) 1955 – Rob Portman, American lawyer and politician 1956 – Phil Harris, American captain and fisherman (d. 2010) 1956 – Tom Lawless, American baseball player and manager 1956 – Shane McEntee, Irish farmer and politician, Minister of State at the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (d. 2012) 1956 – Merzbow, Japanese noise musician 1957 – Cyril Collard, French actor, director, and composer (d. 1993) 1957 – Kevin McHale, American basketball player, coach, and manager 1958 – Steven Isserlis, English cellist and author 1958 – Limahl, English pop singer 1959 – Iván Vallejo, Ecuadorian mountaineer 1959 – Lisa Wilkinson, Australian television host and journalist 1960 – Derrick Jensen, American author and activist 1960 – Michelangelo Signorile, American journalist and author 1961 – Scott Cohen, American actor 1961 – Eric Allin Cornell, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1961 – Matthew Waterhouse, English actor and author 1961 – Reggie White, American football player and wrestler (d. 2004) 1962 – Gary Fleder, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1963 – Jennifer Beals, American model and actress 1963 – Til Schweiger, German actor, director, and producer 1964 – Béatrice Dalle, French actress 1964 – Lorie Kane, Canadian golfer 1964 – Randall McDaniel, American football player 1964 – Arvydas Sabonis, Lithuanian basketball player 1965 – Chito Martínez, Belizean-American baseball player 1966 – Chuckii Booker, American singer-songwriter and producer 1966 – Rajesh Chauhan, Indian cricketer 1966 – Robert MacNaughton, American actor 1966 – Alberto Tomba, Italian skier 1966 – Eric Weinrich, American ice hockey player and coach 1967 – Criss Angel, American magician 1967 – Charles Austin, American high jumper 1968 – Kristina Keneally, American-Australian politician, 42nd Premier of New South Wales 1968 – Ken Marino, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Michael Bates, American sprinter and football player 1969 – Tom Gugliotta, American basketball player 1969 – Richard Hammond, English journalist and producer 1969 – Nayan Mongia, Indian cricketer 1969 – Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, Azerbaijani composer, pianist, and singer 1969 – Kristy Swanson, American actress 1970 – Tyson Beckford, American model and actor 1970 – Robert Lang, Czech ice hockey player 1971 – Amy Locane, American actress 1971 – Karen Pickering, English swimmer 1972 – Rosa Blasi, American actress 1972 – Alyssa Milano, American actress, television personality, and activist 1972 – Warren Sapp, American football player and analyst 1973 – Michalis Grigoriou, Greek footballer and coach 1973 – Erick Wainaina, Kenyan runner 1973 – Zulfiya Zabirova, Russian cyclist 1973 – Takashi Sorimachi, Japanese actor and singer 1974 – Eduard Ivakdalam, Indonesian footballer 1974 – Joe Jurevicius, American football player 1974 – Felipe Lopez, Dominican-American basketball player 1974 – Jake Plummer, American football player and sportscaster 1974 – Ricky Ponting, Australian cricketer and sportscaster 1975 – Makis Belevonis, Greek footballer 1975 – Brandon Sanderson, American author and academic 1975 – Jeremy Soule, American composer 1975 – Olivier Tébily, Ivorian-French footballer 1975 – Dean Treister, Australian rugby league player 1977 – Jorge Garbajosa, Spanish basketball player 1977 – LaTasha Jenkins, American sprinter 1977 – Irina Voronina, Russian model 1978 – Patrick Casey, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1979 – Kevin Devine, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1979 – Rafael Soriano, Dominican baseball player 1980 – Jake Gyllenhaal, American actor and producer 1980 – Marla Sokoloff, American actress and musician 1981 – Grégory Dufer, Belgian footballer 1982 – Mo Williams, American basketball player 1983 – Nektarios Alexandrou, Cypriot footballer 1983 – Casey Crescenzo, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 – Bridget Phillipson, English politician 1983 – Laura Pomeroy, Canadian swimmer 1983 – Matt Stajan, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Ian Kennedy, American baseball player 1985 – Andrea Baldini, Italian fencer 1985 – Gary Cahill, English footballer 1985 – Neil Kilkenny, English-Australian footballer 1985 – Sally Kipyego, Kenyan runner 1985 – Dan Logan, English bass player 1985 – Lady Sovereign, English rapper 1986 – Calvin Andrew, English footballer 1986 – Ryan Babel, Dutch footballer 1986 – Ingrid Burley, American rapper and songwriter 1986 – Lazaros Christodoulopoulos, Greek footballer 1986 – Zuzana Hejnová, Czech hurdler 1986 – Miguel Lopes, Portuguese footballer 1986 – Annie Murphy, Canadian actress 1987 – Cédric Baseya, French-Congolese footballer 1987 – Karim Benzema, French footballer 1987 – Ronan Farrow, American activist, journalist, and lawyer 1988 – Alexis Sánchez, Chilean footballer 1988 – Peter Winn, English footballer 1989 – Yong Jun-hyung, South Korean singer-songwriter, rapper and producer 1989 – Michał Masłowski, Polish footballer 1989 – Kousei Miura, Japanese jockey 1989 – Hamza Riazuddin, English cricketer 1990 – Greg Bretz, American snowboarder 1990 – Torrey Craig, American basketball player 1991 – Steven Berghuis, Dutch footballer 1991 – Declan Galbraith, English singer-songwriter 1991 – Josh Huestis, American basketball player 1991 – Keiynan Lonsdale, Australian actor, singer-songwriter, and dancer 1991 – Sumire Uesaka, Japanese voice actress and singer 1992 – Iker Muniain, Spanish footballer 1992 – Raphael Spiegel, Swiss footballer 1993 – Young K, South Korean singer-songwriter 1993 – Isiah Koech, Kenyan runner 1994 – Maudy Ayunda, Indonesian actress and singer-songwriter 1994 – M'Baye Niang, French footballer 1996 – Franck Kessié, Ivorian footballer 1997 – Gabriel Magalhães, Brazilian footballer 1997 – Fikayo Tomori, English footballer 1998 – King Princess, American singer-songwriter and musician ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 401 – Pope Anastasius I 966 – Sancho I, king of León 1091 – Adelaide of Susa, margravine of Turin 1111 – Al-Ghazali, Persian jurist, philosopher, theologian, and mystic (b. 1058) 1123 – Saint Berardo, Italian bishop and saint 1327 – Agnes of France, Duchess of Burgundy (b. 1260) 1370 – Pope Urban V (b. 1310) 1442 – Elizabeth of Luxembourg (b. 1409) 1385 – Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan (b. 1319) 1558 – Cornelius Grapheus, Flemish writer (b. 1482) ===1601–1900=== 1637 – Christina of Lorraine, Grand Duchess consort of Tuscany (b. 1565) 1741 – Vitus Bering, Danish-born Russian explorer (b. 1681) 1745 – Jean-Baptiste van Loo, French painter (b. 1684) 1749 – Francesco Antonio Bonporti, Italian priest and composer (b. 1672) 1807 – Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, German-French author and playwright (b. 1723) 1813 – James McGill, Scottish-Canadian businessman and philanthropist, founded McGill University (b. 1744) 1819 – Thomas Fremantle, English admiral and politician (b. 1765) 1848 – Emily Brontë, English novelist and poet (b. 1818) 1851 – Joseph Mallord William Turner, English painter (b. 1775) 1878 – Bayard Taylor, American author and poet (b. 1825) 1899 – Henry Ware Lawton, American general (b. 1843) ===1901–present=== 1915 – Alois Alzheimer, German psychiatrist and neuropathologist (b. 1864) 1916 – Thibaw Min, Burmese king (b. 1859) 1927 – Ashfaqulla Khan, Indian activist (b. 1900) 1927 – Ram Prasad Bismil, Indian poet and activist (b. 1897) 1932 – Yun Bong-gil, South Korean activist (b. 1908) 1933 – George Jackson Churchward, English engineer and businessman (b. 1857) 1938 – Stephen Warfield Gambrill, American lawyer and politician (b. 1873) 1940 – Kyösti Kallio, Finnish politician, the 4th President of Finland (b. 1873) 1944 – Abbas II of Egypt (b. 1874) 1944 – Rudolph Karstadt, German businessman (b. 1856) 1946 – Paul Langevin, French physicist and academic (b. 1872) 1953 – Robert Andrews Millikan, American physicist and eugenicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1868) 1968 – Norman Thomas, American minister and politician (b. 1884) 1972 – Ahmet Emin Yalman, Turkish journalist, author, and academic (b. 1888) 1976 – Giuseppe Caselli, Italian painter (b. 1893) 1982 – Dwight Macdonald, American philosopher, author, and critic (b. 1906) 1984 – Joy Ridderhof, American missionary (b. 1903) 1986 – V. C. Andrews, American author (b. 1923) 1986 – Werner Dankwort, Russian-German colonel and diplomat (b. 1895) 1987 – August Mälk, Estonian author, playwright, and politician (b. 1900) 1988 – Robert Bernstein, American author and playwright (b. 1919) 1988 - Win Maw Oo, Burmese student activist (b. 1971) 1989 – Stella Gibbons, English journalist, author, and poet (b. 1902) 1989 – Kirill Mazurov, Belarusian Soviet politician (b. 1914) 1993 – Michael Clarke, American drummer (b. 1946) 1996 – Marcello Mastroianni, Italian-French actor and singer (b. 1924) 1997 – Sara Northrup Hollister, American occultist (b. 1924) 1997 – Masaru Ibuka, Japanese businessman, co-founded Sony (b. 1908) 1997 – Jimmy Rogers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1924) 1998 – Mel Fisher, American treasure hunter (b. 1922) 1999 – Desmond Llewelyn, Welsh soldier and actor (b. 1914) 2000 – Rob Buck, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1958) 2000 – Milt Hinton, American bassist and photographer (b. 1910) 2000 – John Lindsay, American lawyer and politician, 103rd Mayor of New York City (b. 1921) 2002 – Will Hoy, English race car driver (b. 1952) 2002 – Arthur Rowley, English footballer and manager (b. 1926) 2002 – George Weller, American author, playwright, and journalist (b. 1907) 2003 – Peter Carter-Ruck, English lawyer, founded Carter-Ruck (b. 1914) 2003 – Hope Lange, American actress (b. 1933) 2004 – Herbert C. Brown, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1912) 2004 – Renata Tebaldi, Italian soprano and actress (b. 1922) 2005 – Vincent Gigante, American mobster (b. 1927) 2008 – James Bevel, American minister and activist (b. 1936) 2008 – Carol Chomsky, American linguist and educator (b. 1930) 2008 – Michael Connell, American political consultant (b. 1963) 2008 – Dock Ellis, American baseball player and coach (b. 1945) 2009 – Kim Peek, American megasavant (b. 1951) 2010 – Anthony Howard, English journalist and author (b. 1934) 2012 – Robert Bork, American lawyer, judge, and scholar, United States Attorney General (b. 1927) 2012 – Amnon Lipkin-Shahak, Israeli general and politician, 22nd Transportation Minister of Israel (b. 1944) 2012 – Larry Morris, American football player (b. 1933) 2012 – Peter Struck, German lawyer and politician, 13th German Federal Minister of Defence (b. 1943) 2013 – Winton Dean, English musicologist and author (b. 1916) 2013 – Al Goldstein, American publisher and pornographer (b. 1936) 2013 – Ned Vizzini, American author and screenwriter (b. 1981) 2014 – S. Balasubramanian, Indian journalist and director (b. 1936) 2014 – Philip Bradbourn, English lawyer and politician (b. 1951) 2014 – Arthur Gardner, American actor and producer (b. 1910) 2014 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (b. 1936) 2014 – Dick Thornton, American-Canadian football player and coach (b. 1939) 2014 – Roberta Leigh (Rita Shulman Lewin), British writer, artist and TV producer (b. 1926). 2015 – Jimmy Hill, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster (b. 1928) 2015 – Greville Janner, Baron Janner of Braunstone, Welsh-English lawyer and politician (b. 1928) 2015 – Karin Söder, Swedish educator and politician, 33rd Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs (b. 1928) 2016 – Andrei Karlov, Russian diplomat, Ambassador to Turkey (b. 1954) 2020 – Rosalind Knight, English actress (b. 1933) 2021 – Sally Ann Howes, English-American singer and actress (b. 1930) 2021 – Johnny Isakson, American politician (b. 1944) 2024 – Michael Leunig, Australian cartoonist (b. 1945) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Lillian Trasher (Episcopal Church) O Radix Pope Anastasius I Pope Urban V December 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Saint Nicholas Day Goa Liberation Day (Goa, India) National Heroes and Heroines Day (Anguilla)	[ "George Washington", "1940", "Minister for Foreign Affairs (Sweden)", "John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun", "Rudolph Karstadt", "Vice President of Iran", "Marie Thérèse of France", "Kevan Gosper", "1982", "Bridget Phillipson", "Nizhny Novgorod", "Nektarios Alexandrou", "December 2001 riots in Argentina", "Irina Voronina", "The Plain Dealer", "Michael Connell", "Bernard Friedberg", "1899", "Lincoln Hall (climber)", "Lady Sovereign", "Thirteen Colonies", "1699", "Kristy Swanson", "Aziza Mustafa Zadeh", "1910", "Paul Langevin", "Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost", "Walter Murphy", "BBC World Service", "Dieter Nohlen", "2015", "Italian Navy", "Michael Leunig", "Alyssa Milano", "1924", "Mary Livermore", "Vice President of the United States", "List of lieutenant governors of Quebec", "1442", "Penlee lifeboat disaster", "Winton Dean", "Edmund Purdom", "Philip William, Prince of Orange", "David Douglas, 12th Marquess of Queensberry", "Calendar of saints", "1819", "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic", "Zulfiya Zabirova", "French Revolutionary Wars", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Béatrice Dalle", "Dwight Macdonald", "Tosontsengel, Khövsgöl", "Peter Struck (politician)", "Pope Anastasius I", "Robert Urich", "King Princess", "2020", "Matthew Waterhouse", "Jimmy Hill", "Fritz Haarmann", "William Schutz", "1777", "Declared death in absentia", "European Space Agency", "1928", "1981", "Portuguese India", "1915", "Sancho I of León", "Professor Longhair", "Robert Bernstein (comics)", "2008", "HMS Stork (L81)", "1946", "1813", "Lisa Wilkinson", "Bobby Timmons", "1950", "Jacobs Creek (Pennsylvania)", "1783", "Ryan Babel", "Andrei Karlov", "Mitchell Feigenbaum", "Miguel Lopes", "Transportation Minister of Israel", "Mileva Marić", "Newspapers.com", "Christmas market", "Makis Belevonis", "1979", "1749", "Palembang", "Adolf Hitler", "Lola Hendricks", "1994", "Henry Ware Lawton", "United States Attorney General", "1906", "1972", "2016", "List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Action of 19 December 1796", "1916", "Michelangelo Signorile", "1943", "Claudia Testoni", "1954", "Maurice White", "Win Maw Oo", "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson", "Associated Press", "1606", "Yun Bong-gil", "Anthony Howard (journalist)", "Martin Luther King Sr.", "1852", "Mo Williams", "Keiynan Lonsdale", "Dan Logan", "John Winthrop (educator)", "1851", "1741", "Declan Galbraith", "1683", "1977", "Nathan Oliveira", "Cornell Dupree", "The Washington Post", "Chito Martínez", "Michalis Grigoriou", "1848", "Federal impeachment in the United States", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Gary Cahill", "Josh Huestis", "2016 Berlin truck attack", "V. C. Andrews", "Musi River (Indonesia)", "Will Hoy", "Kirill Mazurov", "Prime Minister of Australia", "Laura Pomeroy", "Continental Army", "1922", "Claudia Kolb", "1920", "Phil Ochs", "Rob Portman", "Thomas Paine", "exile", "August Mälk", "Yong Jun-hyung", "1931", "1992", "Atmospheric pressure", "Patrick Casey (writer)", "Steamboat", "2013", "Hubble Space Telescope", "Albert Abraham Michelson", "1953", "1937 Finnish presidential election", "Harold Holt", "Fikret Otyam", "1933", "Arthur Gardner (producer)", "Gary Morton", "depth charge", "Philip Bradbourn", "Istanbul", "1825", "Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann", "Salvador Elizondo", "Nullification Crisis", "Joe Jurevicius", "1932", "Eric Allin Cornell", "president of South Korea", "1951", "Peter Winn (footballer)", "Constantine I of Greece", "1935", "1970", "2009", "2021", "1985", "2010", "Miami Seaplane Base", "James Bevel", "The American Crisis", "Governor-General of Australia", "1990", "Soviet Union", "Emily Brontë", "Steve Tyrell", "John McEuen", "Cicely Tyson", "James Booth", "Franck Kessié", "Public holidays in Anguilla", "Pope Clement III", "Andrei Sakharov", "1961", "Mel Shaw", "Christina of Lorraine", "Milt Hinton", "Rio de Janeiro", "1926", "1966", "UNESCO", "Jorge Garbajosa", "The Sacramento Bee", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Stella Gibbons", "Herbert C. Brown", "Fritz Mauruschat", "Thibaw Min", "Casey Crescenzo", "German submarine U-574", "Marla Sokoloff", "Robert V. Bruce", "1938", "Jean-Baptiste van Loo", "Werner Dankwort", "Space Shuttle Discovery", "Steven Isserlis", "proxy marriage", "President of the Republic of Finland", "1343", "1999", "Agnes of France, Duchess of Burgundy", "1925", "Al Kaline", "Zal Yanovsky", "Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm", "Johnny Isakson", "McGill University", "Cédric Baseya", "1828", "George Frederick Bristow", "1187", "1978", "Wallace Bryant (archer)", "Black History Month", "Premier of New South Wales", "Neil Kilkenny", "Sally Ann Howes", "Peter Carter-Ruck", "Henry Clay Frick", "Takashi Sorimachi", "Dick Thornton (Canadian football)", "Antoine Louis Dugès", "Dock Ellis", "List of German defence ministers", "1965", "megasavant", "Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)", "1987", "Ricky Ponting", "Bernice Pauahi Bishop", "Felipe López (basketball)", "Milan", "President of Finland", "Anguilla", "Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Fritz Reiner", "Ashfaqulla Khan", "President of South Korea", "Siege of Toulon", "2012 South Korean presidential election", "Wayne Tippit", "2002", "2001", "Ian Kennedy", "Iker Muniain", "William Lyne", "Stephen Warfield Gambrill", "Abbas II of Egypt", "1993", "Antonín Zápotocký", "William I, Margrave of Meissen", "Carter-Ruck", "Manuel Bretón de los Herreros", "Indonesia", "Joseph Mallord William Turner", "Sony", "The Guardian", "2003", "1976", "Mayor of New York City", "Scott Cohen (actor)", "1385", "Amnon Lipkin-Shahak", "1853", "Cyril Collard", "2012", "Ingeborg Refling Hagen", "1091", "Jamestown, Virginia", "First Indochina War", "Valley Forge", "Giuseppe Caselli", "1796", "Oberkommando des Heeres", "Park Geun-hye", "Buenos Aires", "Gordon Jackson (actor)", "American Revolutionary War", "Derrick Jensen", "1989", "W. A. Criswell", "Randall McDaniel", "Jimmy Rogers", "2000", "Tyson Beckford", "1927", "FIFA World Cup", "1587", "Jeff Allam", "1967", "1940 Finnish presidential election", "Annie Murphy", "Vincent Gigante", "Igor Rodionov", "Tony Taylor (baseball)", "Pratibha Patil", "Knut Helle", "Arvydas Sabonis", "Rosa Blasi", "Rudolf Hell", "Frederic John Walker", "STS-103", "1971", "Hollywood Foreign Press Association", "1952", "Calvin Andrew", "1894", "FIFA World Cup Trophy", "Rafael Soriano", "Kingdom of León", "Martin Hume Johnson", "Charles Austin (high jumper)", "Eric Weinrich", "1984", "Gerald Ford", "Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101", "Anne of Brittany", "LaTasha Jenkins", "Lee Myung-bak", "Earth", "Oliver La Farge", "Eleanor J. Hill", "Rajesh Chauhan", "Pro Football Hall of Fame", "Bernabò Visconti", "Carol Chomsky", "Greville Janner", "Michael Clarke (musician)", "1907", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "Fascism", "Joy Ridderhof", "1996", "1963", "Jennifer Beals", "John Bodkin Adams", "SilkAir Flight 185", "Polish government-in-exile", "1975", "Deng Xiaoping", "New South Wales", "David Susskind", "South Carolina Exposition and Protest", "1888", "1958", "French Wars of Religion", "Kristina Keneally", "Gabriel Magalhães", "Thomas Fremantle (Royal Navy officer)", "Carlo Chiti", "1895", "Rosalind Knight", "1998–2002 Argentine great depression", "Miami Herald", "President of India", "Minister of State at the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine", "Alberto Tomba", "Young K", "1941", "1111", "Murcia", "Sebastian (singer)", "National Security Advisor (United States)", "1778", "Bobby Layne", "Brandon Sanderson", "Jake Plummer", "Saint Berardo", "Great Swamp Fight", "Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Irving Kahn", "1977 Bob–Tangol earthquake", "Christopher Smout", "Sino-British Joint Declaration", "1949", "List of heads of state of the Soviet Union", "1562", "Dorothea Sophia, Abbess of Quedlinburg", "1969", "Marcello Mastroianni", "1934", "Phil Harris (fisherman)", "Harrison Schmitt", "1962", "Purna Swaraj", "United Press International", "1912", "Alexander of Greece", "William Bowyer (printer)", "Greg Bretz", "1370", "Aeroflot Flight 101/435", "Argentina", "Robert Andrews Millikan", "Michel Tournier", "Andrea Baldini", "1327", "James McGill", "Desmond Llewelyn", "1891", "1637", "Eugene Cernan", "Norman Thomas", "O Radix", "Kevin McHale (basketball)", "1957", "Henry II of England", "1820", "harpsichord", "Indian National Congress", "Olivier Tébily", "Francesco Antonio Bonporti", "Annexation of Goa", "Saint Nicholas Day", "1849", "Vitus Bering", "Nationalist Movement Party", "Napoleon", "Limahl", "Premier League", "Roy Ward Baker", "Isiah Koech", "James L. Jones", "King Philip's War", "Michael Bates (American football)", "1876", "Rosemary Conley", "Karin Söder", "Bob Brookmeyer", "Dreyfus affair", "Casper R. Taylor, Jr.", "Sumire Uesaka", "2004", "Steven Berghuis", "1558", "1929", "Ralph Richardson", "Alan Rouse", "George Weller", "Pope Urban V", "Chuckii Booker", "Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi", "Cornelius Grapheus", "Government Cut", "Raphael Spiegel", "Mongolia", "M'Baye Niang", "Carter G. Woodson", "Torrey Craig", "1675", "Lazaros Christodoulopoulos", "Roberta Leigh", "Tom Gugliotta", "1995", "Orna Berry", "Jimmy Bain", "Arthur Rowley", "Apollo program", "Ned Vizzini", "Zuzana Hejnová", "Bayard Taylor", "Karen Pickering", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)", "1714", "Mohammad Reza Aref", "1123", "1884", "Alois Alzheimer", "Iván Vallejo", "John C. Calhoun", "1942", "1903", "1875", "Darr Mine disaster", "1909", "Assassination of Andrei Karlov", "Gaia (spacecraft)", "Lenny White", "Gary Fleder", "Goa", "Goa Liberation Day", "Margaret Thatcher", "1873", "Tim Parks", "Wally Olins", "December 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "National Geographic", "Michał Masłowski", "Larry Morris", "Rob Buck", "1900", "William Howard Taft", "Hamza Riazuddin", "1865", "Doug Harvey (ice hockey)", "1905", "Hopetoun Blunder", "Edward Bernard Raczyński", "1998", "Édith Piaf", "Criss Angel", "Communist Labour Party of Turkey/Leninist", "Ken Marino", "1983", "United States House of Representatives", "1878", "William Pitt the Younger", "Sally Kipyego", "Renata Tebaldi", "Robert MacNaughton", "1776", "966", "1986", "Jake Gyllenhaal", "Fikayo Tomori", "1745", "Howard Sackler", "2024", "Gene Okerlund", "Yle", "John Lindsay", "Al Goldstein", "Ronald Evans (astronaut)", "UPI", "Kyösti Kallio", "Hope Lange", "Eduard Ivakdalam", "Eve Bunting", "Adelaide of Susa", "Ginger Stanley", "Al-Ghazali", "Grace Marie Bareis", "George Davis Snell", "BBC News", "Sing Sing", "Til Schweiger", "Leonid Brezhnev", "Amy Locane", "Erick Wainaina", "Tariff of 1828", "1955", "2005", "Lillian Trasher", "Ken Brown (ice hockey)", "1901", "Charles Fitzpatrick", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Joanne Weaver", "1956", "Lorie Kane", "Apollo 17", "Kakori conspiracy", "Ross M. Lence", "Jean Genet", "Ponta Delgada (Azores)", "Italo Svevo", "Tim Reid", "1991", "British Raj", "Robert Bork", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "1930", "Risto Ryti", "2014", "1863", "1968", "1793", "1797", "Elizabeth of Luxembourg", "Prime Minister of Finland", "Dean Treister", "Reggie White", "Turkey", "Robert B. Sherman", "1902", "Elaine Joyce", "1817", "1831", "India", "Mel Fisher", "Ankara", "Masaru Ibuka", "Westminster Abbey", "1973", "Sara Northrup Hollister", "Ahmet Emin Yalman", "William Christie (musician)", "1944", "1997", "Maudy Ayunda", "Minnie Maddern Fiske", "The Pennsylvania Journal", "Grégory Dufer", "Ford C. Frick", "Alvin Lee", "George Jackson Churchward", "Royal Navy", "Giovanni Lurani", "Little Jimmy Dickens", "1918", "Jeremy Soule", "1861", "Eamonn Andrews", "Raid on Alexandria (1941)", "Jay Arnette", "Impeachment of Bill Clinton", "Merzbow", "Richard Hammond", "Kevin Devine", "Roshan Singh", "Hellschreiber", "Gregory Carroll (R&B singer)", "S. Balasubramanian", "World War II", "Jimmy McLarnin", "401", "Limpet mine", "1960", "Alexis Sánchez", "1948", "Dagens Nyheter", "John Amery", "Nayan Mongia", "Warren Sapp", "Matt Stajan", "Karim Benzema", "Kim Peek", "1490", "1945", "Shane McEntee (politician)", "Andreas Osiander", "Tom Lawless", "Brazilian Football Confederation", "1554", "Ronan Farrow", "Bill Clinton", "1980", "1974", "1988", "Robert Lang (ice hockey)", "James J. Archer", "Richard Leakey", "Alphonse Kirchhoffer", "1498", "Ministry of Defence (Russia)", "Ram Prasad Bismil", "Nelson Rockefeller", "Kousei Miura", "Philip V of Spain", "War of the First Coalition", "1959", "Battle of Dreux", "1914", "Daman and Diu", "Referendum", "Ingrid Burley", "Tankred Dorst", "1154", "1807", "Lee Rich" ]
8,849	December 20	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== AD 69 – Antonius Primus enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor for Nero's former general Vespasian. 1192 – Richard I of England is captured and imprisoned by Leopold V of Austria on his way home to England after the Third Crusade. 1334 – Cardinal Jacques Fournier, a Cistercian monk, is elected Pope Benedict XII. ===1601–1900=== 1803 – The Louisiana Purchase is completed at a ceremony in New Orleans. 1808 – Peninsular War: The Siege of Zaragoza begins. 1832 – HMS Clio under the command of Captain Onslow arrives at Port Egmont under orders to take possession of the Falkland Islands. 1848 – French presidential election: Having won the popular vote in a landslide, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is inaugurated in the chamber of the National Assembly as the first (and only) president of the French Second Republic. 1860 – South Carolina becomes the first state to attempt to secede from the United States with the South Carolina Declaration of Secession. ===1901–present=== 1915 – World War I: The last Australian troops are evacuated from Gallipoli. 1917 – Cheka, the first Soviet secret police force, is founded. 1924 – Adolf Hitler is released from Landsberg Prison. 1940 – Captain America Comics #1, containing the first appearance of the superhero Captain America, is published. 1941 – World War II: First battle of the American Volunteer Group, better known as the "Flying Tigers", in Kunming, China. 1942 – World War II: Japanese air forces bomb Calcutta, India. 1946 – It's a Wonderful Life premieres at the Globe Theatre in New York to mixed reviews. [1] 1946 – An earthquake in Nankaidō, Japan causes a tsunami which kills at least one thousand people and destroys 36,000 homes. 1948 – Indonesian National Revolution: The Dutch military captures Yogyakarta, the temporary capital of the newly formed Republic of Indonesia. 1951 – The EBR-1 in Arco, Idaho becomes the first nuclear power plant to generate electricity. The electricity powered four light bulbs. 1952 – A United States Air Force C-124 crashes and burns in Moses Lake, Washington, killing 87 of the 115 people on board. 1955 – Cardiff is proclaimed the capital city of Wales, United Kingdom. 1957 – The initial production version of the Boeing 707 makes its first flight. 1960 – Vietnam War: The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, popularly known as the Viet Cong, is formally established in Tân Lập village, present day Tây Ninh province. 1967 – A Pennsylvania Railroad Budd Metroliner exceeds on their New York Division, also present-day Amtrak's Northeast Corridor. 1968 – The Zodiac Killer murders his first two officially confirmed victims, David Arthur Faraday and Betty Lou Jensen, on Lake Herman Road in Benicia, California, United States. 1970 – Koza riot: After a series of hit-and-runs and other vehicular incidents involving American service personnel, roughly 5,000 Okinawans take to the streets, clashing with American law enforcement in protest against the U.S. occupation of Okinawa. 1973 – Assassination of Luis Carrero Blanco: A car bomb planted by ETA in Madrid kills three people, including the Prime Minister of Spain, Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. 1977 – With the approval of the State Council, China’s two largest newspapers, the People’s Daily and the Guangming Daily, publish in full for the first time the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme. 1984 – The Summit Tunnel fire, one of the largest transportation tunnel fires in history, burns after a freight train carrying over one million liters of gasoline derails near the town of Todmorden, England, in the Pennines. 1984 – Disappearance of Jonelle Matthews from Greeley, Colorado. Her remains were discovered on July 23, 2019, located about southeast of Jonelle's home. The cause of death "was a gunshot wound to the head." 1985 – Pope John Paul II announces the institution of World Youth Day. 1987 – In the worst peacetime sea disaster, the passenger ferry Doña Paz sinks after colliding with the oil tanker MT Vector in the Tablas Strait of the Philippines, killing an estimated 4,000 people (1,749 official). 1988 – War on drugs: The United Nations agrees upon and promulgates the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, one of three major drug control treaties currently in force. 1989 – The United States invasion of Panama deposes Manuel Noriega. 1991 – A Missouri court sentences the Palestinian militant Zein Isa and his wife Maria to death for the honor killing of their daughter Palestina. 1995 – NATO begins peacekeeping in Bosnia. 1995 – American Airlines Flight 965, a Boeing 757, crashes into a mountain 50 km north of Cali, Colombia, killing 159 of the 163 people on board. 1999 – Macau is handed over to China by Portugal. 2004 – A gang of thieves steal £26.5 million worth of currency from the Donegall Square West headquarters of Northern Bank in Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom, one of the largest bank robberies in British history. 2004 – Cave Story releases to the public. 2007 – Elizabeth II becomes the oldest monarch in the history of the United Kingdom, surpassing Queen Victoria, who lived for 81 years and 243 days. 2007 – The Portrait of Suzanne Bloch (1904), by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, and O Lavrador de Café by Brazilian modernist painter Cândido Portinari, are stolen from the São Paulo Museum of Art in Brazil. Both will be recovered a few weeks later. 2019 – The United States Space Force becomes the first new branch of the United States Armed Forces since 1947. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1494 – Oronce Finé, French mathematician and cartographer (d. 1555) 1496 – Joseph ha-Kohen, historian and physician (d. 1575) 1537 – John III, king of Sweden (d. 1592) 1576 – John Sarkander, Moravian priest and saint (d. 1620) ===1601–1900=== 1626 – Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff, German scholar and politician (d. 1692) 1629 – Pieter de Hooch, Dutch painter (d. 1684) 1641 – Urban Hjärne, Swedish chemist, geologist, and physician (d. 1724) 1740 – Arthur Lee, American physician and diplomat (d. 1792) 1786 – Pietro Raimondi, Italian composer (d. 1853) 1792 – Nicolas Toussaint Charlet, French painter and educator (d. 1845) 1806 – Martín Carrera, Mexican general and president (1855) (d. 1871) 1812 – Laura M. Hawley Thurston, American poet and educator (d. 1842) 1838 – Edwin Abbott Abbott, English theologian, author, and educator (d. 1926) 1841 – Ferdinand Buisson, French academic and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932) 1851 – Knut Wicksell, Swedish economist (d. 1926) 1861 – Ferdinand Bonn, German actor (d. 1933) 1861 – Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian painter (d. 1926) 1865 – Elsie de Wolfe, American actress and interior decorator (d. 1950) 1868 – Harvey Samuel Firestone, American businessman, founded the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company (d. 1938) 1869 – Charley Grapewin, American actor (d. 1956) 1871 – Henry Kimball Hadley, American composer and conductor (d. 1937) 1873 – Kan'ichi Asakawa, Japanese historian, author, and academic (d. 1948) 1873 – Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Turkish poet, academic, and politician (d. 1936) 1874 – Mary Ann Bevan, English nurse who, after developing acromegaly, toured the circus sideshow circuit as "the ugliest woman in the world" 1881 – Branch Rickey, American baseball player and manager (d. 1965) 1884 – Ruhana Kuddus, Indonesian activist and journalist (d. 1972) 1886 – Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman, American tennis player and businessman (d. 1974) 1888 – Yitzhak Baer, German-Israeli historian and academic (d. 1980) 1888 – Fred Merkle, American baseball player and manager (d. 1956) 1890 – Yvonne Arnaud, French pianist, actress and singer (d. 1958) 1890 – Jaroslav Heyrovský, Czech chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967) 1891 – Erik Almlöf, Swedish triple jumper (d. 1971) 1894 – Robert Menzies, Australian lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1978) 1898 – Konstantinos Dovas, Greek general and politician, 156th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973) 1898 – Irene Dunne, American actress and singer (d. 1990) 1899 – Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Welsh preacher and physician (d. 1981) 1900 – Lissy Arna, German actress (d. 1964) 1900 – Gabby Hartnett, American baseball player and manager (d. 1972) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Robert J. Van de Graaff, American physicist and academic, invented the Van de Graaff generator (d. 1967) 1902 – Prince George, Duke of Kent (d. 1942) 1902 – Sidney Hook, American philosopher and author (d. 1989) 1904 – Spud Davis, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1984) 1904 – Yevgenia Ginzburg, Russian author (d. 1977) 1905 – Bill O'Reilly, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1992) 1907 – Paul Francis Webster, American soldier and songwriter (d. 1984) 1908 – Dennis Morgan, American actor and singer (d. 1994) 1909 – Vakkom Majeed, Indian journalist and politician (d. 2000) 1911 – Hortense Calisher, American author (d. 2009) 1914 – Harry F. Byrd Jr., American lieutenant, publisher, and politician (d. 2013) 1915 – Aziz Nesin, Turkish author and poet (d. 1995) 1916 – Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader and activist (d. 2010) 1917 – David Bohm, American-English physicist, neuropsychologist, and philosopher (d. 1992) 1917 – Cahit Külebi, Turkish poet and author (d. 1997) 1917 – Audrey Totter, American actress (d. 2013) 1918 – Jean Marchand, Canadian trade union leader and politician, 43rd Secretary of State for Canada (d. 1988) 1920 – Väinö Linna, Finnish author (d. 1992) 1921 – George Roy Hill, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1922 – Beverly Pepper, American sculptor and painter (d. 2020) 1922 – William Soeryadjaya, Chinese-Indonesian businessman and co-founder of Astra International (d. 2010) 1924 – Charlie Callas, American actor and comedian (d. 2011) 1924 – Judy LaMarsh, Canadian soldier, lawyer, and politician, 42nd Secretary of State for Canada (d. 1980) 1925 – Benito Lorenzi, Italian footballer (d. 2007) 1926 – Geoffrey Howe, Welsh lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2015) 1926 – Otto Graf Lambsdorff, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of Economics (d. 2009) 1927 – Michael Beaumont, 22nd Seigneur of Sark, English engineer and politician (d. 2016) 1927 – Jim Simpson, American sportscaster (d. 2016) 1927 – Kim Young-sam, South Korean soldier and politician, 7th President of South Korea (d. 2015) 1928 – John Menkes, Austrian-American pediatric and writer (d. 2008) 1929 – Don Sunderlage, American basketball player (d. 1961) 1931 – Mala Powers, American actress (d. 2007) 1932 – John Hillerman, American actor (d. 2017) 1933 – Olavi Salonen, Finnish runner 1933 – Rik Van Looy, Belgian cyclist (d. 2024) 1935 – Khalid Ibadulla, Pakistani cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2024) 1939 – Kathryn Joosten, American actress (d. 2012) 1939 – Kim Weston, American soul singer 1942 – Rana Bhagwandas, Pakistani lawyer and judge, Chief Justice of Pakistan (d. 2015) 1942 – Bob Hayes, American sprinter and football player (d. 2002) 1942 – Jean-Claude Trichet, French banker and economist 1942 – Roger Woodward, Australian classical pianist, composer, conductor, teacher and human rights activist. 1944 – Ray Martin, Australian television host and journalist 1945 – Peter Criss, American singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1945 – Sivakant Tiwari, Indian-Singaporean lawyer and author (d. 2010) 1946 – Uri Geller, Israeli-English magician and psychic 1946 – Sonny Perdue, American politician, 31st United States Secretary of Agriculture, 81st Governor of Georgia 1946 – Dick Wolf, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1948 – Alan Parsons, English keyboard player and producer 1948 – Mitsuko Uchida, Japanese pianist 1949 – Soumaïla Cissé, Malian engineer and politician (d. 2020) 1949 – Cecil Cooper, American baseball player and manager 1950 – Arturo Márquez, Mexican-American composer 1951 – Nuala O'Loan, Baroness O'Loan, Northern Irish academic and police ombudsman 1951 – Marta Russell, American author and activist (d. 2013) 1952 – Jenny Agutter, English actress 1958 – Doug Nordquist, American high jumper 1958 – James Thomson, American biologist and academic 1959 – George Coupland, Scottish scientist 1959 – Hildegard Körner, German runner 1959 – Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz, Polish physicist and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Poland 1960 – Nalo Hopkinson, Jamaican-Canadian author and educator 1960 – Kim Ki-duk, South Korean director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2020) 1961 – Mohammad Fouad, Egyptian singer-songwriter and actor 1963 – Joel Gretsch, American actor 1972 – Anders Odden, Norwegian guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1974 – Die, Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1975 – Bartosz Bosacki, Polish footballer 1976 – Nenad Vučković, Croatian footballer 1978 – Yoon Kye-sang, South Korean singer 1978 – Andrei Markov, Russian-Canadian ice hockey player 1978 – Geremi Njitap, Cameroon footballer 1978 – Bouabdellah Tahri, French runner 1979 – Michael Rogers, Australian cyclist 1980 – Israel Castro, Mexican footballer 1980 – Ashley Cole, English footballer 1980 – Anthony da Silva, French-Portuguese footballer 1980 – Martín Demichelis, Argentine footballer 1981 – Royal Ivey, American basketball player and coach 1981 – James Shields, American baseball player 1982 – Mohammad Asif, Pakistani cricketer 1982 – David Cook, American singer-songwriter 1983 – Jonah Hill, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1986 – Chay Genoway, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Malcolm Jenkins, American football player 1990 – JoJo, American singer and actress 1990 – Marta Xargay, Spanish basketball player 1991 – Rachael Boyle, Scottish footballer 1991 – Jorginho, Brazilian footballer 1991 – Jillian Rose Reed, American actress 1992 – Ksenia Makarova, Russian-American figure skater 1993 – Andrea Belotti, Italian footballer 1993 – Robeisy Ramírez, Cuban boxer 1994 – Calvin Ridley, American football player 1995 – Anžejs Pasečņiks, Latvian basketball player 1995 – Christian Wilkins, American football player 1996 – Jarrod Bowen, English football player 1997 – De'Aaron Fox, American basketball player 1997 – Suzuka Nakamoto, Japanese singer 1998 – Kylian Mbappé, French footballer 2000 – Gaboro, Assyrian Swedish rapper and songwriter (d. 2024) 2001 – Facundo Pellistri, Uruguayan footballer 2001 – Sepp van den Berg, Dutch footballer 2002 – Marcelo Pitaluga, Brazilian footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 69 – Titus Flavius Sabinus, a Roman politician and soldier 217 – Zephyrinus, pope of the Catholic Church 910 – Alfonso III, king of Asturias 977 – Fujiwara no Kanemichi, Japanese statesman (b. 925) 1295 – Margaret of Provence, French queen (b. 1221) 1326 – Peter of Moscow, Russian metropolitan bishop 1340 – John I, duke of Bavaria (b. 1329) 1355 – Stefan Dušan, emperor of Serbia (b. 1308) 1539 – Johannes Lupi, Flemish composer (b. 1506) 1552 – Katharina von Bora, wife of Martin Luther (b. 1499) 1590 – Ambroise Paré, French physician and surgeon (b. 1510) ===1601–1900=== 1658 – Jean Jannon, French designer and typefounder (b. 1580) 1722 – Kangxi, emperor of the Qing Dynasty (b. 1654) 1723 – Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, German physician and botanist (b. 1652) 1740 – Richard Boyle, 2nd Viscount Shannon, English field marshal and politician, Governor of Portsmouth (b. 1675) 1765 – Louis, dauphin of France (b. 1729) 1768 – Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni, Italian poet and academic (b. 1692) 1783 – Antonio Soler, Spanish priest and composer (b. 1729) 1812 – Sacagawea, American explorer (b. 1788) 1820 – John Bell, American farmer (b. 1750) 1849 – Kyai Maja, Javanese ulama and commander of Java War (b. 1792) 1856 – Francesco Bentivegna, Italian activist (b. 1820) 1862 – Robert Knox, Scottish surgeon and zoologist (b. 1791) 1880 – Gaspar Tochman, Polish-American colonel and lawyer (b. 1797) 1893 – George C. Magoun, American businessman (b. 1840) ===1901–present=== 1915 – Upendrakishore Ray, Indian painter and composer (b. 1863) 1916 – Arthur Morgan, Australian politician, 16th Premier of Queensland (b. 1856) 1917 – Lucien Petit-Breton, French-Argentinian cyclist (b. 1882) 1919 – Philip Fysh, English-Australian politician, 12th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1835) 1920 – Linton Hope, English sailor and architect (b. 1863) 1921 – Julius Richard Petri, German microbiologist (b. 1852) 1925 – João Ferreira Sardo, the founder of Gafanha da Nazaré, also known as Prior Sardo (b. 1873). 1927 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (b. 1872) 1929 – Émile Loubet, French lawyer and politician, 8th President of France (b. 1838) 1935 – Martin O'Meara, Irish-Australian sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1882) 1937 – Erich Ludendorff, German general (b. 1865) 1938 – Annie Armstrong, American missionary (b. 1850) 1938 – Lida Howell, American archer (b. 1859) 1939 – Hans Langsdorff, German captain (b. 1894) 1941 – Igor Severyanin, Russian-Estonian poet and author (b. 1887) 1950 – Enrico Mizzi, Maltese lawyer and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1885) 1954 – James Hilton, English-American author and screenwriter (b. 1900) 1956 – Ramón Carrillo, Argentinian neurologist and physician (b. 1906) 1959 – Juhan Simm, Estonian composer and conductor (b. 1885) 1961 – Moss Hart, American director and playwright (b. 1904) 1961 – Earle Page, Australian soldier and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1880) 1968 – John Steinbeck, American novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) 1971 – Roy O. Disney, American banker and businessman, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (b. 1893) 1972 – Adolfo Orsi, Italian businessman (b. 1888) 1973 – Luis Carrero Blanco, Spanish admiral and politician, 69th President of the Government of Spain (b. 1904; assassinated) 1973 – Bobby Darin, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1936) 1974 – Rajani Palme Dutt, English journalist and politician (b. 1896) 1974 – André Jolivet, French composer and conductor (b. 1905) 1976 – Richard J. Daley, American lawyer and politician, 48th Mayor of Chicago (b. 1902) 1976 – Soetardjo Kartohadikusumo, Indonesian politician, 1st Governor of West Java (b. 1890) 1981 – Dimitris Rontiris, Greek actor and director (b. 1899) 1982 – Arthur Rubinstein, Polish-American pianist and composer (b. 1887) 1984 – Stanley Milgram, American psychologist and academic (b. 1933) 1984 – Dmitry Ustinov, Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union (1976–84) (b. 1908) 1986 – Joe DeSa, American baseball player (b. 1959) 1991 – Simone Beck, French chef and author (b. 1904) 1991 – Sam Rabin, English wrestler, singer, and sculptor (b. 1903) 1991 – Albert Van Vlierberghe, Belgian cyclist (b. 1942) 1993 – W. Edwards Deming, American statistician, author, and academic (b. 1900) 1993 – Nazife Güran, Turkish composer and educator (b. 1921) 1994 – Dean Rusk, American lawyer, and politician, 54th United States Secretary of State (b. 1909) 1995 – Madge Sinclair, Jamaican-American actress (b. 1938) 1996 – Carl Sagan, American astronomer, astrophysicist, and cosmologist (b. 1934) 1997 – Denise Levertov, English-American poet and translator (b. 1923) 1997 – Dick Spooner, English cricketer (b. 1919) 1997 – Dawn Steel, American film producer (b. 1946) 1998 – Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, English physiologist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916) 1999 – Riccardo Freda, Egyptian-Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1909) 1999 – Hank Snow, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1914) 2001 – Léopold Sédar Senghor, Senegalese poet and politician, 1st President of Senegal (b. 1906) 2005 – Raoul Bott, Hungarian-American mathematician and academic (b. 1923) 2006 – Anne Rogers Clark, American dog breeder and trainer (b. 1929) 2008 – Adrian Mitchell, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932) 2008 – Robert Mulligan, American director and producer (b. 1925) 2008 – Igor Troubetzkoy, Russian aristocrat and racing driver (b. 1912) 2009 – Brittany Murphy, American actress and singer (b. 1977) 2009 – Arnold Stang, American actor (b. 1918) 2010 – K. P. Ratnam, Sri Lankan academic and politician (b. 1914) 2011 – Barry Reckord, Jamaican playwright and screenwriter (b. 1926) 2012 – Stan Charlton, English footballer and manager (b. 1929) 2012 – Robert Juniper, Australian painter and sculptor (b. 1929) 2012 – Victor Merzhanov, Russian pianist and educator (b. 1919) 2013 – Pyotr Bolotnikov, Russian runner (b. 1930) 2014 – Per-Ingvar Brånemark, Swedish surgeon and academic (b. 1929) 2014 – John Freeman, English lawyer, politician, and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States (b. 1915) 2020 – Fanny Waterman, British pianist (b. 1920) 2020 – Ezra Vogel, American sociologist (b. 1930) 2022 – Franco Harris, American football player (b. 1950) 2024 – Casey Chaos, American singer (b. 1965) 2024 – George Eastham, English footballer (b. 1936) 2024 – Rickey Henderson, American baseball player (b. 1958) ==Holidays and observances== Abolition of Slavery Day, also known as Fête des Cafres (Réunion, French Guiana) Bo Aung Kyaw Day (Myanmar) Christian feast day: Dominic of Silos O Clavis Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne Katharina von Bora (Lutheran) December 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Earliest date for Winter solstice's eve (Northern Hemisphere), and its related observances: Yaldā (Iran) International Human Solidarity Day (International) Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Macau)	[ "1940", "1921", "Koza riot", "Prime Minister of Malta", "Kunming", "1722", "Benito Lorenzi", "Astra International", "1886", "United States Air Force", "1982", "Sidney Hook", "Madrid", "Chay Genoway", "nuclear power", "The Plain Dealer", "Roman people", "JoJo (singer)", "1899", "Governor of Portsmouth", "Barry Reckord", "List of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the United States", "Winter solstice", "São Paulo Museum of Art", "Guangming Daily", "John Freeman (British politician)", "Philip Fysh", "Robert J. Van de Graaff", "John Bell (farmer)", "1924", "John Menkes", "Arthur Lee (diplomat)", "Titan Publishing Group", "1792", "Springer Publishing", "Martin Schulz", "Calendar of saints", "Cave Story", "Nursing", "Robert Menzies", "1768", "Donegall Square", "National Hockey League", "Richard Boyle, 2nd Viscount Shannon", "The Walt Disney Company", "Rana Bhagwandas", "John Steinbeck", "1626", "Belfast", "1898", "Geoffrey Howe", "2020", "Victoria Cross", "Facundo Pellistri", "Dick Wolf", "Hortense Calisher", "Dawn Steel", "1881", "car bomb", "President of the Government of Spain", "Jörg Schmidt (footballer)", "1928", "1915", "1981", "Robeisy Ramírez", "South Carolina Declaration of Secession", "Branch Rickey", "2008", "Per-Ingvar Brånemark", "1946", "1950", "1783", "Federal Ministry of Economics and Energy", "United States Secretary of State", "Katharina von Bora", "1979", "Adolf Hitler", "Jorginho (footballer, born December 1991)", "China", "1658", "1994", "David Bohm", "Louisiana Purchase", "Mitsuko Uchida", "Andrea Belotti", "1972", "1916", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Exclaim!", "Indonesian National Revolution", "Fanny Waterman", "Blanche Baker", "United Nations", "Pennsylvania Railroad", "Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman", "1954", "Peninsular War", "Johannes Lupi", "Associated Press", "1860", "Macau", "Michael Beaumont, 22nd Seigneur of Sark", "John I, Duke of Bavaria", "Ferdinand Buisson", "Moss Hart", "Vespasian", "1851", "Die (musician)", "Helsingin Sanomat", "Judy LaMarsh", "George Eastham", "Royal Ivey", "1977", "Stanley Milgram", "George C. Magoun", "The Washington Post", "1848", "Cândido Portinari", "James Shields (baseball)", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day", "President of France", "Colombia", "Iran", "Paul Francis Webster", "Pennines", "David Wright", "Prime Minister of Australia", "English people", "William Soeryadjaya", "Third Crusade", "1922", "1838", "The New York Times", "1920", "State Council of the People’s Republic of China", "1931", "Andrei Markov (ice hockey)", "Arturo Márquez", "1992", "Stan Charlton", "2013", "Joel Gretsch", "Java War", "New Orleans", "1933", "Northern Ireland", "Secretary of State for Canada", "Robert Knox (surgeon)", "Andrew Mackenzie (businessman)", "United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands", "Firestone Tire and Rubber Company", "Bob Morley", "Suzuka Nakamoto", "George Roy Hill", "1932", "Anthony da Silva", "Raoul Bott", "International Human Solidarity Day", "1951", "1935", "1970", "Erik Almlöf", "Cecil Cooper", "Kolkata", "Jonah Hill", "1786", "2009", "El País", "Flying Tigers", "1723", "Kim Ki-duk", "Alain de Botton", "Second round of simplified Chinese characters", "1985", "Pyotr Bolotnikov", "2010", "Michael Badalucco", "1355", "New York City", "Mary Ann Bevan", "Lissy Arna", "1990", "Soviet Union", "Nero", "1808", "American Airlines Flight 965", "1765", "Premier of Tasmania", "Soetardjo Kartohadikusumo", "John III of Sweden", "1961", "Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni", "HMS Clio (1807)", "Marta Xargay", "woman", "1926", "1966", "Dmitry Ustinov", "Disappearance and death of Jonelle Matthews", "910", "French Second Republic", "Boeing 757", "Imperial Japanese Army Air Service", "Martin Luther", "World War I", "Otto Graf Lambsdorff", "Captain America", "Marta Russell", "1938", "Mohammad Fouad", "Richard J. Daley", "CNN", "Linton Hope", "1999", "1925", "1539", "Globe Theatre (Broadway, New York City)", "2019", "International observance", "United States Secretary of Agriculture", "Antonius Primus", "War on drugs", "Ruhana Kuddus", "List of Prime Ministers of Greece", "1978", "1869", "Greeley, Colorado", "David Tavaré", "United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances", "Kasper Klausen", "Cardinal (Catholic Church)", "Dennis Morgan", "Oronce Finé", "Frederick Semple", "Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz", "Van de Graaff generator", "1987", "Northern Bank robbery", "Harry F. Byrd Jr.", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Cheka", "1919", "1939", "Jean Jannon", "Yitzhak Baer", "President of South Korea", "Julius Richard Petri", "2002", "John Hillerman", "2001", "Zodiac Killer", "1326", "Uri Geller", "Victor Merzhanov", "1993", "Carl Sagan", "ESPN", "Chief Justice of Pakistan", "The Guardian", "1976", "Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Bill O'Reilly (cricketer)", "Casey Chaos", "Northern Bank", "1848 French presidential election", "American Volunteer Group", "2012", "Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz", "Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 47)", "Nicolas Toussaint Charlet", "Zahra Ouaziz", "Charlie Callas", "Deposition (politics)", "Urban Hjärne", "1946 Nankai earthquake", "Arthur Rubinstein", "Unattractiveness", "Michael Rogers (cyclist)", "1989", "Jean-Claude Trichet", "2000", "1927", "Transfer of sovereignty over Macau", "Sivakant Tiwari", "1967", "Peter Criss", "1952 Moses Lake C-124 crash", "Roman emperor", "Martín Carrera", "Ray Martin (television presenter)", "Albert Van Vlierberghe", "1971", "1904", "1952", "Nalo Hopkinson", "Augustus Quirinus Rivinus", "1894", "Pope Benedict XII", "Yvonne Arnaud", "André Jolivet", "It's a Wonderful Life", "1984", "Pablo Picasso", "Christian Wilkins", "Jaroslav Heyrovský", "1907", "Émile Loubet", "Bartosz Bosacki", "National Basketball Association", "Rome", "gasoline", "1552", "1937", "Myanmar", "Vietnam War", "United States Space Force", "977", "1996", "1963", "Dean Rusk", "Pope John Paul II", "Karl Wendlinger", "W. Edwards Deming", "John Sarkander", "Fred Merkle", "1880", "1975", "Junji Hirata", "Amtrak", "Prince George, Duke of Kent", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "1893", "1888", "1958", "Roger Woodward", "Douglas C-124 Globemaster II", "Marcelo Pitaluga", "MT Vector", "1941", "Dimitris Rontiris", "Elsie de Wolfe", "Leopold V, Duke of Austria", "1908", "1841", "Denise Levertov", "Spud Davis", "Knut Wicksell", "1949", "1969", "Columbia University Press", "Ambroise Paré", "1590", "Rachael Boyle", "Mohammad Asif (cricketer)", "Kim Weston", "Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff", "2007", "Todmorden", "1891", "United States", "Upendrakishore Ray", "Anne Rogers Clark", "1957", "Hildegard Körner", "Guy Babylon", "1871", "1806", "Kangxi Emperor", "Erich Ludendorff", "1820", "Yoon Kye-sang", "Grant Flower", "Nenad Vučković (footballer)", "1849", "Moses Lake, Washington", "Arthur Morgan (Queensland politician)", "Jenny Agutter", "Richard I of England", "Jean Marchand", "Napoleon III", "Riccardo Freda", "Second Siege of Zaragoza", "Nazife Güran", "Irene Dunne", "1334", "Audrey Totter", "Jim Simpson (sportscaster)", "Bob Hayes", "Lutheran", "Reassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (1833)", "Benicia, California", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "French Guiana", "Kyai Maja", "Operation Kraai", "2004", "Olympedia", "South Carolina", "bank robbery", "Lucien Petit-Breton", "2022", "Palais Bourbon", "1496", "1929", "1862", "Réunion", "Luis Carrero Blanco", "Doug Nordquist", "Lida Howell", "Sonny Perdue", "Gaspar Tochman", "Alfonso III of Asturias", "Anžejs Pasečņiks", "Wales", "Chris Robinson (singer)", "Rik Van Looy", "1995", "Khalid Ibadulla", "Elizabeth II", "Falkland Islands", "Sacagawea", "Joe DeSa", "Israel Castro", "Queen Victoria", "Geremi Njitap", "Rajani Palme Dutt", "João Ferreira Sardo", "Freight rail transport", "Major League Baseball", "1740", "Experimental Breeder Reactor I", "1884", "1942", "World Youth Day", "Ksenia Makarova", "Jarrod Bowen", "Robert Mulligan", "James Thomson (cell biologist)", "1832", "Yevgenia Ginzburg", "Vakkom Majeed", "1909", "Government of Georgia (U.S. state)", "Martín Demichelis", "WNBA", "Gabby Hartnett", "Cahit Külebi", "Billy Bragg", "Martin O'Meara", "1873", "Mehmet Akif Ersoy", "Mayor of Chicago", "Nicole de Boer", "Cali", "Cardiff", "Stefan Dušan", "Prime Minister of Spain", "Yaldā", "Bouabdellah Tahri", "2006", "Viet Cong", "Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union", "Brittany Murphy", "1629", "Sandra Cisneros", "1900", "1865", "1905", "Joseph ha-Kohen", "Hans Langsdorff", "Francesco Bentivegna", "Summit Tunnel fire", "1998", "1917", "Pietro Raimondi", "December 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Port Egmont", "1983", "Harvey Samuel Firestone", "1890", "Franco Harris", "1986", "Manuel Noriega", "Ryukyuan people", "Simone Beck", "2024", "People’s Daily", "1641", "Tây Ninh", "Charley Grapewin", "Bobby Darin", "UPI", "Kathryn Joosten", "Philippines", "Veronica Pershina", "Ezra Vogel", "Prime Minister of Poland", "Sepp van den Berg", "world", "Ramón Carrillo", "Alan Parsons", "circus", "ETA (separatist group)", "1812", "Léopold Sédar Senghor", "Bo Aung Kyaw Day", "1955", "Michel Chartrand", "Malcolm Jenkins", "United States invasion of Panama", "2005", "George Coupland", "1340", "Boeing 707", "Portrait of Suzanne Bloch", "1537", "Annie Armstrong", "1901", "1956", "NATO", "Calvin Ridley", "Anita Ward", "Ivana Kobilca", "Gafanha da Nazaré", "David Cook (singer)", "Margaret of Provence", "Hank Snow", "Portugal", "Don Sunderlage", "1295", "1991", "British Raj", "2014", "Budd Metroliner", "1968", "sideshow", "De'Aaron Fox", "O Clavis", "Antonio Soler (composer)", "Ashley Cole", "1902", "Tablas Strait", "Juhan Simm", "Murder of Tina Isa", "Martyn Lloyd-Jones", "217", "Arco, Idaho", "Mala Powers", "1973", "Bill Hosket Jr.", "Laura M. Hawley Thurston", "1576", "Blabbermouth.net", "Arnold Stang", "James Hilton (novelist)", "Robert Juniper", "Kylian Mbappé", "Igor Troubetzkoy", "Binali Yıldırım", "Fujiwara no Kanemichi", "1944", "Konstantinos Dovas", "1997", "Pieter de Hooch", "Anna Vissi", "Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne", "Nuala O'Loan, Baroness O'Loan", "Beverly Pepper", "AD 69", "1868", "Gaboro", "Anders Odden", "1918", "1861", "Jan Čaloun", "Edwin Abbott Abbott", "1911", "Ferdinand Bonn", "Kan'ichi Asakawa", "Governor of Georgia", "Aziz Nesin", "World War II", "Cistercians", "Mike Watt", "1960", "1948", "Roy O. Disney", "Jillian Rose Reed", "Dominic of Silos", "1856", "Enrico Mizzi", "K. P. Ratnam", "Fabian Schär", "Ministry of Transport, Maritime and Communication (Turkey)", "Kim Young-sam", "Earle Page", "Adolfo Orsi", "Henry Kimball Hadley", "Soumaïla Cissé", "Assassination of Luis Carrero Blanco", "1945", "Rickey Henderson", "Landsberg Prison", "Olavi Salonen", "Alan Lloyd Hodgkin", "Cafres", "Dick Spooner", "1980", "1988", "1974", "Gallipoli Campaign", "1874", "Pope Zephyrinus", "Igor Severyanin", "Samuel Rabin (artist)", "acromegaly", "Madge Sinclair", "Reuters", "1494", "President of Senegal", "Captain America Comics", "2011", "Adrian Mitchell", "1192", "secession", "Gigliola Cinquetti", "1959", "1914", "Väinö Linna", "MV Doña Paz", "List of heads of state of Mauritania", "Louis, Dauphin of France (son of Louis XV)", "Premier of Queensland", "Saint Peter of Moscow", "1803" ]
8,850	December 21	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== AD 69 – The Roman Senate declares Vespasian emperor of Rome, the last in the Year of the Four Emperors. 1124 – Pope Honorius II is consecrated, having been elected after the controversial dethroning of Pope Celestine II. 1140 – After a siege of several weeks, the city of Weinsberg and its castle surrender to Conrad III of Germany. 1237 – The city of Ryazan is sacked by the Mongol army of Batu Khan. 1361 – The Battle of Linuesa is fought in the context of the Spanish Reconquista between the forces of the Emirate of Granada and the combined army of the Kingdom of Castile and of Jaén resulting in a Castilian victory. 1598 – Battle of Curalaba: The revolting Mapuche, led by cacique Pelentaru, inflict a major defeat on Spanish troops in southern Chile. ===1601–1900=== 1620 – Plymouth Colony: William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims land near what is now known as Plymouth Rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts. 1826 – American settlers in Nacogdoches, Mexican Texas, declare their independence, starting the Fredonian Rebellion. 1832 – Egyptian–Ottoman War: Egyptian forces decisively defeat Ottoman troops at the Battle of Konya. 1844 – The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers commences business at its cooperative in Rochdale, England, starting the Cooperative movement. 1861 – Medal of Honor: Public Resolution 82, containing a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor, is signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln. 1872 – Challenger expedition: , commanded by Captain George Nares, sails from Portsmouth, England. 1879 – World premiere of Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark. 1883 – The Royal Canadian Dragoons and The Royal Canadian Regiment, the first Permanent Force cavalry and infantry regiments of the Canadian Army, are formed. 1891 – James Naismith, a Canadian-American gym teacher at Springfield College, publishes the first rules for the game now known as basketball and brings it to his class, which then plays the first game of basketball. ===1901–present=== 1907 – The Chilean Army commits a massacre of at least 2,000 striking saltpeter miners in Iquique, Chile. 1910 – An underground explosion at the Hulton Bank Colliery No. 3 Pit in Over Hulton, Westhoughton, England, kills 344 miners. 1913 – Arthur Wynne's "word-cross", the first crossword puzzle, is published in the New York World. 1919 – American anarchist Emma Goldman is deported to Russia. 1923 – United Kingdom and Nepal formally sign an agreement of friendship, called the Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sugauli signed in 1816. 1934 – Lieutenant Kijé, one of Sergei Prokofiev's best-known works, premiered. 1936 – First flight of the Junkers Ju 88 multi-role combat aircraft. 1937 – Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the world's first full-length animated feature, premieres at the Carthay Circle Theatre. 1941 – World War II: A Thai-Japanese Pact of Alliance is signed. 1946 – An 8.1 Mw earthquake and subsequent tsunami in Nankaidō, Japan, kills over 1,300 people and destroys over 38,000 homes. 1963 – "Bloody Christmas" begins in Cyprus, ultimately resulting in the displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots and destruction of more than 100 villages. 1965 – International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is adopted. 1967 – Louis Washkansky, the first man to undergo a human-to-human heart transplant, dies in Cape Town, South Africa, having lived for 18 days after the transplant. 1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 is launched from the Kennedy Space Center, placing its crew on a lunar trajectory for the first visit to another celestial body by humans. 1970 – First flight of F-14 multi-role combat aircraft. 1973 – The Geneva Conference on the Arab–Israeli conflict opens. 1979 – Lancaster House Agreement: An independence agreement for Rhodesia is signed in London by Lord Carrington, Sir Ian Gilmour, Robert Mugabe, Joshua Nkomo, Bishop Abel Muzorewa and S.C. Mundawarara. 1988 – A bomb explodes on board Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, killing 270. This is to date the deadliest air disaster to occur on British soil. 1988 – The first flight of Antonov An-225 Mriya, the largest aircraft in the world. 1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The leaders of 11 now effectively autonomous Soviet republics sign the Alma-Ata Protocol establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States in place of the collapsing Soviet Union. 1992 – A Dutch DC-10, flight Martinair MP 495, crashes at Faro Airport, killing 56. 1995 – The city of Bethlehem passes from Israeli to Palestinian control. 1999 – The Spanish Civil Guard intercepts a van loaded with 950 kg of explosives that ETA intended to use to blow up Torre Picasso in Madrid, Spain. 1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 1216 overshoots the runway at La Aurora International Airport, killing 18. 2004 – Iraq War: A suicide bomber kills 22 at the forward operating base next to the main U.S. military airfield at Mosul, Iraq, the single deadliest suicide attack on American soldiers in Iraq. 2012 – 2012 phenomenon: Festivities are held in parts of Mesoamerica to commemorate the conclusion of b’ak’tun 13, a roughly 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count Calendar whose passing many New Age spiritualists had earlier held to portend a variety of cataclysmic or transformative events. 2020 – A great conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn occurs, with the two planets separated in the sky by 0.1 degrees. This is the closest conjunction between the two planets since 1623. 2023 – Fourteen people are killed and 25 others injured during a mass shooting at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. The perpetrator, a student at the university, kills himself after police arrived; he also killed his father before the shooting. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 968 – Minamoto no Yorinobu, Japanese samurai (d. 1048) 1401 – Masaccio, Italian painter (d. 1428) 1468 – William Conyers, 1st Baron Conyers, English baron (d. 1524) 1505 – Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, English politician (d. 1550) 1538 – Luigi d'Este, Catholic cardinal (d. 1586) 1542 – Thomas Allen, English mathematician and astrologer (d. 1632) 1550 – Man Singh I, Mughal noble (d. 1614) 1596 – Peter Mohyla, Ruthenian Orthodox metropolitan and saint (d. 1646) ===1601–1900=== 1603 – Roger Williams, English minister, theologian, and politician, 9th President of the Colony of Rhode Island (d. 1684) 1615 – Benedict Arnold, Rhode Island colonial governor (d. 1678) 1672 – Benjamin Schmolck, German pastor and composer (d. 1737) 1714 – John Bradstreet, Canadian-English general (d. 1774) 1728 – Hermann Raupach, German harpsichord player and composer (d. 1778) 1778 – Anders Sandøe Ørsted, Danish jurist and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1860) 1795 – Jack Russell, English priest, hunter, and dog breeder (d. 1883) 1795 – Leopold von Ranke, German historian, author, and academic (d. 1886) 1803 – Achille Vianelli, Italian painter and academic (d. 1894) 1804 – Benjamin Disraeli, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1881) 1805 – Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist and academic (d. 1869) 1811 – Archibald Tait, Scottish-English archbishop (d. 1882) 1815 – Thomas Couture, French painter and educator (d. 1879) 1820 – William H. Osborn, American businessman (d. 1894) 1830 – Bartolomé Masó, Cuban soldier and politician (d. 1907) 1832 – John H. Ketcham, American general and politician (d. 1906) 1840 – Ernest de Munck, Belgian cellist and composer (d. 1915) 1840 – Namık Kemal, Turkish journalist, playwright, and activist (d. 1888) 1843 – Thomas Bracken, Irish-New Zealander journalist, poet, and politician (d. 1898) 1850 – Zdeněk Fibich, Czech composer and poet (d. 1900) 1851 – Thomas Chipman McRae, American lawyer and politician, 26th Governor of Arkansas (d. 1929) 1857 – Joseph Carruthers, Australian politician, 16th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1932) 1859 – Gustave Kahn, French poet and critic (d. 1936) 1866 – Maud Gonne, Irish nationalist and political activist (d. 1953) 1868 – George W. Fuller, American chemist and engineer (d. 1934) 1872 – Trevor Kincaid, Canadian-American zoologist and academic (d. 1970) 1872 – Lorenzo Perosi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1956) 1872 – Albert Payson Terhune, American journalist and author (d. 1942) 1876 – Jack Lang, Australian lawyer and politician, 23rd Premier of New South Wales (d. 1975) 1877 – Jaan Sarv, Estonian mathematician and scholar (d. 1954) 1878 – Jan Łukasiewicz, Polish-Irish mathematician and philosopher (d. 1956) 1884 – María Cadilla, Puerto Rican writer, educator, women's rights activist (d. 1951) 1885 – Frank Patrick, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1960) 1888 – Jean Bouin, French runner and rugby player (d. 1914) 1889 – Sewall Wright, American geneticist and biologist (d. 1988) 1890 – Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967) 1891 – John William McCormack, American lawyer and politician, 53rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1980) 1892 – Walter Hagen, American golfer (d. 1969) 1892 – Rebecca West, English journalist and author (d. 1983) 1896 – Konstantin Rokossovsky, Marshal of the Soviet Union during World War II (d. 1968) 1900 – Luis Arturo González López, Guatemalan supreme court judge and briefly acting president (d. 1965) ===1901–present=== 1905 – Käte Fenchel, German mathematician (d. 1983) 1905 – Anthony Powell, English author (d. 2000) 1909 – Seichō Matsumoto, Japanese journalist and author (d. 1992) 1911 – Josh Gibson, American baseball player (d. 1947) 1913 – Arnold Friberg, American illustrator and painter (d. 2010) 1914 – Frank Fenner, Australian microbiologist and virologist (d. 2010) 1917 – Heinrich Böll, German novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985) 1918 – Donald Regan, American colonel and politician, 11th White House Chief of Staff (d. 2003) 1918 – Kurt Waldheim, Austrian colonel and politician; 9th President of Austria (d. 2007) 1919 – Doug Young, American voice actor (d. 2018) 1920 – Alicia Alonso, Cuban ballerina and choreographer, founded the Cuban National Ballet (d. 2019) 1920 – Adele Goldstine, American computer programmer (d. 1964) 1920 – Iris Cummings, American swimmer and aviator (d. 2025) 1922 – Itubwa Amram, Nauruan pastor and politician (d. 1989) 1922 – Cécile DeWitt-Morette, French mathematician and physicist (d. 2017) 1922 – Paul Winchell, American actor, voice artist, and ventriloquist (d. 2005) 1923 – Wat Misaka, American basketball player (d. 2019) 1926 – Arnošt Lustig, Czech author and playwright (d. 2011) 1926 – Joe Paterno, American football player and coach (d. 2012) 1930 – Phil Roman, American animator 1932 – U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and critic (d. 2014) 1932 – Edward Hoagland, American author and critic 1933 – Jackie Hendriks, Jamaican cricketer 1933 – Robert Worcester, American businessman and academic, founded MORI 1934 – Giuseppina Leone, Italian sprinter 1934 – Hanif Mohammad, Pakistani cricketer (d. 2016) 1935 – John G. Avildsen, American director, producer, and cinematographer (d. 2017) 1935 – Lorenzo Bandini, Italian racing driver (d. 1967) 1935 – Phil Donahue, American talk show host and producer (d. 2024) 1935 – Stela Popescu, Romanian actress (d. 2017) 1935 – Edward Schreyer, Canadian academic and politician, Governor General of Canada 1935 – Janet Metcalf, American politician (d. 2025) 1937 – Jane Fonda, American actress and activist 1938 – Larry Bryggman, American actor 1939 – Lloyd Axworthy, Canadian academic and politician, 2nd Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1939 – Wafic Saïd, Syrian-Saudi Arabian financier, businessman and philanthropist 1940 – Frank Zappa, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, composer and producer (d. 1993) 1942 – Hu Jintao, Chinese engineer and politician, 5th Paramount leader of China 1942 – Carla Thomas, American singer 1943 – Albert Lee, English guitarist and songwriter 1943 – Walter Spanghero, French rugby player 1944 – Michael Tilson Thomas, American pianist, composer, and conductor 1944 – Zheng Xiaoyu, Chinese diplomat (d. 2007) 1945 – Doug Walters, Australian cricketer 1946 – Roy Karch, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1946 – Carl Wilson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998) 1947 – Paco de Lucía, Spanish guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2014) 1948 – Barry Gordon, American actor and voice artist; longest-serving president of the Screen Actors Guild (1988–95) 1948 – Samuel L. Jackson, American actor and producer 1948 – Dave Kingman, American baseball player 1949 – Thomas Sankara, Burkinabé captain and politician, 5th President of Burkina Faso (d. 1987) 1949 – Nikolaos Sifounakis, Greek lawyer and politician 1950 – Jeffrey Katzenberg, American screenwriter and producer, co-founded DreamWorks Animation 1950 – Max Maven, American magician and mentalist (d. 2022) 1950 – Lillebjørn Nilsen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2024) 1951 – Steve Perryman, English footballer and manager 1952 – Joaquín Andújar, Dominican baseball player (d. 2015) 1952 – Dennis Boutsikaris, American actor 1952 – Steve Furniss, American swimmer 1953 – András Schiff, Hungarian-English pianist and conductor 1953 – Betty Wright, American singer-songwriter (d. 2020) 1954 – Chris Evert, American tennis player and coach 1955 – Jane Kaczmarek, American actress 1955 – Kazuyuki Sekiguchi, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player 1956 – Dave Laut, American shot putter (d. 2009) 1957 – Ray Romano, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1957 – Tony Lewis, English singer and songwriter (d. 2020) 1958 – Tamara Bykova, Russian high jumper 1959 – Florence Griffith Joyner, American sprinter and actress (d. 1998) 1959 – Krishnamachari Srikkanth, Indian cricketer 1960 – Sherry Rehman, Pakistani journalist, politician, and diplomat, 25th Pakistan Ambassador to the United States 1961 – Ryuji Sasai, Japanese bass player and composer 1963 – Govinda, Indian actor, singer, and politician 1964 – Kunihiko Ikuhara, Japanese director and illustrator 1964 – Joe Kocur, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Glenn Coleman, Australian rugby league player 1965 – Andy Dick, American actor and comedian 1965 – Anke Engelke, Canadian-German actress, director, and screenwriter 1966 – Michelle Hurd, American actress 1966 – William Ruto, 5th President of Kenya 1966 – Kiefer Sutherland, British-Canadian actor, director, and producer 1967 – Terry Mills, American basketball player and coach 1967 – Mikheil Saakashvili, Georgian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Georgia 1969 – Julie Delpy, French model, actress, director, and screenwriter 1969 – Mihails Zemļinskis, Latvian footballer, coach, and manager 1971 – Matthieu Chedid, French singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Natalie Grant, American singer-songwriter and author 1972 – Y. S. Jaganmohan Reddy, Indian Politician, 17th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh 1973 – Irakli Alasania, Georgian colonel and politician, Georgian Minister of Defense 1973 – Matías Almeyda, Argentine footballer and manager 1974 – Karrie Webb, Australian golfer 1975 – Paloma Herrera, Argentine ballerina 1977 – Buddy Carlyle, American baseball player 1977 – Corey Collymore, Barbadian cricketer 1977 – Leon MacDonald, New Zealand rugby player 1977 – Emmanuel Macron, French politician, 25th President of France 1977 – Freddy Sanchez, American baseball player 1978 – Emiliano Brembilla, Italian swimmer 1978 – Charles Dera, American pornographic actor, dancer, model, and mixed martial arts fighter 1978 – Shaun Morgan, South African musician, singer, and guitarist 1978 – Rutina Wesley, American actress 1979 – Steve Montador, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2015) 1981 – Marta Fernández, Spanish basketball player 1981 – Cristian Zaccardo, Italian footballer 1982 – Primo Colón, Puerto Rican wrestler 1982 – Philip Humber, American baseball player 1982 – Tom Payne, English actor 1983 – Taylor Teagarden, American baseball player 1983 – Steven Yeun, American actor 1985 – Tom Sturridge, English actor 1987 – Khris Davis, American baseball player 1988 – Danny Duffy, American baseball player 1988 – Perri Shakes-Drayton, English sprinter and hurdler 1989 – Mark Ingram II, American football player 1989 – Tamannaah, Indian actress 1991 – Nic Maddinson, Australian cricketer 1991 – Otis, American wrestler 1991 – Riccardo Saponara, Italian footballer 1992 – Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, American football player 1992 – Jamie Oleksiak, Canadian ice hockey player 1994 – Luke Brooks, Australian rugby league player 1996 – Ben Chilwell, English footballer 1996 – Kaitlyn Dever, American actress 1997 – Madelyn Cline, American actress and model 1997 – Charlie McAvoy, American ice hockey player 2002 – Clara Tauson, Danish tennis player 2006 – Cooper Flagg, American basketball player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== AD 72 – Thomas the Apostle, Roman martyr and saint (b. 1 AD) 882 – Hincmar, French archbishop and historian (b. 806) 956 – Sun Sheng, Chinese chancellor 975 – Al-Mu'izz, Fatimid caliph (b. 932) 1001 – Hugh of Tuscany, Italian margrave (b. 950) 1215 – Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid, Dāʿī al-Muṭlaq of Tayyibi Isma'ilism (b. c. 1128) 1308 – Henry I, Landgrave of Hesse (b. 1244) 1338 – Thomas Hemenhale, bishop of Worcester 1362 – Constantine III, king of Armenia (b. 1313) 1375 – Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian author and poet (b. 1313) 1504 – Berthold von Henneberg, German archbishop (b. 1442) 1536 – John Seymour, English courtier (b. 1474) 1549 – Marguerite de Navarre, queen of Henry II of Navarre (b. 1492) 1581 – Jean de la Cassière, 51st Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1502) 1597 – Peter Canisius, Dutch priest and saint (b. 1521) ===1601–1900=== 1608 – William Davison, secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England (b. c. 1541) 1610 – Catherine Vasa, Swedish princess (b. 1539) 1701 – Sir Hugh Paterson, Baronet of Bannockburn (b. 1659) 1807 – John Newton, English soldier and minister (b. 1725) 1824 – James Parkinson, English physician and paleontologist (b. 1755) 1869 – Friedrich Ernst Scheller, German jurist and politician (b. 1791) 1873 – Francis Garnier, French admiral and explorer (b. 1839) 1889 – Friedrich August von Quenstedt, German geologist and palaeontologist (b. 1809) ===1901–present=== 1920 – Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, leader of the Dervish movement (b. 1856) 1929 – I. L. Patterson, American politician, 18th Governor of Oregon (b. 1859) 1933 – Knud Rasmussen, Greenlandic anthropologist and explorer (b. 1879) 1935 – Ted Birnie, English footballer and manager (b. 1878) 1935 – Kurt Tucholsky, German-Swedish journalist and author (b. 1890) 1937 – Violette Neatley Anderson, American judge (b. 1882) 1937 – Ted Healy, American comedian and actor (b. 1896) 1937 – Frank B. Kellogg, American lawyer and politician, 45th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1856) 1940 – F. Scott Fitzgerald, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1896) 1945 – George S. Patton, American general (b. 1885) 1948 – Władysław Witwicki, Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist (b. 1878) 1952 – Kenneth Edwards, American golfer (b. 1886) 1953 – Kaarlo Koskelo, Finnish-American wrestler and businessman (b. 1888) 1957 – Eric Coates, English viola player and composer (b. 1886) 1958 – H.B. Warner, English actor (b. 1875) 1958 – Lion Feuchtwanger, German-American author and playwright (b. 1884) 1959 – Rosanjin, Japanese calligrapher, engraver, and painter (b. 1883) 1963 – Jack Hobbs, English cricketer and journalist (b. 1882) 1964 – Carl Van Vechten, American author and photographer (b. 1880) 1965 – Claude Champagne, Canadian violinist, pianist, and composer (b. 1891) 1968 – Vittorio Pozzo, Italian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1886) 1974 – Richard Long, American actor and director (b. 1927) 1982 – Abu Al-Asar Hafeez Jullundhri, Pakistani poet and composer (b. 1900) 1983 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (b. 1919) 1988 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch-English ethologist and ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1907) 1992 – Stella Adler, American actress and educator (b. 1901) 1992 – Albert King, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1924) 1992 – Nathan Milstein, Russian-American violinist and composer (b. 1903) 1998 – Ernst-Günther Schenck, German colonel and physician (b. 1904) 2004 – Autar Singh Paintal, Indian physiologist and neurologist (b. 1925) 2006 – Saparmurat Niyazov, Turkmen engineer and politician, 1st President of Turkmenistan (b. 1940) 2009 – Edwin G. Krebs, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918) 2009 – Christos Lambrakis, Greek journalist and businessman (b. 1934) 2010 – Enzo Bearzot, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1927) 2013 – Edgar Bronfman Sr., Canadian-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1929) 2013 – John Eisenhower, American historian, general, and diplomat, 45th United States Ambassador to Belgium (b. 1922) 2014 – Udo Jürgens, Austrian-Swiss singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1934) 2014 – Sitor Situmorang, Indonesian poet and author (b. 1923) 2014 – Billie Whitelaw, English actress (b. 1932) 2017 – Bruce McCandless II, US astronaut who conducted the first untethered spacewalk (b. 1937) 2019 – Andrew Clennel Palmer, British engineer (b. 1938) 2024 – Michelle Botes, South African actress (b. 1962) 2024 – Art Evans, American actor (b. 1942) ==Holidays and observances== Armed Forces Day (Philippines) Christian feast day: O Oriens Peter Canisius Thomas the Apostle December 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts) São Tomé Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)	[ "Spanish Empire", "Plymouth Rock", "1940", "Udo Jürgens", "Gustave Kahn", "1982", "Rochdale", "1615", "882", "1001", "Konstantin Rokossovsky", "Madrid", "Thomas Chipman McRae", "1598", "Ottoman Empire", "Battle of Konya", "Steve Montador", "1608", "The Plain Dealer", "Michelle Hurd", "1237", "1850", "President of Turkmenistan", "Danny Duffy", "Samuel L. Jackson", "Benedict Arnold (governor)", "Peter Canisius", "Buddy Carlyle", "1910", "Namık Kemal", "Shaun Morgan", "Francis Garnier", "1542", "Dervish state", "Freddy Sanchez", "White House Chief of Staff", "Ben Chilwell", "Max Maven", "1826", "1603", "1843", "Calendar of saints", "McDonnell Douglas DC-10", "Friedrich Ernst Scheller", "1879", "Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society", "Saturn", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Anthony Powell", "History of the cooperative movement", "Kennedy Space Center", "Florence Griffith Joyner", "Turkish Cypriots", "Robert Worcester", "Bloody Christmas (1963)", "James Parkinson", "Marguerite de Navarre", "2020", "1872", "Czech Republic", "Stela Popescu", "Jan Łukasiewicz", "1981", "Peter Mohyla", "1308", "President of the United States", "1946", "Cubana de Aviación Flight 1216", "Henrik Ibsen", "Emirate of Granada", "William H. Osborn", "Ha Ha Clinton-Dix", "Thomas Sankara", "1950", "Krishnamachari Srikkanth", "Lorenzo Perosi", "São Tomé and Príncipe", "Moment magnitude scale", "1124", "Tamara Bykova", "1840", "Zheng Xiaoyu", "United States Secretary of State", "Walter Hagen", "1979", "Thomas Hemenhale", "John Newton", "DreamWorks Animation", "Speaker of the United States House of Representatives", "Nathan Milstein", "1994", "968", "Thomas Allen (mathematician)", "Christos Lambrakis", "Giovanni Boccaccio", "Hu Jintao", "William Conyers, 1st Baron Conyers", "Public holidays in São Tomé and Príncipe", "1972", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Janet Metcalf", "Charles University", "1943", "John G. Avildsen", "List of heads of state of Kenya", "Kurt Tucholsky", "Junkers Ju 88", "Jane Kaczmarek", "1954", "1549", "Associated Press", "Michelle Botes", "Frank Fenner", "Iraq", "John Bradstreet", "basketball", "Vespasian", "Chris Evert", "Mihails Zemļinskis", "Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid", "1851", "Joaquín Andújar", "Nikolaos Sifounakis", "Jack Hobbs", "Nikolaas Tinbergen", "1811", "1977", "Dissolution of the Soviet Union", "The Washington Post", "Hulton Colliery Company", "Bartolomé Masó", "Nepal", "Barry Gordon", "Palestinian National Authority", "1947", "President of France", "tsunami", "Forefathers' Day", "Phil Roman", "Over Hulton", "Terry Mills (basketball)", "Eric Coates", "Saparmurat Niyazov", "1922", "1596", "Jack Russell (priest)", "Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington", "1920", "anarchism", "The New York Times", "Man Singh I", "Matthieu Chedid", "Ernst-Günther Schenck", "Mayflower", "H.B. Warner", "1992", "Jane Fonda", "Ministry of Defense of Georgia", "John H. Ketcham", "1468", "2013", "1953", "1933", "1672", "Sewall Wright", "Cuban National Ballet", "U. R. Ananthamurthy", "Adele Goldstine", "1932", "Governor of Oregon", "2012 phenomenon", "1951", "Violette Neatley Anderson", "Achille Vianelli", "Autar Singh Paintal", "1935", "1970", "2009", "Betty Wright", "Iraq War", "Batu Khan", "1883", "Santa María School massacre", "Michael Tilson Thomas", "Andy Dick", "1985", "2010", "Israel", "Edward Hoagland", "Jean de la Cassière", "John Seymour (1474–1536)", "Albert King", "Julie Delpy", "Edwin G. Krebs", "Soviet Union", "Frank Patrick (ice hockey)", "News24 (website)", "Itubwa Amram", "Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923", "Walter Spanghero", "1961", "MORI", "1926", "1966", "Heinrich Böll", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Roman Senate", "Joe Paterno", "The Royal Canadian Regiment", "2023", "Dave Kingman", "Doug Walters", "Madelyn Cline", "1938", "Minamoto no Yorinobu", "Taylor Teagarden", "Year of the Four Emperors", "CNN", "1999", "2019", "Chile", "Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism", "1830", "Corey Collymore", "Jamie Oleksiak", "William Bradford (Plymouth Colony governor)", "List of colonial governors of Rhode Island", "1978", "Kaarlo Koskelo", "Premier of New South Wales", "Arnošt Lustig", "1869", "Mexican Texas", "Charlie McAvoy", "Constantine III, King of Armenia", "1877", "President of Burkina Faso", "Arab–Israeli conflict", "1965", "1987", "Donald Regan", "1892", "Claude Champagne", "Nobel Peace Prize", "1919", "1939", "Canadian Army", "1804", "Art Evans (actor)", "Knud Rasmussen", "Treaty of Sugauli", "2002", "1362", "Pan Am Flight 103", "ESPN", "1824", "1815", "Conrad III of Germany", "Govinda (actor)", "The Guardian", "George Nares", "Hugh of Tuscany", "Hermann Raupach", "Thomas the Apostle", "Arnold Friberg", "2012", "Anders Sandøe Ørsted", "Riccardo Saponara", "James Naismith", "1946 Nankai earthquake", "Kenneth Edwards (golfer)", "Cape Town", "Luke Brooks", "Kunihiko Ikuhara", "1989", "Stella Adler", "1967", "Richard Long (actor)", "Sun Sheng (Southern Tang)", "Carla Thomas", "Middlesex County Cricket Club", "New York World", "Roman emperor", "Catherine Vasa", "1361", "Giuseppina Leone", "Armed Forces Day", "1971", "Kingdom of Jaén", "1952", "Frank Zappa", "Augener & Co.", "1597", "Heart transplantation", "Matías Almeyda", "Roy Karch", "Reconquista", "great conjunction", "O Oriens", "Paco de Lucía", "Wat Misaka", "1907", "1923", "Jean Bouin", "Plymouth Colony", "1937", "Da'i al-Mutlaq", "1913", "1996", "Hermann Joseph Muller", "Berthold von Henneberg", "1963", "The Wrap", "Civil Guard (Spain)", "AD 72", "Alicia Alonso", "1975", "cacique", "1844", "Charles Dera", "New Age", "Zdeněk Fibich", "1888", "1958", "Paramount leader", "Springfield College", "Elizabeth I of England", "Käte Fenchel", "Governor of Arkansas", "1941", "Sir Hugh Paterson, 1st Baronet", "Roger Williams", "Paul de Man", "1778", "Mosul", "Chilean Army", "1728", "Netherlands", "Kaitlyn Dever", "Battle of Linuesa", "Jupiter", "Faro Airport", "Jeffrey Katzenberg", "Sherry Rehman", "Thomas Graham (chemist)", "1949", "Enzo Bearzot", "Marta Fernández (basketball)", "The Royal Canadian Dragoons", "Albert Lee", "BBC", "1934", "1969", "1889", "Paul Winchell", "Joe Kocur", "Portsmouth", "John William McCormack", "Siege of Ryazan", "Ted Healy", "1891", "Perri Shakes-Drayton", "Doug Young (actor)", "1885", "Ian Gilmour, Baron Gilmour of Craigmillar", "Jack Lang (Australian politician)", "1957", "Carthay Circle Theatre", "Pakistan Ambassador to the United States", "United States Ambassador to Belgium", "Abel Muzorewa", "Phil Donahue", "Benjamin Schmolck", "Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–33)", "1505", "1820", "harpsichord", "2004 Forward Operating Base Marez bombing", "Henry II of Navarre", "forward operating base", "Archibald Tait", "Battle of Curalaba", "Alma-Ata Protocol", "Lillebjørn Nilsen", "Billie Whitelaw", "Premier League", "Egypt", "Joshua Nkomo", "1876", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "2004", "Rosanjin", "Grumman F-14 Tomcat", "1859", "1929", "Natalie Grant", "Dumfries and Galloway", "Sodium nitrate", "Tayyibi Isma'ilism", "December 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "George S. Patton", "Hincmar", "1701", "1896", "Josh Gibson", "1581", "1538", "1995", "Kiefer Sutherland", "Steve Perryman", "Apollo program", "Andrew Clennel Palmer", "Cécile DeWitt-Morette", "Emmanuel Macron", "Major League Baseball", "1714", "Steve Furniss", "Mark Ingram II", "1884", "Karrie Webb", "A Doll's House", "María Cadilla", "1942", "Ryuji Sasai", "1832", "Geneva Conference (1973)", "1805", "Emiliano Brembilla", "1909", "WNBA", "Lloyd Axworthy", "Tom Payne (actor)", "1873", "William Ruto", "Sitor Situmorang", "Paloma Herrera", "Pelantaro", "Pope Honorius II", "2006", "Vittorio Pozzo", "Fredonian Rebellion", "1900", "F. Scott Fitzgerald", "2023 Prague shooting", "Lancaster House Agreement", "1905", "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination", "1998", "1917", "Thailand in World War II", "1866", "Wafic Saïd", "Dave Laut", "Steven Yeun", "Abraham Lincoln", "Pilgrim Fathers", "Kingdom of Castile", "1983", "1878", "Commonwealth of Independent States", "1890", "Philip Humber", "Ryazan", "2024", "Ted Birnie", "Dennis Boutsikaris", "Thomas Bracken", "Henry I, Landgrave of Hesse", "UPI", "Masaccio", "Philippines", "Prague", "Antonov An-225 Mriya", "1536", "Rebecca West", "Siege of Weinsberg", "Mongols", "Lieutenant Kijé (Prokofiev)", "Louis Washkansky", "Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton", "ETA (separatist group)", "Hanif Mohammad", "Joseph Carruthers", "Y. S. Jaganmohan Reddy", "Nankaidō", "1955", "Challenger expedition", "Lion Feuchtwanger", "1401", "El Paso Times", "crossword", "1956", "Luis Arturo González López", "Arthur Wynne", "Tony Lewis (musician)", "Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)", "1795", "1140", "Glenn Coleman (rugby league)", "1215", "Otis (wrestler)", "La Aurora International Airport", "Albert Payson Terhune", "1991", "Moon", "1930", "Lorenzo Bandini", "Captaincy General of Chile", "2014", "1968", "John Eisenhower", "cooperative", "Mikheil Saakashvili", "Leopold von Ranke", "Carl Wilson", "Martinair Flight 495", "Nic Maddinson", "1620", "Prime Minister of Denmark", "Medal of Honor", "Iquique", "Knights Hospitaller", "Edward Schreyer", "Copenhagen", "Edgar Bronfman Sr.", "1338", "1936", "1973", "Royal Danish Theatre", "Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers", "Tamannaah", "suicide attack", "Pretoria Pit disaster", "Friedrich August von Quenstedt", "Cooper Flagg", "Federal Research Division", "Thomas Couture", "Torre Picasso", "Rutina Wesley", "1944", "1997", "Khris Davis", "George W. Fuller", "Jaan Sarv", "Leon MacDonald", "AD 69", "Mohammed Abdullah Hassan", "Westhoughton", "Cristian Zaccardo", "Larry Bryggman", "1868", "1504", "Trevor Kincaid", "Bethlehem", "Variety (magazine)", "Primo Colón", "1918", "1861", "William Davison (diplomat)", "Animation", "Apollo 8", "1911", "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)", "Maud Gonne", "Władysław Witwicki", "Mesoamerican Long Count Calendar", "Nacogdoches, Texas", "975", "World War II", "Rhodesia", "1960", "Irakli Alasania", "Robert Mugabe", "1948", "Frank B. Kellogg", "1550", "1375", "Abu Al-Asar Hafeez Jullundhri", "Benjamin Disraeli", "Ernest de Munck", "Kurt Waldheim", "1945", "Mapuche", "1857", "Ray Romano", "Sergei Prokofiev", "2017", "Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah", "András Schiff", "1988", "1974", "Governor General of Canada", "Tom Sturridge", "Lockerbie", "President of Austria", "Reuters", "Clara Tauson", "Carl Van Vechten", "Anke Engelke", "Bruce McCandless II", "Plymouth, Massachusetts", "Luigi d'Este", "956", "1959", "1610", "1914", "I. L. Patterson", "Iris Cummings", "Emma Goldman", "Jackie Hendriks", "President of Georgia", "1807", "Kazuyuki Sekiguchi", "Seichō Matsumoto", "1803" ]
8,851	December 14	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 557 – Constantinople is severely damaged by an earthquake, which cracks the dome of Hagia Sophia. 835 – Sweet Dew Incident: Emperor Wenzong of the Tang dynasty conspires to kill the powerful eunuchs of the Tang court, but the plot is foiled. 1287 – St. Lucia's flood: The Zuiderzee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses, killing over 50,000 people. 1542 – Princess Mary Stuart becomes Queen of Scots at the age of one week on the death of her father, James V of Scotland. ===1601–1900=== 1751 – The Theresian Military Academy is founded in Wiener Neustadt, Austria. 1780 – Founding Father Alexander Hamilton marries Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York. 1782 – The Montgolfier brothers first test fly an unmanned hot air balloon in France; it floats nearly . 1812 – The French invasion of Russia comes to an end as the remnants of the Grande Armée are expelled from Russia. 1814 – War of 1812: The Royal Navy seizes control of Lake Borgne, Louisiana. 1819 – Alabama becomes the 22nd U.S. state. 1836 – The Toledo War unofficially ends as the "Frostbitten Convention" votes to accept Congress' terms for admitting Michigan as a U.S. state. 1863 – American Civil War: The Confederate victory under General James Longstreet at the Battle of Bean's Station in East Tennessee ends the Knoxville Campaign, but achieves very little as Longstreet returns to Virginia next spring. 1896 – The Glasgow Underground Railway is opened by the Glasgow District Subway Company. 1900 – Quantum mechanics: Max Planck presents a theoretical derivation of his black-body radiation law (quantum theory) at the Physic Society in Berlin. ===1901–present=== 1902 – The Commercial Pacific Cable Company lays the first Pacific telegraph cable, from San Francisco to Honolulu. 1903 – The Wright brothers make their first attempt to fly with the Wright Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. 1907 – The , the largest ever ship without a heat engine, runs aground and founders near the Hellweather's Reef within the Isles of Scilly in a gale. The pilot and 15 seamen die. 1909 – New South Wales Premier Charles Wade signs the Seat of Government Surrender Act 1909, formally completing the transfer of State land to the Commonwealth to create the Australian Capital Territory. 1911 – Roald Amundsen's team, comprising himself, Olav Bjaaland, Helmer Hanssen, Sverre Hassel, and Oscar Wisting, becomes the first to reach the South Pole. 1913 – , the fourth and last ship, launches, eventually becoming one of the Japanese workhorses during World War I and World War II. 1914 – Lisandro de la Torre and others found the Democratic Progressive Party (Partido Demócrata Progresista, PDP) at the Hotel Savoy, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 1918 – Friedrich Karl von Hessen, a German prince elected by the Parliament of Finland to become King Väinö I, renounces the Finnish throne. 1918 – Portuguese President Sidónio Pais is assassinated. 1918 – The 1918 United Kingdom general election occurs, the first where women were permitted to vote. In Ireland the Irish republican political party Sinn Féin wins a landslide victory with nearly 47% of the popular vote. 1918 – Giacomo Puccini's comic opera Gianni Schicchi premieres at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City. 1939 – Winter War: The Soviet Union is expelled from the League of Nations for invading Finland. 1940 – Plutonium (specifically Pu-238) is first isolated at Berkeley, California. 1942 – An Aeroflot Tupolev ANT-20 crashes near Tashkent, killing all 36 people on board. 1948 – Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann are granted a patent for their cathode-ray tube amusement device, the earliest known interactive electronic game. 1955 – Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Ceylon, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal, Portugal, Romania and Spain join the United Nations through United Nations Security Council Resolution 109. 1958 – The 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition becomes the first to reach the southern pole of inaccessibility. 1960 – Convention against Discrimination in Education of UNESCO is adopted. 1962 – NASA's Mariner 2 becomes the first spacecraft to fly by Venus. 1963 – The dam containing the Baldwin Hills Reservoir bursts, killing five people and damaging hundreds of homes in Los Angeles, California. 1964 – American Civil Rights Movement: Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States: The Supreme Court of the United States rules that Congress can use the Constitution's Commerce Clause to fight discrimination. 1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War: Over 200 of East Pakistans intellectuals are executed by the Pakistan Army and their local allies. (The date is commemorated in Bangladesh as Martyred Intellectuals Day.) 1972 – Apollo program: Eugene Cernan is the most recent person to walk on the Moon, after he and Harrison Schmitt complete the third and final extravehicular activity (EVA) of the Apollo 17 mission. 1981 – Arab–Israeli conflict: Israel's Knesset ratifies the Golan Heights Law, extending Israeli law to the Golan Heights. 1985 – Wilma Mankiller takes office as the first woman elected to serve as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. 1986 – Qasba Aligarh massacre: Over 400 Muhajirs killed in revenge killings in Qasba colony after a raid on Pashtun heroin processing and distribution center in Sohrab Goth by the security forces. 1992 – War in Abkhazia: Siege of Tkvarcheli: A helicopter carrying evacuees from Tkvarcheli is shot down, resulting in at least 52 deaths, including 25 children. The incident catalyses more concerted Russian military intervention on behalf of Abkhazia. 1994 – Construction begins on the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze river. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: The Dayton Agreement is signed in Paris by the leaders of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1998 – Yugoslav Wars: The Yugoslav Army ambushes a group of Kosovo Liberation Army fighters attempting to smuggle weapons from Albania into Kosovo, killing 36. 1999 – Torrential rains cause flash floods in Vargas, Venezuela, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths, the destruction of thousands of homes, and the complete collapse of the state's infrastructure. 2003 – Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf narrowly escapes an assassination attempt. 2004 – The Millau Viaduct, the tallest bridge in the world, is formally inaugurated near Millau, France. 2012 – Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting: Twenty-eight people, including the gunman, are killed in Sandy Hook, Connecticut. 2013 – A reported coup attempt in South Sudan leads to continued fighting and hundreds of casualties. 2017 – The Walt Disney Company announces that it would acquire 21st Century Fox, including the 20th Century Fox movie studio, for $52.4 billion. 2020 – A total solar eclipse is visible from parts of the South Pacific Ocean, southern South America, and the South Atlantic Ocean. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1009 – Go-Suzaku, emperor of Japan (d. 1045) 1332 – Frederick III, German nobleman (d. 1381) 1546 – Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer and chemist (d. 1601) 1599 – Charles Berkeley, 2nd Viscount Fitzhardinge, English politician (d. 1668) ===1601–1900=== 1607 – János Kemény, Hungarian prince (d. 1662) 1625 – Barthélemy d'Herbelot, French orientalist and academic (d. 1695) 1631 – Anne Conway, English philosopher and author (d. 1679) 1640 – Aphra Behn, English playwright and author (d. 1689) 1678 – Daniel Neal, English historian and author (d. 1743) 1720 – Justus Möser, German jurist and theorist (d. 1794) 1730 – Capel Bond, English organist and composer (d. 1790) 1738 – Jan Antonín Koželuh, Czech composer and educator (d. 1814) 1775 – Philander Chase, American bishop and educator, founded Kenyon College (d. 1852) 1775 – Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, Scottish admiral and politician (d. 1860) 1777 – Du Pré Alexander, 2nd Earl of Caledon, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (d. 1839) 1784 – Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily (d. 1806) 1789 – Maria Szymanowska, Polish composer and pianist (d. 1831) 1791 – Charles Wolfe, Irish priest and poet (d. 1823) 1794 – Erastus Corning, American businessman and politician (d. 1872) 1816 – Abraham Hochmuth, Hungarian rabbi and educator (d. 1889) 1824 – Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, French painter and illustrator (d. 1898) 1832 – Daniel H. Reynolds, American general, lawyer, and politician (d. 1902) 1851 – Mary Tappan Wright, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1916) 1852 – Daniel De Leon, Curaçaoan-American journalist and politician (d. 1914) 1856 – Louis Marshall, American lawyer and activist (d. 1929) 1866 – Roger Fry, English painter and critic (d. 1934) 1870 – Karl Renner, Austrian lawyer and politician, 4th President of Austria (d. 1950) 1881 – Katherine MacDonald, American actress and producer (d. 1956) 1883 – Manolis Kalomiris, Greek pianist and composer (d. 1962) 1883 – Morihei Ueshiba, Japanese martial artist, developed aikido (d. 1969) 1884 – Jane Cowl, American actress and playwright (d. 1950) 1887 – Xul Solar, Argentinian painter and sculptor (d. 1963) 1894 – Alexander Nelke, Estonian-American painter and carpenter (d. 1974) 1895 – George VI of the United Kingdom (d. 1952) 1895 – Paul Éluard, French poet and author (d. 1952) 1896 – Jimmy Doolittle, American general and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993) 1897 – Kurt Schuschnigg, Italian-Austrian lawyer and politician, 15th Federal Chancellor of Austria (d. 1977) 1897 – Margaret Chase Smith, American educator and politician (d. 1995) 1899 – DeFord Bailey, American Hall of Fame country and blues musician (d. 1982) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Henri Cochet, French tennis player (d. 1987) 1901 – Paul of Greece (d. 1964) 1902 – Frances Bavier, American actress (d. 1989) 1902 – Herbert Feigl, Austrian philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1988) 1903 – Walter Rangeley, English sprinter (d. 1982) 1904 – Virginia Coffey, American civil rights activist (d. 2003) 1908 – Morey Amsterdam, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1908 – Claude Davey, Welsh rugby player (d. 2001) 1908 – Mária Szepes, Hungarian journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2007) 1909 – Edward Lawrie Tatum, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) 1911 – Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz, Greek-Polish swimmer and water polo player (d. 1943) 1911 – Spike Jones, American singer and bandleader (d. 1965) 1911 – Hans von Ohain, German-American physicist and engineer (d. 1998) 1914 – Karl Carstens, German lieutenant and politician, 5th President of the Federal Republic of Germany (d. 1992) 1914 – Rosalyn Tureck, American pianist and harpsichord player (d. 2003) 1915 – Dan Dailey, American dancer and actor (d. 1978) 1916 – Shirley Jackson, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1965) 1917 – C.-H. Hermansson, Swedish author and politician (d. 2016) 1917 – Elyse Knox, American actress and fashion designer (d. 2012) 1917 – June Taylor, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2004) 1918 – James T. Aubrey, American broadcaster (d. 1994) 1918 – Radu Beligan, Romanian actor and director (d. 2016) 1918 – B. K. S. Iyengar, Indian yoga instructor and author, founded Iyengar Yoga (d. 2014) 1920 – Clark Terry, American trumpet player, composer, and educator (d. 2015) 1922 – Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001) 1922 – Don Hewitt, American journalist and producer, created 60 Minutes (d. 2009) 1922 – Junior J. Spurrier, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1984) 1923 – Gerard Reve, Dutch-Belgian author and poet (d. 2006) 1924 – Raj Kapoor, Indian actor, director, and producer (d. 1988) 1927 – Richard Cassilly, American tenor and actor (d. 1998) 1927 – Koos Rietkerk, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of the Interior (d. 1986) 1929 – Ron Jarden, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1977) 1930 – Margaret Bakkes, South African author (d. 2016) 1930 – David R. Harris, English geographer, anthropologist, and archaeologist (d. 2013) 1931 – Jon Elia, Pakistani philosopher, poet, and scholar (d. 2002) 1931 – Vladimir-Georg Karassev-Orgusaar, Estonian director and politician (d. 2015) 1932 – George Furth, American actor and playwright (d. 2008) 1932 – Abbe Lane, American actress, singer, and dancer 1932 – Charlie Rich, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995) 1934 – Shyam Benegal, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2024) 1934 – Charlie Hodge, American guitarist and singer (d. 2006) 1935 – Lewis Arquette, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1935 – Lee Remick, American actress (d. 1991) 1938 – Leonardo Boff, Brazilian theologian and author 1938 – Charlie Griffith, Barbadian cricketer 1939 – Ann Cryer, English academic and politician 1939 – Ernie Davis, American football player (d. 1963) 1940 – Lex Gold, Scottish footballer and civil servant 1941 – Karan Armstrong, American soprano and actress (d. 2021) 1941 – Ellen Willis, American journalist, critic, and academic (d. 2006) 1942 – Chris Harris, English actor and director (d. 2014) 1942 – Dick Wagner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014) 1943 – Britt Allcroft, English writer (d. 2024) 1943 – Tommy McAvoy, Scottish politician (d. 2024) 1943 – Emmett Tyrrell, American journalist, author, and publisher, founded The American Spectator 1944 – Graham Kirkham, Baron Kirkham, English businessman, founded DFS 1944 – Denis Thwaites, English professional footballer murdered in the 2015 Sousse attacks (d. 2015) 1946 – Antony Beevor, English historian and author 1946 – Jane Birkin, English-French actress and singer (d. 2023) 1946 – John Du Prez, English conductor and composer 1946 – Patty Duke, American actress (d. 2016) 1946 – Ruth Fuchs, German javelin thrower and politician (d. 2023) 1946 – Peter Lorimer, Scottish footballer (d. 2021) 1946 – Michael Ovitz, American talent agent, co-founded Creative Artists Agency 1946 – Stan Smith, American tennis player and coach 1946 – Lynne Marie Stewart, American actress (d. 2025) 1946 – Joyce Vincent Wilson, American singer 1947 – Christopher Parkening, American guitarist and educator 1947 – Dilma Rousseff, Brazilian economist and politician, 36th President of Brazil 1948 – Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (d. 1982) 1948 – Kim Beazley, Australian politician and diplomat, 9th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia 1948 – Boudewijn Büch, Dutch author, poet, and television host (d. 2002) 1948 – Peeter Kreitzberg, Estonian lawyer and politician (d. 2011) 1948 – Dee Wallace, American actress 1949 – Bill Buckner, American baseball player and manager (d. 2019) 1949 – David A. Cherry, American artist and illustrator 1949 – Cliff Williams, Australian bass player 1951 – John Brown, American basketball player 1951 – Jan Timman, Dutch chess player and author 1952 – John Lurie, American actor, saxophonist, painter, director, and producer 1953 – Vijay Amritraj, Indian tennis player and sportscaster 1953 – Wade Davis, Canadian anthropologist, author, and photographer 1953 – René Eespere, Estonian composer 1953 – Vangelis Meimarakis, Greek lawyer and politician, 4th Greek Minister for National Defence 1953 – Mikael Odenberg, Swedish soldier and politician, 29th Swedish Minister for Defence 1954 – Alan Kulwicki, American race car driver (d. 1993) 1954 – Steve MacLean, Canadian physicist and astronaut 1955 – Jane Crafter, Australian golfer 1955 – Jill Pipher, American mathematician and academic 1956 – T. K. Carter, American actor 1956 – Linda Fabiani, Scottish politician 1956 – Hanni Wenzel, German skier 1958 – Mike Scott, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Spider Stacy, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1959 – Bob Paris, American-Canadian bodybuilder and actor 1959 – Jorge Vaca, Mexican boxer 1960 – James Comey, American lawyer, 7th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 1960 – Don Franklin, American actor 1960 – Chris Waddle, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster 1960 – Diane Williams, American sprinter 1961 – Patrik Sundström, Swedish ice hockey player 1963 – Greg Abbott, English footballer and manager 1963 – William Bedford, American basketball player 1963 – Diana Gansky, German discus thrower 1963 – Cynthia Gibb, American actress and model 1965 – Craig Biggio, American baseball player and coach 1965 – Ken Hill, American baseball player 1965 – Ted Raimi, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1966 – Fabrizio Giovanardi, Italian race car driver 1966 – Carl Herrera, Trinidadian-Venezuelan basketball player 1966 – Anthony Mason, American basketball player (d. 2015) 1966 – Bill Ranford, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1966 – Tim Sköld, Swedish bass player and producer 1966 – Helle Thorning-Schmidt, Danish academic and politician, 41st Prime Minister of Denmark 1967 – Ewa Białołęcka, Polish author 1967 – Hanne Haugland, Norwegian high jumper and coach 1968 – Kelley Armstrong, Canadian author 1968 – Mohamed Saad, Egyptian actor 1969 – Scott Hatteberg, American baseball player and sportscaster 1969 – Archie Kao, American actor and producer 1969 – Natascha McElhone, English-Irish actress 1969 – Dave Nilsson, Australian baseball player and manager 1969 – Arthur Numan, Dutch footballer and manager 1970 – Anna Maria Jopek, Polish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 1970 – Beth Orton, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Michaela Watkins, American actor and comedian 1972 – Miranda Hart, English actress 1972 – Marcus Jensen, American baseball player and coach 1973 – Falk Balzer, German hurdler 1973 – Pat Burke, Irish basketball player 1973 – Tomasz Radzinski, Canadian soccer player 1973 – Saulius Štombergas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1974 – Billy Koch, American baseball player 1975 – Justin Furstenfeld, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1975 – Ben Kay, English rugby player 1975 – KaDee Strickland, American actress 1976 – Tammy Blanchard, American actress and singer 1976 – Leland Chapman, American bounty hunter 1976 – Sebastien Chaule, French-German rugby player 1976 – André Couto, Portuguese race car driver 1976 – Santiago Ezquerro, Spanish footballer 1977 – Brendan Nash, Australian-Jamaican cricketer 1977 – Jamie Peacock, English rugby player and manager 1978 – Dean Brogan, Australian footballer and coach 1978 – Shedrack Kibet Korir, Kenyan runner 1978 – Zdeněk Pospěch, Czech footballer 1978 – Patty Schnyder, Swiss tennis player 1978 – Kim St-Pierre, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Jean-Alain Boumsong, French footballer 1979 – Andrei Makrov, Estonian ice hockey player 1979 – Kyle Shanahan, American football coach 1979 – Sophie Monk, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actress 1979 – Michael Owen, English footballer and sportscaster 1979 – Rocc, Slovenian opera stage director and designer 1980 – Thed Björk, Swedish race car driver 1980 – Gordon Greer, Scottish footballer 1980 – Didier Zokora, Ivorian footballer 1981 – Amber Chia, Malaysian model 1981 – Johnny Jeter, American wrestler 1981 – Liam Lawrence, Irish footballer 1981 – Shaun Marcum, American baseball player 1982 – Josh Fields, American baseball player 1982 – Steve Sidwell, English footballer 1982 – Anthony Way, English singer and actor 1983 – Leanne Mitchell, English singer-songwriter 1984 – Chris Brunt, Northern Irish footballer 1984 – Rana Daggubati, Indian actor and producer 1984 – Ed Rainsford, Zimbabwean cricketer 1984 – Jackson Rathbone, American actor, singer, and musician 1985 – Jakub Błaszczykowski, Polish footballer 1985 – Alex Pennie, Welsh keyboard player 1985 – Tom Smith, English-Welsh rugby player 1985 – Nonami Takizawa, Japanese actress and singer 1987 – Kenneth Medwood, Belizean-American hurdler 1988 – Nicolas Batum, French basketball player 1988 – Nate Ebner, American football player 1988 – Vanessa Hudgens, American actress and singer 1988 – Hayato Sakamoto, Japanese baseball player 1989 – Pedro Botelho, Brazilian footballer 1989 – Sam Burgess, English rugby league player 1989 – Onew, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer 1990 – Robert Covington, American basketball player 1991 – Ben Henry, New Zealand rugby league player 1991 – Offset, American rapper 1992 – Tori Kelly, American singer-songwriter 1992 – Ryo Miyaichi, Japanese footballer 1993 – Antonio Giovinazzi, Italian race car driver 1995 – Ivan Barbashev, Russian ice hockey player 1995 – Calvyn Justus, South African swimmer 1995 – Álvaro Odriozola, Spanish footballer 1996 – Li Zijun, Chinese figure skater 1997 – DK Metcalf, American football player 1998 – Lonnie Walker IV, American basketball player 1998 – Kim Ji-woong, South Korean singer and actor 2001 – Joshua Rush, American actor and activist 2002 – Francisco Conceição, Portuguese footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 618 – Xue Rengao, emperor of Qin 648 – John III of the Sedre, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch 704 – Aldfrith, king of Northumbria (or 705) 872 – Pope Adrian II (b. 792) 1077 – Agnes of Poitou, Holy Roman Empress and regent (b. c. 1025) 1293 – Al-Ashraf Khalil, Mamluk sultan of Egypt 1311 – Margaret of Brabant, German queen consort (b. 1276) 1332 – Rinchinbal Khan, Mongolian emperor (b. 1326) 1359 – Cangrande II della Scala, Lord of Verona (b. 1332) 1417 – John Oldcastle, English Lollard leader 1460 – Guarino da Verona, Italian scholar and translator (b. 1370) 1480 – Niccolò Perotti, humanist scholar (b. 1429) 1503 – Sten Sture the Elder, regent of Sweden (b. 1440) 1510 – Friedrich of Saxony (b. 1473) 1542 – James V of Scotland (b. 1512) 1591 – John of the Cross, Spanish priest and saint (b. 1542) 1595 – Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon (b. 1535) ===1601–1900=== 1624 – Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, English politician, Lord High Admiral of England (b. 1536) 1651 – Pierre Dupuy, French historian and scholar (b. 1582) 1715 – Thomas Tenison, English archbishop (b. 1636) 1735 – Thomas Tanner, English bishop and historian (b. 1674) 1741 – Charles Rollin, French historian and educator (b. 1661) 1785 – Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Italian painter and engraver (b. 1727) 1788 – Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German pianist and composer (b. 1714) 1788 – Charles III of Spain (b. 1716) 1799 – George Washington, American general and politician, 1st President of the United States (b. 1732) 1831 – Martin Baum, American businessman and politician, 5th Mayor of Cincinnati (b. 1765) 1838 – Jean-Olivier Chénier, Canadian physician (b. 1806) 1842 – Ben Crack-O, king of several tribes around Cape Palmas 1860 – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, Scottish-English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1784) 1861 – Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom (b. 1819) 1865 – Johan Georg Forchhammer, Danish geologist and mineralogist (b. 1794) 1873 – Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American zoologist and geologist (b. 1807) 1878 – Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (b. 1843) ===1901–present=== 1912 – Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis, English lieutenant and explorer (b. 1887) 1915 – Eva Gouel, French choreographer and girlfriend of Pablo Picasso 1917 – Phil Waller, Welsh rugby player (b. 1889) 1920 – George Gipp, American football player (b. 1895) 1927 – Julian Sochocki, Russian mathematician and academic (b. 1842) 1929 – Henry B. Jackson, British admiral (b. 1855) 1935 – Stanley G. Weinbaum, American author (b. 1902) 1937 – Fabián de la Rosa, Filipino painter and educator (b. 1869) 1940 – Anton Korošec, Slovenian priest and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1872) 1943 – John Harvey Kellogg, American physician and businessman, co-invented corn flakes (b. 1852) 1944 – Lupe Vélez, Mexican actress (b. 1908) 1947 – Stanley Baldwin, English lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1867) 1947 – Edward Higgins, English-American 3rd General of The Salvation Army (b. 1864) 1953 – Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, American author and academic (b. 1896) 1956 – Juho Kusti Paasikivi, Finnish lawyer and politician, 7th President of Finland (b. 1870) 1963 – Dinah Washington, American singer and pianist (b. 1924) 1964 – William Bendix, American actor (b. 1906) 1970 – Franz Schlegelberger, German judge and politician, German Reich Minister of Justice (b. 1876) 1971 – Mufazzal Haider Chaudhury, Bangladeshi linguist and scholar (b. 1926) 1971 – Munier Choudhury, Bangladeshi author, playwright, and critic (b. 1925) 1971 – Shahidullah Kaiser, Bangladeshi journalist and author (b. 1927) 1974 – Walter Lippmann, American journalist and author (b. 1889) 1975 – Arthur Treacher, English-American entertainer (b. 1894) 1978 – Salvador de Madariaga, Spanish historian and diplomat, co-founded the College of Europe (b. 1886) 1980 – Elston Howard, American baseball player and coach (b. 1929) 1984 – Vicente Aleixandre, Spanish poet and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1898) 1985 – Catherine Doherty, Russian-Canadian activist, founded the Madonna House Apostolate (b. 1896) 1985 – Roger Maris, American baseball player and coach (b. 1934) 1989 – Jock Mahoney, American actor and stuntman (b. 1919) 1989 – Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921) 1990 – Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Swiss author and playwright (b. 1921) 1990 – Paula Nenette Pepin, French composer, pianist and lyricist (b. 1908) 1991 – Robert Eddison, Japanese-English actor (b. 1908) 1993 – Jeff Alm, American football player (b. 1968) 1993 – Myrna Loy, American actress (b. 1905) 1994 – Orval Faubus, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Arkansas (b. 1910) 1995 – G. C. Edmondson, American soldier and author (b. 1922) 1996 – Gaston Miron, Canadian poet and author (b. 1928) 1997 – Stubby Kaye, American actor and comedian (b. 1918) 1997 – Emily Cheney Neville, American author (b. 1919) 1997 – Kurt Winter, Canadian guitarist and songwriter (b. 1946) 1998 – Norman Fell, American actor and comedian (b. 1924) 1998 – A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., American lawyer, judge, and activist (b. 1928) 1998 – Annette Strauss, American philanthropist and politician, Mayor of Dallas (b. 1924) 2001 – W. G. Sebald, German novelist, essayist, and poet (b. 1944) 2003 – Jeanne Crain, American actress (b. 1925) 2003 – Blas Ople, Filipino journalist and politician, 21st President of the Senate of the Philippines (b. 1927) 2003 – Frank Sheeran, American union leader and mobster (b. 1920) 2004 – Rod Kanehl, American baseball player (b. 1934) 2004 – Fernando Poe Jr., Filipino actor, director, producer, and politician (b. 1939) 2006 – Anton Balasingham, Sri Lankan-English strategist and negotiator (b. 1938) 2006 – Ahmet Ertegun, Turkish-American composer and producer, co-founded Atlantic Records (b. 1923) 2006 – Mike Evans, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1949) 2009 – Alan A'Court, English footballer and manager (b. 1934) 2010 – Timothy Davlin, American politician, Mayor of Springfield (b. 1957) 2010 – Neva Patterson, American actress (b. 1920) 2010 – Dale Roberts, English footballer (b. 1986) 2011 – Joe Simon, American author and illustrator (b. 1913) 2011 – Billie Jo Spears, American singer-songwriter (b. 1937) 2012 – John Graham, English general (b. 1923) 2012 – Edward Jones, American police officer and politician (b. 1950) 2012 – Victoria Leigh Soto, American educator (b. 1985) 2013 – Janet Dailey, American author (b. 1944) 2013 – C. N. Karunakaran, Indian painter and illustrator (b. 1940) 2013 – Dennis Lindley, English statistician and academic (b. 1923) 2013 – Peter O'Toole, British-Irish actor (b. 1932) 2013 – George Rodrigue, American painter (b. 1944) 2014 – Theo Colborn, American zoologist and academic (b. 1927) 2014 – Irene Dalis, American soprano and pianist (b. 1925) 2014 – Louis Alphonse Koyagialo, Congolese politician, Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b. 1947) 2014 – Bess Myerson, American model, activist, game show panelist and television personality; Miss America 1945 (b. 1924) 2014 – Fred Thurston, American football player (b. 1933) 2015 – Terry Backer, American soldier and politician (b. 1954) 2015 – Glen Sonmor, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1929) 2015 – Vadym Tyshchenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (b. 1963) 2015 – Lillian Vernon, German-American businesswoman and philanthropist, founded the Lillian Vernon Company (b. 1927) 2016 – Paulo Evaristo Arns, Brazilian cardinal (b. 1921) 2016 – Bernard Fox, Welsh actor (b. 1927) 2017 – Yu Kwang-chung, Chinese writer (b. 1928) 2019 – Chuy Bravo, Mexican-American comedian and actor (b. 1956) 2020 – Gérard Houllier, French Football manager (b. 1947) 2022 – Jean Franco, American academic and literary critic (b. 1924) 2023 – Tomáš Janovic, Slovak writer (b. 1937) 2024 – Isak Andic, Turkish-Spanish billionaire businessman (b. 1953) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Folcwin John of the Cross John III of the Sedre (Syriac Orthodox Church) Matronian Nicasius of Rheims Nimatullah Kassab (Maronite Church) Spyridon (Western Church) Venantius Fortunatus December 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Alabama Day (Alabama) Forty-seven Ronin Remembrance Day (Sengaku-ji, Tokyo) Martyred Intellectuals Day (Bangladesh) Monkey Day	[ "George Washington", "1940", "List of mayors of Springfield, Illinois", "Jean-Olivier Chénier", "Lex Gold", "G. C. Edmondson", "1982", "Julian Sochocki", "Pedro Botelho (footballer, born 1989)", "Sengaku-ji", "List of mayors of Cincinnati", "Dean Brogan", "1794", "Timothy Davlin", "Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations", "Antony Beevor", "Stubby Kaye", "1715", "Mike Evans (actor)", "Lynne Marie Stewart", "The Plain Dealer", "Theresian Military Academy", "1816", "Anna Maria Jopek", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Brendan Nash", "Salvador de Madariaga", "Confederate States of America", "East Tennessee", "1899", "Diana Gansky", "Vladimir-Georg Karassev-Orgusaar", "Sebastien Chaule", "Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz", "Billie Jo Spears", "Yu Kwang-chung", "Patty Schnyder", "Princess Alice of the United Kingdom", "Boudewijn Büch", "Craig Biggio", "705", "1788", "Ewa Białołęcka", "Fernando Poe Jr.", "Juho Kusti Paasikivi", "1542", "Lewis Arquette", "Li Zijun", "Lake Borgne", "Jock Mahoney", "General of The Salvation Army", "Victoria Leigh Soto", "Planck's law", "Justus Möser", "Battle of Lake Borgne", "Anton Korošec", "1780", "2015", "December 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "David A. Cherry", "1924", "William Bendix", "Bill Ranford", "Solar eclipse of December 14, 2020", "Dan Dailey", "South Pole", "Joyce Vincent Wilson", "Josh Fields (infielder)", "1819", "St. Lucia's flood", "Paul of Greece", "United States Congress", "National Hockey League", "1964", "The Walt Disney Company", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Chris Waddle", "Virginia", "Elyse Knox", "Peter Lorimer", "Western Church", "Bess Myerson", "Max Planck", "2020", "1640", "Lillian Vernon (company)", "Lee Remick", "Ruth Fuchs", "Charles Rollin", "College of Europe", "1777", "1881", "Louis Marshall", "1981", "1915", "George Gipp", "1546", "Michigan", "Wade Davis (anthropologist)", "Phil Waller (rugby union)", "President of the United States", "1946", "Libya", "1887", "Glasgow Subway", "Charles Wade", "Toledo War", "Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation", "2015 Sousse attacks", "Wright brothers", "Linda Fabiani", "Ellen Willis", "Roger Fry", "feast day", "Beth Orton", "Abraham Hochmuth", "Gaston Miron", "Constantinople", "Nicolas Batum", "1979", "Guarino da Verona", "1510", "Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings", "Northumbria", "1994", "Agnes of Poitou", "The American Spectator", "20th Century Fox", "1972", "1916", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "2016", "Maronite Church", "Graham Kirkham, Baron Kirkham", "Ivan Barbashev", "618", "Nonami Takizawa", "Qasba Aligarh massacre", "Offset (rapper)", "1943", "Minister for National Defence (Greece)", "Jill Pipher", "Tomasz Radzinski", "Folcwin", "United Nations", "Honolulu", "1954", "Montgolfier brothers", "Justin Furstenfeld", "Charlie Rich", "Edward Jones (North Carolina politician)", "Associated Press", "1860", "William Bedford (basketball)", "Jimmy Doolittle", "1852", "David R. Harris (geographer)", "Ben Crack-O", "Steve MacLean (astronaut)", "Ken Hill (baseball)", "Fabián de la Rosa", "South Sudanese Civil War", "Schuyler Mansion", "1851", "1741", "December 14, 1998, Albanian–Yugoslav border ambush", "Neva Patterson", "21st Century Fox", "1977", "Nimatullah Kassab", "Metropolitan Opera", "Republic of Ireland", "Nepal", "Zdeněk Pospěch", "Karan Armstrong", "1947", "Ben Kay", "Daniel Neal", "1293", "Bangladesh Liberation War", "Kyle Shanahan", "Glen Sonmor", "1922", "1791", "Johnny Jeter", "Minister for Defence (Sweden)", "1838", "Gerard Reve", "1920", "The New York Times", "Carl Herrera", "Seattle Seahawks", "Hanni Wenzel", "1931", "1992", "Laos", "Du Pré Alexander, 2nd Earl of Caledon", "2013", "Deputy Prime Minister of Australia", "Blas Ople", "Matronian", "Aldfrith of Northumbria", "1953", "Charlie Hodge (guitarist)", "Edward Higgins", "Shyam Benegal", "Helmer Hanssen", "Roger Maris", "Grande Armée", "1287", "1932", "Lillian Vernon (businesswoman)", "Commercial Pacific Cable Company", "San Francisco", "Patrik Sundström", "Syriac Orthodox Church", "1951", "KaDee Strickland", "Lord High Admiral of England", "1935", "Shahidullah Kaiser", "1970", "Mikael Odenberg", "2009", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 109", "1883", "Country Music Hall of Fame", "1985", "2010", "Jeff Alm", "New York City", "Rosalyn Tureck", "1870", "Plutonium", "Arthur Treacher", "1990", "Soviet Union", "Hanne Haugland", "Telegraphy", "Sidónio Pais", "1631", "Los Angeles", "Maria Szymanowska", "Spain", "Charlie Griffith", "Andrei Sakharov", "Wright Flyer", "1961", "John III of the Sedre", "Archie Kao", "Forty-seven Ronin", "1971 killing of Bengali intellectuals", "Sten Sture the Elder", "Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham", "Shedrack Kibet Korir", "1966", "Mike Scott (Scottish musician)", "UNESCO", "Don Franklin", "Tom Smith (rugby union player born 1985)", "Mariner 2", "Stan Smith", "Amber Chia", "648", "1595", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Ahmet Ertegun", "Millau Viaduct", "World War I", "Ron Jarden", "electronic game", "Michael Owen", "2023", "1938", "Hungary", "1999", "Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone", "Lester Bangs", "60 Minutes", "2019", "Tkvarcheli", "Vargas tragedy", "Dee Wallace", "1978", "Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald", "Daniel H. Reynolds", "Vangelis Meimarakis", "1651", "Mary Tappan Wright", "872", "Commerce Clause", "Dennis Lindley", "Tycho Brahe", "Arab–Israeli conflict", "1965", "1987", "1814", "John Du Prez", "President of Finland", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Pierre Dupuy (scholar)", "1939", "Fred Thurston", "Gordon Greer", "Kenneth Medwood", "Philander Chase", "Norman Fell", "List of large sailing vessels", "Rocc (opera stage director)", "2002", "2001", "Miss America", "Aphra Behn", "Albania", "The Hollywood Reporter", "1332", "Peeter Kreitzberg", "1993", "flash flood", "Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis", "1824", "novelist", "Don Hewitt", "Alexander Hamilton", "Creative Artists Agency", "Koos Rietkerk", "Tashkent", "2003", "Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach", "Mayor of Dallas", "1976", "President of the Senate of the Philippines", "Louisiana", "Margaret Bakkes", "2012", "Louis Agassiz", "Karl Renner", "Manolis Kalomiris", "1730", "June Taylor", "Dave Nilsson", "Terry Backer", "1918 United Kingdom general election", "Buenos Aires", "Richard Cassilly", "Venus", "Pervez Musharraf", "Abbe Lane", "Erastus Corning", "1989", "1927", "Rana Daggubati", "1967", "Millau", "Stanley Baldwin", "Catherine Doherty", "Jane Birkin", "Ann Cryer", "President of the Federal Republic of Germany", "Northern Ireland Social and Political Archive", "NASA", "Charles Berkeley, 2nd Viscount Fitzhardinge", "Gérard Houllier", "1971", "Shaun Marcum", "1904", "Martin Baum", "Madonna House Apostolate", "1952", "1751", "DFS (British retailer)", "1894", "Dominion of Ceylon", "Kim Ji-woong", "Emily Cheney Neville", "Gene Cernan", "List of tallest bridges", "Tim Sköld", "Steve Sidwell", "Empire of Japan", "Wiener Neustadt", "André Couto", "Austria", "Walter Rangeley", "1984", "1417", "Pablo Picasso", "Scott Hatteberg", "Bill Buckner", "Golan Heights Law", "Ben Henry", "Johan Georg Forchhammer", "1907", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States", "1937", "1009", "Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)", "1913", "Theo Colborn", "Joe Simon", "1992 Russian Air Force Mi-8 shootdown", "1996", "Jane Crafter", "1963", "Jakub Błaszczykowski", "1624", "Hans von Ohain", "James Comey", "Muhajir (Pakistan)", "President of Portugal", "1975", "Winter War", "New South Wales", "Rod Kanehl", "Isak Andic", "Janet Dailey", "Baldwin Hills Dam disaster", "Bernard Fox (actor)", "hot air balloon", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "1958", "Siege of Tkvarcheli", "1895", "Governor of Arkansas", "1941", "Tommy McAvoy", "1908", "A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.", "Robert Eddison", "Kim Beazley", "Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr.", "Charles Wolfe", "Spider Stacy", "Dale Roberts (footballer, born 1986)", "Sandy Hook, Connecticut", "Irene Dalis", "Saint Spyridon", "Pole of inaccessibility", "1949", "Jean-Alain Boumsong", "Thed Björk", "Military of Serbia and Montenegro", "Jane Cowl", "corn flakes", "Constitution of the United States", "James Longstreet", "Martyred Intellectuals Day", "1607", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "1969", "League of Nations", "1934", "1799", "1842", "1962", "Harrison Schmitt", "BBC", "Queen of Scots", "Alexander Nelke", "President of Brazil", "1912", "Frank Sheeran", "Claude Davey", "Argentina", "Antonio Giovinazzi", "Paula Nenette Pepin", "Natascha McElhone", "Spike Jones", "Jordan", "cathode-ray tube amusement device", "U.S. state", "Shirley Jackson", "Battle of Bean's Station", "Patty Duke", "Democratic Progressive Party (Argentina)", "Andrei Makrov", "John Harvey Kellogg", "Michaela Watkins", "Henry Jackson (Royal Navy officer)", "1077", "Cape Palmas", "harpsichord", "1678", "1735", "Frederick of Saxony (Teutonic Knight)", "Kurt Winter", "Three Gorges Dam", "Joshua Rush", "Dayton Agreement", "U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission", "Nate Ebner", "Franz Schlegelberger", "John Kemény (prince)", "Miranda Hart", "1782", "Convention Against Discrimination in Education", "1836", "Atlantic Records", "George Furth", "Jon Elia", "Tupolev ANT-20", "Ed Rainsford", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "1591", "1625", "Sophie Monk", "2004", "short story", "French invasion of Russia", "Croatia", "C.-H. Hermansson", "Roald Amundsen", "Britt Allcroft", "Cliff Williams", "Lisandro de la Torre", "2022", "1929", "Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse", "DK Metcalf", "Emperor Go-Suzaku", "Robert Covington", "Pope Adrian II", "Bangladesh", "Morihei Ueshiba", "Yugoslav Wars", "Kenyon College", "T. K. Carter", "1896", "Rinchinbal Khan", "Jan Timman", "Tomáš Janovic", "1995", "Onew", "George Rodrigue", "Cambridge University Press", "835", "Kurt Schuschnigg", "Mufazzal Haider Chaudhury", "Anthony Way", "Apollo program", "Tang dynasty", "Paul Éluard", "Major League Baseball", "1738", "Knesset", "Jean Franco", "1884", "Henri Cochet", "Sweet Dew Incident", "Knoxville Campaign", "Sverre Hassel", "1903", "1942", "Leanne Mitchell", "Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton", "W. G. Sebald", "Tori Kelly", "John Brown (basketball, born 1951)", "Frances Bavier", "1832", "Clark Terry", "Leland Chapman", "1909", "Jan Antonín Koželuh", "Orval Faubus", "Alan A'Court", "Prime Minister of Yugoslavia", "Dick Wagner", "1873", "Xue Rengao", "Katherine MacDonald", "Pierre Puvis de Chavannes", "C. N. Karunakaran", "Gianni Schicchi", "Vadym Tyshchenko", "2006", "Kitty Hawk, North Carolina", "American Civil War", "John Oldcastle", "Australian Capital Territory", "Herbert Feigl", "1900", "Vijay Amritraj", "Albert, Prince Consort", "Al-Ashraf Khalil", "1865", "Nikolay Basov", "John Graham (British Army officer, born 1923)", "Tokyo", "3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition", "Federal Chancellor of Austria", "1998", "Nicasius of Rheims", "Seat of Government Surrender Act 1909", "Sinn Féin", "1917", "Pashtuns", "1866", "Alabama Day", "John of the Cross", "Anne Conway (philosopher)", "1983", "1878", "Arthur Numan", "Pat Burke", "Jamie Peacock", "1986", "Leonardo Boff", "Calvyn Justus", "557 Constantinople earthquake", "Barthélemy d'Herbelot", "Xul Solar", "Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily", "Vanessa Hudgens", "2024", "Anton Balasingham", "Marcus Jensen", "Golan Heights", "Lonnie Walker IV", "UPI", "Christopher Parkening", "Bulgaria", "Serbia and Montenegro", "James V of Scotland", "Jeanne Crain", "Cynthia Gibb", "Didier Zokora", "Daniel De Leon", "La Liga", "eunuch", "Olav Bjaaland", "1897", "Margaret Chase Smith", "Santiago Ezquerro", "Jorge Vaca", "Margaret of Brabant", "557", "Diane Williams (athlete)", "Hayato Sakamoto", "Yangtze", "Kim St-Pierre", "Peter O'Toole", "1812", "Denis Thwaites", "Mária Szepes", "1955", "Dinah Washington", "Romania", "War of 1812", "1901", "Alabama", "Sam Burgess", "1359", "1956", "Charles III of Spain", "Juventus FC", "Apollo 17", "Chris Harris (actor)", "Parliament of Finland", "Raj Kapoor", "Eva Gouel", "Álvaro Odriozola", "Isles of Scilly", "Niccolò Perotti", "Portugal", "List of monarchs of Finland", "Falk Balzer", "Bob Paris", "1991", "René Eespere", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "1930", "Greg Abbott (footballer)", "1460", "2014", "1863", "Ernie Davis", "Emperor Wenzong of Tang", "Albany, New York", "1968", "Vicente Aleixandre", "Oscar Wisting", "Liam Lawrence", "Michael Ovitz", "Wilma Mankiller", "1902", "Medal of Honor", "Prime Minister of Denmark", "spacecraft", "Civil rights movement", "1831", "Hagia Sophia", "1973", "War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)", "Monkey Day", "1480", "Zuiderzee", "Pu-238", "1942 Aeroflot Tupolev ANT-20bis crash", "South Sudan", "Aeroflot", "Billy Koch", "Edward Lawrie Tatum", "Emmett Tyrrell", "Walter Lippmann", "Anthony Mason (basketball)", "1944", "Alex Pennie", "1784", "1997", "Elston Howard", "Cherokee Nation", "Annette Strauss", "Jackson Rathbone", "Karl Carstens", "1503", "Vargas, Venezuela", "Royal Navy", "Ryo Miyaichi", "Italy", "1785", "Kosovo Liberation Army", "1918", "Ted Raimi", "1861", "Venantius Fortunatus", "1911", "Paulo Evaristo Arns", "aikido", "Chris Brunt", "Tammy Blanchard", "Lupe Vélez", "Cangrande II della Scala", "East Pakistan", "extravehicular activity", "704", "George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen", "World War II", "Kelley Armstrong", "Morey Amsterdam", "James T. Aubrey", "1311", "Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Munier Choudhury", "1960", "1948", "Sohrab Goth", "1856", "Iyengar Yoga", "Federal Ministry of Justice (Germany)", "Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon", "Quantum mechanics", "Friedrich Dürrenmatt", "Thomas Tanner (bishop)", "Junior J. Spurrier", "Louis Alphonse Koyagialo", "B. K. S. Iyengar", "2017", "Chuy Bravo", "Francisco Conceição", "Giovanni Battista Cipriani", "1980", "Stanley G. Weinbaum", "Capel Bond", "1974", "1988", "Thomas Tenison", "Finland", "John Lurie", "Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting", "1789", "Fabrizio Giovanardi", "DeFord Bailey", "1775", "President of Austria", "Dilma Rousseff", "Mohamed Saad (actor)", "2011", "1599", "Virginia Coffey", "1959", "Myrna Loy", "1914", "George VI", "Frederick III, Landgrave of Thuringia", "Giacomo Puccini", "Alan Kulwicki", "Helle Thorning-Schmidt", "1720", "Saulius Štombergas", "Radu Beligan" ]
8,852	December 13	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 1294 – Saint Celestine V resigns the papacy after only five months to return to his previous life as an ascetic hermit. 1545 – The Council of Trent begins as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation. 1577 – Sir Francis Drake sets sail from Plymouth, England, on his round-the-world voyage. ===1601–1900=== 1623 – The Plymouth Colony establishes the system of trial by 12-men jury in the American colonies. 1636 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony organizes three militia regiments to defend the colony against the Pequot Indians, a date now considered the founding of the National Guard of the United States. 1642 – Abel Tasman is the first recorded European to sight New Zealand. 1643 – English Civil War: The Battle of Alton takes place in Hampshire. 1758 – The English transport ship Duke William sinks in the North Atlantic, killing over 360 people. 1769 – Dartmouth College is founded by the Reverend Eleazar Wheelock, with a royal charter from King George III, on land donated by Royal governor John Wentworth. 1818 – Cyril VI of Constantinople resigns from his position as Ecumenical Patriarch under pressure from the Ottoman Empire. 1862 – American Civil War: At the Battle of Fredericksburg, Confederate General Robert E. Lee repulses attacks by Union Major General Ambrose Burnside on Marye's Heights, inflicting heavy casualties. 1867 – A Fenian bomb explodes in Clerkenwell, London, killing 12 people and injuring 50. ===1901–present=== 1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Nanking: The city of Nanjing, defended by the National Revolutionary Army under the command of General Tang Shengzhi, falls to the Japanese. This is followed by the Nanking Massacre, in which Japanese troops rape and slaughter hundreds of thousands of civilians. 1938 – The Holocaust: The Neuengamme concentration camp opens in the Bergedorf district of Hamburg, Germany. 1939 – The Battle of the River Plate is fought off the coast of Uruguay; the first naval battle of World War II. The Kriegsmarine's Deutschland-class cruiser (pocket battleship) Admiral Graf Spee engages with three Royal Navy cruisers: , and . 1943 – World War II: The Massacre of Kalavryta by German occupying forces in Greece. 1949 – The Knesset votes to move the capital of Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. 1957 – The 6.5 Farsinaj earthquake strikes Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII, causing at least 1,119 deaths and damaging over 5,000 homes. 1959 – Archbishop Makarios III becomes the first President of Cyprus. 1960 – While Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia visits Brazil, his Imperial Bodyguard seizes the capital and proclaims him deposed and his son, Crown Prince Asfa Wossen, Emperor. 1962 – NASA launches Relay 1, the first active repeater communications satellite in orbit. 1967 – Constantine II of Greece attempts an unsuccessful counter-coup against the Regime of the Colonels. 1968 – Brazilian President Artur da Costa e Silva issues AI-5 (Institutional Act No. 5), enabling government by decree and suspending habeas corpus. 1972 – Apollo program: Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt begin the third and final extra-vehicular activity (EVA) or "Moonwalk" of Apollo 17. To date they are the last humans to set foot on the Moon. 1974 – Malta becomes a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. 1974 – In the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese forces launch their 1975 Spring Offensive (to 30 April 1975), which results in the final capitulation of South Vietnam. 1977 – Air Indiana Flight 216 crashes near Evansville Regional Airport, killing 29, including the University of Evansville basketball team, support staff, and boosters of the team. 1981 – General Wojciech Jaruzelski declares martial law in Poland, largely due to the actions by Solidarity. 1982 – The 6.0 North Yemen earthquake shakes southwestern Yemen with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), killing 2,800, and injuring 1,500. 1988 – PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat gives a speech at a UN General Assembly meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, after United States authorities refused to grant him a visa to visit UN headquarters in New York. 1989 – The Troubles: Attack on Derryard checkpoint: The Provisional Irish Republican Army launches an attack on a British Army temporary vehicle checkpoint near Rosslea, Northern Ireland. Two British soldiers are killed and two others are wounded. 1994 – Flagship Airlines Flight 3379 crashes in Morrisville, North Carolina, near Raleigh–Durham International Airport, killing 15. 1995 – Banat Air Flight 166 crashes in Sommacampagna near Verona Villafranca Airport in Verona, Italy, killing 49. 2001 – 2001 Indian Parliament attack: Sansad Bhavan, the building housing the Indian Parliament, is attacked by 5 Jaish-e-Mohammed terrorists. Twelve people are killed, including the terrorists. 2002 – European Union enlargement: The EU announces that Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia will become members on May 1, 2004. 2003 – Iraq War: Operation Red Dawn: Former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein is captured near his home town of Tikrit. 2007 – The Treaty of Lisbon is signed by the EU member states to amend both the Treaty of Rome and the Maastricht Treaty which together form the constitutional basis of the EU. The Treaty of Lisbon is effective from 1 December 2009. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1272 – King Frederick III of Sicily (d. 1337) 1363 – Jean Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris (d. 1429) 1476 – Lucy Brocadelli, Dominican tertiary and stigmatic (d. 1544) 1484 – Paul Speratus, German Lutheran (d. 1551) 1491 – Martín de Azpilcueta, Spanish theologian and economist (d. 1586) 1499 – Justus Menius, German Lutheran pastor (d. 1558) 1521 – Pope Sixtus V (d. 1590) 1533 – Eric XIV of Sweden (d. 1577) 1553 – Henry IV of France (d. 1610) 1560 – Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, 2nd Prime Minister of France (d. 1641) 1585 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (d. 1649) ===1601–1900=== 1640 – Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (d. 1696) 1662 – Francesco Bianchini, Italian astronomer and philosopher (d. 1729) 1678 – Yongzheng Emperor of China (d. 1735) 1720 – Carlo Gozzi, Italian playwright (d. 1804) 1724 – Franz Aepinus, German astronomer and philosopher (d. 1802) 1769 – James Scarlett Abinger, English judge (d. 1844) 1780 – Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, German chemist, invented the Döbereiner's lamp (d. 1849) 1784 – Archduke Louis of Austria (d. 1864) 1797 – Heinrich Heine, German journalist, poet, and critic (d. 1856) 1804 – Joseph Howe, Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1873) 1814 – Ana Néri, Brazilian nurse and philanthropist (d. 1880) 1816 – Werner von Siemens, German engineer and businessman, founded Siemens (d. 1892) 1818 – Mary Todd Lincoln, 16th First Lady of the United States (d. 1882) 1830 – Mathilde Fibiger, Danish feminist, novelist and telegraphist (d. 1892) 1836 – Franz von Lenbach, German painter and academic (d. 1904) 1854 – Herman Bavinck, Dutch philosopher, theologian, and academic (d. 1921) 1856 – Svetozar Boroević, Croatian-Austrian field marshal (d. 1920) 1860 – Lucien Guitry, French actor (d. 1925) 1864 – Emil Seidel, American woodcarver and politician, 36th Mayor of Milwaukee (d. 1947) 1867 – Kristian Birkeland, Norwegian physicist and author (d. 1917) 1870 – Edward LeSaint, American actor and director (d. 1940) 1871 – Emily Carr, Canadian painter and author (d. 1945) 1874 – Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist and educator (d. 1944) 1882 – Jane Edna Hunter, African-American social worker (d. 1971) 1883 – Belle da Costa Greene, American librarian and bibliographer (d. 1950) 1884 – Aimilios Veakis, Greek actor, director, and playwright (d. 1951) 1885 – Annie Dale Biddle Andrews, American mathematician (d. 1940) 1887 – George Pólya, Hungarian-American mathematician and academic (d. 1985) 1887 – Alvin C. York, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1964) 1895 – Lucía Sánchez Saornil, Spanish anarchist feminist (d. 1970) 1897 – Albert Aalbers, Dutch architect, designed the Savoy Homann Bidakara Hotel (d. 1961) 1897 – Drew Pearson, American journalist and author (d. 1969) 1900 – Jonel Perlea, Romanian-American conductor and educator (d. 1970) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Olev Roomet, Estonian singer, violinist, and bagpipe player (d. 1987) 1902 – Panagiotis Kanellopoulos, Greek philosopher and politician, 138th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1986) 1902 – Talcott Parsons, American sociologist and academic (d. 1979) 1903 – Ella Baker, American activist (d. 1986) 1903 – Carlos Montoya, Spanish guitarist and composer (d. 1993) 1905 – Ann Barzel, American writer and dance critic (d. 2007) 1906 – Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (d. 1968) 1906 – Laurens van der Post, South African-English soldier and author (d. 1996) 1908 – Elizabeth Alexander, English geologist, academic, and physicist (d. 1958) 1908 – Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, Brazilian historian and activist (d. 1995) 1908 – Van Heflin, American film actor (d. 1971) 1911 – Trygve Haavelmo, Norwegian economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999) 1911 – Kenneth Patchen, American poet and painter (d. 1972) 1912 – Luiz Gonzaga, Brazilian singer-songwriter and accordion player (d. 1989) 1913 – Archie Moore, American boxer and actor (d. 1998) 1914 – Alan Bullock, English historian and author (d. 2004) 1914 – Larry Noble, English comedian and actor (d. 1993) 1915 – B. J. Vorster, South African lawyer and politician, 4th State President of South Africa (d. 1983) 1916 – Leonard Weisgard, American author and illustrator (d. 2000) 1919 – Hans-Joachim Marseille, German captain and pilot (d. 1942) 1920 – George P. Shultz, American economist and politician, 60th United States Secretary of State (d. 2021) 1921 – Turgut Demirağ, Turkish film producer, director and screenwriter (d. 1987) 1923 – Philip Warren Anderson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020) 1923 – Larry Doby, American baseball player (d. 2003) 1925 – Dick Van Dyke, American actor, singer, and dancer 1927 – James Wright, American poet and academic (d. 1980) 1928 – Solomon Feferman, American philosopher and mathematician (d. 2016) 1929 – Christopher Plummer, Canadian actor and producer (d. 2021) 1931 - Ida Vos, Dutch Jewish author of books for children and adults (d. 2006) 1933 – Paul Bracq, French automotive designer 1934 – Richard D. Zanuck, American film producer (d. 2012) 1935 – Türkan Saylan, Turkish physician and academic (d. 2009) 1936 – Prince Karim al-Husayn Shāh, Aga Khan IV, Swiss humanitarian and religious leader (d. 2025) 1938 – Gus Johnson, American basketball player (d. 1987) 1940 – Sanjaya Lall, Indian economist and academic (d. 2005) 1942 – Howard Brenton, English playwright and screenwriter 1942 – Ferguson Jenkins, Canadian baseball player 1945 – Herman Cain, American businessman, politician, and activist (d. 2020) 1948 – Jeff Baxter, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1948 – Lillian Board, British athlete (d. 1970) 1948 – Ted Nugent, American musician 1950 – Wendie Malick, American actress 1952 – Muhsin Kenon, American basketball player 1953 – Ben Bernanke, American economist 1953 – Bob Gainey, Canadian ice hockey player 1956 – Phil Hubbard, American basketball player and coach 1957 – Steve Buscemi, American actor and director 1957 – Morris Day, American musician and actor 1959 – Johnny Whitaker, American actor 1960 – Richard Dent, American football player 1961 – Gary Zimmerman, American football player 1962 – Rex Ryan, American football coach and analyst 1964 – Krišjānis Kariņš, American-Latvian politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Latvia 1965 – Petra Wimmer, Austrian politician 1967 – Jamie Foxx, American actor, singer, songwriter, producer, and comedian 1969 – Sergei Fedorov, Russian ice hockey player and coach 1971 – Scott Sattler, Australian rugby league player 1972 – Matti Kärki, Swedish heavy metal singer 1975 – Tom DeLonge, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, author, and filmmaker 1975 – James Kyson, American actor 1975 – Matthew LeCroy, American baseball player and manager 1978 – Cameron Douglas, American actor 1981 – Amy Lee, American singer, songwriter and pianist 1982 – Dan Hamhuis, Canadian ice hockey player 1982 – Ricky Nolasco, American baseball player 1983 – Laura Hodges, Australian basketball player 1984 – Santi Cazorla, Spanish footballer 1984 – Hanna-Maria Seppälä, Finnish freestyle swimmer 1987 – James Holmes, American mass murderer 1988 – Rickie Fowler, American golfer 1989 – Hellen Obiri, Kenyan runner 1989 – Katherine Schwarzenegger, American author 1989 – Taylor Swift, American singer-songwriter 1990 – Fletcher Cox, American football player 1990 – Joseph Garrett, English YouTuber, actor, and author 1990 – Arantxa Rus, Dutch tennis player 1991 – Dave Leduc, Canadian martial artist 1991 – Vladimir Tarasenko, Russian ice hockey player 1993 – Danielle Collins, American tennis player 1993 – Jamal Fogarty, Australian rugby league player 1995 – Emma Corrin, English actor 1996 – Gleyber Torres, Venezuelan baseball player 1999 – Marina Bassols Ribera, Spanish tennis player 2000 – Simona Waltert, Swiss tennis player 2001 – Jayden Goodwin, Australian cricketer 2002 – Brock Bowers, American football player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 558 – Childebert I, Frankish king (b. 496) 769 – Du Hongjian, Chinese politician (b. 709) 838 – Pepin I of Aquitaine (b. 797) 859 – Angilbert II, archbishop of Milan 1124 – Pope Callixtus II (b. 1065) 1126 – Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1075) 1204 – Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (b. 1135) 1250 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1194) 1272 – Bertold of Regensburg, German preacher 1404 – Albert I, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1336) 1466 – Donatello, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1386) 1516 – Johannes Trithemius, German cryptographer and historian (b. 1462) 1521 – Manuel I of Portugal (b. 1469) 1557 – Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, Italian mathematician and engineer (b. 1499) 1565 – Conrad Gessner, Swiss botanist and physician (b. 1516) ===1601–1900=== 1621 – Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (b. 1535) 1671 – Antonio Grassi, Italian Roman Catholic priest(b. 1592) 1716 – Charles de La Fosse, French painter (b. 1640) 1721 – Alexander Selkirk, Scottish sailor (b. 1676) 1729 – Anthony Collins, English philosopher and author (b. 1676) 1754 – Mahmud I, Ottoman sultan (b. 1696) 1758 – Noël Doiron, Canadian Acadia leader (b. 1684) 1769 – Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, German poet and hymn-writer (b. 1715) 1783 – Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin, Swedish astronomer and demographer (b. 1717) 1784 – Samuel Johnson, English poet and lexicographer (b. 1709) 1814 – Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne, Belgian-Austrian field marshal (b. 1735) 1849 – Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg, German botanist and entomologist (b. 1766) 1862 – Thomas Reade Rootes Cobb, American general, lawyer, and politician (b. 1823) 1863 – Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German poet and playwright (b. 1813) 1868 – Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, German botanist and explorer (b. 1794) 1881 – August Šenoa, Croatian author and poet (b. 1838) 1883 – Victor de Laprade, French poet and critic (b. 1812) 1893 – Georg August Rudolph, German lawyer and politician, 3rd Mayor of Marburg (b. 1816) 1895 – Ányos Jedlik, Hungarian physicist and engineer (b. 1800) ===1901–present=== 1908 – Augustus Le Plongeon, French photographer and historian (b. 1825) 1911 – Reggie Duff, Australian cricketer (b. 1878) 1919 – Woldemar Voigt, German physicist and academic (b. 1850) 1922 – Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (b. 1857) 1922 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1861) 1924 – Samuel Gompers, English-born American labor leader, founded the American Federation of Labor (b. 1850) 1927 – Mehmet Nadir, Turkish mathematician and academic (b. 1856) 1929 – Rosina Heikel, Finnish physician (b. 1842) 1930 – Fritz Pregl, Slovenian-Austrian chemist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1869) 1931 – Gustave Le Bon, French psychologist, sociologist, and anthropologist (b. 1840) 1932 – Georgios Jakobides, Greek painter and sculptor (b. 1853) 1935 – Victor Grignard, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1871) 1942 – Wlodimir Ledóchowski, Austrian-Polish religious leader, 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1866) 1942 – Robert Robinson Taylor, American architect (b. 1868) 1944 – Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-French painter and theorist (b. 1866) 1945 – Irma Grese, German concentration camp guard (b. 1923) 1945 – Josef Kramer, German concentration camp commandant (b. 1906) 1945 – Elisabeth Volkenrath, Polish-German concentration camp supervisor (b. 1919) 1947 – Henry James, American lawyer and author (b. 1879) 1947 – Nicholas Roerich, Russian archaeologist, painter, and philosopher (b. 1874) 1950 – Abraham Wald, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b. 1902) 1954 – John Raymond Hubbell, American director and composer (b. 1879) 1955 – Egas Moniz, Portuguese psychiatrist and neurosurgeon, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874) 1960 – Dora Marsden, English author and activist (b. 1882) 1961 – Grandma Moses, American painter (b. 1860) 1962 – Harry Barris, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1905) 1969 – Raymond A. Spruance, American admiral and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the Philippines (b. 1886) 1973 – Henry Green, English author (b. 1905) 1974 – Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu, Egyptian-Turkish journalist, author, and politician (b. 1889) 1975 – Cyril Delevanti, English-American actor (b. 1889) 1975 – Addie Viola Smith, American lawyer and trade commissioner (b. 1893) 1977 – Oguz Atay, Turkish engineer and author (b. 1934) 1979 – Jon Hall, American actor and director (b. 1915) 1979 – Behçet Necatigil, Turkish author, poet and translator (b. 1916) 1983 – Alexander Schmemann, Estonian-American priest and theologian (b. 1921) 1983 – Nichita Stănescu, Romanian poet and critic (b. 1933) 1986 – Heather Angel, British-American actress (b. 1909) 1986 – Ella Baker, American activist (b. 1903) 1986 – Smita Patil, Indian actress and journalist (b. 1955) 1992 – K. C. Irving, Canadian businessman (b. 1899) 1992 – Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1899) 1993 – Vanessa Duriès, French author (b. 1972) 1995 – Ann Nolan Clark, American author and educator (b. 1896) 1996 – Edward Blishen, English author and educator (b. 1920) 1997 – Don E. Fehrenbacher, American historian, author, and academic (b. 1920) 1998 – Lew Grade, Ukrainian-born British impresario and media proprietor (b. 1906) 1998 – Richard Thomas, Royal Naval Officer (b. 1922) 1998 – Wade Watts, civil rights activist (b. 1919) 2002 – Zal Yanovsky, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist who founded The Lovin' Spoonful (b. 1944) 2004 – David Wheeler, English computer scientist and academic (b. 1927) 2005 – Alan Shields, American painter and ferryboat captain (b. 1944) 2006 – Lamar Hunt, American businessman, co-founded the American Football League and World Championship Tennis (b. 1932) 2016 – Alan Thicke, Canadian actor, songwriter, game and talk-show host (b. 1947) 2018 – Noah Klieger, Holocaust survivor who became an award-winning Israeli journalist (b. 1926) 2022 – Stephen "tWitch" Boss, American dancer and media personality (b. 1982) 2024 – Lorraine O'Grady, American artist (b. 1934) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: St Antiochus of Sulcis St Judoc aka St Joyce St Lucy St Odile of Alsace Acadian Remembrance Day (Acadians) National Day (Saint Lucia) Martial Law Victims Remembrance Day (Poland) Nanking Massacre Memorial Day (China) Nusantara Day (Indonesia) Republic Day (Malta) Sailor's Day (Brazil) Saint Lucia Day (mainly in Scandinavia)	[ "1940", "1921", "Jayden Goodwin", "Richard Dent", "Döbereiner's lamp", "William Drummond of Hawthornden", "1982", "Nanking Massacre Memorial Day", "Pope", "Dick Van Dyke", "Governor-general", "Ottoman Empire", "Poland", "Visa (document)", "The Plain Dealer", "Raymond A. Spruance", "1816", "Confederate States of America", "Rex Ryan", "militia", "Empire (magazine)", "Abraham Wald", "Ann Barzel", "National Revolutionary Army", "Archie Moore", "Dora Marsden", "Brazil", "Laura Hodges", "1671", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan", "Roman Catholic", "Donatello", "Canada's Walk of Fame", "Smita Patil", "1780", "Amha Selassie", "Steve Buscemi", "1924", "1957 Farsinaj earthquake", "Trygve Haavelmo", "Christian Fürchtegott Gellert", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "Petra Wimmer", "National Hockey League", "New Zealand", "Geneva", "Operation Red Dawn", "1964", "Hellen Obiri", "1975 Spring Offensive", "2001 Indian Parliament attack", "1560", "Johannes Trithemius", "Savoy Homann Bidakara Hotel", "Reggie Duff", "Elisabeth Volkenrath", "1640", "Bob Gainey", "Katarina Stenbock", "Czech Republic", "Belle da Costa Greene", "The Holocaust", "1881", "James Kyson", "Heinrich Heine", "Ella Baker", "Latvia", "1928", "1981", "1915", "Henry Green", "British Army", "1854", "Josef Lhévinne", "Werner von Siemens", "Robert Robinson Taylor", "1887", "1272", "1950", "1783", "Herman Bavinck", "Constantine II of Greece", "Tom DeLonge", "Kebur Zabagna", "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Philip Warren Anderson", "Alan Shields", "1124", "feast day", "United States Secretary of State", "Matthew LeCroy", "1204", "Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia", "1979", "Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark", "Republic Day (Malta)", "Asceticism", "1499", "China", "1994", "Gary Zimmerman", "AI-5", "journalist", "Prime Minister of Greece", "1906", "1972", "1916", "Bergedorf", "Alvin C. York", "Lillian Board", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "2016", "Judoc", "Jonel Perlea", "1943", "Ann Nolan Clark", "Emperor of Ethiopia", "Rosslea", "Pequot people", "Francesco Bianchini", "1954", "Mehmet Nadir", "Abel Tasman", "Associated Press", "Wojciech Jaruzelski", "1860", "Jamie Foxx", "1729", "Behçet Necatigil", "Joseph Garrett", "Van Heflin", "Manuel I of Portugal", "1621", "Arantxa Rus", "Native Americans in the United States", "1977", "Archduke Louis of Austria", "ARTnews", "Siemens", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization", "Metro (British newspaper)", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "JPIMedia", "Paul Bracq", "1922", "Mahmud I", "Cyprus", "The New York Times", "1920", "Justus Menius", "1931", "Don E. Fehrenbacher", "1992", "Kristian Birkeland", "Eric XIV of Sweden", "1953", "1933", "Gustav I of Sweden", "Franz von Lenbach", "1516", "1716", "Dan Hamhuis", "Second Sino-Japanese War", "University of Paris", "Wassily Kandinsky", "Treaty of Rome", "Cameron Douglas", "Neuengamme concentration camp", "1932", "United States Ambassador to the Philippines", "Saint Lucy", "1935", "Lew Grade", "1557", "Christopher Plummer", "Iraq War", "1883", "People (magazine)", "Israel", "Counter-Reformation", "Harry Barris", "Brock Bowers", "National Day (Saint Lucia)", "Johnny Whitaker", "1870", "1990", "Hanna-Maria Seppälä", "1961", "Austrian Parliament", "Union Army", "Christian Friedrich Hebbel", "Vladimir Tarasenko", "Tel Aviv", "Attack on Derryard checkpoint", "Gustave Le Bon", "1938", "Hungary", "George Pólya", "1999", "Mayor of Milwaukee", "1925", "Albert Aalbers", "Mercalli intensity scale", "Sergei Fedorov", "Jamal Fogarty", "Zal Yanovsky", "Morris Day", "papal resignation", "1830", "Plymouth", "1978", "Raleigh–Durham International Airport", "Fenian", "1466", "1965", "1960 Ethiopian coup attempt", "1987", "Josef Kramer", "1814", "Arthur Wesley Dow", "Acadian Remembrance Day", "1919", "1939", "1804", "Samuel Gompers", "Yongzheng Emperor", "2002", "2001", "1545", "Sports Reference", "Egas Moniz", "Paul Speratus", "German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee", "1250", "Lithuania", "Grandma Moses", "1993", "Henry IV of France", "ESPN", "Indonesia", "1754", "Jeff Baxter", "1577", "2003", "Makarios III", "Edward LeSaint", "2018", "Drew Pearson (journalist)", "Simona Waltert", "Massachusetts Bay Colony", "Turgut Demirağ", "Fritz Pregl", "Alexander Selkirk", "Tang Shengzhi", "1982 North Yemen earthquake", "Prime Minister of Iceland", "1989", "Treaty of Lisbon", "2000", "Leonard Weisgard", "1927", "Freestyle swimming", "1967", "1484", "Flagship Airlines Flight 3379", "Carlos Montoya", "Superior-General of the Society of Jesus", "Evansville Purple Aces men's basketball", "List of archbishops of Cyprus", "NASA", "Yasser Arafat", "1769", "Richard D. Zanuck", "Armed Forces Day", "1971", "1952", "Verona Villafranca Airport", "Empire of Japan", "Oguz Atay", "1984", "1643", "Duke William (ship)", "Robert Plot", "National Basketball Association", "1923", "Plymouth Colony", "Maimonides", "1937", "1913", "Vietnam War", "Larry Doby", "Herman Cain", "1996", "Relay program", "1565", "1975", "1636", "Yemen", "Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu", "1893", "John Raymond Hubbell", "James Scarlett Abinger", "Pope Callixtus II", "Ricky Nolasco", "Woldemar Voigt", "1895", "Hannes Hafstein", "Hampshire", "Tikrit", "1404", "Edward Blishen", "The News (Portsmouth)", "1908", "Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin", "Verona", "Larry Noble (actor)", "Saint Lucia Day", "habeas corpus", "1867", "Greek military junta of 1967–74", "1949", "838", "Lucy Brocadelli", "bagpipe", "Addie Viola Smith", "Frederick III of Sicily", "Francis Drake's circumnavigation", "1934", "1969", "1962", "Harrison Schmitt", "1912", "Thomas Reade Rootes Cobb", "Public holidays in Indonesia", "Estonia", "Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully", "Ambrose Burnside", "B. J. Vorster", "Nicholas Roerich", "2007", "Mary Todd Lincoln", "769", "1126", "1758", "Charles de La Fosse", "Samuel Johnson", "North Vietnam", "Heather Angel (actress)", "Sommacampagna", "Eugene Cernan", "1885", "Georgios Jakobides", "Phil Hubbard", "Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg", "Gleyber Torres", "1957", "AllMusic", "Fletcher Cox", "1871", "Odile of Alsace", "Kriegsmarine", "1678", "Artur da Costa e Silva", "Lamar Hunt", "Saddam Hussein", "1818", "1849", "The Troubles", "Aimilios Veakis", "Anthony Collins (philosopher)", "1836", "Pope Celestine V", "Jean Gerson", "Dartmouth College", "English Civil War", "1521", "Australian Dictionary of Biography", "2004", "Danielle Collins", "Haile Selassie", "2022", "hermit", "1929", "Marina Bassols Ribera", "The Lovin' Spoonful", "Svetozar Boroević", "Talcott Parsons", "1585", "1862", "Eleazar Wheelock", "Sansad Bhavan", "Georg August Rudolph", "Jury trial", "Malta", "Aga Khan IV", "Hamburg", "Ethiopia", "George P. Shultz", "1995", "Acadia", "Alan Thicke", "1294", "Ben Bernanke", "Apollo program", "Alan Bullock", "Major League Baseball", "Henry James (biographer)", "Antiochus of Sulcis", "Knesset", "Lucien Guitry", "extra-vehicular activity", "Maastricht Treaty", "1884", "Evansville Regional Airport", "Albert I, Duke of Bavaria", "Augustus Le Plongeon", "1942", "1903", "Member state of the European Union", "Women's Tennis Association", "1642", "Massacre of Kalavryta", "Franz Aepinus", "Ferguson Jenkins", "Ana Néri", "Panagiotis Kanellopoulos", "Nanking Massacre", "1533", "1864", "Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius", "physician", "Ida Vos", "2006", "Angilbert II", "American Civil War", "royal charter", "Morrisville, North Carolina", "1900", "satellite", "1905", "1476", "1998", "K. C. Irving", "World Championship Tennis", "Emil Seidel", "1983", "Noah Klieger", "1986", "Martín de Azpilcueta", "Jaish-e-Mohammed", "Taylor Swift", "558", "Childebert I", "Matti Kärki", "Emma Corrin", "Carlo Gozzi", "2024", "Noël Doiron", "Pope Sixtus V", "Elizabeth Alexander (scientist)", "Vanessa Duriès", "Jerusalem", "Luiz Gonzaga", "Katherine Schwarzenegger", "UPI", "Ted Nugent", "Amy Lee", "Muhsin Kenon", "1897", "The Independent", "Ányos Jedlik", "Rickie Fowler", "Rosina Heikel", "Martial law in Poland", "Deutschland-class cruiser", "1955", "Du Hongjian", "Sanjaya Lall", "State President of South Africa", "Kenneth Patchen", "Cyril VI of Constantinople", "Wendie Malick", "2005", "National Guard of the United States", "Olev Roomet", "Battle of the River Plate", "2004 enlargement of the European Union", "1901", "Parliament of India", "Jane Edna Hunter", "1956", "Victor Grignard", "Apollo 17", "Howard Brenton", "Joseph Howe", "1882", "Mathilde Fibiger", "Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira", "1991", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "1930", "Acadians", "1968", "1863", "1797", "Mayor of Marburg", "Slovenia", "Nazi concentration camps", "Emily Carr", "Türkan Saylan", "Battle of Fredericksburg", "Francis Drake", "Battle of Nanking", "1902", "Medal of Honor", "White House", "First Lady of the United States", "Slovakia", "Australian National University", "South Vietnam", "Sir John Wentworth, 1st Baronet", "1724", "Commonwealth of Nations", "1936", "1973", "Premier of Nova Scotia", "American Football League", "United Nations General Assembly", "Battle of Alton", "James Wright (poet)", "American Federation of Labor", "1491", "Council of Trent", "Antonio Grassi", "Cyril Delevanti", "1944", "1784", "Robert E. Lee", "1997", "Public holidays in Poland", "Lucía Sánchez Saornil", "Lorraine O'Grady", "859", "Arturs Krišjānis Kariņš", "Prime Minister of Latvia", "1868", "Royal Navy", "Gus Johnson (basketball)", "Italy", "Entertainment Tonight", "Solomon Feferman", "Nichita Stănescu", "Stephen \"tWitch\" Boss", "Scott Sattler", "Prime Minister of France", "1911", "Dave Leduc", "Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner", "Irma Grese", "1553", "David Wheeler (British computer scientist)", "World War II", "Conrad Gessner", "Richard Thomas (Royal Navy officer)", "Aviation Safety Network", "1960", "Annie Dale Biddle Andrews", "1948", "Wade Watts", "Scandinavia", "1856", "Jon Hall (actor)", "Alexander Schmemann", "Pepin I of Aquitaine", "1662", "Victor de Laprade", "1623", "Laurens van der Post", "1945", "Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne", "Solidarity (Polish trade union)", "Banat Air Flight 166", "Air Indiana Flight 216", "1363", "Hans-Joachim Marseille", "1974", "1988", "James Holmes (mass murderer)", "August Šenoa", "Wlodimir Ledóchowski", "Nanjing", "George III of the United Kingdom", "1874", "Clerkenwell", "Reuters", "1721", "1959", "1914", "Santi Cazorla", "Bertold of Regensburg", "La Fosse aux Tigres", "Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria", "President of Cyprus", "1720", "Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney" ]
8,855	Dr. Seuss	Theodor Seuss Geisel ( ; March 2, 1904 – September 24, 1991) was an American children's author and cartoonist. He is known for his work writing and illustrating more than 60 books under the pen name Dr. Seuss ( ). His work includes many of the most popular children's books of all time, selling over 600 million copies and being translated into more than 20 languages by the time of his death. Geisel adopted the name "Dr. Seuss" as an undergraduate at Dartmouth College and as a graduate student at Lincoln College, Oxford. He left Oxford in 1927 to begin his career as an illustrator and cartoonist for Vanity Fair, Life, and various other publications. He also worked as an illustrator for advertising campaigns, including for FLIT and Standard Oil, and as a political cartoonist for the New York newspaper PM. He published his first children's book And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street in 1937. During World War II, he took a brief hiatus from children's literature to illustrate political cartoons, and he worked in the animation and film department of the United States Army. After the war, Geisel returned to writing children's books, writing acclaimed works such as If I Ran the Zoo (1950), Horton Hears a Who! (1954), The Cat in the Hat (1957), How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), Green Eggs and Ham (1960), One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish (1960), The Sneetches and Other Stories (1961), The Lorax (1971), The Butter Battle Book (1984), and Oh, the Places You'll Go! (1990). He published over 60 books during his career, which have spawned numerous adaptations, including eleven television specials, five feature films, a Broadway musical, and four television series. He received two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children's Special for Halloween Is Grinch Night (1978) and Outstanding Animated Program for The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat (1982). In 1984, he won a Pulitzer Prize Special Citation. His birthday, March 2, has been adopted as the annual date for National Read Across America Day, an initiative focused on reading created by the National Education Association. ==Life and career== === Early years === Geisel was born and raised in Springfield, Massachusetts, the son of Theodor Robert Geisel and Henrietta Geisel (née Seuss). His father managed the family brewery and was later appointed to supervise Springfield's public park system by Mayor John A. Denison after the brewery closed because of Prohibition. Mulberry Street in Springfield, made famous in his first children's book And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street, is near his boyhood home on Fairfield Street. The family was of German descent. Geisel was raised as a Missouri Synod Lutheran and remained in the denomination his entire life. Geisel was educated at Dartmouth College, graduating in 1925. At Dartmouth, he joined the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity At the time, the possession and consumption of alcohol was illegal under Prohibition laws, which remained in place between 1920 and 1933. As a result of this infraction, Dean Craven Laycock insisted that Geisel resign from all extracurricular activities, including the Jack-O-Lantern. To continue working on the magazine without the administration's knowledge, Geisel began signing his work with the pen name "Seuss". He was encouraged in his writing by professor of rhetoric W. Benfield Pressey, whom he described as his "big inspiration for writing" at Dartmouth. Upon graduating from Dartmouth, he entered Lincoln College, Oxford, intending to earn a Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) in English literature. At Oxford, he met his future wife Helen Palmer, who encouraged him to give up becoming an English teacher in favor of pursuing drawing as a career. where he immediately began submitting writings and drawings to magazines, book publishers, and advertising agencies. Making use of his time in Europe, he pitched a series of cartoons called Eminent Europeans to Life magazine, but the magazine passed on it. His first nationally published cartoon appeared in the July 16, 1927, issue of The Saturday Evening Post. This single $25 sale encouraged Geisel to move from Springfield to New York City. Later that year, Geisel accepted a job as writer and illustrator at the humor magazine Judge, and he felt financially stable enough to marry Palmer. His first cartoon for Judge appeared on October 22, 1927, and Geisel and Palmer were married on November 29. Geisel's first work signed "Dr. Seuss" was published in Judge about six months after he started working there. In early 1928, one of Geisel's cartoons for Judge mentioned Flit, a common bug spray at the time manufactured by Standard Oil of New Jersey. According to Geisel, the wife of an advertising executive in charge of advertising Flit saw Geisel's cartoon at a hairdresser's and urged her husband to sign him. Geisel's first Flit ad appeared on May 31, 1928, and the campaign continued sporadically until 1941. The campaign's catchphrase "Quick, Henry, the Flit!" became a part of popular culture. It spawned a song and was used as a punch line for comedians such as Fred Allen and Jack Benny. As Geisel gained fame for the Flit campaign, his work was in demand and began to appear regularly in magazines such as Life, Liberty and Vanity Fair. The increased income allowed the Geisels to move to better quarters and to socialize in higher social circles. They became friends with the wealthy family of banker Frank A. Vanderlip. They also traveled extensively: by 1936, Geisel and his wife had visited 30 countries together. They did not have children, neither kept regular office hours, and they had ample money. Geisel also felt that traveling helped his creativity. Geisel's success with the Flit campaign led to more advertising work, including for other Standard Oil products like Essomarine boat fuel and Essolube Motor Oil and for other companies like the Ford Motor Company, NBC Radio Network, and Holly Sugar. His first foray into books, Boners, a collection of children's sayings that he illustrated, was published by Viking Press in 1931. It topped The New York Times non-fiction bestseller list and led to a sequel, More Boners, published the same year. Encouraged by the books' sales and positive critical reception, Geisel wrote and illustrated an ABC book featuring "very strange animals" that failed to interest publishers. In 1936, Geisel and his wife were returning from an ocean voyage to Europe when the rhythm of the ship's engines inspired the poem that became his first children's book: And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street. Based on Geisel's varied accounts, the book was rejected by between 20 and 43 publishers. According to Geisel, he was walking home to burn the manuscript when a chance encounter with an old Dartmouth classmate led to its publication by Vanguard Press. Geisel wrote four more books before the US entered World War II. This included The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins in 1938, as well as The King's Stilts and The Seven Lady Godivas in 1939, all of which were in prose, atypically for him. This was followed by Horton Hatches the Egg in 1940, in which Geisel returned to the use of verse. ===World War II–era work=== As World War II began, Geisel turned to political cartoons, drawing over 400 in two years as editorial cartoonist for the left-leaning New York City daily newspaper, PM. Geisel's political cartoons, later published in Dr. Seuss Goes to War, denounced Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and were highly critical of non-interventionists ("isolationists"), such as Charles Lindbergh, who opposed US entry into the war. One cartoon depicted Japanese Americans being handed TNT in anticipation of a "signal from home", while other cartoons deplored the racism at home against Jews and blacks that harmed the war effort. His cartoons were strongly supportive of President Roosevelt's handling of the war, combining the usual exhortations to ration and contribute to the war effort with frequent attacks on Congress (especially the Republican Party), parts of the press (such as the New York Daily News, Chicago Tribune and Washington Times-Herald), and others for criticism of Roosevelt, criticism of aid to the Soviet Union, investigation of suspected Communists, and other offences that he depicted as leading to disunity and helping the Nazis, intentionally or inadvertently. In 1942, Geisel turned his energies to direct support of the U.S. war effort. First, he worked drawing posters for the Treasury Department and the War Production Board. Then, in 1943, he joined the Army as a captain and was commander of the Animation Department of the First Motion Picture Unit of the United States Army Air Forces, where he wrote films that included Your Job in Germany, a 1945 propaganda film about peace in Europe after World War II; Our Job in Japan and the Private Snafu series of adult army training films. While in the Army, he was awarded the Legion of Merit. Our Job in Japan became the basis for the commercially released film Design for Death (1947), a study of Japanese culture that won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature Film. Gerald McBoing-Boing (1950) was based on an original story by Seuss and won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. ===Later years=== After the war, Geisel and his wife moved to the La Jolla community of San Diego, California, where he returned to writing children's books. He published most of his books through Random House in North America and William Collins, Sons (later HarperCollins) internationally. He wrote many, including such favorites as If I Ran the Zoo (1950), Horton Hears a Who! (1955), If I Ran the Circus (1956), The Cat in the Hat (1957), How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), and Green Eggs and Ham (1960). He received numerous awards throughout his career, but he won neither the Caldecott Medal nor the Newbery Medal. Three of his titles from this period were, however, chosen as Caldecott runners-up (now referred to as Caldecott Honor books): McElligot's Pool (1947), Bartholomew and the Oobleck (1949), and If I Ran the Zoo (1950). Dr. Seuss also wrote the musical and fantasy film The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T., which was released in 1953. The movie was a critical and financial failure, and Geisel never attempted another feature film. During the 1950s, he also published a number of illustrated short stories, mostly in Redbook magazine. Some of these were later collected (in volumes such as The Sneetches and Other Stories) or reworked into independent books (If I Ran the Zoo). A number have never been reprinted since their original appearances. In May 1954, Life published a report on illiteracy among school children which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring. William Ellsworth Spaulding was the director of the education division at Houghton Mifflin (he later became its chairman), and he compiled a list of 348 words that he felt were important for first-graders to recognize. He asked Geisel to cut the list to 250 words and to write a book using only those words. Spaulding challenged Geisel to "bring back a book children can't put down". Nine months later, Geisel completed The Cat in the Hat, using 236 of the words given to him. It retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Geisel's earlier works but, because of its simplified vocabulary, it could be read by beginning readers. The Cat in the Hat and subsequent books written for young children achieved significant international success and they remain very popular today. For example, in 2009, Green Eggs and Ham sold 540,000 copies, The Cat in the Hat sold 452,000 copies, and One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish (1960) sold 409,000 copies—all outselling the majority of newly published children's books. Geisel went on to write many other children's books, both in his new simplified-vocabulary manner (sold as Beginner Books) and in his older, more elaborate style. In 1955, Dartmouth awarded Geisel an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters, with the citation: Geisel joked that he would now have to sign "Dr. Dr. Seuss". His wife was ill at the time, so he delayed accepting it until June 1956. Geisel's wife Helen had a long struggle with illnesses. On October 23, 1967, Helen died by suicide. On August 5, 1968, Geisel married Audrey Dimond with whom he had reportedly been having an affair. Although he devoted most of his life to writing children's books, Geisel had no children of his own, saying of children: "You have 'em; I'll entertain 'em." Geisel was awarded an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters (L.H.D.) from Whittier College in 1980. He also received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal from the professional children's librarians in 1980, recognizing his "substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature". At the time, it was awarded every five years. He won a special Pulitzer Prize in 1984 citing his "contribution over nearly half a century to the education and enjoyment of America's children and their parents". ==Illness, death, and posthumous honors== Geisel died of cancer on September 24, 1991, at his home in the La Jolla community of San Diego at the age of 87. His ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean. On December 1, 1995, four years after his death, University of California, San Diego's University Library Building was renamed Geisel Library in honor of Geisel and Audrey for the generous contributions that they made to the library and their devotion to improving literacy. In 2002, the Dr. Seuss National Memorial Sculpture Garden opened in Springfield, Massachusetts, featuring sculptures of Geisel and of many of his characters. In 2017, the Amazing World of Dr. Seuss Museum opened next to the Dr. Seuss National Memorial Sculpture Garden in the Springfield Museums Quadrangle. In 2008, Dr. Seuss was inducted into the California Hall of Fame. In 2004, U.S. children's librarians established the annual Theodor Seuss Geisel Award to recognize "the most distinguished American book for beginning readers published in English in the United States during the preceding year". It should "demonstrate creativity and imagination to engage children in reading" from pre-kindergarten to second grade. At Dartmouth College, incoming first-year students participate in pre-matriculation trips run by the Dartmouth Outing Club, eating green eggs and ham for breakfast at the Moosilauke Ravine Lodge. On April 4, 2012, the Dartmouth Medical School was renamed the Audrey and Theodor Geisel School of Medicine in honor of their many years of generosity to the College. Dr. Seuss has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at the 6500 block of Hollywood Boulevard. In 2012, a crater on the planet Mercury was named after Geisel. ==Pen names== Geisel's most famous pen name is regularly pronounced , wrote of it: Geisel switched to the anglicized pronunciation because it "evoked a figure advantageous for an author of children's books to be associated with—Mother Goose" For books that Geisel wrote and others illustrated, he used the pen name "Theo LeSieg", starting with I Wish That I Had Duck Feet published in 1965. "LeSieg" is "Geisel" spelled backward. Geisel also published one book under the name Rosetta Stone, 1975's Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo!!, a collaboration with Michael K. Frith. Frith and Geisel chose the name in honor of Geisel's second wife Audrey, whose maiden name was Stone. ==Political views== Geisel was a liberal Democrat and a supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. His early political cartoons show a passionate opposition to fascism, and he urged action against it both before and after the U.S. entered World War II. His cartoons portrayed the fear of communism as overstated, finding greater threats in the House Committee on Unamerican Activities and those who threatened to cut the U.S.'s "life line" Geisel explained his position: After the war, Geisel overcame his feelings of animosity and his view, using his book Horton Hears a Who! (1954) as an allegory for the American post-war occupation of Japan, as well as dedicating the book to a Japanese friend. Geisel converted a copy of one of his famous children's books, Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!, into a polemic shortly before the end of the 1972–1974 Watergate scandal, in which U.S. president Richard Nixon resigned, by replacing the name of the main character everywhere that it occurred. The line "a person's a person, no matter how small" from Horton Hears a Who! has been used widely as a slogan by the pro-life movement in the United States. Geisel and later his widow Audrey objected to this use; according to her attorney, "She doesn't like people to hijack Dr. Seuss characters or material to front their own points of view." In the 1980s, Geisel threatened to sue an anti-abortion group for using this phrase on their stationery, according to his biographer, causing them to remove it. The attorney says he never discussed abortion with either of them, ===In his children's books=== Geisel made a point of not beginning to write his stories with a moral in mind, stating that "kids can see a moral coming a mile off." He was not against writing about issues, however; he said that "there's an inherent moral in any story", and he remarked that he was "subversive as hell." Geisel's books express his views on a wide variety of social and political issues: The Lorax (1971), about environmentalism and anti-consumerism; The Sneetches (1961), about racial equality; The Butter Battle Book (1984), about the arms race; Yertle the Turtle (1958), about Adolf Hitler and anti-authoritarianism; How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), criticizing the economic materialism and consumerism of the Christmas season; and Horton Hears a Who! (1954), about anti-isolationism and internationalism. === Retired books === Seuss's work for children has been criticized for unconscious racist themes. Dr. Seuss Enterprises, the organization that owns the rights to the books, films, TV shows, stage productions, exhibitions, digital media, licensed merchandise, and other strategic partnerships, announced on March 2, 2021, that it will stop publishing and licensing six books. The publications include And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street (1937), If I Ran the Zoo (1950), McElligot's Pool (1947), On Beyond Zebra! (1955), Scrambled Eggs Super! (1953) and The Cat's Quizzer (1976). According to the organization, the books "portray people in ways that are hurtful and wrong" and are no longer being published. ==Style== ===Poetic meters=== Geisel wrote most of his books in anapestic tetrameter, a poetic meter employed by many poets of the English literary canon. This is often suggested as one of the reasons that Geisel's writing was so well received. ===Artwork=== Geisel's early artwork often employed the shaded texture of pencil drawings or watercolors, but in his children's books of the postwar period, he generally made use of a starker medium—pen and ink—normally using just black, white, and one or two colors. His later books, such as The Lorax, used more colors. Geisel's style was unique—his figures are often "rounded" and somewhat droopy. This is true, for instance, of the faces of the Grinch and the Cat in the Hat. Almost all his buildings and machinery were devoid of straight lines when they were drawn, even when he was representing real objects. For example, If I Ran the Circus shows a droopy hoisting crane and a droopy steam calliope. Geisel evidently enjoyed drawing architecturally elaborate objects, and some of his motifs are identifiable with structures in his childhood home of Springfield, including examples such as the onion domes of its Main Street and his family's brewery. His endlessly varied but never rectilinear palaces, ramps, platforms, and free-standing stairways are among his most evocative creations. Geisel also drew complex imaginary machines, such as the Audio-Telly-O-Tally-O-Count, from Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book, or the "most peculiar machine" of Sylvester McMonkey McBean in The Sneetches. Geisel also liked drawing outlandish arrangements of feathers or fur: for example, the 500th hat of Bartholomew Cubbins, the tail of Gertrude McFuzz, and the pet for girls who like to brush and comb, in One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish. Geisel's illustrations often convey motion vividly. He was fond of a sort of "voilà" gesture in which the hand flips outward and the fingers spread slightly backward with the thumb up. This motion is done by Ish in One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish when he creates fish (who perform the gesture with their fins), in the introduction of the various acts of If I Ran the Circus, and in the introduction of the "Little Cats" in The Cat in the Hat Comes Back. He was also fond of drawing hands with interlocked fingers, making it look as though his characters were twiddling their thumbs. Geisel also follows the cartoon tradition of showing motion with lines, like in the sweeping lines that accompany Sneelock's final dive in If I Ran the Circus. Cartoon lines are also used to illustrate the action of the senses—sight, smell, and hearing—in The Big Brag, and lines even illustrate "thought", as in the moment when the Grinch conceives his awful plan to ruin Christmas. ==Adaptations== For most of his career, Geisel was reluctant to have his characters marketed in contexts outside of his own books. However, he did permit the creation of several animated cartoons, an art form in which he had gained experience during World War II, and he gradually relaxed his policy as he aged. The first adaptation of one of Geisel's works was an animated short film based on Horton Hatches the Egg, animated at Leon Schlesinger Productions in 1942 and directed by Bob Clampett. As part of George Pal's Puppetoons theatrical cartoon series for Paramount Pictures, two of Geisel's works were adapted into stop-motion films by George Pal. The first, The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins, was released in 1943. The second, And to Think I Saw It on Mulberry Street, with a title slightly altered from the book's, was released in 1944. Both were nominated for an Academy Award for "Short Subject (Cartoon)". In 1966, Geisel authorized eminent cartoon artist Chuck Jones—his friend and former colleague from the war—to make a cartoon version of How the Grinch Stole Christmas! The cartoon was narrated by Boris Karloff, who also provided the voice of the Grinch. It is often broadcast as an annual Christmas television special. Jones directed an adaptation of Horton Hears a Who! in 1970 and produced an adaptation of The Cat in the Hat in 1971. From 1972 to 1983, Geisel wrote six animated specials that were produced by DePatie-Freleng: The Lorax (1972); Dr. Seuss on the Loose (1973); The Hoober-Bloob Highway (1975); Halloween Is Grinch Night (1977); Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You? (1980); and The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat (1982). Several of the specials won multiple Emmy Awards. A Soviet paint-on-glass-animated short film was made in 1986 called Welcome, an adaptation of Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose. The last adaptation of Geisel's work before he died was The Butter Battle Book, a television special based on the book of the same name, directed by Ralph Bakshi. A television film titled In Search of Dr. Seuss was released in 1994, which adapted many of Seuss's stories. After Geisel died of cancer at the age of 87 in 1991, his widow Audrey Geisel took charge of licensing matters until her death in 2018. Since then, licensing is controlled by the nonprofit Dr. Seuss Enterprises. Audrey approved a live-action feature-film version of How the Grinch Stole Christmas starring Jim Carrey, as well as a Seuss-themed Broadway musical called Seussical, and both premiered in 2000. In 2003, another live-action film was released, this time an adaptation of The Cat in the Hat that featured Mike Myers as the title character. Audrey Geisel spoke critically of the film, especially the casting of Myers as the Cat in the Hat, and stated that she would not allow any further live-action adaptations of Geisel's books. However, a first animated CGI feature film adaptation of Horton Hears a Who! was approved, and was eventually released on March 14, 2008, to positive reviews. A second CGI-animated feature film adaptation of The Lorax was released by Universal on March 2, 2012 (on what would have been Seuss's 108th birthday). The third adaptation of Seuss's story, the CGI-animated feature film, The Grinch, was released by Universal on November 9, 2018. Five television series have been adapted from Geisel's work. The first, Gerald McBoing-Boing, was an animated television adaptation of Geisel's 1951 cartoon of the same name and lasted three months between 1956 and 1957. The second, The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss, was a mix of live-action and puppetry by Jim Henson Television, the producers of The Muppets. It aired for two seasons on Nickelodeon in the United States, from 1996 to 1998. The third, Gerald McBoing-Boing, is a remake of the 1956 series. Produced in Canada by Cookie Jar Entertainment (now DHX Media) and North America by Classic Media (now DreamWorks Classics), it ran from 2005 to 2007. The fourth, The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That!, produced by Portfolio Entertainment Inc., began on August 7, 2010, in Canada and September 6, 2010, in the United States and is producing new episodes . The fifth, Green Eggs and Ham, is an animated streaming television adaptation of Geisel's 1960 book of the same title and premiered on November 8, 2019, on Netflix, and a second season by the title of Green Eggs and Ham: The Second Serving premiered in 2022. Geisel's books and characters are featured in Seuss Landing, one of many islands at the Islands of Adventure theme park in Orlando, Florida. In an attempt to match Geisel's visual style, there are reportedly "no straight lines" in Seuss Landing. The Hollywood Reporter has reported that Warner Animation Group and Dr. Seuss Enterprises have struck a deal to make new animated movies based on the stories of Dr. Seuss. Their first project will be a fully animated version of The Cat in the Hat.	[ "live action", "Green Eggs and Ham", "The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T.", "Horton Hears a Who! (film)", "Charles Lindbergh", "The Butter Battle Book", "Association for Library Service to Children", "The Hoober-Bloob Highway", "And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street", "DePatie-Freleng Enterprises", "Jefferson, North Carolina", "Portfolio Entertainment", "Kyle Balda", "traditional animation", "economic materialism", "New York Daily News", "second grade", "Mulberry Street (Springfield, Massachusetts)", "allegory", "MGM Television", "Captain (United States O-3)", "The King's Stilts", "racial equality", "stop motion animation", "DePatie-Freleng", "Quadrangle (Springfield, Massachusetts)", "advertising campaign", "Internet Off-Broadway Database", "The Sneetches and Other Stories", "American Broadcasting Company", "the Cat in the Hat", "steam calliope", "Alan Zaslove", "Computer-generated imagery", "KQED (TV)", "The Cat in the Hat Comes Back", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Emmy Award", "The Lorax (TV special)", "University of California, San Diego", "Adolf Hitler", "Internationalism (politics)", "California Hall of Fame", "20th Century Fox Animation", "Newbery Medal", "Doctor of Philosophy", "20th Century Fox", "First Motion Picture Unit", "Lincoln College, Oxford", "San Diego", "Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book", "Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!", "Associated Press", "Ron Lamothe", "anti-authoritarianism", "United States Department of the Treasury", "Viking Press", "Craven Laycock", "The Washington Post", "Horton Hears a Who! 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8,858	Digital compositing	Digital compositing is the process of digitally assembling multiple images to make a final image, typically for print, motion pictures or screen display. It is the digital analogue of optical film compositing. It's part of VFX processing. ==Mathematics== The basic operation used in digital compositing is known as alpha blending, where an opacity value, 'α', is used to control the proportions of two input pixel values that end up a single output pixel. As a simple example, suppose two images of the same size are available and they are to be composited. The input images are referred to as the foreground image and the background image. Each image consists of the same number of pixels. Compositing is performed by mathematically combining information from the corresponding pixels from the two input images and recording the result in a third image, which is called the composited image. Consider three pixels; a foreground pixel, f a background pixel, b a composited adetpixel, c and α, the opacity value of the foreground pixel. (α = 1 for an opaque foreground, α = 0 for a completely transparent foreground). A monochrome raster image where the pixel values are to be interpreted as alpha values is known as a matte. Then, considering all three colour channels, and assuming that the colour channels are expressed in a γ=1 colour space (that is to say, the measured values are proportional to light intensity), we have: cr = α fr + (1 − α) br cg = α fg + (1 − α) bg cb = α fb + (1 − α) bb Note that if the operations are performed in a colour space where γ is not equal to 1 then the operation will lead to non-linear effects which can potentially be seen as aliasing artifacts (or "jaggies") along sharp edges in the matte. More generally, nonlinear compositing can have effects such as "halos" around composited objects, because the influence of the alpha channel is non-linear. It is possible for a compositing artist to compensate for the effects of compositing in non-linear space. Performing alpha blending is an expensive operation if performed on an entire image or 3D scene. If this operation has to be done in real time video games, there is an easy trick to boost performance. cout = α fin + (1 − α) bin cout = α fin + bin − α bin cout = bin + α (fin − bin) By simply rewriting the mathematical expression, one can save 50% of the multiplications required. ===Algebraic properties=== When many partially transparent layers need to be composited together, it is worthwhile to consider the algebraic properties of compositing operators used. Specifically, the associativity and commutativity determine when repeated calculation can or cannot be avoided. Consider the case when we have four layers to blend to produce the final image: F=A(B(CD)) where A, B, C, D are partially transparent image layers and "" denotes a compositing operator (with the left layer on top of the right layer). If only layer C changes, we should find a way to avoid re-blending all of the layers when computing F. Without any special considerations, four full-image blends would need to occur. For compositing operators that are commutative, such as additive blending, it is safe to re-order the blending operations. In this case, we might compute T=A(BD) only once and simply blend TC to produce F, a single operation. Unfortunately, most operators are not commutative. However, many are associative, suggesting it is safe to re-group operations to F=(AB)(CD), i.e. without changing their order. In this case, we may compute S:=AB once and save this result. To form F with an associative operator, we need only do two additional compositing operations to integrate the new layer S, by computing F:=S(CD). This expression indicates compositing C with all of the layers below it in one step, and then blending all of the layers on top of it with the previous result to produce the final image in the second step. If all layers of an image change regularly but many layers still need to be composited (such as in distributed rendering), the commutativity of a compositing operator can still be exploited to speed up computation through parallelism even when there is no gain from pre-computation. Again, consider the image F=A(B(CD)). Each compositing operation in this expression depends on the next, leading to serial computation. However, associativity can allow us to rewrite F=(AB)(C*D) where there are clearly two operations that do not depend on each other that may be executed in parallel. In general, we can build a tree of pair-wise compositing operations with a height that is logarithmic in the number of layers. ==Software == The most historically significant nonlinear compositing system was the Cineon, which operated in a logarithmic color space, which more closely mimics the natural light response of film emulsions (the Cineon System, made by Kodak, is no longer in production). Due to the limitations of processing speed and memory, compositing artists did not usually have the luxury of having the system make intermediate conversions to linear space for the compositing steps. Over time, the limitations have become much less significant, and now most compositing is done in a linear color space, even in cases where the source imagery is in a logarithmic color space. Compositing often also includes scaling, retouching and colour correction of images. ===Node-based and layer-based compositing=== There are two radically different digital compositing workflows: node-based compositing and layer-based compositing. Node-based compositing represents an entire composite as a directed acyclic graph, linking media objects and effects in a procedural map, intuitively laying out the progression from source input to final output, and is in fact the way all compositing applications internally handle composites. This type of compositing interface allows great flexibility, including the ability to modify the parameters of an earlier image processing step "in context" (while viewing the final composite). Node-based compositing packages often handle keyframing and time effects poorly, as their workflow does not stem directly from a timeline, as do layer-based compositing packages. Software which incorporates a node based interface include Natron, Shake, Blender, Blackmagic Fusion, and Nuke. Nodes are a great way to organize the effects in a complex shot while maintaining a grip on the smaller details. Layer-based compositing represents each media object in a composite as a separate layer within a timeline, each with its own time bounds, effects, and keyframes. All the layers are stacked, one above the next, in any desired order; and the bottom layer is usually rendered as a base in the resultant image, with each higher layer being progressively rendered on top of the previously composited of layers, moving upward until all layers have been rendered into the final composite. Layer-based compositing is very well suited for rapid 2D and limited 3D effects, such as in motion graphics, but becomes awkward for more complex composites entailing numerous layers. A partial solution to this is some programs' ability to view the composite-order of elements (such as images, effects, or other attributes) with a visual diagram called a flowchart to nest compositions, or "comps," directly into other compositions, thereby adding complexity to the render-order by first compositing layers in the beginning composition, then combining that resultant image with the layered images from the proceeding composition, and so on.	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8,859	Dandy	A dandy is a man who places particular importance upon physical appearance and personal grooming, refined language and leisurely hobbies. A dandy could be a self-made man both in person and persona, who emulated the aristocratic style of life regardless of his middle-class origin, birth, and background, especially during the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Britain. Early manifestations of dandyism were Le petit-maître (the Little Master) and the musk-wearing Muscadin ruffians of the middle-class Thermidorean reaction (1794–1795). Modern dandyism, however, emerged in stratified societies of Europe during the 1790s revolution periods, especially in London and Paris. Within social settings, the dandy cultivated a persona characterized by extreme posed cynicism, or "intellectual dandyism" as defined by Victorian novelist George Meredith; whereas Thomas Carlyle, in his novel Sartor Resartus (1831), dismissed the dandy as "a clothes-wearing man"; Honoré de Balzac's La fille aux yeux d'or (1835) chronicled the idle life of a model French dandy whose downfall stemmed from his obsessive Romanticism in the pursuit of love, which led him to yield to sexual passion and murderous jealousy. In the metaphysical phase of dandyism, the poet Charles Baudelaire portrayed the dandy as an existential reproach to the conformity of contemporary middle-class men, cultivating the idea of beauty and aesthetics akin to a living religion. The dandy lifestyle, in certain respects, "comes close to spirituality and to stoicism" as an approach to living daily life, while its followers "have no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons, of satisfying their passions, of feeling and thinking … [because] Dandyism is a form of Romanticism. Contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy, these [material] things are no more than the symbol of the aristocratic superiority of mind." The linkage of clothing and political protest was a particularly English characteristic in 18th-century Britain; the sociologic connotation was that dandyism embodied a reactionary form of protest against social equality and the leveling effects of egalitarian principles. Thus, the dandy represented a nostalgic yearning for feudal values and the ideals of the perfect gentleman as well as the autonomous aristocratreferring to men of self-made person and persona. The social existence of the dandy, paradoxically, required the gaze of spectators, an audience, and readers who consumed their "successfully marketed lives" in the public sphere. Figures such as playwright Oscar Wilde and poet Lord Byron personified the dual social roles of the dandy: the dandy-as-writer, and the dandy-as-persona; each role a source of gossip and scandal, confining each man to the realm of entertaining high society. == Etymology == The earliest record of the word dandy dates back to the late 1700s, in Scottish Song In British North America, prior to American Revolution (1765–1791), a British version of the song "Yankee Doodle" in its first verse: "Yankee Doodle went to town, / Upon a little pony; / He stuck a feather in his hat, / And called it Macoroni … ." and chorus: "Yankee Doodle, keep it up, / Yankee Doodle Dandy, / Mind the music and the step, / And with the girls be handy … ." derided the rustic manner and perceived poverty of colonial American. The lyrics, particularly the reference to "stuck a feather in his hat" and "called it Macoroni," suggested that adorning fashionable attire (a fine horse and gold-braided clothing) was what set the dandy apart from colonial society. In other cultural contexts, an Anglo–Scottish border ballad dated around 1780 utilized dandy in its Scottish connotation and not the derisive British usage populated in colonial North America. Since the 18th century, contemporary British usage has drawn a distinction between a dandy and a fop, with the former characterized by a more restrained and refined wardrobe compared to the flamboyant and ostentatious attire of the latter. ==British dandyism== Beau Brummell (George Bryan Brummell, 1778–1840) was the model British dandy since his days as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford, and later as an associate of the Prince Regent (George IV)all despite not being an aristocrat. Always bathed and shaved, always powdered and perfumed, always groomed and immaculately dressed in a dark-blue coat of plain style. Sartorially, the look of Brummell's tailoring was perfectly fitted, clean, and displayed much linen; an elaborately knotted cravat completed the aesthetics of Brummell's suite of clothes. During the mid-1790s, the handsome Beau Brummell became a personable man-about-town in Regency London's high society, who was famous for being famous and celebrated "based on nothing at all" but personal charm and social connections. During the national politics of the Regency era (1795–1837), by the time that Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger had introduced the Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795 in order to fund the Britain's war efforts against France and discouraged the use of foodstuffs as hair powder, the dandy Brummell already had abandoned wearing a powdered wig and wore his hair cut à la Brutus, in the Roman fashion. Moreover, Brummell also led the sartorial transition from breeches to tailored pantaloons, which eventually evolved into modern trousers. Upon coming of age in 1799, Brummell received a paternal inheritance of thirty thousand pounds sterling, which he squandered on a high life of gambling, lavish tailors, and visits to brothels. Eventually declaring bankruptcy in 1816, Brummell fled England to France, where he lived in destitution and pursued by creditors; in 1840, at the age of sixty-one years, Beau Brummell passed away in a lunatic asylum in Caen, marking the tragic end to his once-glamorous legacy. Nonetheless, despite his ignominious end, Brummell's influence on European fashion endured, with men across the continent seeking to emulate his dandyism. Among them was the poetical persona of Lord Byron (George Gordon Byron, 1788–1824), who wore a poet's shirt featuring a lace-collar, a lace-placket, and lace-cuffs in a portrait of himself in Albanian national costume in 1813; Count d'Orsay (Alfred Guillaume Gabriel Grimod d'Orsay, 1801–1852), himself a prominent figure in upper-class social circles and an acquaintance of Lord Byron, likewise embodied the spirit of dandyism within elite British society. In chapter "The Dandiacal Body" of the novel Sartor Resartus (Carlyle, 1831), Thomas Carlyle described the dandy's symbolic social function as a man and a persona of refined masculinity:A Dandy is a Clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office, and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes. Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to this one object, the wearing of Clothes wisely and well: so that as others dress to live, he lives to dress. . . . And now, for all this perennial Martyrdom, and Poesy, and even Prophecy, what is it that the Dandy asks in return? Solely, we may say, that you would recognise his existence; would admit him to be a living object; or even failing this, a visual object, or thing that will reflect rays of light. In the mid-19th century, amidst the restricted palette of muted colors for men's clothing, the English dandy dedicated meticulous attention to the finer details of sartorial refinement (design, cut, and style), including: "The quality of the fine woollen cloth, the slope of a pocket flap or coat revers, exactly the right colour for the gloves, the correct amount of shine on boots and shoes, and so on. It was an image of a well-dressed man who, while taking infinite pains about his appearance, affected indifference to it. This refined dandyism continued to be regarded as an essential strand of male Englishness." ==French dandyism== In monarchic France, dandyism was ideologically bound to the egalitarian politics of the French Revolution (1789–1799); thus the dandyism of the jeunesse dorée (the Gilded Youth) was their political statement of aristocratic style in effort to differentiate and distinguish themselves from the working-class sans-culottes, from the poor men who owned no stylish knee-breeches made of silk. In the late 18th century, British and French men abided Beau Brummell's dictates about fashion and etiquette, especially the French bohemians who closely imitated Brummell's habits of dress, manner, and style. In that time of political progress, French dandies were celebrated as social revolutionaries who were self-created men possessed of a consciously designed personality, men whose way of being broke with inflexible tradition that limited the social progress of greater French society; thus, with their elaborate dress and decadent styles of life, the French dandies conveyed their moral superiority to and political contempt for the conformist bourgeoisie. Regarding the social function of the dandy in a stratified society, like the British writer Carlyle, in Sartor Resartus, the French poet Baudelaire said that dandies have "no profession other than elegance … no other [social] status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons. … The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror." Likewise, French intellectuals investigated the sociology of the dandies (flâneurs) who strolled Parisian boulevards; in the essay "On Dandyism and George Brummell" (1845) Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly analysed the personal and social career of Beau Brummell as a man-about-town who arbitrated what was fashionable and what was unfashionable in polite society. In the late 19th century, dandified bohemianism was characteristic of the artists who were the Symbolist movement in French poetry and literature, wherein the "Truth of Art" included the artist to the work of art. == Black dandyism == Black dandies have existed since the beginnings of dandyism and have been formative for its aesthetics in many ways. Maria Weilandt in "The Black Dandy and Neo-Victorianism: Re-fashioning a Stereotype" (2021) critiques the history of Western European dandyism as primarily centered around white individuals and the homogenization whiteness as the figurehead of the movement. It is important to acknowledge Black dandyism as distinct and a highly political effort at challenging stereotypes of race, class, gender, and nationality. British-Nigerian artist Yinka Shonibare (b. 1962) employs the neo-Victorian dandy stereotypes to illustrate the Black man experiences in Western European societies. Shonibare's photographic suite Dorian Gray (2001) refers to Oscar Wilde's literary creation of the same name,The Picture Of Dorian Gray (1890), but with the substitution of a disfigured Black protagonist. As the series progress, readers soon notice that there exists no real picture of "Dorian Gray" but only illustrations of other white protagonists. It is through this theme of isolation and Otherness that the Black Dorian Gray becomes Shonibare's comment on the absence of Black representation in Victorian Britain. Shonibare's artwork Diary of a Victorian Dandy (1998) reimagines one day in the life of a dandy in Victorian England, through which the author challenges conventional Victorian depictions of race, class, and British identity by depicting the Victorian dandy as Black, surrounded by white servants.By reversing concepts of the Victorian master-servant relationship, by rewriting stereotypings of the Victorian dandy to include Black masculinities, and by positioning his dandy figure as a noble man who is the leader of his social circle, Shonibare uses neo-Victorianism as a genre to interrogate and counter normative historical narratives and the power hierarchies they produce(d).Black dandyism serves as a catalyst for contemporary Black identities to explore self-fashioning and expressions of neo-Victorian Blacks: The Black dandy's look is highly tailored – the antithesis of baggy wear. [...] Black dandyism rejects this. In fact, the Black dandy is often making a concerted effort to juxtapose himself against racist stereotyping seen in mass media and popular culture [...] For dandies, dress becomes a strategy for negotiating the complexities of Black male identity [...]. "Dandy Jim of Carolina" is a minstrel song that originated in the United States during the 19th century. It tells the story of a character named Dandy Jim, who is depicted as a stylish and flamboyant individual from the state of Carolina. The song often highlights Dandy Jim's extravagant clothing, his charm, and his prowess with the ladies. While the song does not explicitly address race, Dandy Jim's stylish and flamboyant persona aligns with aspects of Black dandyism, a cultural phenomenon characterized by sharp dressing, self-assurance, and individuality within Black communities. According to the standards of the day, it was ludicrous and hilarious to see a person of perceived lower social standing donning fashionable attire and "putting on airs." For most of racist 19th century America a well dressed African American was an odd thing, and naturally someone of that ilk would be seen as acting out of place. The representation of Dandy Jim, while potentially rooted in caricature or exaggeration, nonetheless contribute to the broader cultural landscape surrounding Black dandyism and its portrayal in American folk music. ==Dandy sociology== Regarding the existence and the political and cultural functions of the dandy in a society, in the essay L'Homme révolté (1951), Albert Camus said that: The dandy creates his own unity by aesthetic means. But it is an aesthetic of negation. To live and die before a mirror: that, according to Baudelaire, was the dandy's slogan. It is indeed a coherent slogan. The dandy is, by occupation, always in opposition [to society]. He can only exist by defiance … The dandy, therefore, is always compelled to astonish. Singularity is his vocation, excess his way to perfection. Perpetually incomplete, always on the fringe of things, he compels others to create him, while denying their values. He plays at life because he is unable to live [life]. Further addressing that vein of male narcissism, in the book Simulacra and Simulation (1981), Jean Baudrillard said that dandyism is "an aesthetic form of nihilism" that is centred upon the Self as the centre of the world. Elizabeth Amann's Dandyism in the Age of Revolution: The Art of the Cut (2015) quotes, "Dandyism has always been a cross-cultural phenomenon". Male self-fashioning carries socio-political implications beyond its superficiality and opulent external. Through the analysis of clothing, aesthetics, and societal norms, Amann examines how dandyism emerged as a means of asserting identity, power, and autonomy in the midst of revolutionary change. Male self-fashioning, in particular, was wielded as a resistance expression in denial of itself due to the influence of the French Revolution on British discussions of masculinity. British prime minister William Pitt proposed an unusual measure: the Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795, which aimed to levy a tax on from affluent consumers of hair powder to raise money for the war. Critics of the act expressed fear regarding the association between wearing hair powder and "a tendency to produce a famine,” and those who did so would “run the further risque of being knocked on the head”. In August 1975, journalists and new reports complained that "the papers had misled the poor and encouraged them to consider powdered heads their enemies," a “calculated to excite riots.” With the new legislation, the powdered look became a marker of class in English society and a much more exclusive one, polarizing those who used the products and those who did not. Those who feared making class boundaries too visible considered the distinctions to be deep and significant and therefore wished to protect them by making them less evident, by allowing a self-fashioning that created an illusion of mobility in a highly stratified society. In the early discussion of the tax, the London Packet posed the question, “Is an actor, who in his own private character uniformly appears in a scratch wig, or wears his hair without powder, liable to pay the tax imposed by the new act, for any of the parts which he is necessitated to dress with powder on the stage?” This seemingly trivial inquiry unveils a profound aspect of the legislation: By paying the tax, citizens were essentially purchasing the right to craft a persona, akin to an actor who took on a stage role. Exaggerated self-fashioning was no longer an oppositional strategy and instead became the prevailing norm. To protest the tax and the war against France was to embrace a new aesthetic of invisibility, wherein individuals favored natural attire and simplicity in order to blend into the social fabric rather than stand out. === Dandyism and capitalism === Dandyism is intricately linked with modern capitalism, embodying both a product of and a critique against it. According to Elisa Glick, the dandy's attention to their appearance and their engagement "consumption and display of luxury goods" can be read as an expression of capitalist commodification. However, interestingly, this meticulous attention to personal appearance can also be seen as an assertion of individuality and thus a revolt against capitalism's emphasis on mass production and utilitarianism. Underscoring this somewhat paradoxical nature, philosopher Thorsten Botz-Bornstein describes the dandy as "an anarchist who does not claim anarchy." He argues that this simultaneous abiding by and also ignorance of capitalist social pressures speaks to what he calls a “playful attitude towards life’s conventions." Not only does the dandy play with traditional conceptions of gender, but also with the socioeconomic norms of the society they inhabit; he agrees the importance that dandyism places on uniquely personal style directly opposes capitalism's call for conformity. Thomas Spence Smith highlights the function of style in maintaining social boundaries and individual status, particularly as traditional social structures have decrystallized in modernity. He notes that "style becomes a crucial element in maintaining social boundaries and individual status." This process "creates a market for new social models, with the dandy as a prime example of how individuals navigate and resist the pressures of a capitalist society." Here, another paradoxical relation between dandyism and capitalism emerges: dandyism's emphasis on individuality and on forming an idiomatic sense of style can be read as a sort of marketing or commodification of the self. == Quaintrelle == The counterpart to the dandy is the quaintrelle, a woman whose life is dedicated to the passionate expression of personal charm and style, to enjoying leisurely pastimes, and the dedicated cultivation of the pleasures of life. In the 12th century, cointerrels (male) and cointrelles (female) emerged, based upon coint, a word applied to things skillfully made, later indicating a person of beautiful dress and refined speech. By the 18th century, coint became quaint, indicating elegant speech and beauty. Middle English dictionaries note quaintrelle as a beautifully dressed woman (or overly dressed), but do not include the favorable personality elements of grace and charm. The notion of a quaintrelle sharing the major philosophical components of refinement with dandies is a modern development that returns quaintrelles to their historic roots. Female dandies did overlap with male dandies for a brief period during the early 19th century when dandy had a derisive definition of "fop" or "over-the-top fellow"; the female equivalents were dandyess or dandizette. In 1819, Charms of Dandyism, in three volumes, was published by Olivia Moreland, Chief of the Female Dandies; most likely one of many pseudonyms used by Thomas Ashe. Olivia Moreland may have existed, as Ashe did write several novels about living persons. Throughout the novel, dandyism is associated with "living in style". Later, as the word dandy evolved to denote refinement, it became applied solely to men. Popular Culture and Performance in the Victorian City (2003) notes this evolution in the latter 19th century: " … or dandizette, although the term was increasingly reserved for men."	[ "George Meredith", "William Pitt the Younger", "Lord Byron", "Simulacra and Simulation", "Belgravia: A London Magazine", "Charles Baudelaire", "personality", "social pressure", "commodification", "conformity", "Aristocracy", "utilitarianism", "revolution", "sans-culottes", "Regency London", "Gaze", "British North America", "Suit", "Poetaster", "The Dandy", "Self", "Gentleman", "King of Naples", "Muscadin", "Edward Bulwer-Lytton", "Thorsten Botz-Bornstein", "Martyrdom", "French Revolution", "narcissism", "Grace Wharton", "La fille aux yeux d'or", "stratified society", "Prophecy", "Cravat (early)", "Sexual suggestiveness", "Sartor Resartus", "Oriel College, Oxford", "lunatic asylum", "tradition", "fashion", "Caen", "Nigel Rodgers", "On Dandyism and George Brummell", "Egalitarianism", "Narcissus (mythology)", "Breeches", "Swenkas", "Social stratification", "public sphere", "Giovanni Boldini", "Beau Brummell", "flâneur", "self-made man", "Thermidorean reaction", "Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly", "Romanticism in France", "Adonis", "Stereotype", "bourgeoisie", "fop", "jeunesse dorée", "Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly", "New Victorianism", "Jean Baudrillard", "physical appearance", "Metrosexual", "scandal", "Victorian era", "Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795", "spirituality", "Romanticism", "etiquette", "Bishōnen", "trousers", "Jerome McGann", "anarchy", "egalitarian", "Personal branding", "Yinka Shonibare", "Dandy (song)", "Hipster (contemporary subculture)", "Albert Camus", "Incroyables and Merveilleuses", "border ballad", "high society", "Symbolic capital", "George IV of the United Kingdom", "Flâneur", "persona", "Macaroni (fashion)", "Charles Dickens", "capitalism", "La Sape", "bohemianism", "stoicism", "breeches", "The Picture of Dorian Gray", "Thomas Carlyle", "E. J. Sullivan", "the Kinks", "poet shirt", "Dude", "Feudalism", "The Rebel (book)", "reactionary", "Self-made man", "Oscar Wilde", "Aesthetics", "Effeminacy", "Regency era", "Constantin Guys", "decadence", "Fop", "Preppy", "Zoot suit", "cynicism (contemporary)", "Dedicated Follower of Fashion", "Yankee Doodle", "middle class", "Intellectualism", "Honoré de Balzac", "Alfred Guillaume Gabriel d'Orsay", "Symbolism (arts)" ]
8,860	Dubbing	Dubbing (also known as re-recording and mixing) is a post-production process used in filmmaking and the video production process where supplementary recordings (known as doubles) are lip-synced and "mixed" with original production audio to create the final product. Often this process is performed on films by replacing the original language to offer voiced-over translations. After sound editors edit and prepare all the necessary tracks—dialogue, automated dialogue replacement (ADR), effects, foley, and music—the dubbing mixers proceed to balance all of the elements and record the finished soundtrack. While dubbing and ADR are similar processes that focus on enhancing and replacing dialogue audio, ADR is a process in which the original actors re-record and synchronize audio segments. This allows filmmakers to replace unclear dialogue if there are issues with the script, background noise, or the original recording. The term "dubbing" also commonly refers to the replacement of actors' voices with those of different performers, typically reciting their dialogue in a different language from the original for international audiences. When a voice is created from scratch for animations, the term "original voice" is used, since these media are often partially finished before the voice is implemented. The voice work would still be part of the creation process, thus being considered the official voice. ==Origins== Films, videos, and sometimes video games are dubbed into the local language of a foreign market. In foreign distribution, dubbing is common in theatrically released films, television films, television series, cartoons, anime and telenovelas. In many countries, dubbing was adopted, at least in part, for political reasons. In authoritarian states such as Fascist Italy and Francoist Spain, dubbing could be used to enforce particular ideological agendas, excising negative references to the nation and its leaders and promoting standardized national languages at the expense of local dialects and minority languages. In post-Nazi Germany, dubbing was used to downplay events in the country's recent past, as in the case of the dub of Alfred Hitchcock's Notorious, where the Nazi organization upon which the film's plot centers was changed to a drug smuggling enterprise. The first post-WWII movie dub was Konstantin Zaslonov (1949) dubbed from Russian into the Czech language. In Western Europe after World War II, dubbing was attractive to many film producers as it helped to enable co-production between companies in different countries, in turn allowing them to pool resources and benefit from financial support from multiple governments. The use of dubbing meant that multi-national casts could be assembled and were able to use their preferred language for their performances, with appropriate post-production dubs being carried out before distributing versions of the film.]] Automated dialogue replacement (ADR) is the process of re-recording dialogue by the original actor (or a replacement actor) after the filming process to improve audio quality or make changes to the initially scripted dialog. In the early days of talkies, a loop of film would be cut and spliced together for each of the scenes that needed to be re-recorded, and then the loops would be loaded onto a projector one by one. For each scene, the loop would be played repeatedly while the voice actor performed the lines, trying to synchronize them to the filmed performance. This was known as "looping" or a "looping session". Loading and reloading the film loops while the talent and recording crew stood by was tedious. Later, videotape and then digital technology replaced the film loops, and the process became known as automated dialogue replacement (ADR). In conventional film production, a production sound mixer records dialogue during filming. During post-production, a supervising sound editor, or ADR supervisor, reviews all of the dialogue in the film and decides which lines must be re-recorded. ADR is recorded during an ADR session, which takes place in a specialized sound studio. Multiple takes are recorded, and the most suitable take becomes the final version, or portions of various takes may be edited together. The ADR process does not always take place in a post-production studio. The process may be recorded on location with mobile equipment. ADR can also be recorded without showing the actor the image they must match, but by having them listen to the performance, since some actors believe that watching themselves act can degrade subsequent performances. The director may be present during ADR; alternatively, they may leave it up to a trusted sound editor, an ADR specialist, and the performers. the automated process includes various techniques, such as automatically displaying lines on-screen for the talent, automated cues, shifting the audio track for accurate synchronization, and time-fitting algorithms for stretching or compressing portions of a spoken line. There is software that can sort outspoken words from ambient sounds in the original filmed soundtrack, detect the peaks of the dialog, and automatically time-fit the new dubbed performance to the original to create accurate synchronization. Sometimes, an actor other than the original actor is used during ADR. One example is the Star Wars character Darth Vader, portrayed by David Prowse; in post-production, James Earl Jones dubbed the voice of Vader. In India, the process is simply known as "dubbing", while in the UK, it is also called "post-synchronization" or "post-sync". The insertion of voice actor performances for animation, such as computer-generated imagery or animated cartoons, is often referred to as ADR although it generally does not replace existing dialogue. The ADR process may be used to: remove extraneous sounds such as production equipment noise, traffic, wind, or other undesirable sounds from the environment change the original lines recorded on set to clarify context improve diction or modify an accent improve comedic timing or dramatic timing correct technical issues with synchronization use a studio-quality singing performance or provide a voice-double for actors who are poor vocalists add or remove content for legal purposes (such as removing an unauthorized trademarked name) add or remove a product placement correct a misspoken line not caught during filming replace "foul language" for TV broadcasts of the media Other examples include: Jean Hagen provided Debbie Reynolds' voice in two scenes of Singin' in the Rain (1952). Ironically, the film's story has Reynolds' character, Kathy Seldon, dubbing the voice for Hagen's character, Lina Lamont, due to Lina's grating voice and strong New York accent. Hagen used her own normal melodious voice to portray Kathy dubbing for Lina. The film, which takes place in Hollywood as talking pictures are taking over from silent films, also portrays another character, Cosmo Brown, played by Donald O'Connor, as inventing the idea of using one actor to provide the voice for another. Marni Nixon provided the singing voice for the character Eliza Doolittle, otherwise played by Audrey Hepburn, in the 1964 musical film My Fair Lady. Nixon was also the singing voice for Deborah Kerr in The King and I and Natalie Wood in West Side Story, among many others. Ray Park, who acted as Darth Maul from Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, had his voice dubbed over by Peter Serafinowicz Frenchmen Philippe Noiret and Jacques Perrin, who were dubbed into Italian for Cinema Paradiso Austrian bodybuilder Arnold Schwarzenegger, dubbed for Hercules in New York Argentine boxer Carlos Monzón, dubbed by a professional actor for the lead in the drama La Mary Gert Fröbe, who played Auric Goldfinger in the James Bond film Goldfinger, dubbed by Michael Collins George Lazenby's James Bond in On Her Majesty's Secret Service, dubbed for a portion of the film by George Baker, since Bond was undercover and impersonating Baker's own character. Andie MacDowell's Jane, in Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes, who was dubbed by Glenn Close Tom Hardy, who portrayed Bane in The Dark Knight Rises, re-dubbed half of his own lines for ease of viewer comprehension Harvey Keitel was dubbed by Roy Dotrice in post-production for Saturn 3 Dave Coulier dubbed replacement of swear words for Richard Pryor in multiple TV versions of his movies Doug Jones was dubbed by Laurence Fishburne in post-production for Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer ===Rythmo band=== An alternative method to dubbing, called "rythmo band" (or "lip-sync band"), has historically been used in Canada and France. It provides a more precise guide for the actors, directors, and technicians, and can be used to complement the traditional ADR method. The "band" is actually a clear 35 mm film leader on which the dialogue is hand-written in India ink, together with numerous additional indications for the actor—including laughs, cries, length of syllables, mouth sounds, breaths, and mouth openings and closings. Studio time is used more efficiently, since with the aid of scrolling text, picture, and audio cues, actors can read more lines per hour than with ADR alone (only picture and audio). With ADR, actors can average 10–12 lines per hour, while rythmo band can facilitate the reading of 35-50 lines per hour. ===Translation process=== For dubs into a language other than the original language, the dubbing process includes the following tasks: Translation Dialog writing: Take segmentation Insertion of dubbing symbols Dialogue writing and the emulation of natural discourse Lip-sync Sometimes the translator performs all five tasks. In other cases, the translator just submits a rough translation, and a dialogue writer does the rest. However, the language expertise of translator and dialog writing is different; translators must be proficient in the source language, while dialog writers must be proficient in the target language. ====Dialog writing==== The dialogue writer's role is to make the translation sound natural in the target language, and to make the translation sound like a credible dialogue instead of merely a translated text. Another task of dialogue writers is to check whether a translation matches an on-screen character's mouth movements or not, by reading aloud simultaneously with the character. The dialogue writer often stays in the recording setting with the actors or the voice talents, to ensure that the dialogue is being spoken in the way that it was written to be, and to avoid any ambiguity in the way the dialogue is to be read (focusing on emphasis, intonation, pronunciation, articulation, pronouncing foreign words correctly, etc.). The overall goal is to make sure the script creates the illusion of authenticity of the spoken language. A successful localization product gives the impression that the original character is naturally speaking in the target language. Therefore, in the localization process, the position of the dialogue writing or song writing is important. ==Global use== ===Localization=== Localization is the practice of adapting a film or television series from one region of the world for another. In contrast to pure translation, localization encompasses adapting the content to suit the target audience. For example, culture-specific references may be replaced, and footage may be removed or added. Dub localization is a contentious issue in cinephilia among aficionados of foreign filmmaking and television programs, particularly anime fans. While some localization is virtually inevitable in translation, the controversy surrounding how much localization is "too much" is often discussed in such communities, especially when the final dub product is significantly different from the original. Some fans frown on any extensive localization, while others expect it, and to varying degrees, appreciate it. The new voice track is usually spoken by a voice actor. In many countries, actors who regularly perform this duty remain little-known, with the exception of particular circles (such as anime fandom) or when their voices have become synonymous with roles or actors whose voices they usually dub. In the United States, many of these voice artists may employ pseudonyms or go uncredited due to Screen Actors Guild regulations or the desire to dissociate themselves from the role. ===Africa=== ====North Africa, Western Asia==== In Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, most foreign movies (especially Hollywood productions) are shown dubbed in French. These movies are usually imported directly from French film distributors. The choice of movies dubbed into French can be explained by the widespread use of the French language. Another important factor is that local theaters and private media companies do not dub in local languages in order to avoid high costs, but also because of the lack of both expertise and demand. Beginning in the 1980s, dubbed series and movies for children in Modern Standard Arabic became a popular choice among most TV channels, cinemas and VHS/DVD stores. However, dubbed films are still imported, and dubbing is still performed in the Levant countries with a strong tradition of dubbing (mainly Syria, Lebanon and Jordan). Egypt was the first Arab country in charge of dubbing Disney movies in 1975 and used to do it exclusively in Egyptian Arabic rather than Modern Standard Arabic until 2011, and since then many other companies started dubbing their productions in this dialect. Beginning with Encanto, Disney movies are now dubbed in both dialects. In the Arabic-speaking countries, children's shows (mainly cartoons and kids sitcoms) are dubbed in Arabic, or Arabic subtitles are used. The only exception was telenovelas dubbed in Standard Arabic, or dialects, but also Turkish series, most notably Gümüş, in Syrian Arabic. An example of Arabic voice actors that dub for certain performers is Safi Mohammed for Elijah Wood. In Tunisia, the Tunisia National Television (TNT), the public broadcaster of Tunisia, is not allowed to show content in any language other than Arabic, which forces it to broadcast only dubbed content (this restriction was recently removed for commercials). During the 1970s and 1980s, TNT (known as ERTT at the time) started dubbing famous cartoons in Tunisian and Standard Arabic. However, in the private sector, television channels are not subject to the language rule. ====South Africa==== In South Africa, many television programs were dubbed in Afrikaans, with the original soundtrack (usually in English, but sometimes Dutch or German) "simulcast" in FM stereo on Radio 2000. These included US series such as The Six Million Dollar Man (Steve Austin: Die Man van Staal), Miami Vice (Misdaad in Miami), Beverly Hills 90210, and the German detective series Derrick. As a result of the boycott by the British actors' union Equity, which banned the sale of most British television programs, the puppet series The Adventures of Rupert Bear was dubbed into South African English, as the original voices had been recorded by Equity voice artists. This practice has declined as a result of the reduction of airtime for the language on SABC TV, and the increase of locally produced material in Afrikaans on other channels like KykNet. Similarly, many programs, such as The Jeffersons, were dubbed into Zulu, but this has also declined as local drama production has increased. However, some animated films, such as Maya the Bee, have been dubbed in both Afrikaans and Zulu by local artists. In 2018, eExtra began showing the Turkish drama series Paramparça dubbed in Afrikaans as Gebroke Harte or "Broken Hearts", the first foreign drama to be dubbed in the language for twenty years. ====Uganda==== Uganda's own film industry is fairly small, and foreign movies are commonly watched. The English soundtrack is often accompanied by the Luganda translation and comments, provided by a Ugandan "video jockey" (VJ). VJ's interpreting and narration may be available in a recorded form or live. ===Asia=== ====Azerbaijan==== In Azerbaijan, foreign movies are released in their original language with Azerbaijani subtitles in cinemas. Additionally, some theaters offer Russian and Turkish versions. According to the law, films intended for theatrical release must either be dubbed or subtitled. All television channels are required to broadcast movies and TV shows with dubbed audio. In the past, voice-over was commonly used, but in the last decade, channels have improved the quality by adopting full dubbing. DVD releases are typically imported from Russia or Turkey. The absence of detailed laws, limited regulations, monitoring, and industry interest contribute to ongoing debates on how movies and series should be released. However, certain series and movies (The Kingdom of Solomon, Mokhtarnameh, and Prophet Joseph etc.), have been fully dubbed and released, including availability in home media formats. ====China==== China has a long tradition of dubbing foreign films into Mandarin Chinese, starting in the 1930s. While during the Republic of China era Western motion pictures may have been imported and dubbed into Chinese, since 1950 Soviet movies became the main import, sometimes even surpassing the local production. In Communist China, most European movies were dubbed in Shanghai, whereas Asian and Soviet films were usually dubbed in Changchun. During the Cultural Revolution, North Korean, Romanian and Albanian films became popular. Beginning in the late 1970s, in addition to films, popular TV series from the United States, Japan, Brazil, and Mexico were also dubbed. has been dubbing movies into the Tibetan language since the 1960s. In the early decades, it would dub 25 to 30 movies each year, the number rising to 60–75 by the early 2010s. Motion pictures are dubbed for China's Mongol- and Uyghur-speaking markets as well. Chinese television dramas are often dubbed in Standard Mandarin by professional voice actors to remove accents, improve poor performances, or change lines to comply with local censorship laws. ====Hong Kong==== In Hong Kong, foreign television programs, except for English-language and Mandarin television programs, are dubbed in Cantonese. English-language and Mandarin programs are generally shown in original with subtitles. Foreign films, such as most live-action and animated films (such as anime and Disney), are usually dubbed in Cantonese. However, most cinemas also offer subtitled versions of English-language films. For the most part, foreign films and TV programs, both live-action and animated, are generally dubbed in both Mandarin and Cantonese. For example, in The Lord of the Rings film series, Elijah Wood's character Frodo Baggins was dubbed into Mandarin by Jiang Guangtao for China and Taiwan. For the Cantonese localization, there were actually two dubs for Hong Kong and Macau. In the first Cantonese dub, he was voiced by Leung Wai Tak, while in the second Cantonese dub, he was voiced by Bosco Tang. ====Taiwan==== Taiwan dubs some foreign films and TV series in Mandarin Chinese. Until the mid-1990s, the major national terrestrial channels both dubbed and subtitled all foreign programs and films, and, for some popular programs, the original voices were offered in second audio program. Gradually, however, both terrestrial and cable channels stopped dubbing for prime time U.S. shows and films, while subtitling continued. In the 2000s, the dubbing practice has differed depending on the nature and origin of the program. Animations, children's shows and some educational programs on PTS are mostly dubbed. English live-action movies and shows are not dubbed in theaters or on television. Japanese TV dramas are no longer dubbed, while Korean dramas, Hong Kong dramas and dramas from other Asian countries are still often dubbed. Korean variety shows are not dubbed. Japanese and Korean films on Asian movie channels are still dubbed. In theaters, most foreign films are not dubbed, while animated films and some films meant for children offer a dubbed version. Hong Kong live-action films have a long tradition of being dubbed into Mandarin, while more famous films offer a Cantonese version. ====Georgia==== In Georgia, original soundtracks are kept in films and TV series, but with voice-over translation. There are exceptions, such as some children's cartoons. ====India==== In India, where "foreign films" are synonymous with "Hollywood films", dubbing is done mostly in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. Dubbing is rarely done with the other major Indian languages, namely Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, and Odia, due to lack of significant market size. Despite this, some Kannada and Malayalam dubs of children television programs can be seen on the Sun TV channel. The dubbed versions are released into the towns and lower tier settlements of the respective states (where English penetration is low), often with the English-language originals released in the metropolitan areas. In all other states, the English originals are released along with the dubbed versions, where often the dubbed version collections are more outstanding than the originals. Spider-Man 3 was also done in the Bhojpuri language, a language popular in eastern India in addition to Hindi, Tamil and Telugu. A Good Day to Die Hard, the most recent installment in the Die Hard franchise, was the first ever Hollywood film to receive a Punjabi language dub as well. Most TV channels mention neither the Indian-language dubbing credits, nor its staff, at the end of the original ending credits, since changing the credits casting for the original actors or voice actors involves a huge budget for modifying, making it somewhat difficult to find information for the dubbed versions. The same situation is encountered in films. Sometimes foreign programs and films receive more than one dub, such as for example, Jumanji, Dragonheart and Van Helsing having two Hindi dubs. Information for the Hindi, Tamil and Telugu voice actors who have done the voices for specific actors and for their roles on foreign films and television programs are published in local Indian data magazines, for those that are involved in the dubbing industry in India. But on a few occasions, there are some foreign productions that do credit the dubbing cast, such as animated films like the Barbie films, and some Disney films. Disney Channel original series released on DVD with their Hindi dubs show a list of the artists in the Hindi dub credits, after the original ending credits. Theatrical releases and VCD releases of foreign films do not credit the dubbing cast or staff. The DVD releases, however, do have credits for the dubbing staff, if they are released multilingual. As of recently, information for the dubbing staff of foreign productions have been expanding due to high demands of people wanting to know the voice actors behind characters in foreign works. ====Indonesia==== Unlike movie theaters in most Asian countries, those in Indonesia show foreign movies with subtitles. Then a few months or years later, those movies appear on TV either dubbed in Indonesian or subtitled. Kids shows are mostly dubbed, though even in cartoon series, songs typically are not dubbed, but in hit movies such as Disney movies, both speaking and singing voice are cast for the Indonesian dub. Adult films are mostly subtitled but sometimes they can be dubbed as well, and because there are not many Indonesian voice actors, multiple characters might have the exact same voice. When it comes to reality shows, whether the show is dubbed or not differs. For example, the Japanese competition show TV Champion is fully dubbed, while other reality shows are aired with Indonesian subtitles. All Malay language TV shows, including animated ones (mostly coming from neighbouring Malaysia), are subtitled instead, likely due to the language's mutual intelligibility with Indonesian. ====Iran==== In Iran, International foreign films and television programs are dubbed in Persian. Dubbing began in 1946 with the advent of movies and cinemas in the country. Since then, foreign movies have always been dubbed for the cinema and TV foreign films and television programs are subtitled in Persian. Using various voice actors and adding local hints and witticisms to the original contents, dubbing played a major role in attracting people to the cinemas and developing an interest in other cultures. The dubbing art in Iran reached its apex during the 1960s and 1970s with the inflow of American, European and Hindi movies. The most famous musicals of the time, such as My Fair Lady and The Sound of Music, were translated, adjusted and performed in Persian by the voice artists. Since the 1990s, for political reasons and under pressure from the state, the dubbing industry has declined, with movies dubbed only for the state TV channels. During recent years, DVDs with Persian subtitles have found a market among viewers for the same reason, but most people still prefer the Persian-speaking dubbed versions. Recently, privately operated companies started dubbing TV series by hiring famous dubbers. However, the dubs which these companies make are often unauthorized and vary greatly in terms of quality. A list of Persian voice actors that associate with their actor counterparts are listed here. ====Israel==== In Israel, only children's movies and TV programming are dubbed in Hebrew. In programs aimed at teenagers and adults, dubbing is never considered for translation, not only because of its high costs, but also because the audience is mainly multi-lingual. Most viewers in Israel speak at least one European language in addition to Hebrew, and a large part of the audience also speaks Arabic. Therefore, most viewers prefer to hear the original soundtrack, aided by Hebrew subtitles. Another problem is that dubbing does not allow for translation into two different languages simultaneously, as is often the case of Israeli television channels that use subtitles in Hebrew and another language (like Russian) simultaneously. ====Japan==== In Japan, many television programs appear on Japanese television subtitled or dubbed if they are intended for children. When the American film Morocco was released in Japan in 1931, subtitles became the mainstream method of translating TV programs and films in Japan. Later, around the 1950s, foreign television programs and films began to be shown dubbed in Japanese on television. The first ones to be dubbed into Japanese were the 1940s Superman cartoons in 1955. Due to the lack of video software for domestic television, video software was imported from abroad. When the television program was shown on television, it was mostly dubbed. There was a character limit for a small TV screen at a lower resolution, and this method was not suitable for the poor elderly and illiterate, as was audio dubbing. Presently, TV shows and movies (both those aimed at all ages and adults-only) are shown dubbed with the original language and Japanese subtitles, while providing the original language option when the same film is released on VHS, DVD and Blu-ray. Laserdisc releases of Hollywood films were almost always subtitled, films like Godzilla: King of the Monsters. Adult cartoons such as South Park and The Simpsons are shown dubbed in Japanese on the WOWOW TV channel. South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut was dubbed in Japanese by different actors instead of the same Japanese dubbing-actors from the cartoon because it was handled by a different Japanese dubbing studio, and it was marketed for the Kansai market. In Japanese theaters, foreign-language movies, except those intended for children, are usually shown in their original version with Japanese subtitles. Foreign films usually contain multiple Japanese-dubbing versions, but with several different original Japanese-dubbing voice actors, depending upon which TV station they are aired. NHK, Nippon TV, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, and TBS usually follow this practice, as do software releases on VHS, Laserdisc, DVD and Blu-ray. As for recent foreign films being released, there are now some film theaters in Japan that show both dubbed and subtitled editions. On 22 June 2009, 20th Century Fox's Japanese division has opened up a Blu-ray lineup known as "Emperor of Dubbing", dedicated at having multiple Japanese dubs of popular English-language films (mostly Hollywood films) as well as retaining the original scripts, releasing them altogether in special Blu-ray releases. These also feature a new dub created exclusively for that release as a director's cut, or a new dub made with a better surround sound mix to match that of the original English mix (as most of the older Japanese dubbings were made on mono mixes to be aired on TV). Other companies have followed practice, like Universal Pictures's Japanese division NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan opening up "Reprint of Memories", along with Warner Bros. Japan having "Power of Dubbing", which act in a similar way by re-packaging all the multiple Japanese dubs of popular films and putting them out as Special Blu-ray releases. "Japanese dub-over artists" provide the voices for certain performers, such as those listed in the following table: ====Malaysia==== Foreign-language programmes and films that air on TV2 and TVS are shown in their original language but have subtitles in Malay. ====North Korea==== Despite the tight control on mass media the government of North Korea has, many foreign movies and TV shows have been officially distributed within the country by a state-run recording and distribution company named Mokran Video. All dubbings produced by the company are unlicensed, given the many imposed sanctions against North Korea. Most movies are censored to remove mentions of foreign countries (although this is usually exclusive to western countries such as the United States of America). ====Pakistan==== In Pakistan "foreign films", and series are not normally dubbed locally. Instead, foreign films, anime and cartoons, such as those shown on Nickelodeon Pakistan and Cartoon Network Pakistan, are dubbed in Hindi in India, as Hindi and Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, are mutually intelligible. However, soap operas from Turkey are now dubbed in Urdu and have gained increased popularity at the expense of Indian soap operas in Hindi. This has led to protests from local producers that these are a threat to Pakistan's television industry, with local productions being moved out of peak viewing time or dropped altogether. Similarly, politicians and leaders have expressed concerns over their content, given Turkey's less conservative culture. ====Philippines==== In the Philippines, the media industry generally has mixed practices regarding whether to dub television programs or films, even within the same kind of medium. In general, the decision whether to dub a video production depends on a variety of factors such as the target audience of the channel or programming block on which the feature will be aired, its genre, and/or outlet of transmission (e.g. TV or cinema, free or pay-TV). =====Free-to-air TV===== The prevalence of media needing to be dubbed in Filipino language has resulted in a talent pool that is capable of syncing voice to lip, especially for shows broadcast by the country's largest networks. It is not uncommon in the Filipino dub industry to have most of the voices in a series dubbing by only a handful of voice talents. Programs originally in English used to usually air in their original language on free-to-air television. Since the late 1990s, more originally English-language programs broadcast on major free-to-air networks (e.g. ABS-CBN, GMA, TV5) have been dubbed into Filipino. Even the former Studio 23 (now S+A), once known for airing programs in English, had later adopted Filipino dubbing for some of its foreign programs. Japanese anime series shown on ABS-CBN, GMA and TV5 have long been dubbed into Filipino. Dubbing has also been less common in smaller free-to-air networks such as the former RPN 9 (now RPTV) whereby the original-language version of the program is aired. Telenovelas from Latin America (including Mexico) were also dubbed into Filipino. =====Pay TV===== The original language version of TV programs is also usually available on cable/satellite channels. However, some pay-TV channels do specialize in showing foreign shows and films dubbed into Filipino. HERO TV, ABS-CBN's animation channel, focused on Japanese anime series and dubbed all its programs into Filipino. This was in contrast to Animax, where their anime series are dubbed in English. ====Singapore==== In multilingual Singapore, dubbing is rare for western programs. English-language programs on the free-to-air terrestrial channels are usually subtitled in Chinese or Malay. Chinese, Malay and Tamil programs (except for news bulletins and other live shows), usually have subtitles in English and the original language during the prime time hours. Dual sound programs, such as Korean, Japanese and Filipino dramas, offer sound in the original languages with subtitles, Mandarin-dubbed and subtitled, or English-dubbed. The deliberate policy to encourage Mandarin among citizens made it required by law for programs in other Chinese dialects (Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew) to be dubbed into Mandarin, with the exception of traditional operas. Cantonese and Hokkien shows from Hong Kong and Taiwan, respectively, are available on VCD and DVD. In a recent development, news bulletins are subtitled into the language of the channel they air on. ====South Korea==== In South Korea, anime that are imported from Japan are generally shown dubbed in Korean on television. However, some anime is censored, such as Japanese letters or content being edited for a suitable Korean audience. Western cartoons are dubbed in Korean as well, such as Nickelodeon cartoons like SpongeBob SquarePants and Danny Phantom. Several English-language (mostly American) live-action films are dubbed in Korean, but they are not shown in theaters. Instead, they are only broadcast on South Korean television networks (KBS, MBC, SBS, EBS), while DVD import releases of these films are shown with Korean subtitles, such as The Wizard of Oz, Mary Poppins, the Star Wars films, and Avatar. This may be due to the fact that the six American major film studios may not own any rights to the Korean dubs of their live-action films that the Korean television networks have dubbed and aired. Even if they do not own the rights, Korean or non-Korean viewers can record from Korean-dubbed live-action films from television broadcasting onto DVDs with DVRs. Sometimes, video games are dubbed in Korean. Examples would be the Halo series, the Jak & Daxter series, and the God of War series. For the Halo games, Lee Jeong Gu provides his Korean voice to the main protagonist Master Chief (replacing Steve Downes's voice), while Kim So Hyeong voices Chieftain Tartarus, one of the main antagonists (replacing Kevin Michael Richardson's voice). The following South Korean voice-over artists are usually identified with the following actors: ====Thailand==== In Thailand, foreign television programs are dubbed in Thai, but the original soundtrack is often simultaneously carried on a NICAM audio track on terrestrial broadcast, and alternate audio tracks on satellite broadcast. Previously, terrestrial stations simulcasted the original soundtrack on the radio. On pay-TV, many channels carry foreign-language movies and television programs with subtitles. Movie theaters in Bangkok and some larger cities show both the subtitled version and the dubbed version of English-language movies. In big cities like Bangkok, Thai-language movies have English subtitles. This list features a collection of Thai voice actors and actresses that have dubbed for these featured performers. ====Vietnam==== In Vietnam, foreign-language films and programs are often subtitled or voice-overed on television in Vietnamese. They were not dubbed until 1985. Rio was considered to be the very first American Hollywood film to be entirely dubbed in Vietnamese. Since then, children's films that came out afterwards have been released dubbed in theaters. HTV3 has dubbed television programs for children, including Ben 10, and Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, by using various voice actors to dub over the character roles. Sooner afterwards, more programs started to get dubbed. Also dubbed into Vietnamese are most films and TV series produced in Asia-Pacific countries such as China and Japan, most notably HTV3 offers anime dubbed into Vietnamese. Pokémon got a Vietnamese dub in early 2014 on HTV3 starting with the Best Wishes series. While characters kept their original names, due to a controversy regarding Pokémon's cries being re-dubbed, it was switched to VTV2 in September 2015 when the XY series debuted. Sailor Moon also has been dubbed for HTV3 in early 2015. ===Europe=== ====Children's/family films and programming==== In North-West Europe, Poland, Portugal, Balkan, Baltic and Nordic countries, generally only movies and TV shows that are intended for children are dubbed, while TV shows and movies that are intended for teenagers or adults are subtitled, although adult-animated productions (e.g. South Park and The Simpsons) have a tradition of being dubbed. For movies in cinemas with clear target audiences (both below and above 10–11 years of age), both a dubbed and a subtitled version are usually available. ====Belgium==== In the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium (Flanders), movies and TV series are shown in their original language with subtitles, with the exception of most movies made for a young audience. In the latter case, sometimes separate versions are recorded in the Netherlands and in Flanders (for instance, several Walt Disney films and Harry Potter films). These dubbed versions only differ from each other in their use of different voice actors and different pronunciation, while the text is almost the same. In the French-speaking part of Belgium (Wallonia), the movies shown in theaters and on TV are the French dubbed version (dubbed by French voice actors). Except for a few words, the French language spoken in France and in Belgium are similar. The amount of movies in original language with subtitles in theaters is extremely limited and most theaters only show movies dubbed in French. ====Bosnia and Herzegovina==== Bosnia and Herzegovina usually uses Serbian and Croatian dubs (due to their mutual intelligibility), but they have dubbed some cartoons in Bosnian by themselves, for example My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic. Children's programs (both animated and live-action) are broadcast dubbed (in Serbian, Croatian or Bosnian), while every other program is subtitled (in Bosnian). ====Bulgaria==== In Bulgaria, there are two forms of Bulgarian dubbing. The first is the so-called "voiceover" dubbing, typical of the Bulgarian television market, in which the voice-over is based on the back-camera technology of the 1970s, with the voice superimposed on the original phonogram. This inexpensive way of voice-over is preferred only because of its low cost. But unfortunately it is a rather outdated technological form that does not meet the technical requirements of the new times. The second, considered basic in many European countries and the only one acceptable today, is synchronous dubbing, a radically different technology with much higher sound quality and speech synchronisation capabilities. This new method is defined as post-synchronous /non-synchronous/ dubbing of the product, in which the dialogue component of the phonogram is completely produced in Bulgarian, similar to the process in film production, in order for it to completely replace the original. In this sense, dubbing is considered by the production companies as one of the final elements of the overall post-production process of their films, and therefore their control over all the activities performed is complete. After November 10, 1991, there was a large-scale influx of American animation production in Bulgaria, which can be classified as follows: A/ Films that in the years of the Iron Curtain either did not reach Bulgaria or were not dubbed according to the generally accepted world standard. For example: Sleeping Beauty /1959/, One Hundred and One Dalmatians /1961/, Jungle Book /1967/, The Aristocats /1970/, Robin Hood /1973/ and many others entered the Bulgarian market after 1991. B/ New first-run films created after 1991: Ice Age, Toy Story, Tangled, The Lion King, Mulan, etc. After 1991, BNT was the first to obtain the rights to voice and broadcast Disney series - 101 Dalmatians, Woody Woodpecker, Mickey Mouse, Tom and Jerry, etc. The first full-length animated films were dubbed at Boyana Film Studio, Dolly Media Studio (1992) and Ars Digital Studio (1994). In 1999, Alexandra Audio Studio took over the Disney production from BNT, which lost the rights to do the voice-overs due to a highly outdated technology park. In 2019 Andarta Studio joined the sound business, and in 2005 Profilms Studio, which are still working. ====Croatia==== In Croatia, foreign live-action films and television series are always subtitled, while most children's programs and animated movies are dubbed into Croatian. The practice of dubbing began in the 1980s in some animated shows and continued in 90's, 00's and forward in other shows and films, the latter ones being released in home media. Recently, more efforts have been made to introduce dubbing, but public reception has been poor in some exceptions. Regardless of language, Croatian audiences prefer subtitling to dubbing; however, dubbing is still popular in animated series and films. Some previously popular animated shows (such as Sailor Moon) lost their appeal completely after the practice of dubbing began, and the dubbing was eventually removed from the programs, even though most animated shows shown on television and some on home media have been well received by people watching dubbed versions of them. This situation is similar with theater movies, with only those intended for children being dubbed. Also, there has been an effort to impose dubbing by Nova TV, with La Fea Más Bella (2006–2007) translated as Ružna ljepotica (literally, "The Ugly Beauty"), a Mexican telenovela, but it failed. On 1 October 2008, Nova TV launched its sister channel Mini TV, the first Croatian television channel for children with programming entirely dubbed into Croatian. RTL followed suit with the launch of RTL Kockica in 2014. Since the 2010s, the dubbing of live-action television series and films aimed at children, teenagers and young adults has been on the rise. With the launch of Nickelodeon's Croatian audio track in 2011, Studio NET was the first in Croatia to focus on "serious production of live-action dubbing," with most of Nickelodeon's major teen live-action titles such as iCarly (2007–2012), Sam & Cat (2013–2014), The Thundermans (2013–2018) and Victorious (2010–2013) receiving a Croatian dub. With the rise of streaming television in the 2020s, NET and various other studios also began producing Croatian dubs for Netflix; although the focus is still on dubbing animated series and films, a notable amount of live-action programming aimed at younger audiences has also been dubbed for Netflix, such as Chupa (2023), Geek Girl (2024), Heartstopper (2022–2024), I Woke Up a Vampire (2023), Matilda the Musical (2022) and Spy Kids: Armageddon (2023). However, to this day, all television programming and theatre releases aimed at adult audiences are still released with subtitles. Some of Croatian dubbing is also broadcast in Bosnia and Herzegovina. ====Estonia==== In Estonia, only foreign children's films are dubbed in cinemas and on Estonian broadcast TV channels. As a rule, all other foreign films are shown with their original "pure" language soundtrack along with subtitles. On TV, the subtitles are almost always available in the Estonian language by default settings, and sometimes also in Russian and English upon request. In the cinemas, the subtitles are usually presented in Estonian and Russian languages. Cartoons and animated series are voiced by dubbing or voiceover. Estonian-language television channels use subtitles for English, Russian, and other foreign language audio. However, Russian-language TV channels tend to use dubbing more often, since most of them are produced and broadcast from Russia (as opposed to the few Russian-language channels broadcast from Estonia). ====Greece==== In Greece, most cartoon films have dubs. Usually when a movie has a Greek dub the dub is shown in cinemas but subtitled versions are shown as well. Foreign TV shows for adults are shown in their original versions with subtitles. Some Japanese anime series and telenovelas are usually dubbed in Greek. However, when Skai TV was re-launched in April 2006, the network opted for dubbing almost all foreign shows in Greek, but eventually switched to subtitling after receiving criticism by the viewers. There has been an effort to revive Greek dubbing by streaming services. Regardless of language, Greek audiences prefer subtitling to dubbing; however, dubbing is still popular in animated series and films. ====Ireland==== Ireland usually receives the same film versions as the UK. However, some films have been dubbed into Irish by TG4. Children's cartoons on TV are also occasionally dubbed into Irish. ====Netherlands==== In the Netherlands, for the most part, Dutch versions are only made for children's and family films. Animated movies are shown in theaters with Dutch subtitles or dubbing, but usually those cinemas with more screening rooms also provide the original subtitled version. ====Nordic countries==== In the Nordic countries, dubbing is used only in animated films (except adult animated films which only use subtitles), animated TV shows and other media for younger audiences. Some cinemas in the major cities may also screen the original version, usually as the last showing of the day, or in a smaller auditorium in a multiplex. In television programs with off-screen narration, both the original audio and on-screen voices are usually subtitled in their native languages. The Nordic countries are often treated as a common market issuing DVD and Blu-ray releases with original audio and user choosable subtitle options in Danish, Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish. The covers often have text in all four languages as well, but are sometimes unique for each country. Some releases may include other European language audio and/or subtitles (i.e. German, Greek, Hungarian or Italian). as well as original audio in most cases. In Finland, the dubbed version from Sweden may also be available at certain cinemas for children of the 5% Swedish-speaking minority, but only in cities or towns with a significant percentage of Swedish speakers. Most DVD and Blu-ray releases usually only have the original audio, except for animated television series telenovelas, which have both Finnish and Swedish language tracks, in addition to the original audio and subtitles in both languages. In Finnish movie theaters, films for adult audiences have both Finnish and Swedish subtitles, the Finnish printed in basic font and the Swedish printed below the Finnish in a cursive font. In the early ages of television, foreign TV shows and movies were voiced by narrator in Finland. Later, Finnish subtitles became a practice on Finnish television. As in many other countries, dubbing is not preferred outside of children's programs. A good example of this is The Simpsons Movie. While the original version was well-received, the Finnish-dubbed version received poor reviews, with some critics even calling it a disaster. On the other hand, many dubs of Disney's animated television series and movies have been well-received, both critically and by the public. In Iceland, the dubbed version of film and TV was originally Danish with some translated into Icelandic but Icelandic has taken over. LazyTown, an Icelandic TV show originally filmed in English, was dubbed into Icelandic, amongst thirty-two other languages. ====North Macedonia==== North Macedonia dubbed many cartoons in Macedonian, but they also air some Serbian dubs. Children's programs are airing dubbed (in Macedonian or Serbian), while every other program is subtitled (in Macedonian). They use Serbian dubs for Disney movies, because there are no Macedonian Disney dubs. ====Portugal==== In Portugal, dubbing was banned under a 1948 law as a way of protecting the domestic film industry and reducing access to culture as most of the population was illiterate. Until 1994, animated movies, as well as other TV series for children, were shown subtitled in Portugal along with imported Brazilian Portuguese dubs due to the lack of interest from Portuguese companies in the dubbing industry. This lack of interest was justified, since there were already quality dubbed copies of shows and movies in Portuguese made by Brazilians. The Lion King was the first feature film to be dubbed in European Portuguese. Currently, all movies for children are dubbed. Subtitles are preferred in Portugal, used in every foreign-language documentary, TV series and film. The exception to this preference is when children are the target audience. While on TV, children's shows and movies are always dubbed, in cinemas, films with a clear juvenile target can be found in two versions, one dubbed (identified by the letters V.P. for versão portuguesa - "Portuguese version") and another subtitled version (V.O. for versão original - "original version"). This duality applies only to juvenile films. Others use subtitles only. While the quality of these dubs is recognized (some have already received international recognition and prizes), original versions with subtitles are usually preferred by the adults. Presently, live action series and movies are always shown in their original language format with Portuguese subtitles. Streaming services also offer some content for adults dubbed in Portuguese, although there they provide an option to select the original language. There are also a few examples of Anime which were dubbed into European Portuguese (i.e. Dragon Ball and Naruto) Netflix is now offering foreign language films aimed at older audiences and TV series (M/12, M/14 and M/16) dubbed into Portuguese in addition to offering the original version with subtitles. ====Romania==== In Romania, virtually all programs intended for children are dubbed in Romanian. Animated movies are shown in theaters with Romanian dubbing. However, cinemas with more screening rooms usually also provide the original subtitled version. Other foreign TV shows and movies are shown in the original language with Romanian subtitles. Subtitles are usually preferred in the Romanian market. According to "Special Eurobarometer 243" (graph QA11.8) of the European Commission (research carried out in November and December 2005), 62% of Romanians prefer to watch foreign films and programs with subtitles (rather than dubbed), 22% prefer dubbing, and 16% declined to answer. This is led by the assumption that watching movies in their original versions is very useful for learning foreign languages. However, according to the same Eurobarometer, virtually no Romanian found this method—watching movies in their original version—to be the most efficient way to learn foreign languages, compared to 53 percent who preferred language lessons at school. ====Slovenia==== In Slovenia, all foreign films and television programs are subtitled with the exception of children's movies and TV shows (both animated or live-action). While dubbed versions are always shown in cinemas and later on TV channels, cinemas will sometimes play subtitled versions of children's movies as well. ====United Kingdom==== In the United Kingdom, the vast majority of foreign language films are subtitled, although mostly animated films are dubbed in English. These usually originate from North America, as opposed to being dubbed locally. Foreign language serials shown on BBC Four are subtitled into English (although open subtitles are dropped during dialogues with English language segments already). There have, however, been notable examples of films and TV programs successfully dubbed in the UK, such as the Japanese Monkey and French Magic Roundabout series. When airing films on television, channels in the UK often choose subtitling over dubbing, even if a dubbing in English exists. It is also a fairly common practice for animation aimed at preschool children to be re-dubbed with British voice actors replacing the original voices, such as Spin Master Entertainment's PAW Patrol series, although this is not done with shows aimed at older audiences. The off-screen narrated portions of some programs and reality shows that originate from North America are also redone with British English voices. The 2020 Bavarian show on Netflix, Freud, has also been dubbed to English. Some animated films and TV programs are also dubbed into Welsh and Scottish Gaelic. Hinterland displays a not so common example of a bilingual production. Each scene is filmed twice, in the English and Welsh languages, apart from a few scenes where Welsh with subtitles is used for the English version. ====General films and programming==== In the French-, Italian-, Spanish-, German-, Russian-, Polish-, Czech-, Slovak- and Hungarian-speaking markets of Europe, almost all foreign films and television shows are dubbed (with the main exception being the majority of theatrical releases of adult-audience movies in the Czech Republic and Slovakia). There are few opportunities to watch foreign movies in their original versions. In Spain, Italy, Germany and Austria, even in the largest cities, there are few cinemas that screen original versions with subtitles, or without any translation. However, digital pay-TV programming is often available in the original language, including the latest movies. Prior to the rise of DVDs (and later Video on Demand and Streaming), which in these countries are mostly issued with multi-language audio tracks, original-language films (those in languages other than the country's official language) were rare, whether in theaters, on TV, or on home video, and subtitled versions were considered a product for small niche markets such as intellectual or art films. ====Albania==== The first movie dubbed in Albanian was The Great Warrior Skanderbeg in 1954 and since then, there have been thousands of popular titles dubbed in Albanian by different dubbing studios. All animated films and children's TV shows are dubbed into Albanian (though in most cases, songs are left in English or the original language of the movie or TV show with Albanian subtitles). Many live-action movies are dubbed as well. TV series nevertheless are usually not dubbed, they are subtitled except for a few Mexican, Brazilian and Turkish soap operas, like: Por Ti, Celebridade, A Casa das Sete Mulheres, Paramparça, etc. As for documentaries, Albania usually uses voice-over. ====France==== In France, dubbing is the norm. Most movies with a theatrical release, including all those from major distributors, are dubbed. Those that are not, are foreign independent films whose budget for international distribution is limited, or foreign art films with a niche audience. Almost all theaters show movies with their French dubbing ("VF", short for ). Some of them also offer screenings in the original language ("VO", short for ), generally accompanied with French subtitles ("VOST", short for ). A minority of theaters (usually small ones) screen exclusively in the original language. According to the CNC (National Centre for Cinematography), VOST screenings accounted for 16.9% of tickets sold in France. In addition, dubbing is required for home entertainment and television screenings. However, since the advent of digital television, foreign programs are broadcast to television viewers in both languages (sometimes, French with audio description is also aired); while the French-language track is selected by default, viewers can switch to the original-language track and enable French subtitles. As a special case, the binational television channel Arte broadcasts both the French and German dubbing, in addition to the original-language version. Some voice actors that have dubbed for celebrities in the European French language are listed below. ====Germany, Austria, Switzerland==== The Germanophone dubbing market is the largest in Europe. Germany has the most foreign-movie-dubbing studios per capita and per given area in the world and according to the German newspaper Die Welt 52% of all voice actors currently work in the German dubbing industry. In Germany and Austria, practically all films, shows, television series and foreign soap operas are shown in dubbed versions created for the German market. Dubbing films is a traditional and common practice in German-speaking Europe, since subtitles are not accepted and used as much as in other European countries. According to a European study, Austria is the country with the highest rejection rate (more than 70 percent) of subtitles, followed by Italy, Spain and Germany. In German-speaking markets, computer and video games feature German text menus and are generally dubbed into the German language if speaking parts exist. Unlike in Austria and Germany, cinemas in German-speaking Switzerland historically strongly preferred subtitled versions of foreign-language films. Swiss film distributors commissioned dual-language prints with both German and French subtitles as the primary version, with the dubbed version also shown. In recent years, however, there has been a shift towards dubbed versions, which now account for the majority of showings. Television broadcasts of foreign films and programming have historically been dubbed. Swiss and Austrian television stations have increasingly been broadcasting foreign-language movies and TV programs with multiple soundtracks, allowing the viewer to choose between the original language (e.g. English) and the channel's local language (German, French, or Italian, according to the location). Although German-speaking voice actors play only a secondary role, they are still notable for providing familiar voices to well-known actors. Famous foreign actors are known and recognized for their German voice, and the German audience is used to them, so dubbing is also a matter of authenticity. However, in larger cities, there are theaters where movies can be seen in their original versions, as English has become somewhat more popular among young educated viewers. On German mainstream television, films are never broadcast with subtitles, but pay-per-view programming is often available in the original language. Subtitled niche and art films are sometimes aired on smaller networks. German-dubbed versions sometimes diverge greatly from the original, especially in adding humorous elements absent from the original. In extreme cases, such as The Persuaders! or Erik the Viking, the German-dubbed version was more successful than the English original. Often, translation adds sexually explicit gags the U.S. versions might not be allowed to use. For example, in Bewitched, the translators changed "The Do Not Disturb sign will hang on the door tonight" to "The only hanging thing tonight will be the Do Not Disturb sign". This practice was the most prevalent from the 1960s to 80s, from the 1990s onwards it became much less common. Some movies dubbed in Austria diverge from the German Standard version in addressing other people but only when the movies are dubbed into certain Austrian dialect versions. (Mr. and Mrs. are translated into Herr and Frau which is usually not translated in order to be in lip-sync). Sometimes even English pronounced first names are translated and are pronounced into the correct German equivalent (English name "Bert" became Southern German pronounced name "Bertl" which is an abbreviation for any name either beginning or even ending with "bert", e.g. "Berthold" or "Albert".) Some movies dubbed before reunification exist in different versions for the east and the west. They use different translations, and often differ in the style of dubbing. Some of the well-known German dubbing voice artists are listed below. ====Hungary==== In Hungary, dubbing is almost universally common. Almost every foreign movie or TV show released in Hungary is dubbed into Hungarian. The history of dubbing dates back to the 1950s, when the country was still under communist rule. One of the most iconic Hungarian dubs was of the American cartoon The Flintstones, with a local translation by József Romhányi. The Internetes Szinkron Adatbázis (ISzDB) is the largest Hungarian database for film dubs, with information for many live action and animated films. On page 59 of the Eurobarometer, 84% of Hungarians said that they prefer dubbing over subtitles. He also dubbed most of the roles of Gene Wilder, Peter Sellers, and all the film appearances of George Harrison. \|- \|Alessandro Rossi \|1955–present \|Liam NeesonArnold SchwarzeneggerSamuel L. JacksonVing RhamesMichael Clarke DuncanPatrick Stewart \|Recognizable by his deep, baritone voice, he dubbed most of the roles of Liam Neeson, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Ving Rhames and Michael Clarke Duncan. \|- \|Sergio Graziani \|1956–2014 \|Donald SutherlandMichael CainePeter O'TooleKlaus KinskiRichard HarrisPhilippe NoiretFranco Nero \| He dubbed Franco Nero in most of the Italian versions of his films prior to the mid-1970s, after which Nero dubbed himself. \|- \|Dario Penne \|1957–present \|Anthony HopkinsMichael CaineChristopher LloydDennis HopperAlan RickmanJames Cromwell \|He is the Italian voice of Anthony Hopkins in every film since 1990 and of Michael Caine in almost every film since 1992. \|- \|Roberto Chevalier \|1958–present \|Tom CruiseTom HanksAndy GarcíaGreg Kinnear \|He is the Italian voice of Tom Cruise, dubbing most of his roles since 1986. \|- \|Glauco Onorato \|1959–2009 \|Bud SpencerLino VenturaDanny GloverCharles BronsonJames CoburnArnold SchwarzeneggerGeorge Harrison \|He was best known for dubbing most of Bud Spencer's interpretations. He was also the Italian voice of Arnold Schwarzenegger in his most iconic films (The Terminator and Predator). \|- \|Sandro Acerbo \|1960–present \|Brad PittWill SmithMichael J. Fox \| \|- \|Manlio De Angelis \|1960–2017 \|Joe PesciAlan ArkinGene WilderRoy ScheiderRichard Dreyfuss \| \|- \|Sergio Fiorentini \|1960–2014 \|Gene HackmanEli Wallach \| \|- \|Alina Moradei \|1960–2012 \|Angela Lansbury \|Official Italian voice of Lansbury, the English actress said she was «proud to be dubbed by such a great actress», also pointing out how similar their voices were. \|- \|Oreste Rizzini \|1960–2008 \|Michael DouglasJon VoightBill Murray \| \|- \|Giampiero Albertini \|1962–1991 \|Peter Falk \|He was best known for being the Italian voice of Peter Falk in his role of Columbo (in the first eight seasons, until 1991, except in the second pilot episode). \|- \|Roberto Del Giudice \|1962–2007 \|Lee MajorsTerry JonesTimothy Bottoms \| \|- \|Renato Mori \|1962–2011 \|Morgan FreemanGene HackmanJames Earl JonesJohn Rhys-DaviesRod SteigerJack WardenRobert ShawBrian Dennehy \| \|- \|Sergio Di Stefano \|1963–2010 \|Jeff BridgesJohn MalkovichKevin CostnerHugh LaurieAlan Rickman \|The official Italian voice of Jeff Bridges and John Malkovich, he dubbed Kevin Costner in seven films from 1985 to 2007. He was also well known for dubbing Hugh Laurie in the first six seasons of the TV series House (2004–2010) and for being one of the most frequent dubbers of Christopher Lambert (17 films from 1986 to 2005). \|- \|Michele Gammino \|1965–present \|Harrison FordSteven SeagalKevin CostnerJack NicholsonBill MurrayChevy ChaseBob Hoskins \|The official Italian voice of Harrison Ford and Steven Seagal, he dubbed most of the interpretations of the listed actors. He also dubbed James Bond played by Timothy Dalton. \|- \|Giancarlo Giannini \|1965–present \|Al PacinoJack Nicholson \|He is the official dubber of Al Pacino since 1995 (previously shared with Ferruccio Amendola). Among the others, he dubbed some roles of Jack Nicholson (including the film Shining) and Michael Douglas. \|- \|Omero Antonutti \|1966–2019 \|Christopher LeeChristopher PlummerJames Cromwell \| \|- \|Michele Kalamera \|1966–present \|Clint EastwoodSteve MartinMichael CaineLeslie Nielsen \|The official Italian voice of Clint Eastwood. \|- \|Carlo Valli \|1966–present \|Robin WilliamsJim BroadbentColm Meaney \|The official Italian voice of Robin Williams. \|- \|Fabio Boccanera \|1968–present \|Johnny DeppColin FarrellClive OwenJoaquin Phoenix \|He is the most frequent dubber of Colin Farrell, Clive Owen, Joaquin Phoenix and dubbed most of the roles of Johnny Depp; he shares the Italian dubbing of Johnny Depp, Ben Affleck and Cuba Gooding Jr. with his cousin Riccardo Rossi. \|- \|Vittorio Guerrieri \|1968–present \|Ben StillerJohn CorbettSteve Carell \|He is the official dubber of Ben Stiller from 2000. \|- \|Giorgio Lopez \|1969–2021 \|Danny DeVitoDustin HoffmanJohn CleesePat Morita \| \|- \|Riccardo Rossi \|1970–present \|Adam SandlerBen AffleckMark RuffaloChristian BaleSam RockwellMatt DamonCuba Gooding Jr.Paul Walker \|He shares the Italian dubbing of Ben Affleck, Cuba Gooding Jr. and Johnny Depp with his cousin Fabio Boccanera. \|- \|Oreste Baldini \|1974–present \|John CusackKen JeongNoah Taylor \|The official Italian voice of John Cusack, he is the main dubber of the listed actors. He portrayed Vito Corleone as a child in the flashback sequences of The Godfather Part II. \|- \|Fabrizio Vidale \|1975–present \|Jack BlackMartin FreemanDon CheadleMarlon Wayans \| \|- \|Ilaria Latini \|1976–present \|Katie HolmesAmy AdamsAnna FarisHayley Atwell \|The official Italian voice dubber of Katie Holmes, Amy Adams and Anna Faris, she dubbed most of the films of the listed actresses. \|- \|Tonino Accolla \|1978–2013 \|Eddie MurphyMickey Rourke Jim CarreyBilly Crystal \|He was best known for being the Italian voice of Eddie Murphy until 2009; he was also very popular for being the Italian voice of Homer Simpson in the first 23 seasons of the sitcom The Simpsons (1989–2012). He dubbed some popular comedy roles of Jim Carrey, such as Ace Ventura and Bruce Almighty. \|- \|Luca Biagini \|1979–present \|John MalkovichKevin KlineMichael KeatonHugh LaurieColin Firth \| \|- \|Stefano De Sando \|1979–present \|Robert De NiroJames GandolfiniBryan CranstonTim RobbinsJohn Goodman \| \|- \|Nino Prester \|1979–present \|Eugene LevyGary OldmanStanley TucciDave BautistaMichael Rooker \| \|- \|Pasquale Anselmo \|1980–present \|Nicolas CageJohn Turturro \|The official Italian voice of Nicolas Cage since 1996.Philip Seymour HoffmanClark Gregg \|- \|Paolo Buglioni \|1980–present \|Nick NolteAlec BaldwinSamuel L. Jackson \| \|- \|Danilo De Girolamo \|1980–2012 \|Alan CummingVincent GalloUlrich TukurDavid ThewlisJack Davenport \| \|- \|Roberto Pedicini \|1980–present \|Kevin SpaceyJim CarreyWoody HarrelsonJavier BardemRalph FiennesTemuera Morrison \|He is the current official voice of Kevin Spacey and Jim Carrey; he dubbed most of the interpretations of the listed actors. \|- \|Pino Insegno \|1981–present \|Will FerrellViggo MortensenLiev SchreiberMichael ShannonSacha Baron Cohen \|The official Italian voice of Will Ferrell, he dubbed most of the interpretations of the listed actors. \|- \|Pietro Ubaldi \|1981–present \|Geoffrey Rush \|He voiced Hector Barbossa in the Pirates of the Caribbean films. \|- \|Luca Ward \|1981–present \|Pierce BrosnanSamuel L. JacksonRussell CroweKeanu ReevesHugh GrantGerard ButlerAntonio BanderasKevin Bacon \|He is the official Italian voice of Pierce Brosnan, Samuel L. Jackson, Keanu Reeves and Russell Crowe. He provided the Italian voice of James Bond during his portrayal by Pierce Brosnan. \|- \|Rossella Acerbo \|1982–present \|Drew BarrymoreMichelle RodriguezLisa KudrowAmanda PeetHeather GrahamReese Witherspoon \| \|- \|Angelo Maggi \|1982–present \|Tom HanksRobert Downey Jr.Gary OldmanJohn C. McGinley \| \|- \|Massimo Venturiello \|1982–present \|Gary OldmanJames WoodsKurt Russell \| \|- \|Vittorio De Angelis \|1983–2015 \|Cary ElwesKevin JamesMatt LeBlancBrendan FraserSteve Zahn \| \|- \|Mino Caprio \|1983–present \|Martin Short \| \|- \|Francesco Pezzulli \|1983–present \|Leonardo DiCaprioDaniel BrühlHayden ChristensenAaron PaulDominic Cooper \|He is the Italian voice of Leonardo DiCaprio since 1997 (excluding the film The Man in the Iron Mask). \|- \|Federica De Bortoli \|1984–present \|Natalie PortmanRachel McAdamsIsla FisherKristen Stewart \|She is the main Italian dubber of all the listed actresses. \|- \|Davide Perino \|1984–present \|Elijah Wood \| \|- \|Cristina Boraschi \|1985–present \|Julia RobertsSandra BullockJulianne Moore \|She is the main Italian voice of Julia Roberts, while she dubbed many roles of Sandra Bullock and Julianne Moore. \|- \|Myriam Catania \|1985–present \|Keira KnightleyAmanda SeyfriedJessica Alba \| \|- \|Francesco Pannofino \|1985–present \|George ClooneyDenzel WashingtonRobbie ColtraneKurt Russell \|He is the official Italian voice of George Clooney and Denzel Washington. \|- \|Francesco Prando \|1985–present \|Luke PerryMatthew McConaugheyVince VaughnGuy PearceMichael FassbenderDaniel CraigEric McCormackJason Statham \|He is popular for dubbing the following actors in long-term television series: Luke Perry (Beverly Hills, 90210, 199 episodes), Eric McCormack in (Will & Grace, 187 episodes), Eric Dane (Grey's Anatomy, 135 episodes). He is also known for providing the Italian voice of James Bond during his portrayal by Daniel Craig. He dubbed the majority of the film roles of all the listed actors. \|- \|Stefano Benassi \|1986–present \|Christoph WaltzColin FirthWoody HarrelsonTim RobbinsGary Oldman \| \|- \|Valentina Mari \|1986–present \|Natalie PortmanAudrey TautouKristen BellAmanda Seyfried \| \|- \|Sonia Scotti \|1987–present \|Whoopi Goldberg \| \|- \|Simone Mori \| 1988–present \|Seth RogenJohn C. ReillyIce CubeOmar Sy \| \|- \|Simone Crisari \|1989–present \|Jonah HillMacaulay Culkin \| \|- \|Eleonora De Angelis \|1989–present \|Jennifer AnistonCameron DiazAngelina Jolie \| \|- \|Christian Iansante \|1989–present \|Bradley Cooper \|He has dubbed all of Cooper's roles since 2009. \|- \|Alessia Amendola \|1990–present \|Lindsay LohanMichelle TrachtenbergDanielle PanabakerBrenda Song \| \|- \|Nanni Baldini \|1990–present \|Kevin HartChris RockTopher GraceAdam Goldberg \| \|- \|Domitilla D'Amico \|1990–present \|Kirsten DunstScarlett JohanssonAnne HathawayMargot RobbieEva GreenMila KunisAbbie Cornish \|She is the official Italian voice actress of Kirsten Dunst and Scarlett Johansson. \|- \|Flavio Aquilone \|1994–present \|Zac EfronTom FeltonDane DeHaanAnton YelchinDevon BostickLiam Hemsworth \| \|- \|Perla Liberatori \|1994–present \|Hilary DuffScarlett Johansson \|She dubbed most of the roles of Hilary Duff; among the others, she also dubbed many interpretations of Scarlett Johansson. \|- \|Manuel Meli \|2003–present \|Josh HutchersonCole SprouseVincent Martella \|He dubbed most of the roles of Josh Hutcherson. \|- \|Maurizio Merluzzo \|2007–present \|Zachary Levi \|He dubbed many roles in video games and animated series. \|- \|Joy Saltarelli \|2008–present \|Jennifer LawrenceAna de Armas \|She dubbed many roles of Jennifer Lawrence and Ana de Armas. \|} =====Latvia, Lithuania===== In Latvia and Lithuania, only children's movies get dubbed in the cinema, while many live-action movies for an older audience use voice-over. Most children's TV shows, like SpongeBob SquarePants, use voice-overs, but in recent years, a few of them, mainly aimed at preschoolers, have been dubbed into Latvian and Lithuanian. ====Poland==== In the past, foreign movies were all subtitled in Polish. Poland's dubbing traditions began between the two world wars. In 1931, among the first movies dubbed into Polish were Dangerous Curves (1929), The Dance of Life (1929), Paramount on Parade (1930), and Darling of the Gods (1930). In 1949, the first dubbing studio opened in Łódź. The first film dubbed that year was Russkiy Vopros (filmed 1948). Although quality was poor at first, the number of dubbed movies and the quality of dubbing improved, and between the 1960s and the 1980s around a third of foreign movies screened in cinemas were dubbed. The "Polish dubbing school" was known for its high quality. The person who initiated high-quality dubbing versions was director Zofia Dybowska-Aleksandrowicz.Polish television dubbed popular films and TV series such as Rich Man, Poor Man; Fawlty Towers, Forsyte Saga, Elizabeth R, I, Claudius, I'll Take Manhattan, and Peter the Great. In the 1980s, due to budget cuts, state-run TV saved on tapes by voicing films over live during transmission. Overall, during 1948–1998, almost 1,000 films were dubbed in Polish. In the 1990s, dubbing films and TV series continued, although often also for one emission only. In 1995, Canal+ was launched in Poland. In its first years, it dubbed 30% of its schedule, including popular films and TV series such as Friends, but this proved unsuccessful. It stopped dubbing films in 1999. From the 1990s until its closure in 2001, dubbing was done by Wizja Jeden TV channel, which mainly dubbed BBC Television productions such as The League of Gentlemen, Absolutely Fabulous, and Men Behaving Badly. Currently, dubbing of films and TV series for teenagers is done by Nickelodeon and Disney Channel. One of the major breakthroughs in dubbing was the Polish release of Shrek (2001), which contained many references to local culture and Polish humor. However live-action dubbing is still considered a bad practice. Since the theatrical release of The Avengers in May 2012, Walt Disney Company Polska has dubbed all films for cinema releases. However, when a dub is produced but the film's target audience is not exclusively children, both dubbed and subtitled versions are usually available in movie theaters at different times. Cinema releases for general audiences are almost exclusively subtitled, with the exception of children's movies, home media releases, television screenings of movies, and made-for-TV shows. These are usually shown with voice-over translation, where a voice talent reads a translation over the original soundtrack, similar to the Gavrilov translation used in Russia, with one difference—all dialogues are voiced by one off-screen reader. ====Russia==== Russian television is generally dubbed, but often uses the voice-over translation method with only a couple of voice actors, with the original speech still audible underneath. In the Soviet Union, most foreign movies to be officially released were dubbed. Voice-over dub was invented in the Soviet Union in the 1980s when with the fall of the regime, many popular foreign movies, previously forbidden, or at least questionable under communist rule, started to flood in, in the form of low-quality home-copied videos. Being unofficial releases, they were dubbed in a very primitive way. For example, the translator spoke the text directly over the audio of a video being copied, using primitive equipment. The quality of the resulting dub was very low: The translated phrases were off-sync (interfering with the original voices), background sounds leaked into the track, the translation was inaccurate, and, most importantly, all dub voices were made by a single person who usually lacked the intonation of the original, making comprehension of some scenes quite difficult. This method of translation exerted a strong influence on Russian pop culture. Voices of translators became recognizable for generations. In modern Russia, the overdubbing technique is still used in many cases, although with vastly improved quality, and now with multiple voice actors dubbing different original voices. Video games are generally either dubbed into Russian (such as the Legend of Spyro trilogy, the Skylanders series, the Assassin's Creed saga, the Halo series, the Harry Potter series, etc.) or released with original-speaking tracks but with all the texts translated into Russian language. The technique of non-voiceover dubbing, without the original speech still audible underneath, has also gained traction in Russia in the 21st century. Releases of films in cinemas are almost always dubbed in the Russian language. Television series are typically shown as a dubbed or voiceovered translation. Subtitles are rarely used. Some of the well-known Russian dubbing voice artists are listed below. ====Slovakia==== In Slovakia, home media market, Czech dubbed versions are widely used, with only children's films and some few exceptions (for example Independence Day) that have been dubbed for cinema being released with Slovak dubbing. Czech dubbing was also extensively used in the broadcast of Slovak television channels, but since 2008 Slovak language laws require any newer shows (understood as the first television broadcast in Slovakia) to be provided with Slovak localization (dubbing or subtitles); since then, television broadcasts of films, TV series and cartoons have been dubbed into Slovak. Theatrical releases are generally subtitled, except for films with a young target audience. ====Spain==== In Spain, dubbing has been more widespread since 1932, when the Second Republic decided to introduce it in Madrid and Barcelona. The first film dubbed into Spanish to be known was Devil and the Deep, in 1932. This law had two political purposes: Nationalism through linguistic identity and, more subtly, control through censorship of foreign ideas that could be alien to national interests. In Spain, practically all foreign television programs are shown dubbed in European Spanish, as are most films. Some dubbing actors have achieved popularity for their voices, such as Constantino Romero (who dubs Clint Eastwood, Darth Vader and Arnold Schwarzenegger's Terminator, among others) and Óscar Muñoz (the official European Spanish dub-over voice artist for Elijah Wood and Hayden Christensen). Currently, with the spread of digital terrestrial television, viewers can choose between the original and the dubbed soundtracks for most movies and television. In some regions such as Catalonia, Galicia and Basque Country, some foreign programs are also often dubbed into Catalan, Galician, or Basque. ====Ukraine==== In Ukraine, since 2006 cinema releases are almost always dubbed into Ukrainian with the overdubbing technique and multiple voice actors dubbing different original voices with a small percent of art-house/documentaries shown in the original language with Ukrainian subtitles. For television, TV channels usually release movies and TV-shows with a Ukrainian voiceover, although certain high-profile films and TV shows are dubbed rather than voice-overed. In the past Russian-language films, TV series, cartoons, animated series and TV programs were usually not dubbed but were shown with the original audio with Ukrainian subtitles. However, this practice has been slowly abandoned since the late 2010s: all children's films and cartoons regardless of the original language (including Russian) are always dubbed into Ukrainian; example of the first Russian cartoons dubbed into Ukrainian for the cinematic-release is The Snow Queen 2 (2015), A Warrior's Tail (2015), Volki i Ovtsy: Be-e-e-zumnoe prevrashenie (2016), Ivan Tsarevich i Seryy Volk 3 (2016), Bremenskie razboyniki (2016), The Snow Queen 3: Fire and Ice (2017), Fantastic Journey to OZ (2017), Fixies: Top Secret (2017) etc.; the same trend is seen among Russian language feature films for adults, with the first such films dubbed into Ukrainian including Battle for Sevastopol (2015), Hardcore Henry (2016), The Duelist (2016). ===Latin America=== ====Brazil==== In Brazil, foreign programs are invariably dubbed into Brazilian Portuguese on free-to-air TV, with only a few exceptions. Films shown at cinemas are generally offered with both subtitled and dubbed versions, with dubbing frequently being the only choice for children's movies. Subtitling was primarily for adult audience movies until 2012. Since then, dubbed versions also became available for all ages. As a result, in recent years, more cinemas have opened in Brazil, attracting new audiences to the cinema who prefer dubbing. According to a Datafolha survey, 56% of Brazilian movie theaters' audience prefer to watch dubbed movies. Most of the dubbing studios in Brazil are in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. The first film to be dubbed in Brazil was the Disney animation "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" in 1938. By the end of the 1950s, most of the movies, TV series and cartoons on television in Brazil were shown in its original sound and subtitles. However, in 1961, a decree of President Jânio Quadros ruled that all foreign productions on television should be dubbed. This measure boosted the growth of dubbing in Brazil, and has led to several dubbing studios since then. The biggest dubbing studio in Brazil was Herbert Richers, headquartered in Rio de Janeiro and closed in 2009. At its peak in the 80s and 90s, the Herbert Richers studios dubbed about 70% of the productions shown in Brazilian cinemas. In the 90s, with Saint Seiya, Dragon Ball and other anime shows becoming popular in Brazilian TVs, the voice actors and the dubbing career gained a higher space in Brazilian culture. Actors like Hermes Baroli (Brazilian dubber of Pegasus Seiya, in Saint Seiya and actors like Ashton Kutcher), Marco Ribeiro (Brazilian dubber of many actors like Tom Hanks, Jim Carrey and Robert Downey Jr., and Yusuke Urameshi from the anime Yu Yu Hakusho) and Wendel Bezerra (Brazilian dubber of Goku in Dragon Ball Z and SpongeBob in SpongeBob SquarePants) are recognized for their most notable roles. Pay TV commonly offers both dubbed and subtitled movies, with statistics showing that dubbed versions are becoming predominant. Most DVD and Blu-ray releases usually feature Portuguese, Spanish, and the original audio along with subtitles in native languages. Most video games are dubbed in Brazilian Portuguese rather than having European Portuguese dubs alone. Games such as Halo 3, God of War: Ascension, inFamous 2, Assassin's Creed III, Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure, World of Warcraft and others are dubbed in Brazilian Portuguese. This is because despite the dropping of the dubbing law in Portugal in 1994, most companies in that country use the Brazilian Portuguese because of traditional usage during the days of the dubbing rule, along with these dubbings being more marketable than European Portuguese. A list that showcases Brazilian Portuguese voice artists that dub for actors and actresses are displayed here. However, there can also be different official dub artists for certain regions within Brazil. Apparently, for unknown reasons (probably technical), the Brazilian Portuguese dub credits from some shows or cartoons from channels from Viacom or Turner/Time Warner, are shown on Latin America (on Spanish-dubbed series). ====Mexico==== In Mexico, by law, films shown in theaters must be shown in their original version. Films in languages other than Spanish are usually subtitled. Only educational documentaries and movies rated for children (some shows aired on PBS or PBS Kids), as well as some movies that are expected to have a wide audience (for example, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King or The Avengers) may be dubbed, but this is not compulsory, and some animated films are shown in theaters in both dubbed and subtitled versions (for instance, some DreamWorks productions). Nonetheless, a recent trend in several cinemas is to offer the dubbed versions only, with a stark decrease in the showing of the original ones. Dubbing must be made in Mexico by Mexican nationals or foreigners residing in Mexico. Still, several programs that are shown on pay TV are dubbed in other countries like Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Venezuela. Most movies released on DVD feature neutral Spanish as a language option, and sometimes feature a specific dub for Mexican audiences (for example, Rio). Foreign programs are dubbed on broadcast TV, while on pay TV most shows and movies are subtitled. In a similar way to cinemas, in the last few years, many channels on pay TV have begun to broadcast programs and films only in their dubbed version. Dubbing became very popular in the 1990s with the rise in popularity of anime in Mexico. Some voice actors have become celebrities and are always identified with specific characters, such as Mario Castañeda (who became popular by dubbing Goku in Dragon Ball Z) or Humberto Vélez (who dubbed Homer Simpson in the first 15 seasons of The Simpsons). The popularity of pay TV has allowed people to view several series in their original language rather than dubbed. Dubbing has been criticized for the use of TV or movie stars as voice actors (such as Ricky Martin in Disney's Hercules, or Eugenio Derbez in DreamWorks' Shrek), or for the incorrect use of local popular culture that sometimes creates unintentional jokes or breaks the feeling of the original work (such as translating Sheldon Cooper's "Bazinga!" to "¡Vacilón!"). Several video games have been dubbed into neutral Spanish, rather than European Spanish, in Mexico (such as the Gears of War series, Halo 3, Infamous 2 and others). Sony recently announced that more games (such as God of War: Ascension) will be dubbed into neutral Spanish. ====Peru==== In Peru, all foreign series, movies, and animated programming are shown dubbed in Latin American Spanish, with dubs imported from Argentina, Mexico, Chile, Colombia and Venezuela on terrestrial and pay-television. Most movies intended for kids are being offered as dub-only movies, while most films aimed at older audiences are being offered dubbed and subtitled in Spanish. Most subtitled Pay-TV channels show both dubbed and subtitled version of every film they broadcast, being offered with a separate subtitle track and a second audio track in English. There is an increase of people preferring subtitle films and series rather than dubbed starting the late-2000s, as Peruvians viewers tend to get used to their original version. Peru used to not produce their own dubs since dubbing studios never existed in that country until 2016, when the company "Big Bang Films" started to dub movies and series; however since 2014, a group of dubbing actors created a group called "Torre A Doblaje", which is a group of actors that gives dubbing and localization services. ====Latin American Spanish-speaking countries==== For Latin American Spanish-speaking countries, all foreign-language programs, films, cartoons and documentaries shown on free-to-air TV networks are dubbed into Standard Spanish, (mainly in Mexico, Venezuela or Argentina) while broadcasts on cable and satellite pan-regional channels (i.e. Discovery Kids) are either dubbed or subtitled. In theaters, children's movies and most blockbuster films are dubbed into Standard Spanish, and are sometimes further dubbed into regional dialects of Spanish where they are released. ===North America=== ====French-speaking Canada==== In Quebec, Canada, most films and TV programs in English are dubbed into Standard French, occasionally with Quebec French idiosyncrasies. They speak with a mixed accent, they pronounce /ɛ̃/ with a Parisian accent, but they pronounce "â" and "ê" with a Quebec accent: grâce [ɡʁɑːs] and être [ɛːtʁ̥]. Occasionally, the dubbing of a series or a movie, such as The Simpsons, is made using the more widely spoken joual variety of Quebec French. Dubbing has the advantage of making children's films and TV series more comprehensible to younger audiences. However, many bilingual Québécois prefer subtitling, since they would understand some or all of the original audio. In addition, all films are shown in English, as well in certain theaters (especially in major cities and English-speaking areas such as the West Island), and some theatres, such as the Scotiabank Cinema Montreal, show only movies in English. Most American television series are only available in English on DVD, or on English-language channels, but some of the more popular ones have French dubs shown on mainstream networks, and are released in French on DVD as well, sometimes separately from an English-only version. Formerly, all French-language dubbed films in Quebec were imported from France and some still are. Such a practice was criticized by former politician Mario Dumont after he took his children to see the Parisian French dub of Shrek the Third, which Dumont found incomprehensible. After his complaints and a proposed bill, Bee Movie, the film from DreamWorks Animation, was dubbed in Quebec, making it the studio's first animated film to have a Quebec French dub, as all DreamWorks Animation films had previously been dubbed in France. In terms of Disney, the first Disney animated movie to be dubbed in Quebec French was Oliver and Company. Afterwards, all the other Disney animated movies onward after Oliver and Company including the Pixar animated movies have also been dubbed in Quebec French except for DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp, The Rescuers Down Under, Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King, A Goofy Movie, and Luca. In addition, because Canadian viewers usually find Quebec French more comprehensible than other dialects of the language, some older film series that had the French-language versions of previous installments dubbed in France have had later ones dubbed in Quebec, often creating inconsistencies within the French version of the series' canon. Lucasfilm's Star Wars and Indiana Jones series are examples. Both series had films released in the 1970s and 1980s, with no Québécois French dubbed versions; instead, the Parisian French versions, with altered character and object names and terms, were distributed in the province. However, later films in both series released 1999 and later were dubbed in Quebec, using different voice actors and "reversing" name changes made in France's dubbings due to the change in studio. ====United States and English-speaking Canada==== In the United States and English-speaking Canada, live-action foreign films are usually shown in theaters with their original languages and English subtitles. It is because live-action dubbed movies rarely did well in United States box office since the 1980s. The 1982 United States theatrical release of Wolfgang Petersen's Das Boot was the last major release to go out in both original and English-dubbed versions, and the film's original version actually grossed much higher than the English-dubbed version. Later on, English-dubbed versions of international hits like Un indien dans la ville, Godzilla 2000, Anatomy, Pinocchio, The Return of Godzilla and High Tension flopped at United States box offices. When Miramax planned to release the English-dubbed versions of Shaolin Soccer and Hero in the United States cinemas, their English-dubbed versions scored badly in test screenings in the United States, so Miramax finally released the films in United States cinemas with their original language. Still, English-dubbed movies have much better commercial potential in ancillary markets; therefore, more distributors would release live-action foreign films in theaters with their original languages (with English subtitles), then release both original versions and English-dubbed versions in ancillary markets. On the other hand, anime is almost always released in English-dubbed format, regardless of its content or target age group. The exceptions to this practice are either when an English dub has not been produced for the program (usually in the case of feature films) or when the program is being presented by a network that places importance on presenting it in its original format (as was the case when Turner Classic Movies aired several of Hayao Miyazaki's works, which were presented both dubbed and subtitled). Most anime DVDs contain options for original Japanese, Japanese with subtitles, and English-dubbed, except for a handful of series that have been heavily edited or Americanized. In addition, Disney has a policy that makes its directors undergo stages to perfect alignment of certain lip movements so the movie looks believable. In addition, a small number of British films have been re-dubbed when released in the United States, due to the usage of dialects which Americans are not familiar with (for example, Kes and Trainspotting). However, British children's shows (such as Thomas and Friends and Bob the Builder) have historically always been re-dubbed with American voice actors in order to make the series more understandable for American children. This slowly fell out of practice since the late 2000s. With the rising popularity of British children's shows such as Peppa Pig, which airs undubbed on Nick Jr. Channel (even though Tickle-U aired the dubbed version), fewer and fewer British children's shows have been broadcast with American re-dubs. Conversely, British programs shown in Canada are typically not re-dubbed. Some live-action television shows shown in the US have Spanish dubs. These are accessible though the SAP (secondary audio program) function of the television unit. Many films have also been dubbed into indigenous languages of the United States and Canada. Disney's Moana, set in Hawaii, was dubbed into the Hawaiian language in 2018. The Navajo language has also received dubs of many films, the first three being Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (), Finding Nemo () and Fistful of Dollars (). The Navajo dubs of Star Wars and Finding Nemo are also available on Disney Plus. ===Oceania=== ====Australia==== In common with other English-speaking countries, there has traditionally been little dubbing in Australia, with foreign language television programs and films being shown (usually on SBS) with subtitles or English dubs produced in other countries. Because over 25% of Australians speak a language other than English at home, some cinemas show foreign-language films, for example in Chinese (the most spoken language in Australia other than English). There are also Chinese-language cinemas in Australia, such as the Hoyts Mandarin cinema in Chatswood, Sydney. However, some TV commercials from foreign countries are dubbed, even if the original commercial came from another English-speaking country. Moreover, the off-screen narration portions of some non-fiction programs originating from the UK or North America are re-dubbed by Australian voice talents to relay information in expressions that Australians can understand more easily. The first film to be dubbed into an Australian Aboriginal language was Fists of Fury, a Hong Kong martial arts film, which was dubbed into the Nyungar language of the Perth region in 2021. The first Indigenous Australian cartoon, Little J & Big Cuz, is available in English and several indigenous languages, including Gija, Nyungar, Torres Strait Creole, Palawa Kani, Warlpiri, Yolŋu, Arrernte, Pitjantjatjara and Kriol. ====French Polynesia==== French Polynesia almost exclusively shows films and television programs in either French or English. However, in 2016, Disney's Moana became the first film to be dubbed into the Tahitian language. However, the dub was only released in French Polynesia and is not available on any streaming services. ====New Zealand==== While New Zealand is an English-speaking country, a growing number of television programs and films have also been dubbed into the Māori language. Many episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants () and Dora the Explorer () were dubbed into Māori and shown on Māori Television to promote the Māori language among children. Disney has also started dubbing films into Māori. These films are shown in cinemas in New Zealand and some parts of Australia and then released globally on Disney+. In 2019, the film Moana was dubbed into Māori. In 2022, The Lion King () and Frozen were dubbed into Māori. ==Alternatives== ===Subtitles=== Subtitles can be used instead of dubbing, as different countries have different traditions regarding the choice between dubbing and subtitling. On DVDs with higher translation budgets, the option for both types will often be provided to account for individual preferences; purists often demand subtitles. For small markets (small language area or films for a select audience), subtitling is more suitable, because it is cheaper. In the case of films for small children who cannot yet read, or do not read fast enough, dubbing is necessary. In most English-speaking countries, dubbing is comparatively rare. In Israel, some programs need to be comprehensible to speakers of both Russian and Hebrew. This cannot be accomplished with dubbing, so subtitling is much more commonplace—sometimes even with subtitles in multiple languages, with the soundtrack remaining in the original language, usually English. The same applies to certain television shows in Finland, where Swedish and Finnish are both official languages. In the Netherlands, Flanders, Nordic countries, Estonia, Portugal and the Balkans, films and television programs are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only cartoons and children's movies and programs are dubbed. Cinemas usually show both a dubbed version and one with subtitles for this kind of movie, with the subtitled version shown later in the evening. In Portugal, one terrestrial channel, TVI, dubbed U.S. series like Dawson's Creek into Portuguese. RTP also transmitted Friends in a dubbed version, but it was poorly received and later re-aired in a subtitled version. Cartoons, on the other hand, are usually dubbed, sometimes by well-known actors, even on TV. Animated movies are usually released to the cinemas in both subtitled and dubbed versions. In Argentina and Venezuela, terrestrial channels air films and TV series in a dubbed version, as demanded by law. However, those same series can be seen on cable channels at more accessible time-slots in their subtitled version and usually before they are shown on open TV. In contrast, the series The Simpsons is aired in its Mexican Spanish-dubbed version both on terrestrial television and on the cable station Fox, which broadcasts the series for the area. Although the first season of the series appeared with subtitles, this was not continued for the following seasons. ===Dubbing and subtitling=== In Bulgaria, television series are dubbed, but most television channels use subtitles for action and drama movies. AXN uses subtitles for its series, but as of 2008 emphasizes dubbing. Only Diema channels dub all programs. Movies in theaters, with the exception of films for children, use dubbing and subtitles. Dubbing of television programs is usually done using voiceovers, but usually, voices professional actors, while trying to give each character a different voice by using appropriate intonations. Dubbing with synchronized voices is rarely used, mostly for animated films. Mrs. Doubtfire is a rare example of a feature film dubbed this way on BNT Channel 1, though a subtitled version is currently shown on other channels. Walt Disney Television's animated series (such as DuckTales, Darkwing Duck, and Timon & Pumbaa) were only aired with synchronized Bulgarian voices on BNT Channel 1 until 2005, but then the Disney shows were canceled. When airing of Disney series resumed on Nova Television and Jetix in 2008, voiceovers were used, but Disney animated-movie translations still use synchronized voices. Voiceover dubbing is not used in theatrical releases. The Bulgarian film industry law requires all children's films to be dubbed, not subtitled. Nova Television dubbed and aired the Pokémon anime with synchronized voices. Now, the show is airing on Disney Channel, also in a synchronized form. Netflix provides both subtitles and dubbed audio with its foreign language shows, including Brazil's dystopian 3% and the German thriller Dark. Viewer testing indicates that its audience is more likely to finish watching a series if they select to view it with dubbed audio rather than translated subtitles. Netflix now streams its foreign language content with dubbed audio as default in an effort to increase viewer retention. ==General use== Dubbing is also used in applications and genres other than traditional film, including video games, television, and pornographic films. ===Video games=== Many video games originally produced in North America, Japan, and Europe or Australia countries are dubbed into foreign languages for international release, especially for video games that place a heavy emphasis on dialogue. Because characters' mouth movements can be part of the game's code, lip sync is sometimes achieved by re-coding the mouth movements to match the dialogue in the new language. The Source engine automatically generates lip-sync data, making it easier for games to be localized. To achieve synchronization when animations are intended only for the source language, localized content is mostly recorded using techniques borrowed from movie dubbing (such as rythmo band) or, when images are not available, localized dubbing is done using source audios as a reference. Sound-synch is a method where localized audios are recorded matching the length and internal pauses of the source content. For the European version of a video game, the on-screen text of the game is available in various languages and, in many cases, the dialogue is dubbed into each respective language, as well. The North American version of any game is always available in English, with translated text and dubbed dialogue, if necessary, in other languages, especially if the North American version of the game contains the same data as the European version. Several Japanese games, such as those in the Dynasty Warriors and Soulcalibur series, are released with both the original Japanese audio and the English dub included. ===Television=== Dubbing is occasionally used on network television broadcasts of films that contain dialogue that the network executives or censors have decided to replace. This is usually done to remove profanity. In most cases, the original actor does not perform this duty, but an actor with a similar voice reads the changes. The results are sometimes seamless, but, in many cases, the voice of the replacement actor sounds nothing like the original performer, which becomes particularly noticeable when extensive dialogue must be replaced. Also, often easy to notice, is the sudden absence of background sounds in the movie during the dubbed dialogue. Among the films considered notorious for using substitute actors that sound very different from their theatrical counterparts are the Smokey and the Bandit and the Die Hard film series, as shown on broadcasters such as TBS. In the case of Smokey and the Bandit, extensive dubbing was done for the first network airing on ABC Television in 1978, especially for Jackie Gleason's character, Buford T. Justice. The dubbing of his phrase "sombitch" (son of a bitch) became "scum bum," which became a catchphrase of the time. Dubbing is commonly used in science fiction television, as well. Sound generated by effects equipment such as animatronic puppets or by actors' movements on elaborate multi-level plywood sets (for example, starship bridges or other command centers) will quite often make the original character dialogue unusable. Stargate and Farscape are two prime examples where ADR is used heavily to produce usable audio. Since some anime series contain profanity, the studios recording the English dubs often re-record certain lines if a series or movie is going to be broadcast on Cartoon Network, removing references to death and hell as well. Some companies will offer both an edited and an uncut version of the series on DVD, so that there is an edited script available in case the series is broadcast. Other companies also edit the full-length version of a series, meaning that even on the uncut DVD characters say things like "Blast!" and "Darn!" in place of the original dialogue's profanity. Bandai Entertainment's English dub of G Gundam is infamous for this, among many other things, with such lines as "Bartender, more milk". Dubbing has also been used for comedic purposes, replacing lines of dialogue to create comedies from footage that was originally another genre. Examples include the American television show Kung Faux, comedically re-dubbed from 1970s kung fu films originally produced in Hong Kong, the Australian television shows The Olden Days and Bargearse, re-dubbed from 1970s Australian drama and action series, respectively, the Irish show Soupy Norman, re-dubbed from Pierwsza miłość, a Polish soap opera, and Most Extreme Elimination Challenge, a comedic dub of the Japanese game show Takeshi's Castle. Dubbing into a foreign language does not always entail the deletion of the original language. In some countries, a performer may read the translated dialogue as a voice-over. This often occurs in Russia and Poland, where "lektories" or "lektors" read the translated dialogue into Russian and Polish. In Poland, one announcer read all text. However, this is done almost exclusively for the television and home video markets, while theatrical releases are usually subtitled. Recently, however, the number of high-quality, fully dubbed films has increased, especially for children's movies. If a quality dubbed version exists for a film, it is shown in theaters. However, some films, such as Harry Potter or Star Wars, are shown in both dubbed and subtitled versions, varying with the time of the show. Such films are also shown on TV (although some channels drop them and do standard one-narrator translation) and VHS/DVD. In Russia, the reading of all lines by a single person is referred to as a Gavrilov translation, and is generally found only in illegal copies of films and on cable television. Professional copies always include at least two actors of opposite gender translating the dialogue. Some titles in Poland have been dubbed this way, too, but this method lacks public appeal, so it is very rare now. On special occasions, such as film festivals, live interpreting is often done by professionals. ===Pornography=== As budgets for pornographic films are often small, compared to films made by major studios, and there is an inherent need to film without interrupting filming, it is common for sex scenes to be over-dubbed. The audio for such over-dubbing is generally referred to as the Ms and Gs, or the moans and groans. ==Dubbing into varieties== In the case of languages with large communities (such as English, Chinese, Hindi, Portuguese, Italian, German, Spanish, or French), a single translation may sound foreign to native speakers in a given region. Therefore, a film may be translated into a certain variety of a certain language. Hispanic America and Spain use different versions of dubbed films and series. Due to the variety of Spanish accents in Latin America, the dubbing for this region is made in Standard Spanish, which avoids colloquialisms and whose pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammatical features are not recognizable as belonging to any particular Latin American country. For this reason, it is made in different countries, mainly in Mexico, Argentina and Colombia, for the entire continent. In addition, some films have been dubbed to the accent of a certain region of Spanish-speaking Latin America, such as the animated movie The Incredibles, which in addition to being dubbed into European and Standard Spanish, was dubbed into the Rioplatense and Mexican varieties. Another example is the French dubbing of The Simpsons, which has two entirely different versions for Quebec and for France. The humor is very different for each audience (see Non-English versions of The Simpsons). Audiences in Quebec are generally critical of France's dubbing of The Simpsons, which they often do not find amusing. Quebec-French dubbing of films is generally made in accent-free Standard French, but may sound peculiar to audiences in France because of the persistence of some regionally-neutral expressions and because Quebec-French performers pronounce Anglo-Saxon names with an American accent, unlike French performers. Occasionally, budget restraints cause American direct-to-video films, such as the 1995 film When the Bullet Hits the Bone, to be released in France with a Quebec-French dubbing, sometimes resulting in what some members of French audiences perceive as unintentional humor. Portugal and Brazil also use different versions of dubbed films and series. Because dubbing has never been very popular in Portugal, for decades, children's films were distributed using the higher-quality Brazilian dub (unlike children's TV series, which are traditionally dubbed in European Portuguese). Only in the 1990s did dubbing begin to gain popularity in Portugal. The Lion King became the first Disney feature film to be completely dubbed into European Portuguese, and subsequently all major animation films gained European-Portuguese versions. In recent DVD releases, most Brazilian-Portuguese-dubbed classics were released with new European-Portuguese dubs, eliminating the predominance of Brazilian-Portuguese dubs in Portugal. Similarly, in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium, cartoons are often dubbed locally by Flemish artists rather than using soundtracks produced in the Netherlands. The German-speaking region, which includes Germany, Austria, part of Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, share a common German-dubbed version of films and shows. Although there are some differences in the three major German varieties, all films, shows, and series are dubbed into a single Standard German version that avoids regional variations in the German-speaking audience. Most voice actors are primarily German or Austrian. Switzerland, which has four official languages (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), generally uses dubbed versions made in each respective country (except for Romansh). Liechtenstein uses German-dubbed versions only. Sometimes, films are also dubbed into several German dialects (Berlinerisch, Kölsch, Saxonian, Austro-Bavarian or Swiss German), especially animated films and Disney films. They are as an additional "special feature" to entice the audience into buying it. Popular animated films dubbed into German variety include Asterix films (in addition to its Standard German version, every film has a particular variety version), The Little Mermaid, Shrek 2, Cars, (+ Austrian German) and Up (+ Austrian German). Some live-action films or TV series have an additional German variety dubbing: Babe and its sequel, Babe: Pig in the City (German German, Austrian German, Swiss German); and Rehearsal for Murder, Framed (+ Austrian German); The Munsters, Serpico, Rumpole (+ Austrian German), and The Thorn Birds (only Austrian German dubbing). Before German reunification, East Germany also made its own particular German version. For example, Olsen Gang and the Hungarian animated series The Mézga Family were dubbed in West Germany as well as East Germany. Usually, there are two dubbings produced in Serbo-Croatian: Serbian and Croatian. Serbian for Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina; Croatian for Croatia and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.	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Justice", "Sirius Black", "Framed (TV series)", "Beverly Hills 90210", "Heinz Petruo", "Twitter", "Anatomy (film)", "Jacqueline Porel", "Door hanger", "Oreste Lionello", "Italy", "Hoyts", "Chris Tucker", "Hero (TV channel)", "Language localization", "Akira Kume", "Ben Kingsley", "gibberish", "Romanian language", "Kristen Bell", "RTV Pink", "Robin Williams", "pt:Luisa Palomanes", "The Magic Roundabout", "Sarah Jessica Parker", "Thomas Danneberg", "Iraj Nazerian", "Seth Rogen", "pt:Sérgio Cantú", "Piper Perabo", "voice-over", "Richard Jenkins", "Neal McDonough", "cable television", "Taylor Lautner", "Megumi Han", "Roger Carel", "Udo Schenk", "Tim Schwarzmaier", "Steve Reeves", "Luca Biagini", "Ginger Rogers", "Rachel Weisz", "Rikiya Koyama", "Alien (franchise)", "Russ Tamblyn", "Kevin James", "NICAM", "Speak Mandarin Campaign", "Articulation (music)", "Hispanic America", "Michael Hui", "live action", "Thierry Desroses", "Frank Glaubrecht", "Ernie Hudson", "Canadian English", "South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut", "list of territorial entities where German is an official language", "Jonathan Sadowski", "シネマトゥデイ", "martial arts", "Hayley Atwell", "Nyungar language", "Dragan Mićanović", "Wataru Takagi", "Katarina Žutić", "Christian Slater", "Anna Kendrick", "Brendan Gleeson", "Greg Kinnear", "Geoffrey Rush", "József Romhányi", "Miley Cyrus", "Barbie (film series)", "Scarlett Johansson", "Brazil", "Takeshi Kusao", "Screen Actors Guild", "Citizen Kane", "Quebec French", "Egyptian Arabic", "Tim Robbins", "Odia language", "Hiroya Ishimaru", "Dual sound", "Anjelica Huston", "Yumi Tōma", "My Fair Lady (film)", "Timon & Pumbaa (TV series)", "MOS (filmmaking)", "pt:Guilherme Briggs", "James Mason", "Draco Malfoy", "Michael J. Fox", "Barbara Bouchet", "Hilary Swank", "Bette Davis", "Pietro Ubaldi (dubber)", "Thomas Lennon (actor)", "Banjō Ginga", "Vittorio De Sica", "Cantonese language", "Leslie Nielsen", "Gabrielle Pietermann", "Paolo Buglioni", "broadcast television systems", "Sean Penn", "Jacques Perrin", "Veronika Neugebauer", "Alain Delon", "Jack Black", "Jennifer Aniston", "Rita Savagnone", "Bruce Willis", "Star Wars original trilogy", "Copyright infringement", "Melissa Leo", "Bak Il", "Mie Sonozaki", "Jason Statham", "Kevin Kline", "Alessandro Rossi (actor)", "Angela Bassett", "Bewitched (2005 film)", "Mugihito", "Quebec", "Filipino language", "Māori language", "Barbara Stanwyck", "Benjamin McKenzie", "Nando Gazzolo", "hell", "Persian language", "Non-English versions of The Simpsons", "Syria", "Rich Man, Poor Man (miniseries)", "Min Nan", "Carlos Villagrán", "Florinda Bolkan", "Michael Fassbender", "Sigourney Weaver", "La Fea Más Bella", "Tommy Lee Jones", "Devon Bostick", "Daisuke Gōri", "Évelyn Séléna", "Jack Nicholson", "Mokhtarnameh", "Michael Keaton", "Yutaka Aoyama", "Guy Pearce", "RPTV (TV channel)", "Nonlinear video", "PBS", "Colombia", "Harry Potter (video games)", "John Candy", "Terrestrial television", "The New York Times", "The Return of Godzilla", "Fistful of Dollars", "Fumihiko Tachiki", "Ava Gardner", "Cartoon Network Pakistan", "Darth Vader", "Francesco Pezzulli", "post-production", "Kazuya Takahashi", "Richard Basehart", "Tisha Campbell", "Achime Schülke", "Michael Peña", "Anna Paquin", "Ryoko Shiraishi", "bilingual", "Dora the Explorer (TV series)", "Rob Lowe", "Cartoon Network", "Croatian language", "ko:양지운", "The Lord of the Rings (film series)", "Oreste Rizzini", "Standard Tibetan", "Laurence Fishburne", "Christian Iansante", "Leo Putt", "Jonah Hill", "Iemasa Kayumi", "television program", "Sandro Acerbo", "Ryōtarō Okiayu", "Céline Montsarrat", "Claudia Cardinale", "Naruto (TV series)", "Sammo Hung", "Franco Nero", "Soviet Union", "Macedonian language", "Luganda", "Datafolha", "Fabio Boccanera", "Kotono Mitsuishi", "Song Do-yeong", "NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan", "Vietnamese language", "Autonomous administrative divisions of China", "Nino Prester", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Gija language", "James Bond (literary character)", "Satoshi Mikami", "Chile", "Carrie-Anne Moss", "salon.com", "The Snow Queen 2", "Characters of Halo", "Stephen Fung", "Timothy Olyphant", "Kurt Russell", "West Side Story (1961 film)", "Cary Grant", "Grey's Anatomy", "Richard Pryor", "voice actor", "Topher Grace", "Benedict Cumberbatch", "Jacqueline Bisset", "Tom Hanks", "Barbara Bach", "Noah Taylor", "Philippe Valmont", "Forest Whitaker", "Gert Günther Hoffmann", "Irish language", "Vincent Price", "Welsh language", "Lithuania", "second audio program", "Daryl Sabara", "Hisao Egawa", "FM stereo", "Robert Conrad", "The Guardian", "Colin Firth", "Galicia (Spain)", "Voja Brajović", "Dietmar Wunder", "Judy Garland", "Linda Hunt", "The Kingdom of Solomon", "Mokran Video", "Saturn 3", "Bob Hoskins", "Jean-Pierre Moulin", "Francisco Franco", "European Spanish", "Walter Brennan", "Glenn Close", "Alan Rickman", "Andreas von der Meden", "major film studio", "Dave Bautista", "Michael Douglas", "Peter Parker (Marvel Cinematic Universe)", "TV2 (Malaysian TV network)", "Mike Myers", "Kim Basinger", "John Rhys-Davies", "Giulio Panicali", "June Allyson", "James Franco", "Marion Degler", "Marni Nixon", "John Goodman", "David Hasselhoff", "Up (2009 film)", "Jürgen Thormann", "Rio de Janeiro (state)", "Tatiana Shitova", "Daniel Radcliffe", "Jodie Foster", "Harrison Ford", "Lisa Kudrow", "Renée Zellweger", "Ivan Bosiljčić", "The Jeffersons", "Joe Pantoliano", "Agnes Moorehead", "Takaya Hashi", "Austria", "Emma Stone", "iCarly", "Chad Michael Murray", "Moana (2016 film)", "Pitjantjatjara dialect", "animation", "Lauren Bacall", "Stefano Benassi", "Casper Van Dien", "Kōsei Hirota", "Carl Weathers", "Judy Greer", "Marilyn Monroe", "James McAvoy", "independent film", "Charlie Sheen", "Jeanne Moreau", "video game", "Sharon Stone", "Bud Spencer", "Burt Reynolds", "Netherlands", "Tōru Furuya", "Colm Meaney", "Christopher Lloyd", "John Cleese", "Timothy Dalton", "Martin Short", "Saxonian", "Radio 2000", "David Graf", "Roy Dotrice", "Richard Widmark", "Argentina", "Estonia", "Harry Potter (character)", "Jerry Lewis", "Jordan", "Adam Sandler", "Miami Vice", "Sam & Cat", "James Gandolfini", "Patrick Wilson", "Serbia", "Charles Coburn", "European Commission", "Valentina Mari", "Danny Phantom", "James Stewart", "Wallonia", "Morocco", "Dario Penne", "National Geographic Channel", "Tom Hardy", "Peter the Great (TV series)", "Naoya Uchida", "Paramount on Parade", "United Kingdom", "Egypt", "Spider-Man", "Simone Crisari", "Danilo De Girolamo", "Marie-Eugénie Maréchal", "Akira Ishida", "Rock Hudson", "Selena Gomez", "Siegmar Schneider", "Dane DeHaan", "Masato Hagiwara", "European Portuguese", "simulcast", "Chinese television drama", "Jack Lemmon", "Peter Cushing", "Gene Barry", "Shannon Elizabeth", "Fabrizio Vidale", "Classical Hollywood cinema", "Matthew Perry", "Bradley Cooper", "Anna Faris", "Tyrone Power", "My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic", "Serge Faliu", "network television", "Brenda Song", "Mrs. Doubtfire", "Special Broadcasting Service", "Tom Cruise", "Yugoslavia", "Nikola Simić (actor)", "Nino Manfredi", "Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes", "Lou Costello", "Alexis Victor", "Por Ti (2022 TV series)", "The Dance of Life (film)", "Jean-Paul Belmondo", "ko:함수정", "Michael Shannon", "Albanian language", "Streaming media", "Jacques Thébault", "Alec Baldwin", "Americanized", "Natalie Wood", "Toshiko Sawada", "The Terminator", "Mario Dumont", "Van Johnson", "Emma Watson", "Rhonda Fleming", "prime time", "Peru", "Dangerous Curves (1929 film)", "Patrick Dempsey", "Emmanuel Curtil", "Giuseppe Rinaldi", "India ink", "Caroline Victoria", "Herbert Richers", "Brittany Murphy", "Mitsuru Miyamoto", "3%", "Voice-over", "James Marsden", "Standard Spanish", "Tobey Maguire", "Edwige Fenech", "pt:Mabel Cezar", "Mail & Guardian", "Kannada", "Lutz Mackensey", "Kristin Scott Thomas", "Doug Jones (actor)", "Sound editor (filmmaking)", "Roberto Pedicini", "sync sound", "Chevy Chase", "Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019 film)", "German dialects", "Soupy Norman", "Danielle Panabaker", "Das Boot", "TV5 (Philippine TV network)", "Slobodan Ninković", "Peter O'Toole", "Christopher Lee", "Pirates of the Caribbean", "Basque Country (autonomous community)", "Jon Voight", "Macaulay Culkin", "Judi Dench", "Torres Strait Creole", "Romania", "Giorgio Lopez", "Wizja Jeden", "Justin Long", "Anime", "Elijah Wood", "Sydney", "Manuel Meli", "film festival", "Errol Flynn", "TBS (TV network)", "Algeria", "Educational Broadcasting System", "RTL Kockica", "Frozen (2013 film)", "Shrek (franchise)", "Norma Shearer", "Paule Emmanuele", "Yuen Biao", "Jean Reno", "Mia Farrow", "Sissy Spacek", "North Macedonia", "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie", "voice acting", "Mary Poppins (film)", "Film director", "Bane (comics)", "Jean-Louis Trintignant", "ko:김환진", "Yoann Sover", "International sanctions against North Korea", "Ursula Andress", "Eva Green", "Edgar Buchanan", "Catalan language", "Anthony Edwards (actor)", "Johnny Weissmuller", "Paul Newman", "Spanish language", "Hawaiian language", "Nachi Nozawa", "Australian Aboriginal English", "Galician language", "Video on demand", "Andie MacDowell", "TVI (Portugal)", "Fred Astaire", "Hartmut Neugebauer", "Sacha Baron Cohen", "Abbie Cornish", "Arnold Schwarzenegger", "Documentary film", "World War II", "Toshiyuki Morikawa", "Henry V of England", "Louis de Funès", "Mexican Spanish", "Tom Holland", "Balkans", "Lauro Gazzolo", "voice-over translation", "La Mary", "Peer Augustinski", "Patrick Poivey", "Skai TV", "Kyle Chandler", "South Africa", "Michio Hazama", "Jonathan Hyde", "Kenji Utsumi", "Palawa Kani", "cartoon", "Cuba Gooding Jr.", "Serbian language", "Bette Midler", "Home Alone (film)", "Report.az", "Vanessa Redgrave", "Turner Classic Movies", "Corey Burton", "Luq Hamet", "Kirsten Dunst", "Spy Kids: Armageddon", "Yūki Tokiwa", "Emilio Estevez", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "death", "Hero (2002 film)", "SABC", "Glauco Onorato", "Peter Serafinowicz", "La Strada", "Kazuko Yanaga", "Yoshimasa Hosoya", "ko:정소영 (성우)", "South African English", "Norwegian language", "Emilio Cigoli", "Heather Graham", "Vincent Martella", "Michel Roux", "Hideyuki Tanaka", "Jude Law", "Lee Marvin", "Poland", "German reunification", "Tom Welling", "Audie Murphy", "Daniel Wu", "Lebanese American University", "Gary Cooper", "Mongols in China", "Nick Jr. Channel", "Samuel L. Jackson", "Bahram Zand", "Vijay Sethupathi", "Nordic countries", "Maya the Bee (film)", "Dominique Sanda", "Frédérique Tirmont", "Dee Bradley Baker", "John Malkovich", "Satellite television", "Michel Bedetti", "ko:윤소라", "Assassin's Creed III", "Sidney Poitier", "Noriko Ohara", "BNT Channel 1", "Donkey (Shrek)", "Richard Gere", "Renate Küster", "South Park", "WWII", "Sonia Scotti", "Chloé Berthier", "boycott", "Queen Latifah", "Takashi Taniguchi", "The Six Million Dollar Man", "George Clooney", "Tsutomu Isobe", "Seann William Scott", "Katsunosuke Hori", "Klaus Kinski", "Perla Liberatori", "Indiana Jones", "Pierre Tessier", "Anton Yelchin", "Brad Pitt", "Jane Seymour (actress)", "Carlo Valli", "Gigi Proietti", "SpongeBob SquarePants", "Lydia Simoneschi", "Joan Collins", "Latvia", "Carlo Romano", "Rod Steiger", "Ashton Kutcher", "Liv Ullmann", "The Thorn Birds (miniseries)", "Raymond Burr", "Steve Martin", "Telenovela", "Mark Ruffalo", "Afrikaans", "pt:Guilene Conte", "Czech language", "Deborah Kerr", "DreamWorks Animation", "Jessica Alba", "anime", "pt:Hércules Fernando", "Montenegro", "Spanish Civil War", "20th Century Fox", "Roberto Del Giudice", "Kate Beckinsale", "Kristen Stewart", "List of Bob the Builder characters", "Wendel Bezerra", "Peter Pevensie", "David Morse", "Hermione Granger", "Ben Stiller", "Jamie Foxx", "Russia", "Humberto Vélez", "Jamie Lee Curtis", "language", "Rosemarie Fendel", "On Her Majesty's Secret Service (film)", "Montgomery Clift", "Henry Fonda", "Ryan Gosling", "Julia Roberts", "Will Smith", "Australia", "interpreting", "Takeshi Aono", "Catalonia", "Cars (film)", "Japanese language", "Rip Torn", "Don Camillo", "Kinya Aikawa", "Chris Noth", "Benoît Allemane", "Vincent Gallo", "audio description", "Michael Caine", "Nickelodeon", "niche market", "Peter Falk", "David Thewlis", "Maureen O'Hara", "Jason Momoa", "Sam Worthington", "Shinji Ogawa", "Richard Dreyfuss", "TV Asahi", "Hugh Jackman", "Whoopi Goldberg", "Brigitte Bardot", "Kristen Wiig", "Harry Potter", "Bak Yeong-hee", "Anthony Quinn", "I Woke Up a Vampire", "I'll Take Manhattan (miniseries)", "Philippe Noiret", "The Adventures of Rupert Bear", "Michael Rooker", "Hang 'Em High", "Haruhiko Jō", "Hiroshi Tsuchida", "Centre national du cinéma et de l'image animée", "Darth Maul", "Hiroko Suzuki (voice actress)", "Dark (TV series)", "Andy García", "Bangkok", "Lois Maxwell", "News24 (website)", "Pasquale Anselmo", "Mary-Kate Olsen", "Chris Pine", "Spain", "Glenn Ford", "Kim So-hyeong", "Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)", "Shinobu Adachi", "Chatswood, New South Wales", "A Goofy Movie", "Linda Gray", "pt:Wendel Bezerra", "Mino Caprio", "Vittorio De Angelis", "Richard Burton", "Takayuki Sugō", "Laura Gemser", "Public Television Service", "Paul Michael Glaser", "Raymond Massey", "Catherine Zeta-Jones", "Dubravko Jovanović", "Rio de Janeiro (city)", "Michele Kalamera", "Isabelle Huppert", "Seoul Broadcasting System", "Gualtiero De Angelis", "Sylvester Stallone", "Will Forte", "Daniela Hoffmann", "Lucien Jean-Baptiste", "Godzilla 2000", "Junpei Morita", "Homer Simpson", "Ben Affleck", "Dean Martin", "Arnold Marquis", "Jean-Claude Michel", "Chris Hemsworth", "Wentworth Miller", "Modern Standard Arabic", "Allied-occupied Germany", "Francesco Prando", "Fists of Fury", "Subtitle (captioning)", "Branislav Lečić", "Uyghur language", "BBC Television", "pt:Sheila Dorfman", "Jeremy Brett", "East India", "YouTube", "Tom Hiddleston", "talkies", "Robert Mitchum", "Walt Disney Animation Studios", "Jelena Gavrilović", "pornographic film", "eExtra", "Mel Gibson", "William Hurt", "Dave Franco", "The Children Are Watching Us", "David Prowse", "Matthew McConaughey", "GMA Network", "John Corbett", "Bin Shimada", "VCD", "Michelle Pfeiffer", "Unshō Ishizuka", "Natalya Grachyova", "Katsuhisa Hōki", "Cinema Paradiso", "Jean-Claude Van Damme", "Tomas Milian", "Jim Broadbent", "Forsyte Saga", "Lee Byung-hun", "Disney Channel (Polish TV channel)", "soap opera", "Television in France", "Sergio Di Stefano", "Patrick McGoohan", "Keira Knightley", "Portuguese language", "Venezuela", "Robert Taylor (American actor)", "Reiko Mutō", "Pino Insegno", "Dragon Ball (TV series)", "Kunio Murai", "Standard Chinese", "Cable television", "Pegasus Seiya", "Kazuhiro Yamaji", "The Little Mermaid (1989 film)", "Davide Perino", "Greer Garson", "The Incredibles", "Cédric Dumont", "Josh Hutcherson", "Morgan Freeman", "Charles Tingwell", "Peter Sarsgaard", "Tom Selleck", "Michelle Rodriguez", "Avatar (2009 film)", "Malaysian animation", "Predator (film)", "Late night television", "Alec Guinness", "Battle for Sevastopol", "Fuji TV", "Xavier Fagnon", "Constantino Romero", "Tunisia", "Taiwan", "Christian Brückner", "John Turturro", "Austro-Bavarian language", "Anthony Hopkins", "ko:이정구 (성우)", "John Wayne", "Monkey (TV series)", "United States", "Ken Jeong", "Walter Matthau", "Jason Bateman", "Jesse Eisenberg", "pt:Vagner Fagundes", "Jean-Pierre Michaël", "Marlon Wayans", "filmmaking", "Mark Hamill", "Jeremy Irons", "Tamil language", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer", "Aaron Paul", "ko:강희선", "Susan Hayward", "Joseph Gordon-Levitt", "Marlene Dietrich", "Cesare Barbetti", "Cinema of Uganda", "Recording studio", "telenovelas", "Cinema of the Soviet Union", "streaming television", "Saphira", "Indonesian language", "LazyTown", "Kwon Sang-woo", "Studio 23", "Frodo Baggins", "Gert Fröbe", "Anthony Perkins", "The Wall Street Journal", "Myriam Catania", "Danny Trejo", "Chung Misook", "Humphrey Bogart", "Michael Weatherly", "Al Pacino", "production sound mixer", "Fernandel", "RTL (Croatian TV channel)", "Akiji Kobayashi", "Hugh Grant", "Masahito Kawanago", "pt:Flora Paulita", "Keanu Reeves", "Kiefer Sutherland", "The League of Gentlemen", "ABS-CBN Corporation", "Federica De Bortoli", "Alessia Amendola", "Die Welt", "Hercules in New York", "Kim So Hyeong (voice actor)", "Bandai", "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)", "ko:유강진", "Pancake (actress)", "Audrey Tautou", "Chie Nakamura", "Giuliano Gemma", "Jason Priestley", "Madonna", "Rosanna Arquette", "Oreste Baldini", "Hindi", "Gwyneth Paltrow", "Radio Philippines Network", "Tesshō Genda", "Virginia Mayo", "Greg Germann", "Renee O'Connor", "pt:Sylvia Salustti", "ko:배정미", "Erik the Viking", "Giancarlo Giannini", "Richard Harris", "George Lazenby", "Eragon (film)", "Toni Servillo", "Hiroshi Iwasaki", "List of Middle-earth Dwarves", "Johnny Depp", "Mika Doi", "Finnish language", "science fiction television", "Sophia Loren", "Danish language", "Viggo Mortensen", "Digital video recorder", "Farrah Fawcett", "pt:Letícia Quinto", "Robert Redford", "Kim Youngsun", "Rowan Atkinson", "Shaolin Soccer", "Alan Arkin", "lip sync", "ko:권영호 (성우)", "Kenneth Branagh", "Netflix", "Jack Warden", "Claire Guibert", "Maurizio Merluzzo", "Tahitian language", "Robert Shaw (actor)", "Gregory Peck", "Flavio Aquilone", "Greece", "Walt Disney Television", "Kevin Bacon", "art film", "Keiji Fujiwara", "Bruno Dubernat", "Belgium", "Morgan Fairchild", "Elizabeth Banks", "Tangled", "pt:Júlio Chaves", "Hermes Baroli", "mutual intelligibility", "Massimo Venturiello", "Halo 3", "Woody Harrelson", "Stanley Tucci", "Joanne Woodward", "Martin Lawrence", "Don Cheadle", "Harry Osborn", "Morocco (film)", "Jérémie Covillault", "Telly Savalas", "Devil and the Deep", "Faye Dunaway", "India", "Charlton Heston", "Asao Koike", "Jet Li", "Tokyo Broadcasting System", "Kōichi Yamadera", "Berlinerisch", "Masako Ikeda", "Shin-ichiro Miki", "Diane Keaton", "Cary Elwes", "Jeff Goldblum", "Liechtenstein", "Masane Tsukayama", "Ralph Fiennes", "Soulcalibur", "Stargate", "Keiko Toda", "Cinderella (1950 film)", "Fawlty Towers", "Shia LaBeouf", "pt:Alexandre Moreno (dublador)", "Blair Underwood", "Paul McCartney", "Levant", "Susanna Bonaséwicz", "Clint Eastwood", "Heartstopper (TV series)", "Dwayne Johnson", "television series", "WOWOW", "The Rescuers Down Under", "Naomi Kusumi", "Christoph Waltz", "Angelo Nicotra", "Chupa (film)", "Vsevolod Kuznetsov", "Clive Owen", "Lino Ventura", "Hayao Miyazaki", "KykNet", "Richard Darbois", "Henry V (1989 film)", "Ana de Armas", "Gümüş (TV series)", "English language", "pt:Miriam Ficher", "Amber Heard", "Pokémon (anime)", "Hayden Christensen", "Laurent Morteau", "John Stamos", "Ray Milland", "Santisuk Promsiri", "Mayumi Sako", "John Lennon", "Jason Robards", "Angelo Maggi", "Luciano De Ambrosis", "Korean language", "Tony Curtis", "Nickelodeon (Polish TV channel)", "Tibetan Autonomous Region", "Encanto", "Will Patton", "Khosro Khosroshahi", "TVS (Malaysian TV channel)", "Taiten Kusunoki", "Alberto Sordi", "Dorothée Pousséo", "Atomu Shimojō", "Maaya Sakamoto", "Matt Damon", "Joan Crawford", "Tamio Ōki", "Die Hard (franchise)", "Béatrice Delfe", "Linda Darnell", "French language", "Jean Hagen", "synchronization", "Polish language", "Zachary Quinto", "ko:손정아", "Jean-Claude Donda", "DuckTales (1987 TV series)", "Zac Efron", "cinephilia", "Australian Aboriginal languages", "Renato Mori", "Georg Thomalla", "Amanda Seyfried", "Kevin Spacey", "Liliana Betti", "Andreina Pagnani", "Liev Schreiber", "Lee Van Cleef", "Tonino Accolla", "Danny Glover", "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly", "Canada", "Friends", "Standard German", "Kazue Komiya", "PBS Kids", "Michael Biehn", "Shrek", "Rene Russo", "Punjabi language", "Mickey Rourke", "Warren Beatty", "Brian Dennehy", "Mary Jane Watson", "PC game", "Django (1966 film)", "Dylan McDermott", "Assassin's Creed (video game)", "Ed Harris", "Bud Abbott", "Shrek 2", "Hōchū Ōtsuka", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe", "American Broadcasting Company", "Romansh language", "Peter Lorre", "Veronica Lake", "Rita Hayworth", "Sailor Moon", "Dollars Trilogy", "Maïk Darah", "Gabriel Byrne", "Channel 7 (Thailand)", "Matt LeBlanc", "Ron Perlman", "Giovanna Scotto", "Michael Wincott", "Ken Stott", "Animatronics", "Stefania Sandrelli", "The Dark Knight Rises", "Telugu language", "Nova Television (Bulgaria)", "Alan Napier", "Yasuo Yamada", "Miramax", "soundtrack", "Channing Tatum", "TheGuardian.com", "SpongeBob SquarePants (character)", "Elio Pandolfi", "Hindi language", "Iceland", "Harvey Keitel", "James Coburn", "Dominique Collignon-Maurin", "Elizabeth R", "Ben Hiura", "Macau", "Robert De Niro", "Roger Tréville", "direct-to-video", "George C. Scott", "tongue-in-cheek", "Joshua Jackson", "DVD", "Russian language", "Republic of Ireland", "The Simpsons", "Albus Dumbledore", "Meryl Streep", "television films", "Martine Sarcey", "Taro Ishida", "Christopher Lambert", "Blu-ray Disc", "Mami Koyama", "Michael Collins (English actor)", "Celebridade", "Fascist Italy (1922–1943)", "Vito Corleone", "The Hobbit (film series)", "Co-production (media)", "Jiang Guangtao", "Malayalam", "Ulrich Tukur", "Cate Blanchett", "Itthipol Mameket", "Disney Plus", "Dragonheart", "Gary Oldman", "Osamu Kobayashi (voice actor)", "Bhojpuri language", "Olsen-banden", "Francesco Pannofino", "Nicolas Cage", "Fuminori Komatsu", "Perth", "Film finance", "Kes (film)", "Chinese Cinema: Culture and Politics Since 1949", "Omar Sy", "Blu-ray", "The Simpsons Movie", "Eleanor Parker", "Takeshi's Castle", "George Harrison", "David Charvet", "Jean Simmons", "William Shatner", "Swiss German", "Kannada language", "Arne Elsholtz", "Steve Carell", "Israel", "Francoist Spain", "Takuya Kirimoto", "Vladislava Đorđević", "Paramparça (TV series)", "Lady Tremaine", "Yoshisada Sakaguchi", "Nicole Kidman", "Geek Girl (TV series)", "Ringo Starr", "James Woods", "Serbo-Croatian", "Ernest Borgnine", "Foley (filmmaking)", "VTV2", "Katie Holmes", "World of Warcraft", "Gandalf", "Rio de Janeiro", "Sheldon Cooper", "Simon Pegg", "Sam Rockwell", "Flanders", "Paul Bettany", "pay-TV", "Hungary", "Beauty and the Beast", "Ewan McGregor", "Dutch language", "LaserDisc", "diction", "Chow Yun-fat", "Vietnam", "Chris Evans (actor)", "Dustin Hoffman", "Lin Gengxin", "fandom", "The Persuaders!", "John Cusack", "Brussels Capital Region", "inFamous 2", "Baltic states", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Little J & Big Cuz", "Saeed Mozaffari", "Rick Moranis", "Serge Sauvion", "William Fichtner", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Second Spanish Republic", "Arrernte language", "Debbie Reynolds", "Peter Graves", "Sony", "pay TV", "Liam Hemsworth", "Joel Edgerton", "Robert Duvall", "NBC News", "Accent (sociolinguistics)", "Kate Walsh (actress)", "pt:Mauro Ramos", "Kenshō Ono", "Leonardo DiCaprio", "Tina Lattanzi", "German language", "Mr. Bean", "Jack Davenport", "Shūichirō Moriyama", "East Germany", "Daniel Dae Kim", "Lip sync", "Dean O'Gorman", "Taylor Kitsch", "The King and I (1956 film)", "Yūya Uchida (voice actor)", "Martin Keßler", "Georgia (country)", "Michèle Bardollet", "Joan Fontaine", "Multiplex (movie theater)", "Barbara Kelsch", "Arabic language", "Danny DeVito", "Daisuke Hirakawa", "Babe (film)", "Kirk Douglas", "Farscape", "Hiroki Tōchi", "Kei Tomiyama", "Yvonne Sanson", "Julianne Moore", "Clark Gregg", "Jackie Chan", "Milla Jovovich", "Marlon Brando", "Gene Kelly", "North America", "Japan", "Colognian dialect", "The Lion King", "G Gundam", "Timmo Niesner", "Jeff Bridges", "Takanobu Hozumi", "Cristina Boraschi", "Yusuke Urameshi", "A Warrior's Tail", "Liam Neeson", "Owen Wilson", "Alfred Hitchcock", "France", "Marco Ribeiro", "Serpico", "Hallgerd Bruckhaus", "Meaghan Jette Martin", "Russell Crowe", "Norihiro Inoue", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Thomas Petruo", "Kenyu Horiuchi", "Nickelodeon (Croatian TV channel)", "Cheryl Ladd", "Bee Movie", "Marika Hayashi", "Megan Fox", "Thomas and Friends", "Ice Cube", "adult animated", "Warner Bros.", "Jeffrey Katzenberg", "Ulrich Matthes", "Hercules (1997 film)", "Wesley Snipes", "video", "Thai Language", "Jak & Daxter (series)", "Sun TV Network", "Smokey and the Bandit", "Jim Carrey", "Discovery Kids (Latin American TV channel)", "Dan Aykroyd", "Ingrid Bergman", "Thai television soap opera", "Jessica Chastain", "Nieves Navarro", "Adrien Antoine", "Vittoria Febbi", "Laura Blanc", "Kirstie Alley", "Van Helsing (film)", "Rosetta Calavetta", "Nick Nolte", "North-West Europe", "Jennifer Lawrence", "Sigourney Weawer", "Patrice Dubois", "David Niven", "Princess Leia", "DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp", "Akio Ōtsuka", "Noah Wyle", "Shirley Temple", "Azerbaijan", "Ashley Olsen", "Tetsuo Kanao", "Croatia", "Donnie Yen", "David Krüger", "Dragon Ball Z", "Swedish language", "Zulu language", "Hiroshi Arikawa", "Yū Hayashi", "AXN", "Philippe Peythieu", "Yūko Nagashima", "Nigel Bruce", "Evil Queen (Disney)", "Censorship", "Luca Ward", "The Great Warrior Skanderbeg", "Marvel Cinematic Universe", "Sailor Moon (anime)", "Jumanji", "Orlando Bloom", "Alina Moradei", "Yu Yu Hakusho", "Gianni Musy", "Josh Duhamel", "pt:Nelson Machado", "Danièle Douet", "Terence Hill", "Joaquin Phoenix", "Jetix", "Michael Gambon", "Goldfinger (film)", "Korean Broadcasting System", "Dennis Farina", "Scottish Gaelic", "HTV3", "Charles Pestel", "Angela Lansbury", "James Cagney", "Mark Wahlberg", "Robbie Coltrane", "Chris Rock", "Steve Zahn", "Hiroshi Yanaka", "Jânio Quadros", "A Good Day to Die Hard", "Shervin Ghetei", "Sweden", "Yoshito Yasuhara", "Ellen Ripley", "profanity", "Frank Sinatra", "Basque language", "Standard French", "Pierce Brosnan", "Perette Pradier", "Jennifer Garner", "William Holden", "Goku", "Singin' in the Rain", "Yūji Mitsuya", "Margot Robbie", "Lionel Stander", "Chinese language", "Superman (1940s cartoons)", "Tom Felton", "Rehearsal for Murder", "Bulgaria", "Jean Davy", "Jeff Bennett", "Yul Brynner", "Tages-Anzeiger", "Shunsuke Sakuya", "Elliott Gould", "Miranda Cosgrove", "Charles Laughton", "Kim Ha-neul", "Shanghai", "Masato Yamanouchi", "Darkwing Duck", "Yū Mizushima", "Shelley Winters", "Masashi Ebara", "Germany", "Hiroaki Hirata", "Rebecca Ferguson", "Hayden Panettiere", "Dhia Cristiani", "Ukraine", "Teochew dialect", "Brazilian Portuguese", "Med Hondo", "Kiyoshi Kobayashi", "Hilary Duff", "Disney Channel", "Omar Sharif", "Martin Freeman", "Michelle Trachtenberg", "Turkey", "Slovakia", "Meg Ryan", "Sarah Michelle Gellar", "Nova TV (Croatia)", "Māori Television", "Stephen Rea", "A Casa das Sete Mulheres", "Roberto Chevalier", "Ethan Hawke", "Sean Astin", "Nobuo Kawai", "Will Ferrell", "Mario Castañeda", "Simone Mori (voice actor)", "Cameron Diaz", "Jackson Rathbone", "Ray Park", "Sean Connery", "Temuera Morrison", "Kevin Costner", "Hansi Jochmann", "Prophet Joseph (TV series)", "Mitsuaki Madono", "Slovak language", "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)", "Richard Harris (actor)", "Omero Antonutti", "Indigenous Australians", "Kazuo Kumakura", "Purism", "Serbo-Croatian language", "Lucasfilm", "United States of America", "Roger Moore", "Misa Watanabe", "Charlotte Rampling", "Flaminia Jandolo", "Lita Recio", "Hiroe Oka", "Bruno Choël", "Steven Seagal", "Hungarian language", "Vin Diesel", "Hardcore Henry", "Finland", "Winona Ryder", "Corrado Gaipa", "Robert Ryan", "Edward Norton", "ABS-CBN Sports and Action", "ko:소연 (성우)", "Myrna Loy", "Babe: Pig in the City", "Eugenio Derbez", "mutually intelligible", "Alfred Molina", "Neve Campbell" ]
8,864	Delaunay triangulation	In computational geometry, a Delaunay triangulation or Delone triangulation of a set of points in the plane subdivides their convex hull into triangles whose circumcircles do not contain any of the points; that is, each circumcircle has its generating points on its circumference, but all other points in the set are outside of it. This maximizes the size of the smallest angle in any of the triangles, and tends to avoid sliver triangles. The triangulation is named after Boris Delaunay for his work on it from 1934. If the points all lie on a straight line, the notion of triangulation becomes degenerate and there is no Delaunay triangulation. For four or more points on the same circle (e.g., the vertices of a rectangle) the Delaunay triangulation is not unique: each of the two possible triangulations that split the quadrangle into two triangles satisfies the "Delaunay condition", i.e., the requirement that the circumcircles of all triangles have empty interiors. By considering circumscribed spheres, the notion of Delaunay triangulation extends to three and higher dimensions. Generalizations are possible to metrics other than Euclidean distance. However, in these cases a Delaunay triangulation is not guaranteed to exist or be unique. ==Relationship with the Voronoi diagram== The Delaunay triangulation of a discrete point set in general position corresponds to the dual graph of the Voronoi diagram for . The circumcenters of Delaunay triangles are the vertices of the Voronoi diagram. In the 2D case, the Voronoi vertices are connected via edges, that can be derived from adjacency-relationships of the Delaunay triangles: If two triangles share an edge in the Delaunay triangulation, their circumcenters are to be connected with an edge in the Voronoi tesselation. Special cases where this relationship does not hold, or is ambiguous, include cases like: Three or more collinear points, where the circumcircles are of infinite radii. Four or more points on a perfect circle, where the triangulation is ambiguous and all circumcenters are trivially identical. In this case the Voronoi diagram contains vertices of degree four or greater and its dual graph contains polygonal faces with four or more sides. The various triangulations of these faces complete the various possible Delaunay triangulations. Edges of the Voronoi diagram going to infinity are not defined by this relation in case of a finite set . If the Delaunay triangulation is calculated using the Bowyer–Watson algorithm then the circumcenters of triangles having a common vertex with the "super" triangle should be ignored. Edges going to infinity start from a circumcenter and they are perpendicular to the common edge between the kept and ignored triangle. == d-dimensional Delaunay == For a set of points in the (-dimensional) Euclidean space, a Delaunay triangulation is a triangulation such that no point in is inside the circum-hypersphere of any -simplex in . It is known that there exists a unique Delaunay triangulation for if is a set of points in general position; that is, the affine hull of is -dimensional and no set of points in lie on the boundary of a ball whose interior does not intersect . The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in -dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the convex hull of a set of points in ()-dimensional space. This may be done by giving each point an extra coordinate equal to , thus turning it into a hyper-paraboloid (this is termed "lifting"); taking the bottom side of the convex hull (as the top end-cap faces upwards away from the origin, and must be discarded); and mapping back to -dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate. As the convex hull is unique, so is the triangulation, assuming all facets of the convex hull are simplices. Nonsimplicial facets only occur when of the original points lie on the same -hypersphere, i.e., the points are not in general position. ==Properties== Let be the number of points and the number of dimensions. The union of all simplices in the triangulation is the convex hull of the points. The Delaunay triangulation contains simplices. In the plane (), if there are vertices on the convex hull, then any triangulation of the points has at most triangles, plus one exterior face (see Euler characteristic). If points are distributed according to a Poisson process in the plane with constant intensity, then each vertex has on average six surrounding triangles. More generally for the same process in dimensions the average number of neighbors is a constant depending only on . In the plane, the Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle. Compared to any other triangulation of the points, the smallest angle in the Delaunay triangulation is at least as large as the smallest angle in any other. However, the Delaunay triangulation does not necessarily minimize the maximum angle. The Delaunay triangulation also does not necessarily minimize the length of the edges. A circle circumscribing any Delaunay triangle does not contain any other input points in its interior. If a circle passing through two of the input points doesn't contain any other input points in its interior, then the segment connecting the two points is an edge of a Delaunay triangulation of the given points. Each triangle of the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in -dimensional spaces corresponds to a facet of convex hull of the projection of the points onto a ()-dimensional paraboloid, and vice versa. The closest neighbor to any point is on an edge in the Delaunay triangulation since the nearest neighbor graph is a subgraph of the Delaunay triangulation. The Delaunay triangulation is a geometric spanner: In the plane (), the shortest path between two vertices, along Delaunay edges, is known to be no longer than 1.998 times the Euclidean distance between them. == Visual Delaunay definition: Flipping == From the above properties an important feature arises: Looking at two triangles with the common edge (see figures), if the sum of the angles , the triangles meet the Delaunay condition. This is an important property because it allows the use of a flipping technique. If two triangles do not meet the Delaunay condition, switching the common edge for the common edge produces two triangles that do meet the Delaunay condition: File:Delaunay geometry.png\|This triangulation does not meet the Delaunay condition (the sum of and is bigger than 180°). File:Point inside circle - Delaunay condition broken.svg\|This pair of triangles does not meet the Delaunay condition (there is a point within the interior of the circumcircle). File:Edge Flip - Delaunay condition ok.svg\|Flipping the common edge produces a valid Delaunay triangulation for the four points. This operation is called a flip, and can be generalised to three and higher dimensions. ==Algorithms== Many algorithms for computing Delaunay triangulations rely on fast operations for detecting when a point is within a triangle's circumcircle and an efficient data structure for storing triangles and edges. In two dimensions, one way to detect if point lies in the circumcircle of is to evaluate the determinant: \begin{align} & \begin{vmatrix} A_x & A_y & A_x^2 + A_y^2 & 1\\ B_x & B_y & B_x^2 + B_y^2 & 1\\ C_x & C_y & C_x^2 + C_y^2 & 1\\ D_x & D_y & D_x^2 + D_y^2 & 1 \end{vmatrix} \\[8pt] = {} & \begin{vmatrix} A_x - D_x & A_y - D_y & (A_x - D_x)^2 + (A_y - D_y)^2 \\ B_x - D_x & B_y - D_y & (B_x - D_x)^2 + (B_y - D_y)^2 \\ C_x - D_x & C_y - D_y & (C_x - D_x)^2 + (C_y - D_y)^2 \end{vmatrix} > 0 \end{align} When are sorted in a counterclockwise order, this determinant is positive only if lies inside the circumcircle. ===Flip algorithms=== As mentioned above, if a triangle is non-Delaunay, we can flip one of its edges. This leads to a straightforward algorithm: construct any triangulation of the points, and then flip edges until no triangle is non-Delaunay. Unfortunately, this can take edge flips. While this algorithm can be generalised to three and higher dimensions, its convergence is not guaranteed in these cases, as it is conditioned to the connectedness of the underlying flip graph: this graph is connected for two-dimensional sets of points, but may be disconnected in higher dimensions. ===Incremental=== The most straightforward way of efficiently computing the Delaunay triangulation is to repeatedly add one vertex at a time, retriangulating the affected parts of the graph. When a vertex is added, we split in three the triangle that contains , then we apply the flip algorithm. Done naïvely, this will take time: we search through all the triangles to find the one that contains , then we potentially flip away every triangle. Then the overall runtime is . If we insert vertices in random order, it turns out (by a somewhat intricate proof) that each insertion will flip, on average, only triangles – although sometimes it will flip many more. This still leaves the point location time to improve. We can store the history of the splits and flips performed: each triangle stores a pointer to the two or three triangles that replaced it. To find the triangle that contains , we start at a root triangle, and follow the pointer that points to a triangle that contains , until we find a triangle that has not yet been replaced. On average, this will also take time. Over all vertices, then, this takes time. While the technique extends to higher dimension (as proved by Edelsbrunner and Shah), the runtime can be exponential in the dimension even if the final Delaunay triangulation is small. The Bowyer–Watson algorithm provides another approach for incremental construction. It gives an alternative to edge flipping for computing the Delaunay triangles containing a newly inserted vertex. Unfortunately the flipping-based algorithms are generally hard to parallelize, since adding some certain point (e.g. the center point of a wagon wheel) can lead to up to consecutive flips. Blelloch et al. proposed another version of incremental algorithm based on rip-and-tent, which is practical and highly parallelized with polylogarithmic span. ===Divide and conquer=== A divide and conquer algorithm for triangulations in two dimensions was developed by Lee and Schachter and improved by Guibas and Stolfi and later by Dwyer. In this algorithm, one recursively draws a line to split the vertices into two sets. The Delaunay triangulation is computed for each set, and then the two sets are merged along the splitting line. Using some clever tricks, the merge operation can be done in time , so the total running time is . For certain types of point sets, such as a uniform random distribution, by intelligently picking the splitting lines the expected time can be reduced to while still maintaining worst-case performance. A divide and conquer paradigm to performing a triangulation in dimensions is presented in "DeWall: A fast divide and conquer Delaunay triangulation algorithm in Ed" by P. Cignoni, C. Montani, R. Scopigno. The divide and conquer algorithm has been shown to be the fastest DT generation technique sequentially. ===Sweephull=== Sweephull is a hybrid technique for 2D Delaunay triangulation that uses a radially propagating sweep-hull, and a flipping algorithm. The sweep-hull is created sequentially by iterating a radially-sorted set of 2D points, and connecting triangles to the visible part of the convex hull, which gives a non-overlapping triangulation. One can build a convex hull in this manner so long as the order of points guarantees no point would fall within the triangle. But, radially sorting should minimize flipping by being highly Delaunay to start. This is then paired with a final iterative triangle flipping step. == Applications == The Euclidean minimum spanning tree of a set of points is a subset of the Delaunay triangulation of the same points, and this can be exploited to compute it efficiently. For modelling terrain or other objects given a point cloud, the Delaunay triangulation gives a nice set of triangles to use as polygons in the model. In particular, the Delaunay triangulation avoids narrow triangles (as they have large circumcircles compared to their area). See triangulated irregular network. Delaunay triangulations can be used to determine the density or intensity of points samplings by means of the Delaunay tessellation field estimator (DTFE). Delaunay triangulations are often used to generate meshes for space-discretised solvers such as the finite element method and the finite volume method of physics simulation, because of the angle guarantee and because fast triangulation algorithms have been developed. Typically, the domain to be meshed is specified as a coarse simplicial complex; for the mesh to be numerically stable, it must be refined, for instance by using Ruppert's algorithm. The increasing popularity of finite element method and boundary element method techniques increases the incentive to improve automatic meshing algorithms. However, all of these algorithms can create distorted and even unusable grid elements. Fortunately, several techniques exist which can take an existing mesh and improve its quality. For example, smoothing (also referred to as mesh refinement) is one such method, which repositions nodes to minimize element distortion. The stretched grid method allows the generation of pseudo-regular meshes that meet the Delaunay criteria easily and quickly in a one-step solution. Constrained Delaunay triangulation has found applications in path planning in automated driving and topographic surveying.	[ "Boris Delaunay", "Constrained Delaunay triangulation", "simplicial complex", "Algorithmica", "terrain", "Voronoi diagram", "convex hull", "counterclockwise", "Quadrilateral", "Discrete and Computational Geometry", "Triangle mesh", "Gradient pattern analysis", "geometric spanner", "Farthest-first traversal", "Analysis of parallel algorithms", "Pitteway triangulation", "Monique Teillaud", "Disordered hyperuniformity", "finite volume method", "CGAL", "Beta skeleton", "Giant's Causeway", "Circumcircle", "Bowyer–Watson algorithm", "Jorge Stolfi", "Euler characteristic", "Convex hull algorithms", "Salem number", "Ruppert's algorithm", "dual graph", "hypersphere", "sliver triangle", "triangulated irregular network", "Poisson process", "Gabriel graph", "discrete space", "flip graph", "Plesiohedron", "computational geometry", "Euclidean space", "circumscribed circle", "Urquhart graph", "Euclidean distance", "Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number", "Radius", "mesh generation", "Triangulation (geometry)", "triangulation (geometry)", "Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm", "ACM Transactions on Graphics", "finite element method", "Computational Geometry (journal)", "SIAM Journal on Computing", "path planning", "paraboloid", "Quasitriangulation", "nearest neighbor graph", "circumcircle", "Discrete & Computational Geometry", "divide and conquer algorithm", "boundary element method", "metric (mathematics)", "Degeneracy (mathematics)", "Centroidal Voronoi tessellation", "general position", "point cloud", "Hamming bound", "Delaunay refinement", "Lloyd's algorithm", "Quasicrystal", "Leonidas J. Guibas", "Euclidean minimum spanning tree", "Mariette Yvinec", "Delone set", "simplex", "Delaunay tessellation field estimator", "Meyer set", "stretched grid method", "determinant", "Collinearity", "Steiner point (triangle)" ]
8,865	Defendant	In court proceedings, a defendant is a person or object who is the party either accused of committing a crime in criminal prosecution or against whom some type of civil relief is being sought in a civil case. Terminology varies from one jurisdiction to another. In Scots law, the terms "accused" or "panel" are used instead in criminal proceedings and "defender" in civil proceedings. Another term in use is "respondent". ==Criminal defendants== In a criminal trial, a defendant is a person accused (charged) of committing an offense (a crime; an act defined as punishable under criminal law). The other party to a criminal trial is usually a public prosecutor, but in some jurisdictions, private prosecutions are allowed. Criminal defendants are often taken into custody by police and brought before a court under an arrest warrant. Criminal defendants are usually obliged to post bail before being released from custody. For serious cases, such as murder, bail may be refused. Defendants must be present at every stage of the proceedings against them. (There is an exception for very minor cases such as traffic offenses in jurisdictions which treat them as crimes.) If more than one person is accused, the people may be referred as "co-defendant" or "co-conspirator" in British and common law courts. In some jurisdictions, vulnerable defendants may be able to get access of services of a non-registered intermediary to assist with communication at court. ==Civil defendants== In a civil lawsuit, a defendant (or a respondent) is also the accused party, although not of an offense, but of a civil wrong (a tort or a breach of contract, for instance). The person who starts the civil action through filing a complaint is referred to as the plaintiff (also known as the appellant). Defendants in civil actions usually make their first court appearance voluntarily in response to a summons. Historically, civil defendants could be taken into custody under a writ of capias ad respondendum. Modern-day civil defendants are usually able to avoid most (if not all) court appearances if represented by a lawyer. Most often and familiarly, defendants are persons: either natural persons (actual human beings) or juridical persons (persona fiction) under the legal fiction of treating organizations as persons. But a defendant may be an object, in which case the object itself is the direct subject of the action. When a court has jurisdiction over an object, it is said to have jurisdiction in rem. An example of an in rem case is United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola (1916), where the defendant was not the Coca-Cola Company itself, but rather "Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola". In current United States legal practice, in rem suits are primarily asset forfeiture cases, based on drug laws, as in USA v. $124,700 (2006). Defendants can set up an account to pay for litigation costs and legal expenses. These legal defense funds can have large membership counts where members contribute to the fund. The fund can be public or private and is set up for individuals, organizations, or a particular purpose. These funds are often used by public officials, civil-rights organizations, and public-interest organizations. ==England and Wales== Historically, "defendant" was a legal term for a person prosecuted for misdemeanour. It was not applicable to a person prosecuted for felony.	[ "Owen Hood Phillips", "legal expense", "Attribution (law)", "tort", "Scots law", "Civil procedure", "lawsuit", "A First Book of English Law", "breach of contract", "misdemeanour", "arrest warrant", "Criminal procedure", "Transportation Security Administration", "Coca-Cola Company", "Sweet and Maxwell", "USA v. $124,700", "jurisdiction", "crime", "civil wrong", "police", "Legal personality", "Trial", "prosecutor", "lawyer", "asset forfeiture", "bail", "legal defense fund", "jurisdiction in rem", "United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola", "Criminal charge", "felony", "Party (law)", "Civil law (area)", "plaintiff", "capias ad respondendum", "Asset forfeiture", "criminal law", "complaint", "legal fiction", "natural person", "non-registered intermediary" ]
8,873	Gnaeus Domitius Afer	Gnaeus Domitius Afer (died 59) was a Roman orator and advocate, born at Nemausus (Nîmes) in Gallia Narbonensis. He flourished in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. He was suffect consul in the nundinium of September to December 39 as the colleague of Aulus Didius Gallus. ==Life== Afer became praetor in 25 AD, and gained the favor of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulchra, the second cousin of Agrippina, of adultery and the use of magic arts against the emperor, in 26 AD. From this time he became one of the most celebrated orators in Rome, but sacrificed his character by conducting accusations for the government. In the following year, 27 AD, he is again mentioned by Tacitus as the accuser of Quinctilius Varus, the son of Claudia Pulchra. In consequence of the accusation of Claudia Pulchra, and of some offense which he had given to Caligula, he was accused by the emperor in the senate, but by concealing his own skill in speaking, and pretending to be overpowered by the eloquence of Caligula, Afer not only escaped the danger, but was made consul suffectus in 39 AD. In his old age Afer lost much of his reputation by continuing to speak in public, when his powers were exhausted. During the reign of Nero he became curator aquarum, or superintendent of the city's water supply, but died not long afterwards, in 59 AD, having eaten himself to death, according to Jerome in the Chronicon of Eusebius. Quintilian, when a young man, heard Afer, and frequently speaks of him as the most distinguished orator of his age. He says that Afer and Julius Africanus were the best orators he had heard, and that he prefers the former to the latter, Quintilian refers to a work of his On Testimony, to one entitled Dicta, and to some of his orations, of which those on behalf of Domitilla, or Cloantilla, and Lucius Volusenus Catulus seem to have been the most celebrated. According to Pliny the Younger, in his will Afer had made Titius Marcellus Curvius Lucanus and Titius Marcellus Curvius Tullus his heirs on the condition that they take on his name. He had prosecuted their father, Sextus Curvius Tullus, stripping him of his wealth and citizenship. Pliny comments that Afer's will had been drawn up 18 years previously, suggesting that Afer and Tullus the elder had once been friends.	[ "Gnaeus Domitius Tullus", "Domitia gens", "orator", "Quintilian", "Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo", "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology", "Tacitus", "Chronicon (Eusebius)", "Caligula", "Aulus Didius Gallus", "Roman consul", "Antichthon", "List of Roman consuls", "adultery", "List of ancient Roman speeches", "Eusebius of Caesarea", "Julius Africanus (orator)", "Roman Empire", "Quinctilius Varus", "Tiberius", "Lucius Volusenus Catulus", "Jerome", "Nîmes", "Cassius Dio", "Annals (Tacitus)", "Gallia Narbonensis", "Claudia Pulchra", "Gnaeus Domitius Lucanus", "Curator Aquarum", "Nerva–Antonine dynasty", "Pliny the Younger", "Nero", "Claudius", "Agrippina the Elder", "nundinium", "Epistulae (Pliny)", "praetor" ]
8,875	Dan Simmons	Dan Simmons (born April 4, 1948) is an American science fiction and horror writer. He is the author of the Hyperion Cantos and the Ilium/Olympos cycles, among other works that span the science fiction, horror, and fantasy genres, sometimes within a single novel. Simmons's genre-intermingling Song of Kali (1985) won the World Fantasy Award. Simmons received a B.A. in English from Wabash College in 1970 and, in 1971, a Masters in Education from Washington University in St. Louis. He soon started writing short stories, although his career did not take off until 1982, when, through Harlan Ellison's help, Simmons was invited to the Milford workshop, which Ellison considered to be "the best SF writing workshop in the world". Simmons considered Ellison as a mentor, friend, and the reason he pursued writing full-time. ==Horror fiction== Summer of Night (1991) recounts the childhood of a group of pre-teens who band together in the 1960s, to defeat a centuries-old evil that terrorizes their hometown of Elm Haven, Illinois. The novel, which was praised by Stephen King in a cover blurb, is similar to King's It (1986) in its focus on small-town life, the corruption of innocence, the return of an ancient evil, and the responsibility for others that emerges with the transition from youth to adulthood. In the sequel to Summer of Night, A Winter Haunting (2002), Dale Stewart (one of the first book's protagonists and now an adult), revisits his boyhood home to come to grips with mysteries that have disrupted his adult life. Between the publication of Summer of Night (1991) and A Winter Haunting (2002), several additional characters from Summer of Night appeared in: Children of the Night (1992), a loose sequel to Summer of Night, which features Mike O'Rourke, now much older and a Roman Catholic priest, who is sent on a mission to investigate bizarre events in a European city; Fires of Eden (1994), in which the adult Cordie Cooke appears; and Darwin's Blade (2000), a thriller in which Dale's younger brother, Lawrence Stewart, appears as a minor character. After Summer of Night, Simmons focused on writing science fiction until the 2007 work of historical fiction and horror, The Terror. His 2009 book Drood is based on the last years of Charles Dickens' life leading up to the writing of The Mystery of Edwin Drood, which Dickens had partially completed at the time of his death. ==Literary references== Many of Simmons's works have strong ties with classic literature. For example: His 1989 novel Hyperion, winner of Hugo and Locus Awards for the best science fiction novel, The Hyperion Cantos take their titles from poems by the British Romantic John Keats. The title of Carrion Comfort, as well as many of its themes, derives from the poem "Carrion Comfort" by Gerard Manley Hopkins. The Hollow Man (1992) is a novel influenced by Dante's Inferno and T. S. Eliot "The Great Lover" (1993) is a short story inspired by the World War I War Poets Simmons's collection of short stories, Worlds Enough & Time, takes its name from the first line of the poem "To His Coy Mistress" by English poet Andrew Marvell: "Had we but world enough, and time" The detective in Flashback is named Nick Bottom after a character in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream	[ "Digital Domain", "Nick Bottom", "Hyperion (Simmons novel)", "Shirley Jackson Award", "A Winter Haunting", "Edward Bryant", "Prayers to Broken Stones", "Longmont, Colorado", "Horror fiction", "Stephen King", "The Tempest (play)", "Rotten Tomatoes", "Locus Award", "Dying Earth", "Homer", "Theodore Sturgeon Award", "Gerard Manley Hopkins", "Kurd Laßwitz Award", "Nebula Award", "Endymion (Simmons novel)", "Canterbury Tales", "The Terror (TV series)", "Guillermo del Toro", "Chaucer", "Warner Bros.", "Los Angeles Times", "Carrion Comfort", "Premio Ignotus", "Syfy", "Arthur C. Clarke Award", "Steve Rasnic Tem", "William Shakespeare", "Deadline Hollywood", "Masters in Education", "Template:Infobox writer/doc", "World War I", "John Joseph Adams", "Nocte Award", "International Horror Guild Award", "Universal Pictures", "Washington University in St. Louis", "Bachelor of Arts", "John Keats", "Variety.com", "The Iliad", "Olympos (novel)", "Hugo Award", "His Coy Mistress", "John Franklin", "Hyperion Cantos", "T. S. Eliot", "Connie Willis", "The Terror (novel)", "Northwest Passage", "The Fall of Hyperion (novel)", "The Seattle Times", "Tähtivaeltaja Award", "Fires of Eden (novel)", "Muse of Fire", "British Fantasy Award", "thriller (genre)", "Franklin's lost expedition", "It (novel)", "Mount Everest", "Bram Stoker Award", "Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Master of Education", "Twilight Zone Magazine", "chapbook", "Andrew Marvell", "Variety (magazine)", "Tom Spezialy", "BFSA Award", "Giovanni Boccaccio", "AMC (TV channel)", "fantasy", "The Crook Factory", "Bradley Cooper", "World Horror Convention Grand Master Award", "Scott Derrickson", "Ilium/Olympos", "Jack Vance", "World Fantasy Award", "Seiun Award", "Science fiction", "science fiction", "Hard as Nails (novel)", "genres", "Illinois", "Drood (novel)", "Charles Dickens", "Wabash College", "Daily Camera", "Decameron", "The Hollow Man (1992 novel)", "historical fiction", "FantLab's Book of the Year Award", "War Poets", "The Mystery of Edwin Drood", "Summer of Night", "Peoria, Illinois", "The Rise of Endymion", "Metacritic", "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "Ilium (novel)", "Orphans of the Helix", "Song of Kali", "Hard Freeze (novel)", "Goodreads Choice Awards", "BSFA Award", "Hardcase (novel)", "Harlan Ellison", "iarchive:BookBanterEpisode004-AnInterviewWithDanSimmons" ]
8,876	Denis Auguste Affre	Denis-Auguste Affre (; 27 September 179327 June 1848) was a French clergyman who served as Archbishop of Paris from 1840 to 1848. He was killed while trying to negotiate peace during the June Days uprising of 1848. His cause for beatification has commenced and he is therefore titled a Servant of God. ==Life== ===Early life and career=== Affre was born at Saint-Rome-de-Tarn, in the department of Aveyron. At the age of 14, he began to study for the priesthood at the Seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, which was under the direction of his uncle, the Abbé Denis Boyer, S.S. He was an excellent student, and, while still a seminarian, soon became an instructor of dogmatic theology at the seminary in Nantes. In 1818, he was ordained as a Catholic priest. From 1823 to 1833 he served as the Vicar General, first of the Diocese of Luçon and then of Amiens. In 1839, he was appointed as coadjutor bishop of the Diocese of Strasbourg. This post, however, he never filled, being called on to act as Vicar-Capitular of Paris, conjointly with MM. Auger and Morel, at the death of Archbishop Quélen. nevertheless he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to pastoral care. He opened new parishes in the working-class neighborhoods of the city. Among them were Ménilmontant, Plaisance, Petit-Montrouge, Maison-Blanche, Petit-Gentilly, Notre-Dame de la Gare, Billancourt, Gros-Caillou. There have been conflicting claims as to whether the fatal bullet was fired by an insurgent or by the government forces. He was taken to his palace, where he died on 27 June. On the next day, the National Assembly of France issued a decree expressing its great sorrow over Affre's death, and the public funeral held on 7 July was one of the most striking public spectacles of the period. In 1856, the smallest of the four "Benjamines," four new bells made for Notre-Dame, was named Denise David in honor of Affre and Amédée-David de Pastoret. Affre's niece by marriage, Marie Caroline Affre, served as godmother to the bell during the baptism ceremony. A street in the 18th arrondissement of Paris is named in his honor. ==Writings== Affre wrote several articles for a newspaper called La France chrétienne. Additionally he published two books to guide in the practical matters of handling Church property: Un Traité de l'administration temporelle des paroisses (Paris, 1827) and Un Traité de la propriété des biens ecclésiastiques (Paris, 1837). He also wrote a guide to studying the Christian faith, Une Introduction philosophique à l'étude du christianisme (Paris, 5th edition, 1846).	[ "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Strasbourg", "Catholic Church", "dogmatic theology", "Holy Orders", "Notre-Dame de la Gare", "Bells of Notre-Dame de Paris", "insurrection of June 1848", "Amédée-David de Pastoret", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Amiens", "priory", "Servant of God", "Catholic priest", "Society of Saint-Sulpice", "Archbishop of Paris", "French Second Republic", "relic", "18th arrondissement of Paris", "Saint-Rome-de-Tarn", "cortege", "University of Paris", "National Workshops", "Encyclopaedia Britannica", "Abbé", "Notre-Dame de Paris", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris", "Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour", "pectoral cross", "Diocese of Strasbourg", "Soli, Cilicia", "National Guard (France)", "Vicar General", "pastoral care", "Louis Eugène Cavaignac", "Marie Dominique Auguste Sibour", "fr:Séminaire des Carmes", "Frederic Ozanam", "Nantes", "Coadjutor Bishop", "cardinal (Catholic Church)", "beatification", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Luçon", "Saint-Sulpice, Paris", "Louis-Philippe I", "Aveyron", "school of theology", "Hyacinthe-Louis de Quélen", "Paris", "coadjutor bishop", "parish", "Society of St. Vincent de Paul", "Faubourg Saint-Antoine", "National Assembly of France", "Titular Bishop", "Auguste-Hyacinthe Debay", "Insurgency", "June Days uprising" ]
8,877	Dione	Dione may refer to: ==Astronomy== 106 Dione, a large main belt asteroid Dione (moon), a moon of Saturn Helene (moon), a moon of Saturn sometimes referred to as "Dione B" ==Mythology== Dione (Titaness), a Titaness in Greek mythology Dione (mythology), a name for various women in Greek mythology ==Biology== Dione (alga), a genus of red algae in the family Bangiaceae Dione (butterfly), a genus in the family Heliconiinae Pitar dione, the elegant venus clam ==Boating== Dione 98, a Spanish sailboat design ==Chemistry== Diketone (Dione), a molecule containing two ketone groups Ethylene dione (ethylenedione, ethene dione, or ethene 1,2-dione), a hypothetical chemical compound with the formula C2O2 (O=C=C=O) ==Given name== Dione Lucas (1909–1971), English chef and first female graduate of Le Cordon Bleu Dee Dee Sharp (born Dione LaRue, 1945), American R&B singer Dione Santos (born 1979), Brazilian footballer Dione Miguel Ribas (born 1993), Brazilian footballer Dione Taylor, Canadian jazz singer ==Literature== Dione (play), a 1720 work by the British writer John Gay ==Popular culture== Dee Bliss (Dione "Dee" Rebecchi), from the Australian soap opera Neighbours Thanos, a villain in Marvel Comics, was originally given the name by his mother ==Surname== Dione (Serer surname), a West African surname among the Serer people with no connection to the French "Dione" Rose Dione (1875–1936), French actress Aura Dione, Danish singer-songwriter ==Other== Dione plc, a former UK-based point-of-sale equipment manufacturer, now part of VeriFone	[ "Aura Dione", "106 Dione", "Ethylene dione", "Dione plc", "Dione (mythology)", "Neighbours", "Dee Bliss", "Dion (disambiguation)", "Dione Miguel Ribas", "Diketone", "Dione (butterfly)", "Dione Taylor", "VeriFone", "Dione (alga)", "Pitar dione", "Dione Santos", "Deon", "Rose Dione", "Dione (Serer surname)", "Deion (disambiguation)", "Helene (moon)", "Thanos", "Dione (moon)", "Dione (Titaness)", "Dione 98", "Dionne (disambiguation)", "Diode", "Dee Dee Sharp", "Dione (play)", "Dione Lucas" ]
8,878	Denis Leary	Denis Colin Leary (born August 18, 1957) is an American stand-up comedian and actor. Born in Massachusetts, he first came to prominence as a stand-up comedian, especially through appearances on MTV (including the comedic song "Asshole") and through the stand-up specials No Cure for Cancer (1993) and Lock 'n Load (1997). Leary began taking roles in film and television starting in the 1990s, including substantial roles in the films Judgment Night (1993), Gunmen (1994), Operation Dumbo Drop (1995) and Wag the Dog (1997). In the 2000s, Leary developed and starred in the television show The Job (2001–2002) and was the star and co-creator of Rescue Me (2004–2011), for which he received three Primetime Emmy nominations, one for writing and two for acting. Leary has continued to take starring roles in films, including Captain George Stacy in The Amazing Spider-Man and Cleveland Browns head coach Vince Penn in Draft Day. He has done voice work, including Francis in A Bug's Life and Diego in the Ice Age franchise. From 2015 to 2016, Leary wrote and starred in the comedy series Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll on FX. ==Early life== Denis Colin Leary was born on August 18, 1957, in Worcester, Massachusetts, the son of Catholic immigrant parents from Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland. His mother, Nora (née Sullivan; b. 1929), was a maid, and his father, John Leary (1924–1985), was an auto mechanic. Leary is a citizen of both the United States and Ireland. Leary is a third cousin of talk show host and fellow comedian Conan O'Brien. Leary attended Saint Peter's High School (now Saint Paul's) in Worcester and graduated from Emerson College in Boston. At Emerson, he befriended fellow comic Mario Cantone. While a student, Leary founded the Emerson Comedy Workshop, a troupe that continues on the campus today. After graduating from Emerson in 1981, Leary taught comedy-writing classes at the school for five years. In May 2005, he received an honorary doctorate and spoke at his alma mater's undergraduate commencement ceremony; and is credited as Dr. Denis Leary on the cover of his 2009 book Why We Suck. ==Career== Leary began working as a comedian at the Boston underground club Play It Again Sam's. His first real gig was at the Rascals Comedy Club as part of the TV show The Rascals Comedy Hour, on October 18, 1990. Leary wrote and appeared on a local comedy series, Lenny Clarke's Late Show, hosted by his friend Lenny Clarke and written by Martin Olson. Leary and Clarke both spoke about their early affiliations and influences in the Boston comedy scene in the documentary film When Standup Stood Out (2006). During Leary's time as a Boston-area stand-up comic, he developed his stage persona. Leary appeared in sketches on the MTV game show Remote Control, playing characters such as Keith Richards, co-host Colin Quinn's brother and artist Andy Warhol. He earned fame when he ranted about R.E.M. in an early 1990s MTV sketch. Several other commercials for MTV quickly followed, in which Leary would rant at high speeds about a variety of topics, playing off the then-popular and growing alternative scene. One of these rants served as an introduction to the video for "Shamrocks and Shenanigans (Boom Shalock Lock Boom)" by House of Pain. Leary released two records of his comedy: No Cure for Cancer (1993) and Lock 'n Load (1997). In late 2004, he released the EP Merry F %$in' Christmas, which included a mix of new music, previously unreleased recordings and some tracks from Lock 'n Load. In 1993, Leary's sardonic song "Asshole", about the stereotypical American male, achieved much notoriety. The song was voted No. 1 in an Australian radio poll and was used in Holsten Pils ads in the UK, with Leary's participation, and with adapted lyrics criticizing a drunk driver. The single was a minor hit there, peaking at No. 58 in the UK Singles Chart in January 1996. In 1995, Leary was asked by Boston Bruins legend Cam Neely to help orchestrate a Boston-based comedy benefit show for Neely's cancer charity; this became Comics Come Home, which Leary has hosted annually ever since. Leary has appeared in many films, including The Sandlot as Scott's stepfather Bill, Monument Ave., The Matchmaker, The Ref, Draft Day, Suicide Kings, Dawg, Wag the Dog, Demolition Man (as an Emmanuel Goldstein-esque revolutionary to Nigel Hawthorne's Big Brother), Judgment Night, The Thomas Crown Affair and Operation Dumbo Drop. He had a role in Oliver Stone's Natural Born Killers that was eventually cut. He held the lead role in two television series, The Job and Rescue Me . He co-created the latter, in which he played Tommy Gavin, a New York City firefighter dealing with alcoholism, family dysfunction and other issues in post-9/11 New York City. Leary received Emmy Award nominations in 2006 and 2007 for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for Rescue Me, and in 2008 for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for the HBO movie Recount. Leary was offered the role of Dignam in The Departed (2006) but turned it down because of scheduling conflicts with Rescue Me. He provided voices for characters in animated films, such as a fire-breathing dragon named Flame in the series The Agents, a pugnacious ladybug named Francis in A Bug's Life and a prehistoric saber-toothed tiger named Diego in the Ice Age film series. He has produced numerous movies, television shows, and specials through his production company, Apostle; these include Comedy Central's Shorties Watchin' Shorties, the stand-up special Denis Leary's Merry F#$%in' Christmas and the movie Blow. As a Boston Red Sox fan, Leary narrated the official 2004 World Series film. In 2006, Leary and Lenny Clarke appeared on television during a Red Sox telecast and, upon realizing that Red Sox first baseman Kevin Youkilis is Jewish, delivered a criticism of Mel Gibson's antisemitic comments. As an ice hockey fan, Leary hosted the National Hockey League video NHL's Greatest Goals. In 2003, he was the subject of the Comedy Central Roast of Denis Leary. Leary did the TV voiceover for MLB 2K8 advertisements, using his trademark rant style in baseball terms, and ads for the 2009 Ford F-150 pickup truck. He has also appeared in commercials for Hulu and DirecTV's NFL Sunday Ticket package. Leary was a producer of the Fox series Canterbury's Law, and wrote and directed its pilot episode. Canterbury's Law aired in the spring of 2008 and was canceled after eight episodes. On September 9, 2008, Leary hosted the sixth annual Fashion Rocks event, which aired on CBS. In December of the year, he appeared in a video on funnyordie.com critiquing a list of some of his "best" films, titled "Denis Leary Remembers Denis Leary Movies". Also in 2008, Leary voiced a guest role as himself in The Simpsons episode "Lost Verizon". On March 21, 2009, Leary began the Rescue Me Comedy Tour in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The 11-date tour, featuring Rescue Me co-stars Lenny Clarke and Adam Ferrara, was Leary's first stand-up comedy tour in 12 years. The Comedy Central special Douchebags and Donuts, filmed during the tour, debuted on American television on January 16, 2011, with a DVD release on January 18, 2011. Leary played Captain George Stacy in the movie The Amazing Spider-Man, released in July 2012. He wrote the American adaptation of Sirens. Leary is an executive producer of the documentary Burn, which chronicles the struggles of the Detroit Fire Department. Burn won the 2012 Tribeca Film Festival Audience Award. Leary created a television series for FX called Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll, taking the starring role himself. A 10-episode first season was ordered by FX, with the premiere on July 16, 2015. The show ran for two seasons. In 2022, Leary was cast in the recurring role of Frank Donnelly, an NYPD officer on Law & Order: Organized Crime. Leary has been the narrator for NESN's documentary show about the Boston Bruins called Behind the B since the show began in 2013. ==Personal life== Leary has been married to author Ann Lembeck Leary since 1989. They met when he was her instructor in an English class at Emerson College. They have two children, son John Joseph "Jack" (born 1990) and daughter Devin (born 1992). Ann Leary published a memoir, An Innocent, a Broad, about the premature birth of their son on a visit to London. She has also written a novel, Outtakes From a Marriage, which was published in 2008. Her second novel, The Good House, was published in 2013. Her essay in a New York Times column about her marriage to Denis inspired the Modern Love series Episode 4: "Rallying to Keep the Game Alive". Leary is an ice hockey fan and has a backyard rink at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut, with piping installed under the ice surface to help it stay frozen. He is a fan of the Boston Bruins, Boston Celtics, and Boston Red Sox, as well as the Green Bay Packers. Leary describes himself as a "Jack Kennedy Democrat" with some conservative ideologies, including support for the military. Leary told Glenn Beck, "I was a life-long Democrat, but now at my age, I've come to realize that the Democrats suck, and the Republicans suck, and basically the entire system sucks. But you have to go within the system to find what you want." Leary has said of his religious beliefs, "I'm a lapsed Catholic in the best sense of the word. You know, I was raised with Irish parents, Irish immigrant parents. My parents, you know, prayed all the time, took us to Mass. And my father would sometimes swear in Gaelic. It doesn't get more religious than that. But, no, after a while, they taught us wrong. I didn't raise my kids with the fear of God. I raised my kids with the sense of, you know, to me, Jesus was this great guy...." ==Leary Firefighters Foundation== On December 3, 1999, six firefighters from Leary's hometown of Worcester were killed in the Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire. Among the dead were Leary's cousin Jerry Lucey, as well as Leary's close childhood friend, Lt. Tommy Spencer. ==Controversies== ===Plagiarism=== For many years, Leary had been friends with fellow comedian Bill Hicks. But when Leary's comedy album No Cure for Cancer was released, Leary was accused of stealing Hicks' act and material, ending their friendship abruptly. In April 1993, the Austin Comedy News remarked on the similarities of Leary's performance: "Watching Leary is like seeing Hicks from two years ago. He smokes with the same mannerisms. (Hicks recently quit.) He sports the same attitude, the same clothes. He touches on almost all of the same themes. Leary even invokes Jim Fixx." When asked about this, Hicks told the magazine, "I have a scoop for you. I stole his [Leary's] act. I camouflaged it with punchlines, and to really throw people off, I did it before he did". At least three stand-up comedians have gone on the record stating they believe Leary stole Hicks' material, comedic persona and attitude. One similar routine was about the so-called Judas Priest "suicide trial," during which Hicks says, "I don't think we lost a cancer cure." During Leary's 2003 Comedy Central Roast, comedian Lenny Clarke, a friend of Leary's, said there was a carton of cigarettes backstage from Bill Hicks with the message, "Wish I had gotten these to you sooner." This joke was cut from the final broadcast. The feud is also mentioned in Cynthia True's biography American Scream: The Bill Hicks Story: According to the book, True said that upon hearing a tape of Leary's album No Cure for Cancer, "Bill was furious. All these years, aside from the occasional jibe, he had pretty much shrugged off Leary's lifting. Comedians borrowed, stole stuff and even bought bits from one another. Milton Berle and Robin Williams were famous for it. This was different. Leary had, practically line for line, taken huge chunks of Bill's act and recorded it." On a later episode of the same show, Leary challenged this assertion by claiming to have co-written the song with Chris Phillips. ===Autism=== In his 2008 book Why We Suck: A Feel Good Guide to Staying Fat, Loud, Lazy and Stupid, Leary wrote: Leary later stated that the quote was taken out of context and that in that paragraph he had been talking about what he calls the trend of "unwarranted" over-diagnosis of autism, which he attributed to American parents seeking an excuse for behavioral problems and under-performance. Later, he apologized to parents with children diagnosed with autism whom he had offended. ==Filmography== === Comedy specials === ===Film=== ===Television=== ===Video games=== ==Discography== ===Albums=== No Cure for Cancer (1993) Lock 'n Load (1997) Merry F#%$in' Christmas (2004) ===Singles=== "Asshole" (1993) "At the Rehab" (2009) "Douchebag" (2011) "Kiss My Ass" (2012)	[ "MTV", "County Kerry", "Montreal", "Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas", "No Good Deed (TV series)", "Chris Phillips (voice actor)", "United States nationality law", "Suicide Kings", "Alternative rock", "black comedy", "Stand-up comedy", "CBS", "Fashion Rocks", "Love Walked In (1997 film)", "Hulu", "Why We Suck", "Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse", "Gunmen (1994 film)", "Asshole (song)", "Animal Kingdom (TV series)", "The Job (2001 TV series)", "Ice Age (franchise)", "Wide Awake (1998 film)", "stand-up comedian", "DVD Exclusive Awards", "Canterbury's Law", "House of Pain", "Tommy Gavin", "Killarney", "Freaks of Nature (film)", "Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire", "Wag the Dog", "Republican Party (United States)", "You Really Got Me", "Blow (film)", "Bill Hicks", "The Rosie O'Donnell Show", "Lock 'n Load (album)", "Lakeboat", "List of Ice Age characters", "Comedy Central Records", "Comedy Central", "The Ref", "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (US game show)", "New Orleans Fire Department", "Mobile game", "Emmy Awards", "Ice Age: The Meltdown", "The Sandlot", "Showtime (TV network)", "Psychiatrist", "Adam Ferrara", "Tribeca Film Festival", "Deadline Hollywood", "Hurricane Katrina", "The Late Late Show (CBS TV series)", "True Crime (1999 film)", "Maron (TV series)", "Ice Age (2002 film)", "Burn (2012 film)", "insult comedy", "Mario Cantone", "Big Brother (1984)", "Merry F %$in' Christmas", "September 11 attacks", "Company Man (film)", "The Amazing Spider-Man (film)", "premature birth", "Louis C.K.", "NFL Sunday Ticket", "Atlantic City, New Jersey", "Milton Berle", "funnyordie.com", "Long Walk to Forever (short film)", "Television Critics Association Awards", "Law & Order: Organized Crime", "Modern Love (TV series)", "Ice Age 2 (video game)", "National Hockey League", "Michael Whouley", "Cam Neely", "The Moodys (American TV series)", "Glenn Beck", "extended play", "Small Soldiers", "Detroit Fire Department", "Cameo appearance", "Director's cut", "Operation Dumbo Drop", "Draft Day", "Ice Age: Collision Course", "Primetime Emmy", "Andy Warhol", "Strictly Business (1991 film)", "Irish nationality law", "The Late Late Show with James Corden", "FX (TV channel)", "firefighter", "Colin Quinn", "lapsed Catholic", "Jesus' Son (film)", "Lost Verizon", "When Stand Up Stood Out", "The Departed", "Tobacco smoking", "Monument Ave. (film)", "The Second Civil War", "sardonic", "Worcester, Massachusetts", "Elizabeth Hurley", "Comedy Central Roast", "Boston Celtics", "Boston", "Underworld (1996 film)", "George Stacy", "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson", "Rescue Me (American TV series)", "Rescue Me (U.S. TV series)", "Double Whammy (2001 film)", "Ralph Fiennes", "Autism spectrum disorder", "Kids' Choice Awards", "New York City Fire Department", "CableACE Awards", "A&M Records", "Green Bay Packers", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Remote Control (game show)", "Ice Age: Continental Drift", "Demolition Man (film)", "Emmy Award", "Catholic", "NESN", "No Cure for Cancer", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Irish language", "Family Guy", "Douchebags and Donuts", "Cynthia True", "Comics Come Home", "Ice Age: The Great Egg-Scapade", "Sirens (2014 TV series)", "Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll (TV series)", "Holsten Brewery", "Boston Bruins", "Oliver Stone", "Jim Fixx", "List of A Bug's Life characters", "2004 World Series", "Roxbury, Connecticut", "film", "Nigel Hawthorne", "Dawg (film)", "Natural Born Killers", "Judgment Night (film)", "Mel Gibson", "Damian Hurley", "Who's the Man?", "Observational comedy", "Lenny Clarke", "Space Ghost Coast to Coast", "Keith Richards", "First responder", "Kevin Youkilis", "Ice Age 6", "television", "Sand (2000 film)", "Final (2001 film)", "Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs", "Comedy music", "UK Singles Chart", "Sirens (2011 TV series)", "R.E.M.", "Double Whammy (film)", "DirecTV", "The Thomas Crown Affair (1999 film)", "Conan O'Brien", "Boston Herald", "The Amazing Spider-Man 2", "Subway Stories", "A Bug's Life", "Recount (film)", "The Amazing Spider-Man (2012 film)", "HBO", "Robin Williams", "Mass in the Catholic Church", "Fox Broadcasting", "When Standup Stood Out", "The Simpsons", "MLB 2K8", "Leary Firefighters Foundation", "National Lampoon's Favorite Deadly Sins", "Bill Clinton", "ice hockey", "Ford F-150", "Club Soda (Montreal)", "United States dollar", "Golden Globe Awards", "Contest Searchlight", "Satellite Awards", "The Matchmaker (1997 film)", "John F. Kennedy", "Loaded Weapon 1", "Do Not Disturb (1999 film)", "Oh. What. Fun.", "Two If by Sea", "Conservatism in the United States", "Emerson College", "Boston Red Sox", "Emmanuel Goldstein", "Captain George Stacy", "Martin Olson", "Crank Yankers", "Going Dutch (TV series)", "Benders (TV series)", "Judas Priest", "Shorties Watchin' Shorties", "Little Sister (Pomus/Shuman song)" ]
8,879	Recreational use of dextromethorphan	Dextromethorphan, or DXM, a common active ingredient found in many over-the-counter cough suppressant cold medicines, is used as a recreational drug and entheogen for its dissociative effects. It has almost no psychoactive effects at medically recommended doses. However, dextromethorphan has powerful dissociative and euphoric properties when administered in doses well above those considered therapeutic for cough suppression. Recreational use of DXM is sometimes referred to in slang form as "robo-tripping" or "skittling", whose prefix derives from the Robitussin brand name, or "Triple Cs", which derives from the Coricidin brand whose tablets are printed with "CC+C" for "Coricidin Cough and Cold". However, this brand presents additional danger when used at recreational doses due to the presence of chlorpheniramine (antihistamine). In over-the-counter formulations, DXM is often combined with acetaminophen (paracetamol, APAP) to relieve pain; however, to achieve DXM's dissociative effects, the maximum daily therapeutic dose of 4000 mg of APAP is often exceeded, potentially causing acute or chronic liver failure, making abuse and subsequent tolerance of products which contain both DXM and APAP potentially fatal. An online essay first published in 1995 entitled "The DXM FAQ" described dextromethorphan's potential for recreational use, and classified its effects into so-called plateaus. Each plateau is categorized depending on how much MG of DXM is ingested, each featuring varying or more intense effects. The defined number of plateaus vary depending on source, but the generally agreed-upon number is 4 or 5. Owing to its recreational use, many retailers in the US have moved dextromethorphan-containing products behind the counter so that one must ask a pharmacist to receive them or be 18 years (19 in New York and Alabama, 21 in Mississippi) or older to purchase them. Some retailers also give out printed recommendations about the potential for abuse with the purchase of products containing dextromethorphan. == Classification == At high doses, dextromethorphan is classified as a dissociative general anesthetic and hallucinogen, similar to the controlled substances ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP). Also like those drugs, dextromethorphan is an NMDA receptor antagonist. It generally does not produce withdrawal symptoms characteristic of physical dependence-inducing substances, but cases of both psychological dependence and physical dependence have been reported in the past, although physical dependence is usually only seen in cases of heavy abuse. Due to dextromethorphan's selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-like action, the sudden cessation of recreational dosing in tolerant individuals can result in mental and physical withdrawal symptoms similar to the withdrawal from SSRIs. These withdrawal effects can manifest as psychological effects, including depression, irritability, cravings, and as physical effects, including lethargy, body aches, and a sensation of unpleasant tingling, not unlike a mild "electric shock". ==Effects== Dextromethorphan's effects have been divided into four plateaus. The first plateau (1.5 to 2.5 mg per kg body weight) is described as having euphoria, auditory changes, mild stimulation, and change in perception of gravity. The second plateau (2.5 to 7.5 mg/kg) causes intense euphoria, vivid imagination, and closed-eye hallucinations. The third and fourth plateaus (7.5 mg/kg and over) cause profound alterations in consciousness, and users often report out-of-body experiences or temporary psychosis. This results in a sort of flanging (speeding up and/or slowing down) of sensory input, which is another characteristic effect of recreational use. Also, a marked difference is seen between dextromethorphan hydrobromide, contained in most cough suppressant preparations, and dextromethorphan polistirex, contained in the brand name preparation Delsym. Polistirex is a polymer that is bonded to the dextromethorphan that requires more time for the stomach to digest it, as it requires that an ion exchange reaction take place prior to its dissolution into the blood. Because of this, dextromethorphan polistirex takes considerably longer to absorb, resulting in more gradual and longer lasting effects reminiscent of time-release pills. As a cough suppressant, the polistirex version lasts up to 12 hours. This duration also holds true when used recreationally. A 1981 estimate by Gosselin suggested that the lethal dose (LD50) of dextromethorphan in humans may range between 50 and 500 mg/kg. More specific experimental data indicate that the oral LD50 of dextromethorphan hydrobromide monohydrate in rats is approximately 116 mg/kg, according to the Safety Data Sheet (SDS) provided by Sigma-Aldrich. The observed symptoms at this dosage include convulsions. Doses as high as 15–20 mg/kg are taken by some recreational users. A single case study suggests that the antidote to dextromethorphan overdose is naloxone, administered intravenously. In addition to producing PCP-like mental effects, high doses may cause a false-positive result for PCP and opiates in some drug tests. == Risks associated with use == Dextromethorphan has not been shown to cause vacuolization in animals, also known as Olney's lesions, despite early speculation that it might, due to similarities with ketamine. In rats, oral administration of dextromethorphan did not cause vacuolization in laboratory tests. Oral administration of dextromethorphan repeatedly during adolescence, however, has been shown to impair learning in those rats during adulthood. The occurrence of Olney's lesions in humans, however, has not been proven or disproven. William E. White, author of the "DXM FAQ", has compiled informal research from correspondence with dextromethorphan users suggesting that heavy abuse may result in various deficits corresponding to the brain areas affected by Olney's lesions; these include loss of episodic memory, decline in ability to learn, abnormalities in some aspects of visual processing, and deficits of abstract language comprehension. In 2004, however, White retracted the article in which he made these claims. A formal survey of dextromethorphan users showed that more than half of users reported experience of these withdrawal symptoms individually for the first week after long-term/addictive dextromethorphan use: fatigue, apathy, flashbacks, and constipation. Over a quarter reported insomnia, nightmares, anhedonia, impaired memory, attention deficit, and decreased libido. Rarer side effects included panic attacks, impaired learning, tremor, jaundice, urticaria (hives), and myalgia. Medical DXM use has not been shown to cause the above issues. Guaifenesin, an expectorant commonly accompanying dextromethorphan in cough preparations, can cause unpleasant symptoms including vomiting, nausea, kidney stones, and headache. === Interactions === Combining dextromethorphan with other substances can compound risks. Central nervous system (CNS) stimulants such as amphetamine and/or cocaine can cause a dangerous rise in blood pressure and heart rate. CNS depressants such as alcohol will have a combined depressant effect, which can cause a decreased respiratory rate. Combining dextromethorphan with other CYP2D6 substrates can cause both drugs to build to dangerous levels in the bloodstream. Combining dextromethorphan with other serotonergic drugs could possibly cause serotonin syndrome, an excess of serotonergic activity in the CNS and peripheral nervous system. == Pharmacology == Dextromethorphan is primarily a sigma receptor agonist and an SNRI, and dextromethorphan's effects as a dissociative hallucinogen may be attributed partially to dextrorphan (DXO), a metabolite produced when dextromethorphan is metabolized by the body. Both dextrorphan and dextromethorphan are NMDA receptor antagonists, alike other dissociative hallucinogens such as ketamine and PCP. Although dextrorphan is more potent than its "parent molecule" dextromethorphan, it likely works in combination with dextromethorphan to produce hallucinogenic effects due to only a small percentage of dextromethorphan being metabolized into dextrorphan. As NMDA receptor antagonists, dextrorphan and dextromethorphan inhibit the excitatory amino acid and neurotransmitter glutamate in the brain. This can effectively slow, or even shut down certain neural pathways, preventing areas of the brain from communicating with each other. This leaves the user feeling dissociated or disconnected, experienced as brain fog or derealization. == Legality == Antitussive preparations containing dextromethorphan are legal to purchase from pharmacies in most countries, with some exceptions being UAE, France, and Sweden. In Russia, dextromethorphan (commonly sold under the brand names Tussin+ and Glycodin) is a Schedule III controlled substance and is placed in the same list as benzodiazepines and the majority of barbiturates. === China === In December 2021, the National Medical Products Administration reclassified all oral single-component dextromethorphan to prescription drugs due to potential abuse. The authorities also mandated manufacturers to remove statements like "no addiction or tolerance with long-term use" from their instructions. Despite the online sales ban, the drug can still be found on some niche e-commerce platforms in China and Twitter. In April 2024, the National Medical Products Administration announced that dextromethorphan, compound diphenoxylate tablets, nalfurafine, and lorcaserin are included in the second-class psychotropic drug catalog. The announcement took effect in July. In August, Xi'an police arrested a suspect and seized 23 boxes of dextromethorphan; in October, the Hepu County People's Court sentenced one defendant to 7 months in prison, while the Yanchi County People's Court sentenced a pharmacy owner to 6 months, both for drug trafficking involving dextromethorphan. ===Indonesia=== After previously being available over the counter, the National Agency of Drug and Food Control of Republic of Indonesia (BPOM-RI) now prohibits single-component dextromethorphan drug sales with or without prescription. Indonesia is the only country in the world that makes single-component dextromethorphan illegal even by prescription and violators may be prosecuted by law. Indonesian National Narcotic Bureau has even threatened to revoke pharmacies' and drug stores' licenses if they still stock dextromethorphan, and will notify the police for criminal prosecution. As a result of this regulation, 130 drugs have been withdrawn from the market, but drugs containing multicomponent dextromethorphan can be sold over the counter. In its official press release, the bureau also stated that dextromethorphan is often used as a substitute for marijuana, amphetamine, and heroin by drug abusers, and its use as an antitussive is less beneficial nowadays. The Director of Narcotics, Psychotropics, and Addictive Substances Control (NAPZA) BPOM-RI, Dr. Danardi Sosrosumihardjo, SpKJ, explains that dextromethorphan, morphine, and heroin are derived from the same tree, and states the effect of dextromethorphan to be equivalent to 1/100 of morphine and injected heroin. By contrast, the Deputy of Therapeutic Product and NAPZA Supervision BPOM-RI, Dra. Antonia Retno Tyas Utami, Apt. MEpid., states that dextromethorphan, being chemically similar to morphine, has a much more dangerous and direct effect to the central nervous system, thus causing mental breakdown in the user. She also claimed, without citing any prior scientific study or review, that unlike morphine users, dextromethorphan users cannot be rehabilitated. This claim is contradicted by numerous scientific studies which show that naloxone alone offers effective treatment and promising therapy results in treating dextromethorphan addiction and poisoning. Dra. Antonia Retno Tyas Utami also claimed high rates of dextromethorphan abuse - including fatalities - in Indonesia, and even more questionable, suggested that codeine, despite being a more physically addictive μ-opioid class antitussive, be made available as an alternative to dextromethorphan. === United States === No legal distinction currently exists in the United States between medical and recreational use, sale, or purchase. Some states and store chains have implemented restrictions, such as requiring signatures for DXM sale, limiting quantities allowable for purchase, and requiring that purchasers be over the age of majority in their state. The sale of dextromethorphan in its pure powder form may incur penalties, although no explicit law exists prohibiting its sale or possession, other than in Illinois. Cases of individuals being sentenced to time in prison and other penalties for selling pure dextromethorphan in this form have been reported, because of the incidental violation of more general laws for the sale of legitimate drugs – such as resale of a medication without proper warning labels. Dextromethorphan was excluded from the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of 1970 and was specifically excluded from the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. As of 2010, it was still excluded from U.S. Schedules of Controlled Substances; however, officials have warned that it could still be added if increased abuse warrants its scheduling. The motivation behind its exclusion from the CSA was that under the CSA, all optical isomers of listed Schedule II opiates are automatically Schedule II substances. Since dextromethorphan is an optical isomer of the Schedule II opiate levomethorphan (but does not act like an opiate), an exemption was necessary to keep it an uncontrolled substance. The Federal Analog Act does not apply to dextromethorphan because a new drug application has been filed for it.	[ "CNS depressant", "Guaifenesin", "Sigma agonist", "Dissociative drug", "National Medical Products Administration", "NMDA receptor antagonist", "codeine", "chlorpheniramine", "closed-eye hallucination", "Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor", "liver failure", "physical dependence", "cocaine", "intravenously", "amphetamine", "levomethorphan", "CYP2D6 inhibitor", "diarrhea", "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor", "neurotransmitter", "Alabama", "peripheral nervous system", "paracetamol", "derealization", "U.S. Schedules of Controlled Substances", "opiates", "psychoactive", "vacuolization", "naloxone", "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs", "kidney stones", "entheogen", "phencyclidine", "Hepu County", "nausea", "lorcaserin", "brain fog", "Benadryl challenge", "Psychedelic drug", "New York (state)", "Breathing", "alcohol (drug)", "The Paper (newspaper)", "National Agency of Drug and Food Control of Republic of Indonesia", "withdrawal symptoms", "Chirality (chemistry)", "National Anti-Narcotics Agency (Indonesia)", "vomiting", "recreational drug use", "dissociative", "Nitrous oxide", "euphoria", "flanging", "active ingredient", "ion exchange", "Twitter", "Robitussin", "psychological dependence", "Federal Analog Act", "serotonin syndrome", "sigma receptor", "acetaminophen", "K-hole", "headache", "barbiturates", "Ketamine", "cough suppressant", "glutamate", "Russia", "Yanchi County", "Mississippi", "List of Schedule II drugs (US)", "dextrorphan", "Controlled Substances Act", "Coricidin", "phenylephrine", "nalfurafine", "Purple drank", "metabolite", "ketamine", "Olney's lesions", "Phencyclidine", "Chlorphenamine", "psychosis", "stimulants", "benzodiazepines", "Sorbitol", "dextromethorphan", "Serotonin" ]
8,880	Dryope	In Greek mythology, Dryope (; Ancient Greek: Δρυόπη derived from δρῦς drys, "oak"; dryope "woodpecker") is the name attributed to several distinct figures: Dryope, daughter of Dryops and mother of Amphissus by Apollo. She was the wife of Andraemon. Dryope, mother of Tarquitus by Faunus, the god of the woods. Tarquitus was slain by Aeneas. Dryope, a nymph responsible for kidnapping Hylas, which she did in accord with Hera's will. Her name may have to do with the fact that Hylas was the son of Theiodamas, the king of the Dryopes. Dryope, a Theban woman of Phoenician origin, mother of Chromis. She joined the Maenads disregarding her pregnancy, and went into labor when she was dragging a sacrificial bull by the horns. Dryope, a Lemnian. Dryope, mother of the Oenotropae by Anius.	[ "Thebaid (Latin poem)", "nymph", "Dryope (daughter of Dryops)", "Anius", "Dryopia", "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology", "Faunus", "Amphissus", "Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft", "Karl Kerenyi", "Aeneas", "Chromis (mythology)", "Maenads", "Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)", "Ancient Greek", "Apollo", "Andraemon", "Oenotropae", "Hera", "Aeneid", "Statius", "Theiodamas", "Greek mythology", "Dryops (Oeta)", "Valerius Flaccus (poet)", "Lemnos", "Hylas", "William Smith (lexicographer)", "Virgil", "Phoenicia", "Dryopes", "Robert Graves" ]
8,881	Doctor (title)	Doctor is an academic title that originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb 'to teach'. It has been used as an academic title in Europe since the 13th century, when the first doctorates were awarded at the University of Bologna and the University of Paris. Having become established in European universities, this usage spread around the world. Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate (commonly a PhD). In past usage, the term could be applied to any learned person. In many parts of the world today it is also used by medical practitioners, regardless of whether they hold a doctoral-level degree. ==Origins== The doctorate () appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach () at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church, when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. This right remained a bone of contention between church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213, when it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubiquie docendi). In some European countries, such as Italy and Portugal, "Doctor" became a title given to all or most degree holders, not just those with doctorates. As a result, the title is now used by many professionals in these countries, including those such as lawyers who are not normally granted the title elsewhere. The title is also used for lawyers in South America, where they have traditionally earned doctoral degrees, as well as in the former Portuguese territories of Goa in India and Macau in China. ===Development in English-speaking countries=== The primary meaning of Doctor in English has historically been with reference to the holder of a doctoral degree. These particularly referred to the ancient faculties of divinity, law and medicine, sometimes with the addition of music, which were the only doctoral degrees offered until the 19th century. During the 19th century, PhDs became increasingly common in Britain, although to obtain the degree it was necessary to travel to continental Europe or (from 1861) to the United States, as the degree was not awarded in the UK until 1917. However, the title, not being protected by law, was adopted by quacks. As a result, by the mid 19th century, it was normal in the UK to omit the title "Dr" when addressing letters to those holding doctoral degrees, and instead write the abbreviated form of the degree after the name, e.g., "The Reverend Robert Phelps, D.D.", "Thomas Elliotson, Esq. M.D.", or "John Lindsey, Esq. Ph.D.", in order to avoid classing academic doctors "with the village apothecary and the farrier" and various "quacks in literature, science, or art". In the US it similarly became customary to use post-nominals rather than the title of Doctor when addressing letters. All those with doctoral degrees continued to use the title professionally and socially. Despite being historically associated with doctorates in law, the title of doctor for lawyers has not customarily been used in English-speaking countries, where lawyers were traditionally not required to have a university degree and were trained by other lawyers by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court. The exception being those areas where, up to the 19th century, civil law rather than common law was the governing tradition, including admiralty law, probate and ecclesiastical law: such cases were heard in the Doctor's Commons, and argued by advocates who held degrees either of doctor of civil law at Oxford or doctor of law at Cambridge. As such, lawyers practicing common law in England were not doctoral candidates and had not earned a doctorate. When university degrees became more common for those wanting to qualify as a lawyer in England, the degree awarded was the Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Similarly in the US, even though degrees became standard for lawyers much earlier, the degree was again the LLB, only becoming the Juris Doctor (JD) generally in the latter half of the 20th century. In many English-speaking countries, it is common to refer to physicians by the title of doctor, even when they do not hold a doctoral level qualification. The word Doctor has long had a secondary meaning in English of physician, e.g., in Johnson's Dictionary, which quotes its use with this meaning by Shakespeare. but in the UK and the British Empire, where degree granting was strictly controlled, this was not an option. The usage of the title to refer to medical practitioners, even when they did not hold doctoral degrees, was common by the mid 18th century. However, the first official recognition of Doctor being applied as a title to medical practitioners regardless of whether they held a doctoral degree was in 1838, when the Royal College of Physicians resolved that it would "regard in the same light, and address by the same appellation, all who have obtained its diploma, whether they have graduated elsewhere or not." The Medical Act 1858 made it illegal for anyone not qualified in medicine to use a title that implied they were. This led to prosecutions of people making unauthorised use of the title "Dr". However, it also called into question the use of the title by licentiates of the Colleges of Physicians – all of whom were, under the new act, allowed to practice throughout the UK. In 1859, the London College reversed its earlier decision, resolving "That the title of Doctor shall not be given in any official document issued from this College to any person who is not possessed of the Degree of Doctor of Medicine". In Ireland, the question of whether the license of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland granted the title of Doctor of Medicine led to a court case in 1861, with the conclusion that it did not. The British Medical Journal (BMJ) observed, however, that anyone wanting the right to the title of "Doctor" could gain it "with a five-shilling degree of Doctor of Philosophy" from abroad, or could simply assume the title, as only "Doctor of Medicine" was actually protected. Debate continued as to the use of "Doctor" as a courtesy title by those who did not use it by right as holders of doctoral degrees, with the BMJ noting in 1876 that "We have again a sort of flood of letters for and against the use of the title of Doctor by physicians" and in 1882 that "There is not any other subject which appears to excite so wide spread an interest as this". In February 1876, a report recommended that the Royal College of Physicians should use the courtesy title of Doctor for all fellows and members, but this was rejected. Then in April of the same year, the college amended its bylaws to forbid any fellow, member, extra-licentiate or licentiate from using the title of Doctor unless they had a doctorate in medicine from a recognised university – closing the loophole the BMJ had identified. It was not until the early 20th century that this was reversed. In 1905 the Royal College of Surgeons passed a motion instructing their council "to take the necessary steps in conjunction with the Royal College of Physicians to ensure that all persons who pass the Conjoint examination shall be legally entitled to call themselves Doctors". The council of the surgeons' College felt it to be impractical to secure the legal right to the title as this would mean gaining the right to award MDs, but noted that the title had been used by the public to refer to medics for generations and was used without any legal right by Bachelors of Medicine – the only obstacle to licentiates of both colleges doing the same was the prohibition in the physicians' bylaws. On this occasion the College of Physicians refused to act, but they did finally relent in 1912, removing the clause forbidding the assumption of the title of Doctor. This was described in the American press as "the British apostles of red-tape have been forced to bow to the popular will". Regulation of the medical profession also took place in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century, preventing quacks from using the title of Doctor. However, medical usage of the title was far from exclusive, with it being acknowledged that other doctorate holders could use the title and that dentists and veterinarians frequently did. The Etiquette of To-day, published in 1913, recommended addressing letters to physicians "(full name), M.D." and those to other people holding doctorates "Dr. (full name)", although both were "Dr." in the salutation and only physicians were explicitly said to include their title on their visiting card. By the 1920s there were a great variety of doctorates in the US, many of them taking entrants directly from high school, and ranging from the Doctor of Chiropractic (DC), which (at the time) required only two or three years of college-level education, up to the PhD. All doctoral degree holders, with the exception of the JD, were customarily addressed as "Doctor", but the title was also regularly used, without doctoral degrees, by pharmacists, ministers of religion, teachers and chiropodists, and sometimes by other professions such as beauty practitioners, patent medicine manufacturers, etc. By the 1940s, the widespread usage of the title in the US was under threat. A 1944 article claimed that "the Ph.D. has immediate and far-reaching value of social as well as economic nature" due to America's "national fondness for the tinsel of titles", but went on to note that some universities were moving away from using the title, concluding that "it is ungracious in most environments not to render unto the Doctor of Philosophy his 'Doctor' title". The same writer noted in a letter to the Journal of Higher Education in 1948 that Alfred University had banned the use of the title for faculty (while retaining it for the president and deans) "in a strange move professedly designed to uphold and promote 'democracy' and 'Americanism. However, it was noted in 1959 that professors with PhDs were now generally addressed as "Doctor", with the title of "Professor" sometimes being substituted for those without doctorates, leading to a decline in the perceived value of that title. In the 1960s the inconsistent usage at American universities and colleges was mentioned in the New York Times Book Review and the editor of Science noted that: "In some universities, administrators call all Ph.D.'s 'Mister,' but students and colleagues call them 'Doctor.' Often, but not always, Ph.D.'s are 'Misters' socially. In industry and government, both socially and professionally, they are 'Doctors,' as they are also in the pages of the New Yorker, Time, the Saturday Review, and the New York Times." In 1965, the League of Women Voters designated MDs "Dr." and PhDs "Mr." at a hustings in Princeton, leading to a letter of protest in Science; it was reported that the League believed PhDs would be embarrassed by the title, and that etiquette writers differed in whether PhDs used the title. In 1970, reverse snobbism in the face of the rising number of "discount doctorates" was linked to professors at prestigious universities wanting to be called "mister". In the late 1960s the rising number of American law schools awarding Juris Doctor (JD) degrees led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this. These were then reinforced with a full ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice as a form of self-laudation (except when dealing with countries where the use of "Doctor" by lawyers was standard practice), but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the J.D. degree as a doctor's degree". These opinions led to further debate. The introduction of the new Code of Professional Responsibility in 1969 seemed to settle the question – in states where this was adopted – in favour of allowing the use of the title. There was some dispute over whether only the PhD-level Doctor of Juridical Science should properly be seen as granting the title, but ethics opinions made it clear that the new Code allowed JD-holders to be called "Doctor", while reaffirming that the older Canons did not. As not all state bars adopted the new Code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor" continued. The introduction of further professional doctorates in the US at ISCED level 7, the same as the MD and JD, has led to continuing debate about the use of the title by holders of such degrees, particularly in medical contexts. In 2018, a decision by The Globe and Mail newspaper in Canada to update its style guide so as to restrict the use of the title Doctor to medics led to a backlash on Twitter, particularly by women with PhDs, using the #ImmodestWomen hashtag. This was widely reported on internationally and led to The Globe and Mail reverting to its earlier style of using Doctor for both physicians and PhD holders. The Canadian University of Calgary also announced that it would adopt the use of Doctor for those with doctoral degrees, breaking with the style recommended by the Canadian Press. ==Doctor as a noun== Throughout much of the academic world, the term Doctor refers to someone who has earned a doctoral degree (highest degree) from a university. This is normally the Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in North America) from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor or DPhil from its English name, or equivalent research doctorates at level 8 of the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 classifications (ISCED 2011) or level 6 of the ISCED 1997 classifications. Beyond academia (but specifically in the anglophone world, Italy, and France), Doctor as a noun normally refers to a physician, ==Forms of address== When addressing several people, each of whom holds a doctoral title, one may use the plural contraction "Drs" (or "Drs." in American English) – or in some languages (for example, German) "Dres." (from the Latin doctores) may be used – for example, instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Ahmed: Drs. Miller and Ahmed. When referring to relatives with the same surname the form "The Doctors Smith" can be used. The abbreviation Drs. can also refer to doctorandus, a Dutch academic title that was replaced with the master title with the introduction of the master system. In English, Dr is not usually combined with other titles, except for The Reverend in "The Revd Dr" before the surname of a minister of religion, e.g., "The Revd Dr Smith" or "The Revd John Smith, DD", and similarly "Rabbi Dr". In Caribbean English, the usage "Dr. the Honourable" is common for politicians holding doctoral degrees. Usage in many other languages is similar to English but some, notably German, allow for the stacking of titles. ==Usage by medical practitioners in the UK and culturally-related countries== In the United Kingdom, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, Trinidad and Tobago, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Ghana, and other countries whose cultures were recently linked to the UK, the title Dr is generally used both for those who hold doctoral degrees and for registered medical practitioners. History has dictated the use of the courtesy title Dr by physicians and general practitioners. However, surgeons do not use the title of Dr and, due to the origins of surgery with the barber surgeons, instead use Mr, Mrs, Ms, Miss, etc. This custom applies to surgeons of any grade who have passed the appropriate exams and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists, have also adopted these prefixes. A surgeon who is also a professor is usually known as "Professor" and, similarly, a surgeon who has been ennobled, knighted, created a baronet or appointed a dame uses the corresponding title (Lord, Sir, Dame). Physicians, on the other hand, when they pass their "MRCP(UK)" examinations, or equivalent, do not drop Dr but retain it, even as consultants. The status and rank of consultant surgeons, addressed as "Mister" or "Ms.", and consultant physicians, addressed as "Doctor", is equivalent. ==Worldwide usage== ===Asia=== ====Bangladesh==== In Bangladesh, use of the title of doctor (or Dr) is permitted for PhD degree holders and registered medical practitioners. For registered medical practitioners, only MBBS and BDS degree holders are allowed to use the title and be called "medical doctors". Registered veterinary practitioners may use the title after earning a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree. However, registered homeopathic practitioners also use the title of doctor even though, according to the Homeopathic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, they are only permitted to use "homeopath". Physiotherapy has no separate council and no act of parliament at present permits the use of the title for physiotherapist, but the High Court has given an interim order that permits physiotherapy graduates to use the title, pending the formation of a separate council. According to the Bangladesh Unani & Ayurvedic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, practitioners of the Unani system are called "Tabib" or "Hakim" and practitioners of Ayurvedic system are called "Vaid" or "Kabiraj"; both are prohibited from using the title of doctor. Currently, medical practitioners having an MBBS degree or dental surgeons having a BDS are legally permitted to use Dr as a prefix; its use by other medical practitioners remains controversial. ==== Hong Kong ==== Hong Kong follows British practice in calling physicians "Doctor" even though many of them hold only a degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS or MBChB). An attempt by their professional body to prevent chiropractors from calling themselves "Doctor" failed in the courts, in part because it was pointed out that practicing chiropractors may hold an academic doctorate in their discipline, and it would be anomalous to prevent them using the title when holders of doctorates in non-medical disciplines faced no such restriction. ====India==== In India, medical practitioners are legally referred to as registered medical practitioners. The title of doctor is frequently used by qualified professional medical practitioners in the fields of Allopathic medicine (MBBS) and dentistry (BDS), as well as by other practitioners like Siddha (BSMS), Yoga and Naturopathy (BNYS), Ayurveda (BAMS), Unani medicine (BUMS) and Homeopathy(BHMS), Veterinarians (BVSc) and holders of doctoral degrees, including PhDs and pharmacists with PharmDs. Physiotherapists (BPT) use 'Doctor' as a suffix accompanied by the prefix PT. The usage by pharmacists is legally disputed, while the Supreme Court of India has ruled against the use of the title as a prefix by physiotherapists. ====Indonesia==== The Indonesian titles "dr." is used in front of the name of medical doctor who holds a specification as general practitioner, also when the doctor already holds his specialization to ___, such as "Sp.THT" or "Spesialis Telinga, Hidung, Tenggorokan" (ENT or Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialist). Dr. is used in front of the name as the title "Doktor" for doctorate title, the same level as PhD title. ====Pakistan==== In Pakistan, the title of Doctor (Dr.) can be used by PhD degree holders as well as medical, dental, optometry and veterinary doctors with MBBS, BDS, OD and DVM degrees respectively. Usage by physiotherapists DPT degree respectively is disputed, with the Pakistan Medical and Dental Council saying they should not use the title, but the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan (the regulatory body for pharmacists) and the Higher Education Commission permitting and encouraging its use. ====Philippines==== In the Philippines, titles and names of occupations usually follow Spanish naming conventions which utilize gender-specific terms. "Doktór" is the masculine form, which retains the abbreviation Dr.; the feminine form is "Doktóra", and is abbreviated usually as "Dra."; others, however, some being Anglophones who wish to sound modern and Westernised (or were raised in an almost exclusively English-speaking family environment), or some who advocate gender equality, would dispense with the distinction altogether. There does exist in Filipino an equivalent, gender-neutral term for the professional that carries the more general notion of "healer", traditional (for example, an albuláryo) or otherwise: manggagámot. Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it is also used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate degree (e.g. PhD, EdD, DPA). ====Sri Lanka==== In Sri Lanka the title doctor "Dr." is used for PhD holders and medical practitioner such as physicians, surgeons, dental surgeons and veterinarians. However, when addressing in native Sinhalese a medical practitioner is addressed as "Vaidya" (වෛද්ය) or "Dosthara" (දොස්තර) while a PhD holder is addressed as "Aacharya" (ආචාර්ය). It is a common practice for married female medical practitioners to use the title "Dr (Mrs)" in a both professional and social capacity. ====Thailand==== The usage of Doctor (ดอกเตอร์) or Dr (ดร.) has been borrowed from English. It can be seen as a title in academic circles and in the mass media. In contrast to other academic titles (Professor, Associate Professor and assistant professor), the use of Doctor as a title has not been recognized by the Royal Institute of Thailand. Therefore, this title, in theory, cannot be used officially. For example, in court of justice where strictly formal Thai language is used, Dr cannot be mentioned as a person's title. ===The Americas=== ====Brazil==== The 'doctor' title is used by individuals holding a PhD degree. 'Doctor' is also used as a deferential title in Brazilian Portuguese. The title “Doctor” can also be used in Brazil to address medics and lawyers by the law since the imperial times. The law was enacted by the second Brazilian emperor, Dom Pedro II, to attract more medics and lawyers from other countries in imperial times when there was very few practitioners of both professions in the country for the crescent population of that time. The law still is enacted. ====Canada==== Canada lies somewhere between British and American usage of the degree and terminology of "doctor". Holders of research doctorates – PhDs and similar degrees – commonly use the title "doctor". A number of regulated healthcare professionals can also use the title "doctor"; in Ontario these are limited by law (in the provision of health care) to physicians, dentists, optometrists, chiropractors, doctorate-level psychologists and social workers who are members of the relevant Ontario college. In Alberta, Registered Nurses or Nurse Practitioners with an earned doctoral degree may use the title "doctor" in conjunction with professional practice. Some professionals earn degrees with the title of doctor but which are considered, despite their name, to be at bachelor's-level, e.g. DDS, MD, JD. In Ontario, registered naturopathic doctors may only use the title "doctor" in written format if they also use the phrase, "naturopathic doctor" immediately following their name, while a 2006 amendment that would allow practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine to use the title has not, , entered into force. As of 2022, in Alberta, Doctors of Acupuncture may use the doctor title. =====Quebec===== The usage of the French Docteur and Docteure, and their abbreviated forms Dr, Dre, D and D, is controlled by the Code des professions. As a pre-nominal title it can be used without any further explication by physicians, veterinarians, and dentists. It can also be used prenominally, when accompanied by the name of the profession immediately after the name, by professionals who require a doctorate for their professional licence, such as psychology, and chiropractic, e.g. Dr X, psychologue or Dr Y, chiropraticien. Academic doctors, where the doctorate is not required to practice, bear the title only after their name; this is not abbreviated, e.g. M. Z, docteur en philosophie not M. Z, PhD ====United States==== In the United States, the use of the title "Doctor" is dependent upon the setting. The title is commonly used socially by physicians and those holding doctoral degrees; however, there was formerly a division between Letitia Baldrige and Miss Manners on its social usage by those who are not physicians. Baldrige saw this usage as acceptable, while in contrast, Miss Manners wrote that "only people of the medical profession correctly use the title of doctor socially," but supports those who wish to use it in social contexts in the spirit of addressing people according to their wishes. Miss Manners has since softened her approach, noting in her The Washington Post column that there are two approaches: "having been earned, it should be used" and "that level of education being assumed, it need not be expressly mentioned"; while she maintains that everyone should be addressed according to their wishes, she no longer states that only medical professionals use the title correctly but instead acknowledges that the title has been earned by those with PhDs. The Emily Post Institute similarly advises that "Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles. People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use "Dr." both professionally and socially." Other advice columns have also noted that "it has become common to see someone with a Ph.D. addressed on the envelope as Dr., and as a consequence, deviation from convention has become acceptable." The 2017 book Etiquette Rules! gives identical forms for addressing a "doctor of medicine (MD), dental surgery (DDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), etc.", and the holder of a PhD, advising in both cases the use of initials after the name for formal correspondence and Dr. before the name for social correspondence. Although the usage of the title by Ph.D. graduates has become common, its use socially by holders of professional doctorates (other than those noted) is neither explicitly endorsed nor explicitly discouraged by writers on etiquette. Miss Manners has, however, stated that a physician who has had their license revoked should be addressed by their former preferred honorific (i.e. not according to their MD degree). It is unusual for those who hold honorary doctorates to use the title "Doctor". Publications from the office of the President of the United States of America also refer to PhD holders as Dr. Soandso, and Jill Biden, who holds an EdD, used the style "Dr. Jill Biden" as second lady and continued to do so as first lady. For addresses (defined as "the conventional forms of address as determined by social and official custom"), NASA uses "Dr. (full name)" in addresses for PhD holders while for physicians it uses "(full name), MD", although both are addressed as "Dr. (surname)" in the salutation (which is described as "informal"). The National Institutes of Health similarly use "Dr. (surname)" in salutations for people with an MD, PhD or DDS. They advise using full name followed by degrees in addresses, explicitly stating not to use the title "Dr.", although an example in the following paragraph does use the title rather than giving degrees. Most newspapers in the US follow the AP Stylebook and reserve the title for physicians in their house styles; and The Wall Street Journal, which similarly prefers "Dr." for PhD holders and physicians (if this is the person's choice) while stating explicitly that the title is not used for lawyers with JDs or people with honorary doctorates. Until 1989, The Washington Post used the title for "practitioners of the healing arts (including chiropractors and osteopaths) but not for holders of PhDs or honorary degrees", after which it dropped its use entirely. Some sources state that AP style allows the use of Dr. for holders of non-medical doctoral degrees as long as their speciality is given. The expansion of professional doctorates in clinical fields in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to disputes between physicians and other medical professions over who can use the title in a clinical context. This has been interpreted by some as part of larger battles within medicine, such as who gets to treat patients first and who has prescribing authority. The American Medical Association calls for non-physicians (those not holding an MD or DO) who use the title "Doctor" and are in direct contact with patients to clarify that they are not physicians and to "define the nature of their doctorate degree", while the American Osteopathic Association opposes the use of the title by non-physicians in clinical settings absolutely as (in their view) "such use deceives the public". Contrary to this, the Emergency Nurses Association has adopted as a position statement that "1. Nurses are entitled to have their educational degrees recognized and acknowledged in the same manner as other professions. 2. The proper title protection and use of accurate credentials is appropriate in the clinical setting. 3. When being addressed or introduced as doctor in the clinical environment, it is responsible practice for all healthcare providers to clarify their professional role. 4. Patients, families and the general public have a right and expectation to be informed regarding the credentials of their caregivers, including the use of the title "doctor"." The American Medical Association launched a campaign in 2011 for states to adopt "truth in advertising" legislation. As a result, many states now have laws in place that protect the title of doctor when offering medical services. In some jurisdictions, the use of the title in health care is limited to those who have both a doctorate and are licensed to practice medicine, and there is a requirement that the field of the doctorate be disclosed. Some other jurisdictions require the practitioner to hold a doctorate and to disclose the field, but make no stipulations as to licensing. Some states require name badges to be worn in medical facilities giving first name, licensure status, and staff position, although these laws may not explicitly address the use of the title "Doctor". Although lawyers in the United States do not customarily use the title, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor, a professional doctorate. Some JD holders in the United States use the title of doctor in professional situations, although ethics board decisions have varied on whether this is permissible or might mislead the public into believing the lawyer was medically qualified or had a PhD. It is also sometimes used by JD holders in academic situations. In 2011, Mother Jones published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title Dr. based on her JD. The article was later amended to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D.—and therefore conveys a false level of expertise". Ecclesiastical seminaries and entitled churches award their own doctorates in the United States, e.g. the Doctor of Religious Science (Dr. sc. rel.), the Doctor of Divinity (DD), the Doctor of Biblical Studies (DBS) or the Doctor of Metaphysics (Dr. mph.). These titles are most commonly awarded to meritorious clerics for their outstanding work or another achievement in the field of religious and biblical studies. American professional doctorates are not generally considered doctoral level degrees internationally, instead being classified as bachelor's or master's level. The ISCED mapping for these degrees, developed collaboratively between the US and UNESCO, places them at master's level. As a result, holders of MD, JD, PharmD, etc. may not be permitted to use the title of Doctor in countries such as Germany where this is strictly controlled. ===Europe=== In the European Union, the title of doctor refers primarily to holders of post-graduate research doctorates, such as the PhD. In many European languages the term doctor is distinct from a medical practitioner, which can be referred to as e.g. läkare in Swedish, Arzt in German, dokter or arts in Dutch, or lääkäri in Finnish. Standardisation of degrees into the three cycles of bachelor's–master's–doctorate across the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) is being carried out through the Bologna process, although not all EHEA member states have fully conformed to the 1999 Bologna declaration in favour of their own historic customs. With respect to the title "doctor", the Bologna process makes no prescriptions regarding the names of degrees nor the titles they may confer. However, under the Lisbon Recognition Convention, recognition of a foreign degree allows "the use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought". According to the Explanatory report, this means that: "The competent authorities of the Parties may grant the right to use the title in the exact form in which it was awarded in the Party concerned or in any other form. They may alternatively grant the right to use the corresponding title of the country in which recognition is sought." ====Austria==== In Austria, the degree Doktor is granted to holders of research degrees (ISCED 8) with a denoting Latin particle being added (Dr. techn., Dr. phil., Dr. rer. nat., Dr.iur., Dr.theol. etc.). Newer study programmes award a PhD, but these exist alongside the older degrees since many prefer obtaining a Dr. to a PhD. These degrees take 3–4 years full-time and are organised in doctoral schools. In addition, the academic degree Doktor (ISCED 7) is granted to physicians (Dr. med. univ.) and dentists (Dr. med. dent.), who since 2002 do not obtain doctoral degrees (ISCED 8) but instead follow a master's level six-year training (360 ECTS) programme, similar to an American MD or DDS. For these degrees, students have to write a Diplomarbeit thesis of 50-100 pages. Research doctorates in medicine (Dr. scient. med. or PhD) can also be obtained after a three year full-time post-graduate study programme at a medical university. All doctors may be addressed as "Doktor _____"; the title is usually contracted to "Dr. _____", oftentimes they are just addressed as "Herr/Frau Doktor" (Mr/Ms Doctor), omitting the family name unless they are being introduced to someone. Contrary to popular belief in the country, the title "Dr." is not part of a person's name or a specific honour but simply a degree like BSc/BA, Mag (MA/MSc) or Dipl.-Ing. (MEng). It is not mandatory to use it, although it may be added to official documents (e.g. driver's licence, passport), if desired ====Finland==== In Finland, the title of tohtori or doktor denotes holder of a research doctorate comparable to a PhD. Getting the doctorate requires advanced studies after the master's degree, writing a thesis, nowadays often a thesis by publication, and publicly defending the thesis. Customary doctorates do not exist even in the field of medicine: physicians hold the degree of lääketieteen lisensiaatti (Licentiate of Medicine), and are referred to simply as lääkäri (physician); "tohtori" would be rustic or old-fashioned. A research doctorate in medicine, lääketieteen tohtori, requires further research work and a separate doctoral thesis, and is not taken by all medical graduates. Regardless, in Finnish usage, the use of titles is uncommon and restricted to only the most formal of contexts. ====France==== In France, the title of Docteur is only used generally for physicians (médecin) but can also be used by holders of research doctorates. Medical professionals do not normally hold a doctorate, which in France always refers to a research doctorate, but a "State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine" (Diplôme d'État de docteur en médecine). The law in France allows the title of Dr to be used professionally by holders of research doctorates, with the field of their speciality being mentioned after the name. The courts have ruled that stating the specialisation is not necessary except in circumstances specifically related to professional practice; at other times the title alone may be used. The courts have also determined that questioning the right of the holder of a research doctorate to use the title Dr is a form of libel. The National Union of Hospital Scientists (Syndicat National des Scientifiques Hospitaliers) launched a campaign in 2015 to raise awareness of the right of scientists to use the title. ====Germany==== In German language-speaking countries, the word Doktor refers to a doctorate awardee in formal language (similar to a PhD). It is distinct from Arzt, since a doctoral degree is not a requirement for medical practitioners, though colloquial use of the word Doktor for physician is common and ordinary people often incorrectly assume that only Doktors may practice medicine. For this reason, 80% of all students in medicine write "doctoral" dissertations, often comparable to a master's thesis in science, alongside their undergraduate studies to obtain a Dr. med. degree. The European Research Council decided in 2010 that those Dr. med. doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree. In Germany, the most common doctoral degrees are Dr. med. (medicine), Dr. med. dent. (dentistry), Dr. med. vet. (veterinary medicine), Dr. rer. nat. (natural sciences), Dr. phil. (humanities), Dr. iur. (law), Dr. rer. pol. (economic and political sciences, also as Dr. rer. oec. in Switzerland), Dr.-Ing. (engineering), and Dr. theol. (theology). All holders of doctoral degrees are appropriately addressed as "Herr/Frau Dr. _____" in all social situations. In Germany, double doctorates are indicated in the title by "Dr. Dr." or "DDr." and triple doctorates as "Dr. Dr. Dr." or "DDDr." More doctorates are indicated by the addition of "mult.", such as "Dr. mult." Honorary titles are shown with the addition of "h.c.", which stands for "honoris causa". Example: "Dr. h.c. mult." Some honorary titles are shown by addition of German equivalents of "h.c.", like "e.h.", "E.h.", or "eh.", which stand for "ehrenhalber" (honorary). Example: "Dr. e.h. mult." All people holding a doctorate from an EU member state are, since 2001, entitled to use "Doctor" or "Dr." in all formal, legal and published communications without any further addenda. For academics with doctorates from non-EU member states, the qualification must be recognised formally ("validated") by the Federal Educational Ministry in Bonn. The recognition process can be done by the employer or employee and may be part of the official bureaucracy for confirming professional status and is dependent on individual bilateral agreements between Germany and other countries and, since 2007, the Lisbon Recognition Convention. An example of mutual recognition of Doctor titles among EU countries is the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994", signed between Germany and Spain (prior to the general recognition of EU doctorates). In 2008, The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany extended their 2001 decision to recognise EU PhDs to cover PhDs that were awarded in Australia, Israel, Japan, Canada, and some American universities. It was announced in 2012 that this would be further extended to cover PhDs awarded in New Zealand. PhDs that were awarded in the United States are recognized if the awarding institution is classified by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a "Research University (high research activity)" or as a "Research University (very high research activity)." Permission to use the title covers only scientific research degrees and does not extend to professional degrees such as the MD or JD. ====Greece==== In Greece, doctor "Διδάκτωρ" (didáktor) is indicated in the title as Δρ and it is used for holders of doctoral degrees. Other alternative names are also used, namely «δόκτωρ» and «δόκτορας», derived from the French "docteur". The term "Ιατρός" (iatrós) indicates medical practitioners. ====Hungary==== In Hungary, graduates of six-year medical schools (dr. med.), five-year dentistry schools (dr. med. dent.), five-year law schools (dr. jur.) and five-year veterinary medical schools (dr. vet.) receive the title of a doctor at the end of their studies, after completing and successfully defending their thesis; their undergraduate studies must have lasted for a minimum of three years. Completing a PhD research programme (or DLA in arts and music) also leads to the doctor title. Since 2008, also those who graduated of five-year pharmacy schools have the right to use the title "dr" (dr. pharm.). A large part of Hungarians with doctor titles received their titles for research in the old academic system before PhD was introduced in Hungary. Since the introduction of PhD title (1993), the dr. univ title (given before 1993). The CSc Candidate of Science title was a scientific title in the old academic system and is now treated as an equivalent of PhD. CSc titles were awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The highest level doctoral degree in Hungary is DSc Doctor of Sciences, awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. It is also called Doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The title of doctor used to become a part of the name and was added as such to personal identity documents. This practice is still common and graduates after receiving their diploma would usually change their personal documents in order to officially indicate the achievement. ====Ireland==== Usage in Ireland is similar to that in the UK. The title of doctor is used for holders of doctoral degrees as well as for medical practitioners (except surgeons), dentists, and vets. The title is also used in Ireland for Catholic bishops, who are styled "The Most Reverend Dr X, Bishop of Y" on envelopes. ====Italy==== The first university of Western civilization, the University of Bologna, is located in Italy, where until modern times the only degree granted was that of the doctorate, and all other Italian universities followed that model. During the 20th century Italian universities introduced more advanced research degrees, such as the PhD. Italian academia is part of the Bologna Process, and has standardised its degrees as part of the 3+2+3 formula. The undergraduate degree "laurea" was reduced to 3 years (making it equivalent to a Bachelor's degree). This is followed by a 2 year "laurea magistrale" (literally "magistral degree", equivalent to a Master's degree). The old-system "laurea", which lasted about 5–6 years and is now discontinued, were made equivalent to a "laurea magistrale". Few fields retain the 5-6 year system (such as law and medicine) but are called "laurea magistrale a ciclo unico" and are an integrated master's degree. Finally, the Italian system also introduced a doctorate ("dottorato di ricerca"), which lasts 3 years and is the terminal degree of the educational hierarchy, corresponding to a PhD. For historical reasons, the title of doctor is awarded to all university degree holders. "Laurea" holders are awarded the title of doctor (dottore/dottoressa), "laurea magistrale" holders are awarded the title of magistral doctor (dottore magistrale/dottoressa magistrale), and doctorate holders are called research doctors (dottore di ricerca/dottoressa di ricerca). ====Malta==== In Malta, the title of Doctor is used by academic doctors (with PhDs), medical practitioners, dentists and lawyers. Its use by lawyers is due to the qualifying degree for practicing law having been the LLD until reforms in 2014, and has been described as "historical baggage" by the Dean of the University of Malta's law school. Lawyers do not generally use the title when practicing outside of Malta. ====Netherlands==== In the Dutch language doctor is used both for physicians and for the academic title, however the spelling differs with "dokter" referring to a physician, whereas "doctor" refers to the academic title. Both doctor titles are abbreviated as dr. placed before the holders name (note the lowercase). To enter a Dutch doctoral defense, the candidate must hold a validated master's degree (a master's degree of an acknowledged university, or a master equivalent degree validated on a case-by-case basis by the Dutch government). In some cases the candidate can be granted special dispensation if no master's degree is held. There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. Once the doctorate is obtained the preceding master's degree is generally no longer reported. Exceptions only exist for the disciplines with specific master titles of engineering "ir." ("ingenieur", i.e. Engineer) and law "mr." ("meester", i.e. Master of Law) where the title dr. is added to the original master title. For these disciplines, the original master's degree abbreviation is combined with the dr. abbreviation thus resulting in for example "dr. ir. Familyman". The dr. title is always placed in front of the ir. title. In the case of a PhD in law, the original mr. title is placed before the dr. title (mr. dr., see e.g. Jan Peter Balkenende). For a person having a law master's degree, but holding a PhD in another field than law the mr. title is placed after the dr. title (dr. mr.). No specific notation or title for the medical disciplines exists in the Netherlands. Although a physician is usually referred to as "dokter" (note the spelling difference) this does not necessarily imply the physician holds a doctoral degree; nor does it give the physician a title equivalent to that of PhD. Confusion can be caused by the original Dutch Master level title "drs." (for all non-engineering and non-law master's degrees). This abbreviation stands for the Dutch title doctorandus Latin for "he who should become a doctor" (female form is "doctoranda"). Dutch drs. should not be confused with the plural 'doctorates': having multiple PhDs. Once a doctorate is achieved the doctorandus is promoted to doctor, and no longer uses the drs. abbreviation. Stacking of multiples titles of the same level, as seen in countries like for example Germany (Dr. Dr. Dr. Musterfrau) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands (although stacking of titles with different levels is common: prof. dr. ir. Appelmans). Those who have multiple doctor titles may use dr.mult. before their name, although this is rarely used. After obtaining a doctorate successfully, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D (rarely in practice) behind their name, but not both simultaneously. In the Netherlands, Academic titles are used exclusively within academia. Holding a doctorate has become a standard requirement for a university career. The doctor title has little to no meaning or implications for public life outside academia. It cannot be added to documentation (e.g. passport, drivers licence), and is used infrequently in daily practice. Historically, the Netherlands used their own academic degree nomenclature, but for many years now have recognised and implemented the Bologna declaration. In everyday practice, the Anglo Saxon titles (e.g. PhD) are frequently used. Dutch academic titles and degrees are legally protected, and as of 2021 the traditional ’dr.’ and the PhD are legally equivalent and can be used interchangeably. Doctoral degrees (PhD degrees) can only be granted by recognised (research) universities. Illegal use of the title is considered a misdemeanour and subject to legal prosecution. ====Portugal==== In Portugal, up to recent times after the completion of an undergraduate degree – except in architecture and engineering – a person was referred to as doutor (Dr.) – male or doutora (Dra.) – female. The architects and engineers were referred by their professional titles: arquitecto (Arq.) and engenheiro (Eng.). Nurses are also referred to as "nurse", enfermeiro (male) or enfermeira (female), the title being Enf. for both. Nowadays Portugal is a signatory to the Bologna process and according to the current legislation the title of Doctor (doutor, doutora) is reserved for graduate holders of an academic doctorate. Professions such as physicians, attorneys, pharmacists, veterinarians, and few others are usually referred to by the title Dr. (doutor) even if they have not been awarded a doctoral degree. However, custom gives the legislation little strength and most graduates use the Dr. title in its abbreviated form, although use of the full Doutor is normally restricted to those with doctorates. Those who are both holders of an academic doctorate and Professors at a college level are generally referred to as Professor Doutor. ====Spain==== The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only PhD holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King. PhD Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (RD 1393–2007), Real Decreto (in Spanish). They are granted by the university on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a national database of doctoral theses called TESEO. Any person who uses the Spanish title of doctor/doctora (or Dr./Dra.) without being included in this Government database can be prosecuted for fraud. However, the Spanish Royal Academy recognises that it is used colloquially to describe physicians, even without doctoral degrees, as well as (in the feminine form, doctora, abbreviated Dra.) the wives of doctors (i.e. holders of doctoral degrees) and medics, as well as "women who shine with wisdom and understanding". Unlike other countries, until recently Spain has registered a comparatively small number of Doctor degree holders, but the tendency is changing. According to the Spanish Statistical Office (INE), less than 5% of MSc degree holders are admitted to PhD programs. This reinforces the prestige that Doctors have historically enjoyed in Spain's society. ====United Kingdom==== Doctor is commonly used in the United Kingdom as the title for a person who has received a doctoral degree or, as courtesy title, for a qualified medical practitioner or dentist who does not have a doctorate. There are no restrictions on the use of the title "Doctor" in the United Kingdom, except where, in commercial advertising, it might imply that the user holds a general medical qualification. The UK government allows medical doctors and holders of doctorates to have the title recorded on the observations page of their UK passport. The lack of legal restrictions was confirmed in Parliament in 1996 by health minister Gerald Malone, who noted that the title doctor had never been restricted by law to either medical practitioners or those with doctoral degrees in the UK, although the titles "physician, doctor of medicine, licentiate in medicine and surgery, bachelor of medicine, surgeon, general practitioner and apothecary" were protected. According to the etiquette guide, Debrett's, holders of doctoral degrees and medical doctors (but not surgeons) should be addressed as "Doctor". For medical doctors, "Doctor" is a professional title rather than an academic one: it is due to their being a medical practitioner rather than their having gained a doctoral degree. The Quality Assurance Agency states that "The use of the title 'Dr' by medical doctors is a historical abbreviation for the profession; it does not indicate a qualification at doctoral level". On guest lists and seating plans for formal events, holders of academic doctorates (but not medical doctors or other people using the title as a courtesy title) are listed either as "Dr John Smith" or "John Smith, Esq, PhD", while untitled men (other than those holding doctorates) are shown as either "Mr John Smith" or "John Smith, Esq" (as appropriate to ensure the styling remains consistent). The title "Dr" is also used on visiting cards. Medical students in the UK normally complete a course of study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, BMBS or MBChB). The MD degree is not a qualifying degree in the UK, but can be either a professional doctorate (at the same academic level as a PhD), a doctorate by thesis, or a higher doctorate, depending on the university. To be eligible for an MD degree in the UK one must already hold an entry-level medical degree (for example, MBBS, MBChB, BMed, or a North American MD degree) and usually must have had at least 5 years of postgraduate training and experience. Trainee doctors are permitted to use the title Doctor once they have started their post-graduation "Foundation Programme". Debrett's states that medical doctors (except surgeons) should be addressed on envelopes as "Dr (full name), (medical qualifications)", e.g. "Dr John Smith, MD", "Dr Anne Jones, MB BS, FRCP", "Dr David Evans, MB ChB", contrary to the normal rule of not mixing titles and post-nominals. Surgeons (and dentists, if not holding a doctoral degree) should be "(full name), Esq, (medical/dental qualifications)", e.g. "John Smith, Esq, MS, FRCS", "David Evans, Esq., BDS", but "Dr Anne Jones, DDS, FDS RCS",. By contrast, those holding (non medical or dental) doctoral degrees, if not surgeons, should be "Dr (full name)" without post-nominals on envelopes, e.g. "Dr John Smith". A & C Black's Titles and Forms of Address diverges from Debrett's on how to address envelopes to medical doctors, omitting the pre-nominal title of Dr (e.g. John Smith, Esq, MD; John Smith, MD; John Smith, MB) except in Scotland and for general practitioners, where the post-nominals are instead usually omitted (e.g. Dr John Smith). Black's also state that it is down to individual choice whether non-medical doctors are addressed on envelopes as "Dr John Smith" or "John Smith, Esq, PhD" (or appropriate letters for the doctorate held), with the exception of doctors of divinity, who would be "The Rev. J. Smith, DD" on the envelope and "Reverend Sir" in a formal salutation (informally in the salutation "Dear Dr Smith", and "Dr Smith" in speech). The custom of not referring to surgeons (members and fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons) as Dr has been commented on in the British Medical Journal and may stem from the historical origins of the profession such as that some barbers also used to function as surgeons. In 2005, the then-president of the Royal College of Surgeons called upon surgeons to use the title of Dr, saying that the use of Mr or Miss was confusing to patients. Black's note that gynaecologists are addressed as surgeons in England and Wales but as doctors elsewhere. Dentists have traditionally (as dental surgeons) been referred to in the same way as surgeons, but since 1995 the General Dental Council have permitted dentists to use the title "Doctor", though many do not choose to do this, thereby stressing their surgeon status. However, Debrett's continues to advises that dentists are normally addressed as surgeons and that the title "Doctor" is usually only used for dentists who have a doctoral degree. Optometrists are not permitted to use the title "Doctor" based on their initial qualification (BOptom or BSc (Optom)). Optometrists can earn PhDs or Doctor of Optometry degrees (in the UK a PhD-level qualification for qualified optometrists with experience in practice). Ophthalmologists are fully qualified medical doctors. However, ophthalmology is considered a branch of surgery, thus ophthalmologists, like other surgeons in the UK, do not use the title "Doctor". The General Chiropractic Council permits registered chiropractors to use the title "Doctor", although it advises chiropractors to avoid using the title in advertising or, if they do, to spell out that they are "Doctors of Chiropractic". The Committee of Advertising Practice advises, however, that "references to 'DC' or 'doctor of chiropractic' are unlikely to dispel that misleading impression [of being a medical practitioner], when used in conjunction with unqualified references to the prefix 'Dr, saying that the use of the title by chiropractors may be acceptable in advertising if "clearly and prominently qualified with additional text which makes clear it is a courtesy title and that the practitioner does not hold a general medical qualification". The Advertising Standards Authority has ruled that practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine should not use the title doctor in adverts unless they hold a general medical qualification and are registered with the General Medical Council. It similarly advises that osteopaths should not use the title unless holding a general medical qualification. There have also been rulings that an advert for an osteomyologist which referred to him as a doctor was misleading, as was an advert which used the title "Dr" and the post-nominals "PhD" on the basis of a PhD from an unaccredited university. Holders of honorary doctorates in the UK have the right, in most cases, to use the title of Doctor, although holders are encouraged to refrain from doing so. Black's says that "The same rules apply as to other holders", although notes that the post-nominals would not normally be used. =====Wales===== Wales follows UK usage in English. In Welsh, the holder of a doctoral degree is doethur while a medical doctor is doctor or meddyg. The title "y Doethur" is used by those holding doctorates, e.g. "y Doethur Brinley Jones", "y Doethur John Elfed Jones", which can be abbreviated "Dr". Medical doctors use, as in English, the title "Doctor", also abbreviated "Dr". ====Former Yugoslavia==== In countries that were formerly Yugoslavian republics, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia the title formally belongs to holders of academic doctoral degree such as doctor of science (dr. sc.) or doctor of arts (dr. art.) degree. There is no "Ph.D." in any of those countries, even though when holders are translating their dr. sc. degree to English, they nevertheless use "Ph.D.", even though it should be "D.Sc." or "Sc.D.". Informally, the title, in both its full and abbreviated form (i.e. "dr.") is used honorifically to address medical doctors even in more formal environment like in lectored media texts, however officially it is reserved only for the holders of academic degrees. Formally the professional title for medical doctor is "lijekar" in Bosnian and Montenegrin, "liječnik" in Croatian, "lekar/лекар" in Macedonian and Serbian and "zdravnik" in Slovenian and they can hold different academic degrees, as well as additional honorific title of Primarius that is given to distinguished specialists with exemplary reputation and achievements. ===Oceania=== ====Australia==== With the introduction of National Health Practitioner registration legislation on 1 July 2010, the title "doctor" is not restricted in any Australian state. The title "medical practitioner" is restricted for use by registered medical practitioners, while the title "doctor" is not restricted by law. Despite this, the Medical Board of Australia advises that practitioners who are not medical practitioners who choose to use the title 'Doctor' (or 'Dr') should clearly state their profession in advertisements, even if they hold a PhD or another doctoral degree, e.g. 'Dr Smith (Dentist)' or 'Dr Jones (Chiropodist)'. The Psychology Board of Australia prohibits psychologists from using the title, to avoid confusion with psychiatrists, unless they hold a doctoral degree, in which case they must make it clear that they are not a medical practitioner or psychiatrist, e.g. by putting '(Psychologist)' after their name. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) defines doctoral degrees as being at Level 10 of the framework; it specifies that: "Individuals who have been awarded a Doctoral Degree at Level 10 on the AQF are entitled to use the title 'Doctor'. The title 'Doctor' will not be used by those who hold an honorary award." The name 'Doctor' is also used in the name of some extended master's degrees at Level 9 (e.g. Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine); these are not considered doctoral degrees. ==Abbreviation== Doctor is abbreviated "Dr" in British English and "Dr." in North American English. The plural abbreviation is "Drs". ===British usage=== In British English it is not necessary to indicate an abbreviation with a full stop after the abbreviation, when the first and last letters of the abbreviation are the same as for the unabbreviated word, i.e. the abbreviation is a contraction, as in the case for "Doctor". In the United Kingdom, it is normal also to omit stops from postnominal letters, thus the usual abbreviation for "Doctor of Philosophy" is "PhD" (or "DPhil", where this is used). The fully punctuated "Ph.D." or "D.Phil." is anachronistic and, where the abbreviated form of the degree is defined by regulation rather than custom (e.g. Oxford), may be technically incorrect. ===American usage=== American English makes no distinction between abbreviations that are contractions and abbreviations that are not. A period is used: the abbreviation of Doctor is usually written as "Dr." in North America. However, the US Postal Service prefers punctuation to be omitted from addresses. ==Honorary doctorates== An honorary doctorate is a doctoral degree awarded for service to the institution or the wider community. It may also be awarded for outstanding achievement in a particular field. This service or achievement does not need to be academic in nature. Often, the same set of degrees is used for higher doctorates, but they are distinguished as being honoris causa: in comprehensive lists, the lettering used to indicate the possession of a higher doctorate is often adjusted to indicate this, for example, "Hon ScD", as opposed to the earned research doctorate "ScD". The degrees of Doctor of the University (DUniv) and Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL), however, are only awarded as honorary degrees. By convention, recipients of honorary doctorates do not use the title "Dr" in general correspondence, although in formal correspondence from the university issuing the honorary degree it is normal to address the recipient by the title. However, this social convention is not always scrupulously observed; notable people who defied social convention and used the honorary prefix include: Benjamin Franklin, who received honorary master's degrees from Harvard and Yale in 1753, and from the College of William & Mary in 1756, and doctorates from the University of St Andrews in 1759 and the University of Oxford in 1762 for his scientific accomplishments. He thereafter referred to himself as "Doctor Franklin". Maya Angelou, who held many honorary doctorates, called herself and was referred to by many as "Dr. Angelou" despite holding no undergraduate or advanced (non-honorary) degree. Booker T. Washington was often referred to as "Dr. Washington" after receiving an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College. Sukarno, President of Indonesia, was awarded twenty-six honorary doctorates from various international universities including Columbia University, the University of Michigan, the University of Berlin, the Al-Azhar University, the University of Belgrade, the Lomonosov University and many more. And also from domestic universities including the Universitas Gadjah Mada, the Universitas Indonesia, the Bandung Institute of Technology, and the Universitas Padjadjaran. He had often been referred to by Indonesian Government at the time as 'Dr. Ir. Sukarno', combined with his degree in architecture (Ir.) from Bandung Institute of Technology. Sukarno is the president with the highest number of honorary doctorates in the world. Author and lexicographer Samuel Johnson, who had some years earlier been unable (due to financial considerations) to complete his undergraduate studies at Pembroke College, Oxford, was awarded the degree of Master of Arts by diploma in 1755, in recognition of his scholarly achievements. In 1765, Trinity College Dublin awarded him the degree of Doctor of Laws and in 1775 Oxford bestowed upon him the degree of Doctor of Civil Law by diploma. He never referred to himself as "Dr. Johnson", even though a degree by diploma is distinct from an honorary degree, but it was used by his contemporaries and in his biography by James Boswell. ==Other uses of "doctor"== In some regions, such as the Southern United States, "Doctor" is traditionally added to the first name of people holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address. "Doc" is a common nickname for someone with a doctoral degree, in real life and in fiction — for example, the gunfighter Doc Holliday, the Australian politician H.V. "Doc" Evatt, the character "Doc" in Gunsmoke, and pulp hero Doc Savage. In Roman Catholicism and several other Christian denominations, a Doctor of the Church is an eminent theologian (for example, Saint Thomas Aquinas, also known as the Angelic Doctor) from whose teachings the whole Church is held to have derived great advantage. African leaders often refer to themselves as "Doctor" as part of their title upon assuming office.	[ "Dutch people", "Universitas Indonesia", "Chinese medicine", "Attorney at law", "GateHouse Media", "higher doctorate", "Spanish people", "University of Utah", "Committee of Advertising Practice", "Doc Savage", "theology", "France", "Hong Kong", "North American English", "The Gazette of India", "Royal College of Surgeons", "Emily Post Institute", "veterinary education", "Der Spiegel", "Physiotherapy", "Academic degree", "Medical Act 1858", "University of Paris", "Clarendon Press", "early church", "Yoga as therapy", "American Osteopathic Association", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Immediate Media Company", "Doctor of Science", "Croatian language", "General Medical Council", "National Institutes of Health", "Doctor of Optometry", "University of Berlin", "Philippines", "Saint Thomas Aquinas", "Doctor of Education", "registered medical practitioner", "Third Council of the Lateran", "universities", "Catholic church", "Homeopathy", "Ophthalmologist", "cleric", "admiralty law", "Sukarno", "BBC News", "Doc Holliday", "British Medical Journal", "The Independent", "Lomonosov University", "Juris Doctor", "Los Angeles Times", "Grandees", "Apostles in the New Testament", "British Medical Association", "US Postal Service", "Macedonian language", "surgeons", "American Medical Association", "Universitas Gadjah Mada", "Canadian Press", "Universitas Padjadjaran", "BBC", "Doctor of Humane Letters", "Trinity College Dublin", "Doctor of Medicine", "Germany", "Unaccredited institutions of higher education", "Jill Biden", "Sri Lanka", "Dawn (newspaper)", "humanities", "dental degree", "osteopath", "Ms.", "albularyo", "doctor of physical therapy", "UNESCO", "Bologna process", "Government of France", "Süddeutsche Zeitung", "Nurse", "Supreme Court of India", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Optometrist", "Montenegrin language", "International Standard Classification of Education", "ScD", "Portugal", "Serbia", "Harvard University", "Bachelor of Veterinary Science", "New Zealand", "Bible", "Mrs.", "medieval university", "Johnson's Dictionary", "Samuel Johnson", "quackery", "Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine", "Doc (nickname)", "European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System", "PhD", "General Dental Council", "Doctor's Commons", "Oxford University Press", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "academic degree", "Marie Claire", "Mister (Mr.)", "H. V. Evatt", "veterinarian", "Slovenia", "Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine", "second lady", "Dutch language", "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery", "Naturopathy", "Council of Europe", "University of St Andrews", "university", "University of Bologna", "Ghana", "Royal College of Physicians", "Doctor of Juridical Science", "PharmD", "White House", "First Lady of the United States", "AP Stylebook", "engineering", "Agent noun", "India", "University of Wales Trinity Saint David", "Doctor of Divinity", "visiting card", "Institute of Optometry", "Columbia University", "University of Belgrade", "Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching", "Spanish Royal Academy", "United Kingdom", "University of Malta", "The Globe and Mail", "Bandung Institute of Technology", "science", "Caricom", "Trinidad and Tobago", "Pakistan Medical and Dental Council", "Doctor of Biblical Studies", "North Macedonia", "College of William & Mary", "Maclean's", "Dartmouth College", "bachelor's degree", "Southern United States", "Postdoc", "NARA", "Lexicography", "Membership of the Royal College of Physicians", "Roman Catholicism", "Siddha medicine", "thesis", "Ingenieur", "physiotherapists", "Croatia", "church fathers", "General Chiropractic Council", "thesis by publication", "Christianity", "Higher Education Commission (Pakistan)", "Spanish language", "Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons", "Oath of allegiance", "hashtag", "Humboldt University of Berlin", "Filipino language", "gynaecologist", "American Journal of Nursing", "Dental degree", "Quality Assurance Agency", "Journal of Higher Education", "Welsh language", "Cambrian News", "Bangladesh", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Gunsmoke", "Al-Azhar University", "Magister degree", "Twitter", "Bologna declaration", "Letitia Baldrige", "Hungarian Academy of Sciences", "Courtesy titles in the United Kingdom", "Bachelor of Dental Surgery", "Doctor of Dental Surgery", "Alfred University", "professional doctorate", "Physician", "Bosnian language", "West Virginia University", "The Wall Street Journal", "University of Oxford", "Doctor of Philosophy", "Montenegro", "Indonesia", "Royal College of Ophthalmologists", "Malta", "The Guardian", "Jan Peter Balkenende", "Duke", "chiropractors", "Doctor of Laws", "Miss Manners", "Mother Jones (magazine)", "A & C Black", "Debrett's", "Miss", "Ayurveda", "Allopathic medicine", "University of Michigan", "Slovenian language", "Cambridge University Press", "Michele Bachmann", "general practitioner", "British English", "Indonesian Government", "Doctor of the Church", "dottorato di ricerca", "Master's degree", "English language", "Laurea", "Royal College of Physicians of Ireland", "German language", "Macau", "Veterinarian", "Australian Qualifications Framework", "doctorandus", "American and British English spelling differences", "Licentiate (degree)", "Maya Angelou", "James Boswell", "Specialty (medicine)", "Unani medicine", "whitehouse.gov", "Science (journal)", "South Africa", "Ecclesiastical", "doctorate", "Catharine Bond Hill", "Kultusministerkonferenz", "Office of Science and Technology Policy", "Australia", "Lexikon des Mittelalters", "doctor of arts", "architecture", "Simon and Schuster", "Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)", "pharmacist", "Serbian language", "Sinhalese people", "Doktoringenieur", "Benjamin Franklin", "The Washington Post", "Yale University", "Medical education in the United Kingdom", "The Times of India", "Doctor of Civil Law", "NASA", "Caribbean English", "barber surgeon", "medical practitioner", "Pharmacy Council of Pakistan", "Legum Doctor", "Bologna Process", "Booker T. Washington", "European Research Council", "Gerald Malone", "League of Women Voters", "European Higher Education Area", "wikt:doctores", "dentistry", "physician", "Emergency Nurses Association", "The Reverend", "Bachelor of Laws", "High Court of Bangladesh", "The New York Times", "Lisbon Recognition Convention", "pharmacy", "pope", "ISCED", "MBBS", "Osteomyology", "Shakespeare", "University of Calgary", "Royal Institute of Thailand", "Middle Ages", "Pembroke College, Oxford", "Pakistan", "Ijazah" ]
8,882	Domnall mac Ailpín	Domnall mac Ailpín (Modern Gaelic: Dòmhnall mac Ailpein), anglicised sometimes as Donald MacAlpin and known in most modern regnal lists as Donald I (812 – 13 April 862), was King of the Picts from 858 to 862. He followed his brother Kenneth I to the Pictish throne. == Reign == The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says that Domnall reigned for four years, matching the notices in the Annals of Ulster of his brother's death in February 858 and his own in April 862. The Chronicle notes: The laws of Áed Find are entirely lost, but it has been assumed that, like the laws attributed to Giric of Scotland and Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda), these related to the church and in particular to granting the privileges and immunities common elsewhere. The significance of Forteviot as the site of this law-making, along with Kenneth's death there and Constantine's later gathering at nearby Scone, may point to this as being the heartland of the sons of Alpín's support. The Chronicle of Melrose says of Domnall, "in war he was a vigorous soldier ... he is said to have been assassinated at Scone." No other source reports Domnall's death by violence. The Prophecy of Berchán may refer to Domnall in stanzas 123–124: Although Domnall is generally supposed to have been childless, it has been suggested that Giric was a son of Domnall, reading his patronym as mac Domnaill rather than the commonly supposed mac Dúngail. This, however, is not widely accepted. Domnall died, either at the palace of Cinnbelachoir (location unknown), or at Rathinveralmond (also unknown, and maybe the same place, presumed to be near the junction of the Almond and the Tay, near Scone). He was buried on Iona.	[ "Áed Find", "Scone, Perth and Kinross", "Giric", "William Forbes Skene", "Kingdom of Alba", "Chronicle of Melrose", "Scottish Gaelic", "River Almond, Perthshire", "House of Alpin", "A. A. M. Duncan", "British monarchy", "anglicised", "Origins of the Kingdom of Alba", "Giric of Scotland", "Alpín mac Echdach", "Causantín mac Cináeda", "Iona", "Constantine II of Scotland", "Loch Awe", "Jacob de Wet II", "Annals of Ulster", "Kenneth I", "King of the Picts", "Forteviot", "River Tay", "Picts", "Alan Orr Anderson", "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", "Prophecy of Berchán" ]
8,884	Danse Macabre	The Danse Macabre (; ), also called the Dance of Death, is an artistic genre of allegory from the Late Middle Ages on the universality of death. The Danse Macabre consists of the dead, or a personification of death, summoning representatives from all walks of life to dance along to the grave, typically with a pope, emperor, king, child, and labourer. The effect is both frivolous and terrifying, beseeching its audience to react emotionally. It was produced as memento mori, to remind people of the fragility of their lives and the vanity of earthly glory. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts; the earliest recorded visual scheme (apart from 14th century Triumph of Death paintings) was a now-lost mural at Holy Innocents' Cemetery in Paris dating from 1424 to 1425. Written in 1874 by the French composer Camille Saint-Saëns, Danse Macabre, Op. 40, is a haunting symphonic "poem" for orchestra. It premiered 24 January 1875. ==Background== Religion is an important contextual factor around the Dance of Death tradition and its effect on the population, with new eschatology concepts in the fourteenth century being critical for the development of the Dance of Death. Early examples of Dance of Death artwork were present in religious contexts such as murals on Christian church walls. These served to remind people about the inevitability of death and urge moral reflection in order to cope with this reality. In his 1998 study on medieval religious practices, historian Francis Rapp wrote thatChristians were moved by the sight of the Infant Jesus playing on his mother's knee; their hearts were touched by the Pietà; and patron saints reassured them by their presence. But, all the while, the danse macabre urged them not to forget the end of all earthly things.It is generally agreed upon by scholars that Dance of Death depictions do show realistic dancing based on the quality of gestures seen in artwork and familiarity with steps found in texts. Gertsman writes thatBy drawing its inspiration from the sphere of performance, the Dance of Death imagery, along with its text, invites a performative reading, informed by specific structures of the verses, the concept of movement, and the understanding of the body language of the danse macabre's protagonists. However, there is scarce evidence surrounding a physical dancing performance tradition of the Dance of Death outside of its other depictions. Regardless, its main influence has been in the form of visual arts such as murals, paintings, and more. The bubonic plague and its devastating effects on the European population were significantly contributing factors to the inspiration and solidification of the Dance of Death tradition in the fourteenth century. The cultural impact of mass outbreaks of disease are not fleeting or temporary. In their paper on “Black Death, Plagues, and the Danse Macabre. Depictions of Epidemics in Art,” Rittershaus and Eschenberg discuss artistic representations of various epidemics starting with the bubonic plague and extending to cholera and recent epidemics. The suffering and realization of death’s closeness, which the black death caused in Europe, were integrated with concepts of morality and Christianity to give rise to the Dance of Death tradition as a direct response to the epidemic. Cholera cases in the nineteenth century inspired a resurgence of Dance of Death depictions after the initial black death depictions, with religious connotations still present but less important. However, some have argued that 14th century Triumph of Death paintings such as the fresco by Francesco Traini are also examples of danse macabre. There were also painted schemes in Basel (the earliest dating from ); a series of paintings on canvas by Bernt Notke (1440–1509) in Lübeck (1463); the initial fragment of the original Bernt Notke painting Danse Macabre (accomplished at the end of the 15th century) in the St Nicholas' Church, Tallinn, Estonia; the painting at the back wall of the chapel of Sv. Marija na Škrilinama in the Istrian town of Beram (1474), painted by Vincent of Kastav; the painting in the Holy Trinity Church of Hrastovlje, Istria by John of Kastav (1490). A notable example was painted on the cemetery walls of the Dominican Abbey, in Bern, by Niklaus Manuel Deutsch (1484–1530) in 1516/7. This work of art was destroyed when the wall was torn down in 1660, but a 1649 copy by Albrecht Kauw (1621–1681) is extant. There was also a Dance of Death painted around 1430 and displayed on the walls of Pardon Churchyard at Old St Paul's Cathedral, London, with texts by John Lydgate (1370–1451) known as the 'Dance of (St) Poulys', which was destroyed in 1549. The deathly horrors of the 14th century such as recurring famines, the Hundred Years' War in France, and, most of all, the Black Death, were culturally assimilated throughout Europe. The omnipresent possibility of sudden and painful death increased the religious desire for penance, but it also evoked a hysterical desire for amusement while still possible; a last dance as cold comfort. The Danse Macabre combines both desires: in many ways similar to the medieval mystery plays, the dance-with-death allegory was originally a didactic dialogue poem to remind people of the inevitability of death and to advise them strongly to be prepared at all times for death (see memento mori and ). Short verse dialogues between Death and each of its victims, which could have been performed as plays, can be found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany and in Spain (where it was known as the Totentanz and la Danza de la Muerte, respectively). The French term Danse Macabre may derive from the Latin Chorea Machabæorum, literally "dance of the Maccabees." In 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, the grim martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons is described and was a well-known medieval subject. It is possible that the Maccabean Martyrs were commemorated in some early French plays, or that people just associated the book's vivid descriptions of the martyrdom with the interaction between Death and its prey. An alternative explanation is that the term entered France via Spain, the , maqabir (pl., "cemeteries") being the root of the word. Both the dialogues and the evolving paintings were ostensive penitential lessons that even illiterate people (who were the overwhelming majority) could understand. ==Mural paintings== Frescoes and murals dealing with death had a long tradition, and were widespread. For example, the legend of the Three Living and the Three Dead. On a ride or hunt, three young gentlemen meet three cadavers (sometimes described as their ancestors) who warn them, Quod fuimus, estis; quod sumus, vos eritis ("What we were, you are; what we are, you will be"). Numerous mural versions of that legend from the 13th century onwards have survived (for instance, in the Hospital Church of Wismar or the residential Longthorpe Tower outside Peterborough). Since they showed pictorial sequences of men and corpses covered with shrouds, those paintings are sometimes regarded as cultural precursors of the new genre. A Danse Macabre painting may show a round dance headed by Death or, more usually, a chain of alternating dead and live dancers. From the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy (usually pope and emperor) descending to its lowest (beggar, peasant, and child), each mortal's hand is taken by an animated skeleton or cadaver. The famous Totentanz by Bernt Notke in St. Mary's Church, Lübeck (destroyed during the Allied bombing of Lübeck in World War II), presented the dead dancers as very lively and agile, making the impression that they were actually dancing, whereas their living dancing partners looked clumsy and passive. The apparent class distinction in almost all of these paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer, so that a sociocritical element is subtly inherent to the whole genre. The Totentanz of Metnitz, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his tiara is being led into Hell by Death. Usually, a short dialogue is attached to each pair of dancers, in which Death is summoning him (or, more rarely, her) to dance and the summoned is moaning about impending death. In the first printed Totentanz textbook (Anon.: Vierzeiliger oberdeutscher Totentanz, Heidelberger Blockbuch, ), Death addresses, for example, the emperor: At the lower end of the Totentanz, Death calls, for example, the peasant to dance, who answers: Various examples of Danse Macabre in Slovenia and Croatia below: File:Totentanz Maria im Fels Beram.JPG\|The fresco at the back wall of the Church of St. Mary of the Rocks in the Istrian town of Beram (1474), painted by Vincent of Kastav, Croatia File:Hrastovlje Dans3.jpg\|John of Kastav: Detail of the Dance Macabre fresco (1490) in the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje, Slovenia File:Dance of Death (replica of 15th century fresco; National Gallery of Slovenia).jpg\|Dance of Death (replica of 15th century fresco; National Gallery of Slovenia) File:Totentanz in Hrastovlje.JPG\|The famous Danse Macabre in Hrastovlje in the Holy Trinity Church File:Trionfo della morte - Chiesa S. Maria Annunciata - Bienno (ph Luca Giarelli).jpg\|Danse Macabre in St Maria in Bienno, 16th century ==Hans Holbein's woodcuts== Renowned for his Dance of Death series, the famous designs by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) were drawn in 1526 while he was in Basel. They were cut in wood by the accomplished Formschneider (block cutter) Hans Lützelburger. William Ivins (quoting W. J. Linton) writes of Lützelburger's work wrote: "Nothing indeed, by knife or by graver, is of higher quality than this man's doing.' For by common acclaim the originals are technically the most marvelous woodcuts ever made." These woodcuts soon appeared in proofs with titles in German. The first book edition, titled Les Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort and containing forty-one woodcuts, was published at Lyons by the Treschsel brothers in 1538. The popularity of the work, and the currency of its message, are underscored by the fact that there were eleven editions before 1562, and over the sixteenth century perhaps as many as a hundred unauthorized editions and imitations. Ten further designs were added in later editions. The Dance of Death (1523–26) refashions the late-medieval allegory of the Danse Macabre as a reformist satire, and one can see the beginnings of a gradual shift from traditional to reformed Christianity. That shift had many permutations however, and in a study Natalie Zemon Davis has shown that the contemporary reception and afterlife of Holbein's designs lent themselves to neither purely Catholic or Protestant doctrine, but could be outfitted with different surrounding prefaces and sermons as printers and writers of different political and religious leanings took them up. Most importantly, "The pictures and the Bible quotations above them were the main attractions […] Both Catholics and Protestants wished, through the pictures, to turn men's thoughts to a Christian preparation for death.". The 1538 edition which contained Latin quotations from the Bible above Holbein's designs, and a French quatrain below composed by Gilles Corrozet (1510–1568) actually did not credit Holbein as the artist. It bore the title: Les simulachres & / HISTORIEES FACES / DE LA MORT, AUTANT ELE/gammēt pourtraictes, que artifi/ciellement imaginées. / A Lyon. / Soubz l'escu de COLOIGNE. / M.D. XXXVIII. ("Images and Illustrated facets of Death, as elegantly depicted as they are artfully conceived.") These images and workings of death as captured in the phrase "histories faces" of the title "are the particular exemplification of the way death works, the individual scenes in which the lessons of mortality are brought home to people of every station." In his preface to the work Jean de Vauzèle, the Prior of Montrosier, addresses Jehanne de Tourzelle, the Abbess of the Convent at St. Peter at Lyons, and names Holbein's attempts to capture the ever-present, but never directly seen, abstract images of death "simulachres." He writes: "[…] simulachres les dis ie vrayement, pour ce que simulachre vient de simuler, & faindre ce que n'est point." ("Simulachres they are most correctly called, for simulachre derives from the verb to simulate and to feign that which is not really there.") He next employs a trope from the memento mori (remember we all must die) tradition and a metaphor from printing which well captures the undertakings of Death, the artist, and the printed book before us in which these simulachres of death barge in on the living: "Et pourtant qu'on n'a peu trouver chose plus approchante a la similitude de Mort, que la personne morte, on d'icelle effigie simulachres, & faces de Mort, pour en nos pensees imprimer la memoire de Mort plus au vis, que ne pourroient toutes les rhetoriques descriptiones de orateurs." ("And yet we cannot discover any one thing more near the likeness of Death than the dead themselves, whence come these simulated effigies and images of Death's affairs, which imprint the memory of Death with more force than all the rhetorical descriptions of the orators ever could."). Holbein's series shows the figure of "Death" in many disguises, confronting individuals from all walks of life. None escape Death's skeletal clutches, not even the pious. As Davis writes, "Holbein's pictures are independent dramas in which Death comes upon his victim in the midst of the latter's own surroundings and activities. This is perhaps nowhere more strikingly captured than in the wonderful blocks showing the plowman earning his bread by the sweat of his brow only to have his horses speed him to his end by Death. The Latin from the 1549 Italian edition pictured here reads: "In sudore vultus tui, vesceris pane tuo." ("Through the sweat of thy brow you shall eat your bread"), quoting Genesis 3.19. The Italian verses below translate: ("Miserable in the sweat of your brow,/ It is necessary that you acquire the bread you need eat,/ But, may it not displease you to come with me,/ If you are desirous of rest."). Or there is the nice balance in composition Holbein achieves between the heavy-laden traveling salesman insisting that he must still go to market while Death tugs at his sleeve to put down his wares once and for all: "Venite ad me, qui onerati estis." ("Come to me, all ye who [labour and] are heavy laden"), quoting Matthew 11.28. The Italian here translates: "Come with me, wretch, who are weighed down / Since I am the dame who rules the whole world:/ Come and hear my advice / Because I wish to lighten you of this load." ==Musical settings== Musical settings of the motif include: Mattasin oder Toden Tanz, 1598, by August Nörmiger Totentanz. Paraphrase on "Dies irae." by Franz Liszt, 1849, a set of variations based on the plainsong melody "Dies Irae". Danse Macabre by Camille Saint-Saëns, 1874 Songs and Dances of Death, 1875–77, by Modest Mussorgsky Symphony No. 4, 2nd Movement, 1901, by Gustav Mahler Valse triste, 1903, by Jean Sibelius Totentanz der Prinzipien, 1914, by Arnold Schoenberg The Green Table, 1932, ballet by Kurt Jooss Totentanz, 1934, by Hugo Distler, inspired by the Lübecker Totentanz "Scherzo (Dance of Death)," in Op. 14 Ballad of Heroes, 1939, by Benjamin Britten Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, Op. 67, 4th movement, "Dance of Death," 1944, by Dmitri Shostakovich Der Kaiser von Atlantis, oder Die Tod-Verweigerung, 1944, by Viktor Ullmann and Peter Kien Le Grand Macabre, opera written by György Ligeti (Stockholm 1978) Danse Macabre, song, 1984, by Celtic Frost, Swiss extreme metal band Dance of Death, 2003, an album and a song by Iron Maiden, heavy metal band Cortège & Danse Macabre from the symphonic suite Cantabile, 2009, by Frederik Magle Totentanz (Adès) by Thomas Adès, 2013, a piece for voices and orchestra based on the 15th century text. La Danse Macabre, song on the Shovel Knight soundtrack, 2014, by Jake Kaufman Danse Macabre, song by Purson, 2014 Danse Macabre, song by The Oh Hellos, 2015 Dance Macabre, song, 2018, by Ghost (Swedish band), Swedish rock band La danse macabre, song, 2019, by Clément Belio, French multi-instrumentalist Danse Macabre by Jörg Widmann, 2022 Danse Macabre, song and album, 2023, by Duran Duran, English new wave band Danse Macabre by Prach Boondiskulchok, 2023 Danse Macabre by Heaven Pierce Her, 2023 ==Textual examples of the Danse Macabre== The Danse Macabre was a frequent motif in poetry, drama and other written literature in the Middle Ages in several areas of western Europe. There is a Spanish , a French , and a German with various Latin manuscripts written during the 14th century. Printed editions of books began appearing in the 15th century, such as the ones produced by Guy Marchant of Paris. Similarly to the musical or artistic representations, the texts describe living and dead persons being called to dance or form a procession with Death. Danse Macabre texts were often, though not always, illustrated with illuminations and woodcuts. There is one danse macabre text devoted entirely to women: The Danse Macabre of Women. This work survives in five manuscripts, and two printed editions. In it, 36 women of various ages, in Paris, are called from their daily lives and occupations to join the Dance with Death. An English translation of the French manuscript was published by Ann Tukey Harrison in 1994. John Lydgate's Dance of Death is a Middle English poem written in the early 15th century. It is a translation of a French poem of the same name, and it is one of the most popular examples of the Danse Macabre genre. The poem is a moral allegory in which Death leads a procession of people from all walks of life to their graves. The poem includes a variety of characters, including the emperor, the pope, the cardinal, the bishop, the abbot, the prioress, the monk, the nun, the doctor, the lawyer, the merchant, the knight, the plowman, the beggar, and the child. The poem is written in rhyme royal, a seven-line stanzaic form that was popular in the Middle Ages.	[ "Totentanz (Adès)", "new wave music", "Gustav Mahler", "Dance of Death (album)", "Nuremberg Chronicle", "Bern", "didacticism", "penance", "St Paul's Cathedral", "labourer", "John, Duke of Bedford", "St. Nicholas' Church, Tallinn", "Ann Tukey Harrison", "Dancing mania", "de:Heiligen-Geist-Hospital (Wismar)", "Jake Kaufman", "Totentanz (Liszt)", "Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)", "Dies Irae", "The Oh Hellos", "Type O Negative", "bombing of Lübeck in World War II", "martyr", "bailiff", "Allegory", "Infant Jesus", "tiara", "Catholic Encyclopedia", "György Ligeti", "Shovel Knight", "Holy Innocents' Cemetery", "Peterborough", "Guy Marchant", "Hans Holbein the Younger", "John Lydgate", "Fresco", "Kastav", "Late Middle Ages", "Purson", "Danse macabre (Saint-Saëns)", "The Triumph of Death", "Schott Music", "allegory", "Estonia", "Bienno", "Longthorpe Tower", "Frederik Magle", "Der Kaiser von Atlantis", "Rock music", "Marek Żukow-Karczewski", "vanity", "Masque", "Iron Maiden", "The Origin of the Feces", "Niklaus Manuel Deutsch", "plainsong", "August Nörmiger", "Heavy metal music", "Basel", "memento mori", "Ars moriendi", "Modest Mussorgsky", "Hundred Years' War", "Valse triste", "sermon", "Dancing Pallbearers", "Totentanz (Distler)", "Dance Macabre (song)", "Extreme metal music", "Jean Sibelius", "Francis Rapp", "Lübeck", "Cantabile (symphonic suite)", "Piano Trio No. 2 (Shostakovich)", "2 Maccabees", "ABC-CLIO", "Istria", "Holy Trinity Church (Hrastovlje)", "Duran Duran", "Pietà", "woman with seven sons", "Central Library, Edinburgh", "Le Grand Macabre", "Personifications of death", "Black Death", "The Skeleton Dance", "Jörg Widmann", "Memento mori", "famine", "Formschneider", "Thomas Adès", "Celtic Frost", "Franz Liszt", "deuterocanonical books", "Ghost (Swedish band)", "Library of Congress", "woodcuts", "Camille Saint-Saëns", "Hans Lützelburger", "Prach Boondiskulchok", "John of Kastav", "St. Mary's Church, Lübeck", "Benjamin Britten", "crisis of the Late Middle Ages", "Peter Kien", "Viktor Ullmann", "Tallinn", "Albrecht Kauw", "Hartmann Schedel", "Kurt Jooss", "Istria County", "La Calavera Catrina", "Francesco Traini", "Arnold Schoenberg", "mystery play", "Gilles Corrozet", "National Gallery of Slovenia", "The Green Table", "patron saint", "Dmitri Shostakovich", "Christianity Today", "Wismar", "Danse Macabre (Duran Duran album)", "Hugo Distler", "Hrastovlje", "Paris", "Bernt Notke", "Allhallowtide", "Medieval dance", "Metnitz", "Vanitas", "Danse Macabre (Notke)", "Songs and Dances of Death" ]
8,885	David Abercromby	David Abercromby was a 17th-century Scottish physician and writer, thought to have died in 1702. Brought up at Douai as a Roman Catholic by Jesuit priests, he was converted to Protestantism in 1682 and came to abjure popery, and published Protestancy proved Safer than Popery (1686). ==Works== His medical reputation was based on his Tuta ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus (1684) which was translated into French, Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus Variatione (1685), and Ars explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore (1688); his Opuscula were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a place and memorial in Albrecht von Haller, Bibliotheca Medicinae Practicae (1779). According to Haller he was alive early in the 18th century. He also wrote some books in theology and philosophy, controversial in their time but little remembered today. But the most noticeable of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (1685), which contains some of the most characteristic metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum (1687), and by A Moral Discourse of the Power of Interest (1690), dedicated to Robert Boyle, Abercromby's patron in the 1680s. He later wrote Reasons Why A Protestant Should not Turn Papist (1687), which has often wrongly been attributed to Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines, by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James Maidment.	[ "Robert Boyle", "Society of Jesus", "popery", "Andrew Pyle (philosopher)", "Early English Books Online", "Dutch language", "theology", "Protestantism", "physician", "French language", "Albrecht von Haller", "Edinburgh", "Roman Catholic Church", "Douai", "philosophy", "German language", "Scotland" ]