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Davis, California
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Davis is the most populous city in Yolo County, California, United States. Located in the Sacramento Valley region of Northern California, the city had a population of 66,850 in 2020, not including the on-campus population of the University of California, Davis, which was over 9,400 (not including students' families) in 2016. there were 40,850 students enrolled at the university, and is known as the biking capital of America.
== History ==
Davis sits on land that was historically inhabited by Indigenous people associated with the Clovis culture. The Patwin, a southern branch of Wintun people, eventually displaced existing Indigenous tribes. The Patwin were subsequently displaced by the American and Mexican government in the 1830s as part of the California genocide. Patwin burial grounds have been found across Davis, including on the site of the UC Davis Mondavi Center. Territory that eventually became Davis emerged from ranchos, Laguna de Santos Callé. Jerome C. Davis, a prominent farmer and one of the early claimants to land in Laguna de Santos Callé, lobbied to the United States Congress to retain the land that eventually became Davis. Davis became a depot on the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1868, when it was named Davisville after Jerome C. Davis. The post office at Davisville shortened the town name to "Davis" in 1907. The name stuck, and the city of Davis was incorporated on March 28, 1917.
From its inception as a farming community, Davis is known primarily for its contributions to agricultural policy along with veterinary care and animal husbandry. Following the passage of the University Farm Bill in 1905 by the California State Legislature, Governor George Pardee selected Davis out of 50 other sites as the future home to the University of California's University Farm, officially opening to students in 1908. The farm, later renamed the Northern Branch of the College of Agriculture in 1922, was upgraded to become the seventh UC general campus, the University of California, Davis, in 1959.
==Geography and environment==
===Location===
Davis is located in Yolo County, California, west of Sacramento, northeast of San Francisco, north of Los Angeles, at the intersection of Interstate 80 and State Route 113. Neighboring towns include Dixon, Winters, Woodland, and West Sacramento.
Davis lies in the Sacramento Valley, the northern portion of the Central Valley, in Northern California, at an elevation of about above sea level.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it, or 0.19%, is water.
The topography is flat, which has helped Davis to become known as a haven for bicyclists.
=== Climate ===
The Davis climate resembles that of nearby Sacramento and is typical of California's Central Valley Mediterranean climate region: warm and dry in the spring, summer and autumn, and cool and wet in the winter. It is classified as a Köppen Csa climate. Summer days are hot, ranging from , but the nights turn pleasantly cool, almost always dropping below . The Delta Breeze, a flow of cool marine air originating from the Pacific Ocean via San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, frequently provides relief in the evening. Winter temperatures generally reach between in the afternoon; nights average at about , but occasionally fall below freezing.
Average temperatures range from in December and January to in July and August. Thick ground fog called tule fog settles into Davis during late fall and winter. This fog can be dense, with near zero visibility. As in other areas of Northern California, the tule fog is a leading cause of road accidents in the winter season.
Mean rainfall per annum is about . The bulk of the rainfall occurs between about mid-November to mid-March, with typically no precipitation falling from mid-June to mid-September.
Record temperatures range from a high of on July 17, 1925, to a low of on December 11, 1932.
===Neighborhoods===
Davis is internally divided by two freeways (Interstate 80 and State Route 113), a north–south railroad (California Northern), an east–west mainline (Union Pacific) and several major streets. The city is unofficially divided into six main districts made up of smaller neighborhoods (often originally named as housing subdivisions):
Central Davis, north of Fifth Street and Russell Boulevard, south of Covell Blvd., east of SR 113, and west of the railroad tracks running along G Street. Within these boundaries is the officially denoted neighborhood of Old North Davis, which is sometimes also considered part of Downtown.
Downtown Davis, roughly the numbered-and-lettered grid north of I-80, south of Fifth Street, east of A Street, and west of the railroad tracks, including the Aggie Village and Olive Drive areas.
East Davis, north of I-80, south of Covell Blvd., and east of the railroad tracks. It includes the older, 'inner' East Davis of lettered streets and neighborhoods such as Davis Manor, Chestnut, and Rancho Yolo, as well as more distinctly identified (in some cases walled-in) subdivisions such as Mace Ranch, Lake Alhambra Estates, and Wildhorse.
North Davis, north of Covell Blvd. North Davis includes Covell Park, Senda Nueva, Northstar, and North Davis Farms.
South Davis, south of I-80, and includes Willowbank. El Macero, California, although outside the city limits, is sometimes considered part of South Davis; El Macero is part of the Davis Joint Unified School District, and El Macero children who attend public schools attend Davis' public schools.
West Davis, north of I-80 and west of SR 113. West Davis includes Westwood, Evergreen, Aspen, Stonegate (west of Lake Boulevard and including Stonegate Lake and the Stonegate Country Club) and the eco-friendly Village Homes development, known for its solar-powered houses.
The University of California, Davis is located south of Russell Boulevard and west of A Street and then south of 1st Street. The land occupied by the university is not incorporated within the boundaries of the city of Davis and lies within both Yolo and Solano Counties.
=== Environment ===
Local energy planning began in Davis after the energy crisis of 1973. A new building code promoted energy efficiency. Energy use in buildings decreased dramatically and in 1981 Davis citizens won a $100,000 prize from utility PG&E, for cutting electricity use during the summer peak.
On November 14, 1984, the Davis City Council declared the city to be a nuclear-free zone. In 1998, the City passed a "Dark Skies" ordinance in an effort to reduce light pollution in the night sky.
In 2013, Davis became part of the state Cool Roof Initiative with the "CoolDavis" campaign, requiring all new roofing projects to meet Cool Roof Rating Council (CRRC) requirements, including the installation of light-colored roofs. The aim is to reflect more sunlight back into space via the albedo effect, and reduce the amount of heat absorbed in hopes of limiting climate change.
==Demographics==
Davis is part of the Sacramento metropolitan area.
=== 2020 ===
According to the 2020 Census the population of Davis was 66,850 people.
In 2020 the racial demographics were as follows:
53.6% White
2.3% Black
13.8% Hispanic or Latino
23.3% Asian
1.1% Native American
9.6% two or more races
===2010===
The 2010 United States census reported that Davis had a population of 65,622. The population density was . The racial makeup of Davis was 42,571 (64.9%) White, 1,528 (2.3%) African American, 339 (0.5%) Native American, 14,355 (21.9%) Asian, 136 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 3,121 (4.8%) from other races, and 3,572 (5.4%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,172 persons (12.5%).
Davis' Asian population of 14,355 was apportioned among 1,631 Indian Americans, 6,395 Chinese Americans, 1,560 Korean Americans, 1,185 Vietnamese Americans, 1,033 Filipino Americans, 953 Japanese Americans, and 1,598 other Asian Americans.
Davis' Hispanic and Latino population of 8,172 was apportioned among 5,618 Mexican American, 221 Puerto Rican American, 80 Cuban American, and 2,253 other Hispanic and Latino.
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The census reported that 63,522 people (96.8% of the population) lived in households, 1,823 (2.8%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 277 (0.4%) were institutionalized.
There were 24,873 households, of which 6,119 (24.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 9,343 (37.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,880 (7.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, and 702 (2.8%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,295 (5.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 210 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 5,952 households (23.9%) were made up of individuals, and 1,665 (6.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55. There were 11,925 families (47.9% of all households); the average family size was 2.97.
The population age and sex distribution was 10,760 people (16.4%) under the age of 18, 21,757 people (33.2%) aged 18 to 24, 14,823 people (22.6%) aged 25 to 44, 12,685 people (19.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,597 people (8.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.
There were 25,869 housing units, with an average density of , of which 10,699 (43.0%) were owner-occupied, and 14,174 (57.0%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.9%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.5%. 27,594 people (42.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,928 people (54.7%) lived in rental housing units.
===2000===
As of the 2000 United States census, there were 60,308 people, 22,948 households, and 11,290 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 23,617 housing units at an average density of . The racial composition of the city was 70.07% White, 2.35% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 17.5% Asian, 0.24% Pacific Islander, 4.26% from other races, and 4.87% from two or more races. 9.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 22,948 households, of which 26.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.8% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were composed of individuals, and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the city, the population age distribution was 18.6% under the age of 18, 30.9% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 16.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $42,454, and the median income for a family was $74,051. Males had a median income of $51,189 versus $36,082 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,937. About 5.4% of families and 24.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and 2.8% of those age 65 or over.
This city of approximately 62,000 people abuts a university campus of 32,000 students. Although the university's land is not incorporated within the city, many students live off-campus in the city.
==Economy==
===Top employers===
According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
===Davis Dollars===
A community currency scheme was in use in Davis, called Davis Dollars.
==Bicycling==
Bicycling has been one of the most popular modes of transportation in Davis for decades, particularly among school-age children and UC Davis students. In 2010, Davis became the new home of the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame.
Bicycle infrastructure became a political issue in the 1960s, culminating in the election of a pro-bicycle majority to the City Council in 1966. By the early 1970s, Davis had become a pioneer in the implementation of cycling facilities. As the city expands, new facilities are usually mandated. As a result, Davis residents today enjoy an extensive network of bike lanes, bike paths, and grade-separated bicycle crossings. The flat terrain and temperate climate are also conducive to bicycling.
In 2005, the Bicycle-Friendly Community program of the League of American Bicyclists recognized Davis as the first Platinum Level city in the US Bicycling appears to be declining among Davis residents: from 1990 to 2000, the US Census Bureau reported a decline in the fraction of commuters traveling by bicycle, from 22 percent to 15 percent. This resulted in the reestablishment of the city's Bicycle Advisory Commission and creation of advocate groups such as "Davis Bicycles!". In 2016, Fifth Street, a main road in Davis, was converted from four lanes to two lanes to allow for bicycle lanes and encourage more bicycling.
In 1996, 2001, 2006, and 2009, the UC Davis "Cal Aggie Cycling" Team won the national road cycling competition. The team also competes off-road and on the track, and has competed in the national competitions of these disciplines. In 2007, UC Davis also organized a record-breaking bicycle parade numbering 822 bicycles.
== Sights and culture ==
=== Whole Earth Festival ===
A continuous stream of bands, speakers and various workshops occurs throughout Mother's Day weekend on each of Whole Earth Festival's (WEF) three stages and other specialty areas. The WEF is organized entirely by UC Davis students, in association with the Associated Students of UC Davis and the university.
=== Celebrate Davis ===
Celebrate Davis is the annual free festival held by the Davis Chamber of Commerce. It features booths by Davis businesses, live music, food vendors, live animals, activities like rock climbing and zip-lining. It concludes with fireworks after dark. Parking is problematic, so most people ride their bikes and use the free valet parking.
=== Picnic Day ===
Picnic Day is an annual event at the University of California, Davis and is always held on the third Saturday in April. It is the largest student-run event in the US. Picnic Day starts off with a parade, which features the UC Davis California Aggie Marching Band-uh!, and runs through campus and around downtown Davis and ends with the Battle of the Bands, which lasts until the last band stops playing (sometimes until 2 am). There are over 150 free events and over 50,000 attend every year. Other highlights include: the Dachshund races, a.k.a. the Doxie Derby, held in the Pavilion; the Davis Rock Challenge, the Chemistry Magic Show, and the sheep dog trials. Many departments have exhibits and demonstrations, such as the Cole Facility, which until recently showed a fistulated cow (a cow that has been fitted with a plastic portal (a "fistula") into its digestive system to observe digestion processes). Its name was "Hole-y Cow".
=== Davis Transmedia Art Walk ===
The Davis Transmedia Art Walk is a free—self-guided—public art tour includes 23 public murals, 16 sculptures, and 15 galleries and museums all in downtown Davis and the University of Davis campus. A free Davis Art Walk map serves as a detailed guide to the entire collection. The art pieces are all within walking distance of each other. The walk is a roughly circuitous path that can be completed within an hour or two. Every piece of art on the Art Walk has been embedded with an RFID chip. Using a cellphone that supports this technology, you access multimedia files that relate to each work. You can even leave a comment or "burn your own message" for other visitors to see. Artist hosted tours are held on the weekend by appointment only. To pick up a copy of the Davis Art Walk map, visit the Yolo County Visitors Bureau (132 E St., Suite 200; (530) 297–1900) or the John Natsoulas Center for the Arts (521 1st St.; (530) 756–3938).
=== Manetti Shrem Museum of Art ===
The Manetti Shrem Museum of Art, located on the UC Davis campus, opened on November 13, 2016, and carries on the legacy of the university's world-renowned first generation art faculty, which contributed to innovations in conceptual, performance and video art in the 1960s and 70s. The museum has generated nationwide attention with exhibits by artists such as Wayne Thiebaud, Bruce Nauman, John Cage, and Robert Arneson as well as its striking architecture, featuring a 50,000 square-foot “Grand Canopy” of perforated aluminum triangular beams, supported by 40 steel columns. Every year the museum exhibits works by graduating art students. The museum is free and hosts lecture series and events throughout the year, as well as weekend art studio activities for all ages.
=== Mondavi Center ===
The Mondavi Center, located on the UC Davis campus, is one of the biggest non-seasonal attractions in Davis. The Mondavi Center is a theater which hosts many world-class touring acts, including star performers such as Yo-Yo Ma, Yitzhak Perlman and Wynton Marsalis, and draws a large audience from Sacramento.
=== UC Davis Arboretum ===
The UC Davis Arboretum is an arboretum and botanical garden. Plants from all over the world grow in different sections of the park. There are notable oak and native plant collections and a small redwood grove. A small waterway spans the arboretum along the bed of the old North Fork of Putah Creek. Occasionally herons, kingfishers, and cormorants can be seen around the waterways, as well as the ever-present ducks. Tours of the arboretum led by volunteer naturalists are often held for grade-school children.
=== The Domes ===
The Domes (AKA Baggins End Innovative Housing) is an on-campus cooperative housing community designed by project manager Ron Swenson and future student-residents in 1972. Consisting of 14 polyurethane foam-insulated fiberglass domes and located in the Sustainable Research Area at the western end of Orchard Road, it is governed by its 26 UCD student residents. It is one of the few student co-housing cooperative communities in the US, and is an early example of the modern-day growing tiny house movement. The community has successfully resisted several threats to its continuation over the years.
===Farmers Market===
The Davis Farmers Market is held every Wednesday evening and Saturday morning. Participants sell a range of fruits and vegetables, baked goods, dairy and meat products (often from certified organic farms), crafts, and plants and flowers. From April to October, the market hosts Picnic in the Park, with musical events and food sold from restaurant stands.
===Media===
Davis has one newspaper, The Davis Enterprise, a thrice-weekly newspaper founded in 1897. UC Davis also has a weekly newspaper called The California Aggie that covers campus, local and national news. Davis Media Access, a community media center, is the umbrella organization of television station DCTV. There are also numerous commercial stations broadcasting from nearby Sacramento. Davis has two community radio stations: KDVS 90.3 FM, on the University of California campus, and KDRT 95.7 FM, a subsidiary of Davis Media Access and one of the first low-power FM radio stations in the United States. Davis has the world's largest English-language local wiki, DavisWiki. In 2006, The People's Vanguard of Davis began news reporting about the city of Davis, the Davis Joint Unified School District, the county of Yolo, and the Sacramento area.
=== Toad Tunnel ===
Davis' Toad Tunnel is a wildlife crossing that was constructed in 1995 and has drawn much attention over the years, including a mention on The Daily Show. Due to the construction of an overpass, animal lovers worried about toads being killed by cars commuting from South Davis to North Davis, since the toads traveled from one side of a dirt lot (which the overpass replaced) to the reservoir at the other end. After much controversy, a decision was made to build a toad tunnel, which runs beneath the Pole Line Road overpass which crosses Interstate 80. The project cost $14,000, . The tunnel is wide and high.
==Education==
===University of California===
The University of California, Davis, or UC Davis, a campus of the University of California, had a 2019 Fall enrollment of 38,369 students. UC Davis has a dominant influence on the social and cultural life of the town.
===Other colleges===
An off-campus branch of Sacramento City College is located in Davis. The satellite is located in West Village, an area built by UC Davis to house students and others affiliated with the university.
===Public schools===
Davis' public school system is administrated by the Davis Joint Unified School District.
The city has nine public elementary schools (North Davis, Birch Lane, Pioneer Elementary, Patwin, Cesar Chavez, Robert E. Willett, Marguerite Montgomery, Fred T. Korematsu at Mace Ranch, and Fairfield Elementary (which is outside the city limits but opened in 1866 and is Davis Joint Unified School District's oldest public school)). Davis has one school for independent study (Davis School for Independent Study), four public junior high schools (Ralph Waldo Emerson, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Frances Harper, and Leonardo da Vinci Junior High), one main high school (Davis Senior High School), one alternative high school (Martin Luther King High School), and a small project based high school (Leonardo da Vinci High School). Cesar Chavez is a Spanish immersion school, with no English integration until the third grade. The junior high schools contain grades 7 through 9. Due to a decline in the school-age population in Davis, two of the elementary schools in south Davis may have their district boundaries changed, or magnet programs may be moved to equalize enrollment. Valley Oak was closed after the 2007–08 school year, and their campus was granted to Da Vinci High (which had formerly been located in the back of Davis Senior High's campus) and a special-ed preschool. On average, class size is about 25 students for every teacher.
At one time, Chavez and Willett were incorporated together to provide elementary education K–6 to both English-speaking and Spanish immersion students in West Davis. César Chávez served grades K–3 and was called West Davis Elementary, and Robert E. Willett (named for a long-time teacher at the school, now deceased) served grades 4–6 and was known as West Davis Intermediate. Willett now serves K–6 English-speaking students, and Chavez supports the Spanish immersion program for K–6.
===Private schools===
Davis Waldorf School (Pre-K–8)
Peregrine School (Pre-K–6)
==Notable people==
These are some notable Davis residents, other than UC Davis faculty who were not previously from Davis.
Jalil Anibaba, soccer player and club ambassador for Nashville SC
Karin Argoud, actress
David Henry Breaux
Samuel G. Armistead, anthropologist and linguist
Ruth Asmundson, former mayor of Davis
Peter S. Beagle, author, The Last Unicorn
Eric Beavers, American football quarterback
Robert F. Berkhofer, historian
Nate Boyden, soccer player
David Breaux, local counselor
William G. Burrill, Episcopal bishop
Cathy Carr, American Olympic swimmer
Robert Todd Carroll (born 1945), publisher of The Skeptic's Dictionary and fellow for Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
Alexandra Chalupa, American pro-Ukrainian activist
Connie Chan, San Francisco politician
Joseph Ballinger Chiles, trail blazer and early pioneer
Tony Cline Jr., NFL tight end
Antoinette Clinton, aka Butterscotch, musician
Kim Conley, 2012 Olympian, track and field
Ross Cordy, archaeologist
Joe Craven, musician
Denise Curry, basketball player
Jerome C. Davis, state figure and pioneer, and namesake of Davis
Malachi Davis, sprinter, Olympian
Josh Davis, aka DJ Shadow, famous for his critically acclaimed sample based instrumental hip-hop
Cecilia Dean, fashion model and entrepreneur
Theodosius Dobzhansky, Russian-American geneticist and evolutionary biologist
Delaine Eastin, former California State Superintendent of Public Instruction
Tony Fields, actor, dancer; Davis High School alumnus. Fields is best known in his tenure as a Solid Gold Dancer (1979–1984) and his film roles of Alan DeLuca in the 1985 movie version of A Chorus Line and Sammi Curr in the 1986 cult horror film Trick Or Treat.
Jason Fisk, former NFL defensive tackle
Karen Joy Fowler, author
Rebecca Fransway, author and poet
Michael Franti, musician
Nick Frentz, politician, member of the Minnesota Senate
Todd Gogulski, former professional bicycle road racer and TV commentator for Universal Sports
John Lawrence Goheen, American missionary, educator and administrator, agriculturist, social worker, and writer
Carol Greider, molecular biologist and Nobel Laureate (at Johns Hopkins), raised in Davis
Myril Hoag, MLB outfielder, three-time World Series champion
Rita Hosking, musician
Winnifred Hudson, painter
Nyjah Huston, professional skateboarder
Katie Kitamura, author
John Lescroart, author
John Lieswyn, American racing cyclist
Ladule Lako LoSarah is an American-born South Sudanese international footballer currently with FC Inter Leipzig of the German NOFV-Oberliga.
Deborah Madison, chef, author
Mike May, entrepreneur and athlete, regained sight after decades of complete blindness
Jonna Mazet, epidemiologist
Barry Melton, musician
Gina Miles, 2008 Beijing Olympic silver medalist, equestrian
Scott Miller, pop musician
Hasan Minhaj, comedian
Jennifer Moffitt, politician
Paul Moller, engineer and developer of the Moller Skycar
Rachel Moore, president and CEO of the Los Angeles Music Center
Freddie Muller, Major League Baseball infielder
Dave Nachmanoff, musician
Gabe Newell, co-founder of Valve
Iyabo Obasanjo, Nigerian politician
Fiona O'Keeffe, long-distance runner and marathon runner in the 2024 Paris Olympics
Thretton Palamo, American rugby union player
Dickie Peterson, musician
Orange Phelps, Oregon businessman and politician
Kim Stanley Robinson, science-fiction author; famous works include Mars trilogy.
Stephen Robinson, astronaut (received bachelor's degree from UC Davis, 1978)
Beth Rodden, professional rock climber
Halsey Rodman, artist
Ray Rohwer, Major League Baseball outfielder
Ed Ross, tintype photographer and lawyer
Paul Scheuring, screenwriter (Prison Break, A Man Apart)
Dave Scott, triathlete, six-time Ironman Triathlon world champion
Jonathan Segel, American composer and multi-instrumentalist
Meredith Small, anthropologist
Peter Siebold, member of the Scaled Composites astronaut team
Colby Slater, American rugby union player, Olympic gold-medal winner
Sean Stewart, author
Charles Tart, parapsychologist
Donnette Thayer, vocalist, guitarist and songwriter
Helen Thomson, state and county politician
Alexandria Villaseñor, climate activist
Nick Watney, PGA Tour professional golfer
Zach Weiner, web comic author and illustrator
Andrew Weir, author of The Martian
Paul Whaley, drummer for the band Blue Cheer
Craig Wilson, water polo player and Olympian
Mike Wise, NFL defensive end
Lois Wolk, state politician
Paul Wulff, former Washington State football head coach
Steve Wynn, musician, leader of the band The Dream Syndicate
Mariko Yamada, state politician
Martin Yan, cooking show host
Sophia Yin, veterinarian, animal trainer and author
Gary Lee Yoder, musician, part of several 1960s psychedelic rock bands
Malcolm Clemens Young, Episcopal priest, Dean of Grace Cathedral, San Francisco
Robert Zirkin, Maryland politician
==Sister cities==
Davis' sister cities are:
Huishan (Wuxi), China
Inuyama, Japan
Los Baños, Philippines
Muñoz, Philippines
Qufu, China
Rutilio Grande, El Salvador
Sangju, South Korea
Uman, Ukraine
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"Craig Wilson (water polo)",
"community currency",
"Samuel G. Armistead",
"Paul Scheuring",
"Nick Watney",
"The Dream Syndicate",
"Davis Joint Unified School District",
"Interstate 80 (California)",
"Robert Zirkin",
"Vietnamese Americans",
"Meredith Small",
"Ross Cordy",
"Steve Wynn (musician)",
"Rebecca Fransway",
"California's 4th congressional district",
"PG&E",
"arboretum",
"Subdivision (land)",
"Ruthlane Uy Asmundson",
"United States Postal Service",
"United States Bicycling Hall of Fame",
"John Lescroart",
"University of California, Davis, Arboretum",
"Ironman Triathlon",
"DJ Shadow",
"Sangju",
"Dave Scott (triathlete)",
"Woodland, California",
"ZIP Code",
"North American Numbering Plan",
"Federal Information Processing Standards",
"Mediterranean climate",
"energy conservation",
"List of cycleways",
"UC Davis",
"Nate Boyden",
"Bruce Nauman",
"oak",
"Joe Craven",
"Malachi Davis",
"2010 United States Census",
"Sutter Health",
"Tiny house",
"Sacramento Valley",
"California State Superintendent of Public Instruction",
"Reflective surfaces (climate engineering)",
"sea level",
"California State Route 113",
"Hispanic (U.S. Census)",
"Asian (U.S. Census)",
"Wayne Thiebaud",
"Colby Slater",
"Rachel Moore (arts administrator)",
"Middle school",
"tight end",
"Winnifred Hudson",
"University of California",
"Rutilio Grande (town)",
"Karen Joy Fowler",
"Dark-sky movement",
"marriage",
"Cupressaceae",
"Cathy Carr (swimmer)",
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"Ray Rohwer",
"Dachshund",
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"Kim Stanley Robinson",
"Jonathan Segel",
"heron",
"Japanese Americans",
"Cycling infrastructure",
"wildlife crossing",
"California Department of Finance",
"The Last Unicorn",
"Rocky Mountain Institute",
"Dickie Peterson",
"Joseph Chiles",
"California's 3rd State Senate district",
"List of counties in California",
"same-sex partnerships",
"Donnette Thayer",
"Davis Community Church (California)",
"Manetti Shrem Museum of Art",
"A Chorus Line (film)",
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"Cuban American",
"Sacramento City College",
"Nick Frentz",
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"Solid Gold (TV series)",
"Scott Miller (pop musician)",
"Karin Argoud",
"Mexican American",
"Lupinus microcarpus",
"Peter S. Beagle",
"Denise Curry",
"Katie Kitamura",
"Sacramento metropolitan area",
"Leonardo da Vinci High School",
"Mars trilogy",
"2024 Paris Olympics",
"Columbus Crew",
"Todd Gogulski",
"Indian Americans",
"FC Inter Leipzig",
"Paul Wulff",
"Sophia Yin",
"Latino (U.S. Census)",
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"Myril Hoag",
"Helen Thomson",
"Paul Whaley",
"PGA Tour",
"Jason Fisk",
"psychedelic rock",
"John Cage",
"The New York Times",
"horror film",
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"United States Census Bureau",
"Mariko Yamada",
"Native American (U.S. Census)",
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"National Football League",
"rock climber",
"Kim Conley",
"Bicycling",
"cormorant",
"The Martian (Weir novel)",
"Sean Stewart",
"Ed Ross",
"Race (United States Census)",
"Municipal corporation"
] |
9,128 |
Damon Runyon
|
Alfred Damon Runyon (October 4, 1880 – December 10, 1946) was an American journalist and short-story writer.
He was best known for his short stories celebrating the world of Broadway in New York City that grew out of the Prohibition era. To New Yorkers of his generation, a "Damon Runyon character" evoked a distinctive social type from Brooklyn or Midtown Manhattan. The adjective Runyonesque refers to this type of character and the type of situations and dialog that Runyon depicts. He spun humorous and sentimental tales of gamblers, hustlers, actors, and gangsters, few of whom go by "square" names, preferring instead colorful monikers such as "Nathan Detroit", "Benny Southstreet", "Big Jule", "Harry the Horse", "Good Time Charley", "Dave the Dude", or "The Seldom Seen Kid".
His distinctive vernacular style is known as Runyonese: a mixture of formal speech and colorful slang, almost always in the present tense, and always devoid of contractions. He is credited with coining the phrase "Hooray Henry", a term now used in British English to describe the upper-class version of a loud-mouthed, arrogant twit.
Runyon's fictional world is also known to the general public through the musical Guys and Dolls based on two of his stories, "The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown" and "Blood Pressure". The musical additionally borrows characters and story elements from a few other Runyon stories, most notably "Pick The Winner". The film Little Miss Marker (and its three remakes, Sorrowful Jones, 40 Pounds of Trouble and the 1980 Little Miss Marker) grew from his short story of the same name.
Runyon was also a newspaper reporter, covering sports and general news for decades for various publications and syndicates owned by William Randolph Hearst. Already known for his fiction, he wrote a noted "present tense" article on Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Presidential inauguration in 1933 for the Universal Service, a Hearst syndicate, which was merged with the co-owned International News Service in 1937.
==Early life==
Damon Runyon was born Alfred Damon Runyan to Alfred Lee and Elizabeth (Damon) Runyan. His relatives in his birthplace of Manhattan, Kansas, included several newspapermen. He began to work in the newspaper trade under his father in Pueblo. In present-day Pueblo, Runyon Field, the Damon Runyon Repertory Theater Company, and Runyon Lake are named in his honor.
==Enlistment in the military==
In 1898, when still in his teens, Runyon enlisted in the US Army to fight in the Spanish–American War. While in the service, he was assigned to write for the Manila Freedom and Soldier's Letter.
==Newspaper reporter==
After military service, he worked for Colorado newspapers, beginning in Pueblo. His first job as a reporter was in September 1900, when he was hired by the Pueblo Star; he then worked in the Rocky Mountain area during the first decade of the 1900s: at the Denver Daily News, he served as "sporting editor" (today a "sports editor") and then as a staff writer. His expertise was in covering the semi-professional teams in Colorado. He briefly managed a semi-pro team in Trinidad, Colorado. At one of the newspapers where he worked, the spelling of his last name was changed from "Runyan" to "Runyon", a change he let stand.
After failing in an attempt to organize a Colorado minor baseball league, which lasted less than a week, Runyon moved to New York City in 1910. In his first New York byline, the American editor dropped the "Alfred" and the name "Damon Runyon" appeared for the first time. For the next ten years, he covered the New York Giants and professional boxing for the New York American.
He was the Hearst newspapers' baseball columnist for many years, beginning in 1911, and his knack for spotting the eccentric and the unusual, on the field or in the stands, is credited with revolutionizing the way baseball was covered. Perhaps as confirmation, Runyon was voted 1967 J. G. Taylor Spink Award by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA), for which he was honored at ceremonies at the National Baseball Hall of Fame in July 1968. He is also a member of the International Boxing Hall Of Fame and is known for dubbing heavyweight champion James J. Braddock the "Cinderella Man". Runyon frequently contributed sports poems to the American on boxing and baseball themes and wrote numerous short stories and essays.
==Gambling==
Gambling, particularly on craps or horse races, was a common theme of Runyon's works, and he was a notorious gambler. One of his paraphrases from a line in Ecclesiastes ran: "The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, but that's how the smart money bets."
A heavy drinker as a young man, he seems to have quit drinking soon after arriving in New York, after his drinking nearly cost him the courtship of the woman who became his first wife, Ellen Egan. He remained a heavy smoker.
His best friend was mobster accountant Otto Berman, and he incorporated Berman into several of his stories under the alias "Regret, the horse player". When Berman was killed in a hit on Berman's boss, Dutch Schultz, Runyon quickly assumed the role of damage control for his deceased friend, mostly by correcting erroneous press releases, including one that stated Berman was one of Schultz's gunmen, to which Runyon replied, "Otto would have been as effective a bodyguard as a two-year-old."
==Personal life==
While in New York City, Runyon courted and eventually married Ellen Egan. Their marriage produced two children, Mary and Damon Jr. A modern writer remarks that "by contemporary standards, Runyon was a marginal husband and father." In 1928, Egan separated from Runyon permanently and moved to Bronxville with their children after hearing persistent rumors about her husband's infidelities. As it became subsequently known, Runyon, in 1916, was covering the border raids of Mexican bandit Pancho Villa as a reporter for the American newspaper owned by William Randolph Hearst. He had first met Villa in Texas while covering spring training of the state's teams. While in Mexico, Runyon visited one afternoon the Ciudad Juárez racetrack where Villa was present and placed a bet through a young messenger girl in Villa's entourage. The 14-year-old girl, whose name was Patrice Amati del Grande, erroneously placed Runyon's bet on a different horse that nonetheless won the race. She confided to the lucky bettor that she wanted to be a dancer when she grew up and Runyon told her that if, instead, she would attend school, for which he would pay, she could come after her graduation to see him in New York and he would get her a dancing job in the city; Runyon did indeed pay for her enrollment in the local convent school. His former wife became an alcoholic and died in 1931 from a heart attack. In 1946, some time after Grande began an affair with a younger man, the couple got divorced. The family plot of Damon Runyon is located at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York.
Runyon, in his will, left to his former second wife his house in Florida, his racing stables, and the money from his insurance. He split in half the royalties from his works to his children and Grande. His daughter Mary was eventually institutionalized for alcoholism while his son Damon Jr., after working as a journalist in Washington, D.C., died by suicide in 1968.
The first-ever telethon was hosted by Milton Berle in 1949 to raise funds for the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation.
Each year the Denver Press Club assigns the Damon Runyon Award to a prominent journalist. Past winners include Jimmy Breslin, Mike Royko, George Will and Bob Costas.
Damon Runyon Elementary school in Littleton, Colorado is named after him.
The Damon Runyon Stakes is a thoroughbred horse race run every December at Aqueduct Race Track. Runyon loved horse racing and ran a small stable of his own.
In the mid-1930s, Runyon persuaded promoter Leo Seltzer to formally change his Roller Derby spectacle from a marathon roller-skating race into a full-contact team sport, an innovation that was eventually revived in a DIY spirit seven decades later.
One block of West 45th Street (between 8th and 9th Avenues) in Manhattan's Hell's Kitchen is named Runyon's Way.
The house in Manhattan, Kansas, where Runyon was born, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
In 2008, The Library of America selected "The Eternal Blonde", Runyon's account of a 1927 murder trial, for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Crime Writing.
Until January 1944, the 515th B-24 bomber squadron "Satan's Kids", of the 376th Bomber Group named their bombers after Runyon "Gangster" characters,
==Literary style – the "Broadway" stories==
The English comedy writer Frank Muir comments that Runyon's plots were, in the manner of O. Henry, neatly constructed with professionally wrought endings, but their distinction lay in the manner of their telling, as the author invented a peculiar argot for his characters to speak. Runyon almost totally avoids the past tense (English humorist E. C. Bentley thought there was only one instance and was willing to "lay plenty of 6 to 5 that it is nothing but a misprint"), and makes little use of the future tense, using the present for both. He also avoided the conditional, using instead the future indicative in situations that would normally require conditional. An example: "Now most any doll on Broadway will be very glad indeed to have Handsome Jack Madigan give her a tumble" (Guys and Dolls, "Social error"). Bentley comments that "there is a sort of ungrammatical purity about it [Runyon's resolute avoidance of the past tense], an almost religious exactitude." There is an homage to Runyon that makes use of this peculiarity ("Chronic Offender" by Spider Robinson), which involves a time machine and a man going by the name "Harry the Horse".
He uses many slang terms (which go unexplained in his stories), such as:
pineapple = pineapple grenade
roscoe/john roscoe/the old equalizer/that thing = gun
shiv = knife
noggin = head
snoot = nose
There are many recurring composite phrases such as:
ever-loving wife (occasionally "ever-loving doll")
more than somewhat (or "no little, and quite some"); this phrase was so typical that it was used as the title of one of his short story collections
loathe and despise
one and all
Bentley notes that Runyon's "telling use of the recurrent phrase and fixed epithet" demonstrates a debt to Homer.
Runyon's stories also employ occasional rhyming slang, similar to the cockney variety but native to New York (e.g.: "Miss Missouri Martin makes the following crack one night to her: 'Well, I do not see any Simple Simon on your lean and linger.' This is Miss Missouri Martin's way of saying she sees no diamond on Miss Billy Perry's finger." (from "Romance in the Roaring Forties")).
The comic effect of his style results partly from the juxtaposition of broad slang with mock pomposity. Women, when not "dolls", "Judies", "pancakes", "tomatoes", or "broads", may be "characters of a female nature", for example. He typically avoided contractions such as "don't" in the example above, which also contributes significantly to the humorously pompous effect. In one sequence, a gangster tells another character to do as he is told, or else "find another world in which to live".
In a contemporary introduction to The Damon Runyon Omnibus, the journalist Heywood Broun says that Runyon's prose style is based on a real dialect spoken in 1930s New York City: "He has caught with a high degree of insight the actual tone and phrase of the gangsters and racketeers of the town. Their talk is put down almost literally... Runyon has exercised the privilege of selectivity. But he has not heightened or burlesqued the speech of the people who come alive in his short stories."
Runyon's short stories are told in the first person by a protagonist who is never named and whose role is unclear; he knows many gangsters and does not appear to have a job, but he does not admit to any criminal involvement, and seems to be largely a bystander. He describes himself as "being known to one and all as a guy who is just around". The radio program The Damon Runyon Theatre dramatized 52 of Runyon's works in 1949, and for these the protagonist was given the name "Broadway", although it was admitted that this was not his real name, much in the way "Harry the Horse" and "Sorrowful Jones" are aliases.
==Literary works==
===Books===
====Poems====
The Tents of Trouble (1911)
Rhymes of the Firing Line (1912)
Poems for Men (1947)
====Story collections====
Guys and Dolls (1932)
Blue Plate Special (1934)
Money From Home (1935)
More Than Somewhat (1937)
Furthermore (1938)
Take It Easy (1938)
My Wife Ethel (1939)
My Old Man (1939)
Runyon à la Carte (1944)
In Our Town (1946)
The Three Wise Guys and Other Stories (1946)
Damon Runyon Favorites (1946)
Trials and Other Tribulations (1947)
====Collected newspaper columns====
Short Takes (1946)
Trials and Other Tribulations (1947)
====Compilations containing previously collected material====
The Best of Runyon (1940)
Damon Runyon Favorites (1942)
The Damon Runyon Omnibus (1944)
Runyon First and Last (1949)
Runyon on Broadway (1950; introduction by E.C. Bentley)
More Guys and Dolls (1950)
The Turps (1951)
Damon Runyon from First to Last (1954)
A Treasury of Damon Runyon (1958)
The Bloodhounds of Broadway and Other Stories (1985)
Romance in the Roaring Forties and other stories (1986)
''On Broadway (1990)
Guys, Dolls, and Curveballs: Damon Runyon on Baseball (2005; Jim Reisler, editor)
Guys and Dolls and Other Writings (2008; introduction by Pete Hamill)
====Play====
A Slight Case of Murder (with Howard Lindsay, 1940)
====Biography====
Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker (with W. Kiernan, 1942)
===Stories===
There are many collections of Runyon's stories, in particular Runyon on Broadway and Runyon from First to Last. A publisher's note in the latter claims that collection contains all of Runyon's short stories not included in Runyon on Broadway, but two Broadway stories originally published in Collier's Weekly are not in either collection: "Maybe a Queen" and "Leopard's Spots", both collected in More Guys And Dolls (1950). The radio show, in addition, has a story, "Joe Terrace", that appears in 'More Guys and Dolls' and the August 29, 1936, issue of Colliers. It is one of his "Our Town" stories that does not appear in the "In Our Town" book, and the only episode of the show which is not a Broadway' story, however, the action is changed in the show from Our Town to Broadway.
The "Our Town" stories are short vignettes of life in a small town, largely based on Runyon's experiences. They are written in a simple, descriptive style and contain twists and odd endings based on the personalities of the people involved. Each story's title is the name of the principal character. Twenty-seven of them were published in the 1946 book In Our Town.
Runyon on Broadway contains the following stories:
More Than Somewhat
Breach of Promise
Romance in the Roaring Forties
Dream Street Rose
The Old Doll's House
Blood Pressure
The Bloodhounds of Broadway
Tobias the Terrible
The Snatching of Bookie Bob
The Lily of St. Pierre
Hold 'em, Yale
Earthquake
'Gentlemen, the King!'
A Nice Price
Broadway Financier
The Brain Goes Home
Furthermore
Madame La Gimp
Dancing Dan's Christmas
Sense of Humour
Lillian
Little Miss Marker
Pick the Winner
Undertaker Song
Butch Minds the Baby
The Hottest Guy in the World
The Lemon Drop Kid
What, No Butler?
The Three Wise Guys
A Very Honourable Guy
Princess O'Hara
Social Error
Take It Easy
Tight Shoes
Lonely Heart
The Brakeman's Daughter
Cemetery Bait
It Comes Up Mud
The Big Umbrella
For a Pal
Big Shoulders
That Ever-Loving Wife of Hymie's
Neat Strip
Bred for Battle
Too Much Pep
Baseball Hattie
Situation Wanted
A Piece of Pie
A Job for the Macarone
All Horse Players Die Broke
Runyon from First to Last includes the following stories and sketches:
The First Stories (early non-Broadway stories):
The Defence of Strikerville
Fat Fallon
Two Men Named Collins. First published in Reader Magazine, [Date Unknown]
As Between Friends
The Informal Execution of Soupbone Pew
My Father
Stories à la Carte (Broadway stories written in Runyonese):
Money from Home
A Story Goes With It
Broadway Complex
So You Won't Talk!
Dark Dolores
Delegates at Large
A Light in France
Old Em's Kentucky Home
Johnny One-Eye
Broadway Incident
The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown
The Melancholy Dane
Barbecue
Little Pinks
Palm Beach Santa Claus
Cleo
The Lacework Kid
The Last Stories (Broadway stories written in Runyonese):
Blonde Mink
Big Boy Blues
Written in Sickness (sketches):
Why Me?
The Doctor Knows Best
No Life
Good Night
Bed-Warmers
Sweet Dreams
Passing the Word Along
Death Pays a Social Call
In Our Town contains the following stories:
Our Old Man (originally titled On Good Turns)
Samuel Graze
Pete Hankins
Jeremiah Zore
Mrs. Judson
The Happiness Joneses
Mrs. McGregor
Doc Brackett
Officer Lipscomber
Marigold and Maidie So
Sterling Curlew
Doc Mindler
Mrs. Pilplay
Sheriff Harding
Boswell Van Dusen
Dr. Davenport
Mrs. Bogane
Sam Crable
Ancil Toombs
Amy Vederman
Peter Chowles
Judge Juggins
Banker Beaverbrook
Judge Joes
Angel Kake
Bet Ragle
Hank Smith
The following "Our Town" stories were not included in In Our Town:
Joe Terrace
Burge McCall
Lou Louder
===Uncollected stories===
The Art of High Grading. Illustrated Sunday Magazine, January 2, 1910
The Sucker. San Francisco Examiner, July 10, 1910
Burge McCall. Collier's, July 11, 1936 (not in Runyonese)
Lou Louder. Collier's, August 8, 1936 (not in Runyonese)
Nothing Happens in Brooklyn. Collier's, April 30, 1938 (partly in Runyonese, but includes past tense)
===Film===
Twenty of his stories became motion pictures.
Lady for a Day (1933) – Adapted by Robert Riskin, who suggested the name change from Runyon's title "Madame La Gimp". The film garnered Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Director (Frank Capra), Best Actress (May Robson), and Best Adaptation for the Screen (Riskin). It was remade by Capra as Pocketful of Miracles in 1961, with Bette Davis in the Apple Annie role (fused with the "raggedy doll" from Runyon's short story "The Brain Goes Home"); Frank Sinatra recorded the upbeat title song (his rendition is not used in the film). The film received Oscar nominations for composers Sammy Cahn and Jimmy Van Heusen and for co-star Peter Falk (Best Supporting Actor). In 1989, Jackie Chan adapted the story yet again for the Hong Kong action film Miracles, adding several of his trademark stunt sequences.
Little Miss Marker (1934) – The film that made Shirley Temple a star, launched her career, and pushed her past Greta Garbo as the nation's biggest film draw of the year. Also starred Charles Bickford. Subsequent remakes include Sorrowful Jones (1949) with Bob Hope and Lucille Ball; 40 Pounds of Trouble (1962) with Tony Curtis, and Little Miss Marker (1980) with Walter Matthau, Julie Andrews, Bob Newhart and Curtis.
The Lemon Drop Kid (1934) – Starring Lee Tracy, remade in 1951 with Bob Hope (and I Love Lucy co-star William Frawley appearing in both adaptations); the latter version introduced the Christmas song "Silver Bells".
Princess O'Hara (1935) – Starring Jean Parker, remade in 1943 as It Ain't Hay with Abbott and Costello and Patsy O'Connor
Professional Soldier (1935) – an adventure story starring Victor McLaglen and Freddie Bartholomew
The Three Wise Guys (1936) - starring
A Slight Case of Murder (1938) with Edward G. Robinson – remade in 1953 as Stop, You're Killing Me with Broderick Crawford and Claire Trevor
Joe and Ethel Turp Call on the President (1939) with Ann Sothern, Lewis Stone and Walter Brennan.
The Big Street (1942) – Henry Fonda, Lucille Ball (adapted from Runyon's story "Little Pinks")
Butch Minds the Baby (1942) – Broderick Crawford, Shemp Howard
Johnny One-Eye – (1950) Starring Pat O'Brien, Wayne Morris, Delores Moran, and Gayle Reed
Money from Home (1953) – Starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis
Guys and Dolls (1955) – Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra, Vivian Blaine, and Stubby Kaye. Blaine and Kaye reprised their roles from the 1950 Broadway production. Adapted from the story "The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown". The big craps game is adapted from the story "Blood Pressure".
Bloodhounds of Broadway (1952) – Musical comedy starring Mitzi Gaynor and directed by Harmon Jones
Bloodhounds of Broadway (1989) – Ensemble cast starring Matt Dillon, Jennifer Grey, Madonna, and Julie Hagerty, among others. The film combines elements from four stories into one large one: "A Very Honorable Guy", "The Brain Goes Home", "Social Error", and "The Bloodhounds of Broadway".
In 1938, his unproduced play Saratoga Chips became the basis of The Ritz Brothers film Straight, Place and Show.
===Plays and musicals===
A Slight Case of Murder (1935) co-written for Broadway with Howard Lindsay
Guys and Dolls (1950) starring Robert Alda (Sky Masterson), Vivian Blaine (Miss Adelaide), Sam Levene (Nathan Detroit), Isabel Bigley (Sarah Brown), Pat Rooney Sr., B.S. Pully, Stubby Kaye, Johnny Silver, Tom Pedi. Adapted from Runyon's stories "The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown" and "Blood Pressure".
===Radio===
The Damon Runyon Theater radio series dramatized 52 of Runyon's short stories in weekly broadcasts running from October 1948 to September 1949 (with reruns until 1951). The series was produced by Alan Ladd's Mayfair Transcription Company for syndication to local radio stations. John Brown played the character "Broadway", who doubled as host and narrator. The cast also comprised Alan Reed, Luis Van Rooten, Joseph Du Val, Gerald Mohr, Frank Lovejoy, Herb Vigran, Sheldon Leonard, William Conrad, Jeff Chandler, Lionel Stander, Sidney Miller, Olive Deering and Joe De Santis. Pat O'Brien was initially engaged for the role of "Broadway". The original stories were adapted for the radio by Russell Hughes.
"Broadway's New York had a crisis each week, though the streets had a rose-tinged aura", wrote radio historian John Dunning. "The sad shows then were all the sadder; plays like For a Pal had a special poignance. The bulk of Runyon's work had been untapped by radio, and the well was deep."
===Television===
Damon Runyon Theatre aired on CBS-TV from 1955 to 1956.
Mike McShane told Runyon stories as monologues on British TV in 1994, and an accompanying book was released, both titled Broadway Stories.
Three Wise Guys was a 2005 TV movie.
|
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"Silver Bells",
"racetrack",
"Jennifer Grey",
"Madonna",
"Olive Deering",
"Bloodhounds of Broadway (1989 film)",
"Mike Royko",
"William Conrad",
"Lewis Stone",
"National Register of Historic Places",
"Jean Parker",
"Tony Curtis",
"Spanish–American War",
"Ciudad Juárez",
"Damon Runyon Cancer Memorial Fund",
"Vivian Blaine",
"Harmon Jones",
"Pancho Villa",
"Sammy Cahn",
"Sorrowful Jones",
"Little Miss Marker (1980 film)",
"New York Giants (NL)",
"The Ritz Brothers",
"Courier-Post",
"Peter Falk",
"The New York Times",
"Leo Seltzer",
"A Slight Case of Murder",
"James J. Braddock",
"New York Journal-American",
"Jackie Chan",
"Luis Van Rooten",
"C-SPAN",
"Marlon Brando",
"Joe and Ethel Turp Call on the President",
"Little, Brown",
"speakeasies",
"Heywood Broun",
"Alan Ladd",
"craps",
"Metro Pulse"
] |
9,129 |
Don Tennant
|
Donald G. Tennant (November 23, 1922 – December 8, 2001) was an American advertising agency executive.
He worked at the Leo Burnett agency in Chicago, Illinois. The agency placed anthropomorphic faces of 'critters' on packaged goods. Tennant was in charge of the Marlboro account and invented the Marlboro Man.
|
[
"Marlboro (cigarette)",
"Leo Burnett",
"Chicago",
"advertising agency",
"Marlboro Man",
"The New York Times"
] |
9,130 |
Devo
|
Devo is an American new wave band from Akron, Ohio, formed in 1973. Their classic line-up consisted of two sets of brothers, the Mothersbaughs (Mark and Bob) and the Casales (Gerald and Bob), along with Alan Myers. The band had a No. 14 Billboard chart hit in 1980 with the single "Whip It", the song that gave the band mainstream popularity.
Devo's music and visual presentation (including stage shows and costumes) mingle kitsch science fiction themes, deadpan surrealist humor and mordantly satirical social commentary. The band's namesake, the tongue-in-cheek social theory of "de-evolution", was an integral concept in their early work, which was marked by experimental and dissonant art punk that merged rock music with electronics. Their output in the 1980s embraced synth-pop and a more mainstream, less conceptual style, though the band's satirical and quirky humor remained intact. Their music has proven influential on subsequent movements, particularly on new wave, industrial, and alternative rock artists. Devo (most enthusiastically Gerald Casale) was also a pioneer of the music video format.
== History ==
=== 1973–1978: Formation ===
The name Devo comes from the concept of "de-evolution" and the band's related idea that instead of continuing to evolve, mankind had begun to regress, as evidenced by the dysfunction and herd mentality of American society. In the late 1960s, this idea was developed as a joke by Kent State University art students Gerald Casale and Bob Lewis, who created a number of satirical art pieces in a devolution vein. At this time, Casale had also performed with the local band 15-60-75 (The Numbers Band). They met Mark Mothersbaugh around 1970, a talented keyboardist who had been playing with the band Flossy Bobbitt. which includes an illustration of a winged devil labelled "D-EVOLUTION" and would later inspire the song "Jocko Homo". The "joke" about de-evolution became serious following the Kent State massacre of May 4, 1970. This event would be cited multiple times as the impetus for forming the band Devo. Throughout the band's career, they have often been considered a "joke band" by the music press.
The first form of Devo was the "Sextet Devo" which performed at the 1973 Kent State performing arts festival. It included Casale, Lewis and Mothersbaugh, as well as Gerald's brother Bob Casale on guitar, and friends Rod Reisman and Fred Weber on drums and vocals, respectively. This performance was filmed and an excerpt was later included on the home video release The Complete Truth About De-Evolution. This lineup performed only once. Devo returned to perform in the Student Governance Center (featured prominently in the film) at the 1974 Creative Arts Festival with a lineup including the Casale brothers, Bob Lewis, Mark Mothersbaugh, and Jim Mothersbaugh on drums.
The band continued to perform, generally as a quartet, but with a fluid lineup including Mark's brothers Bob Mothersbaugh and Jim Mothersbaugh. Bob played electric guitar, and Jim provided percussion using a set of home-made electronic drums. Their first two music videos, "Secret Agent Man" and "Jocko Homo", which both appeared in The Truth About De-Evolution, were filmed in Akron, and Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, the hometown of most members. This lineup of Devo lasted until late 1975 when Jim left the band. Lewis would sometimes play guitar during this period, but mainly stayed in a managerial role. In concert, Devo would often perform in the guise of theatrical characters, such as Booji Boy and the Chinaman. A recording of an early Devo performance from 1975 with the quartet lineup appears on Devo Live: The Mongoloid Years (1992), ending with the promoters unplugging Devo's equipment. won a prize at the Ann Arbor Film Festival. This attracted the attention of David Bowie, who began work to get the band a recording contract with Warner Music Group. In 1977, Devo were asked by Neil Young to participate in the making of his film Human Highway. Released in 1982, the film featured the band as "nuclear garbagemen". The band members were asked to write their own parts and Mark Mothersbaugh scored and recorded much of the soundtrack, his first of many.
In March 1977, Devo released their first single, "Mongoloid" backed with "Jocko Homo", the B-side of which came from the soundtrack to The Truth About De-Evolution, on their independent label Booji Boy. This was followed by a cover of the Rolling Stones' "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction".
In 1978, the B Stiff EP was released by British independent label Stiff, which included the single "Be Stiff" plus two previous Booji Boy releases. "Mechanical Man", a 4-track 7-inch extended play (EP) of demos, an apparent bootleg, but actually put out by the band, was also released that year.
=== 1978–1980: Recording contract, Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo!, and Duty Now for the Future ===
Recommendations from David Bowie and Iggy Pop enabled Devo to secure a recording contract with Warner Bros. in 1978. After Bowie backed out of the business deal due to previous commitments, their first album, Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo!, was produced by Brian Eno and featured rerecordings of their previous singles "Mongoloid" and "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction". On October 14, 1978, Devo gained national exposure with an appearance on the late-night show Saturday Night Live, a week after the Rolling Stones, performing "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" and "Jocko Homo".
The band followed up with Duty Now for the Future in 1979, which moved the band more towards electronic instrumentation. While not as successful as their first album, it did produce some fan favorites with the songs "Blockhead" and "The Day My Baby Gave Me a Surprize" , as well as a cover of the Johnny Rivers hit "Secret Agent Man". "Secret Agent Man" had been recorded first in 1974 for Devo's first film and performed live as early as 1976. In 1979, Devo traveled to Japan for the first time, and a live show from this tour was partially recorded. Devo appeared on Don Kirshner's Rock Concert in 1979, performing "Blockhead", "Secret Agent Man", "Uncontrollable Urge", and "Mongoloid". Also in 1979, Rhino, in conjunction with the Los Angeles radio station KROQ-FM, released Devotees, a tribute album. It contained a set of covers of Devo songs interspersed with renditions of popular songs in Devo's style.
Devo actively embraced the parody religion Church of the SubGenius. In concert, Devo sometimes performed as their own opening act, pretending to be a Christian soft rock band called "Dove (the Band of Love)", which is an anagram of "Devo". They appeared as Dove in the 1980 televangelism spoof film Pray TV.
=== 1980–1982: Mainstream breakthrough, Freedom of Choice, and New Traditionalists ===
Devo gained a new level of visibility with 1980's Freedom of Choice. This album included their best-known hit, "Whip It", which quickly became a Top 40 hit. The album moved to an almost completely electronic sound, with the exception of acoustic drums and Bob Mothersbaugh's guitar. The tour for Freedom of Choice was ambitious for the band, including dates in Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Canada. The band used a minimalist set including large custom light boxes which could be laid on their back to form a second, smaller stage during the second half of the set. Other popular songs from Freedom of Choice were "Girl U Want", the title-track, and "Gates of Steel". The band released popular music videos for "Whip It" and "Girl U Want". Devo made three appearances on the TV show Fridays in 1980 and 1981, as well as on Don Kirshner's Rock Concert, American Bandstand, and other shows. The band members often wore red, terraced energy dome hats as part of its stage outfit. The dome was first worn during the band's Freedom of Choice campaign of 1980. It reappeared in the 1981, 1982, and 1988 tours, as well as in most of their performances since 1997. Devo also recorded two albums of their own songs as elevator music for their fan club, Club Devo, released on cassette in 1981 and 1984. These were later re-released on the album E-Z Listening Disc (1987), with all but two of the original Club Devo songs. These songs were often played as house music before Devo concerts.
In August 1981, the band's DEV-O Live EP spent three weeks at the top of the Australian charts. In 1982, they toured Australia and appeared on the TV show Countdown. Devo enjoyed continued popularity in Australia, where the nationally broadcast 1970s–1980s pop TV show Countdown was one of the first programs in the world to broadcast their video clips. They were given consistent radio support by Sydney-based non-commercial rock station Double Jay (2JJ) and Brisbane-based independent community station Triple Zed (4ZZZ), two of the first rock stations outside America to play their recordings. The late-night music program Nightmoves aired The Truth About De-Evolution.
In 1981, Devo contributed a cover of "Working in the Coal Mine", recorded during the Freedom of Choice sessions, to the film Heavy Metal. They offered the song to be used in the film when Warner Bros. refused to include it on the album. Warner then included it as an independent bonus single accompanying their 1981 release, New Traditionalists. For this album Devo wore self-described "Utopian Boy Scout uniforms" topped with a "New Traditionalist Pomp"—a plastic half-wig modeled on the hairstyle of John F. Kennedy. Among the singles from the album was "Through Being Cool", written as a reaction to their new-found fame from "Whip It" and seen as a response to new fans who had misinterpreted the message behind the hit song. The album's accompanying tour featured the band performing an intensely physical show with treadmills and a large Greek temple set. That same year they served as Toni Basil's backing band on Word of Mouth, her debut album, which included versions of three Devo songs, recorded with Basil singing lead.
=== 1982–1987: Oh, No! It's Devo, Shout, and Myers' departure ===
Oh, No! It's Devo followed in 1982. Produced by Roy Thomas Baker, the album featured a more synth-pop-oriented sound than its predecessors. According to Gerald Casale, the album's sound was inspired by reviewers alternately describing them as both "fascists" and "clowns". The album's tour featured the band performing seven songs in front of a 12-foot high rear-projection screen with synchronized video, an image recreated using blue screen effects in the album's accompanying music videos. Devo also contributed two songs, "Theme from Doctor Detroit" and "Luv-Luv", to the 1983 Dan Aykroyd film Doctor Detroit, and produced a music video for "Theme from Doctor Detroit" featuring clips from the film interspersed with live-action segments.
The band's sixth studio album, Shout (1984), which featured extensive use of the Fairlight CMI digital sampling synthesizer, was received poorly, and the expensive music video they'd produced for their cover of the Jimi Hendrix Experience's "Are You Experienced?" was criticized by some as being "disrespectful", all of which caused Warner Bros. to buy out the remainder of Devo's contract. Shortly thereafter, Myers left the band, citing creative unfulfillment.
In the interim, Mark Mothersbaugh began composing music for the TV show Pee-wee's Playhouse and released an elaborately packaged solo cassette, Musik for Insomniaks, which was later expanded and released as two CDs in 1988.
=== 1987–1991: Total Devo, Smooth Noodle Maps, and breakup ===
In 1987, Devo re-formed with former Sparks drummer David Kendrick to replace Myers. Their first project was a soundtrack for the horror film Slaughterhouse Rock (1988), starring Toni Basil. The band released the album Total Devo in 1988, on Enigma Records. This album included two songs used in the Slaughterhouse Rock soundtrack. The song "Baby Doll" was used that same year in the comedy film Tapeheads, with newly recorded Swedish lyrics, and was credited to (and shown in a music video by) a fictitious Swedish band called Cube-Squared. Devo followed this up with a world tour, and released the live album Now It Can Be Told: Devo at the Palace in 1989. However, Total Devo was not a commercial success and received poor critical reviews.
In 1989, members of Devo were involved in the project Visiting Kids, releasing a self-titled EP on the New Rose label in 1990. The band featured Mark's then-wife Nancye Ferguson, as well as David Kendrick, Bob Mothersbaugh, and Bob's daughter Alex Mothersbaugh. Their record was produced by Bob Casale and Mark Mothersbaugh, and Mark also co-wrote some of the songs. Visiting Kids appeared on the soundtrack to the film Rockula, as well as on Late Night with David Letterman. A promotional video was filmed for the song "Trilobites".
In 1990, Smooth Noodle Maps, Devo's last album for twenty years, was released. It too was a critical and commercial failure which, along with its two singles "Stuck in a Loop" and "Post Post-Modern Man", were Devo's worst-selling efforts; all failed to appear on the U.S. charts. Devo launched a concert tour in support of the album, but poor ticket sales and the bankruptcy and dissolution of Enigma Records, which was responsible for organizing and financing the tour, caused it to be cancelled part way through.
In 1990, the members of Devo, bar Bob Mothersbaugh, appeared in the film The Spirit of '76. Two albums of demo recordings from 1974 to 1977, namely Hardcore Devo: Volume One (1990) and Hardcore Devo: Volume Two (1991), were released on Rykodisc, as well as an album of early live recordings, Devo Live: The Mongoloid Years (1992).
The band played one final show in March 1991 before breaking up. In an interview with Mark Mothersbaugh concerning their 1996 computer game Devo Presents Adventures of the Smart Patrol, he explained, "Around '88, '89, '90 maybe, we did our last tour in Europe, and it was kind of at that point, We were watching This Is Spinal Tap on the bus and said, 'Oh my God, that's our life.' And we just said, 'Things have to change.' So we kind of agreed from there that we wouldn't do live shows anymore."
=== 1991–1996: Hiatus ===
Following the split, Mark Mothersbaugh established Mutato Muzika, a commercial music production studio, along with Bob Mothersbaugh and Bob Casale. Mothersbaugh meant to further a career as a composer, and the latter worked as an audio engineer. Mothersbaugh has had considerable success writing and producing music for television programs, including Pee-wee's Playhouse and Rugrats, video games, cartoons, and films, where he worked alongside director Wes Anderson. David Kendrick also worked at Mutato for a period during the early 1990s. Gerald Casale began a career as a director of music videos and commercials, working with bands including Rush, Soundgarden, Silverchair and the Foo Fighters. In the wake of Devo's dissolution, Bob Mothersbaugh attempted to start a solo career with The Bob I Band, recording an album that was never released. The tapes for this are now lost, though a bootleg recording of the band in concert exists and can be obtained through the bootleg aggregator Booji Boy's Basement.
While they did not release any studio albums during this period, Devo sporadically reconvened to record a number of songs for various films and compilations, including a new recording of "Girl U Want" on the soundtrack to the 1995 film Tank Girl and a cover of the Nine Inch Nails hit "Head Like a Hole" for the 1996 North American version of the film Supercop.
=== 1996–2007: Reunion ===
In January 1996, Devo performed a reunion concert at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah. The band performed on part of the 1996 Lollapalooza tour in the rotating Mystery Spot. On these tours and most subsequent tours, Devo performed a set-list mostly composed of material from between 1978 and 1982, ignoring their Enigma Records-era material. Also in 1996, Devo released a multimedia CD-ROM adventure game, Adventures of the Smart Patrol with Inscape. The game was not a success, but the Lollapalooza tour was received well enough to allow Devo to return in 1997 as a headliner. Devo performed sporadically from 1997 onwards.
In 1999, the Oh, No! It's Devo era outtakes "Faster and Faster" and "One Dumb Thing", as well as the Shout era outtake "Modern Life", were restored, completed and used in the video game Interstate '82, developed by Activision and released. Also that year, Mothersbaugh started the Devo side-project The Wipeouters, after their band in junior high, featuring himself (keyboards, organ), Bob Mothersbaugh (guitar), Bob Casale (guitar), and Mutato Muzika composer Josh Mancell (drums). The Wipeouters performed the theme song to the Nickelodeon animated series Rocket Power, and in 2001 they released an album of surf rock material, titled P'Twaaang!!!.
By 2000, Devo's online fandom continued to grow, leading to 'DEVOtional', a Devo fan convention held annually in Cleveland, Ohio. The festival was most recently held in September 2024.
In 2005, Devo recorded a new version of "Whip It" to be used in Swiffer television commercials, a decision they have said they regretted. During an interview with the Dallas Observer, Gerald Casale said, "It's just aesthetically offensive. It's got everything a commercial that turns people off has." The song "Beautiful World" was also used in a re-recorded form for an advertisement for Target stores. Due to rights issues with their back catalog, Devo has re-recorded songs for films and advertisements.
In 2005, Gerald Casale announced his "solo" project, Jihad Jerry & the Evildoers (the Evildoers, including the other members of Devo), and released the first EP, Army Girls Gone Wild in 2006. A full-length album, Mine Is Not a Holy War, was released on September 12, 2006, after a several-month delay. It featured mostly new material, plus re-recordings of four obscure Devo songs: "I Need a Chick" and "I Been Refused" (from Hardcore Devo: Volume Two), "Find Out" (which appeared on the single and EP of "Peek-a-Boo!" in 1982), and "Beehive" (which was recorded by the band in 1974, whereupon it was apparently abandoned, with the exception of one appearance at a special show in 2001). Devo continued to tour actively in 2005 and 2006, unveiling a new stage show at appearances in October 2006, with the Jihad Jerry character performing "Beautiful World" as an encore.
Also in 2006, Devo worked on a project with Disney known as Devo 2.0. A band of child performers was assembled and re-recorded Devo songs. A quote from the Akron Beacon Journal stated, "Devo recently finished a new project in cahoots with Disney called Devo 2.0, which features the band playing old songs and two new ones with vocals provided by children. Their debut album, a two disc CD/DVD combo entitled DEV2.0, was released on March 14, 2006. The lyrics of some of the songs were changed for family-friendly airplay, which has been claimed by the band to be a play on irony of the messages of their classic hits."
In an April 2007 interview, Gerald Casale mentioned a tentative project for a biographical film about Devo's early days. According to Casale, a script was supposedly in development, called The Beginning Was the End. Devo played their first European tour since 1990 in the summer of 2007, including a performance at Festival Internacional de Benicàssim.
=== 2007–2013: Something for Everybody ===
In December 2007, Devo released their first new single since 1990, "Watch Us Work It", which was featured in a commercial for Dell. The song features a sampled drum track from the New Traditionalists song "The Super Thing". Casale said that the song was chosen from a batch that the band was working on, and that it was the closest the band had been to releasing a new album.
Devo performed at the South by Southwest (SXSW) festival in March 2009, unveiling a new stage show with synchronized video backdrops (similar to the 1982 tour), new costumes, and three new songs: "Don't Shoot, I'm a Man!", "What We Do", and "Fresh". On September 16, Warner Bros. and Devo announced rereleases of Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo! and Freedom of Choice, as well as a subsequent tour, where they would perform both albums in their entirety.
A new album, Something for Everybody, was eventually released on June 15, 2010, preceded by a 12-inch single of "Fresh"/"What We Do" on June 10. Devo was awarded the first Moog Innovator Award on October 29, during Moogfest 2010 in Asheville, North Carolina. The Moog Innovator Award has been said to celebrate "pioneering artists whose genre-defying work exemplifies the bold, innovative spirit of Bob Moog". Devo was scheduled to perform at Moogfest, but Bob Mothersbaugh severely injured his hand three days prior, and the band was forced to cancel. Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale collaborated with Austin-based band the Octopus Project to perform "Girl U Want" and "Beautiful World" at the event instead.
The band split from Warner Bros in 2012 and launched a new "post-Warner Brothers" website that would offer "new protective gear" and "unreleased material from the archives in vinyl disc format". In August of that year, the band released a single called "Don't Roof Rack Me, Bro (Seamus Unleashed)", dedicated to the Republican Party presidential candidate Mitt Romney's former pet dog Seamus. The title refers to the Mitt Romney dog incident of 1983, when Romney travelled twelve hours with the dog in a crate on his car's roof rack.
On June 24, 2013, the group's former drummer Alan Myers died of stomach cancer in Los Angeles, California. He was 58. News reports at the time of his death incorrectly cited brain cancer as the cause. One month later, Devo released their Something Else for Everybody album, which collected "Unreleased Demos and Focus Group Rejects" from 2006–2009. Gerald Casale had earlier teased the album in a 2012 interview with Billboard magazine.
=== 2014: Hardcore Devo Tour, Bob Casale's death ===
On February 17, 2014, founding member Bob Casale died of heart failure at age 61. Shortly afterwards, the group, a quartet for the first time in 38 years, embarked on their Hardcore Devo Tour, a ten-show tour across the US and Canada between June 18 and July 2, 2014. The tour focused on material the group had written before the release of their first album, which was largely written when the group were a quartet. Partial proceeds for the ten shows went to support Bob Casale's family after his sudden death. The show featured the group performing material written during 1974–1977. The June 28 Oakland show was filmed and later released as the concert film Hardcore Devo Live!, released on Blu-ray, DVD, and Video on Demand on February 10, 2015, accompanied by CD and double-vinyl audio releases.
=== 2014–present: Current activities ===
Immediately following from the Hardcore tour, Devo continued to tour a 'greatest hits' style show. and keyboards. On April 29, 2016, Devo performed at Will Ferrell and Chad Smith's Red Hot Benefit.
On May 22, Robert Mothersbaugh Sr., father of Mark, Bob, and Jim Mothersbaugh, died. Robert portrayed General Boy in various Devo films.
In 2017, the official Twitter account for the Are We Not Men? documentary film, which had been in production since 2009, stated that "the film was finished years ago" and that "mm [Mark Mothersbaugh] is blocking its release". Jeff Winner, who was consulting producer for the Devo documentary, went on to state that he and director Tony Pemberton had "delivered the film that was contracted, and on schedule. It's now in the hands of the band to decide when/how it's released/distributed."
Devo headlined the Burger Boogaloo festival in Oakland, California, on June 30, 2018, with comedian and former Trenchmouth drummer Fred Armisen on drums. On October 12, 2020, Devo performed at the Desert Daze festival, with Jeff Friedl on drums.
In January 2021, Funko released two Devo Funko Pops inspired by the group's "Whip It" and "Satisfaction" music videos. One month later, the band starred in Devolution: A Devo Theory, a television documentary based entirely on their theory of devolution, which had been completed in 2020. In September, Devo performed a short three-date tour of the USA, including a show at Riot Fest. These performances marked the return of Josh Freese on drums, who had not played live with Devo in over five years.
Shortly afterwards, Gerald Casale announced the release of an official Devo potato-based vodka through the Trust Me Vodka brand. The packaging for the drink was themed around Devo imagery and featured original artwork. It was signed by the group's co-founders Gerald Casale and Mark Mothersbaugh, as well as Bob Mothersbaugh.
On October 24, 2021, John Hinckley Jr posted on Twitter that he had not received any royalties for Devo's song "I Desire" in 35 years. "I Desire" had been written by Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale for their 1982 album Oh, No! It's Devo, inspired by a poem written by Hinckley that was published in a tabloid newspaper, following his attempt to assassinate then-current president Ronald Reagan. Hinckley had been adequately credited for his contributions through a co-writing credit on all releases. Casale claimed that Devo were not at fault, as it was the publishing company's duty to pay him, not the band's.
Devotional 2021, an annual convention for Devo fans, was held on November 5–6, with the annual 5KDEVO race taking place on the 7th. On November 15, it was announced that Devo would perform a one-off show at the Rooftop at Pier 17 on May 18, 2022, in order to make up for their cancelled Radio City Music Hall gig in September 2021. Tickets went on sale on the 18th.
In December, it was announced that rare images of Devo would feature in a book of rock photography from 1977–1980 titled HARD + FAST, to be released on February 1, 2022. The book will also include a 7-inch single of live recordings from the band, which were also released on SoundCloud prior to the book's release. The recordings were dated 1977, but the performances are identical to those found on an audience bootleg recorded on October 10, 1978.
Devo were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018, 2021 and 2022.
On May 14 and 15, 2022, Devo performed at the Cruel World Festival at the Rose Bowl's Brookside golf course in Pasadena, California, followed three days later by their performance at The Rooftop at Pier 17. This was followed by the announcement of a European tour, taking place between August 8th and 19th of 2023, with shows at London's Eventim Apollo, Øyafestivalen in Norway, Way Out West festival in Sweden, Flow Festival in Finland, Green Man Festival in Wales, and Luna Fest in Portugal. This was followed in November and December by a string of shows in the USA and Australia.On January 21st, 2024, Devo, a Chris Smith directed documentary on the band premiered at Sundance Film Festival, with the group performing at the event. The film was produced and financed by BMG, Fremantle Documentaries, and Warner Music Entertainment, and according to a statement by the band "explores Devo's evolution from hippie artistes to art-rockers with a message, to their unexpected mainstream success as a hit rock band and the pioneers of the MTV age," following the group's career arc up to its status as "elder statesmen". Smith was executive producer on Tiger King, which had been scored by Mark Mothersbaugh, with Bob Mothersbaugh co-scoring its first season.
Between May 4th and 26th, Devo underwent another short US tour, including a show at the Andy Warhol Museum and at this same time, Mothersbaugh released an art book titled Apotropaic Beatnik Graffiti. On the June 5th, 2024, a collaboration between David Byrne and Devo was released. The recording was an early version of Byrne's song "Empire," recorded during the sessions for his 1997 Feelings album, seven years before the song appeared on his Grown Backwards album.
On February 14, 2025, Devo appeared on Saturday Night Live's SNL50: The Homecoming Concert special, performing "Uncontrollable Urge" with Fred Arminsen again serving as drummer.
== Band members ==
Current members
Gerald Casale – lead and backing vocals, bass, keyboards (1973–1991, 1996–present)
Mark Mothersbaugh – lead and backing vocals, keyboards, guitar (1973–1991, 1996–present)
Bob Mothersbaugh – lead guitar, backing and lead vocals (1974–1991, 1996–present)
Josh Freese – drums, percussion (1996–present)
Josh Hager – guitar, keyboards (2014–present)
Former members
Bob Casale – rhythm guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1973–1974, 1976–1991, 1996–2014; his death)
Bob Lewis – lead guitar (1973–1974)
Rod Reisman – drums (1973)
Fred Weber – vocals (1973)}}
Touring members
Neil Taylor – drums (2008)
Pete Parada – drums (2011)
Brian Applegate – keyboards, bass guitar (2014 Hardcore Tour)
Alex Casale – bass guitar (2014 Hardcore Tour)
Ed Marshall – bass guitar (2014 Hardcore Tour)
Fred Armisen – drums (2018 Burger Boogaloo and Saturday Night Live 50th Anniversary Show, 2025)
Jeff Friedl – drums (2008–2014, 2019, 2023)
=== Timeline ===
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo! (1978)
Duty Now for the Future (1979)
Freedom of Choice (1980)
New Traditionalists (1981)
Oh, No! It's Devo (1982)
Shout (1984)
Total Devo (1988)
Smooth Noodle Maps (1990)
Something for Everybody (2010)
|
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"2024 Sundance Film Festival",
"audio engineer",
"Bob Casale",
"Tapeheads",
"The Numbers Band",
"Pray TV (1980 film)",
"Cocaine Bear",
"Army Girls Gone Wild",
"Theme from Doctor Detroit",
"Kent State shootings",
"Oh, No! It's Devo",
"Dan Aykroyd",
"The Walt Disney Company",
"Lead vocalist",
"extended play",
"Beautiful World (Devo song)",
"Sparks (band)",
"stomach cancer",
"Burger Records",
"Green Man Festival",
"Puscifer",
"Kent State University",
"Triple J",
"AllMusic",
"E-Z Listening Disc",
"Mitt Romney dog incident",
"Austin, Texas",
"Toni Basil",
"music video",
"Hardcore Devo: Volume One",
"biographical film",
"Mechanical Man EP",
"Be Stiff",
"drum kit",
"herd mentality",
"Brain tumor",
"deadpan",
"electronic drum",
"Top 40",
"Shepherd Express",
"Øyafestivalen",
"Moogfest",
"The Truth About De-Evolution",
"Muzik for Insomniaks, Volume 1 and Volume 2",
"Smooth Noodle Maps",
"Riot Fest",
"BMG Rights Management",
"the Octopus Project",
"South by Southwest",
"Dallas Observer",
"England",
"Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio",
"Enigma Records",
"Warner Records",
"single (music)",
"Vacuum forming",
"Ohio",
"ABC-CLIO",
"Stiff Records",
"energy dome",
"The Spirit of '76 (1990 film)",
"Josh Mancell",
"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame",
"surf rock",
"Fridays (TV series)",
"LA Weekly",
"anagram",
"art punk",
"American Bandstand",
"Doctor Detroit",
"Rush (band)",
"Compact Cassette",
"Asheville, North Carolina",
"Fremantle (company)",
"Will Ferrell",
"Tank Girl (film)",
"Freedom of Choice (song)",
"thermoplastic",
"Watch Us Work It",
"Booji Boy",
"Rocket Power",
"Mark Mothersbaugh",
"Hammersmith Apollo",
"Inscape (publisher)",
"Twitter",
"David Byrne",
"Word of Mouth (Toni Basil album)",
"YouTube",
"Foo Fighters",
"Akron Beacon Journal",
"Something Else for Everybody",
"B Stiff",
"SoundCloud",
"Variety (magazine)",
"A Perfect Circle",
"Robert Moog",
"DEV-O Live",
"Eventim Apollo",
"The Village Voice",
"geek rock",
"Warner Music Group",
"Chroma key",
"Devo 2.0",
"Chris Smith (filmmaker)",
"London",
"Human Highway",
"Activision",
"Tiger King",
"Pete Parada",
"kitsch",
"Swiffer",
"Mongoloid (song)",
"Akron, Ohio",
"David Bowie",
"Now It Can Be Told: Devo at the Palace",
"Surreal humour",
"Devo Presents Adventures of the Smart Patrol (album)",
"sampler (musical instrument)",
"Shout (Devo album)",
"Josh Freese",
"Gerald Casale",
"Discogs",
"Billboard Hot 100",
"Warner Bros. Records",
"Pasadena, California",
"Head Like a Hole",
"David Kendrick",
"Lollapalooza",
"Sundance Film Festival",
"Andy Warhol Museum",
"The Complete Truth About De-Evolution",
"electronic rock",
"Hardcore Devo Live!",
"Alan Myers (drummer)",
"Duty Now for the Future",
"Soundgarden",
"electronic music",
"Characters in Devo music videos",
"tongue-in-cheek",
"Hardcore Devo: Volume Two",
"Total Devo",
"Dell",
"Target Corporation",
"Rugrats",
"Through Being Cool (Devo song)",
"Jihad Jerry & the Evildoers",
"Nine Inch Nails",
"Secret Agent Man (Johnny Rivers song)",
"Park City, Utah",
"social theory",
"synth-pop",
"Devo Live: The Mongoloid Years",
"Fairlight CMI",
"Booji Boy Records",
"clown",
"the Jimi Hendrix Experience",
"Church of the SubGenius",
"John F. Kennedy",
"Compact disc",
"Johnny Rivers",
"New Traditionalists",
"Nickelodeon",
"Way Out West (festival)",
"Chad Smith",
"Melbourne",
"Ronald Reagan",
"Restless Records",
"Ann Arbor Film Festival",
"Christian rock",
"family-friendly",
"Devolution (biology)",
"Are We Not Men? We Are Devo!",
"Hammersmith",
"Jim Mothersbaugh",
"SFGATE",
"Fascism",
"Grown Backwards",
"Bob Mothersbaugh",
"4ZZZ"
] |
9,132 |
Dale Chihuly
|
Dale Chihuly ( ; born September 20, 1941) is an American glass artist and entrepreneur. He is well known in the field of blown glass, "moving it into the realm of large-scale sculpture".
== Early life ==
Dale Patrick Chihuly was born on September 20, 1941, in Tacoma, Washington. In 1957, his older brother and only sibling George died in a Navy aviation training accident in Pensacola, Florida. In 1958, Chihuly's father died of a heart attack at the age of 51.
Chihuly had no interest in continuing his formal education after graduating from Woodrow Wilson High School in 1959. However, at his mother's urging, he enrolled at the College of Puget Sound. After returning to the United States, Chihuly spent the first of four consecutive summers teaching at the Haystack Mountain School of Crafts in Deer Isle, Maine. In 1969, he traveled to Europe, in part to meet Erwin Eisch in Germany and Stanislav Libenský and Jaroslava Brychtová in Czechoslovakia. His face was severely cut by glass and he was blinded in his left eye. After recovering, he continued to blow glass until he dislocated his right shoulder in 1979 while bodysurfing.
In 1983, Chihuly returned to his native Pacific Northwest where he continued to develop his own work at the Pilchuck Glass School, which he had helped to found in 1971. No longer able to hold the glassblowing pipe, he hired others to do the work. Chihuly explained the change in a 2006 interview, saying "Once I stepped back, I liked the view", and said that it allowed him to see the work from more perspectives, enabling him to anticipate problems earlier. Chihuly's role has been described as "more choreographer than dancer, more supervisor than participant, more director than actor".
Chihuly and his team of artists were the subjects of the documentary . They were also featured in the documentary Chihuly in the Hotshop, syndicated to public television stations by American Public Television starting on November 1, 2008.
In 2010, the Space Needle Corporation submitted a proposal for an exhibition of Chihuly's work at a site in the Seattle Center, in competition with proposals for other uses from several other groups. The project, which sees the new Chihuly exhibition hall occupy the site of the former Fun Forest amusement park in the Seattle Center park and entertainment complex, received the final approval from the Seattle City Council on April 25, 2011. Called Chihuly Garden and Glass, it opened May 21, 2012.
=== 2006 lawsuit ===
In 2006, Chihuly filed a lawsuit against his former longtime employee, glassblower Bryan Rubino, and businessman Robert Kaindl, claiming copyright and trademark infringement. Kaindl's pieces used titles Chihuly had employed for his own works, such as Seaforms and Ikebana, and resembled the construction of Chihuly's pieces. Legal experts stated that influence on art style did not constitute copyright infringement. Chihuly settled the lawsuit with Rubino initially, and later with Kaindl as well.
== Works ==
Regina Hackett, a Seattle Post-Intelligencer art critic, provided a chronology of Chihuly's work during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s:
1975: Navajo Blanket Series, in which patterns of Navajo blankets were painted onto glass
1977: Northwest Coast Basket Series, baskets inspired by Northwest coast Indian baskets he had seen as a child
1980: Seaform Series, transparent sculptures of thin glass, strengthened by ribbed strands of color
1981: Macchia Series, featuring every color available in the studio
1986: Persian Series, inspired by Middle East glass from the 12th- to 14th-century, featuring more restrained color and room-sized installations
1988: Venetian Series, improvisations based on Italian Art Deco
1989: Ikebana Series, glass flower arrangements inspired by ikebana
1990: Venetian Series returns, this time in a more eccentric form
1991: Niijima Floats, six-foot spheres of intricate color inspired by Japanese glass fishing floats from the island of Niijima from Chihuly's website
1992: Chandeliers, starting modestly but by the middle of the decade involving a multitude of glass orbs and shapes that in some works look like flowers, others like breasts, and still others like snakes. Chihuly has also produced a sizable volume of "Irish cylinders", which are more modest in conception than his blown glass works.
For his exhibition in Jerusalem, in 1999–2000, in addition to the glass pieces, he had enormous blocks of transparent ice brought in from an Alaskan artesian well and formed a wall, echoing the stones of the nearby Citadel. Lights with color gels were set up behind them for illumination. Chihuly said the melting wall represented the "dissolution of barriers" between people. This exhibit holds the world record for most visitors to a temporary exhibit with more than 1.3 million visitors.
In 1999, Chihuly's "Millenium Tree" was present in the East Wing of the Clinton White House during a Millenium celebration. The tree now resides in the William J. Clinton Presidential Library and Museum.
Two of Chihuly's pieces can also be found at two casino resorts owned by MGM Resorts International: one in the reception area of the Bellagio on the Las Vegas Strip, and the other in the VIP lobby of the MGM Macau in Macau, China. The piece at the Bellagio, titled Fiori di Como, holds the Guinness World Record for largest glass sculpture. In July 2001, in response to positive feedback from guests who viewed the installation at Bellagio, Chihuly partnered with Bellagio to open a store that sold some of the artist's original works, as well as books and videos about the artist. However, the store has since been marked permanently closed on Google Maps.
There is also one piece titled Blue River in the Casino of the Sky at Mohegan Sun: Casino and Resort in Uncasville, CT. The distinctive cobalt blue, silver and clear colored glass sculpture, measuring fourteen feet in width, soars twenty-five feet above visitors, creating a spectacular centerpiece.
=== Exhibitions ===
==== Permanent collections ====
Chihuly's art appears in over 400 permanent collections all over the world, including in the United States, Canada, England, Israel, China, Singapore, the United Arab Emirates, and Australia. Chihuly's largest permanent exhibit is at the Oklahoma City Museum of Art. Other large collections can be found at the Morean Arts Center in St. Petersburg, Florida, and Chihuly Garden and Glass in Seattle, Washington. Four large-scale installations are on permanent display at the Baker Museum in Naples, Florida.
=== Recognition ===
1994: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
2006: American Craft Council's gold medal
2011: Fritz Redlich Alumni Award of the Institute of International Education
|
[
"Schantz Galleries Contemporary Glass",
"Mayborn Museum Complex",
"Montreal",
"Laurel, Mississippi",
"Asheville, NC",
"Kohl Center",
"Leslie Jackson Chihuly",
"Phoenix, Arizona",
"College of Puget Sound",
"The Community Library",
"Richmond, Virginia",
"Stockbridge, Massachusetts",
"University of Wisconsin–Madison",
"Seattle Times",
"Italo Scanga",
"Cheekwood Botanical Gardens",
"La Jolla",
"Singapore",
"Seattle, Washington",
"Ketchum, Idaho",
"Columbus Museum of Art",
"United States Navy",
"Master of Science",
"Kew Gardens",
"Washington (state)",
"Google Maps",
"Jerusalem",
"Adelaide",
"Erwin Eisch",
"Montreal Museum of Fine Arts",
"The Baker Museum",
"Deseret News",
"Grand Rapids, Michigan",
"Guinness World Records",
"Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park",
"Toronto",
"Museum of Fine Arts Boston",
"Venice",
"Boston, Massachusetts",
"American Public Television",
"bodysurfing",
"University of Washington",
"Adelaide Botanic Garden",
"Kalamazoo Institute of Arts",
"Chandelier",
"Columbus, Ohio",
"Avalon, California",
"MGM Macau",
"New York City",
"Virginia Museum of Fine Arts",
"Kalamazoo, Michigan",
"Traver Gallery",
"Canberra",
"Navajo rug",
"Stanwood, Washington",
"National Gallery of Australia",
"Naples, Florida",
"Pensacola, Florida",
"glass fishing float",
"glassblowing",
"Royal Ontario Museum",
"Lauren Rogers Museum of Art",
"Glassblowing",
"color gel",
"Atlanta, Georgia",
"Uncasville, CT",
"Baker Museum",
"Salk Institute for Biological Studies",
"Murano",
"Denver, Colorado",
"New Orleans Botanical Garden",
"American Academy of Achievement",
"Frist Art Museum",
"Shoreview, Minnesota",
"Orlando Museum of Art",
"Seattle Post-Intelligencer",
"Glass art",
"William Warmus",
"Museum of Fine Arts (St. Petersburg, Florida)",
"Seattle Center",
"National Botanic Gardens of Ireland",
"Atlanta Botanical Garden",
"Naples Museum of Art",
"Garfield Park Conservatory",
"Las Vegas Strip",
"Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden",
"Missouri Botanical Garden",
"Delta Kappa Epsilon",
"Denver Botanic Gardens",
"Crystal Bridges",
"Wichita, Kansas",
"Bachelor of Arts",
"Slovakia",
"Space Needle",
"Waco, Texas",
"Wichita Art Museum",
"San Francisco, California",
"Seattle",
"The Seattle Times",
"interior design",
"Institute of International Education",
"Oisterwijk",
"St. Petersburg Times",
"Taliesin West",
"JamFactory",
"Ontario",
"Navajo",
"California",
"Boston Museum of Fine Arts",
"Toronto, Ontario",
"Dallas Arboretum",
"MGM Resorts International",
"Stanislav Libenský and Jaroslava Brychtová",
"Bellagio (resort)",
"Deer Isle, Maine",
"Master of Fine Arts",
"Morean Arts Center",
"Bellagio (resort and casino)",
"Bentonville, Arkansas",
"Haystack Mountain School of Crafts",
"ikebana",
"Scottsdale, Arizona",
"Cafesjian Art Trust Museum",
"Chicago",
"The Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation",
"Niijima",
"Nashville, Tennessee",
"Harvey Littleton",
"Biltmore House",
"Clinton Presidential Center",
"Documentary film",
"St. Louis, Missouri",
"copyright infringement",
"University of Puget Sound",
"Phipps Conservatory",
"Coral Gables, Florida",
"U.S.-Italy Fulbright Commission",
"Macau",
"Pilchuck Glass School",
"Illinois",
"Largest creative work",
"Woodrow Wilson High School (Tacoma, Washington)",
"Franklin Park Conservatory",
"Gardens by the Bay",
"New Orleans, Louisiana",
"Rhode Island School of Design",
"St. Petersburg, Florida",
"The Stranger (newspaper)",
"Artesian aquifer",
"South Australia",
"Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania",
"Karuizawa, Nagano",
"Desert Botanical Garden",
"Oklahoma City Museum of Art",
"Tacoma, Washington",
"Dallas, Texas",
"New York Botanical Garden",
"de Young Museum",
"Florence",
"Academy of Achievement",
"Chihuly Garden and Glass",
"Glasnevin",
"The New York Times",
"Art Deco",
"WP:OVERLINK",
"Tower of David",
"Chūō, Tokyo",
"Victoria and Albert Museum",
"American Craft Council",
"The Bronx",
"glass art",
"Paolo Venini",
"San Diego Union-Tribune",
"Jason Lee Middle School (Tacoma)"
] |
9,133 |
Dean Kamen
|
{{Infobox person
| name = Dean Kamen
| image = Dean Kamen visits Team Whiteman 160426-F-TQ704-039 (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Kamen at Whiteman Air Force Base on April 26, 2016
| birth_name = Dean Lawrence Kamen
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Rockville Centre, New York, U.S. as well as founding the non-profit organization FIRST with Woodie Flowers. Kamen holds over 1,000 patents.
==Early life and family==
Kamen was born on Long Island, New York, to a Jewish family.
His father was Jack Kamen, an illustrator for Mad, Weird Science and other EC Comics publications. During his teenage years, Kamen was already being paid for his ideas; local bands and museums paid him to build light and sound systems. His annual earnings reached $60,000 before his high school graduation. quit before graduating, after five years of private advanced research for the insulin pump AutoSyringe.
==Career==
===Inventions===
Kamen is known best for inventing the product that eventually became known as the Segway PT, an electric, self-balancing human transporter with a computer-controlled gyroscopic stabilization and control system. The device is balanced on two parallel wheels and is controlled by moving body weight. The machine's development was the object of much speculation and hype after segments of a book quoting Steve Jobs and other notable information technology visionaries espousing its society-revolutionizing potential were leaked in December 2001.
Kamen was already a successful inventor: his company Auto Syringe manufactures and markets the first drug infusion pump. His company DEKA also holds patents for the technology used in portable dialysis machines, an insulin pump (based on the drug infusion pump technology), that would serve as a water purification system. He hopes the project will help improve living standards in developing countries. Kamen has a patent on his water purifier, and other patents pending. In 2014, the film SlingShot was released, detailing Kamen's quest to use his vapor compression distiller to fix the world's water crisis.
Kamen is also the co-inventor of a compressed air device that would launch a human into the air in order to quickly launch SWAT teams or other emergency workers to the roofs of tall, inaccessible buildings.
In 2009 Kamen stated that his company DEKA was now working on solar powered inventions.
===FIRST===
In 1989, Kamen founded FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology), an organization intended to build students' interests in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 1992, working with MIT Professor Emeritus Woodie Flowers, Kamen created the FIRST Robotics Competition (FRC), which evolved into an international competition that by 2020 had drawn 3,647 teams and more than 91,000 students.
FIRST organizes robotics competition leagues for students in grades K-12, including FIRST LEGO League Discover for ages 4–6, FIRST LEGO League Explore for younger elementary school students, FIRST LEGO League Challenge for older elementary school and middle school students, FIRST Tech Challenge (FTC) for middle and high school students, and FIRST Robotics Competition (FRC) for high school students. In 2017, FIRST held its first Olympics-style competition – FGC (FIRST Global Challenge) – in Washington, D.C.
In 2010, Kamen called FIRST the invention he is most proud of, and said that 1 million students had taken part in the contests.
=== Advanced Regenerative Manufacturing Institute ===
In 2017, Kamen founded the Advanced Regenerative Manufacturing Institute (ARMI) and launched BioFabUSA, a Manufacturing USA Innovation Institute with an $80 million grant from the Department of Defense. BioFabUSA's mission is to "...make practical the large-scale manufacturing of engineered tissues and tissue-related technologies, to benefit existing industries and grow new ones"
In early 2020, ARMI was awarded a grant from the Department of Health and Human Services to establish the first Foundry for American Biotechnology, known as NextFab "to produce technological solutions that help the United States protect against and respond to health security threats, enhance daily medical care, and add to the U.S. bioeconomy".
===Awards===
Kamen has won numerous awards. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1997 for inventing and commercializing biomedical devices and fluid measurement and control systems, and for popularizing engineering among young people. In 1999 he was awarded the 5th Annual Heinz Award in Technology, the Economy and Employment, and in 2000 received the National Medal of Technology from then President Clinton for inventions that have advanced medical care worldwide. In April 2002, Kamen was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize for inventors, for his invention of the Segway and of an infusion pump for diabetics. In 2003 his "Project Slingshot", an inexpensive portable water purification system, was named a runner-up for "coolest invention of 2003" by Time magazine.
In 2005 he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for his invention of the AutoSyringe. In 2006 Kamen was awarded the "Global Humanitarian Action Award" by the United Nations. In 2007 he received the ASME Medal, the highest award from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in 2008 he was the recipient of the IRI Achievement Award from the Industrial Research Institute, and in 2011 Kamen was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Mechanical Engineering of the Franklin Institute.
Kamen received an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1992, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute May 17, 1996, a Doctor of Engineering degree from Kettering University in 2001, an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Clarkson University on May 13, 2001, an honorary "Doctor of Science" degree from the University of Arizona on May 16, 2009, and an honorary doctorate from the Wentworth Institute of Technology when he spoke at the college's centennial celebration in 2004, and other honorary doctorates from North Carolina State University in 2005, Bates College in 2007, the Georgia Institute of Technology in 2008, the Illinois Institute of Technology in 2008 the Plymouth State University in May 2008 and Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology in 2012. In 2015, Kamen received an honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree from Yale University. In 2017, Kamen was honored with an institutional honorary degree from Université de Sherbrooke.
Kamen received the Stevens Honor Award on November 6, 2009, given by the Stevens Institute of Technology and the Stevens Alumni Association. On November 14, 2013, he received the James C. Morgan Global Humanitarian Award.
Kamen received the 2018 Public Service Award from the National Science Board, honoring his exemplary public service and contributions to the public's understanding of science and engineering.
==Trivia==
In 2007, his residence was a hexagonal, shed style mansion he dubbed Westwind, and three Enstrom helicopters, including a 280FX, a 480, and a 480B. He regularly commutes to work via his helicopters and had a hangar built into his house. In 2016 he flew as a passenger in a B-2 Spirit bomber at Whiteman AFB, marking the opening of the 2016 FRC World Championship in St. Louis.
He is the main subject of Code Name Ginger: the Story Behind Segway and Dean Kamen's Quest to Invent a New World, a nonfiction narrative book by journalist Steve Kemper published by Harvard Business School Press in 2003 (released in paperback as Reinventing the Wheel).
Kamen is a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board and is also a member of the Xconomists, an ad hoc team of editorial advisors for the tech news and media company, Xconomy. He is also on the Board of Trustees of the X Prize Foundation.
Dean of Invention, a TV show on Planet Green, premiered on October 22, 2010. It starred Kamen and correspondent Joanne Colan, in which they investigate new technologies,
Kamen was a keynote speaker at the 2015 Congress of Future Science and Technology Leaders.
In the 2016 United States Senate election in New Hampshire, Kamen endorsed Kelly Ayotte, appearing in an ad supporting her.
|
[
"North Carolina State University",
"The Tech Awards",
"ASME Medal",
"Industrial Research Institute",
"2016 United States Senate election in New Hampshire",
"American Society of Mechanical Engineers",
"Enstrom 480",
"Plymouth State University",
"Enstrom 280",
"Food and Drug Administration",
"Woodie Flowers",
"Iconoclasts (TV series)",
"Georgia Institute of Technology",
"The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles",
"Manchester, New Hampshire",
"Hoover Medal",
"Stirling engine",
"Southern New Hampshire University",
"University of Arizona",
"Embraer Phenom 300",
"For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology",
"IRI Achievement Award",
"Insulin pump",
"Worcester Polytechnic Institute",
"FIRST Global Challenge",
"water purification",
"Wentworth Institute of Technology",
"National Medal of Technology and Innovation",
"Whiteman Air Force Base",
"secret passage",
"Long Island",
"steam engine",
"kinetic sculpture",
"mine shaft",
"Joanne Colan",
"Mad (magazine)",
"Université de Sherbrooke",
"Steve Jobs",
"SWAT",
"Weird Science (comic)",
"hexagon",
"Wired (magazine)",
"FIRST Lego League Explore",
"pneumatics",
"Segway PT",
"Planet Green",
"Enstrom Helicopter Corporation",
"FIRST Stronghold",
"White House",
"spiral staircase",
"New York (state)",
"patent",
"FIRST Robotics Competition",
"Benjamin Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute)",
"cast iron",
"Xconomy",
"Henry Ford",
"Luke Arm",
"FIRST Tech Challenge",
"Jack Kamen",
"Jewish",
"Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit",
"DARPA",
"Public–private partnership",
"Kidney dialysis",
"gyroscope",
"Lemelson-MIT Prize",
"Rockville Centre, New York",
"Franklin Institute",
"X Prize Foundation",
"Manufacturing USA",
"Bedford, New Hampshire",
"YouTube",
"Kettering University",
"The Register",
"Dean of Invention",
"EC Comics",
"solar power",
"IBOT",
"Slingshot (water vapor distillation system)",
"The Guardian",
"Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics",
"shed style",
"United Nations",
"Lemelson–MIT Prize",
"DEKA (company)",
"insulin pump",
"The Economist",
"North Dumpling Island",
"USA Science and Engineering Festival",
"Clarkson University",
"United States Department of Defense",
"Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology",
"Time (magazine)",
"Tribune Star",
"information technology",
"Illinois Institute of Technology",
"National Academy of Engineering",
"Bill Clinton",
"Yale University",
"Stevens Institute of Technology",
"Bates College",
"Biobased economy",
"National Science Board",
"FIRST Lego League Challenge",
"National Inventors Hall of Fame",
"iBOT",
"Kelly Ayotte",
"infusion pump",
"prosthetic",
"Engadget",
"Heinz Award",
"wheelchair"
] |
9,135 |
Derivative (finance)
|
In finance, a derivative is a contract between a buyer and a seller. The derivative can take various forms, depending on the transaction, but every derivative has the following four elements:
an item (the "underlier") that can or must be bought or sold,
a future act which must occur (such as a sale or purchase of the underlier),
a price at which the future transaction must take place, and
a future date by which the act (such as a purchase or sale) must take place.
A derivative's value depends on the performance of the underlier, which can be a commodity (for example, corn or oil), a financial instrument (e.g. a stock or a bond), a price index, a currency, or an interest rate.
Derivatives can be used to insure against price movements (hedging), increase exposure to price movements for speculation, or get access to otherwise hard-to-trade assets or markets. Most derivatives are price guarantees. But some are based on an event or performance of an act rather than a price. Agriculture, natural gas, electricity and oil businesses use derivatives to mitigate risk from adverse weather. Derivatives can be used to protect lenders against the risk of borrowers defaulting on an obligation.
Some of the more common derivatives include forwards, futures, options, swaps, and variations of these such as synthetic collateralized debt obligations and credit default swaps. Most derivatives are traded over-the-counter (off-exchange) or on an exchange such as the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, while most insurance contracts have developed into a separate industry. In the United States, after the 2008 financial crisis, there has been increased pressure to move derivatives to trade on exchanges.
Derivatives are one of the three main categories of financial instruments, the other two being equity (i.e., stocks or shares) and debt (i.e., bonds and mortgages). The oldest example of a derivative in history, attested to by Aristotle, is thought to be a contract transaction of olives, entered into by ancient Greek philosopher Thales, who made a profit in the exchange. However, Aristotle did not define this arrangement as a derivative but as a monopoly (Aristotle's Politics, Book I, Chapter XI). Bucket shops, outlawed in 1936 in the US, are a more recent historical example.
==Basics==
Derivatives are contracts between two parties that specify conditions (especially the dates, resulting values and definitions of the underlying variables, the parties' contractual obligations, and the notional amount) under which payments are to be made between the parties. The assets include commodities, stocks, bonds, interest rates and currencies, but they can also be other derivatives, which adds another layer of complexity to proper valuation. The components of a firm's capital structure, e.g., bonds and stock, can also be considered derivatives, more precisely options, with the underlying being the firm's assets, but this is unusual outside of technical contexts.
From the economic point of view, financial derivatives are cash flows that are conditioned stochastically and discounted to present value. The market risk inherent in the underlying asset is attached to the financial derivative through contractual agreements and hence can be traded separately. The underlying asset does not have to be acquired. Derivatives therefore allow the breakup of ownership and participation in the market value of an asset. This also provides a considerable amount of freedom regarding the contract design. That contractual freedom allows derivative designers to modify the participation in the performance of the underlying asset almost arbitrarily. Thus, the participation in the market value of the underlying can be effectively weaker, stronger (leverage effect), or implemented as inverse. Hence, specifically the market price risk of the underlying asset can be controlled in almost every situation. Derivatives are broadly categorized by the relationship between the underlying asset and the derivative (such as forward, option, swap); the type of underlying asset (such as equity derivatives, foreign exchange derivatives, interest rate derivatives, commodity derivatives, or credit derivatives); the market in which they trade (such as exchange-traded or over-the-counter); and their pay-off profile.
Derivatives may broadly be categorized as "lock" or "option" products. Lock products (such as swaps, futures, or forwards) obligate the contractual parties to the terms over the life of the contract. Option products (such as interest rate swaps) provide the buyer the right, but not the obligation to enter the contract under the terms specified.
Derivatives can be used either for risk management (i.e. to "hedge" by providing offsetting compensation in case of an undesired event, a kind of "insurance") or for speculation (i.e. making a financial "bet"). This distinction is important because the former is a prudent aspect of operations and financial management for many firms across many industries; the latter offers managers and investors a risky opportunity to increase profit, which may not be properly disclosed to stakeholders.
Along with many other financial products and services, derivatives reform is an element of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010. The Act delegated many rule-making details of regulatory oversight to the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and those details are not finalized nor fully implemented as of late 2012.
==Size of market==
To give an idea of the size of the derivative market, The Economist has reported that as of June 2011, the over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives market amounted to approximately $700 trillion, and the size of the market traded on exchanges totaled an additional $83 trillion. For the fourth quarter 2017 the European Securities Market Authority estimated the size of European derivatives market at a size of €660 trillion with 74 million outstanding contracts.
However, these are "notional" values, and some economists say that these aggregated values greatly exaggerate the market value and the true credit risk faced by the parties involved. For example, in 2010, while the aggregate of OTC derivatives exceeded $600 trillion, the value of the market was estimated to be much lower, at $21 trillion. The credit-risk equivalent of the derivative contracts was estimated at $3.3 trillion.
Still, even these scaled-down figures represent huge amounts of money. For perspective, the budget for total expenditure of the United States government during 2012 was $3.5 trillion, and the total current value of the U.S. stock market is an estimated $23 trillion. Meanwhile, the global annual Gross Domestic Product is about $65 trillion.
At least for one type of derivative, credit default swaps (CDS), for which the inherent risk is considered high , the higher, nominal value remains relevant. It was this type of derivative that investment magnate Warren Buffett referred to in his famous 2002 speech in which he warned against "financial weapons of mass destruction". CDS notional value in early 2012 amounted to $25.5 trillion, down from $55 trillion in 2008.
==Usage==
Derivatives are used for the following:
Hedge or to mitigate risk in the underlying, by entering into a derivative contract whose value moves in the opposite direction to their underlying position and cancels part or all of it out
Create option ability where the value of the derivative is linked to a specific condition or event (e.g., the underlying reaching a specific price level)
Obtain exposure to the underlying where it is not possible to trade in the underlying (e.g., weather derivatives)
Provide leverage (or gearing), such that a small movement in the underlying value can cause a large difference in the value of the derivative
Speculate and make a profit if the value of the underlying asset moves the way they expect (e.g. moves in a given direction, stays in or out of a specified range, reaches a certain level)
Switch asset allocations between different asset classes without disturbing the underlying assets, as part of transition management
Avoid paying taxes. For example, an equity swap allows an investor to receive steady payments, e.g. based on SONIA rate, while avoiding paying capital gains tax and keeping the stock.
For arbitraging purpose, allowing a riskless profit by simultaneously entering into transactions into two or more markets.
===Mechanics and valuation===
Lock products are theoretically valued at zero at the time of execution and thus do not typically require an up-front exchange between the parties. Based upon movements in the underlying asset over time, however, the value of the contract will fluctuate, and the derivative may be either an asset (i.e., "in the money") or a liability (i.e., "out of the money") at different points throughout its life. Importantly, either party is therefore exposed to the credit quality of its counterparty and is interested in protecting itself in an event of default.
Option products have immediate value at the outset because they provide specified protection (intrinsic value) over a given time period (time value). One common form of option product familiar to many consumers is insurance for homes and automobiles. The insured would pay more for a policy with greater liability protections (intrinsic value) and one that extends for a year rather than six months (time value). Because of the immediate option value, the option purchaser typically pays an up front premium. Just like for lock products, movements in the underlying asset will cause the option's intrinsic value to change over time while its time value deteriorates steadily until the contract expires. An important difference between a lock product is that, after the initial exchange, the option purchaser has no further liability to its counterparty; upon maturity, the purchaser will execute the option if it has positive value (i.e., if it is "in the money") or expire at no cost (other than to the initial premium) (i.e., if the option is "out of the money").
===Hedging===
Derivatives allow risk related to the price of the underlying asset to be transferred from one party to another. For example, a wheat farmer and a miller could sign a futures contract to exchange a specified amount of cash for a specified amount of wheat in the future. Both parties have reduced a future risk: for the wheat farmer, the uncertainty of the price, and for the miller, the availability of wheat. However, there is still the risk that no wheat will be available because of events unspecified by the contract, such as the weather, or that one party will renege on the contract. Although a third party, called a clearing house, insures a futures contract, not all derivatives are insured against counter-party risk.
From another perspective, the farmer and the miller both reduce a risk and acquire a risk when they sign the futures contract: the farmer reduces the risk that the price of wheat will fall below the price specified in the contract and acquires the risk that the price of wheat will rise above the price specified in the contract (thereby losing additional income that he could have earned). The miller, on the other hand, acquires the risk that the price of wheat will fall below the price specified in the contract (thereby paying more in the future than he otherwise would have) and reduces the risk that the price of wheat will rise above the price specified in the contract. In this sense, one party is the insurer (risk taker) for one type of risk, and the counter-party is the insurer (risk taker) for another type of risk.
Hedging also occurs when an individual or institution buys an asset (such as a commodity, a bond that has coupon payments, a stock that pays dividends, and so on) and sells it using a futures contract. The individual or institution has access to the asset for a specified amount of time, and can then sell it in the future at a specified price according to the futures contract. Of course, this allows the individual or institution the benefit of holding the asset, while reducing the risk that the future selling price will deviate unexpectedly from the market's current assessment of the future value of the asset.
Derivatives trading of this kind may serve the financial interests of certain particular businesses. For example, a corporation borrows a large sum of money at a specific interest rate. The interest rate on the loan reprices every six months. The corporation is concerned that the rate of interest may be much higher in six months. The corporation could buy a forward rate agreement (FRA), which is a contract to pay a fixed rate of interest six months after purchases on a notional amount of money. If the interest rate after six months is above the contract rate, the seller will pay the difference to the corporation, or FRA buyer. If the rate is lower, the corporation will pay the difference to the seller. The purchase of the FRA serves to reduce the uncertainty concerning the rate increase and stabilize earnings.
===Speculation===
Derivatives can be used to acquire risk, rather than to hedge against risk. Thus, some individuals and institutions will enter into a derivative contract to speculate on the value of the underlying asset. Speculators look to buy an asset in the future at a low price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is high, or to sell an asset in the future at a high price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is less.
Speculative trading in derivatives gained a great deal of notoriety in 1995 when Nick Leeson, a trader at Barings Bank, made poor and unauthorized investments in futures contracts. Through a combination of poor judgment, lack of oversight by the bank's management and regulators, and unfortunate events like the Kobe earthquake, Leeson incurred a $1.3 billion loss that bankrupted the centuries-old institution.
===Arbitrage===
Individuals and institutions may also look for arbitrage opportunities, as when the current buying price of an asset falls below the price specified in a futures contract to sell the asset.
===Proportion used for hedging and speculation===
The true proportion of derivatives contracts used for hedging purposes is unknown, but it appears to be relatively small. Also, derivatives contracts account for only 3–6% of the median firms' total currency and interest rate exposure. Nonetheless, we know that many firms' derivatives activities have at least some speculative component for a variety of reasons. reported that the "gross market value, which represent the cost of replacing all open contracts at the prevailing market prices, ... increased by 74% since 2004, to $11 trillion at the end of June 2007 (BIS 2007:24)." Of this total notional amount, 67% are interest rate contracts, 8% are credit default swaps (CDS), 9% are foreign exchange contracts, 2% are commodity contracts, 1% are equity contracts, and 12% are other. Because OTC derivatives are not traded on an exchange, there is no central counter-party. Therefore, they are subject to counterparty risk, like an ordinary contract, since each counter-party relies on the other to perform.
===Exchange-traded derivatives===
Exchange-traded derivatives (ETD) are those derivatives instruments that are traded via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges. A derivatives exchange is a market where individuals trade standardized contracts that have been defined by the exchange. derivatives exchanges (by number of transactions) are the Korea Exchange (which lists KOSPI Index Futures & Options), Eurex (which lists a wide range of European products such as interest rate & index products), and CME Group (made up of the 2007 merger of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and the Chicago Board of Trade and the 2008 acquisition of the New York Mercantile Exchange). According to BIS, the combined turnover in the world's derivatives exchanges totaled US$344 trillion during Q4 2005. By December 2007 the Bank for International Settlements reported are two special types of exchange traded funds (ETFs) that are available to common traders and investors on major exchanges like the NYSE and Nasdaq. To maintain these products' net asset value, these funds' administrators must employ more sophisticated financial engineering methods than what's usually required for maintenance of traditional ETFs. These instruments must also be regularly rebalanced and re-indexed each day.
===Common derivative contract===
Some of the common variants of derivative contracts are as follows:
Forwards: tailored contract between two parties, where payment takes place at a specific time in the future at today's pre-determined price.
Futures: contracts to buy or sell an asset on a future date at a price specified today. A futures contract differs from a forward contract in that the futures contract is a standardized contract written by a clearing house that operates an exchange where the contract can be bought and sold; the forward contract is a non-standardized contract written by the parties themselves.
Options: contracts that give the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy (in the case of a call option) or sell (in the case of a put option) an asset. The price at which the sale takes place is known as the strike price, and is specified at the time the parties enter into the option. The option contract also specifies a maturity date. In the case of a European option, the owner has the right to require the sale to take place on (but not before) the maturity date; in the case of an American option, the owner can require the sale to take place at any time up to the maturity date. If the owner of the contract exercises this right, the counter-party has the obligation to carry out the transaction. Options are of two types: call option and put option.
Binary options: contracts that provide the owner with an all-or-nothing profit profile.
Warrants: apart from the commonly used short-dated options which have a maximum maturity period of one year, there exist certain long-dated options as well, known as warrants. These are generally traded over the counter.
Swaps: contracts to exchange cash (flows) on or before a specified future date based on the underlying value of currencies exchange rates, bonds/interest rates, commodities exchange, stocks or other assets.
Swaps can basically be categorized into Interest rate swap and Currency swap.
Some common examples of these derivatives are the following:
===Collateralized debt obligation===
A collateralized debt obligation (CDO) is a type of structured asset-backed security (ABS). An "asset-backed security" is used as an umbrella term for a type of security backed by a pool of assetsincluding collateralized debt obligations and mortgage-backed securities (MBS) (Example: "The capital market in which asset-backed securities are issued and traded is composed of three main categories: ABS, MBS and CDOs".)and sometimes for a particular type of that securityone backed by consumer loans (example: "As a rule of thumb, securitization issues backed by mortgages are called MBS, and securitization issues backed by debt obligations are called CDO, [and] Securitization issues backed by consumer-backed productscar loans, consumer loans and credit cards, among othersare called ABS.) Originally developed for the corporate debt markets, over time CDOs evolved to encompass the mortgage and mortgage-backed security (MBS) markets.
Like other private-label securities backed by assets, a CDO can be thought of as a promise to pay investors in a prescribed sequence, based on the cash flow the CDO collects from the pool of bonds or other assets it owns. The CDO is "sliced" into "tranches", which "catch" the cash flow of interest and principal payments in sequence based on seniority. If some loans default and the cash collected by the CDO is insufficient to pay all of its investors, those in the lowest, most "junior" tranches suffer losses first. The last to lose payment from default are the safest, most senior tranches. Consequently, coupon payments (and interest rates) vary by tranche with the safest/most senior tranches paying the lowest and the lowest tranches paying the highest rates to compensate for higher default risk. As an example, a CDO might issue the following tranches in order of safeness: Senior AAA (sometimes known as "super senior"); Junior AAA; AA; A; BBB; Residual.
Separate special-purpose entitiesrather than the parent investment bankissue the CDOs and pay interest to investors. As CDOs developed, some sponsors repackaged tranches into yet another iteration called "CDO-Squared" or the "CDOs of CDOs". but by 2006–2007when the CDO market grew to hundreds of billions of dollarsthis changed. CDO collateral became dominated not by loans, but by lower level (BBB or A) tranches recycled from other asset-backed securities, whose assets were usually non-prime mortgages. These CDOs have been called "the engine that powered the mortgage supply chain" for nonprime mortgages, and are credited with giving lenders greater incentive to make non-prime loans leading up to the 2007–09 subprime mortgage crisis.
===Credit default swap===
A credit default swap (CDS) is a financial swap agreement that the seller of the CDS will compensate the buyer (the creditor of the reference loan) in the event of a loan default (by the debtor) or other credit event. The buyer of the CDS makes a series of payments (the CDS "fee" or "spread") to the seller and, in exchange, receives a payoff if the loan defaults. It was invented by Blythe Masters from JP Morgan in 1994.
In the event of default the buyer of the CDS receives compensation (usually the face value of the loan), and the seller of the CDS takes possession of the defaulted loan. However, anyone with sufficient collateral to trade with a bank or hedge fund can purchase a CDS, even buyers who do not hold the loan instrument and who have no direct insurable interest in the loan (these are called "naked" CDSs). If there are more CDS contracts outstanding than bonds in existence, a protocol exists to hold a credit event auction; the payment received is usually substantially less than the face value of the loan.
Credit default swaps have existed since the early 1990s, and increased in use after 2003. By the end of 2007, the outstanding CDS amount was $62.2 trillion, falling to $26.3 trillion by mid-year 2010 but reportedly $25.5 trillion in early 2012. CDSs are not traded on an exchange and there is no required reporting of transactions to a government agency. During the 2008 financial crisis, the lack of transparency in this large market became a concern to regulators as it could pose a systemic risk.
In March 2010, the [DTCC] Trade Information Warehouse announced it would give regulators greater access to its credit default swaps database.
CDS data can be used by financial professionals, regulators, and the media to monitor how the market views credit risk of any entity on which a CDS is available, which can be compared to that provided by credit rating agencies. U.S. courts may soon be following suit.
Most CDSs are documented using standard forms drafted by the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA), although there are many variants.
Some claim that derivatives such as CDS are potentially dangerous in that they combine priority in bankruptcy with a lack of transparency. A CDS can be unsecured (without collateral) and be at higher risk for a default.
===Forwards===
In finance, a forward contract or simply a forward is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or to sell an asset at a specified future time at an amount agreed upon today, making it a type of derivative instrument. This is in contrast to a spot contract, which is an agreement to buy or sell an asset on its spot date, which may vary depending on the instrument, for example most of the FX contracts have Spot Date two business days from today. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position. The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into.
The price of the underlying instrument, in whatever form, is paid before control of the instrument changes. This is one of the many forms of buy/sell orders where the time and date of trade is not the same as the value date where the securities themselves are exchanged.
The forward price of such a contract is commonly contrasted with the spot price, which is the price at which the asset changes hands on the spot date. The difference between the spot and the forward price is the forward premium or forward discount, generally considered in the form of a profit, or loss, by the purchasing party. Forwards, like other derivative securities, can be used to hedge risk (typically currency or exchange rate risk), as a means of speculation, or to allow a party to take advantage of a quality of the underlying instrument which is time-sensitive.
A closely related contract is a futures contract; they differ in certain respects. Forward contracts are very similar to futures contracts, except they are not exchange-traded, or defined on standardized assets. Forwards also typically have no interim partial settlements or "true-ups" in margin requirements like futuressuch that the parties do not exchange additional property securing the party at gain and the entire unrealized gain or loss builds up while the contract is open. However, being traded over the counter (OTC), forward contracts specification can be customized and may include mark-to-market and daily margin calls. Hence, a forward contract arrangement might call for the loss party to pledge collateral or additional collateral to better secure the party at gain. In other words, the terms of the forward contract will determine the collateral calls based upon certain "trigger" events relevant to a particular counterparty such as among other things, credit ratings, value of assets under management or redemptions over a specific time frame (e.g., quarterly, annually).
===Futures===
In finance, a 'futures contract' (more colloquially, futures) is a standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell a specified asset of standardized quantity and quality for a price agreed upon today (the futures price) with delivery and payment occurring at a specified future date, the delivery date, making it a derivative product (i.e. a financial product that is derived from an underlying asset). The contracts are negotiated at a futures exchange, which acts as an intermediary between buyer and seller. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future, the "buyer" of the contract, is said to be "long", and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future, the "seller" of the contract, is said to be "short".
While the futures contract specifies a trade taking place in the future, the purpose of the futures exchange is to act as intermediary and mitigate the risk of default by either party in the intervening period. For this reason, the futures exchange requires both parties to put up an initial amount of cash (performance bond), the margin. Margins, sometimes set as a percentage of the value of the futures contract, need to be proportionally maintained at all times during the life of the contract to underpin this mitigation because the price of the contract will vary in keeping with supply and demand and will change daily and thus one party or the other will theoretically be making or losing money. To mitigate risk and the possibility of default by either party, the product is marked to market on a daily basis whereby the difference between the prior agreed-upon price and the actual daily futures price is settled on a daily basis. This is sometimes known as the variation margin where the futures exchange will draw money out of the losing party's margin account and put it into the other party's thus ensuring that the correct daily loss or profit is reflected in the respective account. If the margin account goes below a certain value set by the Exchange, then a margin call is made and the account owner must replenish the margin account. This process is known as "marking to market". Thus on the delivery date, the amount exchanged is not the specified price on the contract but the spot value (i.e., the original value agreed upon, since any gain or loss has already been previously settled by marking to market). Upon marketing the strike price is often reached and creates much income for the "caller".
A closely related contract is a forward contract. A forward is like a futures in that it specifies the exchange of goods for a specified price at a specified future date. However, a forward is not traded on an exchange and thus does not have the interim partial payments due to marking to market. Nor is the contract standardized, as on the exchange.
Unlike an option, both parties of a futures contract must fulfill the contract on the delivery date. The seller delivers the underlying asset to the buyer, or, if it is a cash-settled futures contract, then cash is transferred from the futures trader who sustained a loss to the one who made a profit. To exit the commitment prior to the settlement date, the holder of a futures position can close out its contract obligations by taking the opposite position on another futures contract on the same asset and settlement date. The difference in futures prices is then a profit or loss.
===Mortgage-backed securities===
A mortgage-backed security (MBS) is an asset-backed security that is secured by a mortgage, or more commonly a collection ("pool") of sometimes hundreds of mortgages. The mortgages are sold to a group of individuals (a government agency or investment bank) that "securitizes", or packages, the loans together into a security that can be sold to investors. The mortgages of an MBS may be residential or commercial, depending on whether it is an Agency MBS or a Non-Agency MBS; in the United States they may be issued by structures set up by government-sponsored enterprises like Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac, or they can be "private-label", issued by structures set up by investment banks. The structure of the MBS may be known as "pass-through", where the interest and principal payments from the borrower or homebuyer pass through it to the MBS holder, or it may be more complex, made up of a pool of other MBSs. Other types of MBS include collateralized mortgage obligations (CMOs, often structured as real estate mortgage investment conduits) and collateralized debt obligations (CDOs).
The shares of subprime MBSs issued by various structures, such as CMOs, are not identical but rather issued as tranches (French for "slices"), each with a different level of priority in the debt repayment stream, giving them different levels of risk and reward. Tranchesespecially the lower-priority, higher-interest tranchesof an MBS are/were often further repackaged and resold as collaterized debt obligations. These subprime MBSs issued by investment banks were a major issue in the subprime mortgage crisis of 2006–2008
.
The total face value of an MBS decreases over time, because like mortgages, and unlike bonds, and most other fixed-income securities, the principal in an MBS is not paid back as a single payment to the bond holder at maturity but rather is paid along with the interest in each periodic payment (monthly, quarterly, etc.). This decrease in face value is measured by the MBS's "factor", the percentage of the original "face" that remains to be repaid.
===Options===
In finance, an option is a contract which gives the buyer (the owner) the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset or instrument at a specified strike price on or before a specified date. The seller has the corresponding obligation to fulfill the transactionthat is to sell or buyif the buyer (owner) "exercises" the option. The buyer pays a premium to the seller for this right. An option that conveys to the owner the right to buy something at a certain price is a "call option"; an option that conveys the right of the owner to sell something at a certain price is a "put option". Both are commonly traded, but for clarity, the call option is more frequently discussed.
Options valuation is a topic of ongoing research in academic and practical finance. In basic terms, the value of an option is commonly decomposed into two parts:
The first part is the "intrinsic value", defined as the difference between the market value of the underlying and the strike price of the given option.
The second part is the "time value", which depends on a set of other factors which, through a multivariable, non-linear interrelationship, reflect the discounted expected value of that difference at expiration.
Although options valuation has been studied since the 19th century, the contemporary approach is based on the Black–Scholes model, which was first published in 1973.
Options contracts have been known for many centuries. However, both trading activity and academic interest increased when, as from 1973, options were issued with standardized terms and traded through a guaranteed clearing house at the Chicago Board Options Exchange. Today, many options are created in a standardized form and traded through clearing houses on regulated options exchanges, while other over-the-counter options are written as bilateral, customized contracts between a single buyer and seller, one or both of which may be a dealer or market-maker. Options are part of a larger class of financial instruments known as derivative products or simply derivatives.
===Swaps===
A swap is a derivative in which two counterparties exchange cash flows of one party's financial instrument for those of the other party's financial instrument. The benefits in question depend on the type of financial instruments involved. For example, in the case of a swap involving two bonds, the benefits in question can be the periodic interest (coupon) payments associated with such bonds. Specifically, two counterparties agree to the exchange one stream of cash flows against another stream. These streams are called the swap's "legs". The swap agreement defines the dates when the cash flows are to be paid and the way they are accrued and calculated. Usually at the time when the contract is initiated, at least one of these series of cash flows is determined by an uncertain variable such as a floating interest rate, foreign exchange rate, equity price, or commodity price. Today, swaps are among the most heavily traded financial contracts in the world: the total amount of interest rates and currency swaps outstanding is more than $348 trillion in 2010, according to the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). The five generic types of swaps, in order of their quantitative importance, are: interest rate swaps, currency swaps, credit swaps, commodity swaps and equity swaps (there are many other types).
==Economic function of the derivative market==
Some of the salient economic functions of the derivative market include:
Prices in a structured derivative market not only replicate the discernment of the market participants about the future but also lead the prices of underlying to the professed future level. On the expiration of the derivative contract, the prices of derivatives congregate with the prices of the underlying. Therefore, derivatives are essential tools to determine both current and future prices.
The derivatives market reallocates risk from the people who prefer risk aversion to the people who have an appetite for risk.
The intrinsic nature of derivatives market associates them to the underlying spot market. Due to derivatives there is a considerable increase in trade volumes of the underlying spot market. The dominant factor behind such an escalation is increased participation by additional players who would not have otherwise participated due to absence of any procedure to transfer risk.
As supervision, reconnaissance of the activities of various participants becomes tremendously difficult in assorted markets; the establishment of an organized form of market becomes all the more imperative. Therefore, in the presence of an organized derivatives market, speculation can be controlled, resulting in a more meticulous environment.
Third parties can use publicly available derivative prices as educated predictions of uncertain future outcomes, for example, the likelihood that a corporation will default on its debts.
In a nutshell, there is a substantial increase in savings and investment in the long run due to augmented activities by derivative market participant.
==Valuation==
===Market and arbitrage-free prices===
Two common measures of value are:
Market price, i.e. the price at which traders are willing to buy or sell the contract
Arbitrage-free price, meaning that no risk-free profits can be made by trading in these contracts (see rational pricing)
===Determining the market price===
For exchange-traded derivatives, market price is usually transparent (often published in real time by the exchange, based on all the current bids and offers placed on that particular contract at any one time). Complications can arise with OTC or floor-traded contracts though, as trading is handled manually, making it difficult to automatically broadcast prices. In particular with OTC contracts, there is no central exchange to collate and disseminate prices.
===Determining the arbitrage-free price===
The arbitrage-free price for a derivatives contract can be complex, and there are many different variables to consider. Arbitrage-free pricing is a central topic of financial mathematics. For futures/forwards the arbitrage free price is relatively straightforward, involving the price of the underlying together with the cost of carry (income received less interest costs), although there can be complexities.
However, for options and more complex derivatives, pricing involves developing a complex pricing model: understanding the stochastic process of the price of the underlying asset is often crucial. A key equation for the theoretical valuation of options is the Black–Scholes formula, which is based on the assumption that the cash flows from a European stock option can be replicated by a continuous buying and selling strategy using only the stock. A simplified version of this valuation technique is the binomial options model.
OTC represents the biggest challenge in using models to price derivatives. Since these contracts are not publicly traded, no market price is available to validate the theoretical valuation. Most of the model's results are input-dependent (meaning the final price depends heavily on how we derive the pricing inputs).
Therefore, it is common that OTC derivatives are priced by Independent Agents that both counterparties involved in the deal designate upfront (when signing the contract).
==Risks==
Derivatives are often subject to the following criticisms; particularly since the 2008 financial crisis, the discipline of Risk management has developed attempting to address the below and other risks – see .
=== Hidden tail risk ===
According to Raghuram Rajan, a former chief economist of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), "... it may well be that the managers of these firms [investment funds] have figured out the correlations between the various instruments they hold and believe they are hedged. Yet as Chan and others (2005) point out, the lessons of summer 1998 following the default on Russian government debt is that correlations that are zero or negative in normal times can turn overnight to one – a phenomenon they term "phase lock-in". A hedged position "can become unhedged at the worst times, inflicting substantial losses on those who mistakenly believe they are protected".
See the FRTB framework, which seeks to address this to some extent.
===Leverage===
The use of derivatives can result in large losses because of the use of leverage, or borrowing. Derivatives allow investors to earn large returns from small movements in the underlying asset's price. However, investors could lose large amounts if the price of the underlying moves against them significantly. There have been several instances of massive losses in derivative markets, such as the following:
American International Group (AIG) lost more than US$18 billion through a subsidiary over the preceding three quarters on credit default swaps (CDSs). The United States Federal Reserve Bank announced the creation of a secured credit facility of up to US$85 billion, to prevent the company's collapse by enabling AIG to meet its obligations to deliver additional collateral to its credit default swap trading partners.
The loss of US$7.2 Billion by Société Générale in January 2008 through mis-use of futures contracts.
The loss of US$6.4 billion in the failed fund Amaranth Advisors, which was long natural gas in September 2006 when the price plummeted.
The loss of US$4.6 billion in the failed fund Long-Term Capital Management in 1998.
The loss of US$1.3 billion equivalent in oil derivatives in 1993 and 1994 by Metallgesellschaft AG.
The loss of US$1.2 billion equivalent in equity derivatives in 1995 by Barings Bank.
UBS AG, Switzerland's biggest bank, suffered a $2 billion loss through unauthorized trading discovered in September 2011.
Derivatives typically have a large notional value. As such, there is the danger that their use could result in losses for which the investor would be unable to compensate. The possibility that this could lead to a chain reaction ensuing in an economic crisis was pointed out by famed investor Warren Buffett in Berkshire Hathaway's 2002 annual report. Buffett called them 'financial weapons of mass destruction.' A potential problem with derivatives is that they comprise an increasingly larger notional amount of assets which may lead to distortions in the underlying capital and equities markets themselves. Investors begin to look at the derivatives markets to make a decision to buy or sell securities and so what was originally meant to be a market to transfer risk now becomes a leading indicator.(See Berkshire Hathaway Annual Report for 2002)
===Counterparty risk===
Some derivatives (especially swaps) expose investors to counterparty risk, or risk arising from the other party in a financial transaction. Counterparty risk results from the differences in the current price versus the expected future settlement price. Different types of derivatives have different levels of counter party risk. For example, standardized stock options by law require the party at risk to have a certain amount deposited with the exchange, showing that they can pay for any losses; banks that help businesses swap variable for fixed rates on loans may do credit checks on both parties. However, in private agreements between two companies, for example, there may not be benchmarks for performing due diligence and risk analysis.
==Financial reform and government regulation==
Under US law and the laws of most other developed countries, derivatives have special legal exemptions that make them a particularly attractive legal form to extend credit. The strong creditor protections afforded to derivatives counterparties, in combination with their complexity and lack of transparency however, can cause capital markets to underprice credit risk. This can contribute to credit booms, and increase systemic risks. Indeed, the use of derivatives to conceal credit risk from third parties while protecting derivative counterparties contributed to the 2008 financial crisis in the United States.
In the context of a 2010 examination of the ICE Trust, an industry self-regulatory body, Gary Gensler, the chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission which regulates most derivatives, was quoted saying that the derivatives marketplace as it functions now "adds up to higher costs to all Americans". More oversight of the banks in this market is needed, he also said. Additionally, the report said, "[t]he Department of Justice is looking into derivatives, too. The department's antitrust unit is actively investigating 'the possibility of anticompetitive practices in the credit derivatives clearing, trading and information services industries', according to a department spokeswoman."
For legislators and committees responsible for financial reform related to derivatives in the United States and elsewhere, distinguishing between hedging and speculative derivatives activities has been a nontrivial challenge. The distinction is critical because regulation should help to isolate and curtail speculation with derivatives, especially for "systemically significant" institutions whose default could be large enough to threaten the entire financial system. At the same time, the legislation should allow for responsible parties to hedge risk without unduly tying up working capital as collateral that firms may better employ elsewhere in their operations and investment.
In this regard, it is important to distinguish between financial (e.g. banks) and non-financial end-users of derivatives (e.g. real estate development companies) because these firms' derivatives usage is inherently different. More importantly, the reasonable collateral that secures these different counterparties can be very different. The distinction between these firms is not always straight forward (e.g., hedge funds or even some private equity firms do not neatly fit either category). Finally, even financial users must be differentiated, as 'large' banks may classified as "systemically significant" whose derivatives activities must be more tightly monitored and restricted than those of smaller, local and regional banks.
Over-the-counter dealing will be less common as the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act comes into effect. The law mandated the clearing of certain swaps at registered exchanges and imposed various restrictions on derivatives. To implement Dodd-Frank, the CFTC developed new rules in at least 30 areas. The Commission determines which swaps are subject to mandatory clearing and whether a derivatives exchange is eligible to clear a certain type of swap contract.
Nonetheless, the above and other challenges of the rule-making process have delayed full enactment of aspects of the legislation relating to derivatives. The challenges are further complicated by the necessity to orchestrate globalized financial reform among the nations that comprise the world's major financial markets, a primary responsibility of the Financial Stability Board whose progress is ongoing.
In the U.S., by February 2012 the combined effort of the SEC and CFTC had produced over 70 proposed and final derivatives rules. However, both of them had delayed adoption of a number of derivatives regulations because of the burden of other rule-making, litigation and opposition to the rules, and many core definitions (such as the terms "swap", "security-based swap", "swap dealer", "security-based swap dealer", "major swap participant" and "major security-based swap participant") had still not been adopted. On February 11, 2015, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) released two final rules toward establishing a reporting and public disclosure framework for security-based swap transaction data. The two rules are not completely harmonized with the requirements with CFTC requirements.
In November 2012, the SEC and regulators from Australia, Brazil, the European Union, Hong Kong, Japan, Ontario, Quebec, Singapore, and Switzerland met to discuss reforming the OTC derivatives market, as had been agreed by leaders at the 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit in September 2009. In December 2012, they released a joint statement to the effect that they recognized that the market is a global one and "firmly support the adoption and enforcement of robust and consistent standards in and across jurisdictions", with the goals of mitigating risk, improving transparency, protecting against market abuse, preventing regulatory gaps, reducing the potential for arbitrage opportunities, and fostering a level playing field for market participants.
===Reporting===
Mandatory reporting regulations are being finalized in a number of countries, such as Dodd Frank Act in the US, the European Market Infrastructure Regulations (EMIR) in Europe, as well as regulations in Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Canada, and other countries. The OTC Derivatives Regulators Forum (ODRF), a group of over 40 worldwide regulators, provided trade repositories with a set of guidelines regarding data access to regulators, and the Financial Stability Board and CPSS IOSCO also made recommendations in with regard to reporting.
==Glossary==
Bilateral netting: A legally enforceable arrangement between a bank and a counter-party that creates a single legal obligation covering all included individual contracts. This means that a bank's obligation, in the event of the default or insolvency of one of the parties, would be the net sum of all positive and negative fair values of contracts included in the bilateral netting arrangement.
Counterparty: The legal and financial term for the other party in a financial transaction.
Credit derivative: A contract that transfers credit risk from a protection buyer to a credit protection seller. Credit derivative products can take many forms, such as credit default swaps, credit linked notes and total return swaps.
Derivative: A financial contract whose value is derived from the performance of assets, interest rates, currency exchange rates, or indexes. Derivative transactions include a wide assortment of financial contracts including structured debt obligations and deposits, swaps, futures, options, caps, floors, collars, forwards and various combinations thereof.
Exchange-traded derivative contracts: Standardized derivative contracts (e.g., futures contracts and options) that are transacted on an organized futures exchange.
Gross negative fair value: The sum of the fair values of contracts where the bank owes money to its counter-parties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses the bank's counter-parties would incur if the bank defaults and there is no netting of contracts, and no bank collateral was held by the counter-parties.
Gross positive fair value: The sum total of the fair values of contracts where the bank is owed money by its counter-parties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses a bank could incur if all its counter-parties default and there is no netting of contracts, and the bank holds no counter-party collateral.
High-risk mortgage securities: Securities where the price or expected average life is highly sensitive to interest rate changes, as determined by the U.S. Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council policy statement on high-risk mortgage securities.
Notional amount: The nominal or face amount that is used to calculate payments made on swaps and other risk management products. This amount generally does not change hands and is thus referred to as notional.
Over-the-counter (OTC) derivative contracts: Privately negotiated derivative contracts that are transacted off organized futures exchanges.
Structured notes: Non-mortgage-backed debt securities, whose cash flow characteristics depend on one or more indices and / or have embedded forwards or options.
Total risk-based capital: The sum of tier 1 plus tier 2 capital. Tier 1 capital consists of common shareholders equity, perpetual preferred shareholders equity with noncumulative dividends, retained earnings, and minority interests in the equity accounts of consolidated subsidiaries. Tier 2 capital consists of subordinated debt, intermediate-term preferred stock, cumulative and long-term preferred stock, and a portion of a bank's allowance for loan and lease losses.
|
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9,136 |
Disney (disambiguation)
|
Disney is a name colloquially given to The Walt Disney Company, an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate.
Disney may also refer to:
Walt Disney (1901–1966), founder of the Walt Disney Company
==Units of The Walt Disney Company==
Disney Enterprises, Inc., the copyright holder and trademark owner of everything Disney-branded
Walt Disney Studios (Burbank), the company headquarters and studio lot in Burbank, California
Walt Disney Studios (division), the film studios division of The Walt Disney Company
Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, the theatrical distribution division of The Walt Disney Company
Walt Disney Pictures, the film distribution banner and production company of The Walt Disney Company
Walt Disney Animation Studios, the main animation studio (formerly known as Walt Disney Feature Animation)
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment, the home entertainment distribution division of The Walt Disney Company
Disney Theatrical Group, the live show, stageplay and musical production arm of The Walt Disney Company
Disney Theatrical Productions, the flagship stageplay and musical production division of The Walt Disney Company
Disney Music Group, the music publishing arm of The Walt Disney Company
Walt Disney Records, the flagship Disney-branded music label
Disney Experiences, the division which builds and manages Disney's theme parks and vacation resorts, Disney Stores, merchandising, publishing and digital media, games and interactive experiences
Walt Disney World
Disneyland Resort
Disneyland
Disney California Adventure
Disneyland Paris
Hong Kong Disneyland Resort
Tokyo Disney Resort
Shanghai Disney Resort
Disney Signature Experiences, non-theme park travel units
Adventures by Disney
Disney Cruise Line
Disney's Castaway Cay
Disney Vacation Club
Walt Disney Imagineering, the research and development arm of The Walt Disney Company responsible for the creation, design and construction of global Disney theme parks and attractions
Disney Publishing Worldwide, the publishing division of The Walt Disney Company
Disney Programs, division that provides paid internship experiences in The Walt Disney Company to college students and graduates
Disney College Program
Disney International Programs
Disney Media Networks, the former division before the October 10, 2020, breakup and restructuring into Disney Media and Entertainment Distribution, Disney General Entertainment Content and ESPN and Sports Content
Walt Disney Television — rebranded as "Disney General Entertainment Content" or "Disney General Entertainment" in 2021
Disney Channel, a pay television network owned by The Walt Disney Company
Walt Disney Television, a broken-up and defunct American television production company arm of The Walt Disney Company active from 1983 to 2003
Disney Television Animation, the television animation studio division of The Walt Disney Company
Capital Disney, a defunct digital radio station in the United Kingdom owned by The Walt Disney Company which was active from 2002 until 2007
Radio Disney, a defunct radio network in the United States owned by The Walt Disney Company which was active from 1996 until 2021
Disney+, a streaming service launched on November 12, 2019, and is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company
==People with the surname==
===Relatives of Walt Disney===
Roy O. Disney (1893–1971), Walt's brother and co-founder of The Walt Disney Company
Roy E. Disney (1930–2009), son of Roy O. and leader of the Save Disney campaign
Abigail Disney (born 1960), Walt's grandniece, philanthropist and film-maker
Lillian Disney (1899–1997), Walt's wife
Elias Disney (1859–1941), father of Walt and Roy O.
Herbert Arthur Disney (1888–1961), brother of Walt and Roy O.
Diane Marie Disney (1933–2013), Walt's daughter
Sharon Mae Disney (1936–1993), Walt's adopted daughter
===Others===
David T. Disney (1803–1857), American politician from Ohio
Donald Disney, Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Doris Miles Disney (1907–1976), American author
Dorothy Cameron Disney (1903–1992), American author
Guy Disney British steeplechase jockey
John Disney (antiquarian) (1779–1857), English barrister and archaeologist
John Disney (ornithologist) (1919–2014), Australian ornithologist
John Disney (priest) (1677–1730), English clergyman
John Disney (Unitarian) (1746–1816), English Unitarian minister and biographical writer
Melissa Disney, American voice actress
Moore Disney (1766–1846), British Army officer
Richard Disney (disambiguation)
Wesley E. Disney, former American congressman from Oklahoma
Disney-Roebuck family, see Captain Disney-Roebuck
==Other uses==
Disney, Oklahoma, United States
Disney bomb, a British "rocket-assisted" bomb of World War II
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9,137 |
Divine right of kings
|
Divine right of kings, divine right, or God's mandation, is a political and religious doctrine of political legitimacy of a monarchy in Western Christianity up until the Enlightenment. It is also known as the divine-right theory of kingship.
The doctrine asserts that a monarch is not accountable to any earthly authority (such as a parliament or the Pope) because their right to rule is derived from divine authority. Thus, the monarch is not subject to the will of the people, of the aristocracy, or of any other estate of the realm. It follows that only divine authority can judge a monarch, and that any attempt to depose, dethrone, resist or restrict their powers runs contrary to God's will and may constitute a sacrilegious act. It does not imply that their power is absolute.
It is sometimes signified by the phrase "by the Grace of God" or its Latin equivalent, Dei Gratia, which has historically been attached to the titles of certain reigning monarchs. Note, however, that such accountability only to God does not per se make the monarch a sacred king.
== Religious traditions ==
=== Hinduism ===
The Hindu text Mahabharata contains several concepts of kingship, especially underscoring its divine origins. The king is considered an embodiment of Indra, and fealty to him is considered as submitting to divine authority. In the Rajadharmanusasana Parva, Bhishma talks of the period before men had kings, and there was chaos all around -
The Mahabharata also mentions that in a land without king or royal authority, Vedic rituals are ineffectual and Agni does not convey sacrificial libations to the gods.
=== Zoroastrianism (Iranian world) ===
Khvarenah (also spelled khwarenah or xwarra(h): ; ) is an Iranian and Zoroastrian concept, which literally means glory, about divine right of the kings. This may stem from early Mesopotamian culture, where kings were often regarded as deities after their death. Shulgi of Ur was among the first Mesopotamian rulers to declare himself to be divine. In the Iranian view, kings would never rule, unless Khvarenah is with them, and they will never fall unless Khvarenah leaves them. For example, according to the Kar-namag of Ardashir, when Ardashir I of Persia and Artabanus V of Parthia fought for the throne of Iran, on the road Artabanus and his contingent are overtaken by an enormous ram, which is also following Ardashir. Artabanus's religious advisors explain to him that the ram is the manifestation of the khwarrah of the ancient Iranian kings, which is leaving Artabanus to join Ardashir.
=== Judaism ===
While the earliest references to kingship among Israel in the Hebrew Bible proclaim that 14.When you come to the land that the Lord your God is giving you, and you possess it and dwell in it and then say, 'I will set a king over me, like all the nations that are around me'.
15. You may indeed set a king over you whom the Lord your God will choose. One from among your brothers you shall set as king over you. You may not put a foreigner over you, who is not your brother.(Deut 17:14-15). Significant debate on the legitimacy of kingship has persisted in Rabbinical Judaism until Maimonides, though many mainstream currents continue to reject the notion.
The controversy is highlighted by the instructions to the Israelites in the above-quoted passage, as well as the passages in 1 Samuel 8 and 12, concerning the dispute over kingship; and Perashat Shoftim. It is from 1 Samuel 8 that the people of Israel receive mishpat ha-melech, the ius regium, or the law of kingship, and from this passage that Maimonides finally concludes that Judaism supports the institution of monarchy, stating that the Israelites had been given three commandments upon entering the Promised Land - to designate a king for themselves, to wipe out the memory of Amalek, and to build the Temple.
The debate has primarily centered around the problem of being told to "designate" a king, which some rabbinical sources have argued is an invocation against a divine right of kings, and a call to elect a leader, in opposition to a notion of a divine right. Other rabbinical arguments have put forward an idea that it is through the collective decision of the people that God's will is made manifest, and that the king does therefore have a divine right - once appointed by the nation, he is God's emissary.
Jewish law requires one to recite a special blessing upon seeing a monarch: "Blessed are You, L‑rd our G‑d, King of the universe, Who has given from His glory to flesh and blood".
===Christianity ===
The Christian notion of a divine right of kings is traced to a story found in 1 Samuel, where the prophet Samuel anoints Saul and then David as Messiah ("anointed one")—king over Israel. In Jewish traditions, the lack of a divine leadership represented by an anointed king, beginning shortly after the death of Joshua, left the people of Israel vulnerable, and the promise of the "promised land" was not fully fulfilled until a king was anointed by a prophet on behalf of God.
The effect of anointing was seen to be that the monarch became inviolable, so that even when Saul sought to kill David, David would not raise his hand against him because "he was the Lord's anointed". Raising a hand to a king was therefore considered to be as sacrilegious as raising a hand against God and stood on equal footing as blasphemy. In essence, the king stood in place of God and was never to be challenged "without the challenger being accused of blasphemy" – except by a prophet, which under Christianity was replaced by the church.
== Pre-Modern history ==
With the rise of firearms, nation-states and the Protestant Reformation in the late 16th century, the theory of divine right justified the king's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters. Henry VIII of England declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and exerted the power of the throne more than any of his predecessors.
As a political theory, it was further developed by James VI of Scotland (1567–1625) and came to the fore in England under his reign as James I of England (1603–1625). Louis XIV of France (1643–1715) strongly promoted the theory as well.
Historian J. P. Sommerville stresses the theory was polemic: "Absolutists magnified royal power. They did this to protect the state against anarchy and to refute the ideas of resistance theorists", those being in Britain Catholic and Presbyterian theorists.
The concept of divine right incorporates, but exaggerates, the ancient Christian concept of "royal God-given rights", which teach that "the right to rule is anointed by God", although this idea is found in many other cultures, including Aryan and Egyptian traditions.
=== Medieval Era ===
Outside of Christianity, kings were often seen as ruling with the backing of heavenly powers.
====Early Middle Ages====
Although the later Roman Empire had developed the European concept of a divine regent in Late Antiquity, Adomnan of Iona provides one of the earliest written examples of a Western medieval concept of kings ruling with divine right. He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaill's assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch.
Adomnan also recorded a story about Saint Columba supposedly being visited by an angel carrying a glass book, who told him to ordain Aedan mac Gabrain as King of Dal Riata. Columba initially refused, and the angel answered by whipping him and demanding that he perform the ordination because God had commanded it. The same angel visited Columba on three successive nights. Columba finally agreed, and Aedan came to receive ordination. At the ordination, Columba told Aedan that so long as he obeyed God's laws, then none of his enemies would prevail against him, but the moment he broke them, this protection would end, and the same whip with which Columba had been struck would be turned against the king.
Adomnan's writings most likely influenced other Irish writers, who in turn influenced continental ideas as well. Pepin the Short's coronation may have also come from the same influence. The Byzantine Empire can be seen as the progenitor of this concept (which began with Constantine I). This in turn inspired the Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors, whose lasting impact on Western and Central Europe further inspired all subsequent Western ideas of kingship.
====High Middle Ages====
In the Middle Ages, the idea that God had granted certain earthly powers to the monarch, just as he had given spiritual authority and power to the church, especially to the Pope, was already a well-known concept long before later writers coined the term "divine right of kings" and employed it as a theory in political science.
However, the dividing line for the authority and power was a subject of frequent contention: notably in England with the murder of Archbishop Thomas Beckett (1170). For example, Richard I of England declared at his trial during the diet at Speyer in 1193: "I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God, to whom alone I am responsible for my actions", and it was Richard who first used the motto "" ("God and my right") which is still the motto of the Monarch of the United Kingdom.
Thomas Aquinas condoned extra-legal tyrannicide in the worst of circumstances:
On the other hand, Aquinas forbade the overthrow of any morally, Christianly and spiritually legitimate king by his subjects. The only human power capable of deposing the king was the pope. The reasoning was that if a subject may overthrow his superior for some bad law, who was to be the judge of whether the law was bad? If the subject could so judge his own superior, then all lawful superior authority could lawfully be overthrown by the arbitrary judgement of an inferior, and thus all law was under constant threat.
According to John of Paris, kings had their jurisdictions and bishops (and the pope) had theirs, but kings derived their supreme, non-absolute temporal jurisdiction from popular consent.
====Late Middle Ages and Renaissance====
The Church was the final guarantor that Christian kings would follow the laws and constitutional traditions of their ancestors and the laws of God and of justice.
Radical English theologian John Wycliffe's theory of Dominium meant that injuries inflicted on someone personally by a king should be born by them submissively, a conventional idea, but that injuries by a king against God should be patiently resisted even to death; gravely sinful kings and popes forfeited their (divine) right to obedience and ownership, though the political order should be maintained. More aggressive versions of this were taken up by Lollards and Hussites.
For Erasmus of Rotterdam it was the consent of the people which gives and takes away "the purple", not an unchangeable divine mandate.
===Catholic limits===
Catholic jurisprudence holds that the monarch is always subject to natural and divine law, which are regarded as superior to the monarch.
The possibility of monarchy declining morally, overturning natural law, and degenerating into a tyranny oppressive of the general welfare was answered theologically with the Catholic concept of the spiritual superiority of the Pope (there is no "Catholic concept of extra-legal tyrannicide", as some falsely suppose, the same being expressly condemned by St Thomas Aquinas in chapter 7 of his De Regno).
Catholic thought justified limited submission to the monarchy by reference to the following:
The Old Testament, in which God chose kings to rule over Israel, beginning with Saul who was then rejected by God in favour of David, whose dynasty continued (at least in the southern kingdom) until the Babylonian captivity.
The New Testament, in which the first pope, Peter, commands that all Christians shall honour the Roman Emperor, even though, at that time, he was still a pagan emperor. Paul agreed with Peter that subjects should be obedient to the powers that be because they are appointed by God, as he wrote in his Epistle to the Romans. Likewise, Jesus Christ proclaims in the Gospel of Matthew that one should "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's"; that is at first, literally, the payment of taxes as binding those who use the imperial currency. Jesus told Pontius Pilate that his authority as Roman governor of Judaea came from heaven according to John 19:10–11.
The endorsement by the popes and the church of the line of emperors beginning with the Emperors Constantine and Theodosius, later the Eastern Roman emperors, and finally the Western Roman emperor, Charlemagne and his successors, the Catholic Holy Roman Emperors.
== Conceptions in the early modern period ==
=== Reformation Era ===
The divine right of kings, or divine-right theory of kingship, is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including (in the view of some, especially in Protestant countries) the church.
A weaker or more moderate form of this political theory does hold, however, that the king is subject to the church and the pope, although completely irreproachable in other ways; but according to this doctrine in its strong form, only God can judge an unjust king.
The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act.
Before the Reformation the anointed king was, within his realm, the accredited vicar of God for secular purposes (see the Investiture Controversy); after the Reformation he (or she if queen regnant) became this in Protestant states for religious purposes also.
==== Kingdom of Scotland ====
The Scots textbooks of the divine right of kings were written in 1597–1598 by James VI of Scotland. His Basilikon Doron, a manual on the powers of a king, was written to edify his four-year-old son Henry Frederick that a king "acknowledgeth himself ordained for his people, having received from God a burden of government, whereof he must be countable".
The conception of ordination brought with it largely unspoken parallels with the Anglican and Catholic priesthood, but the overriding metaphor in James VI's 'Basilikon Doron' was that of a father's relation to his children. "Just as no misconduct on the part of a father can free his children from obedience to the fifth commandment."
====Kingdom of England====
James, after becoming James I of England, also had printed his Defense of the Right of Kings in the face of English theories of inalienable popular and clerical rights.
He based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible, as noted by the following quote from a speech to parliament delivered in 1610 as James I of England:
James's reference to "God's lieutenants" is apparently a reference to the text in Romans 13 where Paul refers to "God's ministers".
=====Ceremonial conflation=====
Some of the symbolism within the coronation ceremony for British monarchs, in which they are anointed with holy oils by the Archbishop of Canterbury, thereby ordaining them to monarchy, perpetuates the ancient Roman Catholic monarchical ideas and ceremonial (although few Protestants realize this, the ceremony is nearly entirely based upon that of the Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor). However, in the UK, the symbolism ends there since the real governing authority of the monarch was all but extinguished by the Whig revolution of 1688–89 (see Glorious Revolution). The king or queen of the United Kingdom is one of the last monarchs still to be crowned in the traditional Christian ceremonial, which in most other countries has been replaced by an inauguration or other declaration.
In England, it is not without significance that the sacerdotal vestments, generally discarded by the clergy – dalmatic, alb and stole – continued to be among the insignia of the sovereign (see Coronation of the British monarch). Moreover, this sacrosanct character he acquired not by virtue of his "sacring", but by hereditary right; the coronation, anointing and vesting were but the outward and visible symbol of a divine grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title. Even Roman Catholic monarchs, like Louis XIV, would never have admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted any part of their title to reign; it was no more than the consecration of their title.
====Kingdom of France====
The French prelate Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet made a classic statement of the doctrine of divine right in a sermon preached before King Louis XIV:
The French Huguenot nobles and clergy, having rejected the pope and the Catholic Church, were left only with the supreme power of the king who, they taught, could not be gainsaid or judged by anyone. Since there was no longer the countervailing power of the papacy and since the Church of England was a creature of the state and had become subservient to it, this meant that there was nothing to regulate the powers of the king, and he became an absolute power. In theory, divine, natural, customary, and constitutional law still held sway over the king, but, absent a superior spiritual power, it was difficult to see how they could be enforced since the king could not be tried by any of his own courts.
====Holy Roman Empire====
One passage in scripture supporting the idea of the divine right of kings was used by Martin Luther, when urging the secular authorities to crush the Peasant Rebellion of 1525 in Germany in his Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, basing his argument on Paul's Epistle to the Romans.
It is related to the ancient Catholic philosophies regarding monarchy, in which the monarch is God's vicegerent upon the earth and therefore subject to no inferior power.
=== Religious Opposition ===
In the sixteenth century, both Catholic and Protestant political thinkers alike challenged the idea of a monarch's "divine right".
====Catholic====
The Spanish Catholic historian Juan de Mariana put forward the argument in his book De rege et regis institutione (1598) that since society was formed by a "pact" among all its members, "there can be no doubt that they are able to call a king to account". Mariana thus challenged divine right theories by stating in certain circumstances, tyrannicide could be justified.
Cardinal Robert Bellarmine also "did not believe that the institute of monarchy had any divine sanction" and shared Mariana's belief that there were times where Catholics could lawfully remove a monarch.
In 1553, Mary I, a Roman Catholic, succeeded her Protestant half-brother, Edward VI, to the English throne. Mary set about trying to restore Roman Catholicism by making sure that: Edward's religious laws were abolished in the Statute of Repeal Act (1553); the Protestant religious laws passed in the time of Henry VIII were repealed; and the Revival of the Heresy Acts were passed in late 1554.
When Thomas Wyatt the Younger instigated what became known as Wyatt's rebellion in early 1554, John Ponet, the highest-ranking ecclesiastic among the exiles, allegedly participated in the uprising. He escaped to Strasbourg after the Rebellion's defeat and, the following year, he published A Shorte Treatise of Politike Power, in which he put forward a theory of justified opposition to secular rulers.
{{quote|Ponet's treatise comes first in a new wave of anti-monarchical writings ... It has never been assessed at its true importance, for it antedates by several years those more brilliantly expressed but less radical Huguenot writings which have usually been taken to represent the Tyrannicide-theories of the Reformation.|A.G. Dickens
Over time, opposition to the divine right of kings came from a number of sources, including poet John Milton in his pamphlet The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, and Thomas Paine in his pamphlet Common Sense. By 1700 an Anglican
Archbishop was prepared to assert that Kings hold their Crowns by
law alone, and the law may forfeit them.
Probably the two most famous declarations of a right to revolution against tyranny in the English language are John Locke's Essay concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil-Government and Thomas Jefferson's formulation in the United States Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal".
==Related concepts in other religions==
Mandate of Heaven and monarch as the Son of Heaven - Sinosphere
Madkhalism - Islam
Monarchs who are also deities:
God emperors
God kings
Sacred kings - the occupant of the monarchy gains religious significance or has support from a deity
Cakravartin - South Asia
Kut - Central Asia
|
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"United Kingdom",
"St. Thomas Aquinas",
"Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs",
"Roundheads",
"Richard I of England",
"David",
"John Knox",
"Execution of Charles I",
"Cuius regio, eius religio",
"Wyatt's rebellion",
"execution of Charles I",
"by the Grace of God",
"Algernon Sidney",
"Robert Bellarmine",
"Henry VIII",
"Bhishma",
"tyrannicide",
"English Civil War",
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"Caliphate",
"Mahabharata",
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"political legitimacy",
"Carolingian dynasty",
"L'État, c'est moi",
"anointed",
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"monarchy",
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"authoritarianism",
"Anointing",
"divine law",
"Tyrannicide",
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"Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants",
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"De rege et regis institutione",
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"Adomnan of Iona",
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"ritual",
"Vindiciae contra tyrannos",
"Age of Enlightenment",
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"Protestant Reformation",
"Supreme Head of the Church of England",
"Juan de Mariana",
"Thomas Aquinas",
"sacred king",
"Archbishop of Canterbury",
"Dal Riata",
"Robert Filmer",
"freedom",
"Moral absolutism",
"Mandate of Heaven",
"Christopher Goodman",
"the Crown",
"John Adams",
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"Erasmus of Rotterdam",
"Holy Orders",
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"Middle Ages",
"Solomon's Temple"
] |
9,138 |
Davros
|
Davros () is a fictional character from the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. He was created by screenwriter Terry Nation, originally for the 1975 serial Genesis of the Daleks. Davros is a major enemy of the series' protagonist, the Doctor, and is the creator of the Doctor's deadliest enemies, the Daleks. Davros is a genius who has mastered many areas of science, but also a megalomaniac who believes that through his creations he can become the supreme being and ruler of the Universe. The character has been compared to the infamous dictator Adolf Hitler several times, including by the actor Terry Molloy, while Julian Bleach defined him as a cross between Hitler and the renowned scientist Stephen Hawking.
Davros is from the planet Skaro, whose people, the Kaleds, were engaged in a bitter thousand-year war of attrition with their enemies, the Thals. He is horribly scarred and disabled, a condition that various spin-off media attribute to his laboratory being attacked by a Thal shell. He has one functioning hand and one cybernetic eye mounted on his forehead to take the place of his real eyes, which he is not able to open for long; for much of his existence he depends completely upon a self-designed mobile life-support chair in place of his lower body. It would become an obvious inspiration for his eventual design of the Dalek. The lower half of his body is absent and he is physically incapable of leaving the chair for more than a few minutes without dying. Davros' voice, like those of the Daleks, is electronically distorted. His manner of speech is generally soft and contemplative, but when angered or excited he is prone to ranting outbursts that resemble the hysterical, staccatissimo speech of the Daleks.
==Concept==
Davros first appeared in the 1975 serial Genesis of the Daleks, written by Terry Nation. Nation, creator of the Dalek concept, had deliberately modelled elements of the Daleks' character on Nazi ideology, and conceived of their creator as a scientist with strong fascist tendencies. The physical appearance of Davros was developed by visual effects designer Peter Day and sculptor John Friedlander, who based Davros' chair on the lower half of a Dalek. Producer Philip Hinchcliffe told Friedlander to consider a design similar to the Mekon from the Eagle comic Dan Dare, with a large dome-like head and a withered body.
Cast in the role of Davros was Michael Wisher, who had previously appeared in several different roles on Doctor Who and had provided Dalek voices in the serials Frontier in Space, Planet of the Daleks and Death to the Daleks. Wisher based his performance as Davros on the philosopher Bertrand Russell. In order to prepare for filming under the heavy mask, Wisher rehearsed wearing a paper bag over his head. Friedlander's mask was cast in hard latex, with only the mouth revealing Wisher's features; make-up artist Sylvia James shaded the mask's tones and blackened Wisher's lips and teeth to hide the transition.
In the serial Destiny of the Daleks, Davros is played by David Gooderson using the mask Friedlander made for Wisher after it was split into intersecting sections to get as good a fit as possible. When Terry Molloy took over the role in Resurrection of the Daleks, a new mask was designed by Stan Mitchell.
In 2023, Julian Bleach, who played the character in four episodes of the revived series, reprised the role of Davros for a minisode aired during Children in Need, informally titled "Destination: Skaro", in which Davros is depicted as non-disabled and without scarring. In an interview for Doctor Who: Unleashed, executive producer Russell T. Davies said that this is how Davros will be depicted in future appearances, to avoid contributing to harmful tropes of disabled villains in media.
The decision to portray Davros as an able-bodied character received a divisive reception from fans.
==Character history==
===Encounters with the Fourth Doctor===
The Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) first encountered Davros (Michael Wisher) in Genesis of the Daleks when he and his companions were sent to Skaro to avert the creation of the Daleks. As chief scientist of the Kaleds and leader of their elite scientific division, Davros devised new military strategies in order to win his people's thousand-year war against the Thal race that also occupies Skaro. When Davros learned his people were evolving from exposure to nuclear weapons, chemical weapons and biological weapons used in the war, he artificially accelerates the process to his design and stores the resulting tentacled creatures in tank-like "Mark III travel machines" partly based on the design of his wheelchair. He later names these creatures "Daleks", an anagram of Kaleds.
Davros quickly becomes obsessed with his creations, considering them to be the ultimate form of life compared to others. When other Kaleds attempted to thwart his project, Davros arranges the extinction of his own people by using the Thals, whom he mostly killed with the Daleks later. Davros then weeds out those in elite scientific division who are loyal to him so he can have the Daleks eliminate the rest. However, the Daleks ultimately turn on Davros, killing his supporters before shooting him when he tries to halt the Dalek production line.
In Destiny of the Daleks, it is revealed that Davros (now played by David Gooderson) was not killed, but placed in suspended animation and buried underground in the destruction of his bunker. The Daleks unearth their creator to help them break a logical impasse in their war against the android Movellans. However, the Dalek force is destroyed by the Doctor, and Davros is captured and imprisoned in suspended animation by the humans, before being taken to Earth to face trial.
===The Dalek Civil War===
In the Fifth Doctor story Resurrection of the Daleks, Davros (Terry Molloy) is released from his space station prison by a small Dalek force aided by human mercenaries and Dalek duplicates. The Daleks require Davros to find an antidote for a Movellan-created virus that has all but wiped them out. Believing his creations to be treacherous, Davros begins using a syringe-like mind control device hidden in a secret compartment in his wheelchair on Daleks and humans; he ultimately releases a sample of the virus to kill off the Daleks before they can exterminate him. Davros expresses a desire to build a new and improved race of Daleks, but he apparently succumbs to the virus himself, his physiology being close enough to that of the Daleks for the virus to affect him.
In the Sixth Doctor story Revelation of the Daleks, it is revealed that Davros managed to escape at the end of Resurrection and has gone into hiding as "The Great Healer" of the funeral and cryogenic preservation centre Tranquil Repose on the planet Necros. There, creating a clone of his head to serve as a decoy while modifying his body so that it can fire electric bolts and his chair is able to hover, Davros uses the more intelligent frozen bodies to engineer a new variety of white armoured Daleks loyal to him (while using the lesser intellects as food for the galaxy, ending a galaxy-wide famine), but he is captured by the original Daleks and taken to Skaro to face trial.
Davros' final classic appearance is as the Emperor Dalek in Remembrance of the Daleks, with his white and gold Daleks now based on Skaro and termed "Imperial Daleks", fighting against the grey "Renegade Dalek" faction, who answer to the Dalek Supreme. By this time, Davros has been physically transplanted into a customised Dalek casing. He is only revealed to be the Emperor in the final episode. Both Skaro and the Imperial Dalek mothership are apparently destroyed (in the future) when the Seventh Doctor tricks Davros into using the Time Lord artefact known as the Hand of Omega, which makes Skaro's Sun go supernova, before homing in on their mothership. Davros flees into an escape pod as the ship explodes.
===The Time War and the Reality Bomb ===
During the revived series, Davros was referred to in the episode "Dalek" (2005) by the Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston), who explains to Henry Van Statten that the Daleks were created by "a genius... a man who was king of his own little world", and again by the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) in the episode "Evolution of the Daleks" (2007), where he refers to the Daleks' creator as believing that "removing emotions makes you stronger". Davros makes his first physical appearance in the episode "The Stolen Earth" (2008), portrayed by Julian Bleach. The episode reveals that Davros was thought to have died during the first year of the Time War, when his command ship "flew into the jaws of the Nightmare Child" at the Gates of Elysium, despite the Doctor's failed efforts to save him. But Davros was pulled out of the time lock of the war by Dalek Caan (voiced by Nicholas Briggs), using his own flesh to create a "new empire" of Daleks who place him in the Vault as their prisoner to make use of his knowledge. Under Davros' guidance, the Daleks steal 27 planets, including Earth, and hide them in the Medusa Cascade, one second out of sync with the rest of the universe.
In the follow-up episode "Journey's End" (2008), it is revealed that the stolen planets are required as a power source for Davros' ideal final solution: the Reality Bomb, which produces a wavelength that would cancel out the electrical field binding atoms to reduce all life outside the Crucible into nothingness in both his universe and countless other realities. But Davros learns too late that Dalek Caan, who came to the realisation of his race's atrocities as a consequence of saving his creator, used his prophecies and influence to ensure the Daleks' destruction while manipulating events to bring the Tenth Doctor and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate) together for the role the latter would play. Though the Doctor attempts to save him, having earlier taunted the Doctor for turning his companions into killers and being the cause of the deaths of countless people during his travels, Davros furiously refuses the Doctor's help and accuses him of being responsible for the destruction while screaming: "Never forget, Doctor, you did this! I name you forever: You are the Destroyer of Worlds!" Thus the Doctor is forced to leave Davros to his supposed fate as the Crucible self-destructs.
=== Remembering the Twelfth Doctor ===
Davros returns in the two-part Series 9 opening "The Magician's Apprentice" and "The Witch's Familiar" (2015), having escaped the Crucible's destruction and ending up on a restored Skaro with his life being prolonged by the Daleks. But when the aged Davros' health begins to fail, he remembers his childhood self, played by Joey Price, meeting the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi) during the Kaleds' thousand-year war prior to Genesis of the Daleks. The young Davros finds himself lost on the battlefield and surrounded by handmines, with the Doctor throwing his sonic screwdriver to the boy with the intent to save him before learning his name and leaving the child to his fate. Davros, seeking a final revenge on the Doctor, employs the snake-like Colony Sarff (Jami Reid-Quarrell) to bring him to Skaro. When it appears that the Doctor has lost his companion Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) to the Daleks, Davros manages to trick the Doctor into using his regeneration energy to heal him, extending his own life while infusing every Dalek on Skaro with the energy. But the Doctor reveals Davros' scheme has also revitalised the decomposing-yet-still-alive Daleks left to rot in Skaro's sewers, causing them to revolt and destroy the city. The Doctor then discovers the Daleks have a concept of mercy and are allowed to have the word in their vocabulary when he encounters Clara, having been placed in a Dalek casing by Missy (Michelle Gomez). The Doctor and Clara escape, the former having an epiphany as to how Davros somehow put a sliver of compassion into the Daleks. He then returns to the battlefield in Davros' childhood, using a Dalek gun to destroy the handmines with the one bit of compassion in Davros' life instilled in the Daleks' design to ensure Clara being saved.
===The Fourteenth Doctor===
In the Children in Need sketch "Destination: Skaro" (2023) (which takes place during an earlier time in the Kaled-Thal war), Davros (Julian Bleach) (who has not yet become disfigured or received the cybernetic eye) is seen presenting a Dalek prototype featuring a robotic claw to his assistant, Castavillian. When he briefly departs to attend to an urgent matter, the Fourteenth Doctor lands in the TARDIS, accidentally destroying the robotic claw. He inadvertently suggests the name "Dalek" for the prototype, mentions its catchphrase of "exterminate" and gives Castavillian a plunger-tipped arm as a replacement for the broken claw. Once he realises that he has accidentally assisted with the creation of his greatest enemy, he quickly departs saying that he was "never here". Davros returns and approves of the new plunger arm.
==Other appearances==
===Comic strips===
Doctor Who Magazine printed several comics stories involving Davros. The first, "Nemesis of the Daleks" (#152–155), with the Seventh Doctor, features an appearance of a Dalek Emperor. Speaking with the Emperor, the Doctor addresses him as Davros, but the Emperor responds "Who is Davros?" The Doctor initially assumes Davros' personality has been totally subsumed, but in the later strip "Emperor of the Daleks" (#197–202) this Emperor is shown as a different entity from Davros. Set prior to Remembrance of the Daleks in Davros' timeline, but after in the timeline of the Doctor, the latter, accompanied by Bernice Summerfield, together with help from the Sixth Doctor, ensures that Davros will survive the wrath of the Daleks so that he can assume the title of Emperor, allowing history to take its course. "Up Above the Gods" (#227), a vignette following up on this, features the Sixth Doctor and Davros having a conversation in the TARDIS.
===Audio plays===
Terry Molloy has reprised his role as Davros in the spin-off audio plays produced by Big Finish Productions, mostly notably Davros (taking place during the Sixth Doctor's era), which, through flashbacks, explored the scientist's life prior to his crippling injury, which is attributed to a Thal nuclear attack (an idea that first appeared in Terrance Dicks' novelisation of Genesis of the Daleks).
Davros, which does not feature the Daleks, apparently fills in the gaps between Resurrection of the Daleks and Revelation of the Daleks, and has the scientist trying to manipulate the galaxy's economy into a war footing similar to Skaro's. The Sixth Doctor manages to defeat his plans, and Davros is last heard when his ship explodes, an event obliquely mentioned in Revelation. However the Doctor thinks he has survived. Davros also mentions he will work on a plan to combat famine, tying into Revelation of the Daleks.
The Davros Mission is an original audio adventure (without the Doctor) available on The Complete Davros Collection DVD box set. It takes place directly after the television story Revelation, while leaving the planet Necros and beginning Davros' trial. At the end of Davros Mission, he turns the tables on the Daleks, forcing them to do his bidding. The Big Finish miniseries I, Davros, also features trial scenes, but mostly explores his early life. In those four stories, his journey is seen from his boyhood, to just before Genesis of the Daleks.
The Curse of Davros begins with Davros and the Daleks working together to try and alter the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo using technology that Davros has created that allows him to swap peoples' minds, allowing him to switch various soldiers in Napoleon's army with his own Daleks, ultimately intending to replace Napoleon with a Dalek after Waterloo is won so that he can change history and lead humanity in a direction where they may ally with the Daleks. The plan is complicated when the Sixth Doctor arrives and uses the device to swap bodies with Davros in an attempt to subvert the Daleks' plans from the inside, but Davros-in-the-Doctor is eventually able to convince the Daleks of his true identity, planning to remain in the Doctor's healthy body while leaving the Doctor trapped in his original form. At the end, Davros and the Doctor are returned to their original bodies with the aid of the Doctor's new companion Flip Jackson, the Doctor exposes Davros's true agenda to Napoleon, and Davros is left with an army of Daleks who have had their minds wiped. These Daleks presumably become the "Imperial Daleks", first seen in Remembrance of the Daleks.
In The Juggernauts, Davros is on the run from the original Daleks. He hatches a plan to add human tissue to robotic Mechanoids, using them, along with his own Daleks, to destroy the originals, but the Doctor learns the truth about this plan, and his companion Mel Bush—who unwittingly assisted in the programming of the new Mechanoids—uses a backdoor she installed in their programming to turn them against Davros. At the end of the story, the self-destruct mechanism of Davros' life-support chair explodes after he is attacked by the Mechanoids, destroying an entire human colony. It is not clear how Davros survives to become the Dalek Emperor as seen in Remembrance. However, in the DVD documentary Davros Connections, director Gary Russell points out that the explosion of Davros' life-support chair leaves the listener to believe there is little of Davros left. This fits chronologically the fact that Remembrance depicts Davros as just a head inside the Emperor Dalek.
In Daleks Among Us, set after Remembrance, Davros returns to Azimuth, a planet that was invaded by the Daleks long ago, presenting himself as a victim of Dalek enslavement to infiltrate an underground movement against the repressive government- so desperate to prevent riots about individual actions during the Dalek occupation that official policy is now that the Dalek invasion never happened- seeking the remnants of an old experiment he carried out on the planet. This experiment is revealed to be Falkus, a clone of Davros's original body that was intended to be a new host for his mind, with Falkus having evolved an independent personality since the Daleks left Azimuth. Falkus attempts to acquire the Persuasion Machine, a dangerous device that the Seventh Doctor has been tracking with his companions Elizabeth Elizabeth Klein and Will Arrowsmith, but the Doctor is able to trick Falkus into using the reprogrammed Persuasion Machine to destroy himself and his Daleks, while Davros flees in an escape pod. Davros is last shown trapped on the planet Lamuria, faced with the spectral former residents of the planet who sought to punish all criminals in the universe.
By the time of the Eighth Doctor audio play Terror Firma (set after Remembrance), Davros is commanding a Dalek army which has successfully conquered the Earth. His mental instability has grown to the point where "Davros" and "the Emperor" exist within him as different personalities. His Daleks recognise this instability and rebel against Davros. By the story's end the Emperor personality is dominant, and the Daleks agree to follow him and leave Earth.
In the fourth volume of the Time War series, looking at the Eighth Doctor's role in the Time War, after The Valeyard uses a Dalek weapon to erase the Daleks from history, the Dalek Time Strategist escapes the erasure by travelling into a parallel universe where the Kaleds and Thals have been at peace for centuries, with Davros still fully human and married to a Thal woman. The Dalek Time Strategist manipulates this alternate Davros into using his dimensional portal technology to merge various alternate Skaros together to recreate the Daleks in the prime universe, convincing Davros that the Doctor is an enemy of the Kaleds rather than the Thals. Reference is made to the 'prime' Davros having been killed in the first year of the War (as mentioned in "The Stolen Earth"). The process of merging with his alternate selves causes the alternate Davros to gain the injuries and memories of his counterparts, to the extent that he forgets his wife and the peace with the Thals. Eventually his presence restores the Daleks in the prime universe, but the Dalek Emperor has Davros put into stasis to prevent his influence causing another civil war by causing the Daleks to become divided between loyalty to the Emperor and Davros.
===Novels===
Terror Firma may contradict the events of the Eighth Doctor Adventures novel War of the Daleks by John Peel, in which an unmerged Davros is placed on trial by the Dalek Prime, a combination of the Dalek Emperor and the Dalek Supreme. In the novel the Dalek Prime claimed that the planet Antalin had been terraformed to resemble Skaro and was destroyed in its place. A subterfuge to destroy Daleks aligned to Davros; both on Skaro (Antalin) and those that remained hidden within Dalek ranks on Skaro (original). Despite finding evidence of threat to Skaro via evidence found on 22nd century earth of Davros' mission to 1960s Earth and seeing the event via time-tracking equipment, the Dalek Prime allowed the destruction of Skaro to destroy Daleks allied to Davros. Dalek Prime also claimed that the Dalek/Movellan war (and indeed most of Dalek history before the destruction of "Skaro") was actually faked for Davros' benefit; in fact another ruse designed to bait Davros into giving evidence against himself (as he does in his trial.) Skaro is later seen to be intact and undamaged, and one character notes that it is quite possible the Dalek Prime is lying in order to weaken Davros' claim to leadership of the Daleks, while using foreknowledge of events to destroy and entrap Davros and his allies.
At the conclusion of War, Davros was seemingly disintegrated by a Spider Dalek on the order of the Dalek Prime. However, Davros had previously recruited one of the Spider Daleks as a sleeper agent for just such an eventuality, and even he was not certain in the end if he was being disintegrated or being teleported away to safety, leaving the possibility open for his return.
===Short fiction===
Paul Cornell's dark vignette in the Doctor Who Magazine Brief Encounters series, "An Incident Concerning the Bombardment of the Phobos Colony" occurs sometime between Resurrection of the Daleks and his assumption of the role of Emperor.
===Theatre===
In 1993, Michael Wisher, the original Davros, with Peter Miles, who had played his confederate, Nyder, reprised the role in an unlicensed one-off amateur stage production, The Trial of Davros. The plot of the play involved the Time Lords putting Davros on trial, with Nyder as a witness.
Terry Molloy played Davros in the remounting of the play, again with Miles, for another one-off production in 2005. During the production, specially shot footage portrayed Dalek atrocities.
In 2008, Julian Bleach appeared live as Davros at the Doctor Who Prom, announcing that the Royal Albert Hall would become his new palace, and the audience his "obedient slaves".
===Unofficial BBC representation===
BBC staff have traditionally created parodies of its own programming to be shown to colleagues at Christmas events and parties. The BBC's 1993 Christmas tape parodied the allegedly robotic, dictatorial and ruthless management style of its then Director-General, John Birt, by portraying him as Davros taking over the BBC, carrying out bizarre mergers of departments, awarding himself a bonus and singing a song to the tune of "I Wan'na Be Like You (The Monkey Song)" describing his plans.
==List of appearances==
=== Television ===
Genesis of the Daleks (1975) (played by Michael Wisher)
Destiny of the Daleks (1979) (played by David Gooderson)
Resurrection of the Daleks (1984) (debut of Terry Molloy)
Revelation of the Daleks (1985)
Remembrance of the Daleks (1988)
"The Stolen Earth" / "Journey's End" (2008) (debut of Julian Bleach)
"The Magician's Apprentice" / "The Witch's Familiar" (2015) (Joey Price as young Davros)
"Destination: Skaro" (2023)
===Comic strips===
Nemesis of the Daleks (Doctor Who Magazine) (implied)
Emperor of the Daleks (Doctor Who Magazine)
Up Above the Gods (Doctor Who Magazine)
===Audio plays===
Played by Terry Molloy, except where noted.
Davros
The Juggernauts
Terror Firma
I, Davros: Innocence (young Davros played by Rory Jennings)
I, Davros: Purity
I, Davros: Corruption
I, Davros: Guilt
The Davros Mission
Masters of War (Doctor Who Unbound series; outside of default Doctor Who continuity)
The Curse of Davros
Daleks Among Us
Palindrome (alternative Davros)
Restoration of the Daleks (alternative Davros)
The War Master: Anti-Genesis (alternative timeline)
The Dalek Defence
===Short fiction===
"An Incident Concerning the Continual Bombardment of the Phobos Colony" by Paul Cornell, Doctor Who Magazine No. 168
===Original novels===
War of the Daleks by John Peel (Eighth Doctor Adventures)
===Video games===
Dalek Attack (later told that is in fact a Davros made up by the Doctor in the Land of Fiction)
Lego Dimensions Doctor Who level expansion pack "The Dalek's Extermination of Earth" features Davros and the Daleks as the main antagonists.
===Theatrical productions===
The Trial of Davros, 14 November 1993, 16 July 2005 (played by Michael Wisher in 1993 production, Terry Molloy in 2005 production)
Doctor Who Prom, 27 July 2008 (played by Julian Bleach)
==Other media==
On 26 November 2007, a DVD box set was released featuring all of the Davros stories from the shows original run, including Genesis of the Daleks, Destiny of the Daleks, Resurrection of the Daleks, Revelation of the Daleks, and Remembrance of the Daleks.
|
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] |
9,140 |
Dalek
|
The Daleks ( ) are a fictional extraterrestrial race of extremely xenophobic mutants principally portrayed in the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who. They were conceived by writer Terry Nation and first appeared in the 1963 Doctor Who serial The Daleks, in casings designed by Raymond Cusick.
Drawing inspiration from the Nazis, Nation portrayed the Daleks as violent, merciless and pitiless cyborg aliens, completely absent of any emotion other than hate, who demand total conformity to the will of the Dalek with the highest authority, and are bent on the conquest of the universe and the extermination of any other forms of life, including other "impure" Daleks which are deemed inferior for being different to them. Collectively, they are the greatest enemies of Doctor Whos protagonist, the Time Lord known as "the Doctor". During the second year of the original Doctor Who programme (1963–1989), the Daleks developed their own form of time travel. At the beginning of the second Doctor Who TV series that debuted in 2005, it was established that the Daleks had engaged in a Time War against the Time Lords that affected much of the universe and altered parts of history.
In the programme's narrative, the planet Skaro suffered a thousand-year war between two societies: the Kaleds and the Thals. During this time-period, many natives of Skaro became badly mutated by fallout from nuclear weapons and chemical warfare. The Kaled government believed in genetic purity and swore to "exterminate the Thals" for being inferior. Believing his own society was becoming weak and that it was his duty to create a new master race from the ashes of his people, the Kaled scientist Davros genetically modified several Kaleds into squid-like life-forms he called Daleks, removing "weaknesses" such as mercy and sympathy while increasing aggression and survival-instinct. He then integrated them with tank-like robotic shells equipped with advanced technology based on the same life-support system he himself had used since being burned and blinded by a nuclear attack. His creations became intent on dominating the universe by enslaving or purging all "inferior" non-Dalek life.
The Daleks are the series' most popular and famous villains and their returns to television over the decades have often gained media attention. Their battle cry, a staccato "Exterminate!" has entered common usage as a popular catchphrase.
==Creation and development==
The Daleks were created by Terry Nation and designed by the BBC designer Raymond Cusick. They were introduced in December 1963 in the second Doctor Who serial, The Daleks.
Wishing to create an alien creature that did not look like a "man in a suit", Terry Nation stated in his script for the first Dalek serial that they should have no legs. He was also inspired by a performance by the Georgian National Ballet, in which dancers in long skirts appeared to glide across the stage. According to Jeremy Bentham's Doctor Who—The Early Years (1986), after Nation wrote the script, Cusick was given only an hour to come up with the design for the Daleks and was inspired in his initial sketches by a pepper pot on a table. Cusick himself, however, states that he based it on a man seated in a chair, and used the pepper pot only to demonstrate how it might move.
In 1964, Nation told a Daily Mirror reporter that the Dalek name came from a dictionary or encyclopaedia volume, the spine of which read "Dal – Lek" (or, according to another version, "Dal – Eks"). He later admitted that this book and the associated origin of the Dalek name were completely fictitious, and that anyone bothering to check out his story would have found him out. Later, Nation was pleasantly surprised to discover that in Serbo-Croatian the word "dalek" means "far" or "distant".
Nation grew up during the Second World War and remembered the fear caused by German bombings. He consciously based the Daleks on the Nazis, conceiving the species as faceless, authoritarian figures dedicated to conquest, racial purity and complete conformity. The allusion is most obvious in the Dalek stories written by Nation, in particular The Dalek Invasion of Earth (1964) and Genesis of the Daleks (1975).
Before he wrote the first Dalek serial, Nation was a scriptwriter for the comedian Tony Hancock. The two men had a falling out and Nation either resigned or was fired. Hancock worked on several series proposals, one of which was called From Plip to Plop, a comedic history of the world that would have ended with a nuclear apocalypse, the survivors being reduced to living in dustbin-like robot casings and eating radiation to stay alive. According to Hancock's biographer Cliff Goodwin, when Hancock saw the Daleks he allegedly shouted at the screen, "That bloody Nation — he's stolen my robots!"
The titling of early Doctor Who stories is complex and sometimes controversial. The first Dalek serial is called, variously, The Survivors (the pre-production title and on-screen title used for the serial's second episode), The Mutants (its official title at the time of production and broadcast, later taken by another unrelated story), Beyond the Sun (used on some production documentation), The Dead Planet (the on-screen title of the serial's first episode), or simply The Daleks. Several attempts to market the Daleks outside the series were unsuccessful. Since Nation's death in 1997, his share of the rights is now administered by his former agent, Tim Hancock.
Early plans for what eventually became the 1996 Doctor Who television movie included radically redesigned Daleks whose cases unfolded like spiders' legs. The concept for these "Spider Daleks" was abandoned, but it was picked up again in several Doctor Who spin-offs.
When the new series was announced, many fans hoped that the Daleks would return once more to the programme. The Nation estate, however, demanded levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC. Eventually the Daleks were cleared to appear in the first series. In 2014, Doctor Who showrunner Steven Moffat denied that their numerous appearances since were a result of a contractual obligation.
==Physical characteristics==
Externally, Daleks resemble human-sized pepper pots crush a man's skull by suction, and extract information from a man's mind. Dalek casings are made of a bonded polycarbide material called "Dalekanium" by a member of the human resistance in The Dalek Invasion of Earth and the Dalek comics, as well as by the Cult of Skaro in "Daleks in Manhattan".
The lower half of a Dalek's shell is covered with hemispherical protrusions, or 'Dalek-bumps', which are shown in the episode "Dalek" to be spheres embedded in the casing. while in the 2005 series episode "Dalek" they are integral to a Dalek's forcefield mechanism, Their own energy weapons are capable of destroying them. The mutants' actual appearance has varied, but often adheres to the Doctor's description of the species in Remembrance of the Daleks as "little green blobs in bonded polycarbide armour". In Resurrection of the Daleks a Dalek creature, separated from its casing, attacks and severely injures a human soldier; in Remembrance of the Daleks there are two Dalek factions (Imperial and Renegade), and the creatures inside have a different appearance in each case, one resembling the amorphous creature from Resurrection, the other the crab-like creature from the original Dalek serial. As the creature inside is rarely seen on screen there is a common misconception that Daleks are wholly mechanical robots. In the new series Daleks are retconned to be squid-like in appearance, with small tentacles, one or two eyes, and an exposed brain.
Daleks' voices are electronic; when out of its casing the mutant is only able to squeak. In a scene from the serial Destiny of the Daleks, the Doctor and companions escape from Dalek pursuers by climbing into a ceiling duct. The Fourth Doctor calls down, "If you're supposed to be the superior race of the universe, why don't you try climbing after us?" The Daleks generally make up for their lack of mobility with overwhelming firepower; a joke among Doctor Who fans is that "Real Daleks don't climb stairs; they level the building."
Dalek mobility has improved over the history of the series: in their first appearance, in The Daleks, they were capable of movement only on the conductive metal floors of their city; in The Dalek Invasion of Earth a Dalek emerges from the waters of the River Thames, indicating not only that they had become freely mobile, but that they are amphibious; Planet of the Daleks showed that they could ascend a vertical shaft by means of an external anti-gravity mat placed on the floor; Revelation of the Daleks showed Davros in his life-support chair and one of his Daleks hovering and Remembrance of the Daleks depicted them as capable of hovering up a flight of stairs. Despite this, Daleks have often been mocked for their supposed inability to climb stairs in the press, and their inability to climb stairs has even been used to placate children who are frightened of the Daleks. In response to this, a character escaping up a flight of stairs in the 2005 story "Dalek" mocked the Dalek as "defeated by a flight of stairs", and was shocked when the Dalek began to hover up the stairs after uttering the phrase "Elevate!", in a similar manner to "Exterminate!" A lack of familiar reference points differentiated them from the traditional "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction, which Doctor Who creator Sydney Newman had wanted the show to avoid. The unsettling Dalek form, coupled with their alien voices, made many believe that the props were wholly mechanical and operated by remote control.
The Daleks were actually controlled from inside by short operators, who had to manipulate their eyestalks, domes, and arms; as well as flashing the lights on their heads in-sync with the actors supplying their voices. The Dalek cases were built in two pieces; an operator would step into the lower section, and then the top would be secured. The operators looked out between the cylindrical louvres just beneath the dome, which were lined with mesh to conceal their faces.
For Doctor Who's 21st-century revival the Dalek casings retain the same overall shape and dimensional proportions of previous Daleks, although many details have been redesigned to give the Dalek a heavier and more solid look. Changes include a larger, more pointed base; a glowing eyepiece; an all-over metallic-brass finish (specified by Davies); thicker, nailed strips on the "neck" section; a housing for the eyestalk pivot; and significantly larger dome-lights. A new, larger model appeared during the 2010 series in several colours; each representing different parts of the Dalek command hierarchy.
====Movement====
Terry Nation's original plan was for the Daleks to glide across the floor. Early versions of the Daleks rolled on nylon castors, propelled by the operator's feet. Although castors were adequate for the Daleks' debut serial, which was shot entirely at the BBC's Lime Grove Studios, for The Dalek Invasion of Earth Terry Nation wanted the Daleks to be filmed on the streets of London. To enable the Daleks to travel smoothly on location, designer Spencer Chapman built the new Dalek shells around miniature tricycles with sturdier wheels, which were hidden by enlarged fenders fitted below the original base. The uneven flagstones of Central London caused the Daleks to rattle as they moved and it was not possible to remove this noise from the final soundtrack. A small parabolic dish was added to the rear of the prop's casing to explain why these Daleks, unlike the ones in their first serial, were not dependent on static electricity drawn up from the floors of the Dalek city for their motive power.
====Voices====
The staccato delivery, harsh tone and rising inflection of the Dalek voice were initially developed by two voice actors, Peter Hawkins and David Graham, who varied the pitch and speed of the lines according to the emotion needed. Their voices were further processed electronically by Brian Hodgson at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. The sound-processing devices used have varied over the decades. In 1963 Hodgson and his colleagues used equalisation to boost the mid-range of the actor's voice, then subjected it to ring modulation with a 30 Hz sine wave. The distinctive harsh, grating vocal timbre this produced has remained the pattern for all Dalek voices since (with the exception of those in the 1985 serial Revelation of the Daleks, for which the director, Graeme Harper, deliberately used less distortion).
Besides Hawkins and Graham, other voice actors for the Daleks have included Roy Skelton, who first voiced the Daleks in the 1967 story The Evil of the Daleks and provided voices for five additional Dalek serials including Planet of the Daleks, and for the one-off anniversary special "The Five Doctors". Michael Wisher, the actor who originated the role of Dalek creator Davros in Genesis of the Daleks, provided Dalek voices for that same story, as well as for Frontier in Space, Planet of the Daleks, and Death to the Daleks. Other Dalek voice actors include Royce Mills (three stories), John Leeson, who performed the voice of K9 in several Doctor Who stories, and Davros actors Terry Molloy and David Gooderson also contributed supporting voices for various Dalek serials. Briggs had previously provided Dalek and other alien voices for Big Finish Productions audio plays, and continues to do so. In a 2006 BBC Radio interview, Briggs said that when the BBC asked him to do the voice for the new television series, they instructed him to bring his own analogue ring modulator that he had used in the audio plays. The BBC's sound department had changed to a digital platform and could not adequately create the distinctive Dalek sound with their modern equipment. Briggs went as far as to bring the voice modulator to the actors' readings of the scripts. or life-size photographic enlargements in the early black-and-white episodes (The Daleks, The Dalek Invasion of Earth, and The Power of the Daleks). In stories involving armies of Daleks, the BBC effects team even turned to using commercially available toy Daleks, manufactured by Louis Marx & Co and Herts Plastic Moulders Ltd. Examples of this can be observed in the serials The Power of the Daleks, The Evil of the Daleks, and Planet of the Daleks. Judicious editing techniques also gave the impression that there were more Daleks than were actually available, such as using a split screen in "The Parting of the Ways". These became known in fan circles as "Mk I Daleks". Shawcraft were also commissioned to construct approximately 20 Daleks for the two Dalek movies in 1965 and 1966 (see below). Some of these movie props filtered back to the BBC and were seen in the televised serials, notably The Chase, which was aired before the first movie's debut. The remaining props not bought by the BBC were either donated to charity or given away as prizes in competitions.
The BBC's own Dalek props were reused many times, with components of the original Shawcraft "Mk I Daleks" surviving right through to their final classic series appearance in 1988. But years of storage and repainting took their toll. By the time of the Sixth Doctor's Revelation of the Daleks new props were being manufactured out of fibreglass. These models were lighter and more affordable to construct than their predecessors. These newer models were slightly bulkier in appearance around the mid-shoulder section, and also had a redesigned skirt section which was more vertical at the back. Other minor changes were made to the design due to these new construction methods, including altering the fender and incorporating the arm boxes, collars, and slats into a single fibreglass moulding.
New Dalek props were built for the 21st-century version of Doctor Who. The first, which appeared alone in the 2005 episode "Dalek", was built by modelmaker Mike Tucker.
==Entry into popular culture==
The Daleks became an immediate hit with viewers, returning for subsequent appearances throughout the 1960s. As early as one year after first appearing on Doctor Who, the Daleks had become popular enough to be recognized even by non-viewers. In December 1964 editorial cartoonist Leslie Gilbert Illingworth published a cartoon in the Daily Mail captioned "THE DEGAULLEK", caricaturing French President Charles de Gaulle arriving at a NATO meeting as a Dalek with de Gaulle's prominent nose.
The Daleks have become as synonymous with Doctor Who as the Doctor himself, and their behaviour and catchphrases are now part of British popular culture. "Hiding behind the sofa whenever the Daleks appear" has been cited as an element of British cultural identity, and a 2008 survey indicated that nine out of ten British children were able to identify a Dalek correctly. In 1999 a Dalek photographed by Lord Snowdon appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture. In 2010, readers of science fiction magazine SFX voted the Dalek as the all-time greatest monster, beating competition including Japanese movie monster Godzilla and J. R. R. Tolkien's Gollum, of The Lord of the Rings.
The word "Dalek" has entered major dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary, which defines "Dalek" as "In the BBC television science-fiction series Doctor Who: a member of a race of aggressive alien mutants in mobile armoured casings. Frequently in extended, allusive, or similative use." English-speakers sometimes use the term metaphorically to describe people, usually authority figures, who act like robots unable to break from their programming. For example, John Birt, the Director-General of the BBC from 1992 to 2000, was called a "croak-voiced Dalek" by playwright Dennis Potter in the MacTaggart Lecture at the 1993 Edinburgh Television Festival.
==Fictional history==
Dalek in-universe history has seen many retroactive changes, which have caused continuity problems. When the Daleks first appeared, they were presented as the descendants of the Dals, mutated after a brief nuclear war between the Dal and Thal races 500 years ago. This race of Daleks is destroyed when their power supply is wrecked. However, when they reappear in The Dalek Invasion of Earth, they have conquered Earth in the 22nd century. Later stories saw them develop time travel and a space empire. In 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in Genesis of the Daleks, where the Dals were now called Kaleds (of which "Daleks" is an anagram), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the paralysed Kaled chief scientist and evil genius, Davros. Later Big Finish Productions audio plays attempted to explain this retcon by saying that the Skaro word "dal" simply means warrior, which is how the Kaleds described themselves, while "dal-ek" means "god." According to Genesis of the Daleks, instead of a short nuclear exchange, the Kaled-Thal war was a thousand-year-long war of attrition, fought with nuclear, biological and chemical weapons which caused widespread mutations among the life forms of Skaro. Davros experimented on living Kaled cells to find the ultimate mutated form of the Kaled species, believing his own people had become weak and needed to be replaced by a greater life form. He placed his new Dalek creations in tank-like "travel machines" of advanced technology whose design was based on his own life-support chair. Future stories in the original Doctor Who series, which followed a rough story arc, would also focus more on Davros, much to the dissatisfaction of some fans who felt that the Daleks should take centre stage rather than merely becoming minions of their creator. Davros made his last televised appearance for 20 years in Remembrance of the Daleks, which depicted a civil war between two factions of Daleks. One faction, the "Imperial Daleks", were loyal to Davros, who had become their Emperor, whilst the other, the "Renegade Daleks", followed a black Supreme Dalek. By the end of the story, armies of both factions have been wiped out and the Doctor has tricked them into destroying Skaro. However, Davros escapes and based on the fact that Daleks possess time travel and were spread throughout the universe, there was still a possibility that many had survived these events.
The four-Dalek Cult of Skaro returned in the two-part story "Daleks in Manhattan"/"Evolution of the Daleks", in which whilst stranded in 1930s New York, they set up a base in the partially built Empire State Building and attempt to rebuild the Dalek race. To this end, Dalek Sec merges with a human being to become a Human/Dalek hybrid. The Cult then set about creating "Human Daleks" by "formatting" the brains of a few thousand captured humans so they can have Dalek minds. Dalek Sec, however, becomes more human in personality and alters the plan so the hybrids will be more human like him. The rest of the Cult mutinies. Sec is killed, while Thay and Jast are later wiped out with the hybrids. Dalek Caan, believing it may be the last of its kind now, escapes once more via an emergency temporal shift.
The Daleks returned in the 2010 episode "Victory of the Daleks", wherein it is revealed that some Daleks survived the destruction of their army in "Journey's End" and retrieved the "Progenitor", a tiny apparatus containing 'original' Dalek DNA. The activation of the Progenitor results in the creation of New Paradigm Daleks who deem the Time War era Daleks to be inferior. The new Daleks are organised into different roles (drone, scientist, strategists, supreme and eternal), which are identifiable with colour-coded armour instead of the identification plates under the eyestalk used by their predecessors. They escape the Doctor at the end of the episode via time travel with the intent to rebuild their Empire.
The Daleks appeared, only briefly, in subsequent finales "The Pandorica Opens"/"The Big Bang" (2010) and "The Wedding of River Song" (2011) as Steven Moffat decided to "give them a rest" and stated, "There's a problem with the Daleks. They are the most famous of the Doctor's adversaries and the most frequent, which means they are the most reliably defeatable enemies in the universe." These episodes also reveal that Skaro has been recreated yet again. They next appear in "Asylum of the Daleks" (2012), where the Daleks are shown to have greatly increased numbers and now have a Parliament; in addition to the traditional "modern" Daleks, several designs from both the original and new series appear, all co-existing rather than judging each other as inferior or outdated (except for those Daleks whose personalities deem them "insane" or can no longer battle). All record of the Doctor is removed from their collective consciousness at the end of the episode.
The Daleks then appear in the 50th Anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor" (2013), where they are seen being defeated in the Time War. The same special reveals that many Time Lords survived the war since the Doctor found a way to transfer planet Gallifrey out of phase with reality and into a pocket dimension. In "The Time of the Doctor" (2013), the Daleks are one of the races that besieges Trenzalore in an attempt to stop the Doctor from releasing the Time Lords from the pocket dimension. After converting Tasha Lem into a Dalek puppet, they regain knowledge of the Doctor.
The Twelfth Doctor's first encounter with the Daleks is in his second full episode, "Into the Dalek" (2014), where he encounters a damaged Dalek he names 'Rusty.' Connecting to the Doctor's love of the universe and his hatred of the Daleks, Rusty assumes a mission to destroy other Daleks. In "The Magician's Apprentice"/"The Witch's Familiar" (2015), the Doctor is summoned to Skaro where he learns Davros has rebuilt the Dalek Empire. In "The Pilot" (2017), the Doctor briefly visits a battle during the Dalek-Movellan war.
The Thirteenth Doctor encountered a Dalek in a New Year's Day episode, "Resolution" (2019), when a Dalek mutant, separated from its armoured casing, takes control of a human in order to build a new travel device for itself and summon more Daleks to conquer Earth. This Dalek is cloned by a scientist in "Revolution of the Daleks" (2021), and attempts to take over Earth using further clones, but they are killed by other Daleks for perceived genetic impurity. The Dalek army is later sent by the Doctor into the "void" between worlds to be destroyed, using a spare TARDIS she recently acquired on Gallifrey. After cameo appearances depicting them as one of several villains trying to take advantage of "the Flux" event tearing through space-time in series 13, the Daleks returned in the first 2022 special, "Eve of the Daleks". In the episode, a team of Dalek Executioners are dispatched by High Command to avenge the Dalek War Fleet destroyed by the Doctor in the series 13 finale "The Vanquishers", only for a time loop established by the TARDIS to save the Doctor's life and give her a chance to destroy the executioners instead. The Daleks later appeared alongside the Cybermen as allies to the Master in "The Power of the Doctor" as part of a plot to finally destroy their nemesis, but the alliance is defeated by the Doctor and new and old companions.
In a video short for the 2023 Children in Need telethon, the origin of the iconic plunger-like appendages used by Daleks was retroactively established as being from the Fourteenth Doctor's TARDIS, while also establishing an unintentional hint by that Doctor, given to a Kaled military officer, for the creation of the name "Dalek".
==Dalek culture==
Daleks have little, if any, individual personality, Dalek speech is characterised by repeated phrases, and by orders given to themselves and to others. Unlike the stereotypical emotionless robots often found in science fiction, Daleks are often angry; author Kim Newman has described the Daleks as behaving "like toddlers in perpetual hissy fits", gloating when in power and flying into a rage when thwarted. They tend to be excitable and will repeat the same word or phrase over and over again in heightened emotional states, most famously "Exterminate! Exterminate!"
Daleks are extremely aggressive, and seem driven by an instinct to attack. This instinct is so strong that Daleks have been depicted fighting the urge to kill The Fifth Doctor characterises this impulse by saying, "However you respond [to Daleks] is seen as an act of provocation."
The Dalek obsession with their own superiority is illustrated by the schism between the Renegade and Imperial Daleks seen in Revelation of the Daleks and Remembrance of the Daleks: the two factions each consider the other to be a perversion despite the relatively minor differences between them. This intolerance of any "contamination" within themselves is also shown in "Dalek", This superiority complex is the basis of the Daleks' ruthlessness and lack of compassion.
Dalek society is depicted as one of extreme scientific and technological advancement; the Third Doctor states that "it was their inventive genius that made them one of the greatest powers in the universe." and the second was the renegade Time Lord known as the Master in the 1996 television movie. The reasons for the Master's trial, and why the Doctor would be allowed to retrieve the Master's remains, have never been explained on screen. The Doctor Who Annual 2006 implies that the trial may have been due to a treaty signed between the Time Lords and the Daleks. The framing device for the I, Davros audio plays is a Dalek trial to determine if Davros should be the Daleks' leader once more.
Spin-off novels contain several tongue-in-cheek mentions of Dalek poetry, and an anecdote about an opera based upon it, which was lost to posterity when the entire cast was exterminated on the opening night. Two stanzas are given in the novel The Also People by Ben Aaronovitch. In an alternative timeline portrayed in the Big Finish Productions audio adventure The Time of the Daleks, the Daleks show a fondness for the works of Shakespeare. A similar idea was satirised by comedian Frankie Boyle in the BBC comedy quiz programme Mock the Week; he gave the fictional Dalek poem "Daffodils; EXTERMINATE DAFFODILS!" as an "unlikely line to hear in Doctor Who".
Because the Doctor has defeated the Daleks so often, he has become their collective arch-enemy and they have standing orders to capture or exterminate him on sight. In later fiction, the Daleks know the Doctor as "Ka Faraq Gatri" ("Bringer of Darkness" or "Destroyer of Worlds"), and "The Oncoming Storm".
==Licensing==
Copyright for the Daleks was maintained by Terry Nation rather than the BBC and has passed to his estate after his death. A number of licensed usages have been made over the years.
Two Doctor Who movies starring Peter Cushing featured the Daleks as the main villains: Dr. Who and the Daleks, and Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD, based on the television serials The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth, respectively. The movies were not direct remakes; for example, the Doctor in the Cushing films was a human inventor called "Dr. Who" who built a time-travelling device named Tardis, instead of a mysterious alien who stole a device called "the TARDIS".
Four books focusing on the Daleks were published in the 1960s. The Dalek Book (1964, written by Terry Nation and David Whitaker), The Dalek World (1965, written by Nation and Whitaker) and The Dalek Outer Space Book (1966, by Nation and Brad Ashton) were all hardcover books formatted like annuals, containing text stories and comics about the Daleks, along with fictional information (sometimes based on the television serials, other times made up for the books). Nation also published The Dalek Pocketbook and Space-Travellers Guide, which collected articles and features treating the Daleks as if they were real. Four more annuals were published in the 1970s by World Distributors under the title Terry Nation's Dalek Annual (with cover dates 1976–1979, but published 1975–1978). Two original novels by John Peel, War of the Daleks (1997) and Legacy of the Daleks (1998), were released as part of the Eighth Doctor Adventures series of Doctor Who novels. A novella, The Dalek Factor by Simon Clark, was published in 2004, and two books featuring the Daleks and the Tenth Doctor (I am a Dalek by Gareth Roberts, 2006, and Prisoner of the Daleks by Trevor Baxendale, 2009) have been released as part of the New Series Adventures.
Nation authorised the publication of the comic strip The Daleks in the comic TV Century 21 in 1965. The weekly one-page strip, written by Whitaker but credited to Nation, featured the Daleks as protagonists and "heroes", and continued for two years, from their creation of the mechanised Daleks by the humanoid Dalek scientist, Yarvelling, to their eventual discovery in the ruins of a crashed space-liner of the co-ordinates for Earth, which they proposed to invade. Although much of the material in these strips was directly contradicted by what was later shown on television, some concepts like the Daleks using humanoid duplicates and the design of the Dalek Emperor did show up later on in the programme.
At the same time, a Doctor Who strip was also being published in TV Comic. Initially, the strip did not have the rights to use the Daleks, so the First Doctor battled the "Trods" instead, cone-shaped robotic creatures that ran on static electricity. By the time the Second Doctor appeared in the strip in 1967 the rights issues had been resolved, and the Daleks began making appearances starting in The Trodos Ambush (TVC #788-#791), where they massacred the Trods. The Daleks also made appearances in the Third Doctor-era Dr. Who comic strip that featured in the combined Countdown/TV Action comic during the early 1970s.
An animated series called Daleks!, which consists of five 10-minute long episodes, was released on the official Doctor Who YouTube channel in 2020.
Other licensed appearances have included a number of stage plays (see Stage plays below) and television adverts for Wall's "Sky Ray" ice lollies (1966), Weetabix breakfast cereal (1977), Kit Kat chocolate bars (2001), and the ANZ Bank (2005). In 2003, Daleks also appeared in UK billboard ads for Energizer batteries, alongside the slogan "Are You Power Mad?" Tuckwell created a glossy sales brochure that sparked off a Dalek craze, dubbed "Dalekmania" by the press, which peaked in 1965.
===Toys and models===
The first Dalek toys were released in 1965 as part of the "Dalekmania" craze. These included battery-operated, friction drive and "Rolykins" Daleks from Louis Marx & Co., as well as models from Cherilea, Herts Plastic Moulders Ltd and Cowan, de Groot Ltd, and "Bendy" Daleks made by Newfeld Ltd. Collectible cards, stickers, toy guns, music singles, punching bags and many other items were also produced in this period. From 1988 to 2002, Dapol released a line of Dalek toys in conjunction with its Doctor Who action figure series.
Beginning in 2000, Product Enterprise (who later operated under the names "Iconic Replicas" and "Sixteen 12 Collectibles") produced various Dalek toys. These included Dalek "Rolykins" (based on the Louis Marx toy from 1965); push-along "talking" Daleks; Dalek "Rollamatics" with a pull back and release mechanism; and a remote control Dalek.
In 2005 Character Options was granted the "Master Toy License" for the revived Doctor Who series, including the Daleks. Their product lines have included static/push-along and radio controlled Daleks, radio controlled versions and radio controlled / 1:3 scale variants. The 12-inch remote control Dalek won the 2005 award for Best Electronic Toy of the Year from the Toy Retailers Association. In 2008, the company acquired a license to produce Daleks of the various "classic series" variants.
===Full-size reproductions===
Dalek fans have been building life-size reproduction Daleks for many years. The BBC and Terry Nation estate officially disapprove of self-built Daleks, but usually intervene only if attempts are made to trade unlicensed Daleks and Dalek components commercially, or if it is considered that actual or intended use may damage the BBC's reputation or the Doctor Who/Dalek brand. The Crewe-based company "This Planet Earth" is the only business which has been licensed by the BBC and the Terry Nation Estate to produce full-size TV Dalek replicas, and by Canal+ Image UK Ltd. to produce full size Movie Dalek replicas commercially.
==Other major appearances==
===Stage plays===
The Curse of the Daleks: Wyndham's Theatre, London (premiere 21 December 1965)
Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday: Adelphi Theatre, London (premiere 16 December 1974)
Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure: Wimbledon Theatre, London (premiere 23 March 1989)
The Trial of Davros: The Village Hotel, Hyde, Greater Manchester (premiere 14 November 1993)
The Trial of Davros: Tameside Hippodrome, Ashton-under-Lyne (premiere 16 July 2005)
The Evil of the Daleks: Theatre Royal, Portsmouth (premiere 25 October 2006)
The Daleks' Master Plan: Theatre Royal, Portsmouth (premiere 24 October 2007)
Recall U.N.I.T. or THE GREAT TEA BAG MYSTERY! : Edinburgh Fringe Festival 1984 play by Richard Franklin
===Concerts===
Doctor Who Prom (27 July 2008)
Doctor Who Prom (27 July 2010)
Doctor Who Prom (27 July 2013)
===Original novels and novellas===
War of the Daleks by John Peel (Eighth Doctor Adventures), published October 1997
Legacy of the Daleks by John Peel (Eighth Doctor Adventures), published April 1998
The Dalek Factor by Simon Clark (Telos Doctor Who novellas), published March 2004
I am a Dalek by Gareth Roberts (New Series Adventures, part of the Quick Reads Initiative), published May 2006
Prisoner of the Daleks by Trevor Baxendale (New Series Adventures), published April 2009
The Only Good Dalek by Justin Richards and Mike Collins (New Series Adventures), published November 2010
The Dalek Generation by Nicholas Briggs (New Series Adventures), published April 2013
Engines of War by George Mann (New Series Adventures), published July 2014
==Other appearances==
===Non–Doctor Who television and film===
Daleks have made cameo appearances in television programmes and films unrelated to Doctor Who from the 1960s to the present day.
Two to three purple toy Daleks are also seen in the background of an episode of the American children's cartoon Rugrats.
A toy Dalek appears in the opening sequence of the seventh episode of the British comedy series Mr. Bean (titled Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean), when Mr. Bean plays an "alternative nativity play" with several modern day toys like tanks and a plastic dinosaur.
In the television special The Red Dwarf A–Z, two Daleks are shown (under "E" for "Exterminate") arguing that all Earth television is human propaganda, and the works more commonly attributed to William Shakespeare and Ludwig van Beethoven were actually written by Daleks, although they deny having written "Mandy" by Barry Manilow; subsequently, one of them remarks that the "change the bulb" joke from the episode "Legion" was funny, and is promptly exterminated by the other for the crime of "not behaving like a true Dalek".
In the 2004 series of Coupling, written by Steven Moffat (who was later to write for and produce Doctor Who), a Dalek appears in the second episode of season 4. This was voiced by Nicholas Briggs, who later went on to provide Dalek voices for the series proper from 2005 onwards. (Terry Nation's original Dalek rights deal with the BBC had been negotiated by his then agent Beryl Vertue, later Moffat's mother-in-law.)
In the film Looney Tunes: Back in Action, the secret military base, Area 52, detains a number of monsters and robots from old sci-fi films; among those are two Daleks, who upon release by Marvin the Martian, proceed to attack while spouting their catchphrases.
A Dalek appeared alongside Darth Vader, Ming the Merciless, a Klingon, the Sixth Doctor and a 1980s Cyberman in a 2003 episode of the British motoring programme Top Gear, to see who was "Master of the Universe" with a lap around their test track in a racing modified Honda Civic. The Dalek could not get into the car, so it exterminated the other drivers (with the exception of the Klingon and the Doctor; who had apparently fled beforehand as they were not present); the Cyberman was eventually declared the winner by the hosts.
In a 2009 episode of the American sitcom Better Off Ted, a deactivated Dalek is spotted in the sub-basement where the supposed "Robot Farm" is located.
In the 2017 film The Lego Batman Movie, the Daleks, in what appears to be a Lego adaptation of their 2010 designs, make an appearance as escaped prisoners from the Phantom Zone.
It's A Sin (written by former Doctor Who show runner Russell T Davies), in scenes where series lead Ritchie Tozer (Olly Alexander) is cast in a fictional Doctor Who story called Regression of the Daleks.
===Comic books===
In the graphic novel Abslom Daak: Dalek Killer, the titular protagonist, a sentenced criminal with a death wish and an insatiable hatred of the Daleks, hunts his nemeses who have recently invaded the planet Mazar, homeworld of princess Taiyin.
===Music===
Daleks have been referred to or associated in many musical compositions.
The first known musical reference to Daleks is the 1964 novelty single "I'm Gonna Spend My Christmas with a Dalek" by the Go-Go's, released during the 1960s' "Dalekmania" fad.
Dalek voices were sampled and recreated in the 1988 novelty single "Doctorin' the Tardis" by The Timelords (who later performed as the KLF),
===Video games===
Licensed Doctor Who games featuring Daleks include 1984's The Key to Time, a text adventure game for the ZX Spectrum. The first graphical game to feature daleks was the eponymous, turn-based title released by Johan Strandberg for the Macintosh in the same year. Daleks also appeared in minor roles or as thinly disguised versions in other, minor games throughout the 80s, but did not feature as central adversaries in a licensed game until 1992, when Admiral Software published Dalek Attack. The game allowed the player to play various Doctors or companions, running them through several environments to defeat the Daleks. In 1997 the BBC released a PC game entitled Destiny of the Doctors which also featured the Daleks, among other adversaries.
One authorised online game is The Last Dalek, a Flash game created by New Media Collective for the BBC. It is based on the 2005 episode "Dalek" and can be played at the official BBC Doctor Who website. The Doctor Who website also features another game, Daleks vs Cybermen (also known as Cyber Troop Control Interface), based on the 2006 episode "Doomsday"; in this game, the player controls troops of Cybermen which must fight Daleks as well as Torchwood Institute members.
On 5 June 2010, the BBC released the first of four official computer games on its website, Doctor Who: The Adventure Games, which are intended as part of the official TV series adventures. In the first of these, 'The City of the Daleks', the Doctor in his 11th incarnation and Amy Pond must stop the Daleks re-writing time and reviving Skaro, their homeland.
They also appear in the Nintendo DS and Wii games Doctor Who: Evacuation Earth and Doctor Who: Return to Earth.
The Daleks also appear in Lego Dimensions where they ally themselves with Lord Vortech and possess the size-altering scale keystone. When Batman, Gandalf, and Wyldstyle encounter them, they assume that they are allies of the Doctor and attack the trio. The main characters continue to fight the Daleks until they call the Doctor to save them. A Dalek saucer also appears in the level based on Metropolis, in which the top of it serves as the stage for the boss battle against Sauron and includes Daleks among the various enemies summoned to attack the player. A Dalek is also among the elements summoned by the player to deal with the obstacles in the Portal 2 story level of Lego Dimensions.
The Daleks also appear in Doctor Who: The Edge of Time, a Virtual Reality Game for the PlayStation VR, Oculus Rift, Oculus Quest, HTC Vive, and Vive Cosmos, which was released in September 2019.
The Daleks are a licensed costume in Fall Guys.
===Politics===
At the 1966 Conservative Party conference in Blackpool, delegate Hugh Dykes publicly compared the Labour government's Defence Secretary Denis Healey to the creatures. "Mr. Healey is the Dalek of defence, pointing a metal finger at the armed forces and saying 'I will eliminate you'."
In a British Government Parliamentary Debate in the House of Commons on 12 February 1968, the then Minister of Technology Tony Benn mentioned the Daleks during a reply to a question from the Labour MP Hugh Jenkins concerning the Concorde aircraft project. In the context of the dangers of solar flares, he said, "Because we are exploring the frontiers of technology, some people think Concorde will be avoiding solar flares like Dr. Who avoiding Daleks. It is not like this at all."
Australian Labor Party luminary Robert Ray described his right wing Labor Unity faction successor, Victorian Senator Stephen Conroy, and his Socialist Left faction counterpart, Kim Carr, as "factional Daleks" during a 2006 Australian Fabian Society lunch in Sydney.
During a 2021 House of Commons debate about the retention of dentists in rural areas of the United Kingdom during the COVID-19 pandemic, the voice of Conservative MP Scott Mann of North Cornwall, while on a video link, became distorted due to a malfunction with his audio feed. Deputy Speaker of the House Nigel Evans interrupted his broadcast, amidst the chuckles from other MPs; by saying, "Scott, you sound like a Dalek and I don't mean that unkindly. There's clearly a communications problem." Mann later returned to apologise.
Daleks have been used in political cartoons to caricature: Douglas Hurd, as the 'Douglek', in Private Eye's Dan Dire – Pilot of the Future; Tony Benn, John Birt, Tony Blair, Alec Douglas-Home, Charles de Gaulle, Mark Thompson.
===Magazine covers===
Daleks have appeared on magazine covers promoting Doctor Who since the "Dalekmania" fad of the 1960s. Radio Times has featured the Daleks on its cover several times, beginning with the 21–27 November 1964 issue which promoted The Dalek Invasion of Earth. Other magazines also used Daleks to attract readers' attention, including Girl Illustrated.
In April 2005, Radio Times created a special cover to commemorate both the return of the Daleks to the screen in "Dalek" and the forthcoming general election. This cover recreated a scene from The Dalek Invasion of Earth in which the Daleks were seen crossing Westminster Bridge, with the Houses of Parliament in the background. The cover text read "VOTE DALEK!" In a 2008 contest sponsored by the Periodical Publishers Association, this cover was voted the best British magazine cover of all time. In 2013 it was voted "Cover of the century" by the Professional Publishers Association. The 2010 United Kingdom general election campaign also prompted a collector's set of three near-identical covers of the Radio Times on 17 April with exactly the same headline but with the newly redesigned Daleks in their primary colours representing the three main political parties, Red being Labour, Blue as Conservative and Yellow as Liberal Democrats.
===Parodies===
Daleks have been the subject of many parodies, including Spike Milligan's "Pakistani Dalek" sketch in his comedy series Q, and Victor Lewis-Smith's "Gay Daleks". Occasionally the BBC has used the Daleks to parody other subjects: in 2002, BBC Worldwide published the Dalek Survival Guide, a parody of The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbooks. Comedian Eddie Izzard has an extended stand-up routine about Daleks, which was included in her 1993 stand-up show "Live at the Ambassadors". The Daleks made two brief appearances in a pantomime version of Aladdin at the Birmingham Hippodrome which starred Torchwood star John Barrowman in the lead role. A joke-telling robot, possessing a Dalek-like boom, and loosely modelled after the Dalek, also appeared in the South Park episode "Funnybot", even spouting out "exterminate". A Dalek can also be seen in the background at timepoints 1:13 and 1:17 in the Sam & Max animated series episode "The Trouble with Gary". In the Community parody of Doctor Who called Inspector Spacetime, they are referred to as Blorgons.
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"The Lego Batman Movie",
"The Daleks' Master Plan",
"War of the Daleks",
"Stephen James Walker",
"Doctor Who (2022 specials)",
"Master (Doctor Who)",
"nativity play",
"Dan Dare",
"Paul Bernard (director)",
"Robert Ray (Australian politician)",
"Jacqueline Rayner",
"MobyGames",
"Davros",
"Charlie Jane Anders",
"Your Sinclair",
"Stephen Conroy",
"North Cornwall",
"Split screen (video production)",
"Gawker Media",
"Genesis of the Daleks",
"Thal (Doctor Who)",
"Fourteenth Doctor",
"Caster",
"The Guardian",
"Bath, Somerset",
"BBC Worldwide",
"Revelation of the Daleks",
"The Lord of the Rings",
"carbide",
"Doomsday (Doctor Who)",
"Mr. Bean",
"Geoffrey Sax",
"Brian Hodgson",
"annual publication",
"George Mann (writer)",
"Time Lord",
"Better Off Ted",
"David Lloyd (comics)",
"The Dalek Invasion of Earth",
"Weetabix",
"retcon",
"Sixth Doctor",
"Google Groups",
"The Five Doctors",
"Lego",
"armour",
"Conservative Party (UK)",
"Birmingham Hippodrome",
"Matthew Jacobs",
"Ian Chesterton",
"Kaleds",
"The Pandorica Opens",
"Doctor Who Prom (2008)",
"Earth",
"Sudbury Hall",
"Energizer",
"Kim Newman",
"Matthew Robinson (producer)",
"The Vanquishers",
"W. H. Allen Ltd",
"John Leeson",
"Looney Tunes: Back in Action",
"chemical warfare",
"Doctor Who spin-offs",
"Robert Shearman",
"Innes Lloyd",
"The Daleks",
"Tenth Doctor",
"Dr. Who and the Daleks",
"Dennis Potter",
"Time War (Doctor Who)",
"Ashton-under-Lyne",
"Rob Shearman",
"Arundel Street",
"Private Eye",
"Royce Mills",
"Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure",
"British Cartoon Archive",
"Christopher Eccleston",
"PlayStation VR",
"Mike Tucker (special effects artist)",
"Legion (Red Dwarf episode)",
"Marvel Comics",
"Mal Young",
"Clayton Hickman",
"Genocide",
"Eighth Doctor",
"The Wedding of River Song",
"Destiny of the Daleks",
"Concorde",
"BBC",
"battle cry",
"Seventh Doctor",
"Mike Collins (comics)",
"The Day of the Doctor",
"Marvel Graphic Novel",
"Portsmouth",
"Verity Lambert",
"Virgin Books",
"Fall Guys",
"ComingSoon.net",
"Punch (magazine)",
"Labor Unity",
"Richard Martin (British director)",
"First Doctor",
"Alec Douglas-Home",
"The Evil of the Daleks",
"Secretary of State for Defence",
"Oxford University Press",
"Phantom Zone",
"ANZ Bank",
"Virgin Publishing",
"Philip Segal",
"popular culture",
"Quick Reads Initiative",
"United Kingdom",
"The Power of the Daleks",
"Whoniverse",
"Nikki Wilson",
"Lime Grove Studios",
"Gallifrey",
"Empire State Building",
"Eighth Doctor Adventures",
"Klingon",
"Barry Letts",
"anagram",
"Westminster Bridge",
"Target Books",
"anti-gravity",
"Peter Cushing",
"Manchester",
"Victory of the Daleks",
"Planet of the Daleks",
"TV Century 21",
"Alan Barnes (writer)",
"BBC1",
"William Russell (English actor)",
"Tony Benn",
"Tony Hancock",
"Nigel Evans",
"Minister of Technology",
"Phil Collinson",
"British Government",
"electrolaser",
"Continuity (fiction)",
"Doctor Who (series 13)",
"Fifth Doctor",
"metaphor",
"Aladdin",
"Metropolis (comics)",
"Ben Aaronovitch",
"Nuclear weapon",
"Cardiff",
"BBC Radiophonic Workshop",
"racial purity",
"arch-enemy",
"Sam & Max",
"Sydney Newman",
"Tolworth",
"Engines of War (Doctor Who)",
"sine wave",
"Top Gear (2002 TV series)",
"Kim Carr",
"Big Finish Productions",
"Donna Noble",
"Dalek Sec",
"tricycle",
"Mandy (Barry Manilow song)",
"Thirteenth Doctor",
"Shakespeare",
"Imperial Dalek",
"Blackpool",
"Tameside Hippodrome",
"Abandonia",
"science fiction television",
"The Parting of the Ways",
"Liberal Democrats (UK)",
"Oculus Rift",
"Torchwood Institute",
"I, Davros: Innocence",
"Oliver Gilbert (actor)",
"Hansard",
"Charles de Gaulle",
"Radio Times",
"Australian Labor Party",
"Doctor Who exhibitions",
"StudioCanal",
"The New Daleks",
"BBC News",
"BBC Knowledge (international)",
"fibreglass",
"The Independent",
"The Witch's Familiar",
"Lord Snowdon",
"Billie Piper",
"Telos Doctor Who novellas",
"Q (Spike Milligan series)",
"Fourth Doctor",
"The Dalek Generation",
"Telos Publishing",
"BBC Three",
"Portal 2",
"Adobe Flash",
"Victor Lewis-Smith",
"novelty record",
"TV Action",
"NATO",
"Doctor Who: Evacuation Earth",
"due process",
"Kit Kat",
"Second Doctor",
"The Irish Times",
"Resolution (Doctor Who)",
"Edinburgh Television Festival",
"Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday",
"companion (Doctor Who)",
"Hugh Dykes",
"robot",
"Ninth Doctor",
"Scott Mann (politician)",
"Frontier in Space",
"Palitoy",
"Justin Richards",
"Jason Haigh-Ellery",
"British Film Institute",
"Graham Williams (television producer)",
"The Big Bang (Doctor Who)",
"Ken Grieve",
"River Thames",
"Stephen Cole (writer)",
"the Doctor",
"Hugh Jenkins, Baron Jenkins of Putney",
"K9 (Doctor Who)",
"John Birt",
"Adelphi Theatre",
"Brian Miller (actor)",
"amphibious vehicle",
"Cyberman",
"The Mutants",
"Denis Healey",
"authoritarian",
"David Whitaker (screenwriter)",
"IGN",
"Children in Need",
"The Register",
"Honda Civic",
"Ming the Merciless",
"Wyndham's Theatre",
"New Theatre Royal",
"Lego Dimensions",
"The Blitz",
"Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)",
"Steve Dillon",
"Panini Comics",
"Eve of the Daleks",
"David Graham (actor)",
"cyborg",
"David Maloney",
"Beryl Vertue",
"Denys Fisher",
"Eleventh Doctor",
"Oxford English Dictionary",
"Day of the Daleks",
"Twelfth Doctor",
"Steve Moore (cartoonist)",
"Raymond Cusick",
"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)",
"Wii",
"Christopher Barry",
"Kaled",
"ring modulation",
"Dalekmania",
"Ludwig van Beethoven",
"friction drive",
"Wimbledon Theatre",
"Robin Smith (comics)",
"Death to the Daleks",
"Matt Smith",
"I am a Dalek",
"Michael E. Briant",
"Doctor Who spoofs",
"New Series Adventures",
"Worst-Case Scenario series",
"Richard Starkings",
"Biological weapon",
"Dapol",
"political cartoon",
"Sinclair User",
"John Tomlinson (comics)",
"Tunbridge Wells",
"Daily Mirror",
"Crewe",
"BBC Video",
"extraterrestrials in fiction",
"It's a Sin (TV series)",
"Dunsfold",
"Nintendo DS",
"Daily Mail",
"Dalek variants",
"Into the Dalek",
"Legacy of the Daleks"
] |
9,141 |
Davy Jones (musician)
|
David Thomas Jones (30 December 1945 – 29 February 2012) was an English actor, singer, and songwriter. Best known as a member of the band the Monkees and a co-star of the TV series The Monkees (1966–1968), Jones was considered a teen idol.
Aside from his work on The Monkees TV show, Jones' acting credits include a Tony-nominated performance as the Artful Dodger in the original London and Broadway productions of Oliver! and a guest-starring role in a notable episode of The Brady Bunch television show and a later reprised parody film.
==Early life==
David Thomas Jones was born on 30 December 1945 in Longsight, England, to Harry and Doris Jones. He had three sisters: Hazel, Lynda and Beryl. He also appeared in the BBC police series Z-Cars. Following the death of his mother, Jones rejected acting in favour of becoming a jockey, commencing an apprenticeship with Newmarket trainer Basil Foster. but this career was short-lived. Even though Foster believed Jones would be successful as a jockey, he encouraged his young protégé to take a role as the Artful Dodger in a production of Oliver! in London's West End. When approached by a friend who worked in a West End theatre during the show's casting, Foster replied, "I've got the kid." Jones' portrayal brought him great acclaim. He played the role in London and then on Broadway, and was nominated for a Tony Award.
On 9 February 1964, Jones appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show with Georgia Brown, who was playing Nancy in the Broadway production of Oliver!. It was the episode of the show in which the Beatles made their first appearance on American television. That night, Jones said, "I watched the Beatles from the side of the stage, I saw the girls going crazy, and I said to myself, this is it, I want a piece of that."
Jones debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the week of 14 August 1965, with the single "What Are We Going To Do?", which peaked at number 93. The 19-year-old singer was signed to Colpix Records, a label owned by Columbia. His debut album, David Jones, on the same label, followed soon afterward (CP493).
=== The Monkees (1966–1970) ===
From 1966 to 1970, Jones was a member of the Monkees, a pop-rock band formed expressly for a television show of the same name. With Screen Gems producing the series, Jones was shortlisted for auditions, as he was the only Monkee who was signed to a deal with the studio, but still had to meet the standards of producers Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider. The DVD release of the first season of the show contained commentary from the various bandmates. In Peter Tork's commentary, he stated that Jones was a good drummer and had the live performance line-up been based solely on playing ability, it ought to have been Tork on guitar, Mike Nesmith on bass, and Jones on drums, with Micky Dolenz taking the fronting role, rather than as it was done (with Nesmith on guitar, Tork on bass, and Dolenz on drums). Like Peter Tork, Jones, despite playing mostly tambourine or maracas, was a multi-instrumentalist and would fill in for Tork on bass when he played keyboards and vice versa and for Dolenz on drums when the Monkees performed live concerts.
The Monkees officially disbanded in 1970.
====Further stage and screen appearances (1977–1999)====
Despite his initial high profile after the Monkees disbanded, Jones struggled to establish himself as a solo music artist. Glenn A. Baker, author of Monkeemania: The True Story of the Monkees, commented in 1986 that "for an artist as versatile and confident as (Davy) Jones, the relative failure of his post-Monkees activities is puzzling. For all his cocky predictions to the press about his future plans, Davy fell into a directionless heap when left to his own devices."
The continued popularity of Jones' 1971 Brady Bunch appearance led to his being cast as himself in The Brady Bunch Movie (1995). Jones sang his signature solo hit "Girl", with a grunge band providing backing,
On 21 June 1997, during a concert at the Los Angeles Coliseum, Jones joined U2's The Edge onstage for a karaoke performance of "Daydream Believer", which had become a fixture of the band's set during that year's PopMart Tour.
====Later career (2000–2012)====
In 2001, Jones released Just Me, an album of his own songs, some written for the album and others originally on Monkees releases. In the early 2000s he was performing in the Flower Power Concert Series during Epcot's Flower and Garden Festival, a yearly gig he would continue until his death.
In April 2006, Jones recorded the single "Your Personal Penguin", written by children's author Sandra Boynton, as a companion piece to her new board book of the same title.
In 2007, Jones performed the theme song for the film Sexina: Popstar P.I.. On 1 November 2007, the Boynton book and CD titled Blue Moo was released and Jones is featured in both the book and CD, singing "Your Personal Penguin". In 2009, Jones released a collection of classics and standards from the 1940s through the 1970s entitled She.
In December 2008, Yahoo! Music named Jones the "Number 1 teen idol of all time".
In 2009, Jones made a cameo appearance as himself in the SpongeBob SquarePants episode "SpongeBob SquarePants vs. The Big One" (his appearance was meant as a pun on the phrase "Davy Jones' Locker").
In February 2011, Jones confirmed rumours of another Monkees reunion. "There's even talk of putting the Monkees back together again in the next year or so for a U.S. and UK tour," he told Disney's Backstage Pass newsletter. "You're always hearing all those great songs on the radio, in commercials, movies, almost everywhere." The tour (Jones' last) came to fruition and was entitled An Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour.
==Other ventures==
In 1967, Jones opened his first store, called Zilch, at 217 Thompson Street in the Greenwich Village section of New York City. The store sold "hip" clothing and accessories, and also allowed customers to design their own clothes.
After the Monkees disbanded in 1970, Jones kept himself busy by establishing a New York City-style street market in Los Angeles, called "The Street", which cost approximately $40,000. Following Jones' death, Lingfield announced that the first two races on the racecard for 3 March 2012 would be renamed the "Hey Hey We're The Monkees Handicap" and the "In Memory of Davy Jones Selling Stakes", with successful horses in those races accompanied into the winners' enclosure by some of the Monkees' biggest hits. Plans were also announced to erect a plaque to commemorate Jones next to a Monkey Puzzle tree on the course.
==Personal life==
Jones was married three times and had four children. In December 1967, he married Dixie Linda Haines, with whom he had been living. Their relationship had been kept out of the public eye until after the birth of their first child in October 1968. It caused a considerable backlash for Jones from his fans when it was finally made public. Jones later stated in Tiger Beat magazine, "I kept my marriage a secret because I believe stars should be allowed a private life." Jones and Haines had two daughters, Talia Elizabeth Jones (2 October 1968) and Sarah Lee Jones (3 July 1971). The marriage ended in 1975.
Jones married his second wife, Anita Pollinger, on 24 January 1981, and also had two daughters. Jessica Lillian Jones (4 September 1981) and Annabel Charlotte Jones (26 June 1988). The couple divorced in 1996 during the Monkees' 30th-anniversary reunion tour. Jones and his wife appeared on the Dr. Phil show in April 2011. On 28 July 2011, Pacheco filed to divorce Jones in Miami-Dade County, Florida, but dropped the suit in October. They were still married when he died in February 2012. Pacheco was omitted from Jones' will, which he had made before their marriage. His oldest daughter, whom he named his executrix, was granted by the court the unusual request that her father's will be sealed, on the basis that "planning documents and financial affairs as public opinion could have a material effect on his copyrights, royalties and ongoing goodwill"."
==Death==
On the morning of 29 February 2012, Jones went to tend his 14 horses at a farm in Indiantown, Florida. After riding one of his favorite horses around the track, he complained of chest pains and difficulty breathing and was given antacid pills. Just after 8:00 a.m., a ranch-hand found Jones unconscious in his car; an ambulance was called but he could not be revived. He was taken to Martin Memorial South Hospital in Stuart, Florida, where he died of a heart attack resulting from arteriosclerosis. He was 66.
On 7 March, a private funeral service was held at Holy Cross Catholic parish church in Indiantown. To avoid drawing attention to the grieving family, the three surviving Monkees did not attend. Instead, the bandmates attended memorial services in New York City and organised their own private memorial in Los Angeles along with Jones' family and close friends. A public memorial service was held on 10 March in Beavertown, Pennsylvania, near a church Jones had purchased for future renovation.
On 12 March, a private memorial service was held in Jones' hometown of Openshaw, Manchester, at Lees Street Congregational Church, where Jones performed as a child in church plays.
===Reaction===
The news of Jones' death triggered a surge of Internet traffic, causing sales of the Monkees' music to increase dramatically.
Guitarist Michael Nesmith stated that Jones' "spirit and soul live well in my heart, among all the lovely people, who remember with me the good times, and the healing times, that were created for so many, including us. I have fond memories. I wish him safe travels." In an 8 March 2012 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, Nesmith commented, "For me, David was the Monkees. They were his band. We were his side men." Dolenz claimed that he knew that something bad was about to happen and said "Can't believe it.. Still in shock.. had bad dreams all night long." Dolenz was gratified by the public affection expressed for both Jones and the Monkees in the wake of his bandmate's death. "He was a very well-known and well-loved character and person. There are a lot of people who are grieving pretty hard. The Monkees obviously had a following, and so did (Jones) on his own. So I'm not surprised, but I was flattered and honored to be considered one of his friends and a cohort in Monkee business."
The Monkees co-creator Bob Rafelson commented that Jones "deserves a lot of credit, let me tell you. He may not have lived as long as we wanted him to, but he survived about seven lifetimes, including being perhaps the biggest rock star of his time."
Brady Bunch co-star Maureen McCormick commented that "Davy was a beautiful soul," and that he "spread love and goodness around the world. He filled our lives with happiness, music, and joy. He will live on in our hearts forever. May he rest in peace."
Yahoo Music commented that Jones' death "hit so many people so hard" because "Monkees nostalgia cuts across generations: from the people who discovered the band during their original 1960s run; to the kids who came of age watching 1970s reruns; to the 20- and 30-somethings who discovered the Monkees when MTV (a network that owes much to the Monkees' influence) began airing old episodes in 1986."
Time contributor James Poniewozik praised the Monkees' classic sitcom, and Jones in particular, saying, "even if the show never meant to be more than entertainment and a hit-single generator, we shouldn't sell The Monkees short. It was far better television than it had to be; during an era of formulaic domestic sitcoms and wacky comedies, it was a stylistically ambitious show, with a distinctive visual style, absurdist sense of humor and unusual story structure. Whatever Jones and the Monkees were meant to be, they became creative artists in their own right, and Jones' chipper Brit-pop presence was a big reason they were able to produce work that was commercial, wholesome, and yet impressively weird."
Mediaite columnist Paul Levinson noted, "The Monkees were the first example of something created in a medium – in this case, a rock band on television – that jumped off the screen to have big impact in the real world."
==Filmography==
==Discography==
=== Solo studio albums ===
David Jones (1965)
Davy Jones (1971)
The Point (1978)
Incredible Revisited (1988)
It's Christmas Time Again (1991)
Just Me (2001)
Just Me 2 (2004)
She (2009)
==Books==
They Made a Monkee Out of Me, autobiography (print book) by Davy Jones, Dome PR, 1987, .
They Made a Monkee Out of Me: Davy Jones Reads His Autobiography, (audiobook), Dove Entertainment Inc (November 1988).
Mutant Monkees Meet the Masters of the Multimedia Manipulation Machine! Written with Alan Green, Click! Publishing, First Edition, 1992, (softcover)
Daydream Believin, Hercules Promotions, First Edition, (2000)
|
[
"Pennsylvania",
"Phineas and Ferb",
"MTV",
"Dudley Moore",
"Catholic Church",
"Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In",
"Maureen McCormick",
"The Jackson 5",
"Colpix Records",
"Rainy Jane",
"Treasure Island (1972 animated film)",
"Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart",
"Girl (Davy Jones song)",
"Monkees",
"sunshine pop",
"Rolling Stone",
"ABC Afterschool Special",
"The Brady Bunch Movie",
"Sabrina Spellman",
"Ben Casey",
"Paul Levinson",
"pop rock",
"The Partridge Family",
"Hey Arnold!",
"My Two Dads",
"Gotta Get Up",
"The Monkees (TV series)",
"Thompson Street (Manhattan)",
"PopMart Tour",
"Daydream Believer",
"Greenwich Village",
"Melissa Joan Hart",
"Sandra Boynton",
"Davy Jones' Locker",
"David Jones (album)",
"United Press International",
"HitFix",
"Walt Disney anthology television series",
"The Monkees",
"Oliver Twist (1974 film)",
"music hall",
"racecard",
"Peter Tork",
"Harry Nilsson",
"Ena Sharples",
"Oliver!",
"teen idol",
"Miami-Dade County, Florida",
"I Wanna Be Free (The Monkees song)",
"Boyce and Hart",
"Virginia",
"U2",
"Newbury Racecourse",
"Headquarters (the Monkees album)",
"Yahoo! Music",
"Lush Life (TV series)",
"The Brady Bunch",
"grunge",
"SpongeBob SquarePants",
"SpongeBob SquarePants vs. The Big One",
"Ward Sylvester",
"Z-Cars",
"Congregational Church",
"Trainer (TV series)",
"Longsight",
"Micky Dolenz",
"West End theatre",
"Tiger Beat",
"The Single Guy",
"Bob Rafelson",
"Los Angeles Coliseum",
"The Point!",
"Georgia Brown (English singer)",
"Commemorative plaque",
"The Monkees Greatest Hits",
"Tony Awards",
"Pleasant Valley Sunday",
"Herman's Head",
"Colonial Downs",
"Boy Meets World",
"Love, American Style",
"The Farmer's Daughter (TV series)",
"Bert Schneider",
"Indiantown, Florida",
"Sledge Hammer!",
"Beavertown, Snyder County, Pennsylvania",
"Screen Rant",
"List of The Brady Bunch episodes",
"Openshaw",
"Columbia Pictures",
"Justus (album)",
"Tony Award",
"Newmarket, Suffolk",
"Broadway theatre",
"Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"Davy Jones (album)",
"Fox News",
"An Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour",
"Billboard Hot 100",
"Yahoo Music",
"Bell Records",
"Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series)",
"Incredible Revisited",
"The Bluegrass Special",
"Mediaite",
"The Danny Thomas Show",
"the Beatles",
"Billboard charts",
"Michael Nesmith",
"Colin Lomax",
"Time (magazine)",
"The New Scooby-Doo Movies",
"Dr. Phil (talk show)",
"The Washington Post",
"Pool It!",
"the Monkees",
"The Ed Sullivan Show",
"James Poniewozik",
"Araucaria araucana",
"Stuart, Florida",
"Glenn A. Baker",
"The Beatles",
"Extreme Makeover: Home Edition",
"The Edge",
"the Osmonds",
"Just Me (Davy Jones album)",
"IMDb",
"Coronation Street",
"Head (film)",
"Screen Gems",
"psychedelic rock",
"Epcot",
"Lingfield Park Racecourse",
"arteriosclerosis",
"NBC",
"BBC Sunday-Night Play",
"Toby Balding",
"Artful Dodger"
] |
9,142 |
Discharge
|
The word discharge has a number of applications, including:
The act of firing a gun
Termination of employment, the end of an employee's duration with an employer
Military discharge, the release of a member of the armed forces from service
==Flow==
Discharge (hydrology), the amount of water flowing through the channel
Effluent released into a river or sea
Groundwater discharge, the volumetric flow rate of groundwater through an aquifer
Discharging method (discrete mathematics) is a proof technique in discrete mathematics
Electric discharge:
Corona discharge, a type of electric current
Direct-current discharge, a plasma
Discharger, an electrical device that releases stored energy
Battery discharging
Static discharger, a device used on airplanes to maintain use of electrical equipment
Electrostatic discharge, sudden and momentary electric current flows between two objects
Dielectric barrier discharge, the electrical discharge between two electrodes separated by an insulating dielectric barrier
Gas-discharge lamp, a light bulb that includes a discharge gas
Partial discharge, a temporary breakdown of electrical insulation
==Government and law==
Discharge (sentence), a criminal sentence where no punishment is imposed
Bankruptcy discharge, the injunction that bars acts to enforce certain debts
Discharge petition, the process of bringing a bill out of committee to the floor for a vote without the cooperation of leadership
==Healthcare==
Discharge, the flow of fluids from certain parts of the body:
Menstruation or other vaginal discharge
Mucopurulent discharge, the emission or secretion of fluid containing mucus and pus
Nipple discharge, the release of fluid from the nipples of the breasts
Rectal discharge, fluid released from the anus
Emotional discharge, in co-counselling, the ways in which pent-up emotional hurt can be released, e.g. via crying, laughter, etc.
Patient discharge, the formal ending of inpatient care
==Music==
Discharge (album), a self-titled album by Discharge released in 2002
Discharge (band), British hardcore punk band
"Discharge", a song by Anthrax from Persistence of Time
|
[
"Termination of employment",
"Static discharger",
"Electrostatic discharge",
"Discharge petition",
"Discharge (album)",
"Nipple discharge",
"Groundwater discharge",
"co-counselling",
"Discharge (sentence)",
"Discharge (band)",
"Bankruptcy discharge",
"Discharge (hydrology)",
"Effluent",
"Direct-current discharge",
"Discharging method (discrete mathematics)",
"inpatient care",
"Gas-discharge lamp",
"Corona discharge",
"Persistence of Time",
"Partial discharge",
"Military discharge",
"Discharger",
"vaginal discharge",
"Mucopurulent discharge",
"gun",
"Dielectric barrier discharge",
"Electric discharge",
"Rectal discharge",
"Battery (electricity)"
] |
9,146 |
Dolly (sheep)
|
{{Infobox animal
| name = Dolly
| image = Dolly face closeup.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = The taxidermy mount of Dolly on exhibit at the National Museum of Scotland in 2009
| othername = 6LLS (code name)
| species = Domestic sheep (Finn-Dorset)
| gender = Female
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Roslin Institute, Midlothian, Scotland
| death_date =
| death_place = Roslin Institute, Midlothian, Scotland
| death_cause = Euthanasia
| resting_place = National Museum of Scotland (remains on display)
| resting_place_coordinates =
| nationality = United Kingdom (Scotland)
| known = First mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell
| children = 6 lambs (Bonnie; twins Sally and Rosie; triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton)
| namedafter = Dolly Parton
The employment of adult somatic cells in lieu of embryonic stem cells for cloning emerged from the foundational work of John Gurdon, who cloned African clawed frogs in 1958 with this approach. The successful cloning of Dolly led to widespread advancements within stem cell research, including the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells.
Dolly lived at the Roslin Institute throughout her life and produced several lambs. She was born on 5 July 1996. She has been called "the world's most famous sheep" by sources including BBC News and Scientific American.
The cell used as the donor for the cloning of Dolly was taken from a mammary gland, and the production of a healthy clone, therefore, proved that a cell taken from a specific part of the body could recreate a whole individual. On Dolly's name, Wilmut stated "Dolly is derived from a mammary gland cell and we couldn't think of a more impressive pair of glands than Dolly Parton's."
== Birth ==
Dolly was born on 5 July 1996 and had three mothers: one provided the egg, another the DNA, and a third carried the cloned embryo to term. She was created using the technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer, where the cell nucleus from an adult cell is transferred into an unfertilized oocyte (developing egg cell) that has had its cell nucleus removed. The hybrid cell is then stimulated to divide by an electric shock, and when it develops into a blastocyst it is implanted in a surrogate mother. Dolly was the first clone produced from a cell taken from an adult mammal. The production of Dolly showed that genes in the nucleus of such a mature differentiated somatic cell are still capable of reverting to an embryonic totipotent state, creating a cell that can then go on to develop into any part of an animal.
Dolly's existence was announced to the public on 22 February 1997.
== Life ==
Dolly lived her entire life at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian. There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total. Her first lamb, named Bonnie, was born in April 1998. In late 2001, at the age of four, Dolly developed arthritis and started to have difficulty walking. This was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs.
== Death ==
On 14 February 2003, Dolly was euthanised because she had a progressive lung disease and severe arthritis. A Finn Dorset such as Dolly has a life expectancy of around 11 to 12 years, but Dolly lived 6.5 years. A post-mortem examination showed she had a form of lung cancer called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma, also known as Jaagsiekte, which is a fairly common disease of sheep and is caused by the retrovirus JSRV. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep in the same flock had died of the same disease.
Some in the press speculated that a contributing factor to Dolly's death was that she could have been born with a genetic age of six years, the same age as the sheep from which she was cloned. The Roslin Institute stated that intensive health screening did not reveal any abnormalities in Dolly that could have come from advanced aging.
In 2016, scientists reported no defects in thirteen cloned sheep, including four from the same cell line as Dolly. The first study to review the long-term health outcomes of cloning, the authors found no evidence of late-onset, non-communicable diseases other than some minor examples of osteoarthritis and concluded "We could find no evidence, therefore, of a detrimental long-term effect of cloning by SCNT on the health of aged offspring among our cohort."
After her death Dolly's body was preserved via taxidermy and is currently on display at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.
== Legacy ==
After cloning was successfully demonstrated through the production of Dolly, many other large mammals were cloned, including pigs, deer, horses and bulls. The attempt to clone argali (mountain sheep) did not produce viable embryos. The attempt to clone a banteng bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone mouflon (a form of wild sheep), both resulting in viable offspring. The reprogramming process that cells need to go through during cloning is not perfect and embryos produced by nuclear transfer often show abnormal development. Making cloned mammals was highly inefficientin 1996, Dolly was the only lamb that survived to adulthood from 277 attempts. By 2014, Chinese scientists were reported to have 70–80% success rates cloning pigs, Wilmut, who led the team that created Dolly, announced in 2007 that the nuclear transfer technique may never be sufficiently efficient for use in humans.
Cloning may have uses in preserving endangered species, and may become a viable tool for reviving extinct species. In January 2009, scientists from the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon in northern Spain announced the cloning of the Pyrenean ibex, a form of wild mountain goat, which was officially declared extinct in 2000. Although the newborn ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs, it is the first time an extinct animal has been cloned, and may open doors for saving endangered and newly extinct species by resurrecting them from frozen tissue.
In July 2016, four identical clones of Dolly (Daisy, Debbie, Dianna, and Denise) were alive and healthy at nine years old.
Scientific American concluded in 2016 that the main legacy of Dolly has not been cloning of animals but in advances into stem cell research. Gene targeting was added in 2000, when researchers cloned female lamb Diana from sheep DNA altered to contain the human gene for alpha 1-antitrypsin. The human gene was specifically activated in the ewe’s mammary gland, so Diana produced milk containing human alpha 1-antitrypsin. After Dolly, researchers realised that ordinary cells could be reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells, which can be grown into any tissue.
The first successful cloning of a primate species was reported in January 2018, using the same method which produced Dolly. Two identical clones of a macaque monkey, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, were created by researchers in China and were born in late 2017.
In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, again using this method, and the gene-editing CRISPR-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases.
== In popular culture ==
In 2003, Belgian artist Dominique Goblet published a short comic strip about Dolly the cloned sheep with the title: “2004 Apparition de Dolly dans la campagne anglaise”
|
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] |
9,156 |
Dolores Fuller
|
Dolores Agnes Fuller ( Eble, later Chamberlin; March 10, 1923 – May 9, 2011) was an American actress and songwriter known as the one-time girlfriend of the low-budget film director Ed Wood. She played the protagonist's girlfriend in Glen or Glenda, co-starred in Wood's Jail Bait, and had a minor role in his Bride of the Monster. After she broke up with Wood in 1955, she relocated to New York and had a very successful career there as a songwriter. Elvis Presley recorded a number of her songs written for his films.
== Film career ==
Her first screen appearance was at the age of 10, when she appeared briefly in Frank Capra's It Happened One Night. According to Fuller, the female lead in Bride of the Monster was written for her but Wood gave it to Loretta King instead.
In August 1954, Fuller was cast in Wood's The Vampire's Tomb, intended to star Bela Lugosi. Frank Yaconelli was named as her co-star and 'comic killer'. The film was never made. She ended up making an appearance in Bride of the Monster (1956), also with Lugosi. Fuller hosted a benefit for Lugosi which preceded the showing of Bride of the Atom (early working title of Bride of the Monster) on May 11, 1955. A cocktail party was held at the Gardens Restaurant at 4311 Magnolia Avenue in Burbank, California. Vampira attended and was escorted by Paul Marco. A single screening of the film was presented at the Hollywood Paramount.
According to Fuller, as quoted in Wood biography Nightmare of Ecstasy (1992), she first met Ed Wood when she attended a casting call with a friend for a movie he was supposed to direct called Behind Locked Doors (which he did not go on to direct); it has also been stated that they met in a restaurant. Toward the end of her life, Dolores helped edit and score a short western film Ed Wood had begun, but never completed, in the 1940s called Crossroads of Laredo
== Private life ==
Dolores married Donald Fuller in 1941, with whom she had two children. At the time she met Ed Wood, she was in the process of divorcing her husband (they finally divorced in 1955). She and Wood shared an apartment together for several years. Wood biographer Rudolph Grey quotes Fuller as saying of the period before her success, He [Ed Wood] begged me to marry him. I loved him in a way, but I couldn't handle the transvestism. I'm a very normal person. It's hard for me to deviate! I wanted a man that was all man… After we broke up, he would stand outside my home in Burbank and cry. "Let me in, I love you!" What good would I have done if I had married him? We would have starved together… I bettered myself. I had to uplift myself. She has also been quoted as saying that "His dressing up didn't bother me—we all have our little queer habits" and giving Wood's drinking as the reason for their breakup.
Dolores remarried in 1988 at age 65, to Philip Chamberlin, and they remained married until her death in 2011. Fuller's autobiography, A Fuller Life: Hollywood, Ed Wood and Me, co-authored by Stone Wallace and Philip Chamberlin, was published in 2008. She also complained that she was only portrayed as "sort of as an actress" and did not feel she was given credit for her other accomplishments and contributions towards Wood's career. However, she stated that she liked the film overall, praising Johnny Depp's performance in the title role.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Discography ==
Songs recorded by Elvis Presley with lyrics by Dolores Fuller:
"Rock-A-Hula Baby" (from the film Blue Hawaii, 1961)
"I Got Lucky" (from the film Kid Galahad, 1962)
"Steppin' Out of Line" (unused track from the Blue Hawaii sessions, first released on 1962 album Pot Luck)
"You Can't Say No in Acapulco" (from the film Fun in Acapulco, 1963)
"Beyond the Bend" (from the film It Happened at the World's Fair, 1963)
"Barefoot Ballad" (from the film Kissin' Cousins, 1964)
"Big Love, Big Heartache" (from the film Roustabout, 1964)
"Do the Clam" (from the film Girl Happy, 1965)
"Spinout" (from the film Spinout, 1966)
"I'll Take Love" (from the film Easy Come, Easy Go, 1967)
"Have a Happy" (from the film Change of Habit, 1969)
"Cindy, Cindy" (Love Letters from Elvis, 1971 studio album)
According to AllMusic, other songs co-written by her include "I'll Touch a Star" by Terry Stafford, "Lost Summer Love" by Shelley Fabares and "Someone to Tell It To" by Nat King Cole.
|
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"Roustabout",
"The Blue Gardenia",
"Mesa of Lost Women",
"Tim Burton",
"Maila Nurmi",
"Hal B. Wallis",
"Shelley Fabares",
"Bride of the Monster",
"The Great Gildersleeve",
"Elvis Presley",
"Ben Weisman",
"Nat 'King' Cole",
"Sarah Jessica Parker",
"Peggy Lee",
"Frank Yaconelli",
"Queen for a Day",
"The Raid (1954 film)",
"I'll Take Love",
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"It Happened One Night",
"Do the Clam",
"This Is My Love",
"Fun in Acapulco",
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"The Body Beautiful",
"Rock-A-Hula Baby",
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"Girl Happy",
"Crossroads of Laredo",
"South Bend, IN",
"Las Vegas",
"Playgirl (film)",
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"The Moonlighter",
"Steppin' Out of Line",
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"Terry Stafford",
"Count the Hours",
"Loretta King Hadler",
"Hill & Range",
"It's a Great Life (TV series)",
"Girls in the Night",
"Nat King Cole",
"I Got Lucky (song)",
"Outlaw Women",
"Love Letters from Elvis",
"Change of Habit"
] |
9,160 |
De jure
|
In law and government, de jure (; ; ) describes practices that are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. The phrase is often used in contrast with de facto ('in fact'), which describes situations that exist in reality, even if not formally recognized.
==Definition==
De jure is a Latin expression composed of the words de (from) and jure (adjective form of jus, meaning 'law').
==Usage==
===Jurisprudence and de jure law===
In U.S. law, particularly after Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the difference between de facto segregation (that existed because of voluntary associations and neighborhoods) and de jure segregation (that existed because of local laws) became important distinctions for court-mandated remedial purposes.
===Government and culture===
Between 1805 and 1914, the ruling dynasty of Egypt was subject to the rulers of the Ottoman Empire but acted as de facto independent rulers who maintained the polite fiction of Ottoman suzerainty. However, starting from around 1882, the rulers had only de jure rule over Egypt, as it had by then become a British puppet state. Thus, by Ottoman law, Egypt was de jure a province of the Ottoman Empire, but de facto was part of the British Empire.
===Borders===
The de jure borders of a country are defined by the area its government claims, but not necessarily controls. Modern examples include Taiwan (claimed but not controlled by China) and Kashmir (claimed by multiple countries).
|
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"government",
"Racial segregation in the United States",
"puppet state",
"List of Latin phrases (D)",
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"Muhammad Ali dynasty",
"Kashmir",
"Kashmir conflict",
"polite fiction",
"Brown v. Board of Education",
"Implied repeal",
"Obrogation",
"de facto",
"Khedivate of Egypt"
] |
9,163 |
Des Moines, Iowa
|
Des Moines ( ) is the capital and most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is the county seat of Polk County with parts extending into Warren County. It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as Fort Des Moines, which was shortened to "Des Moines" in 1857. It is located on, and named after, the Des Moines River, which likely was adapted from the early French name, Rivière des Moines, meaning "River of the Monks". The city's population was 214,133 as of the 2020 census. The six-county metropolitan area is ranked 81st in terms of population in the United States, with 709,466 residents according to the 2020 census by the United States Census Bureau, and is the largest metropolitan area fully located within the state.
Des Moines is a major center of the United States insurance industry and has a sizable financial-services and publishing business base. The city is the headquarters for the Principal Financial Group and Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield. Other major corporations such as Wells Fargo, Cognizant, Voya Financial, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, ACE Limited, Bayer, and Corteva have large operations in or near the metropolitan area. In recent years, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Facebook have built data-processing and logistical facilities in the Des Moines area.
Des Moines is an important city in U.S. presidential politics; as the state's capital, it is the site of the first caucuses of the presidential primary cycle. Many presidential candidates set up campaign headquarters in Des Moines. A 2007 article in The New York Times said, "If you have any desire to witness presidential candidates in the most close-up and intimate of settings, there is arguably no better place to go than Des Moines."
==History==
===Etymology===
Des Moines takes its name from Fort Des Moines (1843–46), which was named for the Des Moines River. This was adopted from the name given by French colonists. Des Moines (; formerly ) translates literally to either "from the monks" or "of the monks".
One popular interpretation of "Des Moines" concludes that it refers to a group of French Trappist monks, who in the 17th century lived in huts built on top of what is now known as the ancient Monks Mound at Cahokia, the major center of Mississippian culture, which developed in what is present-day Illinois, east of the Mississippi River and the city of St. Louis. This was some from the Des Moines River.
===Prehistoric inhabitants of early Des Moines===
Based on archaeological evidence, the junction of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers has attracted humans for at least 7,000 years. Several prehistoric occupation areas have been identified by archaeologists in downtown Des Moines. Discovered in December 2010, the "Palace" is an expansive 7,000-year-old site found during excavations prior to construction of the new wastewater treatment plant in southeast Des Moines. It contains well-preserved house deposits and numerous graves. More than 6,000 artifacts were found at this site. State of Iowa archaeologist John Doershuk was assisted by University of Iowa archaeologists at this dig.
At least three villages, dating from about AD 1300 to 1700, stood in or near what developed later as downtown Des Moines. In addition, 15 to 18 prehistoric Native American mounds were observed in the area by early settlers. All have been destroyed during development of the city.
===Origin of Fort Des Moines===
Des Moines traces its origins to May 1843, when Captain James Allen supervised the construction of a fort on the site where the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers merge. Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon; however, the U.S. War Department preferred Fort Des Moines. The fort was built to control the Sauk and Meskwaki peoples, whom the government had moved to the area from their traditional lands in eastern Iowa. The fort was abandoned in 1846 after the Sauk and Meskwaki were removed from the state and shifted to the Indian Territory.
The Sauk and Meskwaki did not fare well in Des Moines. The illegal whiskey trade, combined with the destruction of traditional lifeways, led to severe problems for their society. One newspaper reported:
"It is a fact that the location of Fort Des Moines among the Sac and Fox Indians (under its present commander) for the last two years, had corrupted them more and lowered them deeper in the scale of vice and degradation, than all their intercourse with the whites for the ten years previous". Soldiers stationed at Fort Des Moines opened the first coal mines in the area, mining coal from the riverbank for the fort's blacksmith.
===Early settlement===
Settlers occupied the abandoned fort and nearby areas. On May 25, 1846, the state legislature designated Fort Des Moines as the seat of Polk County. Arozina Perkins, a school teacher who spent the winter of 1850–1851 in the town of Fort Des Moines, was not favorably impressed:
This is one of the strangest looking "cities" I ever saw... This town is at the juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers. It is mostly a level prairie with a few swells or hills around it. We have a court house of "brick" and one church, a plain, framed building belonging to the Methodists. There are two taverns here, one of which has a most important little bell that rings together some fifty boarders. I cannot tell you how many dwellings there are, for I have not counted them; some are of logs, some of brick, some framed, and some are the remains of the old dragoon houses... The people support two papers and there are several dry goods shops. I have been into but four of them... Society is as varied as the buildings are. There are people from nearly every state, and Dutch, Swedes, etc.
In May 1851, much of the town was destroyed during the Flood of 1851. "The Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers rose to an unprecedented height, inundating the entire country east of the Des Moines River. Crops were utterly destroyed, houses and fences swept away." The city started to rebuild from scratch.
===Era of growth===
On September 22, 1851, Des Moines was incorporated as a city; the charter was approved by voters on October 18. In 1857, the name "Fort Des Moines" was shortened to "Des Moines", and it was designated as the second state capital, previously at Iowa City. Growth was slow during the Civil War period, but the city exploded in size and importance after a railroad link was completed in 1866.
In 1864, the Des Moines Coal Company was organized to begin the first systematic mining in the region. Its first mine, north of town on the river's west side, was exhausted by 1873. The Black Diamond mine, near the south end of the West Seventh Street Bridge, sank a mine shaft to reach a coal bed. By 1876, this mine employed 150 men and shipped 20 carloads of coal per day. By 1885, numerous mine shafts were within the city limits, and mining began to spread into the surrounding countryside. By 1893, 23 mines were in the region. By 1908, Des Moines' coal resources were largely exhausted. In 1912, Des Moines still had eight locals of the United Mine Workers union, representing 1,410 miners. This was about 1.7% of the city's population in 1910.
By 1880, Des Moines had a population of 22,408, making it Iowa's largest city. It displaced the three Mississippi River ports: Burlington, Dubuque, and Davenport, that had alternated holding the position since the territorial period. Des Moines has remained Iowa's most populous city. In 1910, the Census Bureau reported Des Moines' population as 97.3% white and 2.7% black, reflecting its early settlement pattern primarily by ethnic Europeans.
==="City Beautiful" project, decline and rebirth===
At the turn of the 20th century, encouraged by the Civic Committee of the Des Moines Women's Club, Des Moines undertook a "City Beautiful" project in which large Beaux Arts public buildings and fountains were constructed along the Des Moines River. The former Des Moines Public Library building (now the home of the World Food Prize); the United States central Post Office, built by the federal government (now the Polk County Administrative Building, with a newer addition); and the City Hall are surviving examples of the 1900–1910 buildings. They form the Civic Center Historic District.
The ornate riverfront balustrades that line the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers were built by the federal Civilian Conservation Corps in the mid-1930s, during the Great Depression under Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a project to provide local employment and improve infrastructure. The ornamental fountains that stood along the riverbank were buried in the 1950s when the city began a postindustrial decline that lasted until the late 1980s. The city has since rebounded, transforming from a blue-collar industrial city to a white-collar professional city.
In 1907, the city adopted a city commission government known as the Des Moines Plan, comprising an elected mayor and four commissioners, all elected at-large, who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance. Considered progressive at the time, it diluted the votes of ethnic and national minorities, who generally could not command a majority to elect a candidate of their choice.
That form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a council-manager government, with the council members elected at-large. In 1967, the city changed its government to elect four of the seven city council members from single-member districts or wards, rather than at-large. This enabled a broader representation of voters. As with many major urban areas, the city core began losing population to the suburbs in the 1960s (the peak population of 208,982 was recorded in 1960), as highway construction led to new residential construction outside the city. The population was 198,682 in 2000 and grew slightly to 200,538 in 2009. The growth of the outlying suburbs has continued, and the overall metropolitan-area population is over 700,000 today.
During the Great Flood of 1993, heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers to rise above flood stage levels. The Des Moines Water Works was submerged by floodwaters during the early morning hours of July 11, 1993, leaving an estimated 250,000 people without running water for 12 days and without drinking water for 20 days. Des Moines suffered major flooding again in June 2008 with a major levee breach. The Des Moines River is controlled upstream by Saylorville Reservoir. In both 1993 and 2008, the flooding river overtopped the reservoir spillway.
Today, Des Moines is a member of ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA. Through ICLEI, Des Moines has implemented "The Tomorrow Plan", a regional plan focused on developing central Iowa in a sustainable fashion, centrally-planned growth, and resource consumption to manage the local population.
==Geography==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is covered by water. It is above sea level at the confluence of the Raccoon and Des Moines Rivers.
In November 2005, Des Moines voters approved a measure that allowed the city to annex parcels of land in the northeast, southeast, and southern corners of Des Moines without agreement by local residents, particularly areas bordering the Iowa Highway 5/U.S. 65 bypass. The annexations became official on June 26, 2009, as and around 868 new residents were added to the city of Des Moines. An additional were voluntarily annexed to the city over that same period.
In the early 21st century, the city has had more major construction in the downtown area. The new Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater and the Iowa Events Center opened in 2005. The new central branch of the Des Moines Public Library, designed by renowned architect David Chipperfield of London, opened on April 8, 2006.
The World Food Prize Foundation, which is based in Des Moines, completed adaptation and restoration of the former Des Moines Public Library building in October 2011. The former library now serves as the home and headquarters of the Norman Borlaug/World Food Prize Hall of Laureates.
===Climate===
At the center of North America and far removed from large bodies of water, the Des Moines area has a hot summer type humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa), with warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters. Summer temperatures can often climb into the range, occasionally reaching . Humidity can be high in spring and summer, with frequent afternoon thunderstorms. Fall brings pleasant temperatures and colorful fall foliage. Winters vary from moderately cold to bitterly cold, with low temperatures venturing below quite often. Snowfall averages per season, and annual precipitation averages , with a peak in the warmer months. Winters are slightly colder than Chicago, but still warmer than Minneapolis, with summer temperatures being very similar between the Upper Midwest metropolitan areas.
==Demographics==
The city has the largest African American population in Iowa.
{{US Census population
|1850= 502
|1860= 3965
|1870= 12035
|1880= 22408
|1890= 50093
|1900= 62139
|1910= 86368
|1920= 126468
|1930= 142559
|1940= 159819
|1950= 177965
|1960= 208982
|1970= 201404
|1980= 191003
|1990= 193187
|2000= 198682
|2010= 203433
|2020= 214133
|estyear=2023
|estimate=210381
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census
|-
! Race or Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic)
! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Race Alone
! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Total
|-
| White (NH)
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|-
| Hispanic or Latino
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|-
| African American (NH)
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|-
| Asian (NH)
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|-
| Native American (NH)
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|-
| Pacific Islander (NH)
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|-
| Other
|aline=right|
|aline=right|
|}
The 2020 United States census counted 214,133 people, 87,958 households, and 48,599 families in Des Moines.
The racial makeup (including Hispanics in the racial counts) was 64.54% (138,200) white or European American (60.99% non-Hispanic white), 11.68% (25,011) black or African-American, 0.69% (1,474) Native American or Alaska Native, 6.76% (14,474) Asian, 0.06% (135) Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian, 6.62% (14,178) from other races, and 9.65% (20,661) from two or more races.
The 2020 census population of the city included 252 people incarcerated in adult correctional facilities and 2,378 people in student housing.
Of the 87,958 households, 28.0% had children under the age of 18; 35.5% were married couples living together; 31.3% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 35.3% of households consisted of individuals and 11.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The percent of those with a bachelor's degree or higher was estimated to be 19.9% of the population. Of the population age 25 and over, 86.7% were high school graduates or higher and 27.9% had a bachelor's degree or higher.
23.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.4% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.7 males. Males had a median income of $38,326 (+/- $1,405) versus $29,855 (+/- $1,327) for females. The median income for those above 16 years old was $33,699 (+/- $740). Approximately, 12.1% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.8% of those ages 65 or over.
===2010 census===
As of the census of 2010, there were 203,433 people, 81,369 households, and 47,491 families residing in the city. Population density was . There were 88,729 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city for unincorporated areas not merged with the city proper was 66.2% White, 15.5% African Americans, 0.5% Native American, 4.0% Asian, and 2.6% from Two or more races. People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, made up 12.1% of the population. The city's racial make up during the 2010 census was 76.4% White, 10.2% African American, 0.5% Native American, 4.4% Asian (1.2% Vietnamese, 0.9% Laotian, 0.4% Burmese, 0.3% Asian Indian, 0.3% Thai, 0.2% Chinese, 0.2% Cambodian, 0.2% Filipino, 0.1% Hmong, 0.1% Korean, 0.1% Nepalese), 0.1% Pacific Islander, 5.0% from other races, and 3.4% from two or more races. People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, formed 12.0% of the population (9.4% Mexican, 0.7% Salvadoran, 0.3% Guatemalan, 0.3% Puerto Rican, 0.1% Honduran, 0.1% Ecuadorian, 0.1% Cuban, 0.1% Spaniard, 0.1% Spanish). Non-Hispanic Whites were 70.5% of the population in 2010. Des Moines also has a sizeable South Sudanese community.
There were 81,369 households, of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.6% were non-families. 32.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.11.
The median age in the city was 33.5 years. 24.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.4% were from 25 to 44; 23.9% were from 45 to 64; and 11% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.
===2000 census===
As of the 2000 census, there were 198,682 people, 80,504 households, and 48,704 families in the city. The population density was . There were 85,067 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 82.3% white, 8.07% Black, 0.35% American Indian, 3.50% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 3.52% from other races, and 2.23% from two or more races. 6.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 20.9% were of German, 10.3% Irish, 9.1% "American" and 8.0% English ancestry, according to Census 2000.
There were 80,504 households, out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 12.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.04.
The age distribution was 24.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $38,408, and the median income for a family was $46,590. Males had a median income of $31,712 versus $25,832 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,467. About 7.9% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.9% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those ages 65 or over.
==Economy==
Many insurance companies are headquartered in Des Moines, including the Principal Financial Group, Fidelity & Guaranty Life, Allied Insurance, GuideOne Insurance, Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield of Iowa and FBL Financial Group. Iowa has one of the lowest insurance premium taxes in the nation at 1%, and does not charge any premium taxes on qualified life insurance plans, making the state attractive to insurance business. Des Moines has been referred to as the "Hartford of the West" and "Insurance Capital" because of this. Principal is one of two Fortune 500 companies with headquarters in Iowa (the other being Casey's General Stores), ranking 201st on the magazine's list in 2020.
As a center of financial and insurance services, other major corporations headquartered outside of Iowa have a presence in the Des Moines Metro area, including Wells Fargo, Voya Financial, and Electronic Data Systems (EDS). The Meredith Corporation, a leading publishing and marketing company, was also based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021. Meredith published Better Homes and Gardens, one of the most widely circulated publications in the United States. Des Moines was also the headquarters of Golf Digest magazine.
Other major employers in Des Moines include UnityPoint Health, Mercy Medical Center, MidAmerican Energy Company, CDS Global, UPS, Firestone, Lumen Technologies, Drake University, Titan Tire, The Des Moines Register, Anderson Erickson, EMCO.
The Brotherhood of American Yeomen, headquartered in Des Moines, went through various mergers before it became AmerUs, which was purchased by Aviva in 2006, for $2.9 billion. In 2017, Kemin Industries opened a state-of-the-art worldwide headquarters building in Des Moines.
==Arts and culture==
===Arts and theater===
The City of Des Moines is a cultural center for Iowa and home to several art and history museums and performing arts groups. The Des Moines Performing Arts routinely hosts touring Broadway shows and other live professional theater. The Temple for Performing Arts and Des Moines Playhouse are other venues for live theater, comedy, and performance arts.
The Des Moines Metro Opera has been a cultural resource in Des Moines since 1973. The Opera offers educational and outreach programs and is one of the largest performing arts organizations in the state. Ballet Des Moines was established in 2002. Performing three productions each year, the Ballet also provides opportunities for education and outreach.
The Des Moines Symphony performs frequently at different venues. In addition to performing seven pairs of classical concerts each season, the Symphony also entertains with New Year's Eve Pops and its annual Yankee Doodle Pops concerts.
Jazz in July is an annual event founded in 1969 that performs free jazz shows daily at venues throughout the city during July.
Wells Fargo Arena is the Des Moines area's primary venue for sporting events and concerts since its opening in 2005. Named for title sponsor Wells Fargo Financial Services, Wells Fargo Arena holds 16,980 and books large, national touring acts for arena concert performances, while several smaller venues host local, regional, and national bands. It is the home of the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League.
The Simon Estes Riverfront Amphitheater is an outdoor concert venue on the east bank of the Des Moines River which hosts music events such as the Alive Concert Series.
The Des Moines Art Center, with wings designed by architects I.M. Pei and Richard Meier, presents art exhibitions and educational programs as well as studio art classes. The Center houses a collection of artwork from the 19th century to the present. An extension of the art center is downtown in an urban museum space, featuring three or four exhibitions each year.
The Pappajohn Sculpture Park was established in 2009. It showcases a collection of 24 sculptures donated by Des Moines philanthropists John and Mary Pappajohn. Nearby is the Temple for Performing Arts, a cultural center for the city. Next to the Temple is the Central Library, designed by renowned English architect David Chipperfield.
Salisbury House and Gardens is a 42-room historic house museum on of woodlands in the South of Grand neighborhood of Des Moines. It is named after—and loosely inspired by—King's House in Salisbury, England. Built in the 1920s by cosmetics magnate Carl Weeks and his wife, Edith, the Salisbury House contains authentic 16th-century English oak and rafters dating to Shakespeare's days, numerous other architectural features re-purposed from other historic English homes, and an internationally significant collection of original fine art, tapestries, decorative art, furniture, musical instruments, and rare books and documents. The Salisbury House is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and has been featured on A&E's America's Castles and PBS's Antiques Roadshow. Prominent artists in the Salisbury House collection include Joseph Stella, Lillian Genth, Anthony van Dyck and Lawrence Alma-Tadema.
Built in 1877 by prominent pioneer businessman Hoyt Sherman, Hoyt Sherman Place mansion was Des Moines' first public art gallery and houses a distinctive collection of 19th and 20th century artwork. Its restored 1,250-seat theater features an intricate rococo plaster ceiling and excellent acoustics and is used for a variety of cultural performances and entertainment.
===Attractions===
Arising in the east and facing westward toward downtown, the Iowa State Capitol building with its , 23-karat gold leafed dome towering above the city is a favorite of sightseers. Four smaller domes flank the main dome. The Capitol houses the governor's offices, legislature, and the old Supreme Court Chambers. The ornate interior also features a grand staircase, mural "Westward", five-story law library, scale model of the USS Iowa, and collection of first lady dolls. Guided tours are available.
The Capitol grounds include a World War II memorial with sculpture and Wall of Memories, the 1894 Soldiers and Sailors Monument of the Civil War and memorials honoring those who served in the Spanish–American, Korean, and Vietnam Wars.
The West Capitol Terrace provides the entrance from the west to the state's grandest building, the State Capitol Building. The "people's park" at the foot of the Capitol complex includes a promenade and landscaped gardens, in addition to providing public space for rallies and special events. A granite map of Iowa depicting all 99 counties rests at the base of the terrace and has become an attraction for in-state visitors, many of whom walk over the map to find their home county.
Iowa's history lives on in the State of Iowa Historical Museum. This modern granite and glass structure at the foot of the State Capitol Building houses permanent and temporary exhibits exploring the people, places, events, and issues of Iowa's past. The showcase includes native wildlife, American Indian and pioneer artifacts, and political and military items. The museum features a genealogy and Iowa history library, museum gift shop, and cafe.
Terrace Hill, a National Historic Landmark and Iowa Governor's Residence, is among the best examples of American Victorian Second Empire architecture. This opulent 1869 home was built by Iowa's first millionaire, Benjamin F. Allen, and restored to the late 19th century period. It overlooks downtown Des Moines and is situated on with a re-created Victorian formal garden. Tours are conducted Tuesdays through Saturdays from March through December.
The Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater offers seven interactive learning areas, live programs, and hands-on activities encouraging learning and fun for all ages. Among its three theaters include the 216-seat Blank IMAX Dome Theater, 175-seat John Deere Adventure Theater featuring live performances, and a domed Star Theater.
The Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, an indoor conservatory of over 15,000 exotic plants, is one of the largest collections of tropical, subtropical, and desert-growing plants in the Midwest. The Center blooms with thousands of flowers year-round. Nearby are the Robert D. Ray Asian Gardens and Pavilion, named in honor of the former governor whose influence helped relocate thousands of Vietnamese refugees to Iowa homes in the 1970s and 1980s. Developed by the city's Asian community, the Gardens include a three-story Chinese pavilion, bonsai landscaping, and granite sculptures to highlight the importance of diversity and recognize Asian American contributions in Iowa.
Blank Park Zoo is a landscaped zoological park on the south side. Among the exhibits include a tropical rain forest, Australian Outback, and Africa. The Zoo offers education classes, tours, and rental facilities.
The Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary was established as a scientific research facility with a campus housing bonobos and orangutans for the noninvasive interdisciplinary study of their cognitive and communicative capabilities.
The East Village, on the east side of the Des Moines River, begins at the river and extends about five blocks east to the State Capitol Building, offering an eclectic blend of historic buildings, hip eateries, boutiques, art galleries, and a wide variety of other retail establishments mixed with residences.
Adventureland Park is an amusement park in neighboring Altoona, just northeast of Des Moines. The park boasts more than 100 rides, shows, and attractions, including six rollercoasters. A hotel and campground is just outside the park. Also in Altoona is Prairie Meadows Racetrack and Casino, an entertainment venue for gambling and horse racing. Open 24 hours a day, year-round, the racetrack and casino features live racing, plus over 1,750 slot machines, table games, and concert and show entertainment. The racetrack hosts two Grade III races annually, the Iowa Oaks and the Cornhusker Handicap.
Living History Farms in suburban Urbandale tells the story of Midwestern agriculture and rural life in a open-air museum with interpreters dressed in period costume who recreate the daily routines of early Iowans. Open daily from May through October, the Living History Farms include a 1700 Ioway Indian village, 1850 pioneer farm, 1875 frontier town, 1900 horse-powered farm, and a modern crop center.
Wallace House was the home of the first Henry Wallace, a national leader in agriculture and conservation and the first editor of Wallaces' Farmer farm journal. This restored 1883 Italianate Victorian houses exhibits, artifacts, and information covering four generations of Henry Wallaces and other family members.
Historic Jordan House in West Des Moines is a stately Victorian home built in 1850 and added to in 1870 by the first white settler in West Des Moines, James C. Jordan. Completely refurbished, this mansion was part of the Underground Railroad and today houses 16 period rooms, a railroad museum, West Des Moines community history, and a museum dedicated to the Underground Railroad in Iowa. In 1893 Jordan's daughter Eda was sliding down the banister when she fell off and broke her neck. She died two days later, and her ghost is reputed to haunt the house.
The Chicago Tribune wrote that Iowa's capital city has "walker-friendly downtown streets and enough outdoor sculpture, sleek buildings, storefronts and cafes to delight the most jaded stroller".
===Festivals and events===
Des Moines plays host to a growing number of nationally acclaimed cultural events, including the annual Des Moines Arts Festival in June, Metro Arts Jazz in July, Iowa State Fair in August, and the World Food & Music Festival in September. On Saturdays from May through October, the Downtown Farmers' Market draws visitors from across the state. Local parades include Saint Patrick's Day Parade, Drake Relays Parade, Capitol City Pride Parade, Iowa State Fair Parade, Labor Day Parade, and Beaverdale Fall Festival Parade.
Other annual festivals and events include: Des Moines Beer Week, 80/35 Music Festival, 515 Alive Music Festival, ArtFest Midwest, Blue Ribbon Bacon Fest, CelebrAsian Heritage Festival, Des Moines Pride Festival, Des Moines Renaissance Faire, Festa Italiana, Festival of Trees and Lights, World Food & Music Festival, I'll Make Me a World Iowa, Latino Heritage Festival, Oktoberfest, Winefest, ImaginEve!, Iowa's Premier Beer, Wine & Food Show, and Wild Rose Film Festival.
===Museums===
Des Moines Art Center
Jordan House Museum
Hoyt Sherman Place
Salisbury House
Science Center of Iowa
State Historical Society of Iowa
Terrace Hill – Official residence of the governor of Iowa
Wallace House Museum
World Food Prize Hall of Laureates
===Cuisine===
Tasty Tacos
==Sports==
Des Moines hosts professional minor league teams in several sports — baseball, basketball, hockey, indoor football, and soccer — and is home to the sports teams of Drake University which play in NCAA Division I.
The Des Moines Menace soccer club, a member of USL League Two, play their home games at Valley Stadium in West Des Moines. Des Moines United FC of the National Premier Soccer League also utilize Valley Stadium.
Des Moines is home to the Iowa Cubs baseball team of the Triple-A East. The I-Cubs, which are the Triple-A affiliate of the major league Chicago Cubs, play their home games at Principal Park near the confluence of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers.
Wells Fargo Arena of the Iowa Events Center is home to the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League. The Barnstormers relaunched as an af2 club in 2008 before joining a relaunched Arena Football League in 2010 and the Indoor Football League in 2015; the Barnstormers had previously played in the Arena Football League from 1994 to 2000 (featuring future NFL Hall of Famer and Super Bowl MVP quarterback Kurt Warner) before relocating to New York. The Iowa Energy, a D-League team, began play in 2007. They were bought by the Minnesota Timberwolves in 2017 and were renamed the Iowa Wolves to reflect the new ownership. The Wild, the AHL affiliate of the National Hockey League's Minnesota Wild have played at Wells Fargo Arena since 2013; previously, the Iowa Chops played four seasons in Des Moines (known as the Iowa Stars for three of those seasons.)
Additionally, the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League play at Buccaneer Arena in suburban Urbandale.
Des Moines is also home to the Drake University Bulldogs, an NCAA Division I member of the Missouri Valley Conference, primarily playing northwest of downtown at the on-campus Drake Stadium and Knapp Center. Drake Stadium is home to the famed Drake Relays each April. In addition to the Drake Relays, Drake Stadium has hosted multiple NCAA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships.
The Vikings of Grand View University also compete in intercollegiate athletics in Des Moines. A member of the Heart of America Athletic Conference, within the NAIA, they field 21 varsity athletic teams. They were NAIA National Champions in football in 2013.
The Principal Charity Classic, a Champions Tour golf event, is held at Wakonda Club in late May or early June. The IMT Des Moines Marathon is held throughout the city each October.
==Parks and recreation==
Des Moines has 76 city parks and three golf courses, as well as three family aquatic centers, five community centers and three swimming pools. The city has of trails. The first major park was Greenwood Park. The park commissioners purchased the land on April 21, 1894.
The Principal Riverwalk is a riverwalk park district being constructed along the banks of the Des Moines River in the downtown. Primarily funded by the Principal Financial Group, the Riverwalk is a multi-year jointly funded project also funded by the city and state. Upon completion, it will feature a recreational trail connecting the east and west sides of downtown via two pedestrian bridges. A landscaped promenade along the street level is planned. The Riverwalk includes the downtown Brenton Skating Plaza, open from November through March.
Gray's Lake, part of the of Gray's Lake Park, features a boat rental facility, fishing pier, floating boardwalks, and a park resource center. Located just south of the downtown, the centerpiece of the park is a lighted Kruidenier Trail, encircling it entirely.
From downtown Des Moines primarily along the east bank of the Des Moines River, the Neil Smith and John Pat Dorrian Trails are paved recreational trails that connect Gray's Lake northward to the east shore of Saylorville Lake, Big Creek State Park, and the recreational trails of Ankeny including the High Trestle Trail. These trails are near several recreational facilities including the Pete Crivaro Park, Principal Park, the Principal Riverwalk, the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, Union Park and its Heritage Carousel of Des Moines, Birdland Park and the Birdland Marina/Boatramp on the Des Moines River, Riverview Park, McHenry Park, and River Drive Park. Although outside of Des Moines, Jester Park has of land along the western shore of Saylorville Lake and can be reached from the Neil Smith Trail over the Saylorville Dam.
Just west of Gray's Lake are the of the Des Moines Water Works Park. The Water Works Park is along the banks of the Raccoon River immediately upstream from where the Raccoon River empties into the Des Moines River. The Des Moines Water Works Facility, which obtains the city's drinking water from the Raccoon River, is entirely within the Water Works Park. A bridge in the park crosses the Raccoon River. The Water Works Park recreational trails link to downtown Des Moines by travelling past Gray's Lake and back across the Raccoon River via either along the Meredith Trail near Principal Park, or along the Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway. The Water Works Park trails connect westward to Valley Junction and the recreational trails of the western suburbs: Windsor Heights, Urbandale, Clive, and Waukee. Also originating from Water Works Park, the Great Western Trail is an journey southward from Des Moines to Martensdale through the Willow Creek Golf Course, Orilla, and Cumming. Often, the location for summer music festivals and concerts, Water Works Park was the overnight campground for thousands of bicyclists on Tuesday, July 23, 2013, during RAGBRAI XLI.
==Government==
Des Moines operates under a council–manager form of government. The council consists of a mayor who is elected in citywide vote, two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards. In 2014, Jonathan Gano was appointed as the new Public Works Director. In 2015, Dana Wingert was appointed as Police Chief. In 2018, Steven L. Naber was appointed as the new City Engineer.
The council members include:
A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the November 2, 2004, election. The consolidated city-county government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs. Each suburb would still have retained its individual government but with the option to join the consolidated government at any time. Although a full merger was soundly rejected, several city and county departments and programs have been consolidated.
==Education==
The Des Moines Public Schools district is the largest community school district in Iowa with 32,062 enrolled students as of the 2012–2013 school year. The district consists of 63 schools: 38 elementary schools, eleven middle schools, five high schools (East, Hoover, Lincoln, North, and Roosevelt), and ten special schools and programs. Small parts of the city are instead served by Carlisle Community Schools, Johnston Community School District, the Southeast Polk Community School District and the Saydel School District Grand View Christian School is the only private school in the city, although Des Moines Christian School (in Des Moines from 1947 to 2006) in Urbandale, Dowling Catholic High School in West Des Moines, and Ankeny Christian Academy on the north side of the metro area serve some city residents.
Des Moines is also home to the main campuses of three four-year private colleges: Drake University, Grand View University, and Mercy College of Health Sciences. The University of Iowa has a satellite facility in the city's Western Gateway Park, while Iowa State University hosts Master of Business Administration classes downtown. Des Moines Area Community College is the area's community college with campuses in Ankeny, Des Moines, and West Des Moines. The city is also home to Des Moines University, an osteopathic medical school.
==Media==
The Des Moines market, which originally consisted of Polk, Dallas, Story, and Warren counties, was ranked 91st by Arbitron as of the fall of 2007 with a population of 512,000 aged 12 and older. In June 2011 it moved up to 72nd with the addition of Boone, Clarke, Greene, Guthrie, Jasper, Lucas, Madison and Marion counties.
===Radio===
====Commercial stations====
iHeartMedia owns five radio stations in the area, including WHO 1040 AM, a 50,000-watt AM news/talk station that has the highest ratings in the area and once employed future President Ronald Reagan as a sportscaster. In addition to WHO, iHeartMedia owns KDRB 100.3 FM (adult hits), KKDM 107.5 FM (contemporary hits), KXNO-FM 106.3, and KXNO 1460 AM (sports radio). They also own news/talk station KASI 1430 AM and hot adult contemporary station KCYZ 105.1 FM, both of which broadcast from Ames.
Cumulus Media owns five stations that broadcast from facilities in Urbandale: KBGG 1700 AM (sports), KGGO 94.9 FM (classic rock), KHKI 97.3 FM (country music), KJJY 92.5 FM (country music), and KWQW 98.3 FM (contemporary hits).
Saga Communications owns nine stations in the area: KAZR LAZER 103.3 FM (rock), KAZR-HD2 (oldies), 93.3 KIOA FM (Classic Hits), KIOA-HD2 HITS 99.9FM & 93.3 HD2 (Rhythmic Top 40), KOEZ 104.1 EZ FM (soft adult contemporary), KPSZ HOPE 940 AM (Religious teaching and conservative talk), KRNT 1350 AM (ESPN Radio), KSTZ STAR 102.5 FM (adult contemporary hits), and KSTZ-HD2 The Outlaw (classic country).
Other stations in the Des Moines area include religious stations KWKY 1150 AM, and KPUL 101.7 FM.
====Non-commercial stations====
Non-commercial radio stations in the Des Moines area include KDPS 88.1 FM, a station operated by the Des Moines Public Schools; KWDM 88.7 FM, a station operated by Valley High School; KJMC 89.3 FM, an urban contemporary station; K213DV 90.5 FM, the contemporary Christian K-Love affiliate for the area; and KDFR 91.3 FM, operated by Family Radio. Iowa Public Radio broadcasts several stations in the Des Moines area, all of which are owned by Iowa State University and operated on campus. WOI 640 AM, the network's flagship station, and WOI-FM 90.1, the network's flagship "Studio One" station, are both based out of Ames and serve as the area's National Public Radio outlets. The network also operates classical stations KICG, KICJ, KICL and KICP. The University of Northwestern – St. Paul operates Contemporary Christian simulcasts of KNWI-FM at 107.1 Osceola/Des Moines, KNWM-FM at 96.1 Madrid/Ames/Des Moines, and K264CD at 100.7 in downtown Des Moines. Low-power FM stations include KFMG-LP 99.1, a community radio station broadcasting from the Hotel Fort Des Moines and also webstreamed.
===Television===
The Des Moines-Ames media market consists of 35 central Iowa counties: Adair, Adams, Appanoose, Audubon, Boone, Calhoun, Carroll, Clarke, Dallas, Decatur, Franklin, Greene, Guthrie, Hamilton, Hardin, Humboldt, Jasper, Kossuth, Lucas, Madison, Mahaska, Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Pocahontas, Polk, Poweshiek, Ringgold, Story, Taylor, Union, Warren, Wayne, Webster, and Wright.
Commercial television stations serving Des Moines include CBS affiliate KCCI channel 8, NBC affiliate WHO-DT channel 13, and Fox affiliate KDSM-TV channel 17. ABC affiliate WOI-TV channel 5 and CW affiliate KCWI-TV channel 23 are both licensed to Ames and broadcast from studios in West Des Moines. KFPX-TV channel 39, the local ION affiliate, is licensed to Newton. Two non-commercial stations are also licensed to Des Moines: KDIN channel 11, the local PBS member station and flagship of the Iowa Public Television network, and KDMI channel 19, a TCT affiliate. Mediacom is the Des Moines area's cable television provider.
===Print===
The Des Moines Register is the city's primary daily newspaper. As of March 31, 2007, the Register ranked 71st in circulation among daily newspapers in the United States according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations with 146,050 daily and 233,229 Sunday subscribers. Weekly newspapers include Juice, a publication aimed at the 25–34 demographic published by the Register on Wednesdays; Cityview, an alternative weekly published on Thursdays; and the Des Moines Business Record, a business journal published on Sundays, along with the West Des Moines Register, the Johnston Register, and the Waukee Register on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays depending on the address of the subscriber. Additionally, magazine publisher Meredith Corporation was based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021.
=== Music ===
Des Moines is the birthplace of many famously known bands and artists today. Slipknot, a popular American heavy metal band, was founded in 1995 by percussionist Shawn Crahan, former vocalist Anders Colsefni and bassist Paul Gray; the band would be also founded by Joey Jordison. The band was signed to RoadRunner Records and has become one of the biggest bands in the metal world. The band is still very popular to this day, and is known worldwide for their unique sound and their traumatic upbringing in their early days.
Stone Sour, an American rock band, was founded in 1992 by Corey Taylor and former drummer Joel Ekman. Corey would later go on to become the lead singer for Slipknot. The band has since been on an indefinite hiatus since 2020.
Vended, an American heavy metal band, was founded in 2018 by Griffin Taylor and Simon Crahan, who are the sons of popular Corey Taylor and Shawn "Clown" Crahan from Slipknot. They are currently an independent band that has released one studio album in 2024 Other routes in and around the city include US 6, US 69, Iowa 28, Iowa 141, Iowa 163, Iowa 330, Iowa 415, and Iowa 160.
Des Moines's public transit system, operated by DART (Des Moines Area Regional Transit), which was the Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority until October 2006, consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas.
Characteristics of household ownership of cars in Des Moines are similar to national averages. In 2015, 8.5 percent of Des Moines households lacked a car, and that number increased to 9.6 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Des Moines averaged 1.71 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.
Burlington Trailways and Jefferson Lines run long-distance, intercity bus routes through Des Moines. The bus station is located north of downtown.
Although Des Moines was historically a train hub, it does not have direct passenger train service. For east–west traffic it was served at the Rock Island Depot by the Corn Belt Rocket express from Omaha to the west, to Chicago in the east. The Rock Island also offered the Rocky Mountain Rocket from Colorado Springs in the west, to Chicago, and the Twin Star Rocket to Minneapolis to the north and Dallas and Houston to the south. The last train was an unnamed service ending at Council Bluffs, and it was discontinued on May 31, 1970. Today, this line constitutes the mainline of the Iowa Interstate Railroad.
Other railroads used the East Des Moines Union Station. Northward and northwest bound, there were Chicago and North Western trains to destinations including Minneapolis. The Wabash Railroad ran service to the southeast to St. Louis. These lines remain in use but are now operated by Union Pacific and BNSF.
The nearest Amtrak station is in Osceola, about south of Des Moines. The Osceola station is served by the Chicago–San Francisco California Zephyr; there is no Osceola–Des Moines Amtrak Thruway connecting service. There have been proposals to extend Amtrak's planned Chicago–Moline Quad City Rocket to Des Moines via the Iowa Interstate Railroad.
The Des Moines International Airport (DSM), on Fleur Drive in the southern part of Des Moines, offers nonstop service to destinations within the United States. The only international service has been cargo service, but there have been discussions about adding an international terminal.
==Sister cities==
The Greater Des Moines Sister City Commission, with members from the City of Des Moines and the suburbs of Cumming, Norwalk, Windsor Heights, Johnston, Urbandale, and Ankeny, maintains sister city relationships with:
Kōfu, Japan (1958)
Saint-Étienne, France (1985)
Shijiazhuang, China (1985)
Pristina, Kosovo (2018) (Kosovo also opened a Consulate in downtown Des Moines in 2015 – List of diplomatic missions of Kosovo)
Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia (1987)
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"consolidated city-county",
"KIOA-HD2",
"Municipal corporation"
] |
9,164 |
Donald Campbell
|
Donald Malcolm Campbell, (23 March 1921 – 4 January 1967) was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s. He remains the only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year (1964). He died during a water speed record attempt at Coniston Water in the Lake District, England.
== Family and personal life ==
Donald Malcolm Campbell was born at Canbury House, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, the son of Malcolm, later Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 1930s in the Bluebird cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn (née Whittall).
Campbell attended St Peter's School, Seaford in East Sussex, and Uppingham School in Rutland. At the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever. He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer. Subsequently, he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine Engineering, producing machine tools. Following his father's death on 31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolm's chief engineer, Leo Villa, the younger Campbell strove to set speed records first on water and then land.
He married three times — to Daphne Harvey in 1945, producing daughter Georgina (Gina) Campbell, born on 19 September 1946; to Dorothy McKegg (1928–2008) in 1952; and to Tonia Bern (1928–2021) in December 1958, which union lasted until his death in 1967. Campbell was intensely superstitious, hating the colour green, the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday. He also had some interest in the paranormal, which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club.
== Water speed records ==
Campbell began his speed record attempts in the summer of 1949, using his father's old boat, Blue Bird K4, which he renamed Bluebird K4. His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful, although he did come close to raising his father's existing record. The team returned to Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1950 for further trials. While there, they heard that an American, Stanley Sayres, had raised the record from , beyond K4's capabilities without substantial modification.
In late 1950 and 1951, Bluebird K4 was modified to make it a "prop-rider" as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration. This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag: The third planing point would now be the propeller hub, meaning one of the two propeller blades was always out of the water at high speed. She now sported two cockpits, the second one being for Leo Villa.
Bluebird K4 now had a chance of exceeding Sayres' record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer, winning the Oltranza Cup in Italy in the spring of that year. Returning to Coniston in September, they finally got Bluebird up to 170 mph after further trials, only to suffer a structural failure at which wrecked the boat. Sayres raised the record the following year to in Slo-Mo-Shun IV.
Along with Campbell, Britain had another potential contender for water speed record honours — John Cobb. He had commissioned the world's first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane, Crusader, with a target speed of over , and began trials on Loch Ness in autumn 1952. Cobb was killed later that year, when Crusader broke up, during an attempt on the record. Campbell was devastated at Cobb's loss, but he resolved to build a new Bluebird boat to bring the water speed record back to Britain.
In early 1953, Campbell began development of his own advanced all-metal jet-powered Bluebird K7 hydroplane to challenge the record, by now held by the American prop rider hydroplane Slo-Mo-Shun IV.[1] Designed by Ken and Lew Norris, the K7 was a steel-framed, aluminium-bodied, three-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl axial-flow turbojet engine, producing 3,500-pound-force (16 kN) of thrust.
Like Slo-Mo-Shun, but unlike Cobb's tricycle Crusader, the three planing points were arranged with two forward, on outrigged sponsons and one aft, in a "pickle-fork" layout, prompting Bluebirds early comparison to a blue lobster. K7 was of very advanced design and construction, and its load bearing steel space frame ultra rigid and stressed to 25 g (exceeding contemporary military jet aircraft). It had a design speed of and remained the only successful jet-boat in the world until the late 1960s.
The designation "K7" was derived from its Lloyd's unlimited rating registration. It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson, underneath an infinity symbol. Bluebird K7 was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the "Unlimited" series.
Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between July 1955 and December 1964. The first of these marks was set at Ullswater on 23 July 1955, where he achieved a speed of but only after many months of trials and a major redesign of Bluebirds forward sponson attachments points. Campbell achieved a steady series of subsequent speed-record increases with the boat during the rest of the decade, beginning with a mark of in 1955 on Lake Mead in Nevada. Subsequently, four new marks were registered on Coniston Water, where Campbell and Bluebird became an annual fixture in the latter half of the 1950s, enjoying significant sponsorship from the Mobil oil company and then subsequently BP.
Campbell also made an attempt in the summer of 1957 at Canandaigua, New York, which failed due to lack of suitable calm water conditions. Bluebird K7 became a well known and popular attraction, and as well as her annual Coniston appearances, K7 was displayed extensively in the UK, United States, Canada and Europe, and then subsequently in Australia during Campbell's prolonged attempt on the land speed record in 1963–1964.
To extract more speed, and endow the boat with greater high-speed stability, in both pitch and yaw, K7 was subtly modified in the second half of the 1950s to incorporate more effective streamlining with a blown Perspex cockpit canopy and fluting to the lower part of the main hull. In 1958, a small wedge shaped tail fin, housing an arrester parachute, modified sponson fairings, that gave a significant reduction in forward aerodynamic lift, and a fixed hydrodynamic stabilising fin, attached to the transom to aid directional stability, and exert a marginal down-force on the nose were incorporated into the design to increase the safe operating envelope of the hydroplane. Thus she reached in 1956, where an unprecedented peak speed of was achieved on one run, in 1957, in 1958 and in 1959.
Campbell was named as a Commander of the British Empire (CBE) in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking, and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the United States which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim.
On 23 November 1964, Campbell achieved the Australian water speed record of on Lake Bonney Riverland in South Australia, although he was unable to break the world record on that attempt.
== Land speed record attempt ==
It was after the Lake Mead water speed record success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell's ambition to hold the land speed record as well were planted. The following year, the serious planning was under way — to build a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at set by John Cobb in 1947. The Norris brothers designed Bluebird-Proteus CN7 with in mind.
The British motor industry, in the guise of Dunlop, BP, Smiths Industries, Lucas Automotive, Rubery Owen as well as many others, became heavily involved in the project to build the most advanced car the world had yet seen. CN7 was powered by a specially modified Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of driving all four wheels. Bluebird CN7 was designed to achieve 475–500 mph and was completed by the spring of 1960.
Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood motor racing circuit in Sussex, in July, the CN7 was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, United States, scene of his father's last land speed record triumph, some 25 years earlier in September 1935. The trials initially went well, and various adjustments were made to the car. On the sixth run in CN7, Campbell lost control at over 360 mph and crashed. It was the car's tremendous structural integrity that saved his life. He was hospitalised with a fractured skull and a burst eardrum, as well as minor cuts and bruises, but CN7 was a write-off. Almost immediately, Campbell announced he was determined to have another go. Sir Alfred Owen, whose Rubery Owen industrial group had built CN7, offered to rebuild it for him. That single decision was to have a profound influence on the rest of Campbell's life. His original plan had been to break the land speed record at over 400 mph in 1960, return to Bonneville the following year to really bump up the speed to something near to 500 mph, get his seventh water speed record with K7 and then retire.
Campbell decided not to go back to Utah for the new trials. He felt the Bonneville course was too short at and the salt surface was in poor condition. BP offered to find another venue and eventually after a long search, Lake Eyre, in South Australia, was chosen. It hadn't rained there for nine years and the vast dry bed of the salt lake offered a course of up to . By the summer of 1962, Bluebird CN7 was rebuilt, some nine months later than Campbell had hoped. It was essentially the same car, but with the addition of a large stabilising tail fin and a reinforced fibreglass cockpit cover. At the end of 1962, CN7 was shipped out to Australia ready for the new attempt. Low-speed runs had just started when the rains came. The course was compromised and further rain meant, that by May 1963, Lake Eyre was flooded to a depth of 3 inches, causing the attempt to be abandoned. Campbell was heavily criticised in the press for alleged time wasting and mismanagement of the project, despite the fact that he could hardly be held responsible for the unprecedented weather.
To make matters worse for Campbell, American Craig Breedlove drove his pure thrust jet car "Spirit of America" to a speed of at Bonneville in July 1963. Although the "car" did not conform to FIA (Federation Internationale de L'Automobile) regulations, that stipulated it had to be wheel-driven and have a minimum of four wheels, in the eyes of the world, Breedlove was now the fastest man on Earth.
Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964, but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain. BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute, but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol.
The track never properly dried out and Campbell was forced to make the best of the conditions. Finally, in July 1964, he was able to post some speeds that approached the record. On the 17th of that month, he took advantage of a break in the weather and made two courageous runs along the shortened and still damp track, posting a new land speed record of . The surreal moment was captured in a number of well-known images by photographers, including Australia's Jeff Carter.
Campbell was bitterly disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds. CN7 covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of , peaking as it left the measured distance at over . He resented the fact that it had all been so difficult. "We've made it — we got the bastard at last," was his reaction to the success. Campbell's 403.1 mph represented the official land speed record.
In 1969, after Campbell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, president of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonneville's Salt Flats. This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support.
== Double records ==
Campbell now planned to go after the water speed record one more time with Bluebird K7 — to do what he had aimed for so many years earlier, during the initial planning stages of CN7 — break both records in the same year. After more delays, he finally achieved his seventh water speed record at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth, Western Australia, on the last day of 1964, at a speed of . He had become the first, and so far only, person to set both land and water speed records in the same year.
Campbell's land speed record was short-lived, because FIA rule changes meant that pure jet cars would be eligible to set records from October 1964. Campbell's speed on his final Lake Eyre run remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001; Bluebird CN7 is now on display at the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu in Hampshire, England, its potential only partly realised.
==Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt==
===Bluebird Mach 1.1===
Campbell decided a massive jump in speed was called for following his successful 1964 land speed record attempt in Bluebird CN7. His vision was of a supersonic rocket car with a potential maximum speed of . Norris Brothers were requested to undertake a design study. Bluebird Mach 1.1 was a design for a rocket-powered supersonic land speed record car. Campbell chose a lucky date to hold a press conference at the Charing Cross Hotel on 7 July 1965 to announce his future record breaking plans:
Bluebird Mach 1.1 was to be rocket-powered. Ken Norris had calculated using rocket motors would result in a vehicle with very low frontal area, greater density, and lighter weight than if he were to employ a jet engine. Bluebird Mach 1.1 would also be a relatively compact and simple design. Norris specified two off-the-shelf Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines. The 605 had been developed as a rocket-assisted take-off engine for military aircraft and was fuelled with kerosene, using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser. Each engine was rated at thrust. In Bluebird Mach 1.1 application, the combined thrust would be equivalent of 36,000 bhp (27,000 kW; 36,000 PS) at .
===Final record attempt===
To increase publicity for his rocket car venture, in the spring of 1966, Campbell decided to try once more for a water speed record. This time the target was . Bluebird K7 was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine, taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft, which developed of thrust. The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966. The trials did not go well. The weather was very poor, and K7 suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine. By the middle of December, some high-speed runs were made, in excess of but still well below Campbell's existing record. Problems with Bluebirds fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full speed, and so would not develop maximum power. Eventually, by the end of December, after further modifications to her fuel system, and the replacement of a fuel pump, the fuel starvation problem was fixed, and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt.
==Death==
On 4 January 1967, weather conditions were finally suitable for an attempt. Campbell commenced the first run of his last record attempt at just after 8:45 am. Bluebird moved slowly out towards the middle of the lake, where she paused briefly as Campbell lined her up. With a deafening blast of power, Campbell now applied full throttle and Bluebird began to surge forward. Clouds of spray issued from the jet-pipe, water poured over the rear spar and after a few hundred yards, at , Bluebird unstuck from the surface and rocketed off towards the southern end of the lake, producing her characteristic comet's tail of spray. She entered the measured kilometre at 8:46 am. Leo Villa witnessed her passing the first marker buoy at about in perfect steady planing trim, her nose slightly down, still accelerating. 7.525 seconds later, Keith Harrison saw her leave the measured kilometre at a speed of over .
The average speed for the first run was . Campbell lifted his foot from the throttle about 3/10 of a second before passing the southern kilometre marker. As Bluebird left the measured kilometre, Keith Harrison and Eric Shaw in a course boat at the southern end of the measured kilometre both noticed that she was very light around the bows, riding on her front stabilising fins. Her planing trim was no worse than she had exhibited when equipped with the Beryl engine, but it was markedly different from that observed by Leo Villa at the northern end of the kilometre, when she was under full acceleration. Campbell had made his usual commentary throughout the run.
Campbell's words on his first run were, via radio intercom:
Instead of refuelling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside, Campbell decided to make the return run immediately. This was not an unprecedented diversion from normal practice, as Campbell had used the advantage presented; i.e., no encroachment of water disturbances on the measured kilometre by the quick turnaround in many previous runs. The second run was even faster once severe tramping subsided on the run-up from Peel Island (caused by the water-brake disturbance). Once smooth water was reached some or so from the start of the kilometre, K7 demonstrated cycles of ground effect hovering before accelerating hard at 0.63 g to a peak speed of some 200 metres or so from the southern marker buoy. Bluebird was now experiencing bouncing episodes of the starboard sponson with increasing ferocity.
At the peak speed, the most intense and long-lasting bounce precipitated a severe decelerating episode — to , -1.86g — as K7 dropped back onto the water. Engine flame-out then occurred and, shorn of thrust nose-down momentum, K7 experienced a gliding episode in strong ground effect with increasing angle-of-attack, before completely leaving the water at her static stability pitch-up limit of 5.2°. Bluebird then executed an almost complete backflip (~ 320° and slightly off-axis) before plunging into the water (port sponson marginally in advance of the starboard), approximately 230 metres from the end of the measured kilometre. The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest. The impact killed Campbell instantly and broke K7 forward of the air intakes (where Campbell was sitting), and the main hull sank shortly afterwards.
Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris and the pilot's helmet was recovered. Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but, although the wreck of K7 was found, they called off the search, after two weeks, without locating his body. Campbell's body was finally located in 2001.
Campbell's last words, during a 31-second transmission, on his final run were, via radio intercom:
The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to several possible causes (or a combination of these causes):
Campbell did not wait to refuel after doing a first run of and hence the boat was lighter and travelled through the wash caused by his first run, a wash made much worse by the use of the water brake. These factors have since been found to be not particularly important: The water brake was used well to the south of the measured distance, and only from approx. . The area in the centre of the course where Bluebird was travelling at peak speed on her return run was flat calm, and not disturbed by the wash from the first run, which had not had time to be reflected back on the course. Campbell knew this and, as discussed previously, adopted his well-practised, "quick turn-around" strategy.
Bluebird may have exceeded its aerodynamic static stability limit, complicated by the additional destabilising influences of loss of engine thrust. There is also evidence to point to the fact that K7's dynamic stability limit had been exceeded. The cause(s) of the engine flame-out cannot be established unequivocally. It could have been due to fuel starvation, damage to some ancillary structural element associated with engine function (following the worst bouncing episode), disturbance of the airstream into the intakes during the pitching episodes, or indeed a combination of all three. Further evidence of lost engine thrust may be seen in both cinematographic and still film recordings of the latter part of the run — as Bluebird left the water, jet exhaust from a functioning engine would have severely disturbed the water surface; no such disturbance or accompanying spray is evident. Also, close examination of such records show no evidence to the effect that the water brake was deployed.
On 28 January 1967, Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct "for courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record." rediscovered the crash site and as a result of discussions with Gina Campbell, the daughter of Donald Campbell, and the wider Campbell family, a decision was taken to raise K7 to the surface. The wreckage of Campbell's craft was recovered by a diving team led by Bill Smith in association with Gilgeous Diving Services (GDS Extreme Engineering, Liverpool) Lifting K7 was run with GDS Extreme Engineering under Smith's team's lead. The main section/hull first raised in March 2001 and later in May 2001, when Campbell's body was recovered. The largest section, comprising approximately two-thirds of the centre hull, was raised on 8 March 2001. The project began when Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song "Out of This World" (from the album Afraid of Sunlight), which was written about Campbell and Bluebird.
The remains of Campbell's body were located just over two months later and recovered from the lake on 28 May 2001, still wearing his blue nylon overalls. On the night before his death, while playing cards he had drawn the queen and the ace of spades. Reflecting upon the fact that Mary, Queen of Scots had drawn the same two cards the night before she was beheaded, he told his mechanics, who were playing cards with him, that he had a fearful premonition that he was going to "get the chop". It was not possible to determine the cause of Campbell's death, though a consultant engineer giving evidence to the inquest said that the force of the impact could have caused him to be decapitated.
Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 after his coffin was carried down the lake, and through the measured kilometre, on a launch, one last time. A funeral service was then held at St Andrew's Church in Coniston, after an earlier, and positive DNA examination had been carried out. The funeral was attended by his widow, Tonia, daughter Gina, other members of his family, members of his former team and admirers. The funeral was overshadowed in the media by coverage of the 9/11 attacks in the United States.
Campbell's sister, Jean Wales, had been against the recovery of her brother's body out of respect for his stated wish that, in the event of something going wrong, "Skipper and boat stay together".
When Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 she did not attend the service. Steve Hogarth, lead singer for Marillion, was present at the funeral and performed the song "Out of This World" solo.
==Legacy==
Between them, Campbell and his father had set 11 speed records on water and 10 on land.
The story of Campbell's last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the BBC television film Across the Lake in 1988, with Anthony Hopkins as Campbell. Nine years earlier, Robert Hardy had played Campbell's father, Sir Malcolm Campbell, in the BBC2 Playhouse television drama "Speed King"; both were written by Roger Milner and produced by Innes Lloyd. In 2003, the BBC showed a documentary reconstruction of Campbell's fateful water-speed record attempt in an episode of Days That Shook the World. It featured a mixture of modern reconstruction and original film footage. All of the original colour clips were taken from a film capturing the event, Campbell at Coniston by John Lomax, a local amateur filmmaker from Wallasey, England. Lomax's film won awards worldwide in the late 1960s for recording the final weeks of Campbell's life.
In 1956, Campbell was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for the seventh episode of the new television show This Is Your Life.
An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Campbell and his father at Canbury School, Kingston Hill, Kingston upon Thames, where they lived.
In the village of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum has a display of Campbell memorabilia, and the Bristol Orpheus engine recovered in 2001 is also displayed. The engine's casing is mostly missing, having acted as a sacrificial anode in its time underwater, but the internals are preserved. Campbell's helmet from the ill-fated run is also on display.
Campbell's legendary BLUEBIRD K7 is now also on display at the Coniston Ruskin Museum.
==World speed records established by Campbell==
|
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"Innes Lloyd",
"Folland Gnat",
"Spirit of America (automobile)",
"List of Bluebird record-breaking vehicles",
"The Herald (Glasgow)",
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"Bluebird-Proteus CN7",
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"Coniston Water",
"Hampshire",
"Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct",
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"Hydroplane (boat)",
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"Segrave Trophy",
"Ruskin Museum",
"FIA",
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"Blue Bird K4",
"Bristol Proteus",
"Rubery Owen",
"Ampol",
"National Motor Museum, Beaulieu",
"Anthony Hopkins",
"Robert Hardy",
"JATO",
"Bonneville Salt Flats",
"Commander of the British Empire",
"Mary, Queen of Scots",
"Loch Ness",
"East Sussex",
"Canbury School",
"Coniston, Cumbria",
"Crusader (speedboat)",
"St Peter's School, Seaford",
"Marillion",
"Uppingham School",
"Malcolm Campbell",
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"Furness",
"Afraid of Sunlight",
"paranormal",
"the Ghost Club",
"Smiths Industries",
"Sussex",
"Free-turbine turboshaft",
"Ullswater",
"BP",
"Eamonn Andrews",
"Craig Breedlove",
"Steve Hogarth",
"Kingston upon Thames",
"Second World War",
"Lake Mead",
"Western Australia",
"Lake District",
"South Australia",
"West Thurrock",
"land speed record",
"John Cobb (racing driver)",
"Goodwood Circuit",
"Lucas Automotive",
"Dumbleyung Lake, Western Australia",
"Royal Air Force",
"Canandaigua (city), New York",
"This Is Your Life (British TV series)",
"English Heritage",
"Alfred Owen"
] |
9,165 |
Directed set
|
In mathematics, a directed set (or a directed preorder or a filtered set) is a nonempty set A together with a reflexive and transitive binary relation \,\leq\, (that is, a preorder), with the additional property that every pair of elements has an upper bound. In other words, for any a and b in A there must exist c in A with a \leq c and b \leq c. A directed set's preorder is called a direction.
The notion defined above is sometimes called an '. A ' is defined analogously, meaning that every pair of elements is bounded below.
Some authors (and this article) assume that a directed set is directed upward, unless otherwise stated. Other authors call a set directed if and only if it is directed both upward and downward.
Directed sets are a generalization of nonempty totally ordered sets. That is, all totally ordered sets are directed sets (contrast ordered sets, which need not be directed). Join-semilattices (which are partially ordered sets) are directed sets as well, but not conversely. Likewise, lattices are directed sets both upward and downward.
In topology, directed sets are used to define nets, which generalize sequences and unite the various notions of limit used in analysis. Directed sets also give rise to direct limits in abstract algebra and (more generally) category theory.
==Equivalent definition==
In addition to the definition above, there is an equivalent definition. A directed set is a set A with a preorder such that every finite subset of A has an upper bound. In this definition, the existence of an upper bound of the empty subset implies that A is nonempty.
==Examples==
The set of natural numbers \N with the ordinary order \,\leq\, is one of the most important examples of a directed set. Every totally ordered set is a directed set, including (\N, \leq), (\N, \geq), (\Reals, \leq), and (\Reals, \geq).
A (trivial) example of a partially ordered set that is directed is the set \{a, b\}, in which the only order relations are a \leq a and b \leq b. A less trivial example is like the following example of the "reals directed towards x_0" but in which the ordering rule only applies to pairs of elements on the same side of x_0 (that is, if one takes an element a to the left of x_0, and b to its right, then a and b are not comparable, and the subset \{ a, b \} has no upper bound).
===Product of directed sets===
Let \mathbb{D}_1 and \mathbb{D}_2 be directed sets. Then the Cartesian product set \mathbb{D}_1 \times \mathbb{D}_2 can be made into a directed set by defining \left(n_1, n_2\right) \leq \left(m_1, m_2\right) if and only if n_1 \leq m_1 and n_2 \leq m_2. In analogy to the product order this is the product direction on the Cartesian product. For example, the set \N \times \N of pairs of natural numbers can be made into a directed set by defining \left(n_0, n_1\right) \leq \left(m_0, m_1\right) if and only if n_0 \leq m_0 and n_1 \leq m_1.
===Directed towards a point===
If x_0 is a real number then the set I := \R \backslash \lbrace x_0 \rbrace can be turned into a directed set by defining a \leq_I b if \left|a - x_0\right| \geq \left|b - x_0\right| (so "greater" elements are closer to x_0). We then say that the reals have been directed towards x_0. This is an example of a directed set that is partially ordered nor totally ordered. This is because antisymmetry breaks down for every pair a and b equidistant from x_0, where a and b are on opposite sides of x_0. Explicitly, this happens when \{a, b\} = \left\{x_0 - r, x_0 + r\right\} for some real r \neq 0, in which case a \leq_I b and b \leq_I a even though a \neq b. Had this preorder been defined on \R instead of \R \backslash \lbrace x_0 \rbrace then it would still form a directed set but it would now have a (unique) greatest element, specifically x_0; however, it still wouldn't be partially ordered. This example can be generalized to a metric space (X, d) by defining on X or X \setminus \left\{x_0\right\} the preorder a \leq b if and only if d\left(a, x_0\right) \geq d\left(b, x_0\right).
===Maximal and greatest elements===
An element m of a preordered set (I, \leq) is a maximal element if for every j \in I, m \leq j implies j \leq m.
It is a greatest element if for every j \in I, j \leq m.
Any preordered set with a greatest element is a directed set with the same preorder.
For instance, in a poset P, every lower closure of an element; that is, every subset of the form \{a \in P : a \leq x\} where x is a fixed element from P, is directed.
Every maximal element of a directed preordered set is a greatest element. Indeed, a directed preordered set is characterized by equality of the (possibly empty) sets of maximal and of greatest elements.
===Subset inclusion===
The subset inclusion relation \,\subseteq,\, along with its dual \,\supseteq,\, define partial orders on any given family of sets.
A non-empty family of sets is a directed set with respect to the partial order \,\supseteq\, (respectively, \,\subseteq\,) if and only if the intersection (respectively, union) of any two of its members contains as a subset (respectively, is contained as a subset of) some third member.
In symbols, a family I of sets is directed with respect to \,\supseteq\, (respectively, \,\subseteq\,) if and only if
for all A, B \in I, there exists some C \in I such that A \supseteq C and B \supseteq C (respectively, A \subseteq C and B \subseteq C)
or equivalently,
for all A, B \in I, there exists some C \in I such that A \cap B \supseteq C (respectively, A \cup B \subseteq C).
Many important examples of directed sets can be defined using these partial orders.
For example, by definition, a Filter (set theory)| or is a non-empty family of sets that is a directed set with respect to the partial order \,\supseteq\, and that also does not contain the empty set (this condition prevents triviality because otherwise, the empty set would then be a greatest element with respect to \,\supseteq\,).
Every -system, which is a non-empty family of sets that is closed under the intersection of any two of its members, is a directed set with respect to \,\supseteq\,. Every λ-system is a directed set with respect to \,\subseteq\,. Every filter, topology, and σ-algebra is a directed set with respect to both \,\supseteq\, and \,\subseteq\,.
====Tails of nets====
By definition, a is a function from a directed set and a sequence is a function from the natural numbers \N. Every sequence canonically becomes a net by endowing \N with \,\leq.\,
If x_{\bull} = \left(x_i\right)_{i \in I} is any net from a directed set (I, \leq) then for any index i \in I, the set x_{\geq i} := \left\{x_j : j \geq i \text{ with } j \in I\right\} is called the tail of (I, \leq) starting at i. The family \operatorname{Tails}\left(x_{\bull}\right) := \left\{x_{\geq i} : i \in I\right\} of all tails is a directed set with respect to \,\supseteq;\, in fact, it is even a prefilter.
====Neighborhoods====
If T is a topological space and x_0 is a point in T, the set of all neighbourhoods of x_0 can be turned into a directed set by writing U \leq V if and only if U contains V. For every U, V, and W:
U \leq U since U contains itself.
if U \leq V and V \leq W, then U \supseteq V and V \supseteq W, which implies U \supseteq W. Thus U \leq W.
because x_0 \in U \cap V, and since both U \supseteq U \cap V and V \supseteq U \cap V, we have U \leq U \cap V and V \leq U \cap V.
====Finite subsets====
The set \operatorname{Finite}(I) of all finite subsets of a set I is directed with respect to \,\subseteq\, since given any two A, B \in \operatorname{Finite}(I), their union A \cup B \in \operatorname{Finite}(I) is an upper bound of A and B in \operatorname{Finite}(I). This particular directed set is used to define the sum {\textstyle\sum\limits_{i \in I}} r_i of a generalized series of an I-indexed collection of numbers \left(r_i\right)_{i \in I} (or more generally, the sum of elements in an abelian topological group, such as vectors in a topological vector space) as the limit of the net of partial sums F \in \operatorname{Finite}(I) \mapsto {\textstyle\sum\limits_{i \in F}} r_i; that is:
\sum_{i \in I} r_i ~:=~ \lim_{F \in \operatorname{Finite}(I)} \ \sum_{i \in F} r_i ~=~ \lim \left\{\sum_{i \in F} r_i \,: F \subseteq I, F \text{ finite }\right\}.
===Logic===
Let S be a formal theory, which is a set of sentences with certain properties (details of which can be found in the article on the subject). For instance, S could be a first-order theory (like Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory) or a simpler zeroth-order theory. The preordered set (S, \Leftarrow) is a directed set because if A, B \in S and if C := A \wedge B denotes the sentence formed by logical conjunction \,\wedge,\, then A \Leftarrow C and B \Leftarrow C where C \in S.
If S / \sim is the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra associated with S then \left(S / \sim, \Leftarrow\right) is a partially ordered set that is also a directed set.
==Contrast with semilattices==
Directed set is a more general concept than (join) semilattice: every join semilattice is a directed set, as the join or least upper bound of two elements is the desired c. The converse does not hold however, witness the directed set {1000,0001,1101,1011,1111} ordered bitwise (e.g. 1000 \leq 1011 holds, but 0001 \leq 1000 does not, since in the last bit 1 > 0), where {1000,0001} has three upper bounds but no upper bound, cf. picture. (Also note that without 1111, the set is not directed.)
==Directed subsets==
The order relation in a directed set is not required to be antisymmetric, and therefore directed sets are not always partial orders. However, the term is also used frequently in the context of posets. In this setting, a subset A of a partially ordered set (P, \leq) is called a directed subset if it is a directed set according to the same partial order: in other words, it is not the empty set, and every pair of elements has an upper bound. Here the order relation on the elements of A is inherited from P; for this reason, reflexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly.
A directed subset of a poset is not required to be downward closed; a subset of a poset is directed if and only if its downward closure is an ideal. While the definition of a directed set is for an "upward-directed" set (every pair of elements has an upper bound), it is also possible to define a downward-directed set in which every pair of elements has a common lower bound. A subset of a poset is downward-directed if and only if its upper closure is a filter.
Directed subsets are used in domain theory, which studies directed-complete partial orders. These are posets in which every upward-directed set is required to have a least upper bound. In this context, directed subsets again provide a generalization of convergent sequences.
|
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"partially ordered set",
"Propositional calculus",
"Cartesian product",
"Reflexive relation",
"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory",
"greatest element",
"Maximal and minimal elements",
"family of sets",
"Limit (mathematics)",
"sequence",
"Greatest element and least element",
"Complete partial order",
"Coordinatewise order",
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"abstract algebra",
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"partial order",
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"Net (topology)",
"Filter (set theory)",
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"logical conjunction",
"mathematics",
"binary relation"
] |
9,209 |
Edward Bellamy
|
Edward Bellamy (March 26, 1850 – May 22, 1898) was an American author, journalist, and political activist most famous for his utopian novel Looking Backward. Bellamy's vision of a harmonious future world inspired the formation of numerous "Nationalist Clubs" dedicated to the propagation of his political ideas.
After working as a journalist and writing several novels, Bellamy published Looking Backward in 1888. It was the third best-selling novel of the 19th century in the United States, and it especially appealed to a generation of intellectuals alienated from the alleged dark side of the Gilded Age. In the early 1890s, Bellamy established a newspaper known as The New Nation and began to promote united action between the various Nationalist Clubs and the emerging Populist Party. He published Equality, a sequel to Looking Backward, in 1897, and died the following year.
==Biography==
===Early life===
Edward Bellamy was born in Chicopee, Massachusetts. His father was Rufus King Bellamy (1816–1886), a Baptist minister and a descendant of Joseph Bellamy. His mother, Maria Louisa Putnam Bellamy, was a Calvinist. She was the daughter of a Baptist minister named Benjamin Putnam, who was forced to withdraw from the ministry in Salem, Massachusetts, following objections to his becoming a Freemason.
Bellamy attended public school at Chicopee Falls before leaving for Union College of Schenectady, New York, where he studied for just two semesters.
A turn to utopian science fiction with Looking Backward, 2000–1887, published in January 1888, captured the public imagination and catapulted Bellamy to literary fame. The book gained an extensive readership in the United Kingdom as well, more than 235,000 copies being sold there between 1890 and 1935.
In Looking Backward, a non-violent revolution had transformed the American economy and thereby society; private property had been abolished in favor of state ownership of capital and the elimination of social classes and the ills of society that he thought inevitably followed from them. In the new world of the year 2000, there was no longer war, poverty, crime, prostitution, corruption, money, or taxes. His vision of a country relieved of its social ills through abandonment of the principle of competition and establishment of state ownership of industry proved an appealing panacea to a generation of intellectuals alienated from the dark side of Gilded Age America. By 1891 it was reported that no fewer than 162 Nationalist Clubs were in existence.
Bellamy's use of the term "Nationalism" rather than "socialism" as a descriptor of his governmental vision was calculated, as he did not want to limit either sales of his novel or the potential influence of its political ideas. In an 1888 letter to literary critic William Dean Howells, Bellamy wrote:
Bellamy himself came to actively participate in the political movement which emerged around his book, particularly after 1891 when he founded his own magazine, The New Nation, and began to promote united action between the various Nationalist Clubs and the emerging People's Party. For the next three and a half years, Bellamy gave his all to politics, publishing his magazine, working to influence the platform of the People's Party, and publicizing the Nationalist movement in the popular press. This phase of his life came to an end in 1894, when The New Nation was forced to suspend publication owing to financial difficulties.
With the key activists of the Nationalist Clubs largely absorbed into the apparatus of the People's Party (although a Nationalist Party did run three candidates for office in Wisconsin as late as 1896), Bellamy abandoned politics for a return to literature. He set to work on a sequel to Looking Backward titled Equality, attempting to deal with the ideal society of the post-revolutionary future in greater detail. In this final work, he addressed the question of feminism, dealing with the taboo subject of female reproductive rights in a future, post-revolutionary America. Other subjects overlooked in Looking Backward, such as animal rights and wilderness preservation, were dealt with in a similar context. was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1971.
Bellamy was the cousin of Francis Bellamy, famous for writing the original version of the Pledge of Allegiance.
Bellamy Road, a residential road in Toronto, is named for the author.
==Published works==
===Novels===
Six to One (1878)
Dr. Heidenhoff's Process (1880)
Miss Ludington's Sister (1885)
Looking Backward, 2000–1887 (1888)
Equality (1897)
The Duke of Stockbridge; a Romance of Shays' Rebellion (1900)
===Short stories===
"At Pinney's Ranch"
"The Blindman's World"
"Deserted"
"An Echo Of Antietam"
"Hooking Watermelons"
"Lost"
"A Love Story Reversed"
"The Old Folks' Party"
"A Positive Romance"
"Potts's Painless Cure"
"A Summer Evening's Dream"
"To Whom This May Come"
"Two Days' Solitary Imprisonment"
"With The Eyes Shut"
"The Cold Snap"
"The Old Folks' Party"
===Other===
Edward Bellamy Speaks Again! (1937)
Talks on Nationalism (1938)
|
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"List of north–south roads in Toronto",
"Mari Jo Buhle",
"Looking Backward",
"Equality (novel)",
"Uncle Tom's Cabin",
"Dan Georgakas",
"Conservation movement",
"human nature",
"Gilded Age",
"taxes",
"Freemason",
"Francis Bellamy",
"Dr. Heidenhoff's Process",
"Lew Wallace",
"state ownership",
"reproductive rights",
"Monument to credit card",
"Wisconsin",
"Paul Buhle",
"Toronto",
"utopia",
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"People's Party (United States)",
"Edward Bellamy House",
"private property",
"Hawaiian Islands",
"William Dean Howells",
"To Whom This May Come",
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"Pledge of Allegiance (United States)",
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"animal rights",
"Salem, Massachusetts",
"National Historic Landmark",
"Harriet Beecher Stowe",
"Equality Colony",
"Schenectady, New York",
"The Nationalist (United States)",
"Joseph Bellamy",
"tuberculosis",
"Union College"
] |
9,222 |
E
|
E, or e, is the fifth letter and the second vowel letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is e (pronounced ); plural es, Es, or E's.
It is the most commonly used letter in many languages, including Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish.
==Name==
In English, the name of the letter is the "long E" sound, pronounced . In most other languages, its name matches the letter's pronunciation in open syllables.
==History==
The Latin letter 'E' differs little from its source, the Greek letter epsilon, 'Ε'. This in turn comes from the Semitic letter hê, which has been suggested to have started as a praying or calling human figure (hillul, 'jubilation'), and was most likely based on a similar Egyptian hieroglyph that indicated a different pronunciation.
In Semitic, the letter represented (and in foreign words); in Greek, hê became the letter epsilon, used to represent . The various forms of the Old Italic script and the Latin alphabet followed this usage.
==Use in writing systems==
===English===
Although Middle English spelling used to represent long and short , the Great Vowel Shift changed long (as in me or bee) to while short (as in met or bed) remained a mid vowel. In unstressed syllables, this letter is usually pronounced either as or . In other cases, the letter is silent, generally at the end of words like queue.
===Other languages===
In the orthography of many languages, it represents either , , , or some variation (such as a nasalized version) of these sounds, often with diacritics (as: ) to indicate contrasts. Less commonly, as in French, German, or Saanich, represents a mid-central vowel . Digraphs with are common to indicate either diphthongs or monophthongs, such as or for or in English, for in German, and for in French or in German.
===Other systems===
The International Phonetic Alphabet uses for the close-mid front unrounded vowel or the mid front unrounded vowel.
===Frequency===
E is the most common (or highest-frequency) letter in the English language alphabet and several other European languages, which has implications in both cryptography and data compression. This makes it a harder letter to use when writing lipograms.
==Other uses==
In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, "E" corresponds to the number 14 in decimal (base 10) counting.
"e" is also commonly used to denote Euler's number.
==Related characters==
===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet===
E with diacritics: Ĕ ĕ Ḝ ḝ Ȇ ȇ Ê ê Ê̄ ê̄ Ê̌ ê̌ Ề ề Ế ế Ể ể Ễ ễ Ệ ệ Ẻ ẻ Ḙ ḙ Ě ě Ɇ ɇ Ė ė Ė́ ė́ Ė̃ ė̃ Ẹ ẹ Ë ë È è È̩ è̩ Ȅ ȅ É é É̩ Ē ē Ḕ ḕ Ḗ ḗ Ẽ ẽ Ḛ ḛ Ę ę Ę́ ę́ Ę̃ ę̃ Ȩ ȩ E̩ e̩ ᶒ
ⱸ: E with notch is used in the Swedish Dialect Alphabet
Æ æ: Latin AE ligature
Œ œ: Latin OE ligature
The umlaut diacritic ¨ used above a vowel letter in German and other languages to indicate a fronted or front vowel (this sign originated as a superscript e)
Phonetic alphabet symbols related to E (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems):
Ɛ ɛ: Latin letter epsilon / open e, which represents an open-mid front unrounded vowel in the IPA
ᶓ: Epsilon / open e with retroflex hook
The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet uses various forms of e and epsilon / open e:
e: Subscript small e is used in Indo-European studies
Teuthonista phonetic transcription system symbols related to E:
===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets===
𐤄: Semitic letter He (letter), from which the following symbols originally derive:
Ε ε: Greek letter Epsilon, from which the following symbols originally derive:
Е е: Cyrillic letter Ye
Є є: Ukrainian Ye
Э э: Cyrillic letter E
: Coptic letter Ei
𐌄: Old Italic E, which is the ancestor of modern Latin E
: Runic letter Ehwaz, which is possibly a descendant of Old Italic E
: Gothic letter eyz
===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations===
€: Euro sign.
℮: estimated sign (used on prepackaged goods for sale within the European Union).
e: the symbol for the elementary charge (the electric charge carried by a single proton).
∃: existential quantifier in predicate logic. It is read "there exists ... such that".
∈: the symbol for set membership in set theory.
𝑒: the base of the natural logarithm.
==Other representations==
===Computing ===
===Other===
In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'e' is signed by extending the index finger of the right hand touching the tip of index on the left hand, with all fingers of left hand open.
|
[
"Ɛ",
"Norwegian language",
"ë",
"&",
"Danish language",
"French language",
"Ê̌",
"ǝ",
"diphthong",
"Latvian language",
"English orthography",
"Ệ",
"set theory",
"Ə",
"Ė",
"℮",
"diacritic",
"epsilon",
"Ә",
"predicate logic",
"€",
"Semitic alphabet",
"lipogram",
"mid-central vowel",
"Ҽ",
"Phonetic transcription",
"Great Vowel Shift",
"ℯ",
"ẹ",
"Epsilon",
"Teuthonista",
"List of Latin-script digraphs",
"ę",
"R-colored vowel",
"Macron (diacritic)",
"Runes",
"Œ",
"𐌄",
"ẽ",
"è",
"EBCDIC",
"Ê",
"History of the International Phonetic Alphabet",
"Breve",
"mid vowel",
"Ę́",
"close-mid central unrounded vowel",
"Ę",
"English alphabet",
"É",
"British Sign Language",
"Frequency (statistics)",
"Languages of Europe",
"Spanish orthography",
"Avogadro constant",
"Swedish Dialect Alphabet",
"wikt:Ը",
"Latin script",
"ê",
"Gothic alphabet",
"Epsilon (letter)",
"Dutch language",
"European Union",
"Pinyin",
"decimal",
"ࠄ",
"ℰ",
"Ë",
"Ẽ",
"Ê̄",
"estimated sign",
"Nasal vowel",
"mole (unit)",
"wikt:ե",
"Euro sign",
"ᶒ",
"Ḝ",
"Ehwaz",
"wikt:Ե",
"Ȩ",
"Ḙ",
"vowel",
"Silent e",
"ě",
"Swedish language",
"Turkish alphabet",
"ᶔ",
"Spanish language",
"♯",
"Euler's number",
"Е",
"Latin alphabet",
"Є",
"open-mid central unrounded vowel",
"open-mid front unrounded vowel",
"Cyrillic",
"Ȇ",
"Central College (Iowa)",
"Ukrainian Ye",
"Ḗ",
"Czech language",
"Ể",
"Phoenician alphabet",
"Scientific notation",
"Ẻ",
"Umlaut (diacritic)",
"ė",
"Indo-European studies",
"International Phonetic Alphabet",
"German orthography",
"Letter (alphabet)",
"He (letter)",
"Ḛ",
"ē",
"Saanich dialect",
"List of Latin-script trigraphs",
"Ye (Cyrillic)",
"Э",
"monophthong",
"English language",
"German language",
"hexadecimal",
"mid central vowel",
"Caron",
"ĕ",
"French orthography",
"data compression",
"Ё",
"ẻ",
"Italian orthography",
"open-mid central rounded vowel",
"wikt:Է",
"Ḕ",
"Hungarian language",
"elementary charge",
"𐎅",
"open syllable",
"he (letter)",
"Old Italic script",
"existential quantifier",
"Һ",
"ASCII",
"Æ",
"Ⲉ",
"mid front unrounded vowel",
"Alphabet",
"℥",
"Dot (diacritic)",
"Latin language",
"È",
"Digraph (orthography)",
"Uralic Phonetic Alphabet",
"Ȅ",
"Greek alphabet",
"e (mathematical constant)",
"E (Cyrillic)",
"∈",
"Ễ",
"ℇ",
"E with stroke",
"ᶟ",
"Egyptian hieroglyph",
"Portuguese orthography",
"Standard Chinese",
"E",
"Ế",
"Coptic alphabet",
"Ǝ",
"Middle English",
"cryptography",
"wikt:է",
"Ề",
"wikt:ը",
"close-mid front unrounded vowel",
"é"
] |
9,223 |
Economics
|
Economics () is a social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Microeconomics analyses what is viewed as basic elements within economies, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyses economies as systems where production, distribution, consumption, savings, and investment expenditure interact; and the factors of production affecting them, such as: labour, capital, land, and enterprise, inflation, economic growth, and public policies that impact these elements. It also seeks to analyse and describe the global economy.
Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing "what is", and normative economics, advocating "what ought to be"; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioural economics; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics.
Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, including business, finance, cybersecurity, health care, engineering and government. It is also applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, feminism, law, philosophy, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment.
== Definitions of economics ==
The earlier term for the discipline was "political economy", but since the late 19th century, it has commonly been called "economics". The term is ultimately derived from Ancient Greek (oikonomia) which is a term for the "way (nomos) to run a household (oikos)", or in other words the know-how of an (oikonomikos), or "household or homestead manager". Derived terms such as "economy" can therefore often mean "frugal" or "thrifty". By extension then, "political economy" was the way to manage a polis or state.
There are a variety of modern definitions of economics; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists. Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined what was then called political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as:
Jean-Baptiste Say (1803), distinguishing the subject matter from its public-policy uses, defined it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle (1849) coined "the dismal science" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of Malthus (1798). John Stuart Mill (1844) delimited the subject matter further:
Alfred Marshall provided a still widely cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics (1890) that extended analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level:
Lionel Robbins (1932) developed implications of what has been termed "[p]erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject":}}
Robbins described the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity." He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow. But he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it (as a sought-after end), generates both cost and benefits; and, resources (human life and other costs) are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives. Economics cannot be defined as the science that studies wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that studies a particular common aspect of each of those subjects (they all use scarce resources to attain a sought-after end).
Some subsequent comments criticised the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets. From the 1960s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behaviour and rational-choice modelling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields. There are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment.
Gary Becker, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, described the approach he favoured as "combin[ing the] assumptions of maximizing behaviour, stable preferences, and market equilibrium, used relentlessly and unflinchingly." One commentary characterises the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the "choice process and the type of social interaction that [such] analysis involves." The same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve.
== History of economic thought ==
=== From antiquity through the physiocrats ===
Questions regarding distribution of resources are found throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod as the "first economist". However, the word Oikos, the Greek word from which the word economy derives, was used for issues regarding how to manage a household (which was understood to be the landowner, his family, and his slaves) rather than to refer to some normative societal system of distribution of resources, which is a more recent phenomenon. Xenophon, the author of the Oeconomicus, is credited by philologues for being the source of the word economy. Joseph Schumpeter described 16th and 17th century scholastic writers, including Tomás de Mercado, Luis de Molina, and Juan de Lugo, as "coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics" as to monetary, interest, and value theory within a natural-law perspective.
Two groups, who later were called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe. Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver. The doctrine called for importing inexpensive raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies.
Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output. Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth. Thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs. Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of laissez-faire, which called for minimal government intervention in the economy.
Adam Smith (1723–1790) was an early economic theorist. Smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject.
=== Classical political economy ===
The publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1776, has been described as "the effective birth of economics as a separate discipline." The book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the physiocratic idea that only agriculture was productive.
Smith discusses potential benefits of specialisation by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries. His "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a theory of the functions of firm and industry" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization." To Smith has also been ascribed "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of resource-allocation theory—that, under competition, resource owners (of labour, land, and capital) seek their most profitable uses, resulting in an equal rate of return for all uses in equilibrium (adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training and unemployment).
In an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics," Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society, and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce. In this:
The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus (1798) used the concept of diminishing returns to explain low living standards. Human population, he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically. The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour. The result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level. Economist Julian Simon has criticised Malthus's conclusions.
While Adam Smith emphasised production and income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists. Ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labour and capital on the other. He posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits. Ricardo was also the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialise in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production. It has been termed a "fundamental analytical explanation" for gains from trade.
Coming at the end of the classical tradition, John Stuart Mill (1848) parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system. Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income. The market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene.
Value theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it". Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity. Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'. Classical economics focused on the tendency of any market economy to settle in a final stationary state made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (capital) and a constant population size.
=== Marxian economics ===
Marxist (later, Marxian) economics descends from classical economics and it derives from the work of Karl Marx. The first volume of Marx's major work, , was published in 1867. Marx focused on the labour theory of value and theory of surplus value. Marx wrote that they were mechanisms used by capital to exploit labour. The labour theory of value held that the value of an exchanged commodity was determined by the labour that went into its production, and the theory of surplus value demonstrated how workers were only paid a proportion of the value their work had created.
Marxian economics was further developed by Karl Kautsky (1854–1938)'s The Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx and The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program), Rudolf Hilferding's (1877–1941) Finance Capital, Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924)'s The Development of Capitalism in Russia and Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, and Rosa Luxemburg (1871–1919)'s The Accumulation of Capital.
=== Neoclassical economics ===
At its inception as a social science, economics was defined and discussed at length as the study of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth by Jean-Baptiste Say in his Treatise on Political Economy or, The Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth (1803). These three items were considered only in relation to the increase or diminution of wealth, and not in reference to their processes of execution. Say's definition has survived in part up to the present, modified by substituting the word "wealth" for "goods and services" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well. One hundred and thirty years later, Lionel Robbins noticed that this definition no longer sufficed, because many economists were making theoretical and philosophical inroads in other areas of human activity. In his Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, he proposed a definition of economics as a study of human behaviour, subject to and constrained by scarcity, which forces people to choose, allocate scarce resources to competing ends, and economise (seeking the greatest welfare while avoiding the wasting of scarce resources). According to Robbins: "Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses". Robbins' definition eventually became widely accepted by mainstream economists, and found its way into current textbooks. Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.
A body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularised by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall and Mary Paley Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier "political economy".
Neoclassical economics systematically integrated supply and demand as joint determinants of both price and quantity in market equilibrium, influencing the allocation of output and income distribution. It rejected the classical economics' labour theory of value in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more comprehensive theory of costs on the supply side. In the 20th century, neoclassical theorists departed from an earlier idea that suggested measuring total utility for a society, opting instead for ordinal utility, which posits behaviour-based relations across individuals.
In microeconomics, neoclassical economics represents incentives and costs as playing a pervasive role in shaping decision making. An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.
Neoclassical economics is occasionally referred as orthodox economics whether by its critics or sympathisers. Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalise earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.
Neoclassical economics studies the behaviour of individuals, households, and organisations (called economic actors, players, or agents), when they manage or use scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends. Agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice. There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more players to attain the best possible outcome.
=== Keynesian economics ===
Keynesian economics derives from John Maynard Keynes, in particular his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936), which ushered in contemporary macroeconomics as a distinct field. The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible. Keynes attempted to explain in broad theoretical detail why high labour-market unemployment might not be self-correcting due to low "effective demand" and why even price flexibility and monetary policy might be unavailing. The term "revolutionary" has been applied to the book in its impact on economic analysis.
During the following decades, many economists followed Keynes' ideas and expanded on his works. John Hicks and Alvin Hansen developed the IS–LM model which was a simple formalisation of some of Keynes' insights on the economy's short-run equilibrium. Franco Modigliani and James Tobin developed important theories of private consumption and investment, respectively, two major components of aggregate demand. Lawrence Klein built the first large-scale macroeconometric model, applying the Keynesian thinking systematically to the US economy.
=== Post-WWII economics ===
Immediately after World War II, Keynesian was the dominant economic view of the United States establishment and its allies, Marxian economics was the dominant economic view of the Soviet Union nomenklatura and its allies.
==== Monetarism ====
Monetarism appeared in the 1950s and 1960s, its intellectual leader being Milton Friedman. Monetarists contended that monetary policy and other monetary shocks, as represented by the growth in the money stock, was an important cause of economic fluctuations, and consequently that monetary policy was more important than fiscal policy for purposes of stabilisation. Friedman was also skeptical about the ability of central banks to conduct a sensible active monetary policy in practice, advocating instead using simple rules such as a steady rate of money growth.
Monetarism rose to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, when several major central banks followed a monetarist-inspired policy, but was later abandoned because the results were unsatisfactory.
==== New classical economics ====
A more fundamental challenge to the prevailing Keynesian paradigm came in the 1970s from new classical economists like Robert Lucas, Thomas Sargent and Edward Prescott. They introduced the notion of rational expectations in economics, which had profound implications for many economic discussions, among which were the so-called Lucas critique and the presentation of real business cycle models.
==== New Keynesians ====
During the 1980s, a group of researchers appeared being called New Keynesian economists, including among others George Akerlof, Janet Yellen, Gregory Mankiw and Olivier Blanchard. They adopted the principle of rational expectations and other monetarist or new classical ideas such as building upon models employing micro foundations and optimizing behaviour, but simultaneously emphasised the importance of various market failures for the functioning of the economy, as had Keynes. Not least, they proposed various reasons that potentially explained the empirically observed features of price and wage rigidity, usually made to be endogenous features of the models, rather than simply assumed as in older Keynesian-style ones.
====New neoclassical synthesis====
After decades of often heated discussions between Keynesians, monetarists, new classical and new Keynesian economists, a synthesis emerged by the 2000s, often given the name the new neoclassical synthesis. It integrated the rational expectations and optimizing framework of the new classical theory with a new Keynesian role for nominal rigidities and other market imperfections like imperfect information in goods, labour and credit markets. The monetarist importance of monetary policy in stabilizing the economy and in particular controlling inflation was recognised as well as the traditional Keynesian insistence that fiscal policy could also play an influential role in affecting aggregate demand. Methodologically, the synthesis led to a new class of applied models, known as dynamic stochastic general equilibrium or DSGE models, descending from real business cycles models, but extended with several new Keynesian and other features. These models proved useful and influential in the design of modern monetary policy and are now standard workhorses in most central banks.
==== After the 2008 financial crisis====
After the 2008 financial crisis, macroeconomic research has put greater emphasis on understanding and integrating the financial system into models of the general economy and shedding light on the ways in which problems in the financial sector can turn into major macroeconomic recessions. In this and other research branches, inspiration from behavioural economics has started playing a more important role in mainstream economic theory. Also, heterogeneity among the economic agents, e.g. differences in income, plays an increasing role in recent economic research.
=== Other schools and approaches ===
Other schools or trends of thought referring to a particular style of economics practised at and disseminated from well-defined groups of academicians that have become known worldwide, include the Freiburg School, the School of Lausanne, the Stockholm school and the Chicago school of economics. During the 1970s and 1980s mainstream economics was sometimes separated into the Saltwater approach of those universities along the Eastern and Western coasts of the US, and the Freshwater, or Chicago school approach.
Within macroeconomics there is, in general order of their historical appearance in the literature; classical economics, neoclassical economics, Keynesian economics, the neoclassical synthesis, monetarism, new classical economics, New Keynesian economics and the new neoclassical synthesis.
Beside the mainstream development of economic thought, various alternative or heterodox economic theories have evolved over time, positioning themselves in contrast to mainstream theory. These include: It also emphasises that the state should play as small role as possible (if any role) in the regulation of economic activity between two transacting parties. Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises are the two most prominent representatives of the Austrian school.
Post-Keynesian economics concentrates on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes. It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.
Ecological economics like environmental economics studies the interactions between human economies and the ecosystems in which they are embedded, but in contrast to environmental economics takes an oppositional position towards general mainstream economic principles. A major difference between the two subdisciplines is their assumptions about the substitution possibilities between human-made and natural capital.
Additionally, alternative developments include Marxian economics, constitutional economics, institutional economics, evolutionary economics, dependency theory, structuralist economics, world systems theory, econophysics, econodynamics, feminist economics and biophysical economics.
Feminist economics emphasises the role that gender plays in economies, challenging analyses that render gender invisible or support gender-oppressive economic systems. The goal is to create economic research and policy analysis that is inclusive and gender-aware to encourage gender equality and improve the well-being of marginalised groups.
== Methodology ==
=== Theoretical research ===
Mainstream economic theory relies upon analytical economic models. When creating theories, the objective is to find assumptions which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories. While neoclassical economic theory constitutes both the dominant or orthodox theoretical as well as methodological framework, economic theory can also take the form of other schools of thought such as in heterodox economic theories.
In microeconomics, principal concepts include supply and demand, marginalism, rational choice theory, opportunity cost, budget constraints, utility, and the theory of the firm. Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models with microfoundations,
Expositions of economic reasoning often use two-dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships. At a higher level of generality, mathematical economics is the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyse problems in economics. Paul Samuelson's treatise Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) exemplifies the method, particularly as to maximizing behavioural relations of agents reaching equilibrium. The book focused on examining the class of statements called operationally meaningful theorems in economics, which are theorems that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data.
=== Empirical research ===
Economic theories are frequently tested empirically, largely through the use of econometrics using economic data. The controlled experiments common to the physical sciences are difficult and uncommon in economics, and instead broad data is observationally studied; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative. However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.
Statistical methods such as regression analysis are common. Practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and statistical significance ("signal strength") of the hypothesised relation(s) and to adjust for noise from other variables. By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense. Acceptance is dependent upon the falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests. Use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, data sets, and prior beliefs.
Experimental economics has promoted the use of scientifically controlled experiments. This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms. In some cases these have found that the axioms are not entirely correct.
In behavioural economics, psychologist Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Prize in economics in 2002 for his and Amos Tversky's empirical discovery of several cognitive biases and heuristics. Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics. Another example is the assumption of narrowly selfish preferences versus a model that tests for selfish, altruistic, and cooperative preferences. These techniques have led some to argue that economics is a "genuine science".
== Microeconomics ==
Microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system. These entities include private and public players with various classifications, typically operating under scarcity of tradable units and regulation. The item traded may be a tangible product such as apples or a service such as repair services, legal counsel, or entertainment.
Various market structures exist. In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product. In other words, every participant is a "price taker" as no participant influences the price of a product. In the real world, markets often experience imperfect competition.
Forms of imperfect competition include monopoly (in which there is only one seller of a good), duopoly (in which there are only two sellers of a good), oligopoly (in which there are few sellers of a good), monopolistic competition (in which there are many sellers producing highly differentiated goods), monopsony (in which there is only one buyer of a good), and oligopsony (in which there are few buyers of a good). Firms under imperfect competition have the potential to be "price makers", which means that they can influence the prices of their products.
In partial equilibrium method of analysis, it is assumed that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets. This method aggregates (the sum of all activity) in only one market. General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour. It aggregates (the sum of all activity) across all markets. This method studies both changes in markets and their interactions leading towards equilibrium.
=== Production, cost, and efficiency ===
In microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an economic process that uses inputs to create a commodity or a service for exchange or direct use. Production is a flow and thus a rate of output per period of time. Distinctions include such production alternatives as for consumption (food, haircuts, etc.) vs. investment goods (new tractors, buildings, roads, etc.), public goods (national defence, smallpox vaccinations, etc.) or private goods, and "guns" vs "butter".
Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources). Other inputs may include intermediate goods used in production of final goods, such as the steel in a new car.
Economic efficiency measures how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available technology. Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs. A widely accepted general standard is Pareto efficiency, which is reached when no further change can make someone better off without making someone else worse off.
The production–possibility frontier (PPF) is an expository figure for representing scarcity, cost, and efficiency. In the simplest case, an economy can produce just two goods (say "guns" and "butter"). The PPF is a table or graph (as at the right) that shows the different quantity combinations of the two goods producible with a given technology and total factor inputs, which limit feasible total output. Each point on the curve shows potential total output for the economy, which is the maximum feasible output of one good, given a feasible output quantity of the other good.
Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve. If production of one good increases along the curve, production of the other good decreases, an inverse relationship. This is because increasing output of one good requires transferring inputs to it from production of the other good, decreasing the latter.
The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods. It measures what an additional unit of one good costs in units forgone of the other good, an example of a real opportunity cost. Thus, if one more Gun costs 100 units of butter, the opportunity cost of one Gun is 100 Butter. Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good. Still, in a market economy, movement along the curve may indicate that the choice of the increased output is anticipated to be worth the cost to the agents.
By construction, each point on the curve shows productive efficiency in maximizing output for given total inputs. A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve. Examples cited of such inefficiency include high unemployment during a business-cycle recession or economic organisation of a country that discourages full use of resources. Being on the curve might still not fully satisfy allocative efficiency (also called Pareto efficiency) if it does not produce a mix of goods that consumers prefer over other points.
Much applied economics in public policy is concerned with determining how the efficiency of an economy can be improved. Recognizing the reality of scarcity and then figuring out how to organise society for the most efficient use of resources has been described as the "essence of economics", where the subject "makes its unique contribution."
=== Specialisation ===
Specialisation is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations. Different individuals or nations may have different real opportunity costs of production, say from differences in stocks of human capital per worker or capital/labour ratios. According to theory, this may give a comparative advantage in production of goods that make more intensive use of the relatively more abundant, thus relatively cheaper, input.
Even if one region has an absolute advantage as to the ratio of its outputs to inputs in every type of output, it may still specialise in the output in which it has a comparative advantage and thereby gain from trading with a region that lacks any absolute advantage but has a comparative advantage in producing something else.
It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries. This has led to investigation of economies of scale and agglomeration to explain specialisation in similar but differentiated product lines, to the overall benefit of respective trading parties or regions.
The general theory of specialisation applies to trade among individuals, farms, manufacturers, service providers, and economies. Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.
An example that combines features above is a country that specialises in the production of high-tech knowledge products, as developed countries do, and trades with developing nations for goods produced in factories where labour is relatively cheap and plentiful, resulting in different in opportunity costs of production. More total output and utility thereby results from specializing in production and trading than if each country produced its own high-tech and low-tech products.
Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs. In the process, aggregate output may increase as a by-product or by design. Such specialisation of production creates opportunities for gains from trade whereby resource owners benefit from trade in the sale of one type of output for other, more highly valued goods. A measure of gains from trade is the increased income levels that trade may facilitate.
=== Supply and demand ===
Prices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy. The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.
For a given market of a commodity, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure). Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. A term for this is "constrained utility maximisation" (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand). Here, utility refers to the hypothesised relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred.
The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related. That is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things unchanged). As the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the substitution effect). In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect). Other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a normal good outward relative to the origin, as in the figure. All determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply.
Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price. It may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied. Producers, for example business firms, are hypothesised to be profit maximisers, meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit. Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.
That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure. The higher price makes it profitable to increase production. Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement. The "Law of Supply" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply. Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply.
Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above. At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This is posited to bid the price up. At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes the price down. The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilise at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply.
=== Firms ===
People frequently do not trade directly on markets. Instead, on the supply side, they may work in and produce through firms. The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts. According to Ronald Coase, people begin to organise their production in firms when the costs of doing business becomes lower than doing it on the market. Firms combine labour and capital, and can achieve far greater economies of scale (when the average cost per unit declines as more units are produced) than individual market trading.
In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price. Industrial organisation generalises from that special case to study the strategic behaviour of firms that do have significant control of price. It considers the structure of such markets and their interactions. Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.
Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units. It draws heavily from quantitative methods such as operations research and programming and from statistical methods such as regression analysis in the absence of certainty and perfect knowledge. A unifying theme is the attempt to optimise business decisions, including unit-cost minimisation and profit maximisation, given the firm's objectives and constraints imposed by technology and market conditions.
=== Uncertainty and game theory ===
Uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as risk or not. Without it, household behaviour would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, financial and capital markets would reduce to exchange of a single instrument in each market period, and there would be no communications industry. Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.
Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents, one kind of uncertainty. It provides a mathematical foundation of industrial organisation, discussed above, to model different types of firm behaviour, for example in a solipsistic industry (few sellers), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, bargaining, contract design, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other. In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.
In this, it generalises maximisation approaches developed to analyse market actors such as in the supply and demand model and allows for incomplete information of actors. The field dates from the 1944 classic Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as the formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.
Risk aversion may stimulate activity that in well-functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for insurance, commodity futures contracts, and financial instruments. Financial economics or simply finance describes the allocation of financial resources. It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.
Some market organisations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty. Based on George Akerlof's "Market for Lemons" article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second-hand car market. Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a "lemon" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be. Information asymmetry arises here, if the seller has more relevant information than the buyer but no incentive to disclose it. Related problems in insurance are adverse selection, such that those at most risk are most likely to insure (say reckless drivers), and moral hazard, such that insurance results in riskier behaviour (say more reckless driving).
Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market ("incomplete markets"). Moreover, attempting to reduce one problem, say adverse selection by mandating insurance, may add to another, say moral hazard. Information economics, which studies such problems, has relevance in subjects such as insurance, contract law, mechanism design, monetary economics, and health care.
=== Market failure ===
The term "market failure" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions. Although economists categorise market failures differently, the following categories emerge in the main texts.
Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.
Natural monopoly, or the overlapping concepts of "practical" and "technical" monopoly, is an extreme case of failure of competition as a restraint on producers. Extreme economies of scale are one possible cause.
Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market. The defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time.
Externalities occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices. For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.). Governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidise or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price distortions caused by these externalities. Elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply.
In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side. This includes standard analysis of the business cycle in macroeconomics. Analysis often revolves around causes of such price stickiness and their implications for reaching a hypothesised long-run equilibrium. Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.
Some specialised fields of economics deal in market failure more than others. The economics of the public sector is one example. Much environmental economics concerns externalities or "public bads".
Policy options include regulations that reflect cost–benefit analysis or market solutions that change incentives, such as emission fees or redefinition of property rights.
=== Welfare ===
Welfare economics uses microeconomics techniques to evaluate well-being from allocation of productive factors as to desirability and economic efficiency within an economy, often relative to competitive general equilibrium. It analyses social welfare, however measured, in terms of economic activities of the individuals that compose the theoretical society considered. Accordingly, individuals, with associated economic activities, are the basic units for aggregating to social welfare, whether of a group, a community, or a society, and there is no "social welfare" apart from the "welfare" associated with its individual units.
== Macroeconomics ==
Macroeconomics, another branch of economics, examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions "top down", that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory. Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. It also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy.
Since at least the 1960s, macroeconomics has been characterised by further integration as to micro-based modelling of sectors, including rationality of players, efficient use of market information, and imperfect competition. This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.
Macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and growth of national income. Such factors include capital accumulation, technological change and labour force growth.
=== Growth ===
Growth economics studies factors that explain economic growth – the increase in output per capita of a country over a long period of time. The same factors are used to explain differences in the level of output per capita between countries, in particular why some countries grow faster than others, and whether countries converge at the same rates of growth.
Much-studied factors include the rate of investment, population growth, and technological change. These are represented in theoretical and empirical forms (as in the neoclassical and endogenous growth models) and in growth accounting.
=== Business cycle ===
The economics of a depression were the spur for the creation of "macroeconomics" as a separate discipline. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, John Maynard Keynes authored a book entitled The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money outlining the key theories of Keynesian economics. Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.
He therefore advocated active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilise output over the business cycle. Thus, a central conclusion of Keynesian economics is that, in some situations, no strong automatic mechanism moves output and employment towards full employment levels. John Hicks' IS/LM model has been the most influential interpretation of The General Theory.
Over the years, understanding of the business cycle has branched into various research programmes, mostly related to or distinct from Keynesianism. The neoclassical synthesis refers to the reconciliation of Keynesian economics with classical economics, stating that Keynesianism is correct in the short run but qualified by classical-like considerations in the intermediate and long run.
New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information. It includes Friedman's permanent income hypothesis on consumption and "rational expectations" theory, led by Robert Lucas, and real business cycle theory.
In contrast, the new Keynesian approach retains the rational expectations assumption, however it assumes a variety of market failures. In particular, New Keynesians assume prices and wages are "sticky", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.
Thus, the new classicals assume that prices and wages adjust automatically to attain full employment, whereas the new Keynesians see full employment as being automatically achieved only in the long run, and hence government and central-bank policies are needed because the "long run" may be very long.
=== Unemployment ===
The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, the percentage of workers without jobs in the labour force. The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs. People who are retired, pursuing education, or discouraged from seeking work by a lack of job prospects are excluded from the labour force. Unemployment can be generally broken down into several types that are related to different causes.
Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers. Consistent with classical unemployment, frictional unemployment occurs when appropriate job vacancies exist for a worker, but the length of time needed to search for and find the job leads to a period of unemployment. Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand. Structural unemployment is similar to frictional unemployment since both reflect the problem of matching workers with job vacancies, but structural unemployment covers the time needed to acquire new skills not just the short term search process.
While some types of unemployment may occur regardless of the condition of the economy, cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates. Okun's law represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and economic growth. The original version of Okun's law states that a 3% increase in output would lead to a 1% decrease in unemployment.
=== Money and monetary policy ===
Money is a means of final payment for goods in most price system economies, and is the unit of account in which prices are typically stated. Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence. It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. It has been described as a social convention, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others. In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, "Money is what money does" ("Money is that money does" in the original).
As a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade. It is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation. Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange). Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialised producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability. Then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces.
Monetary policy is the policy that central banks conduct to accomplish their broader objectives. Most central banks in developed countries follow inflation targeting, whereas the main objective for many central banks in development countries is to uphold a fixed exchange rate system. The primary monetary tool is normally the adjustment of interest rates, either directly via administratively changing the central bank's own interest rates or indirectly via open market operations. Via the monetary transmission mechanism, interest rate changes affect investment, consumption and net export, and hence aggregate demand, output and employment, and ultimately the development of wages and inflation.
=== Fiscal policy ===
Governments implement fiscal policy to influence macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand. When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed. Governments increase spending and cut taxes to boost aggregate demand. Resources that have been idled can be used by the government.
For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways. Tax cuts allow consumers to increase their spending, which boosts aggregate demand. Both tax cuts and spending have multiplier effects where the initial increase in demand from the policy percolates through the economy and generates additional economic activity.
The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out. When there is no output gap, the economy is producing at full capacity and there are no excess productive resources. If the government increases spending in this situation, the government uses resources that otherwise would have been used by the private sector, so there is no increase in overall output. Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.
Sceptics of fiscal policy also make the argument of Ricardian equivalence. They argue that an increase in debt will have to be paid for with future tax increases, which will cause people to reduce their consumption and save money to pay for the future tax increase. Under Ricardian equivalence, any boost in demand from tax cuts will be offset by the increased saving intended to pay for future higher taxes.
=== Inequality ===
Economic inequality includes income inequality, measured using the distribution of income (the amount of money people receive), and wealth inequality measured using the distribution of wealth (the amount of wealth people own), and other measures such as consumption, land ownership, and human capital. Inequality exists at different extents between countries or states, groups of people, and individuals. There are many methods for measuring inequality, the Gini coefficient being widely used for income differences among individuals. An example measure of inequality between countries is the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, a composite index that takes inequality into account. Important concepts of equality include equity, equality of outcome, and equality of opportunity.
Research has linked economic inequality to political and social instability, including revolution, democratic breakdown and civil conflict. Research suggests that greater inequality hinders economic growth and macroeconomic stability, and that land and human capital inequality reduce growth more than inequality of income. Inequality is at the centre stage of economic policy debate across the globe, as government tax and spending policies have significant effects on income distribution.
Much of economics is positive, seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena. Normative economics seeks to identify what economies ought to be like.
Welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it. It attempts to measure social welfare by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society.
=== International economics ===
International trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries. It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade. Policy applications include estimating the effects of changing tariff rates and trade quotas. International finance is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on exchange rates. Increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary globalisation.
=== Labour economics ===
Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers), the demands of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms.
=== Development economics ===
Development economics examines economic aspects of the economic development process in relatively low-income countries focusing on structural change, poverty, and economic growth. Approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors.
== Related subjects ==
Economics is one social science among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including economic geography, economic history, public choice, energy economics, cultural economics, family economics and institutional economics.
Law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is an approach to legal theory that applies methods of economics to law. It includes the use of economic concepts to explain the effects of legal rules, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient, and to predict what the legal rules will be. A seminal article by Ronald Coase published in 1961 suggested that well-defined property rights could overcome the problems of externalities.
Political economy is the interdisciplinary study that combines economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system (capitalist, socialist, mixed) influence each other. It studies questions such as how monopoly, rent-seeking behaviour, and externalities should impact government policy. Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.
Energy economics is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to energy supply and energy demand. Georgescu-Roegen reintroduced the concept of entropy in relation to economics and energy from thermodynamics, as distinguished from what he viewed as the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from Newtonian physics. His work contributed significantly to thermoeconomics and to ecological economics. He also did foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics.
The sociological subfield of economic sociology arose, primarily through the work of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel, as an approach to analysing the effects of economic phenomena in relation to the overarching social paradigm (i.e. modernity). Classic works include Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) and Georg Simmel's The Philosophy of Money (1900). More recently, the works of James S. Coleman, Mark Granovetter, Peter Hedstrom and Richard Swedberg have been influential in this field.
Gary Becker in 1974 presented an economic theory of social interactions, whose applications included the family, charity, merit goods and multiperson interactions, and envy and hatred. He and Kevin Murphy authored a book in 2001 that analysed market behaviour in a social environment.
== Profession ==
The professionalisation of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programmes on the subject, has been described as "the main change in economics since around 1900". Most major universities and many colleges have a major, school, or department in which academic degrees are awarded in the subject, whether in the liberal arts, business, or for professional study. See Bachelor of Economics and Master of Economics.
In the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including banking and finance. Economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national treasury, central bank or National Bureau of Statistics. See Economic analyst.
There are dozens of prizes awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions to the field, the most prominent of which is the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, though it is not a Nobel Prize.
Contemporary economics uses mathematics. Economists draw on the tools of calculus, linear algebra, statistics, game theory, and computer science. Professional economists are expected to be familiar with these tools, while a minority specialise in econometrics and mathematical methods.
===Women in economics===
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) was a widely-read populariser of classical economic thought. Mary Paley Marshall (1850–1944), the first women lecturer at a British economics faculty, wrote The Economics of Industry with her husband Alfred Marshall. Joan Robinson (1903–1983) was an important post-Keynesian economist. The economic historian Anna Schwartz (1915–2012) coauthored A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 with Milton Friedman. Three women have received the Nobel Prize in Economics: Elinor Ostrom (2009), Esther Duflo (2019) and Claudia Goldin (2023). Five have received the John Bates Clark Medal: Susan Athey (2007), Esther Duflo (2010), Amy Finkelstein (2012), Emi Nakamura (2019) and Melissa Dell (2020).
Women's authorship share in prominent economic journals reduced from 1940 to the 1970s, but has subsequently risen, with different patterns of gendered coauthorship. Women remain globally under-represented in the profession (19% of authors in the RePEc database in 2018), with national variation.
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"Lawrence Klein",
"General equilibrium",
"energy demand",
"empirical",
"James Samuel Coleman",
"economy",
"Model (economics)",
"The Journal of Law and Economics",
"The Philosophy of Money",
"fixed capital",
"waste",
"Ecological economics",
"cost–benefit analysis",
"Economic analyst",
"polis",
"International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences",
"market (economics)",
"ceteris paribus",
"East Coast of the United States",
"heterodox economics",
"Risk",
"population growth",
"Strategy",
"John Bates Clark Medal",
"Human population",
"dynamic stochastic general equilibrium",
"political science",
"Money",
"Alfred Marshall",
"computer science",
"The Accumulation of Capital",
"human behaviour",
"applied economics",
"Peter Hedström (sociologist)",
"economic history",
"factor of production",
"market system",
"Service (economics)",
"Distribution (economics)",
"natural capital",
"econometrics",
"Economic efficiency",
"thermodynamics",
"microfoundation",
"societal",
"endogenous growth model",
"equality of outcome",
"Jean-Baptiste Say",
"List of national and international statistical services",
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"linear algebra",
"Financial economics",
"Investment (macroeconomics)",
"Joseph E. Stiglitz",
"cognitive bias",
"Tomás de Mercado",
"equality of opportunity",
"Labour (human activity)",
"natural experiments",
"American Economic Review",
"World economy",
"catch-up effect",
"Economics of religion",
"economic development",
"political economy",
"labour theory of value",
"greenhouse gas",
"Olivier Blanchard",
"Well-being",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"biophysical economics",
"productive efficiency",
"market structure",
"regression analysis",
"critique of political economy",
"world systems theory",
"incomplete markets",
"Fiscal multiplier",
"Public good (economics)",
"Hesiod",
"regulation",
"Cambridge University Press",
"economic growth",
"economies of agglomeration",
"Janet Yellen",
"restructuring",
"real business cycle theory",
"public sector",
"economic efficiency",
"natural science",
"Entrepreneurship",
"experimental economics",
"b:Economics",
"price system",
"Emissions trading",
"JEL classification codes",
"insurance",
"Claudia Goldin",
"Heterogeneity in economics",
"aggregate demand",
"laissez-faire",
"Scarcity",
"labour force",
"preference (economics)",
"Statistics",
"Georgescu-Roegen",
"Edward Prescott",
"energy economics",
"normal good",
"wikt:νόμος",
"Ronald Coase",
"Regulatory economics",
"public bad",
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"poverty",
"Essays in Positive Economics",
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"Juan de Lugo",
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"electronic trading",
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"theory of surplus value",
"John Maynard Keynes",
"engineering economics",
"George Akerlof",
"Decision theory",
"education economics",
"human capital",
"The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism",
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"Ecological Economics (journal)",
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"growth accounting",
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"glossary of economics",
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"Joseph Schumpeter",
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"economic equilibrium",
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"unemployment rate",
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"Thomas Sargent",
"Market for Lemons",
"family economics",
"interest",
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"Ha-Joon Chang",
"applied mathematics",
"Macroeconomics",
"new classical economics",
"Nicholas Barr",
"econodynamics"
] |
9,225 |
Electronic paper
|
Electronic paper or intelligent paper, is a display device that reflects ambient light, mimicking the appearance of ordinary ink on paper – unlike conventional flat-panel displays which need additional energy to emit their own light. This may make them more comfortable to read, and provide a wider viewing angle than most light-emitting displays. The contrast ratio in electronic displays available as of 2008 approaches newspaper, and newly developed displays are slightly better. An ideal e-paper display can be read in direct sunlight without the image appearing to fade.
Technologies include Gyricon, electrophoretics, electrowetting, interferometry, and plasmonics.
Many electronic paper technologies hold static text and images indefinitely without electricity. Flexible electronic paper uses plastic substrates and plastic electronics for the display backplane. Applications of e-paper include electronic shelf labels and digital signage, bus station time tables, electronic billboards, smartphone displays, and e-readers able to display digital versions of books and magazines.
==Technologies==
===Gyricon===
Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by Nick Sheridon at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center. The first electronic paper, called Gyricon, consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometers across. Each sphere is a Janus particle composed of negatively charged black plastic on one side and positively charged white plastic on the other (each bead is thus a dipole). The spheres are embedded in a transparent silicone sheet, with each sphere suspended in a bubble of oil so that it can rotate freely. The polarity of the voltage applied to each pair of electrodes then determines whether the white or black side is face-up, thus giving the pixel a white or black appearance.
A benefit of this type of e-paper is that the contents are retained even after the voltage have been stopped. At the FPD 2008 exhibition, Japanese company Soken demonstrated a wall with electronic wall-paper using this technology. In 2007, the Estonian company Visitret Displays was developing this kind of display using polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as the material for the spheres, dramatically improving the video speed and decreasing the control voltage needed.
===Electrophoretic===
An electrophoretic display (EPD) forms images by rearranging charged pigment particles with an applied electric field.
In the simplest implementation of an EPD, titanium dioxide (titania) particles approximately one micrometer in diameter are dispersed in a hydrocarbon oil. A dark-colored dye is also added to the oil, along with surfactants and charging agents that cause the particles to take on an electric charge. This mixture is placed between two parallel, conductive plates separated by a gap of 10 to 100 micrometres. When a voltage is applied across the two plates, the particles migrate electrophoretically to the plate that bears the opposite charge from that on the particles. When the particles are located at the front (viewing) side of the display, it appears white, because the light is scattered back to the viewer by the high-index titania particles. When the particles are located at the rear side of the display, it appears dark, because the light is absorbed by the colored dye. If the rear electrode is divided into a number of small picture elements (pixels), then an image can be formed by applying the appropriate voltage to each region of the display to create a pattern of reflecting and absorbing regions.
EPDs are typically addressed using MOSFET-based thin-film transistor (TFT) technology. TFTs are often used to form a high-density image in an EPD.
A common application for TFT-based EPDs are e-readers. Electrophoretic displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category, because of their paper-like appearance and low power consumption. Examples of commercial electrophoretic displays include the high-resolution active matrix displays used in the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, Sony Reader, Kobo eReader, and iRex iLiad e-readers. These displays are constructed from an electrophoretic imaging film manufactured by E Ink Corporation. A mobile phone that used the technology is the Motorola Fone.
Electrophoretic Display technology has also been developed by SiPix and Bridgestone/Delta. SiPix is now part of E Ink Corporation. The SiPix design uses a flexible 0.15 mm Microcup architecture, instead of E Ink's 0.04 mm diameter microcapsules. Bridgestone Corp.'s Advanced Materials Division cooperated with Delta Optoelectronics Inc. in developing Quick Response Liquid Powder Display technology.
Electrophoretic displays can be manufactured using the Electronics on Plastic by Laser Release (EPLaR) process, developed by Philips Research, to enable existing AM-LCD manufacturing plants to create flexible plastic displays.
====Microencapsulated electrophoretic display====
]
In the 1990s another type of electronic ink based on a microencapsulated electrophoretic display was conceived and prototyped by a team of undergraduates at MIT as described in their Nature paper.
This used tiny microcapsules filled with electrically charged white particles suspended in a colored oil. In early versions, the underlying circuitry controlled whether the white particles were at the top of the capsule (so it looked white to the viewer) or at the bottom of the capsule (so the viewer saw the color of the oil). This was essentially a reintroduction of the well-known electrophoretic display technology, but microcapsules meant the display could be made on flexible plastic sheets instead of glass.
One early version of the electronic paper consists of a sheet of very small transparent capsules, each about 40 micrometers across. Each capsule contains an oily solution containing black dye (the electronic ink), with numerous white titanium dioxide particles suspended within. The particles are slightly negatively charged, and each one is naturally white. These are commercially referred to as Active Matrix Electrophoretic Displays (AMEPD).
===Reflective LCD===
This technology is similar to common LCD while the backlight panel is substituted by a reflective surface.
A comparable technology is also obtainable in backlight LCDs by software or hardware deactivating the backlight control.
===Electrowetting===
Electrowetting display (EWD) is based on controlling the shape of a confined water/oil interface by an applied voltage. With no voltage applied, the (colored) oil forms a flat film between the water and a hydrophobic (water-repellent) insulating coating of an electrode, resulting in a colored pixel. When a voltage is applied between the electrode and the water, the interfacial tension between the water and the coating changes. As a result, the stacked state is no longer stable, causing the water to move the oil aside. This makes a partly transparent pixel, or, if a reflective white surface is under the switchable element, a white pixel. Because of the small pixel size, the user only experiences the average reflection, which provides a high-brightness, high-contrast switchable element.
Displays based on electrowetting provide several attractive features. The switching between white and colored reflection is fast enough to display video content. It is a low-power, low-voltage technology, and displays based on the effect can be made flat and thin. The reflectivity and contrast are better than or equal to other reflective display types and approach the visual qualities of paper. In addition, the technology offers a unique path toward high-brightness full-color displays, leading to displays that are four times brighter than reflective LCDs and twice as bright as other emerging technologies. Instead of using red, green, and blue (RGB) filters or alternating segments of the three primary colors, which effectively result in only one-third of the display reflecting light in the desired color, electrowetting allows for a system in which one sub-pixel can switch two different colors independently.
This results in the availability of two-thirds of the display area to reflect light in any desired color. This is achieved by building up a pixel with a stack of two independently controllable colored oil films plus a color filter.
The colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow, which is a subtractive system, comparable to the principle used in inkjet printing. Compared to LCD, brightness is gained because no polarisers are required.
====Electrofluidic====
Electrofluidic display is a variation of an electrowetting display that place an aqueous pigment dispersion inside a tiny reservoir. The reservoir comprises less than 5-10% of the viewable pixel area and therefore the pigment is substantially hidden from view. Voltage is used to electromechanically pull the pigment out of the reservoir and spread it as a film directly behind the viewing substrate. As a result, the display takes on color and brightness similar to that of conventional pigments printed on paper. When voltage is removed liquid surface tension causes the pigment dispersion to rapidly recoil into the reservoir. The technology can potentially provide greater than 85% white state reflectance for electronic paper.
The core technology was invented at the Novel Devices Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati and there are working prototypes developed by collaboration with Sun Chemical, Polymer Vision and Gamma Dynamics.
It has a wide margin in critical aspects such as brightness, color saturation and response time.
Because the optically active layer can be less than 15 micrometres thick, there is strong potential for rollable displays.
===Interferometric modulator (Mirasol)===
The technology used in electronic visual displays that can create various colors via interference of reflected light. The color is selected with an electrically switched light modulator comprising a microscopic cavity that is switched on and off using driver integrated circuits similar to those used to address liquid-crystal displays (LCD).
===Plasmonic electronic display===
Plasmonic nanostructures with conductive polymers have also been suggested as one kind of electronic paper. The material has two parts. The first part is a highly reflective metasurface made by metal-insulator-metal films tens of nanometers in thickness including nanoscale holes. The metasurfaces can reflect different colors depending on the thickness of the insulator. The standard RGB color schema can be used as pixels for full-color displays. The second part is a polymer with optical absorption controllable by an electrochemical potential. After growing the polymer on the plasmonic metasurfaces, the reflection of the metasurfaces can be modulated by the applied voltage. This technology presents broad range colors, high polarization-independent reflection (>50 %), strong contrast (>30 %), the fast response time (hundreds of ms), and long-term stability. In addition, it has ultralow power consumption (< 0.5 mW/cm2) and potential for high resolution (>10000 dpi). Since the ultrathin metasurfaces are flexible and the polymer is soft, the whole system can be bent. Desired future improvements for this technology include bistability, cheaper materials and implementation with TFT arrays.
===Other technologies===
Other research efforts into e-paper have involved using organic transistors embedded into flexible substrates, including attempts to build them into conventional paper.
Simple color e-paper consists of a thin colored optical filter added to the monochrome technology described above. The array of pixels is divided into triads, typically consisting of the standard cyan, magenta and yellow, in the same way as CRT monitors (although using subtractive primary colors as opposed to additive primary colors). The display is then controlled like any other electronic color display.
==History==
E Ink Corporation of E Ink Holdings Inc. released the first colored E Ink displays to be used in a marketed product. The Ectaco jetBook Color was released in 2012 as the first colored electronic ink device, which used E Ink's Triton display technology. E Ink in early 2015 also announced another color electronic ink technology called Prism. This new technology is a color changing film that can be used for e-readers, but Prism is also marketed as a film that can be integrated into architectural design such as "wall, ceiling panel, or entire room instantly." The disadvantage of these current color displays is that they are considerably more expensive than standard E Ink displays. The jetBook Color costs roughly nine times more than other popular e-readers such as the Amazon Kindle. and in March 2010 Seiko released a second generation of this famous electronic ink watch with an active matrix display. The Pebble smart watch (2013) uses a low-power memory LCD manufactured by Sharp for its e-paper display.
In 2019, Fossil launched a hybrid smartwatch called the Hybrid HR, integrating an always on electronic ink display with physical hands and dial to simulate the look of a traditional analog watch.
===E-book readers===
In 2004, Sony released the Librié in Japan, the first e-book reader with an electronic paper E Ink display. In September 2006, Sony released the PRS-500 Sony Reader e-book reader in the USA. On October 2, 2007, Sony announced the PRS-505, an updated version of the Reader. In November 2008, Sony released the PRS-700BC, which incorporated a backlight and a touchscreen.
===Mobile phones===
Motorola's low-cost mobile phone, the Motorola F3, uses an alphanumeric black-and-white electrophoretic display.
The Samsung Alias 2 mobile phone incorporates electronic ink from E Ink into the keypad, which allows the keypad to change character sets and orientation while in different display modes.
===Smartphones===
On December 12, 2012, Yota Devices announced the first "YotaPhone" prototype and was later released in December 2013, a unique double-display smartphone. It has a 4.3-inch, HD LCD on the front and an electronic ink display on the back.
On May and June 2020, Hisense released the Hisense A5c and A5 pro cc, the first color electronic ink smartphones. With a single color display, with a togglable front light running android 9 and Android 10.
===Computer monitors===
Electronic paper is used on computer monitors like the 13.3 inch Dasung Paperlike 3 HD and 25.3 inch Paperlike 253.
===Laptop===
Some laptops like Lenovo ThinkBook Plus use e-paper as a secondary screen.
Other common laptops use reflective LCD panels with no backlight.
Furthermore, some operating systems e.g. Xubuntu, Kali Linux provide a control to dim backlight LCD brightness to 0% in internal monitors, while crystals keep working so that the display is lighted by ambient light as it was paper.
In late 2007, Amazon began producing and marketing the Amazon Kindle, an e-book reader with an e-paper display. In February 2009, Amazon released the Kindle 2 and in May 2009 the larger Kindle DX was announced. In July 2010 the third-generation Kindle was announced, with notable design changes. The fourth generation of Kindle, called Touch, was announced in September 2011 that was the Kindle's first departure from keyboards and page turn buttons in favor of touchscreens. In September 2012, Amazon announced the fifth generation of the Kindle called the Paperwhite, which incorporates a LED frontlight and a higher contrast display.
In 2009, Barnes and Noble launched the Barnes & Noble Nook, running an Android operating system. It differs from other e-readers in having a replaceable battery, and a separate touch-screen color LCD below the main electronic paper reading screen.
In 2017, Sony and reMarkable offered e-books tailored for writing with a smart stylus.
In 2020, Onyx released the first frontlit 13.3 inch electronic paper Android tablet, the Boox Max Lumi. At the end of the same year, Bigme released the first 10.3 inch color electronic paper Android tablet, the Bigme B1 Pro. This was also the first large electronic paper tablet to support 4g cellular data.
===Newspapers===
In February 2006, the Flemish daily De Tijd distributed an electronic version of the paper to select subscribers in a limited marketing study, using a pre-release version of the iRex iLiad. This was the first recorded application of electronic ink to newspaper publishing.
The French daily Les Échos announced the official launch of an electronic version of the paper on a subscription basis in September 2007. Two offers were available, combining a one-year subscription and a reading device. The offer included either a light (176g) reading device (adapted for Les Echos by Ganaxa) or the iRex iLiad. Two different processing platforms were used to deliver readable information of the daily, one based on the newly developed GPP electronic ink platform from Ganaxa, and the other one developed internally by Les Echos.
===Displays embedded in smart cards===
Flexible display cards enable financial payment cardholders to generate a one-time password to reduce online banking and transaction fraud. Electronic paper offers a flat and thin alternative to existing key fob tokens for data security. The world's first ISO compliant smart card with an embedded display was developed by Innovative Card Technologies and nCryptone in 2005. The cards were manufactured by Nagra ID.
===Status displays===
Some devices, like USB flash drives, have used electronic paper to display status information, such as available storage space. Once the image on the electronic paper has been set, it requires no power to maintain, so the readout can be seen even when the flash drive is not plugged in.
===Electronic shelf labels===
E-paper based electronic shelf labels (ESL) are used to digitally display the prices of goods at retail stores. Electronic-paper-based labels are updated via two-way infrared or radio technology and powered by a rechargeable coin cell.
Some variants use ZBD (zenithal bistable display) which is more similar to LCD but does not need power to retain an image.
===Public transport timetables===
E-paper displays at bus or trams stops can be remotely updated. Compared to LED or liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), they consume lower energy and the text or graphics stays visible during a power failure. Compared to LCDs, it is easily visible under full sunshine.
===Digital signage===
Because of its energy-saving properties, electronic paper has proved a technology suited to digital signage applications.
===Electronic tags===
Typically, e-paper electronic tags integrate e-ink technology with wireless interfaces like NFC or UHF. They are most commonly used as employees' ID cards or as production labels to track manufacturing changes and status. E-paper tags are also increasingly being used as shipping labels, especially in the case of reusable boxes.
An interesting feature provided by some e-paper Tags manufacturers is batteryless design. This means that the power needed for a display's content update is provided wirelessly and the module itself doesn't contain any battery.
===Other===
Other proposed applications include clothes, digital photo frames, information boards, and keyboards. Keyboards with dynamically changeable keys are useful for less represented languages, non-standard keyboard layouts such as Dvorak, or for special non-alphabetical applications such as video editing or games.
The reMarkable is a writer tablet for reading and taking notes.
|
[
"pixel",
"Yota",
"stylus",
"Sony Librie",
"French language",
"Near-field communication",
"History of display technology",
"Ectaco jetBook Color",
"polymer",
"micromachinery",
"Motorola FONE F3",
"Kindle 2",
"E-book",
"Flexible display",
"Springer Science & Business Media",
"interference (wave propagation)",
"Raw display",
"integrated circuit",
"display device",
"Samsung SCH-U750",
"micrometre",
"electric field",
"rollable display",
"ink",
"flat-panel display",
"plastic electronics",
"flexible substrate",
"key fob",
"Janus particle",
"electric charge",
"EPLaR",
"Sharp Corporation",
"Xubuntu",
"reMarkable",
"paper",
"surfactant",
"Prime View International",
"active matrix",
"De Tijd",
"Kindle DX",
"Flanders",
"Dvorak Simplified Keyboard",
"Android (operating system)",
"Flexible electronics",
"online banking",
"color saturation",
"ZDNet",
"Serial Peripheral Interface",
"brightness",
"Pinhole glasses",
"contrast ratio",
"Embedded controller",
"UHF",
"triad (monitors)",
"electrochromic",
"electrophoretics",
"electronic shelf label",
"Etch A Sketch",
"Philips",
"Xerox",
"Sun Chemical",
"Hardware Attached on Top",
"interferometry",
"electrophoresis",
"OFET",
"USB flash drive",
"thin-film transistor",
"LCD",
"smart card",
"Xerox PARC",
"Sony Reader",
"Fossil Group",
"Plasmonic",
"Sony",
"Les Échos (France)",
"titanium dioxide",
"plasmonics",
"Seiko",
"Gyricon",
"Pebble (watch)",
"Polymer Vision",
"Raspberry Pi",
"digital signage",
"electrowetting",
"CRT monitor",
"dipole",
"Barrett Comiskey",
"Kali Linux",
"electronic visual display",
"MOSFET",
"E Ink",
"driver circuit",
"polyvinylidene fluoride",
"E Ink Corporation",
"liquid",
"Bridgestone",
"Response time (technology)",
"computer monitors",
"AM-LCD",
"CMYK color model",
"Lambertian reflectance",
"Kobo eReader",
"University of Cincinnati",
"Barnes & Noble Nook",
"liquid-crystal display",
"laptops",
"molecule",
"operating system",
"Arduino",
"e-reader",
"circuitry",
"Motorola Fone",
"modulator",
"Amazon Kindle",
"Japan",
"mineral oil",
"iRex iLiad",
"backlight",
"smartphone",
"one-time password"
] |
9,228 |
Earth
|
| surface_area = {{unbulleted list
|
| atmosphere = yes
| temp_name1 = {{refn|group=n|Source for minimum, and maximum
| abs_magnitude = −3.99
| surface_pressure = (at sea level)
| atmosphere_composition =
Source:
== Etymology ==
The Modern English word Earth developed, via Middle English, from an Old English noun most often spelled '. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their ancestral root has been reconstructed as *erþō. In its earliest attestation, the word eorðe was used to translate the many senses of Latin ' and Greek γῆ gē: the ground, its soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of the world (including the sea), and the globe itself. As with Roman Terra/Tellūs and Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late Norse mythology included Jörð ("Earth"), a giantess often given as the mother of Thor.
Historically, "Earth" has been written in lowercase. Beginning with the use of Early Middle English, its definite sense as "the globe" was expressed as "the earth". By the era of Early Modern English, capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and the earth was also written the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the names of the other planets, though "earth" and forms with "the earth" remain common.
The name Terra occasionally is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from others, while in poetry Tellus has been used to denote personification of the Earth. Terra is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages, languages that evolved from Latin, like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance languages the word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings, like the Spanish Tierra and the French Terre. The Latinate form Gæa or Gaea () of the Greek poetic name Gaia (; or ) is rare, though the alternative spelling Gaia has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis, in which case its pronunciation is rather than the more classical English .
There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. The word "earthly" is derived from "Earth". From the Latin Terra comes terran , terrestrial , and (via French) terrene , and from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian and telluric.
== Natural history ==
=== Formation ===
The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to Ga (billion years) ago.
Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga to significantly younger. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's mass, named Theia, collided with Earth. Between approximately 4.0 and , numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.
=== After formation ===
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing. Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity.]]
As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to have been mafic in composition. The first continental crust, which was more felsic in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust. The presence of grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as , only after Earth's formation. and then intensified during the Pleistocene about . High- and middle-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000 and 100,000 years.
=== Origin of life and evolution ===
Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland, and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms.During the Neoproterozoic, , much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity. Following the Cambrian explosion, , there have been at least five major mass extinctions and many minor ones. This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day. Even if the Sun were stable and eternal, a significant fraction of the water in the modern oceans would descend into the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges as the core of the Earth slowly cools. with an average diameter of , making it the fifth largest planetary sized and largest terrestrial object of the Solar System.
Due to Earth's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid, bulging at its equator; its diameter is longer there than at its poles. shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount Everest ( above local sea level) lengthens it by 0.14%. Since Earth's surface is farthest out from its center of mass at its equatorial bulge, the summit of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador () is its farthest point out. Parallel to the rigid land topography the ocean exhibits a more dynamic topography.
To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an idealized Earth producing a geoid shape. Such a shape is gained if the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any perturbations such as tides and winds. The result is a smooth but irregular geoid surface, providing a mean sea level as a reference level for topographic measurements.
=== Surface ===
Earth's surface is the boundary between the atmosphere, and the solid Earth and oceans. Defined in this way, it has an area of about . This vast pool of salty water is often called the world ocean, and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world. Indeed, in Earth's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely. The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Antarctic or Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean, from largest to smallest. The ocean covers Earth's oceanic crust, with the shelf seas covering the shelves of the continental crust to a lesser extent. The oceanic crust forms large oceanic basins with features like abyssal plains, seamounts, submarine volcanoes, At Earth's polar regions, the ocean surface is covered by seasonally variable amounts of sea ice that often connects with polar land, permafrost and ice sheets, forming polar ice caps.
Earth's land covers 29.2%, or of Earth's surface. The land surface includes many islands around the globe, but most of the land surface is taken by the four continental landmasses, which are (in descending order): Africa-Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica, and Australia (landmass). These landmasses are further broken down and grouped into the continents. The terrain of the land surface varies greatly and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. The elevation of the land surface varies from a low point of at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about .
Land can be covered by surface water, snow, ice, artificial structures or vegetation. Most of Earth's land hosts vegetation, but considerable amounts of land are ice sheets (10%, not including the equally large area of land under permafrost) or deserts (33%).
The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's land surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. Soil is crucial for land to be arable. Earth's total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. Earth has an estimated of cropland and of pastureland.
The land surface and the ocean floor form the top of Earth's crust, which together with parts of the upper mantle form Earth's lithosphere. Earth's crust may be divided into oceanic and continental crust. Beneath the ocean-floor sediments, the oceanic crust is predominantly basaltic, while the continental crust may include lower density materials such as granite, sediments and metamorphic rocks.
=== Tectonic plates ===
alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support|thumb|[[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates, which are:
=== Internal structure ===
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity.
Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232. and the pressure could reach .
=== Magnetic field ===
The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a dipole. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is , with a magnetic dipole moment of at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains stronger than its long time average). The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago. Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the day-side magnetosphere within the solar wind. Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates. The ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere. During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing an aurora.
Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is of mean solar time (UT1), or Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar night, and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves. These same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible all day.
By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.
== Earth–Moon system ==
=== Moon ===
The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant-impact hypothesis, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.
The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes lunar tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases. Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately . Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 μs/yr—add up to significant changes.
The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.
Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.
=== Asteroids and artificial satellites ===
Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans. There are at least seven quasi-satellites, including 469219 Kamoʻoalewa, ranging in diameter from 10 m to 5000 m. A trojan asteroid companion, , is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun.
, there are 4,550 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth.
== Hydrosphere ==
Earth's hydrosphere is the sum of Earth's water and its distribution. Most of Earth's hydrosphere consists of Earth's global ocean. Earth's hydrosphere also consists of water in the atmosphere and on land, including clouds, inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of with a mean depth of , resulting in an estimated volume of . About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers. The remaining 30% is ground water, 1% surface water (covering only 2.8% of Earth's land) and other small forms of fresh water deposits such as permafrost, water vapor in the atmosphere, biological binding, etc.
In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice. This accumulated snow and ice eventually forms into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow under the influence of their own gravity. Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas, whereas vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions. The flow of glaciers erodes the surface, changing it dramatically, with the formation of U-shaped valleys and other landforms. Sea ice in the Arctic covers an area about as big as the United States, although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of climate change.
The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt). Despite some moons showing signs of large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick frozen surface layer.
== Atmosphere ==
The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages , with a scale height of about . The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between at the poles to at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first of the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy. The amount of solar energy that reaches Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about per degree of latitude from the equator. Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters, due to the fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat. The wind transports the cold or the heat of the ocean to the land. Atmospheric circulation also plays an important role: San Francisco and Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same latitude. San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land. Finally, temperatures decrease with height causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas.
Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation. Surface air temperature can rise to around in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as low as in Antarctica.
=== Upper atmosphere ===
The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the troposphere, is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
Therefore, life has impacted Earth, significantly altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over long periods of time, causing changes like the Great Oxidation Event. Earth's life has also over time greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals. The different biomes developed at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary temperature latitudes and on land also with different humidity. Earth's species diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with forests, particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions. While freezing polar regions and high altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life.
Extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones (including hurricanes and typhoons), occurs over most of Earth's surface and has a large impact on life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters. Human impact is felt in many areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and erosion. Human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global warming. This is driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas.
== Human geography ==
Originating from earlier primates in Eastern Africa 300,000years ago humans have since been migrating and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th millennium BC increasingly settling Earth's land. In the 20th century Antarctica had been the last continent to see a first and until today limited human presence.
Human population has since the 19th century grown exponentially to seven billion in the early 2010s, and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the second half of the 21st century. Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan Africa. partly due to the hemispherical predominance of the world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the Northern Hemisphere. Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged into urban areas with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century.
Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement, and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures. Most of Earth's land has been territorially claimed since the 19th century by sovereign states (countries) separated by political borders, and 205 such states exist today, with only parts of Antarctica and a few small regions remaining unclaimed. Most of these states together form the United Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization, which extends human governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth.
=== Natural resources and land use ===
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales. Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from actions of magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics. These metals and other elements are extracted by mining, a process which often brings environmental and health damage.
Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic waste. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land. Humans use building materials to construct shelters.
=== Humans and the environment ===
Human activities have impacted Earth's environments. Through activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget and climate. It is estimated that global temperatures in the year 2020 were warmer than the preindustrial baseline. This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas. As of 2018, no country meets the basic needs of its population without transgressing planetary boundaries. It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use.
== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
Human cultures have developed many views of the planet. The standard astronomical symbols of Earth are a quartered circle, , Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities.
Images of Earth taken from space, particularly during the Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way that people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the overview effect, emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and apparent fragility. In particular, this caused a realization of the scope of effects from human activity on Earth's environment. Enabled by science, particularly Earth observation, humans have started to take action on environmental issues globally, acknowledging the impact of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments.
Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides. Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first concluded that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System. Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.
|
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9,230 |
English Channel
|
The English Channel, also known as the Channel, is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Southern England from northern France. It links to the southern part of the North Sea by the Strait of Dover at its northeastern end. It is the busiest shipping area in the world.
It is about long and varies in width from at its widest to at its narrowest in the Strait of Dover. It is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some .
The Channel aided the United Kingdom in becoming a naval superpower, serving as a natural defence against invasions, such as in the Napoleonic Wars and in the Second World War.
The term British Sea is still used by speakers of Cornish and Breton, with the sea known to them as and respectively. While it is likely that these names derive from the Latin term, it is possible that they predate the arrival of the Romans in the area. The modern Welsh is often given as (the Lord's or Prince's Sea); however, this name originally described both the Channel and the North Sea combined.
Anglo-Saxon texts make reference to the sea as (South Sea), but this term fell out of favour, as later English authors followed the same conventions as their Latin and Norman contemporaries. One English name that did persist was the Narrow Seas, a collective term for the channel and North Sea. As England (followed by Great Britain and the United Kingdom) claimed sovereignty over the sea, a Royal Navy Admiral was appointed with maintaining duties in the two seas. The office was maintained until 1822, when several European nations (including the United Kingdom) adopted a limit to territorial waters.
In the sixteenth century, Dutch maps referred to the sea as the (English Channel) and by the 1590s, William Shakespeare used the word Channel in his history plays of Henry VI, suggesting that by that time, the name was popularly understood by English people.
By the eighteenth century, the name English Channel was in common usage in England. Following the Acts of Union 1707, this was replaced in official maps and documents with British Channel or British Sea for much of the next century. However, the term English Channel remained popular and was finally in official usage by the nineteenth century.
=== ===
The French name has been used since at least the 17th century. but this name is not attested before the 17th century, and French and British sources of that time are clear about its etymology. The name in French has been directly adapted in other languages as either a calque, such as in Italian or the Ärmelkanal in German, or a direct borrowing, such as in Spanish.
== Nature ==
=== Geography ===
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as:
The Strait of Dover (), at the Channel's eastern end, is its narrowest point, while its widest point lies between Lyme Bay and the Gulf of Saint Malo, near its midpoint.
There are several major islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast, and the Channel Islands, British Crown Dependencies off the coast of France. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is deeply indented, with several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey and Mont-Saint-Michel. The Cotentin Peninsula on the French coast juts out into the Channel, with the wide Bay of the Seine () to its east. On the English side there is a small parallel strait, the Solent, between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel.
The Channel acts as a funnel that amplifies the tidal range from less than a metre at sea in eastern places to more than 6 metres in the Channel Islands, the west coast of the Cotentin Peninsula and the north coast of Brittany in monthly spring tides. The time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. Amphidromic points are the Bay of Biscay and varying more in precise location in the far south of the North Sea, meaning both those associated eastern coasts repel the tides effectively, leaving the Strait of Dover as every six hours the natural bottleneck short of its consequent gravity-induced repulsion of the southward tide (surge) of the North Sea (equally from the Atlantic). The Channel does not experience, but its existence is necessary to explain the extent of North Sea storm surges, such as necessitate the Thames Barrier, Delta Works, Zuiderzee works (Afsluitdijk and other dams).
In the UK Shipping Forecast the Channel is divided into the following areas, from the east:
Dover
Wight
Portland
Plymouth
=== Geological origins ===
The full English Channel connecting the North Sea to the Western Atlantic via the Strait of Dover is of geologically recent origin, having formed late in the Pleistocene period. The English Channel first developed as an arm of the Atlantic Ocean during the Pliocene period (5.3-2.6 million years ago) as a result of differential tectonic uplift along pre-existing tectonic weaknesses during the Oligocene and Miocene periods. During this early period, the Channel did not connect to the North Sea, with Britain and Ireland remaining part of continental Europe, linked by an unbroken Weald–Artois anticline, a ridge running between the Dover and Calais regions. During Pleistocene glacial periods this ridge acted as a natural dam holding back a large freshwater pro-glacial lake in the Doggerland region, now submerged under the North Sea. During this period, the North Sea and almost all of the British Isles were covered by ice. The lake was fed by meltwater from the Baltic and from the Caledonian and Scandinavian ice sheets that joined to the north, blocking its exit. The sea level was about lower than it is today. Then, between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago, at least two catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods breached the Weald–Artois anticline. These contributed to creating some of the deepest parts of the channel such as Hurd's Deep.
The first flood of 450,000 years ago would have lasted for several months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second. The flood started with large but localised waterfalls over the ridge, which excavated depressions now known as the Fosses Dangeard. The flow eroded the retaining ridge, causing the rock dam to fail and releasing lake water into the Atlantic. After multiple episodes of changing sea level, during which the Fosses Dangeard were largely infilled by various layers of sediment, another catastrophic flood some 180,000 years ago carved a large bedrock-floored valley, the Lobourg Channel, some 500 m wide and 25 m deep, from the southern North Sea basin through the centre of the Straits of Dover and into the English Channel. Through the scoured channel passed a river, the Channel River, which drained the combined Rhine and Thames westwards to the Atlantic.
The flooding destroyed the ridge that connected Britain to continental Europe, although a land connection across the southern North Sea would have existed intermittently at later times when periods of glaciation resulted in lowering of sea levels.
During interglacial periods (when sea levels were high) between the initial flooding 450,000 years ago until around 180,000 years ago, the Channel would still have been separated from the North Sea by a land bridge to the north of the Strait of Dover (the Strait of Dover at this time formed part of a estuary fed by the Thames and Scheldt), restricting interchange of marine fauna between the Channel and the North Sea (except perhaps by occasional overtopping). During the Last Interglacial/Eemian (115–130,000 years ago) the connection between the North Sea and the English Channel was fully open as it is today, resulting in Britain being an island during this interval, before lowered sea levels reconnected it to the continent during the Last Glacial Period. From the end of the Last Glacial Period, to the beginning of the Holocene rising sea levels again resulted in the unimpeded connection between the North Sea and the English Channel resuming due to the sinking of Doggerland, with Britain again becoming an island.
=== Ecology ===
As a busy shipping lane, the Channel experiences environmental problems following accidents involving ships with toxic cargo and oil spills. Indeed, over 40% of the UK incidents threatening pollution occur in or very near the Channel. One occurrence was the MSC Napoli, which on 18 January 2007 was beached with nearly 1700 tonnes of dangerous cargo in Lyme Bay, a protected World Heritage Site coastline. The ship had been damaged and was en route to Portland Harbour.
The English Channel, despite being a busy shipping lane, remains in part a haven for wildlife. Atlantic oceanic species are more common in the westernmost parts of the channel, particularly to the west of Start Point, Devon, but can sometimes be found further east towards Dorset and the Isle of Wight. Seal sightings are becoming more common along the English Channel, with both grey seal and harbour seal recorded frequently.
== Human history ==
The Channel is thought to have prevented Neanderthals from colonising Britain during the Last Interglacial/Eemian, though they returned to Britain during the Last Glacial Period when sea levels were lower. The Channel has in historic times been both an easy entry for seafaring people and a key natural defence, halting invading armies while in conjunction with control of the North Sea allowing Britain to blockade the continent. The most significant failed invasion threats came when the Dutch and Belgian ports were held by a major continental power, e.g. from the Spanish Armada in 1588, Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, and Nazi Germany during World War II. Successful invasions include the Roman conquest of Britain, the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the Glorious Revolution of 1688, while the concentration of excellent harbours in the Western Channel on Britain's south coast made possible the largest amphibious invasion in history, the Normandy Landings in 1944. Channel naval battles include the Battle of the Downs (1639), Battle of Dover (1652), the Battle of Portland (1653) and the Battle of La Hougue (1692).
In more peaceful times, the Channel served as a link joining shared cultures and political structures, particularly the huge Angevin Empire from 1135 to 1217. For nearly a thousand years, the Channel also provided a link between the Modern Celtic regions and languages of Cornwall and Brittany. Brittany was founded by Britons who fled Cornwall and Devon after Anglo-Saxon encroachment. In Brittany, there is a region known as "Cornouaille" (Cornwall) in French and "Kernev" in Breton. In ancient times there was also a "Domnonia" (Devon) in Brittany as well.
In February 1684, ice formed on the sea in a belt wide off the coast of Kent and wide on the French side.
=== Route to Britain ===
Remnants of a Mesolithic boatyard have been found on the Isle of Wight. Wheat was traded across the Channel about 8,000 years ago. "... Sophisticated social networks linked the Neolithic front in southern Europe to the Mesolithic peoples of northern Europe." The Ferriby Boats, Hanson Log Boats and the later Dover Bronze Age Boat could carry a substantial cross-Channel cargo.
Diodorus Siculus and Pliny both suggest trade between the rebel Celtic tribes of Armorica and Iron Age Britain flourished. In 55 BC Julius Caesar invaded, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. He was more successful in 54 BC, but Britain was not fully established as part of the Roman Empire until Aulus Plautius's 43 AD invasion. A brisk and regular trade began between ports in Roman Gaul and those in Britain. This traffic continued until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 410 AD, after which the early Anglo-Saxons left less clear historical records.
In the power vacuum left by the retreating Romans, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea. Having already been used as mercenaries in Britain by the Romans, many people from these tribes crossed during the Migration Period, conquering and perhaps displacing the native Celtic populations.
=== Norsemen and Normans ===
The attack on Lindisfarne in 793 is generally considered the beginning of the Viking Age. For the next 250 years the Scandinavian raiders of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark dominated the North Sea, raiding monasteries, homes, and towns along the coast and along the rivers that ran inland. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle they began to settle in Britain in 851. They continued to settle in the British Isles and the continent until around 1050, with some raids recorded along the channel coast of England, including at Wareham, Portland, near Weymouth and along the river Teign in Devon.
The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo (also known as Robert of Normandy). Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks Charles the Simple through the Treaty of St.-Claire-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory he and his Viking allies had previously conquered. The name "Normandy" reflects Rollo's Viking (i.e. "Northman") origins.
The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and intermarried with the area's inhabitants and became the Normans – a Norman French-speaking mixture of Scandinavians, Hiberno-Norse, Orcadians, Anglo-Danish, and indigenous Franks and Gauls.
Rollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy, became king of England in 1066 in the Norman Conquest beginning with the Battle of Hastings, while retaining the fiefdom of Normandy for himself and his descendants. In 1204, during the reign of King John, mainland Normandy was taken from England by France under Philip II, while insular Normandy (the Channel Islands) remained under English control. In 1259, Henry III of England recognised the legality of French possession of mainland Normandy under the Treaty of Paris. His successors, however, often fought to regain control of mainland Normandy.
With the rise of William the Conqueror, the North Sea and Channel began to lose some of their importance. The new order oriented most of England and Scandinavia's trade south, toward the Mediterranean and the Orient.
Although the British surrendered claims to mainland Normandy and other French possessions in 1801, the monarch of the United Kingdom retains the title Duke of Normandy in respect to the Channel Islands. The Channel Islands (except for Chausey) are Crown Dependencies of the British Crown. Thus the Loyal toast in the Channel Islands is Le roi, notre Duc ("The King, our Duke"). The British monarch is understood to not be the Duke of Normandy in regards of the French region of Normandy described herein, by virtue of the Treaty of Paris of 1259, the surrender of French possessions in 1801, and the belief that the rights of succession to that title are subject to Salic Law which excludes inheritance through female heirs.
French Normandy was occupied by English forces during the Hundred Years' War in 1346–1360 and again in 1415–1450.
=== England and Britain: Naval superpower ===
From the reign of Elizabeth I, English foreign policy concentrated on preventing invasion across the Channel by ensuring no major European power controlled the potential Dutch and Flemish invasion ports. Her climb to the pre-eminent sea power of the world began in 1588 as the attempted invasion of the Spanish Armada was defeated by the combination of outstanding naval tactics by the English and the Dutch under command of Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham with Sir Francis Drake second in command, and the following stormy weather. Over the centuries the Royal Navy slowly grew to be the most powerful in the world.
The building of the British Empire was possible only because the Royal Navy eventually managed to exercise unquestioned control over the seas around Europe, especially the Channel and the North Sea. During the Seven Years' War, France attempted to launch an invasion of Britain. To achieve this France needed to gain control of the Channel for several weeks, but was thwarted following the British naval victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759 and was unsuccessful (The last French landing on English soil being in 1690 with a raid on Teignmouth, although the last French raid on British soil was a raid on Fishguard, Wales in 1797).
Another significant challenge to British domination of the seas came during the Napoleonic Wars. The Battle of Trafalgar took place off the coast of Spain against a combined French and Spanish fleet and was won by Admiral Horatio Nelson, ending Napoleon's plans for a cross-Channel invasion and securing British dominance of the seas for over a century.
=== First World War ===
The exceptional strategic importance of the Channel as a tool for blockading was recognised by the First Sea Lord Admiral Fisher in the years before World War I. "Five keys lock up the world! Singapore, the Cape, Alexandria, Gibraltar, Dover." However, on 25 July 1909 Louis Blériot made the first Channel crossing from Calais to Dover in an aeroplane. Blériot's crossing signalled a change in the function of the Channel as a barrier-moat for England against foreign enemies.
Because the Kaiserliche Marine surface fleet could not match the British Grand Fleet, the Germans developed submarine warfare, which was to become a far greater threat to Britain. The Dover Patrol, set up just before the war started, escorted cross-Channel troopships and prevented submarines from sailing in the Channel, obliging them to travel to the Atlantic via the much longer route around Scotland.
On land, the German army attempted to capture French Channel ports in the Race to the Sea but although the trenches are often said to have stretched "from the frontier of Switzerland to the English Channel", they reached the coast at the North Sea. Much of the British war effort in Flanders was a bloody but successful strategy to prevent the Germans reaching the Channel coast.
At the outset of the war, an attempt was made to block the path of U-boats through the Dover Strait with naval minefields. By February 1915, this had been augmented by a stretch of light steel netting called the Dover Barrage, which it was hoped would ensnare submerged submarines. After initial success, the Germans learned how to pass through the barrage, aided by the unreliability of British mines. On 31 January 1917, the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare leading to dire Admiralty predictions that submarines would defeat Britain by November, the most dangerous situation Britain faced in either world war.
The Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 was fought to reduce the threat by capturing the submarine bases on the Belgian coast, though it was the introduction of convoys and not capture of the bases that averted defeat. In April 1918 the Dover Patrol carried out the Zeebrugge Raid against the U-boat bases. During 1917, the Dover Barrage was re-sited with improved mines and more effective nets, aided by regular patrols by small warships equipped with powerful searchlights. A German attack on these vessels resulted in the Battle of Dover Strait in 1917. A much more ambitious attempt to improve the barrage, by installing eight massive concrete towers across the strait was called the Admiralty M-N Scheme but only two towers were nearing completion at the end of the war and the project was abandoned.
The naval blockade in the Channel and North Sea was one of the decisive factors in the German defeat in 1918.
=== Second World War ===
During the Second World War, naval activity in the European theatre was primarily limited to the Atlantic. During the Battle of France in May 1940, the German forces succeeded in capturing both Boulogne and Calais, thereby threatening the line of retreat for the British Expeditionary Force. By a combination of hard fighting and German indecision, the port of Dunkirk was kept open allowing 338,000 Allied troops to be evacuated in Operation Dynamo. More than 11,000 were evacuated from Le Havre during Operation Cycle and a further 192,000 were evacuated from ports further down the coast in Operation Aerial in June 1940. The early stages of the Battle of Britain featured German air attacks on Channel shipping and ports; despite these early successes against shipping the Germans did not win the air supremacy necessary for Operation Sealion, the projected cross-Channel invasion.
The Channel subsequently became the stage for an intensive coastal war, featuring submarines, minesweepers, and Fast Attack Craft.
The narrow waters of the Channel were considered too dangerous for major warships until the Normandy Landings with the exception, for the German Kriegsmarine, of the Channel Dash (Operation Cerberus) in February 1942, and this required the support of the Luftwaffe in Operation Thunderbolt.
Dieppe was the site of an ill-fated Dieppe Raid by Canadian and British armed forces. More successful was the later Operation Overlord (D-Day), a massive invasion of German-occupied France by Allied troops. Caen, Cherbourg, Carentan, Falaise and other Norman towns endured many casualties in the fight for the province, which continued until the closing of the so-called Falaise gap between Chambois and Montormel, then liberation of Le Havre.
The Channel Islands were the only part of the British Commonwealth occupied by Germany (excepting the part of Egypt occupied by the Afrika Korps at the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein, which was a protectorate and not part of the Commonwealth). The German occupation of 1940–1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for slave labour on the Continent; native Jews sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution; accusations of collaboration; and slave labour (primarily Russians and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build fortifications. The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of mainland Normandy in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the occupation, particularly in the final months, when the population was close to starvation. The German troops on the islands surrendered on 9 May 1945, a day after the final surrender in mainland Europe.
=== English Channel migrant crossings (2018–present)===
There is significant public concern in the UK about illegal immigrants coming on small boats from France. Since 2018, the English Channel has seen a major increase in number of crossing.
== Population ==
The English Channel coast is far more densely populated on the English shore. The most significant towns and cities along both the English and French sides of the Channel (each with more than 20,000 inhabitants, ranked in descending order; populations are the urban area populations from the 1999 French census, 2001 UK census, and 2001 Jersey census) are as follows:
England
Brighton–Worthing–Littlehampton:461,181 inhabitants, made up of:
Brighton: 155,919
Worthing: 96,964
Hove: 72,335
Littlehampton: 55,716
Lancing–Sompting: 30,360
Portsmouth: 442,252, including
Gosport: 79,200
Bournemouth & Poole: 383,713
Southampton: 304,400
Plymouth: 258,700
Torbay (Torquay): 129,702
Hastings–Bexhill: 126,386
Exeter: 119,600
Eastbourne: 106,562
Bognor Regis: 62,141
Folkestone–Hythe: 60,039
Weymouth: 56,043
Dover: 39,078
Walmer–Deal: 35,941
Exmouth: 32,972
Falmouth–Penryn: 28,801
Ryde: 22,806
St Austell: 22,658
Seaford: 21,851
Falmouth: 21,635
Penzance: 20,255
France
Le Havre: 248,547 inhabitants
Calais: 104,852
Saint-Malo: 50,675
Lannion–Perros-Guirec: 48,990
Saint-Brieuc: 45,879
Boulogne-sur-Mer: 42,537
Cherbourg: 77,789
Dieppe: 42,202
Morlaix: 35,996
Dinard: 25,006
Étaples–Le Touquet-Paris-Plage: 23,994
Fécamp: 22,717
Eu–Le Tréport: 22,019
Trouville-sur-Mer–Deauville: 20,406
Channel Islands
Saint Helier, Jersey: 28,310 inhabitants
Saint Peter Port, Guernsey: 16,488 inhabitants
Saint Anne, Alderney: 2,200 inhabitants
Sark: 600 inhabitants
Herm: 60 inhabitants
== Culture and languages ==
The two dominant cultures are English on the north shore of the Channel, French on the south. However, there are also a number of minority languages that are or were found on the shores and islands of the English Channel, which are listed here, with the Channel's name in the specific language following them.
Celtic Languages
, Sea of Brittany
, Merciful Sea
Germanic languages
English
, the Channel. (Dutch previously had a larger range, and extended into parts of modern-day France as French Flemish.)
Romance languages
Gallo: Manche, Grand-Mè, Mè Bertone
Norman, including the Channel Island vernaculars:
Anglo-Norman (extinct, but fossilised in certain English law phrases)
Auregnais (extinct)
Cotentinais: Maunche
Guernésiais:
Jèrriais:
Sercquais
Picard
Most other languages tend towards variants of the French and English forms, but notably Welsh has .
== Economy ==
=== Shipping ===
The Channel has traffic on both the UK–Europe and North Sea–Atlantic routes, and is the world's busiest seaway, with over 500 ships per day. Following an accident in January 1971 and a series of disastrous collisions with wreckage in February, the Dover TSS, the world's first radar-controlled traffic separation scheme, was set up by the International Maritime Organization. The scheme mandates that vessels travelling north must use the French side, travelling south the English side. There is a separation zone between the two lanes.
In December 2002 the MV Tricolor, carrying £30m of luxury cars, sank northwest of Dunkirk after collision in fog with the container ship Kariba. The cargo ship Nicola ran into the wreckage the next day. There was no loss of life.
The shore-based long-range traffic control system was updated in 2003 and there is a series of traffic separation systems in operation. Though the system is inherently incapable of reaching the levels of safety obtained from aviation systems such as the traffic collision avoidance system, it has reduced accidents to one or two per year.
Marine GPS systems allow ships to be preprogrammed to follow navigational channels accurately and automatically, further avoiding risk of running aground, but following the fatal collision between Dutch Aquamarine and Ash in October 2001, Britain's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) issued a safety bulletin saying it believed that in these most unusual circumstances GPS use had actually contributed to the collision. The ships were maintaining a very precise automated course, one directly behind the other, rather than making use of the full width of the traffic lanes as a human navigator would.
A combination of radar difficulties in monitoring areas near cliffs, a failure of a CCTV system, incorrect operation of the anchor, the inability of the crew to follow standard procedures of using a GPS to provide early warning of the ship dragging the anchor and reluctance to admit the mistake and start the engine led to the MV Willy running aground in Cawsand Bay, Cornwall, in January 2002. The MAIB report makes it clear that the harbour controllers were informed of impending disaster by shore observers before the crew were themselves aware. The village of Kingsand was evacuated for three days because of the risk of explosion, and the ship was stranded for 11 days.
=== Ferry ===
The ferry routes crossing the English Channel, include (have included):-
Dover–Calais
Dover–Dunkirk
Newhaven–Dieppe
Plymouth–Roscoff
Poole–Cherbourg
Poole–Jersey and Guernsey
Poole–Saint Malo
Portsmouth–Cherbourg
Portsmouth–Jersey and Guernsey
Portsmouth–Le Havre
Portsmouth–Ouistreham
Portsmouth–Saint Malo
Rosslare–Cherbourg
Rosslare–Roscoff
Weymouth–Saint Malo
Brighton Marina to Dieppe (using the SeaJet for a 100-minute crossing)
=== Channel Tunnel ===
Many travellers cross beneath the Channel using the Channel Tunnel, first proposed in the early 19th century and finally opened in 1994, connecting the UK and France by rail. It is now routine to travel between Paris or Brussels and London on the Eurostar train. Freight trains also use the tunnel. Cars, coaches and lorries are carried on Eurotunnel Shuttle trains between Folkestone and Calais.
=== Tourism ===
The coastal resorts of the Channel, such as Brighton and Deauville, inaugurated an era of aristocratic tourism in the early 19th century. Short trips across the Channel for leisure purposes are often referred to as Channel Hopping.
=== Renewable energy ===
The Rampion Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm located in the Channel, off the coast of West Sussex. Other offshore wind farms planned on the French side of the Channel.
== History of Channel crossings ==
As one of the narrowest and most well-known international waterways lacking dangerous currents, the Channel has been the first objective of numerous innovative sea, air, and human powered crossing technologies.
Pre-historic people sailed from the mainland to England for millennia. At the end of the last Ice Age, lower sea levels even permitted walking across.
=== By boat ===
Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the Élise, ex the Scottish p.s. "Margery" in March 1816, one of the earliest seagoing voyages by steam ship.
The paddle steamer Defiance, Captain William Wager, was the first steamer to cross the Channel to Holland, arriving there on 9 May 1816.
In June 1843, because of difficulties with Dover harbour, the South Eastern Railway company developed the Boulogne-sur-Mer-Folkestone route as an alternative to Calais-Dover. The first ferry crossed under the command of Captain Hayward.
In 1974 a Welsh coracle piloted by Bernard Thomas of Llechryd crossed the English Channel to France in 13 hours. The journey was undertaken to demonstrate how the Bull Boats of the Mandan Indians of North Dakota could have been copied from coracles introduced by Prince Madog in the 12th century.
The Mountbatten class hovercraft (MCH) entered commercial service in August 1968, initially between Dover and Boulogne but later also Ramsgate (Pegwell Bay) to Calais. The journey time Dover to Boulogne was roughly 35 minutes, with six trips per day at peak times. The fastest crossing of the English Channel by a commercial car-carrying hovercraft was 22 minutes, recorded by the Princess Anne MCH SR-N4 Mk3 on 14 September 1995,
=== By air ===
The first aircraft to cross the Channel was a balloon in 1785, piloted by Jean Pierre François Blanchard (France) and John Jeffries (US).
Louis Blériot (France) piloted the first aeroplane to cross in 1909.
On 26 September 2008, Swiss Yves Rossy aka Jetman became the first person to cross the English Channel with a Jet Powered Wing,
He jumped from a Pilatus Porter over Calais, France, Rossy crossed the English Channel where he deployed his parachute and landed in Dover
The first flying car to have crossed the English Channel is a Pégase designed by the French company Vaylon on 14 June 2017. It was piloted by a Franco-Italian pilot Bruno Vezzoli. This crossing was carried out as part of the first road and air trip from Paris to London in a flying car. Pegase is a 2 seats road approved dune buggy and a powered paraglider. The takeoff was at 8:03 a.m. from Ambleteuse in the North of France and landing was at East Studdal, near Dover. The flight was completed in 1 hour and 15 minutes for a total distance covered of including over the English Channel at an altitude of .
On 12 June 1979, the first human-powered aircraft to cross the English Channel was the Gossamer Albatross, built by American aeronautical engineer Dr. Paul B. MacCready's company AeroVironment, and piloted by Bryan Allen. The crossing was completed in 2 hours and 49 minutes.
On 4 August 2019, Frenchman Franky Zapata became the first person to cross the English Channel on a jet-powered Flyboard Air. The board was powered by a kerosene-filled backpack. Zapata made the journey in 22 minutes, having landed on a boat half-way across to refuel.
=== By swimming ===
The sport of Channel swimming traces its origins to the latter part of the 19th century when Captain Matthew Webb made the first observed and unassisted swim across the Strait of Dover, swimming from England to France on 24–25 August 1875 in 21 hours 45 minutes.
Up to 1927, fewer than ten swimmers (including the first woman, Gertrude Ederle in 1926) had managed to successfully swim the English Channel, and many dubious claims had been made. The Channel Swimming Association (CSA) was founded to authenticate and ratify swimmers' claims to have swum the Channel and to verify crossing times. The CSA was dissolved in 1999 and was succeeded by two separate organisations: CSA Ltd (CSA) and the Channel Swimming and Piloting Federation (CSPF), both observe and authenticate cross-Channel swims in the Strait of Dover. The Channel Crossing Association was also set up to cater for unorthodox crossings.
The team with the most Channel swims to its credit is the Serpentine Swimming Club in London, followed by the international Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team.
As of 2023, 1,881 people had completed 2,428 verified solo crossings under the rules of the CSA and the CSPF. This includes 24 two-way crossings and three three-way crossings.
The Strait of Dover is the busiest stretch of water in the world. It is governed by International Law as described in Unorthodox Crossing of the Dover Strait Traffic Separation Scheme. It states: "[In] exceptional cases the French Maritime Authorities may grant authority for unorthodox craft to cross French territorial waters within the Traffic Separation Scheme when these craft set off from the British coast, on condition that the request for authorisation is sent to them with the opinion of the British Maritime Authorities."
The fastest verified swim of the Channel was by the Australian Trent Grimsey on 8 September 2012, in 6 hours 55 minutes, beating a swim of 2007. The female record is held by Yvetta Hlavacova of Czechia, on 7 hours, 25 minutes on 5 August 2006.
=== By car ===
On 16 September 1965, two Amphicars crossed from Dover to Calais.
=== Other types ===
PLUTO was war-time fuel delivery project of "pipelines under the ocean" from England to France. Though plagued with technical difficulties during the Battle of Normandy, the pipelines delivered about 8% of the fuel requirements of the Allied forces between D-Day and VE-Day.
|
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] |
9,232 |
Eiffel Tower
|
The Eiffel Tower ( ; ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.
Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centrepiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022. The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:
The tower is tall, about the same height as an 81- building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by . Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is above the ground—the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600-step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's personal use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.
==History==
===Origin===
The design of the Eiffel Tower is attributed to Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel. It was envisaged after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals". Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of the company's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.
The new version gained Eiffel's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nouguier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was put on display at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the ; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise
Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars.
A French bank, the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (CIC), helped finance the construction of the Eiffel Tower. During the period of the tower's construction, the CIC was acquiring funds from predatory loans to the National Bank of Haiti, some of which went towards the financing of the tower. These loans were connected to an indemnity controversy that saw France force Haiti's government to financially compensate French slaveowners for lost income as a result of the Haitian Revolution, and required Haiti to pay the CIC and its partner nearly half of all taxes collected on exports, "effectively choking off the nation's primary source of income". According to The New York Times, "[at] a time when the [CIC] was helping finance one of the world's best-known landmarks, the Eiffel Tower, as a monument to French liberty, it was choking Haiti's economy, taking much of the young nation's income back to Paris and impairing its ability to start schools, hospitals and the other building blocks of an independent country."
===Artists' protest===
The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. Prior to the Eiffel Tower's construction, no structure had ever been constructed to a height of 300 m, or even 200 m for that matter, and many people believed it was impossible. These objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower" was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Adolphe Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris?" These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, sardonically saying, "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time", and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.
Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel pointed out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?"
Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.
By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.
===Construction===
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons long and in diameter driven to a depth of to support the concrete slabs, which were thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.
Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts in diameter and long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined using 2.5 million rivets. Multiple famous artists of that time, Charles Garnier and Alexandre Dumas, thought poorly of the newly made tower. Charles Garnier thought it was a "truly tragic street lamp". Alexandre Dumas said that it was like "Odius shadow of the odious column built of rivets and iron plates extending like a black blot". There were multiple protests over the style and the reasoning of placing it in the middle of Paris. At this stage, a small "creeper" crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888.
File:Construction tour eiffel.JPG|18 July 1887:The start of the erection of the metalwork
File:Construction tour eiffel2.JPG|7 December 1887:Construction of the legs with scaffolding
File:Construction tour eiffel3.JPG|20 March 1888:Completion of the first level
File:Construction tour eiffel4.JPG|15 May 1888:Start of construction on the second stage
File:Construction tour eiffel5.JPG|Completion of the second level
File:Construction tour eiffel6.JPG|26 December 1888:Construction of the upper stage
File:Construction tour eiffel7.JPG|Construction of the cupola
===Inauguration and the 1889 exposition===
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower.
There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710-step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.
On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made.
At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described the collection of responses as "truly curious".
Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill" Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison. Edison signed the guestbook with this message on September 10, 1889:
Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.
===Subsequent events===
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The city had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for many innovations in the early 20th century, particularly radio telegraphy, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit, and from 1910 it also became part of the International Time Service.
For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives-Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism as the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism.
From 1910, the astronomical clocks of the Paris Observatory sent the time to sea daily through the Eiffel Tower within a radius of 5 000 km. The development of wireless telegraphy allowed unifying Universal Time. In 1912, following a report by Gustave Ferrié, the Bureau des Longitudes organized at the Paris Observatory a Conférence internationale de l'heure radiotélégraphique (International Radiotelegraph Time Conference). The International Time Bureau was created and installed in the premises of the Paris Observatory. However, due to World War I, the International Convention was never ratified. In 1919, the existence of the International Time Bureau was formalized under the authority of an International Time Commission, under the aegis of the International Astronomical Union, created by Benjamin Baillaud. Two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 m) to demonstrate his parachute design. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne.
During World War I, the Eiffel Tower's wireless station played a crucial role in intercepting enemy communications from Berlin. In 1914, French forces successfully launched a counter-attack during the Battle of the Marne after gaining critical intelligence on the German Army's movements. In 1917, the station intercepted a coded message between Germany and Spain that referenced 'Operative H-21.' This information contributed to the arrest, conviction, and execution of Mata Hari, the famous spy accused of working for Germany.
From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low-resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180-line transmitter was installed.
On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower for scrap metal. A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was restricted to German visitors during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika-centred Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. On 25 August, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans. In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.
In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. The Fives-Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil-filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. In 1987, A. J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.
For its "Countdown to the Year 2000" celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high-powered searchlights were installed on the tower. During the last three minutes of the year, the lights were turned on starting from the base of the tower and continuing to the top to welcome 2000 with a huge fireworks show. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.
The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium on 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing. The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors per year since 2003. In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.
==Design==
===Material===
The puddle iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tonnes, and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tonnes. As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tonnes of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, on each side, to a depth of only assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic metre. Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 m × 125 m × 125 m) would contain 6200 tonnes of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.
===Wind and weather considerations===
When it was built, Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team were experienced bridge builders. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:
He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. All parts of the tower were overdesigned to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. After it was completed, some have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. A one devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English described it as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.
===Floors===
====Ground floor====
The four columns of the tower each house access stairs and lifts to the first two floors, while at the south column only the lift to the second floor restaurant is publicly accessible.
====1st floor====
The first floor is publicly accessible by lift or stairs. When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants—one French, one Russian and one Flemish—and an "Anglo-American Bar". After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250-seat theatre. Today there is the restaurant and other facilities.
====2nd floor====
The second floor is publicly accessible by lift or stairs and has a restaurant called , a gourmet restaurant with its own lift going up from the south column to the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It was run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse from 2007 to 2017. As of May 2019, it is managed by three-star chef Frédéric Anton. It owes its name to the famous science-fiction writer Jules Verne.
====3rd floor====
The third floor is the top floor, publicly accessible by lift.
Originally there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.
From 1937 until 1981, there was a restaurant near the top of the tower. It was removed due to structural considerations; engineers had determined it was too heavy and was causing the tower to sag. This restaurant was sold to an American restaurateur and transported to New York and then New Orleans. It was rebuilt on the edge of New Orleans' Garden District as a restaurant and later event hall. Today there is a champagne bar.
===Lifts===
The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.
Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts had to be the main means of ascent.
Constructing lifts to reach the first level was done by making the legs wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track. A contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs. Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around diameter sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains. Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.
The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram long and in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of : this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.
The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car travelled only half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10-ton cars each held 65 passengers.
===Engraved names===
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the building of the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians as a recognition of their contributions. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the artists' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986–87 by the , a company operating the tower.
===Aesthetics===
The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky. It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as "Eiffel Tower Brown". In what is expected to be a temporary change, the tower was painted gold in commemoration of the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris.
Following the 2024 Summer Olympics held in Paris, Mayor Anne Hidalgo proposed keeping the Olympic rings on the tower permanently. The rings, which measure wide and high, were initially installed for the Games and were scheduled for removal after the Paralympics. Hidalgo's decision faced criticism from the Eiffel family and some residents concerned about altering the protected monument. The original 30-ton rings would be replaced with lighter versions for long-term display.
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill-work arches, added in Sauvestre's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.
A pop-culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.
===Maintenance===
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every 7 years to prevent it from rusting. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built, with the most recent being in 2010. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment.
==Communications==
The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington County, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.
===FM radio===
===Digital television===
A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by . Work carried out in 2000 added a further , giving the current height of .
==Taller structures==
The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. The tower also lost its standing as the world's tallest tower to the Tokyo Tower in 1958 but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.
===Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower===
===Structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower===
==Tourism==
===Transport===
The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir-Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars-Tour Eiffel. The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.
===Popularity===
More than 300 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889. The tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world. An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day (which can result in long queues).
==Illumination copyright==
The tower and its image have been in the public domain since 1993, 70 years after Eiffel's death. In June 1990, a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower's 100th anniversary was an "original visual creation" protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992. The (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright. As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use. For this reason, it is often rare to find images or videos of the lit tower at night on stock image sites, and media outlets rarely broadcast images or videos of it.
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways [of which] we don't approve". SNTE made over €1 million from copyright fees in 2002. However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.
The copyright claim itself has never been tested in courts to date, according to a 2014 article in the Art Law Journal, and there has never been an attempt to track down millions of people who have posted and shared their images of the illuminated tower on the Internet worldwide. However, the article adds that commercial uses of such images, like in a magazine, on a film poster, or on product packaging, may require prior permission.
French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower.
==Replicas==
As one of the most famous landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is tall. Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower. Well known is the Petřín Lookout Tower in Prague too.
There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half-scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1:3 scale models at Kings Island, located in Mason, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1:3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.
In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full-size replica of the tower would cost approximately US$480 million to build. This would be more than ten times the cost of the original (nearly 8 million in 1890 francs; around US$40 million in 2018 dollars).
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9,235 |
Ethical egoism
|
In ethical philosophy, ethical egoism is the normative position that moral agents ought to act in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people can only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds that it is rational to act in one's self-interest.
Ethical egoism holds, therefore, that actions whose consequences will benefit the doer are ethical.
Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and "the self" to a status not granted to others). But it also holds that one is not obligated to sacrifice one's own interests (as altruism does) to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e., one's own desires or well-being) are substantially equivalent to the others' interests and well-being, but they have the choice to do so. Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism, but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of consequentialism (i.e., subject-focused or subjective). However, utilitarianism is held to be agent-neutral (i.e., objective and impartial): it does not treat the subject's (i.e., the self's, i.e., the moral "agent's") own interests as being more or less important than the interests, desires, or well-being of others.
Ethical egoism does not, however, require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation; e.g., what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for others' interest and well-being to be disregarded or not, as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that, in pursuing self-interest, one ought always to do what one wants to do; e.g., in the long term, the fulfillment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self. Fleeting pleasure, then, takes a back seat to protracted eudaimonia. In the words of James Rachels, "Ethical egoism ... endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness."
Ethical egoism is often used as the philosophical basis for support of right-libertarianism and individualist anarchism. These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action.
==Forms==
Ethical egoism can be broadly divided into three categories: individual, personal, and universal. An individual ethical egoist would hold that all people should do whatever benefits "my" (the individual's) self-interest; a personal ethical egoist would hold that they should act in their self-interest, but would make no claims about what anyone else ought to do; a universal ethical egoist would argue that everyone should act in ways that are in their self-interest.
==History==
Ethical egoism was introduced by the philosopher Henry Sidgwick in his book The Methods of Ethics, written in 1874. Sidgwick compared egoism to the philosophy of utilitarianism, writing that whereas utilitarianism sought to maximize overall pleasure, egoism focused only on maximizing individual pleasure.
Philosophers before Sidgwick have also retroactively been identified as ethical egoists. One ancient example is the philosophy of Yang Zhu (4th century BC), Yangism, who views wei wo, or "everything for myself", as the only virtue necessary for self-cultivation. Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics were exponents of virtue ethics, and "did not accept the formal principle that whatever the good is, we should seek only our own good, or prefer it to the good of others." and while some refer to Epicurus' hedonism as a form of virtue ethics, others argue his ethics are more properly described as ethical egoism.
==Justifications==
Philosopher James Rachels, in an essay that takes as its title the theory's name, outlines the three arguments most commonly touted in its favor:
"The first argument," writes Rachels, "has several variations, each suggesting the same general point:
"Each of us is intimately familiar with our own individual wants and needs. Moreover, each of us is uniquely placed to pursue those wants and needs effectively. At the same time, we know the desires and needs of others only imperfectly, and we are not well situated to pursue them. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that if we set out to be 'our brother's keeper,' we would often bungle the job and end up doing more mischief than good."
Altruism, ultimately, denies an individual's value and is therefore destructive both to society and its individual components, viewing life merely as a thing to be sacrificed. Philosopher Ayn Rand is quoted as writing that, "[i]f a man accepts the ethics of altruism, his first concern is not how to live his life but how to sacrifice it." Moreover, "[t]he basic principle of altruism is that man has no right to exist for his own sake, that service to others is the only justification for his existence, and that self-sacrifice is his highest moral duty, virtue or value." Rather, she writes, "[t]he purpose of morality is to teach you, not to suffer and die, but to enjoy yourself and live."
All of our commonly accepted moral duties, from doing no harm unto others to speaking always the truth to keeping promises, are rooted in the one fundamental principle of self-interest.
It has been observed, however, that the very act of eating (especially, when there are others starving in the world) is such an act of self-interested discrimination. Ethical egoists such as Rand who readily acknowledge the (conditional) value of others to an individual, and who readily endorse empathy for others, have argued the exact reverse from Rachels, that it is altruism which discriminates: "If the sensation of eating a cake is a value, then why is it an immoral indulgence in your stomach, but a moral goal for you to achieve in the stomach of others?" It is therefore altruism which is an arbitrary position, according to Rand.
==Criticism==
It has been argued that extreme ethical egoism is self-defeating. Faced with a situation of limited resources, egoists would consume as much of the resource as they could, making the overall situation worse for everybody. Egoists may respond that if the situation becomes worse for everybody, that would include the egoist, so it is not, in fact, in their rational self-interest to take things to such extremes. However, the (unregulated) tragedy of the commons and the (one off) prisoner's dilemma are cases in which, on the one hand, it is rational for an individual to seek to take as much as possible even though that makes things worse for everybody, and on the other hand, those cases are not self-refuting since that behaviour remains rational even though it is ultimately self-defeating, i.e. self-defeating does not imply self-refuting. Egoists might respond that a tragedy of the commons, however, assumes some degree of public land. That is, a commons forbidding homesteading requires regulation. Thus, an argument against the tragedy of the commons, in this belief system, is fundamentally an argument for private property rights and the system that recognizes both property rights and rational self-interest—capitalism. More generally, egoists might say that an increasing respect for individual rights uniquely allows for increasing wealth creation and increasing usable resources despite a fixed amount of raw materials (e.g. the West pre-1776 versus post-1776, East versus West Germany, Hong Kong versus mainland China, North versus South Korea, etc.).
It is not clear how to apply a private ownership model to many examples of "commons", however. Examples include large fisheries, the atmosphere and the ocean.
Some perhaps decisive problems with ethical egoism have been pointed out.
One is that an ethical egoist would not want ethical egoism to be universalized: as it would be in the egoist's best self-interest if others acted altruistically towards them, they wouldn't want them to act egoistically; however, that is what they consider to be morally binding. Their moral principles would demand of others not to follow them, which can be considered self-defeating and leads to the question: "How can ethical egoism be considered morally binding if its advocates do not want it to be universally applied?"
Another objection (e.g. by James Rachels) states that the distinction ethical egoism makes between "yourself" and "the rest" – demanding to view the interests of "yourself" as more important – is arbitrary, as no justification for it can be offered; considering that the merits and desires of "the rest" are comparable to those of "yourself" while lacking a justifiable distinction, Rachels concludes that "the rest" should be given the same moral consideration as "yourself".
Derek Parfit argues against ethical egoism in the book Reasons and Persons. Parfit argues that ethical egoism is collectively self-defeating due to the prisoner's dilemma. Parfit also poses thought experiments such as the teletransportation paradox, which challenge the idea of an objective future self and a continuous personal identity.
Daniel Kolak argues that the entire concepts of the "self" and the "ego" are incoherent. In his book I am You, Kolak uses the terms "closed individualism", "empty individualism", and "open individualism" to describe three contrasting philosophical views of the self. Kolak argues that closed individualism, the idea that one's personal identity consist of a line persisting from moment to moment, is incoherent, and there is no basis for the belief that one is the "same" person from moment to moment. Empty individualism is the idea that personal identity exists, but one's identity only exists as a "time slice" existing for an infinitesimally small amount of time. Open individualism is the view advocated by Kolak, in which the self in reality does not actually exist at all, similar to anattā in Buddhist philosophy. Thus, according to open individualism, it could be argued that ethical egoism is incoherent, since the ego in its entirety is an illusion.
==Notable proponents==
The term ethical egoism has been applied retroactively to philosophers such as Bernard de Mandeville and to many other materialists of his generation, although none of them declared themselves to be egoists. Note that materialism does not necessarily imply egoism, as indicated by Karl Marx, and the many other materialists who espoused forms of collectivism. It has been argued that ethical egoism can lend itself to individualist anarchism such as that of Benjamin Tucker, or the combined anarcho-communism and egoism of Emma Goldman, both of whom were proponents of many egoist ideas put forward by Max Stirner. In this context, egoism is another way of describing the sense that the common good should be enjoyed by all. However, most notable anarchists in history have been less radical, retaining altruism and a sense of the importance of the individual that is appreciable but does not go as far as egoism. Recent trends to greater appreciation of egoism within anarchism tend to come from less classical directions such as post-left anarchy or Situationism (e.g. Raoul Vaneigem). Egoism has also been referenced by anarcho-capitalists, such as Murray Rothbard.
Philosopher Max Stirner, in his book The Ego and Its Own, was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, though his writing makes clear that he desired not a new idea of morality (ethical egoism), but rather a rejection of morality (amoralism), as a nonexistent and limiting "spook"; for this, Stirner has been described as the first individualist anarchist. Other philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes and David Gauthier, have argued that the conflicts which arise when people each pursue their own ends can be resolved for the best of each individual only if they all voluntarily forgo some of their aims—that is, one's self-interest is often best pursued by allowing others to pursue their self-interest as well so that liberty is equal among individuals. Sacrificing one's short-term self-interest to maximize one's long-term self-interest is one form of "rational self-interest" which is the idea behind most philosophers' advocacy of ethical egoism. Egoists have also argued that one's actual interests are not immediately obvious, and that the pursuit of self-interest involves more than merely the acquisition of some good, but the maximizing of one's chances of survival and/or happiness.
Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that egoistic or "life-affirming" behavior stimulates jealousy or "ressentiment" in others, and that this is the psychological motive for the altruism in Christianity. Sociologist Helmut Schoeck similarly considered envy the motive of collective efforts by society to reduce the disproportionate gains of successful individuals through moral or legal constraints, with altruism being primary among these. In addition, Nietzsche (in Beyond Good and Evil) and Alasdair MacIntyre (in After Virtue) have pointed out that the ancient Greeks did not associate morality with altruism in the way that post-Christian Western civilization has done.
Aristotle's view is that we have duties to ourselves as well as to other people (e.g. friends) and to the polis as a whole. The same is true for Thomas Aquinas, Christian Wolff and Immanuel Kant, who claim that there are duties to ourselves as Aristotle did, although it has been argued that, for Aristotle, the duty to one's self is primary.
Ayn Rand argued that there is a positive harmony of interests among free, rational humans, such that no moral agent can rationally coerce another person consistently with their own long-term self-interest. Rand argued that other people are an enormous value to an individual's well-being (through education, trade and affection), but also that this value could be fully realized only under conditions of political and economic freedom. According to Rand, voluntary trade alone can assure that human interaction is mutually beneficial. Rand's student, Leonard Peikoff has argued that the identification of one's interests itself is impossible absent the use of principles, and that self-interest cannot be consistently pursued absent a consistent adherence to certain ethical principles. Recently, Rand's position has also been defended by such writers as Tara Smith, Tibor Machan, Allan Gotthelf, David Kelley, Douglas Rasmussen, Nathaniel Branden, Harry Binswanger, Andrew Bernstein, and Craig Biddle.
Philosopher David L. Norton identified himself as an "ethical individualist", and, like Rand, saw a harmony between an individual's fidelity to their own self-actualization, or "personal destiny", and the achievement of society's well-being.
|
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"Ford Hall Forum",
"Western culture",
"Murray Rothbard",
"Allan Gotthelf",
"David L. Norton",
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"rationality",
"Benjamin Tucker",
"Kansas City, Missouri",
"right-libertarianism",
"Kurt Baier",
"Harry Binswanger",
"Psychology Press",
"future self",
"Profit motive",
"The Thomson Corporation",
"Tibor Machan",
"Nicomachean Ethics",
"self (philosophy)",
"utilitarianism",
"virtue ethics",
"Individualism",
"Helmut Schoeck",
"Ancient Greek philosophy",
"Helping behavior",
"Aristotle",
"materialist",
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"Yang Zhu",
"Derek Parfit",
"amoralism",
"Friedrich Nietzsche",
"prisoner's dilemma",
"Immanuel Kant",
"Max Stirner",
"Plato",
"ressentiment",
"Situationism",
"The Objectivist Forum",
"Epicurus",
"Journal of Business Ethics",
"polis",
"C. B. Macpherson",
"The Methods of Ethics",
"Impartiality",
"Cyrenaics",
"Joel Feinberg",
"Cārvāka",
"After Virtue",
"The Ego and Its Own",
"Quality of life",
"Christian Wolff (philosopher)",
"Beyond Good and Evil",
"The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand",
"desire (philosophy)",
"morality",
"Behavioral economics",
"Collectivism and individualism",
"Rational expectations",
"subject (philosophy)",
"The Virtue of Selfishness",
"Craig Biddle",
"self-interest",
"eudaimonia",
"anarcho-communism",
"Rowman & Littlefield",
"Boston",
"Peter Singer",
"normative ethics",
"Reasons and Persons",
"altruism (ethics)",
"Christianity",
"rational egoism",
"Karl Marx",
"David Gauthier",
"Henry Sidgwick",
"Anarcho-capitalism",
"anattā",
"Adam Smith",
"open individualism",
"Philosophy of self",
"Yangism",
"invisible hand",
"Leonard Peikoff",
"Objectivity (philosophy)",
"Individualist anarchism",
"Ayn Rand",
"tragedy of the commons",
"Nathaniel Branden",
"Thomas Aquinas",
"Ethical solipsism",
"Cambridge University Press",
"envy",
"post-left anarchy",
"Russ Shafer-Landau",
"Atlas Shrugged",
"Thomas Hobbes",
"Rational selfishness",
"Moral agency",
"psychological egoism",
"Daniel Kolak",
"Bernard de Mandeville",
"Raoul Vaneigem",
"Alasdair MacIntyre",
"David Kelley",
"moral obligation",
"individualist anarchism",
"teletransportation paradox",
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"Andrew Bernstein (philosopher)",
"Douglas Rasmussen",
"ethical philosophy",
"Tara Smith (philosopher)",
"Objectivism",
"Seven Pillars Institute",
"The Psychology of Self-Esteem",
"Subjectivity",
"anarchism",
"hedonism",
"James Rachels",
"Baruch Spinoza",
"consequentialism",
"Eudemian Ethics",
"Emma Goldman",
"ancient Greeks",
"Princeton University Press"
] |
9,236 |
Evolution
|
Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations. The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.
The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by two British naturalists, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, in the mid-19th century as an explanation for why organisms are adapted to their physical and biological environments. The theory was first set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species. Evolution by natural selection is established by observable facts about living organisms: (1) more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive; (2) traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, physiology, and behaviour; (3) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness); and (4) traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness). In successive generations, members of a population are therefore more likely to be replaced by the offspring of parents with favourable characteristics for that environment.
In the early 20th century, competing ideas of evolution were refuted and evolution was combined with Mendelian inheritance and population genetics to give rise to modern evolutionary theory. In this synthesis the basis for heredity is in DNA molecules that pass information from generation to generation. The processes that change DNA in a population include natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago. Morphological and biochemical traits tend to be more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor, which historically was used to reconstruct phylogenetic trees, although direct comparison of genetic sequences is a more common method today.
Evolutionary biologists have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing hypotheses as well as constructing theories based on evidence from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of mathematical and theoretical biology. Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of biology but also other fields including agriculture, medicine, and computer science.
== Heredity ==
Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable characteristics—the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, eye colour is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome (genetic material) is called its genotype.
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype. Some of these traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment while others are neutral. Some observable characteristics are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. The phenotype is the ability of the skin to tan when exposed to sunlight. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.
Heritable characteristics are passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are influenced by multiple genes in a quantitative or epistatic manner.
== Sources of variation ==
Evolution can occur if there is genetic variation within a population. Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration between populations (gene flow). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is very similar among all individuals of that species. However, discoveries in the field of evolutionary developmental biology have demonstrated that even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype both within and between species.
An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the environment it has lived in.
=== Mutation ===
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are the ultimate source of genetic variation in all organisms. When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.
About half of the mutations in the coding regions of protein-coding genes are deleterious — the other half are neutral. A small percentage of the total mutations in this region confer a fitness benefit. Some of the mutations in other parts of the genome are deleterious but the vast majority are neutral. A few are beneficial.
Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming duplicated (usually by genetic recombination), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome. Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve. This is important because most new genes evolve within gene families from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors. For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for colour vision and one for night vision; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene.
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the redundancy of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function. Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed de novo gene birth.
The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions (exon shuffling). When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, domains act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions. For example, polyketide synthases are large enzymes that make antibiotics; they contain up to 100 independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line.
One example of mutation is wild boar piglets. They are camouflage coloured and show a characteristic pattern of dark and light longitudinal stripes. However, mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) disrupt the pattern. The majority of pig breeds carry MC1R mutations disrupting wild-type colour and different mutations causing dominant black colouring.
=== Sex and recombination ===
In asexual organisms, genes are inherited together, or linked, as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In a related process called homologous recombination, sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes. Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles. Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.
The two-fold cost of sex was first described by John Maynard Smith. The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many invertebrates. The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes. Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms. The Red Queen hypothesis has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to coevolution with other species in an ever-changing environment. Another hypothesis is that sexual reproduction is primarily an adaptation for promoting accurate recombinational repair of damage in germline DNA, and that increased diversity is a byproduct of this process that may sometimes be adaptively beneficial.
=== Gene flow ===
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species. It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of pollen between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations of grasses.
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.
Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and bacteria, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria. It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and archaea.
=== Epigenetics ===
Some heritable changes cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems. DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalisation. Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and symbiogenesis.
== Evolutionary forces ==
From a neo-Darwinian perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms, for example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation bias.
=== Natural selection ===
Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It embodies three principles: This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform. Consequences of selection include nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking.
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism. Fitness is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation. For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.
Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful. However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in dolphins, teeth in chickens, wings in wingless stick insects, tails and additional nipples in humans etc. "Throwbacks" such as these are known as atavisms.
Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller. Secondly, disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.
Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an ecosystem, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, physical as well as biological, in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system...." Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct niche, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the food chain and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.
Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation, such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species. Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously. An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called transposons, which can replicate and spread throughout a genome. Selection at a level above the individual, such as group selection, may allow the evolution of cooperation.
=== Genetic drift ===
Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next. When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward in each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error. This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or by replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.
According to the neutral theory of molecular evolution most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift. In this model, most genetic changes in a population are thus the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory has been debated since it does not seem to fit some genetic variation seen in nature. A better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, according to which a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population. Another concept is constructive neutral evolution (CNE), which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through neutral transitions due to the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting, and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the spliceosome to the complex interdependence of microbial communities.
The time it takes a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size; fixation is more rapid in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest.
It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research.
=== Mutation bias ===
Mutation bias is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias. This is related to the idea of developmental bias. J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher argued that, because mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation rates. This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.
Noboru Sueoka and Ernst Freese proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species. The identification of a GC-biased E. coli mutator strain in 1967, along with the proposal of the neutral theory, established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature.
For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage. Such models also include effects of selection, following the mutation-selection-drift model, which allows both for mutation biases and differential selection based on effects on translation. Hypotheses of mutation bias have played an important role in the development of thinking about the evolution of genome composition, including isochores. Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size.
However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher. More recent work
Several studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common mutation biases though others dispute this interpretation.
==== Genetic hitchhiking ====
Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as linkage. This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations, which is called their linkage disequilibrium. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft. Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size.]]
A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates. Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species. Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males. This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard-to-fake, sexually selected traits.
== Natural outcomes ==
Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding predators or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed. These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as macroevolution versus microevolution. Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction, whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation. Macroevolution is the outcome of long periods of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one—the difference is simply the time involved. However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as species selection acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.
A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically, however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity. Although complex species have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing, and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere. For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes, which form about half the world's biomass despite their small size and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity. Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable. Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to evolutionary research since their rapid reproduction allows the study of experimental evolution and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.
=== Adaptation ===
Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat. Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:
Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.
Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.
Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol. An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).
Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are very similar to those in mice feet and primate hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.
During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth, the coccyx, and primitive reflexes.
However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation. Within cells, molecular machines such as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions.
An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features. These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals. It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.
=== Coevolution ===
Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a pathogen and a host, or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution. An example is the production of tetrodotoxin in the rough-skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the common garter snake. In this predator-prey pair, an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.
=== Cooperation ===
Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict. Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil. This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system.
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the eusociality found in social insects, such as bees, termites and ants, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a colony that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth causes cancer.
Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of kin selection, which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring. This activity is selected for because if the helping individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will also contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on. Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.
=== Speciation ===
Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.
There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species". The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like other species concepts is not without controversy, for example, because genetic recombination among prokaryotes is not an intrinsic aspect of reproduction; this is called the species problem. Such hybrids are generally infertile. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the grey tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature. In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms. As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.
The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase in inbreeding increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.
The third mode is parapatric speciation. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations. Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause reinforcement, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as character displacement, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.
Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population. Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and nonrandom mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.
One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form polyploids. This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already. An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa crossbred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica. This happened about 20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process. Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.
Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged. In this theory, speciation and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils. Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species. These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events. The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier Permian–Triassic extinction event was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction. Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event; global warming may further accelerate it in the future. Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth,
The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered.
== Applications ==
Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals. More recently, such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering, with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.
Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human genetic disorders. For example, the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.
Evolutionary theory has many applications in medicine. Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to pharmaceutical drugs. These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.
In computer science, simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection. Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s. He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John Henry Holland. Practical applications also include automatic evolution of computer programmes. Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems.
== Evolutionary history of life ==
=== Origin of life ===
The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote: "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe." In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.
More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80% not yet described.
Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.
=== Common descent ===
All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits. Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.
Due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree, since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species. To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the "Coral of life" as a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life. This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.
Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.
More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids. The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations. For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.
=== Evolution of life ===
Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago. No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.
The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until around 1.7 billion years ago, when multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions. The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.
Approximately 538.8 million years ago, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over a span of around 10 million years in what is called the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.
About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species. Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like lineages), mammals around 129 million years ago, Homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around 250,000 years ago. However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.]]
=== Classical antiquity ===
The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander and Empedocles. Such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura ().
=== Middle Ages ===
In contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism had considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This became part of a medieval teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the Middle Ages and were integrated into Christian learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one-for-one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.
A number of Arab Muslim scholars wrote about evolution, most notably Ibn Khaldun, who wrote the book Muqaddimah in 1377, in which he asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys", in a process by which "species become more numerous".
=== Pre-Darwinian ===
The "New Science" of the 17th century rejected the Aristotelian approach. It sought to explain natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order. However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences: the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. John Ray applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species", to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.
Other naturalists of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751, Pierre Louis Maupertuis wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and Erasmus Darwin proposed that all warm-blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or "filament"). The first full-fledged evolutionary scheme was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's "transmutation" theory of 1809, which envisaged spontaneous generation continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level, these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents. (The latter process was later called Lamarckism.) These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support. In particular, Georges Cuvier insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs. In the meantime, Ray's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by William Paley into the Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin.
=== Darwinian revolution ===
The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in terms of variable populations. Darwin used the expression descent with modification rather than evolution. Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their separate papers were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the Linnean Society of London. At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of Darwin's concepts of evolution at the expense of alternative theories. Thomas Henry Huxley applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using palaeontology and comparative anatomy to provide strong evidence that humans and apes shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the universe.
Othniel C. Marsh, America's first palaeontologist, was the first to provide solid fossil evidence to support Darwin's theory of evolution by unearthing the ancestors of the modern horse. In 1877, Marsh delivered a very influential speech before the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, providing a demonstrative argument for evolution. For the first time, Marsh traced the evolution of vertebrates from fish all the way through humans. Sparing no detail, he listed a wealth of fossil examples of past life forms. The significance of this speech was immediately recognised by the scientific community, and it was printed in its entirety in several scientific journals.
In 1880, Marsh caught the attention of the scientific world with the publication of Odontornithes: a Monograph on Extinct Birds of North America, which included his discoveries of birds with teeth. These skeletons helped bridge the gap between dinosaurs and birds, and provided invaluable support for Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin wrote to Marsh saying, "Your work on these old birds & on the many fossil animals of N. America has afforded the best support to the theory of evolution, which has appeared within the last 20 years" (since Darwin's publication of ''Origin of Species).
=== Pangenesis and heredity ===
The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis. In 1865, Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory. August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) and the somatic cells of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. Hugo de Vries connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cell's structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J. B. S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled.
=== The 'modern synthesis' ===
In the 1920s and 1930s, the modern synthesis connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that included random genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. This new version of evolutionary theory focused on changes in allele frequencies in population. It explained patterns observed across species in populations, through fossil transitions in palaeontology.
=== Further syntheses ===
Since then, further syntheses have extended evolution's explanatory power in the light of numerous discoveries, to cover biological phenomena across the whole of the biological hierarchy from genes to populations.
The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance. Molecular biology improved understanding of the relationship between genotype and phenotype. Advances were also made in phylogenetic systematics, mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of evolutionary trees. In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that "nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution", because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.
One extension, known as evolutionary developmental biology and informally called "evo-devo", emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) act on patterns of change within individual organisms (development). Since the beginning of the 21st century, some biologists have argued for an extended evolutionary synthesis, which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes, such as epigenetics, parental effects, ecological inheritance and cultural inheritance, and evolvability.
== Social and cultural responses ==
In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists.
While various religions and denominations have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as theistic evolution, there are creationists who believe that evolution is contradicted by the creation myths found in their religions and who raise various objections to evolution. As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of human evolution that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and moral faculties of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals. In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education. While other scientific fields such as cosmology and Earth science also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists.
The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century. The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision. Since then, the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in pseudoscientific form as intelligent design (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case. The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China.
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"Trends in Biochemical Sciences",
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"food chain",
"amniote",
"Evolution of biological complexity",
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"Red Queen hypothesis",
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"myxobacteria",
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"Journal of the American Dental Association",
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"antibiotic",
"mitochondria",
"gene flow",
"evolution strategies",
"Homininae",
"genome",
"habitat",
"chloroplast",
"germ cell",
"Anatomically modern humans",
"gamete",
"common garter snake",
"Rutgers University",
"Nature Geoscience",
"August Weismann",
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"Rosalind Franklin",
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"quantitative trait loci",
"cyanobacteria",
"pollen",
"termite",
"character displacement",
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"Asexual reproduction",
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"Holocene extinction",
"creationists",
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"orthogenesis",
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"predators",
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"Current Opinion in Microbiology",
"James Watson",
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"common ancestor",
"constructive neutral evolution",
"homologous chromosome",
"parapatric speciation",
"evolutionary algorithm",
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"gene pool",
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"hydrogenosome",
"speciation",
"somatic cell",
"ChemBioChem",
"melanocortin 1 receptor",
"Callosobruchus chinensis",
"Cretaceous",
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"developmental plasticity",
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"wild boar",
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"molecular genetics",
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"Bias in the introduction of variation",
"Laboratory experiments of speciation",
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"Permian–Triassic extinction event",
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"Trends in Microbiology",
"University of Chicago Press",
"Harvard University Press",
"Saccharomyces cerevisiae",
"genetic programming",
"competitive exclusion principle",
"selective sweep",
"John Henry Holland",
"domestication",
"translocase of the inner membrane",
"RNA interference",
"Mutation bias",
"Christian Science Publishing Society",
"Embryogenesis",
"Genome Research",
"Mercer University Press",
"Molecular Aspects of Medicine",
"independent assortment",
"Arabidopsis thaliana",
"potentiality and actuality",
"University of California Press",
"vermiform appendix",
"Ernst Mayr",
"Encyclopædia Britannica Online",
"Molecular biology",
"wisdom teeth",
"Journal of Morphology",
"William Ellery Leonard",
"The International Journal of Developmental Biology",
"infertile",
"Columbia University Press",
"independence (probability theory)",
"pharmaceutical drug",
"biological organisation",
"tetrodotoxin",
"graphite",
"International Journal of Medical Microbiology",
"Nature Reviews Cancer",
"egg cell",
"Trends in Genetics",
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"spontaneous generation",
"computer science",
"Oxford University Press",
"Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
"epistatic",
"Muqaddimah",
"Maternal effect",
"nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution",
"pesticide",
"Brooks/Cole",
"grey tree frog",
"Hadean",
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"Cell (biology)",
"Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres",
"Springer Science+Business Media",
"Superseded theories in science",
"The British Society for the History of Science",
"eye colour",
"Neutral theory of molecular evolution",
"species problem",
"DNA methylation",
"allopatric speciation",
"Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution",
"phenotypic variation",
"Flavobacterium",
"polyketide synthase",
"PLOS Genetics",
"polyploids",
"bdelloid rotifers",
"Biomass (ecology)",
"biochemical",
"human evolution",
"Current Biology",
"Cambridge, Massachusetts",
"directional selection",
"Contemporary evolution",
"artificial life",
"Malaspina University-College",
"evolutionary developmental biology",
"antibodies",
"genetic engineering",
"amino acid",
"Birkhäuser",
"archaea",
"microbial mat",
"Journal of Molecular Biology",
"Cambridge University Press",
"Heredity (journal)",
"function (biology)",
"endosymbiosis",
"Journal of Virology",
"Coral of life",
"theists",
"Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics",
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"double helix",
"horizontal gene transfer",
"most recent common ancestor",
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"Age of Earth",
"stabilising selection",
"host (biology)",
"gene families",
"Ernst Freese",
"Handicap principle",
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"experimental evolution",
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"Facts on File",
"Alfred Russel Wallace",
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"Weidenfeld & Nicolson",
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"offspring",
"pathogen",
"species selection",
"William Paley",
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"molecular clock",
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"brown algae",
"mammal",
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"vestigial trait",
"Eoarchean",
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"punctuated equilibrium",
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"antibiotic resistance",
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"Reproductive isolation",
"deep homology",
"Molecular Ecology",
"spliceosome"
] |
9,238 |
Ernst Mayr
|
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Ernst Mayr
| image = Ernst Mayr PLoS.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Mayr in 1994
| birth_name = Ernst Walter Mayr
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Kempten, Bavaria, German Empire
| death_date =
| death_place = Bedford, Massachusetts, U.S.
| citizenship = United States
| nationality = German American
| field =
| work_institutions =
| alma_mater =
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for =
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| influences =
| influenced =
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
Leidy Award
Darwin-Wallace Medal
Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal
National Medal of Science
Linnean Medal
Balzan Prize
Darwin Medal
ForMemRS (1988) was a German-American evolutionary biologist. He was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, philosopher of biology, and historian of science. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept.
Although Charles Darwin and others posited that multiple species could evolve from a single common ancestor, the mechanism by which this occurred was not understood, creating the species problem. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for species. In his book Systematics and the Origin of Species (1942) he wrote that a species is not just a group of morphologically similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others. When populations within a species become isolated by geography, feeding strategy, mate choice, or other means, they may start to differ from other populations through genetic drift and natural selection, and over time may evolve into new species. The most significant and rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated (as on islands).
His theory of peripatric speciation (a more precise form of allopatric speciation which he advanced), based on his work on birds, is still considered a leading mode of speciation, and was the theoretical underpinning for the theory of punctuated equilibrium, proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould. Mayr is sometimes credited with inventing modern philosophy of biology, particularly the part related to evolutionary biology, which he distinguished from physics due to its introduction of (natural) history into science.
==Biography==
===Early life and studies===
Mayr was the second son of Helene Pusinelli and Otto Mayr. His father was a district prosecuting attorney at Würzburg but took an interest in natural history and took the children out on field trips. Mayr learnt all the local birds in Würzburg from his elder brother Otto. He also had access to a natural history magazine for amateurs, Kosmos. His father died just before he was thirteen. The family then moved to Dresden, where he studied at the Staatsgymnasium in Dresden-Neustadt and completed his high school education. In April 1922, while still in high school, he joined the newly founded Saxony Ornithologists' Association. There he met Rudolf Zimmermann, who became his ornithological mentor. In February 1923, Mayr passed his high school examination (Abitur) and his mother rewarded him with a pair of binoculars.
On 23 March 1923 on one of the lakes of Moritzburg, the Frauenteich, he spotted what he identified as a red-crested pochard. The species had not been seen in Saxony since 1845 and the local club argued about the identity. Raimund Schelcher (1891–1979) of the club then suggested that Mayr visit his classmate Erwin Stresemann on his way to Greifswald, where Mayr was to begin his medical studies. Mayr was endlessly interested in ornithology and "chose Greifswald at the Baltic for my studies for no other reason than that ... it was situated in the ornithologically most interesting area." In 1925, Stresemann suggested that he give up his medical studies, in fact he should leave the faculty of medicine and enrol into the faculty of Biology and then join the Berlin Museum with the prospect of bird-collecting trips to the tropics, on the condition that he completed his doctoral studies in 16 months. Mayr completed his doctorate in ornithology at the University of Berlin under Dr. Carl Zimmer, who was a full professor (Ordentlicher Professor), on 24 June 1926 at the age of 21. On 1 July he accepted the position offered to him at the museum for a monthly salary of 330.54 Reichsmark.
At the International Zoological Congress at Budapest in 1927, Mayr was introduced by Stresemann to banker and naturalist Walter Rothschild, who asked him to undertake an expedition to New Guinea on behalf of himself and the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In New Guinea, Mayr collected several thousand bird skins (he named 38 new bird species during his lifetime) and, in the process also named 38 new orchid species. During his stay in New Guinea, he was invited to accompany the Whitney South Sea Expedition to the Solomon Islands. Also, while in New Guinea, he visited the Lutheran missionaries Otto Thiele and Christian Keyser, in the Finschhafen district; there, while in conversation with his hosts, he uncovered the discrepancies in Hermann Detzner's popular book Four Years among Cannibals: New Guinea, in which Detzner claimed to have seen the interior, discovered several species of flora and fauna, while remaining only steps ahead of the Australian patrols sent to capture him. He returned to Germany in 1930.
===Move to the United States===
Mayr moved to the United States in 1931 to take up a curatorial position at the American Museum of Natural History, where he played the important role of brokering and acquiring the Walter Rothschild collection of bird skins, which was being sold in order to pay off a blackmailer. During his time at the museum he produced numerous publications on bird taxonomy, and in 1942 his first book Systematics and the Origin of Species, which completed the evolutionary synthesis started by Darwin.
After Mayr was appointed at the American Museum of Natural History, he influenced American ornithological research by mentoring young birdwatchers. Mayr was surprised at the differences between American and German birding societies. He noted that the German society was "far more scientific, far more interested in life histories and breeding bird species, as well as in reports on recent literature."
===At the Linnean Society of New York===
Mayr organized a monthly seminar under the auspices of the Linnean Society of New York. Under the influence of J.A. Allen, Frank Chapman, and Jonathan Dwight, the society concentrated on taxonomy and later became a clearing house for bird banding and sight records.
The awards that Mayr received include the National Medal of Science, the Balzan Prize, the Sarton Medal of the History of Science Society, the International Prize for Biology, the Loye and Alden Miller Research Award, and the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science. In 1939 he was elected a Corresponding Member of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. He was awarded the 1946 Leidy Award from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958 and the Linnaean Society of New York's inaugural Eisenmann Medal in 1983. For his work, Animal Species and Evolution, he was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1967. Mayr was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1988.
Mayr never won a Nobel Prize, but he noted that there is no prize for evolutionary biology and that Darwin would not have received one, either. (In fact, there is no Nobel Prize for biology.) Mayr did win a 1999 Crafoord Prize. It honors basic research in fields that do not qualify for Nobel Prizes and is administered by the same organization as the Nobel Prize. In 2001, Mayr received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Since winning Balzan Prize, Crafoord Prize and the International Prize for Biology, are usually regarded as a "Triple Crown in Biology," he won this crown too.
Mayr was co-author of six global reviews of bird species new to science (listed below).
Mayr said he was an atheist in regards to "the idea of a personal God" because "there is nothing that supports [it]".
==Ideas==
As a traditionally-trained biologist, Mayr was often highly critical of early mathematical approaches to evolution, such as those of J.B.S. Haldane, and famously called such approaches "beanbag genetics" in 1959. He maintained that factors such as reproductive isolation had to be taken into account. In a similar fashion, Mayr was also quite critical of molecular evolution studies such as those of Carl Woese. Current molecular studies in evolution and speciation indicate that although allopatric speciation is the norm, there are numerous cases of sympatric speciation in groups with greater mobility, such as birds. The precise mechanisms of sympatric speciation, however, are usually a form of microallopatry enabled by variations in niche occupancy among individuals within a population.
In many of his writings, Mayr rejected reductionism in evolutionary biology, arguing that evolutionary pressures act on the whole organism, not on single genes, and that genes can have different effects depending on the other genes present. He advocated a study of the whole genome, rather than of only isolated genes. After articulating the biological species concept in 1942, Mayr played a central role in the species problem debate over what was the best species concept. He staunchly defended the biological species concept against the many definitions of "species" that others proposed.
Mayr was an outspoken defender of the scientific method and was known to critique sharply science on the edge. As a notable example, in 1995, he criticized the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI), as conducted by fellow Harvard professor Paul Horowitz, as being a waste of university and student resources for its inability to address and answer a scientific question. Over 60 eminent scientists, led by Carl Sagan, rebutted the criticism.
Mayr rejected the idea of a gene-centered view of evolution and starkly but politely criticised Richard Dawkins's ideas:
Mayr insisted that the entire genome should be considered as the target of selection (thus genome evolution) rather than individual genes:
{{quote|The idea that a few people have about the gene being the target of selection is completely impractical; a gene is never visible to natural selection, and in the genotype, it is always in the context with other genes, and the interaction with those other genes make a particular gene either more favorable or less favorable. In fact, Dobzhansky, for instance, worked quite a bit on so-called lethal chromosomes which are highly successful in one combination, and lethal in another. Therefore people like Dawkins in England who still think the gene is the target of selection are evidently wrong. In the 30s and 40s, it was widely accepted that genes were the target of selection, because that was the only way they could be made accessible to mathematics, but now we know that it is really the whole genotype of the individual, not the gene. Except for that slight revision, the basic Darwinian theory hasn't changed in the last 50 years.|Ernst Mayr|Edge - a subspecies of bird, a honeyeater, family Meliphagidae, confined to several small islands to the west of the Admiralty Islands, in western Oceania, northeast of New Guinea.
Mayr's forest rail (Rallicula mayri) (Hartert, 1930) - a species of bird found in New Guinea.
Mayr's honeyeater (Ptiloprora mayri) Hartert, 1930 - a species of bird found in New Guinea.
Mayr's swiftlet (Aerodramus orientalis) (Mayr, 1935) - a species of bird found in New Ireland and Guadalcanal.
Ernst Mayr's water rat (Leptomys ernstmayri) Rümmler, 1932 - a species of rodent, of the family Muridae, from the Foja Mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia, and Central Cordillera, Adelbert Range, and Huon Peninsula of Papua New Guinea.
a roundworm - Poikilolaimus ernstmayri Sudhaus & Koch, 2004 - a new species of nematode, family Rhabditidae, associated with termites of the genus Reticulitermes, in Corsica.
New Ireland rail (Gallirallus ernstmayri) † (Kirchman & Steadman, 2006) - a relatively large, probably flightless, extinct rail, family Rallidae, known from subfossil remains found on prehistoric archeological sites, in caves on New Ireland, in the Bismarck Archipelago, western Oceania.)
Star Mountains worm-eating snake (Toxicocalamus ernstmayri) O'Shea, Parker & Kaiser, 2015 - a 1.2 m, rare and secretive, venomous snake from the family Elapidae, believed to feed exclusively of earthworms, particularly the giant earthworms of the Megascolecidae. The etymology reads: The species name ernstmayri is a patronym honoring the German-American ornithologist, systematist, and evolutionary thinker Ernst Mayr (1904–2005). There are several connections linking Ernst Mayr to this new species of Toxicocalamus, which make him, and this snake, the ideal candidates for a patronym. First, Mayr himself visited New Guinea, and during the late 1920s he spent over 2 years conducting fieldwork in an area now part of PNG, as a member of a joint Rothschild–AMNH expedition focusing on birds of paradise (Aves, Passeriformes, Paradisaeidae), during which he collected many new bird and orchid species. Second, the holotype of T. ernstmayri has been housed in the MCZ collection, mislabeled as Micropechis ikaheka, after having arrived and been accessioned in June 1975, the month and year that Mayr retired. Third, the true identity of this specimen was recognized by one of us (MOS) during a visit to the MCZ in May 2014, undertaken with the financial support of an Ernst Mayr Travel Grant from Harvard University, awarded to enable examination of the Toxicocalamus holdings at the MCZ and the AMNH, the two U.S. institutions where Mayr worked. Finally, 2015, the publication year of this description, marks the decennial of Mayr's passing at age 100, and naming a New Guinea snake after him seems a suitable tribute.
an assassin bug - Bagauda ernstmayri Kulkarni & Ghate, 2016 - a species of cavernicolous, thread-legged assassin bug, known only from Satara, in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State, India.
a genus of pseudoscorpions - Ernstmayria Curcic et al., 2006 (Neobisiidae)
a species of spider - Cebrennus mayri Jäger, 2000
a species of damselfly - Palaiargia ernstmayri Lieftinck, 1972
a species of bird lice - Anaticola ernstmayri Eichler, 1954 (Philopteridae)
a species of earwig - Irdex ernstmayri Günther, 1930
==Summary of Darwin's theory==
Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them, which Mayr summarised as follows:
Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce, the population would grow (fact).
Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size (fact).
Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time (fact).
Struggle for survival ensues (inference).
Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another (fact).
Much of the variation is heritable (fact).
Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of natural selection (fact).
This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species (inference).
In relation to the publication of Darwin's Origins of Species, Mayr identified philosophical implications of evolution:
Evolving world, not a static one.
Implausibility of creationism.
Refutation that the universe has purpose.
Defeating the justifications for a human-centric world.
Materialistic processes explain the impression of design.
Population thinking replaces essentialism.
|
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] |
9,239 |
Europe
|
The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christians, including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various Protestant denominations. Among Protestants, the most popular are Lutheranism, Anglicanism and the Reformed faith. Smaller Protestant denominations include Anabaptists as well as denominations centred in the United States such as Pentecostalism, Methodism, and Evangelicalism. Although Christianity originated in the Middle East, its centre of mass shifted to Europe when it became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of the European culture and identity. Today, just over 25% of the world's Christians live in Europe.
Islam is the second most popular religion in Europe. Over 25 million, or roughly 5% of the population, adhere to it. Many countries in Europe are home to a sizeable Muslim minority, and immigration to Europe has increased the number of Muslim people in Europe in recent years.
The Jewish population in Europe was about 1.4 million people in 2020 (about 0.2% of the population). In 1897, according to Russian census of 1897, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of total population. Of this total, the vast majority lived within the Pale of Settlement. In 1933, there were about 9.5 million Jewish people in Europe, representing 1.7% of the population, but most were killed, and most of the rest displaced, during the Holocaust. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia. and as such have been described as megacities. While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partly in Asia. 64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side.
The next largest cities in order of population are Madrid, Saint Petersburg, Milan, Barcelona, Berlin, and Rome each having over three million residents.
==Culture==
"Europe" as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared heritage of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and its cultures. The boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of Christendom (or more specifically Latin Christendom), as established or defended throughout the medieval and early modern history of Europe, especially against Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in Europe.
This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping indigenous national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into Slavic, Latin (Romance) and Germanic, but with several components not part of either of these groups (notably Greek, Basque and Celtic). Historically, special examples with overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin (Romance) and Germanic, or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots.
Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional cultures of Europe. Europe is often described as "maximum cultural diversity with minimal geographical distances".
Different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the aim of bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their importance, such as the European Capital of Culture, the European Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the European Capital of Sport.
=== Sport ===
Sport in Europe tends to be highly organised with many sports having professional leagues. The origins of many of the world's most popular sports today lie in the codification of many traditional games, especially in the United Kingdom. However, a paradoxical feature of European sport is the extent to which local, regional and national variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to predominate.
=== Social dimension ===
In Europe many people are unable to access basic social conditions, which makes it harder for them to thrive and flourish. Access to basic necessities can be compromised, for example 10% of Europeans spend at least 40% of household income on housing. 75 million Europeans feel socially isolated. From the 1980s income inequality has been rising and wage shares have been falling. In 2016, the richest 20% of households earned over five times more than the poorest 20%. Many workers experience stagnant real wages and precarious work is common even for essential workers.
|
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"Umayyad Caliphate",
"Pillars of Hercules",
"Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)",
"Serafimovich (town)",
"atheism",
"spruce",
"landmass",
"List of names of European cities in different languages",
"fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"Skopje",
"microcontinent",
"Warsaw",
"Islam",
"Napoleonic code",
"Schengen Area",
"Neanderthal man",
"Homer",
"Northeast Caucasian languages",
"Romance-speaking Europe",
"Northern Hemisphere",
"predator",
"Latvian language",
"Ural River",
"Jerusalem",
"alpine tundra",
"Andorra la Vella",
"Slavery in the Ottoman Empire",
"Boundaries between the continents of Earth",
"Ural Mountains",
"Bulgaria",
"South Ossetia",
"Akrotiri and Dhekelia",
"Prague",
"Nile",
"National Geographic Society",
"ideological dominance",
"First French Empire",
"BBC News",
"Euclid",
"Budapest",
"Russian invasion of Ukraine",
"national park",
"supercontinent",
"Middle East",
"European Neolithic",
"Antoninus Pius",
"Homo erectus georgicus",
"Italian language",
"octopuses",
"European hedgehog",
"Vandals",
"Picts",
"List of countries by population",
"prevailing westerlies",
"Southeastern Europe",
"Carolingian Renaissance",
"counties of Finland",
"megalithic tomb",
"Treaty of Versailles",
"Plato",
"Astana",
"Shem",
"Greece",
"Bratislava",
"continent",
"Pangea",
"Bashkir language",
"Foreign and Commonwealth Office",
"Late Middle Ages",
"Americas",
"Romania",
"Southern Hemisphere",
"Mugodzhar Hills",
"NKVD",
"Fauna of Europe",
"Kalach-na-Donu",
"Germany",
"Mikhail Gorbachev",
"Caspian Sea",
"Belgium",
"collapse of the Soviet Union",
"Classical Greece",
"List of European television stations",
"NATO",
"Oceania",
"Pechenegs",
"Nature (journal)",
"Tsardom of Russia",
"Kingdom of Asturias",
"Ukraine",
"Reykjavík",
"Swedish Deluge",
"Isles of Scilly",
"Portugal",
"Kyiv",
"Benelux",
"Aruba",
"Voltaire",
"Ivan III the Great",
"Persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire",
"glasnost",
"megacity",
"Baltic Shield",
"Bucharest",
"Pacific Ocean",
"Slovenia",
"Azerbaijani language",
"Latin America",
"European Union",
"Celtic Sea",
"Nicosia",
"English (language)",
"Turkey",
"Megalithic Temples of Malta",
"Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation",
"Phoney War",
"Kuban (river)",
"Kazakh Khanate",
"Indian Ocean",
"epithet",
"Principality of Serbia (early medieval)",
"Copenhagen",
"Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)",
"Slovakia",
"Hagia Sophia",
"metropolitan France",
"Ankara",
"attack on Pearl Harbor",
"Drainage divide",
"US$",
"Caucasus Mountains",
"National symbol",
"Penguin Books",
"North Macedonia",
"Moksha language",
"Winston Churchill",
"Monaco",
"Stockholm",
"Basque culture",
"Scottish Highlands",
"Elections in India",
"dolphin",
"Platonic Academy",
"history of Islam in southern Italy",
"Liechtenstein",
"woolly mammoth",
"Crimean Tatar language",
"Eurodistrict",
"euro",
"Battle of Vienna",
"Helsinki",
"Dublin",
"Pentecostalism",
"Grand Duchy of Moscow",
"Azores",
"drainage divide",
"White South Africans",
"Slavic Europe",
"Justinian I",
"Spanish language",
"Greater Caucasus watershed",
"Eurasian wolf",
"Kumyk language",
"Spanish Armada",
"montane forest",
"Ostrogoths",
"World Health Organization",
"Riparo Mochi",
"Asia",
"Italy",
"Brussels",
"Adyghe language",
"Basque people",
"European Union Customs Union",
"Southern Europe",
"Herman Moll",
"Uralic languages",
"Donetsk People's Republic",
"Library of Congress",
"List of countries by GDP (nominal)",
"Battle of France",
"Allies of World War II",
"Macmillan Publishers (United States)",
"Herodotus",
"Vladimir the Great",
"Austria-Hungary",
"Berlin",
"European Parliament",
"Slavic languages",
"Michelangelo",
"British English",
"Sark",
"Anatolia",
"Mariehamn",
"Solutrean",
"Baku",
"Belarus",
"Laurasia",
"Holy Land",
"Armorial of Europe",
"European Theatre of World War II",
"Chuvash language",
"English language",
"Austro-Hungarian empire",
"Vasco da Gama",
"Euratom",
"South Slavs",
"Balkans",
"Arabic",
"Günther Zainer",
"Code of Justinian",
"Czechoslovakia",
"Romanian language",
"Latin",
"Turkic languages",
"East–West dichotomy",
"Thucydides",
"Archaeological Site of Atapuerca",
"Immigration to Europe",
"Prussia",
"Atapuerca Mountains",
"Romance languages",
"Mycenean Greece",
"Historical atlas",
"South Africa",
"small tortoiseshell",
"West Slavs",
"Autonomous Regions of Portugal",
"Celtic languages",
"temperate climate",
"East European craton",
"decolonisation",
"Solidarity (Polish trade union)",
"Abkhazia",
"Northwest Africa",
"Second World War",
"68–95–99.7 rule",
"Asia Minor",
"beggars",
"Black Sea",
"Emba River",
"Hungarian language",
"countries of the United Kingdom",
"European Capital of Culture",
"latitudes",
"European Economic Community",
"Judaism",
"Akkadian language",
"Crown Dependencies",
"Finland",
"culture of Europe",
"List of urban areas in Europe",
"Guernsey",
"Kuma–Manych Depression",
"Diet of Worms",
"Ausgleich",
"secularism",
"Cleisthenes",
"Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic",
"Gavrilo Princip",
"Rhine",
"Golden Banana",
"Gulf Stream",
"Danube",
"balance of power (international relations)",
"International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia",
"Delian Apollo",
"world population",
"Martin Litchfield West",
"Unification of Germany",
"Early European Farmers",
"Paris",
"language isolate",
"Ninety-five Theses",
"Indo-European languages",
"Euramerica",
"pope",
"Wirtschaftswunder",
"classical antiquity",
"Islam in Europe",
"Geissenklösterle",
"European culture",
"Ceuta",
"Umayyad",
"Battle of Stalingrad",
"Yamnaya culture",
"Vienna",
"Germanic languages",
"Nogai language"
] |
9,240 |
Europa
|
Europa may refer to:
==Places==
Europa (Roman province), a province within the Diocese of Thrace
Europa (Seville Metro), Seville, Spain; a station on the Seville Metro
Europa City, Paris, France; a planned development
Europa Cliffs, Alexander Island, Antarctica
Europa Island, a small island in the Mozambique Channel which is a possession of France
Europa Point, Gibraltar; the southernmost point of Gibraltar
Europa Road, Gibraltar
Plaça d'Europa, Barcelona, Spain; a square
Europa, Missouri, US; a community
Europe, known as Europa in many European languages
=== Celestial bodies ===
Europa (moon), a moon of Jupiter
52 Europa, an asteroid
===Buildings and structures===
Europa building, the seat of the European Council and Council of the European Union in Brussels, Belgium
Europa Hotel (disambiguation)
Europa Hut, a Swiss mountain hut
Europa Tower, Vilnius, Lithuania
Europa-Park, A theme park in Rust, Germany
==People==
Europa of Macedon, the daughter of Philip II by his last wife, Cleopatra
Madama Europa or Europa Rossi (fl. 1600), sister of Salamone Rossi
===Greek mythology===
Europa (consort of Zeus), a Phoenician princess in Greek mythology, theorised by some to be the origin of the name of the continent Europe as well as the moon of Jupiter
Europa, one of the Oceanids, the daughters of the Titan Oceanus
Europa, daughter of the earth giant Tityos and mother of Poseidon's son Euphemus the Argonaut
==Businesses==
Europa (oil company), a New Zealand company purchased by British Petroleum in 1989
EuropaCorp, a French film production company
CBS Europa, a European television channel
Europa Press, a Spanish news agency
Europa Press (publisher), a 1932–1939 publishing house founded by George Reavey
==Computing and technology==
Europa (web portal), a web portal of the European Union
Europa, a line of small engines by Briggs & Stratton
Europa, a release of Eclipse
==Currency==
Europa (currency), a federal European coinage issued in 1928
Europa Coins, coins with a common theme issued by European countries
== Film ==
Europa (1931 film), a short film by Stefan Themerson and Franciszka Themerson
Europa trilogy, a film trilogy by Lars von Trier
Europa (1991 film), the third film in the trilogy
Europa (2021 film), an Iraqi drama film
Europa: The Last Battle, a 2017 neo-Nazi propaganda film
==Literature==
Europa (novel), a 1997 novel by Tim Parks
Europa, a 1972 novel by Romain Gary
==Music==
Europa (musical duo), an electronic supergroup consisting of Jax Jones and Martin Solveig
Europa (record label), a German record label
Europa Philharmonie, a symphony orchestra based in Baden-Württemberg, Germany
===Albums===
Europa (Covenant album), 1998
Europa (Holly Johnson album) or the title song, 2014
Europa (Ron Korb album) or the title song, 2013
Europa (Molly Nilsson album), 2009
Europa (EP), by Diplo, 2019
===Songs===
"Europa (Earth's Cry Heaven's Smile)", by Carlos Santana, 1976
"Europa", by Blondie from Autoamerican, 1980
"Europa", by 808 State from Gorgeous, 1993
"Europa", by Girls' Generation from Mr.Mr., 2014
"Europa", by Globus
"Europa", by Mónica Naranjo from Tarántula, 2008
"Europa", by Prozzäk from Hot Show, 1998
"Europa", by Rosetta from The Galilean Satellites, 2005
"Europa", by Slapp Happy and Henry Cow from Desperate Straights, 1975
"Europa :(", by Bad Bunny from Nadie Sabe Lo Que Va a Pasar Mañana, 2023
==Radio stations==
Europa FM (Romania)
Europa FM (Spain)
Europa Plus, a Russia-based group of stations operating in several countries
==Sports==
CE Europa, a Spanish sports club based in Barcelona
NFL Europa (formerly NFL Europe and World League of American Football), an American football competition from 1991 until 2007
UEFA Europa League, the second most important European competition for UEFA-eligible football clubs
Europa F.C., a football club based in Gibraltar
==Transportation==
===Aerospace===
Europa (rocket), an early expendable launch system project of the European Launcher Development Organisation
Air Europa, the third largest airline in Spain
Europa Aircraft, a light-aircraft kitplane company based in the UK
Europa XS, a light-aircraft kitplane made in the UK
===Automobiles===
Bizzarrini Europa, a small GT car produced by Bizzarrini between 1966 and 1969
Lotus Europa, a sports car manufactured by Lotus Cars
Europa, a Tata Motors luxury concept car shown in 2009
NSU-Fiat Europa, a small family car produced by Fiat
===Rail===
Europa (Brescia Metro), a station in Brescia, Italy
Europa (Seville Metro), a station in Seville, Spain
===Ships===
Europa (1781 EIC ship), a British East Indiaman
Bark Europa, a Dutch tall ship, rigged as a bark (barque), built in 1911 and now used mainly for sail training
, five ships
SS Europa (1922) or SS Mongolia, an immigrant ship on the Europe to North America route
SS Europa (1928), an ocean liner operated by the North German Lloyd
==Military==
, six ships and a shore establishment
USS Europa (AP-177), a troop transport
Europa (AK-81), a US Army port repair ship (renamed Thomas F. Farrell Jr.)
Europa Batteries, a group of artillery batteries in Gibraltar
==Other uses==
Europa (wargame), a series of board wargames launched in 1973
Europa postage stamp, issued annually since 1956, representing the founding six members of the European Coal and Steel Community
Prix Europa, Europe's largest annual tri-medial (television, radio and online) festival and competition
Europa (Italian newspaper)
Europa Magazine, a Serbo-Croatian-language magazine in the United States
|
[
"Europa (Seville Metro)",
"Europa FM (Romania)",
"Europa (Covenant album)",
"Europa (barque)",
"Briggs & Stratton",
"Europa (novel)",
"Globus (music)",
"Tata Nano",
"Desperate Straights",
"Europa Road",
"Europa (wargame)",
"Europa Tower",
"Europe",
"Europa (1781 EIC ship)",
"Nadie Sabe Lo Que Va a Pasar Mañana",
"Europa (consort of Zeus)",
"Europa (web portal)",
"NSU-Fiat Europa",
"Europa (currency)",
"Europa Coins",
"Europa Europa",
"Europa Hotel (disambiguation)",
"Bizzarrini Europa",
"Europa FM (Spain)",
"Autoamerican",
"SS Europa (1928)",
"Europa (musical duo)",
"Europa Batteries",
"Europa: The Last Battle",
"Europa of Macedon",
"Evropa (disambiguation)",
"EuropaCorp",
"Eclipse (software)",
"Prix Europa",
"Europa Aircraft",
"Europa Point",
"Tityos",
"Europa Press",
"Europa (Molly Nilsson album)",
"Tarántula (album)",
"USS Europa (AP-177)",
"NFL Europa",
"Europa Plus",
"Europa postage stamp",
"Europa Island",
"Europa (Brescia Metro)",
"CBS Europa",
"Europa Press (publisher)",
"Gorgeous (808 State album)",
"Europa (1931 film)",
"Lotus Europa",
"Europa (Italian newspaper)",
"Europa trilogy",
"Hot Show",
"The Galilean Satellites",
"Mr.Mr. (EP)",
"52 Europa",
"Europa Cliffs",
"Europa (moon)",
"Euphemus the Argonaut",
"Europa building",
"Madama Europa",
"Europa XS",
"Air Europa",
"Europa-Park",
"Europa Hut",
"Europa (Holly Johnson album)",
"Europe (disambiguation)",
"Europa (Earth's Cry Heaven's Smile)",
"Europa (record label)",
"Europa (AK-81)",
"Europa (EP)",
"Europa F.C.",
"Europa, Missouri",
"List of Oceanids",
"Europa (Roman province)",
"Plaça d'Europa",
"Europa (Ron Korb album)",
"UEFA Europa League",
"Europa (rocket)",
"Europa City",
"SS Europa (1922)",
"CE Europa",
"Europa Magazine",
"Europa (oil company)",
"Europa (1991 film)",
"Europa (2021 film)",
"Europa Philharmonie",
"Romain Gary"
] |
9,241 |
Euglenozoa
|
Euglenozoa are a large group of flagellate Discoba. They include a variety of common free-living species, as well as a few important parasites, some of which infect humans. Euglenozoa are represented by four major groups, i.e., Kinetoplastea, Diplonemea, Euglenida, and Symbiontida. Euglenozoa are unicellular, mostly around in size, although some euglenids get up to long.
== Structure ==
Most euglenozoa have two flagella, which are inserted parallel to one another in an apical or subapical pocket. In some these are associated with a cytostome or mouth, used to ingest bacteria or other small organisms. This is supported by one of three sets of microtubules that arise from the flagellar bases; the other two support the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the cell.
Some other euglenozoa feed through absorption, and many euglenids possess chloroplasts, the only eukaryotes outside Diaphoretickes to do so without performing kleptoplasty, and so obtain energy through photosynthesis. These chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes and contain chlorophylls A and B, along with other pigments, so are probably derived from a green alga, captured long ago in an endosymbiosis by a basal euglenozoan. Reproduction occurs exclusively through cell division. During mitosis, the nuclear membrane remains intact, and the spindle microtubules form inside of it.
==Classification==
Historically, euglenozoans have been treated as either plants or animals, depending on whether they belong to largely photosynthetic groups or not. Hence they have names based on either the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) or the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). For example, one family has the name Euglenaceae under the ICNafp and the name Euglenidae under the ICZN. As another example, the genus name Dinema is acceptable under the ICZN, but illegitimate under the ICNafp, as it is a later homonym of an orchid genus, so that the synonym Dinematomonas must be used instead.
Both probably belong to a larger group of eukaryotes called the Excavata. This grouping, though, has been challenged.
===Phylogeny===
The phylogeny based on the work of Cavalier-Smith (2016):
A consensus phylogeny following the review by Kostygov et al. (2021):
===Taxonomy===
====Cavalier-Smith (2016/2017)====
The following classification of Euglenozoa is as described by Cavalier-Smith in 2016,
Phylum Euglenozoa Cavalier-Smith 1981 emend. Simpson 1997 [Euglenobionta]
Subphylum Glycomonada Cavalier-Smith 2016
Class Diplonemea Cavalier-Smith 1993 emend. Simpson 1997 [Diplosonematea; Diplonemia Cavalier-Smith 1993]
Order Diplonemida Cavalier-Smith 1993 [Hemistasiida]
Family Hemistasiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016 [Entomosigmaceae]
Family Diplonemidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 [Rhynchopodaceae Skuja 1948 ex Cavalier-Smith 1993]
Class Kinetoplastea Honigberg 1963 emend. Margulis 1974 [Kinetoplastida Honigberg 1963; Kinetoplasta Honigberg 1963 stat. nov.]
Subclass Prokinetoplastina Vickerman 2004
Order Prokinetoplastida Vickerman 2004
Family Ichthyobodonidae Isaksen et al., 2007
Subclass Metakinetoplastina Vickerman 2004
Order Bodonida* Hollande 1952 em. Vickerman 1976, Kryov et al. 1980
Suborder Neobodonida Vickerman 2004
Family Rhynchomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Neobodonidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Suborder Parabodonida Vickerman 2004
Family Parabodonidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Cryptobiidae* Vickerman 2004
Suborder Eubodonida Vickerman 2004
Family Bodonidae Bütschli 1883 [Bodonaceae Lemmermann 1914; Bodoninae Bütschli 1883; Pleuromonadidae Kent 1880]
Order Trypanosomatida Kent 1880 stat. n. Hollande, 1952 emend. Vickerman 2004
Family Trypanosomatidae Doflein 1901
Subphylum Plicomonada Cavalier-Smith 2017
Infraphylum Postgaardia Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith 2017
Class Postgaardea Cavalier-Smith 1998 s.s. [Symbiontida Yubuki et al., 2009]
Order Bihospitida Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Bihospitidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Postgaardida Cavalier-Smith 2003
Family Calkinsiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Postgaardidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Infraphylum Euglenoida Bütschli 1884 emend. Senn 1900 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith, 2017 [Euglenophyta; Euglenida Buetschli 1884; Euglenoidina Buetschli 1884]
Parvphylum Entosiphona Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith 2017
Class Entosiphonea Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Entosiphonida Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Entosiphonidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Parvphylum Dipilida Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith 2017
Superclass Rigimonada* Cavalier-Smith 2016
Class Stavomonadea Cavalier-Smith 2016 [Petalomonadea Cavalier-Smith 1993; Petalomonadophyceae]
Subclass Heterostavia Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Heterostavida Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Serpenomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Subclass Homostavia Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Decastavida Cavalier-Smith 2016a
Family Decastavidae Cavalier-Smith 2016a
Family Keelungiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016a
Order Petalomonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993 [Sphenomonadales Leedale 1967; Sphenomonadina Leedale 1967]
Family Sphenomonadidae Kent 1880
Family Petalomonadidae [Petalomonadaceae Buetschli 1884; Notosolenaceae Stokes 1888; Scytomonadaceae Ritter von Stein 1878]
Class Ploeotarea Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Ploeotiida Cavalier-Smith 1993
Family Lentomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Ploeotiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Superclass Spirocuta Cavalier-Smith 2016
Class Peranemea Cavalier-Smith 1993 emend. Cavalier-Smith 2016
Subclass Acroglissia Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Acroglissida Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Teloproctidae Cavalier-Smith 2016a
Subclass Peranemia Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Peranemida Bütschli 1884 stat. nov. Cavalier-Smith 1993
Family Peranematidae [Peranemataceae Dujardin 1841; Pseudoperanemataceae Christen 1962]
Subclass Anisonemia Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Anisonemida Cavalier-Smith 2016 [Heteronematales Leedale 1967]
Family Anisonemidae Saville Kent, 1880 em. Cavalier-Smith 2016 [Heteronemidae Calkins 1926; Zygoselmidaceae Kent 188]
Order Natomonadida Cavalier-Smith 2016
Suborder Metanemina Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Neometanemidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Suborder Rhabdomonadina Leedale 1967 emend. Cavalier-Smith 1993 [Astasida Ehrenberg 1831; Rhabdomonadia Cavalier-Smith 1993; Rhabdomonadophyceae; Rhabdomonadales]
Family Distigmidae Hollande, 1942
Family Astasiidae Saville Kent, 1884 [Astasiaceae Ehrenberg orth. mut. Senn 1900; Rhabdomonadaceae Fott 1971; Menoidiaceae Buetschli 188; Menoidiidae Hollande, 1942]
Class Euglenophyceae Schoenichen 1925 emend. Marin & Melkonian 2003 [Euglenea Bütschli 1884 emend. Busse & Preisfeld 2002; Euglenoidea Bütschli 1884; Euglenida Bütschli 1884] (Photosynthetic clade)
Subclass Rapazia Cavalier-Smith 2016
Order Rapazida Cavalier-Smith 2016
Family Rapazidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
Subclass Euglenophycidae Busse and Preisfeld, 2003
Order Eutreptiida [Eutreptiales Leedale 1967 emend. Marin & Melkonian 2003; Eutreptiina Leedale 1967]
Family Eutreptiaceae [Eutreptiaceae Hollande 1942]
Order Euglenida Ritter von Stein, 1878 stat. n. Calkins, 1926 [Euglenales Engler 1898 emend. Marin & Melkonian 2003; Euglenina Buetschli 1884; Euglenomorphales Leedale 1967; Colaciales Smith 1938]
Family Euglenamorphidae Hollande, 1952 stat. n. Cavalier-Smith 2016 [Euglenomorphaceae; Hegneriaceae Brumpt & Lavier 1924]
Family Phacidae [Phacaceae Kim et al. 2010]
Family Euglenidae Bütschli 1884 [Euglenaceae Dujardin 1841 emend. Kim et al. 2010; Colaciaceae Smith 1933] (Mucilaginous clade)
==== Kostygov et al. (2021)====
Phylum Euglenozoa Cavalier-Smith 1981 emend. Simpson 1997
Class Kinetoplastea Honigberg, 1963 emend. Vickerman, 1976
Subclass Prokinetoplastia Vickerman, 2004
Order Prokinetoplastida Vickerman, 2004
Family Ichthyobodonidae Isaksen et al., 2007
Family Perkinselidae Kostygov, 2021
Subclass Metakinetoplastia Vickerman, 2004
Order Eubodonida Vickerman 2004
Family Bodonidae Bütschli, 1883
Order Neobodonida Vickerman, 2004
Family Allobodonidae Goodwin et al., 2018
Family Neobodonidae Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Family Rhynchomonadinae Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Order Parabodonida Vickerman, 2004
Family Cryptobiidae Poche, 1911 emend. Kostygov, 2021
Family Trypanoplasmatidae Hartmann and Chagas, 1910 emend. Kostygov, 2021
Order Trypanosomatida Kent, 1880
Family Trypanosomatidae Doflein, 1901
Class Diplonemea Cavalier-Smith, 1993
Order Diplonemida Cavalier-Smith, 1993
Family Diplonemidae Cavalier-Smith, 1993
Family Hemistasiidae Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Family Eupelagonemidae Okamoto and Keeling, 2019
Class Euglenida Bütschli, 1884 emend. Simpson, 1997
Clade Olkaspira Lax and Simpson, 2020
Clade Spirocuta Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Clade Euglenophyceae Schoenichen, 1925 emend. Marin and Melkonian, 2003
Order Euglenales Leedale, 1967 emend. Marin and Melkonian, 2003
Family Euglenaceae Dujardin, 1841 emend. Kim et al., 2010 [Euglenidae Dujardin, 1841]
Family Phacaceae Kim, Triemer and Shin 2010 [Phacidae Kim, Triemer and Shin 2010]
Order Eutreptiales Leedale, 1967 emend. Marin and Melkonian, 2003
Family Eutreptiaceae Hollande, 1942 [Eutreptiidae Hollande, 1942]
Order Rapazida Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Family Rapazidae Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Clade Anisonemia Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Order Anisonemida Cavalier-Smith, 2016
Family Anisonemidae Kent, 1880
Clade Aphagea Cavalier-Smith, 1993 emend. Busse and Preisfeld, 2002
Order Peranemida Cavalier-Smith, 1993
Clade Alistosa Lax et al., 2020
Order Petalomonadida Cavalier-Smith, 1993
Class Symbiontida Yubuki, Edgcomb, Bernhard and Leander, 2009
|
[
"Hemistasiidae",
"photosynthesis",
"Distigmidae",
"Postgaardidae",
"International Code of Zoological Nomenclature",
"Eupelagonemidae",
"Bodo (excavate)",
"Acroglissia",
"Neobodonidae",
"Ploeotarea",
"Heterostavida",
"Metakinetoplastina",
"Nomen illegitimum",
"Ploeotiida",
"Calkinsia",
"Bihospitidae",
"mitosis",
"Euglenamorphaceae",
"Peranemea",
"Keelungiidae",
"Rapazidae",
"Anisonemia",
"Serpenomonadidae",
"Bordnamonadida",
"Diplonemidae",
"Eutreptiaceae",
"cytostome",
"Ichthyobodonidae",
"Bordnamonadidae",
"plants+HC+SAR megagroup",
"Homonym (biology)",
"Anisonemidae",
"Allobodonidae",
"Prokinetoplastia",
"kleptoplasty",
"Entosiphonida",
"Euglenamorphidae",
"Symbiontida",
"Glycomonada",
"Euglenophyceae",
"flagellate",
"Rhynchomonadidae",
"Eutreptiales",
"Entosiphonidae",
"Phacidae",
"Cryptobiidae",
"Calkinsiidae",
"Neobodonida",
"Discoba",
"microtubule",
"Trypanoplasmatidae",
"axoneme",
"Trypanophididae",
"Heterostavia",
"Acroglissida",
"Diplonemida",
"diplonemid",
"Percolozoa",
"Aphagea",
"Euglenoidea",
"Rhabdomonadina",
"Postgaardea",
"Anisonema",
"chloroplast",
"Bihospites",
"Eutreptia",
"Bodonidae",
"Prokinetoplastida",
"Bihospitida",
"Ploeotiidae",
"Olkasia",
"Stenian",
"Lentomonadidae",
"Euglenaceae",
"Trypanophidida",
"Rapazida",
"Cephalothamniidae",
"Peranemida",
"Homostavia",
"Diplonemea",
"Sphenomonadidae",
"Phacaceae",
"Rhynchomonadinae",
"Parabodonidae",
"Neometanemidae",
"Metakinetoplastia",
"Entosiphona",
"chlorophyll",
"Excavata",
"Rapazia",
"Plicomonada",
"Teloproctidae",
"Thomas Cavalier-Smith",
"Petalomonadidae",
"Euglena",
"Anisonemida",
"Postgaardi",
"Decastavida",
"Peranematidae",
"cristae",
"Spirocuta",
"Trypanosomatida",
"Natomonadida",
"Prokinetoplastina",
"endosymbiosis",
"Eubodonida",
"Euglenophycidae",
"Euglenida",
"Decastavidae",
"Bodonida",
"Kinetoplastea",
"Entosiphonea",
"Dipilida",
"green alga",
"Astasiidae",
"Perkinselidae",
"Eutreptiida",
"Petalomonadida",
"Euglenales",
"Alistosa",
"Euglenidae",
"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants",
"Photosynthesis",
"Trypanosomatidae",
"Stavomonadea",
"Postgaardia",
"Parabodonida",
"Dinema (alga)",
"Peranemia",
"Peranema",
"Euglenoida",
"Postgaardida",
"Olkaspira",
"Rhynchobodo",
"Metanemina",
"bacteria",
"Rigimonada"
] |
9,247 |
Epistemology
|
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowledge in the form of skills, and knowledge by acquaintance as a familiarity through experience. Epistemologists study the concepts of belief, truth, and justification to understand the nature of knowledge. To discover how knowledge arises, they investigate sources of justification, such as perception, introspection, memory, reason, and testimony.
The school of skepticism questions the human ability to attain knowledge while fallibilism says that knowledge is never certain. Empiricists hold that all knowledge comes from sense experience, whereas rationalists believe that some knowledge does not depend on it. Coherentists argue that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs. Foundationalists, by contrast, maintain that the justification of basic beliefs does not depend on other beliefs. Internalism and externalism debate whether justification is determined solely by mental states or also by external circumstances.
Separate branches of epistemology focus on knowledge in specific fields, like scientific, mathematical, moral, and religious knowledge. Naturalized epistemology relies on empirical methods and discoveries, whereas formal epistemology uses formal tools from logic. Social epistemology investigates the communal aspect of knowledge, and historical epistemology examines its historical conditions. Epistemology is closely related to psychology, which describes the beliefs people hold, while epistemology studies the norms governing the evaluation of beliefs. It also intersects with fields such as decision theory, education, and anthropology.
Early reflections on the nature, sources, and scope of knowledge are found in ancient Greek, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. The relation between reason and faith was a central topic in the medieval period. The modern era was characterized by the contrasting perspectives of empiricism and rationalism. Epistemologists in the 20th century examined the components, structure, and value of knowledge while integrating insights from the natural sciences and linguistics.
== Definition ==
Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and related concepts, such as justification. Also called theory of knowledge, it examines the nature and types of knowledge. It further investigates the sources of knowledge, like perception, inference, and testimony, to understand how knowledge is created. Another set of questions concerns the extent and limits of knowledge, addressing what people can and cannot know. Central concepts in epistemology include belief, truth, evidence, and reason. As one of the main branches of philosophy, epistemology stands alongside fields like ethics, logic, and metaphysics. The term can also refer specific positions of philosophers within this branch, as in Plato's epistemology and Immanuel Kant's epistemology.
Epistemology explores how people should acquire beliefs. It determines which beliefs or forms of belief acquisition meet the standards or epistemic goals of knowledge and which ones fail, thereby providing an evaluation of beliefs. The fields of psychology and cognitive sociology are also interested in beliefs and related cognitive processes, but examine them from a different perspective. Unlike epistemology, they study the beliefs people actually have and how people acquire them instead of examining the evaluative norms of these processes. In this regard, epistemology is a normative discipline, whereas psychology and cognitive sociology are descriptive disciplines. Epistemology is relevant to many descriptive and normative disciplines, such as the other branches of philosophy and the sciences, by exploring the principles of how they may arrive at knowledge.
The word epistemology comes from the ancient Greek terms (episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding) and (logos, meaning study of or reason), literally, the study of knowledge. Despite its ancient roots, the word itself was only coined in the 19th century to designate this field as a distinct branch of philosophy.
==Central concepts==
Epistemologists examine several foundational concepts to understand their essences and rely on them to formulate theories. Various epistemological disagreements have their roots in disputes about the nature and function of these concepts, like the controversies surrounding the definition of knowledge and the role of justification in it.
=== Knowledge ===
Knowledge is an awareness, familiarity, understanding, or skill. Its various forms all involve a cognitive success through which a person establishes epistemic contact with reality. Epistemologists typically understand knowledge as an aspect of individuals, generally as a cognitive mental state that helps them understand, interpret, and interact with the world. While this core sense is of particular interest to epistemologists, the term also has other meanings. For example, the epistemology of groups examines knowledge as a characteristic of a group of people who share ideas. The term can also refer to information stored in documents and computers.
Knowledge contrasts with ignorance, often simply defined as the absence of knowledge. Knowledge is usually accompanied by ignorance because people rarely have complete knowledge of a field, forcing them to rely on incomplete or uncertain information when making decisions. Even though many forms of ignorance can be mitigated through education and research, certain limits to human understanding result in inevitable ignorance. Some limitations are inherent in the human cognitive faculties themselves, such as the inability to know facts too complex for the human mind to conceive. Others depend on external circumstances when no access to the relevant information exists.
Epistemologists disagree on how much people know, for example, whether fallible beliefs can amount to knowledge or whether absolute certainty is required. The most stringent position is taken by radical skeptics, who argue that there is no knowledge at all.
==== Types ====
Epistemologists distinguish between different types of knowledge. Their primary interest is in knowledge of facts, called propositional knowledge. It is theoretical knowledge that can be expressed in declarative sentences using a that-clause, like "Ravi knows that kangaroos hop". For this reason, it is also called knowledge-that. Epistemologists often understand it as a relation between a knower and a known proposition, in the case above between the person Ravi and the proposition "kangaroos hop". Because of its theoretical nature, it is typically held that only creatures with highly developed minds, such as humans, possess propositional knowledge.
Propositional knowledge contrasts with non-propositional knowledge in the form of knowledge-how and knowledge by acquaintance. Knowledge-how is a practical ability or skill, like knowing how to read or how to prepare lasagna. It is usually tied to a specific goal and not mastered in the abstract without concrete practice. To know something by acquaintance means to have an immediate familiarity with or awareness of it, usually as a result of direct experiential contact. Examples are "familiarity with the city of Perth", "knowing the taste of tsampa", and "knowing Marta Vieira da Silva personally".
Another influential distinction in epistemology is between a posteriori and a priori knowledge. A posteriori knowledge is knowledge of empirical facts based on sensory experience, like "seeing that the sun is shining" and "smelling that a piece of meat has gone bad". This type of knowledge is associated with the empirical science and everyday affairs. A priori knowledge, by contrast, pertains to non-empirical facts and does not depend on evidence from sensory experience, like knowing that 2 + 2=4. It belongs to fields such as mathematics and logic. The distinction between a posteriori and a priori knowledge is central to the debate between empiricists and rationalists regarding whether all knowledge depends on sensory experience.
A closely related contrast is between analytic and synthetic truths. A sentence is analytically true if its truth depends only on the meanings of the words it uses. For instance, the sentence "all bachelors are unmarried" is analytically true because the word "bachelor" already includes the meaning "unmarried". A sentence is synthetically true if its truth depends on additional facts. For example, the sentence "snow is white" is synthetically true because its truth depends on the color of snow in addition to the meanings of the words snow and white. A priori knowledge is primarily associated with analytic sentences, whereas a posteriori knowledge is primarily associated with synthetic sentences. However, it is controversial whether this is true for all cases. Some philosophers, such as Willard Van Orman Quine, reject the distinction, saying that there are no analytic truths.
==== Analysis ====
The analysis of knowledge is the attempt to identify the essential components or conditions of all and only propositional knowledge states. According to the so-called traditional analysis, knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. In the second half of the 20th century, this view was challenged by a series of thought experiments aiming to show that some justified true beliefs do not amount to knowledge. In one of them, a person is unaware of all the fake barns in their area. By coincidence, they stop in front of the only real barn and form a justified true belief that it is a real barn. Many epistemologists agree that this is not knowledge because the justification is not directly relevant to the truth. More specifically, this and similar counterexamples involve some form of epistemic luck, that is, a cognitive success that results from fortuitous circumstances rather than competence.
Following these thought experiments, philosophers proposed various alternative definitions of knowledge by modifying or expanding the traditional analysis. Another theory states that the belief is the product of a reliable belief formation process. Further approaches require that the person would not have the belief if it was false, that the belief is not inferred from a falsehood, that the justification cannot be undermined, or that the belief is infallible. There is no consensus on which of the proposed modifications and reconceptualizations is correct. Some philosophers, such as Timothy Williamson, reject the basic assumption underlying the analysis of knowledge by arguing that propositional knowledge is a unique state that cannot be dissected into simpler components.
==== Value ====
The value of knowledge is the worth it holds by expanding understanding and guiding action. Knowledge can have instrumental value by helping a person achieve their goals. For example, knowledge of a disease helps a doctor cure their patient. The usefulness of a known fact depends on the circumstances. Knowledge of some facts may have little to no uses, like memorizing random phone numbers from an outdated phone book. Being able to assess the value of knowledge matters in choosing what information to acquire and share. It affects decisions like which subjects to teach at school and how to allocate funds to research projects.
Epistemologists are particularly interested in whether knowledge is more valuable than a mere true opinion. Knowledge and true opinion often have a similar usefulness since both accurately represent reality. For example, if a person wants to go to Larissa, a true opinion about the directions can guide them as effectively as knowledge. Considering this problem, Plato proposed that knowledge is better because it is more stable. Another suggestion focuses on practical reasoning, arguing that people put more trust in knowledge than in mere true opinions when drawing conclusions and deciding what to do. A different response says that knowledge has intrinsic value in addition to instrumental value. This view asserts that knowledge is always valuable, whereas true opinion is only valuable in circumstances where it is useful.
=== Belief and truth ===
Beliefs are mental states about what is the case, like believing that snow is white or that God exists. In epistemology, they are often understood as subjective attitudes that affirm or deny a proposition, which can be expressed in a declarative sentence. For instance, to believe that snow is white is to affirm the proposition "snow is white". According to this view, beliefs are representations of what the universe is like. They are stored in memory and retrieved when actively thinking about reality or deciding how to act. A different view understands beliefs as behavioral patterns or dispositions to act rather than as representational items stored in the mind. According to this perspective, to believe that there is mineral water in the fridge is nothing more than a group of dispositions related to mineral water and the fridge. Examples are the dispositions to answer questions about the presence of mineral water affirmatively and to go to the fridge when thirsty. Some theorists deny the existence of beliefs, saying that this concept borrowed from folk psychology oversimplifies much more complex psychological or neurological processes. Beliefs are central to various epistemological debates, which cover their status as a component of propositional knowledge, the question of whether people have control over and responsibility for their beliefs, and the issue of whether beliefs have degrees, called credences.
As propositional attitudes, beliefs are true or false depending on whether they affirm a true or a false proposition. According to the correspondence theory of truth, to be true means to stand in the right relation to the world by accurately describing what it is like. This means that truth is objective: a belief is true if it corresponds to a fact. The coherence theory of truth says that a belief is true if it belongs to a coherent system of beliefs. A result of this view is that truth is relative since it depends on other beliefs. Further theories of truth include pragmatist, semantic, pluralist, and deflationary theories. Truth plays a central role in epistemology as a goal of cognitive processes and an attribute of propositional knowledge.
=== Justification ===
In epistemology, justification is a property of beliefs that meet certain norms about what a person should believe. According to a common view, this means that the person has sufficient reasons for holding this belief because they have information that supports it. The terms reasonable, warranted, and supported are sometimes used as synonyms of the word justified. Justification distinguishes well-founded beliefs from superstition and lucky guesses. However, it does not guarantee truth. For example, a person with strong but misleading evidence may form a justified belief that is false.
Epistemologists often identify justification as a key component of knowledge. Usually, they are not only interested in whether a person has a sufficient reason to hold a belief, known as propositional justification, but also in whether the person holds the belief because or based on this reason, known as doxastic justification. For example, if a person has sufficient reason to believe that a neighborhood is dangerous but forms this belief based on superstition then they have propositional justification but lack doxastic justification.
=
|
[
"modern philosophy",
"Willard Van Orman Quine",
"virtue epistemology",
"laws of thought",
"Cartesian doubt",
"Contrastivism",
"Nyaya",
"Aristotle",
"Sense data",
"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
"ancient philosophy",
"historical epistemology",
"ethics",
"Sentence (linguistics)",
"J. L. Austin",
"Ataraxia",
"William of Ockham",
"ancient India",
"Philosophical methodology",
"evidence",
"Incoherence of the Philosophers",
"feminist epistemology",
"Formal epistemology",
"Continuum (measurement)",
"memory",
"philosophy",
"certainty",
"Rationalism",
"theories of truth",
"Applied epistemology",
"Theory of categories",
"practical reasoning",
"Pyrrhonian skeptics",
"Literal translation",
"ancient Greek philosophy",
"al-Farabi",
"proposition",
"Normativity",
"God exists",
"sexual assault",
"Justification (epistemology)",
"Taste",
"rational intuition",
"Keep of Kalessin",
"natural selection",
"Buddhist philosophy",
"Bertrand Russell",
"truth",
"fallible",
"Circular reasoning",
"knowledge",
"fact",
"personal epistemology",
"reliabilism",
"inference",
"thought experiment",
"gnoseology",
"Analytic–synthetic distinction",
"Anekantavada",
"John Stuart Mill",
"character trait",
"Validity (logic)",
"Xunzi (philosopher)",
"Stoicism",
"Charles Peirce",
"Vedas",
"Soteriology",
"logic",
"faith",
"Spirituality",
"innate ideas",
"Perth",
"Wisdom",
"Ancient Greek philosophy",
"Knowledge-first epistemology",
"Epistemology of metaphysics",
"regress problem",
"Behaviorism",
"Metaepistemology",
"modus ponens",
"Wang Yangming",
"Holism",
"formal epistemology",
"Action (philosophy)",
"epistemology of science",
"Rationality",
"propositional knowledge",
"Epicureanism",
"Timothy Williamson",
"mental state",
"sense",
"testimony",
"Artificial intelligence",
"Pragmatic theory of truth",
"Direct and indirect realism",
"contradictions",
"Dharmakirti",
"G. E. Moore",
"illusion",
"Contextualism",
"Procedural knowledge",
"social epistemology",
"brain in a vat",
"Foundationalism",
"Experimental philosophy",
"Peter Abelard",
"Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel",
"superstition",
"Philosophical skepticism",
"ignorance",
"Definitions of knowledge",
"Anupalabdhi",
"coherence theory of truth",
"David Hume",
"epistemic conservatism",
"African epistemology",
"Deflationary theory of truth",
"epistemic virtue",
"feminist",
"Self-evidence",
"Relation (philosophy)",
"belief revision",
"Empiricism",
"Mencius",
"Value (ethics and social sciences)",
"Pluralist theories of truth",
"Visual perception",
"Semantic theory of truth",
"alibi",
"Islamic philosophy",
"definitions of knowledge",
"Essence",
"rule of inference",
"Potemkin village",
"tsampa",
"Linda Zagzebski",
"Marta Vieira da Silva",
"Infinitism",
"Credence (statistics)",
"conscientiousness",
"decision theory",
"Bloodstain pattern analysis",
"Ordinary language philosophy",
"Problem of other minds",
"Indian philosophy",
"Baruch Spinoza",
"Internalism and externalism",
"understanding",
"automatic reasoning",
"religious experience",
"epistemic logic",
"witness testimony",
"introspection",
"pramāṇa",
"A priori and a posteriori",
"doubt",
"gender",
"practical knowledge",
"ancient Indian philosophy",
"correspondence theory of truth",
"Evidentialism",
"computational epistemology",
"Religious text",
"A. J. Ayer",
"Averroes",
"Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
"epistemology of testimony",
"natural sciences",
"empirical",
"Medieval philosophy",
"Student-centered learning",
"Karl Popper",
"Mozi",
"Epoche",
"reason",
"rationalism",
"teaching method",
"particular",
"Sense of smell",
"Bayesian epistemology",
"Larissa",
"psychology",
"consistent",
"Propositional attitude",
"Logical reasoning",
"Buddhist",
"Social epistemology",
"ancient Greek",
"self-refuting idea",
"epistemology of ethics",
"infallible",
"philosophy of mind",
"direct realism",
"logical positivists",
"Ajñana",
"categories of understanding",
"evolution",
"Edmund Husserl",
"Chinese philosophy",
"Constructivism (philosophy of science)",
"defeater",
"open-mindedness",
"metatheory",
"probability",
"Mīmāṃsā",
"information",
"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
"modern era",
"medieval period",
"Logic",
"mental states",
"sociology of knowledge",
"Neoplatonism",
"Ernest Sosa",
"Hellenistic philosophy",
"Pragmatism",
"Cognitivism (psychology)",
"disposition",
"Gettier problem",
"declarative sentence",
"I think, therefore I am",
"Learning theory (education)",
"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz",
"Doxa",
"theology",
"rationality",
"Postmodern",
"education",
"Necessity and sufficiency",
"blank slate",
"episteme",
"Theory",
"meteorology",
"Al-Ghazali",
"Religious epistemology",
"human mind",
"Decolonization of knowledge",
"grammar",
"Anselm of Canterbury",
"Immanuel Kant",
"Plato",
"Hearing",
"continental philosophy",
"Decision theory",
"folk psychology",
"Problem of induction",
"ontology",
"Somatosensory system",
"Reliabilism",
"Jain epistemology",
"lasagna",
"Upanishads",
"metaphysics",
"René Descartes",
"American Philosophical Quarterly",
"Cognition",
"Doxastic voluntarism",
"Agrippa's trilemma",
"sense experience",
"Coherentism",
"Nyāya",
"intention",
"instrumental value",
"Foundherentism",
"metanarrative",
"cognitive science",
"Ludwig Wittgenstein",
"Classical conditioning",
"racism",
"Religious skepticism",
"Virtue epistemology",
"inductive reasoning",
"perception",
"Historical epistemology",
"Pratyaksha",
"fallibilism",
"ethics of belief",
"Pedagogy",
"linguistics",
"Anamnesis (philosophy)",
"Thomas Aquinas",
"knowledge by acquaintance",
"argument",
"Āstika and nāstika",
"Evolutionary epistemology",
"Common sense",
"Gaṅgeśa",
"epistemology of logic",
"Phenomenology (philosophy)",
"Edmund Gettier",
"axiological",
"probability theory",
"dream argument",
"epistemic injustice",
"Innatism",
"belief",
"Defeater",
"knowledge representation",
"fallacy",
"cognitive sociology",
"Naturalized epistemology",
"anthropology",
"dominant ideology",
"Alvin Goldman",
"Academic skepticism",
"John Locke",
"Shabda",
"Ethical intuitionism",
"mathematics"
] |
9,248 |
Esperanto
|
Esperanto (, ) is the world's most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language. Created by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887 to be 'the International Language' (), it is intended to be a universal second language for international communication. He described the language in Dr. Esperanto's International Language (), which he published under the pseudonym . Early adopters of the language liked the name and soon used it to describe his language. The word translates into English as 'one who hopes'.
Within the range of constructed languages, Esperanto occupies a middle ground between "naturalistic" (imitating existing natural languages) and a priori (where features are not based on existing languages). Esperanto's vocabulary, syntax and semantics derive predominantly from languages of the Indo-European group. A substantial majority of its vocabulary (approximately 80%) derives from Romance languages, but it also contains elements derived from Germanic, Greek, and Slavic languages. One of the language's most notable features is its extensive system of derivation, where prefixes and suffixes may be freely combined with roots to generate words, making it possible to communicate effectively with a smaller set of words.
Esperanto is the most successful constructed international auxiliary language, and the only such language with a sizeable population of native speakers, of which there are perhaps several thousand. Concentration of speakers is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America. Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, ('Esperanto land') is used as a name for the collection of places where it is spoken. The language has also gained a noticeable presence on the internet. It is becoming increasingly accessible on platforms such as Wikipedia, Amikumu, Google Translate and Duolingo. Esperanto speakers are often called Esperantists (). A number of reforms, known as Esperantidos, have been proposed over the years.
== History ==
=== Creation ===
Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by L. L. Zamenhof, a Jewish ophthalmologist from Białystok, then part of the Russian Empire, but now part of Poland.
According to Zamenhof, he created the language to reduce the "time and labor we spend in learning foreign tongues", and to foster harmony between people from different countries: "Were there but an international language, all translations would be made into it alone ... and all nations would be united in a common brotherhood." His feelings and the situation in Białystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:
Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal second language, to foster world peace and international understanding, and to build a "community of speakers".
His original title for the language was simply "the international language" (), but early speakers grew fond of the name Esperanto, and began to use it as the name for the language just two years after its creation. The name quickly gained prominence, and has been used as an official name ever since.
In 1905, Zamenhof published the Fundamento de Esperanto as a definitive guide to the language. Later that year, French Esperantists organized with his participation the first World Esperanto Congress, an ongoing annual conference, in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. Zamenhof also proposed to the first congress that an independent body of linguistic scholars should steward the future evolution of Esperanto, foreshadowing the founding of the Akademio de Esperanto (in part modeled after the Académie française), which was established soon thereafter. Since then, world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars, and the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic (when it was moved to an online-only event). Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of more than 2,000 people, and up to 6,000 people at the most.
Zamenhof wrote that he wanted mankind to "learn and use ... en masse ... the proposed language as a living one". December 15, Zamenhof's birthday, is now regarded as Zamenhof Day or Esperanto Book Day.
===20th century===
The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between what is today Belgium and Germany, had a sizable proportion of Esperanto-speaking citizens among its small, diverse population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.
However, neither Belgium nor Germany had surrendered their claims to the region, with the latter having adopted a more aggressive stance towards pursuing its claim around the turn of the century, even being accused of sabotage and administrative obstruction to force the issue. The outbreak of World War I would bring about the end of neutrality, with Moresnet initially left as "an oasis in a desert of destruction" following the German invasion of Belgium. The territory was formally annexed by Prussia in 1915, though without international recognition.
After the war, a great opportunity for Esperanto seemingly presented itself, when the Iranian delegation to the League of Nations proposed that the language be adopted for use in international relations following a report by a Japanese delegate to the League named Nitobe Inazō, in the context of the 13th World Congress of Esperanto, held in Prague. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux opposed all recognition of Esperanto at the League, from the first resolution on December 18, 1920, and subsequently through all efforts during the next three years. However, two years later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. The French government retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in France's schools and universities. The French Ministry of Public Instruction said that "French and English would perish and the literary standard of the world would be debased".
Fran Novljan was one of the chief promoters of Esperanto in the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He was among the founders of the Croatian (Educational Alliance), of which he was the first secretary, and organized Esperanto institutions in Zagreb. Novljan collaborated with Esperanto newspapers and magazines, and was the author of the Esperanto textbook Internacia lingvo esperanto i Esperanto en tridek lecionoj.
In 1920s Korea, socialist thinkers pushed for the use of Esperanto through a series of columns in The Dong-a Ilbo as resistance to both Japanese occupation as well as a counter to the growing nationalist movement for Korean language standardization. This lasted until the Mukden Incident in 1931, when changing colonial policy led to an outright ban on Esperanto education in Korea.
=== Official repression ===
Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many states. Repression was especially pronounced in Nazi Germany, Francoist Spain up until the 1950s, and the Soviet Union under Stalin, from 1937 to 1956.
In Nazi Germany, there was a motivation to ban Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish, and due to the internationalist nature of Esperanto, which was perceived as "Bolshevist". In his work Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler specifically mentions Esperanto as an example of a language that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy once they achieved world domination. Esperantists were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out to be killed. The efforts of a minority of German Esperantists to expel their Jewish colleagues and overtly align themselves with the Reich were futile, and Esperanto was legally forbidden in 1935. Esperantists in German concentration camps did, however, teach Esperanto to fellow prisoners, telling guards they were teaching Italian, the language of one of Germany's Axis allies.
In Imperial Japan, the left wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was forbidden, but its leaders were careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were socialist revolutionaries, which proved a successful strategy.
After the October Revolution of 1917, Esperanto was given a measure of government support by the new communist states in the former Russian Empire and later by the Soviet Union government, with the Soviet Esperantist Union being established as an organization that, temporarily, was officially recognized. In his biography on Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky mentions that Stalin had studied Esperanto. However, in 1937, at the height of the Great Purge, Stalin completely reversed the Soviet government's policies on Esperanto; many Esperanto speakers were executed, exiled or held in captivity in the Gulag labour camps. Quite often the accusation was: "You are an active member of an international spy organization which hides itself under the name of 'Association of Soviet Esperantists' on the territory of the Soviet Union." Until the end of the Stalin era, it was dangerous to use Esperanto in the Soviet Union, even though it was never officially forbidden to speak Esperanto.
Fascist Italy allowed the use of Esperanto, finding its phonology similar to that of Italian and publishing some tourist material in the language.
During and after the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain suppressed anarchists, socialists and Catalan nationalists for many years, among whom the use of Esperanto was extensive, but in the 1950s the Esperanto movement was again tolerated.
=== Modern history ===
In 1954, the United Nations — through UNESCO — granted official support to Esperanto as an international auxiliary language in the Montevideo Resolution. However, Esperanto is not one of the six official languages of the UN.
The development of Esperanto has continued unabated into the 21st century. The advent of the Internet has had a significant impact on the language, as learning it has become increasingly accessible on platforms such as Duolingo, and as speakers have increasingly networked on platforms such as Amikumu. With up to two million speakers, it is the most widely spoken constructed language in the world. Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, Esperantujo ("Esperanto-land") is the name given to the collection of places where it is spoken.
== Official use ==
=== International organizations ===
Esperanto is the working language of several non-profit international organizations such as the , a left-wing cultural association which had 724 members in over 85 countries in 2006. There is also Education@Internet, which has developed from an Esperanto organization; most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the Universal Esperanto Association, has an official consultative relationship with the United Nations and UNESCO, which recognized Esperanto as a medium for international understanding in 1954. The Universal Esperanto Association collaborated in 2017 with UNESCO to deliver an Esperanto translation of its magazine UNESCO Courier (). The World Health Organization offers an Esperanto version of the COVID-19 pandemic () occupational safety and health education course.
All personal documents sold by the World Service Authority, including the World Passport, are written in Esperanto, together with the official languages of the United Nations: English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, and Chinese.
=== Education ===
Esperanto has not been a secondary official language of any recognized country. However, it has entered the education systems of several countries, including Hungary and China.
Esperanto was also the first language of teaching and administration of the now-defunct International Academy of Sciences San Marino.
The League of Nations made attempts to promote the teaching of Esperanto in its member countries, but the resolutions were defeated (mainly by French delegates, who did not feel there was a need for it).
=== Media ===
The Chinese government has used Esperanto since 2001 for an Esperanto version of its China Internet Information Center. China also uses Esperanto in China Radio International, and for the internet magazine El Popola Ĉinio.
The Vatican Radio has an Esperanto version of its podcasts and its website.
In the summer of 1924, the American Radio Relay League adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.
=== Military training ===
The United States Army has published military phrase books in Esperanto, to be used from the 1950s until the 1970s in war games by mock enemy forces. A field reference manual, FM 30-101-1 Feb. 1962, contained the grammar, English-Esperanto-English dictionary, and common phrases. In the 1970s Esperanto was used as the basis for Defense Language Aptitude Tests.
=== Proposed microstates and micronations ===
Beginning in 1908, there were efforts to establish the world's first Esperanto state in Neutral Moresnet, which at the time was a Belgian–Prussian condominium in central-western Europe. Any such efforts came to an end with the beginning of World War I and the German invasion of Belgium, voiding the treaty which established joint sovereignty over the territory. The Treaty of Versailles subsequently awarded the disputed territory to Belgium, effective January 10, 1920.
The self-proclaimed micronation of Rose Island, on an artificial island near Italy in the Adriatic Sea, used Esperanto as its official language in 1968. Another micronation, the extant Republic of Molossia, near Dayton, Nevada, uses Esperanto as an official language alongside English.
==Internet==
On May 28, 2015, the language learning platform Duolingo launched a free Esperanto course for English speakers. On March 25, 2016, when the first Duolingo Esperanto course completed its beta-testing phase, that course had 350,000 people registered to learn Esperanto through the medium of English. By July 2018, the number of learners had risen to 1.36 million. On July 20, 2018, Duolingo changed from recording users cumulatively to reporting only the number of "active learners" (i.e., those who are studying at the time and have not yet completed the course), which as of October 2022 stands at 299,000 learners.
On October 26, 2016, a second Duolingo Esperanto course, for which the language of instruction is Spanish, appeared on the same platform and which as of April 2021 had a further 176,000 students. A third Esperanto course, taught in Brazilian Portuguese, began its beta-testing phase on May 14, 2018, and was in use by 220,000 people in April 2021, and 155,000 people in May 2022. A fourth Esperanto course, taught in French, began its beta-testing phase in July 2020, and had 72,500 students in March 2021, and 101,000 students in May 2022. As of early 2023, Duolingo has removed these courses.
As of October 2018, , another online learning platform for Esperanto, had 320,000 registered users, and nearly 75,000 monthly visits. 50,000 users possess at least a basic understanding of Esperanto.
The language-learning platforms Drops, Memrise and LingQ also have materials for Esperanto.
On February 22, 2012, Google Translate added Esperanto as its 64th language. On July 25, 2016, Yandex Translate added Esperanto as a language.
As of January 2025, Esperanto Wikipedia (Vikipedio) contains about articles, making it the 37th-largest Wikipedia, as measured by the number of articles, and is the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language. About 150,000 users consult the Vikipedio regularly, as attested by Wikipedia's automatically aggregated log-in data, which showed that in October 2019 the website has 117,366 unique individual visitors per month, plus 33,572 who view the site on a mobile device instead.
== Linguistic properties ==
=== Classification ===
Esperanto has been described as "a language lexically predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensively agglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in character". Approximately 80% of Esperanto's vocabulary is derived from Romance languages. Esperantist and linguist Ilona Koutny notes that Esperanto's vocabulary, phrase structure, agreement systems, and semantic typology are similar to those of Indo-European languages spoken in Europe. However, Koutny and Esperantist Humphrey Tonkin also note that Esperanto has features that are atypical of Indo-European languages spoken in Europe, such as its agglutinative morphology. Claude Piron argued that Esperanto word-formation has more in common with that of Chinese than with typical European languages, and that the number of Esperanto features shared with Slavic languages warrants the identification of a Slavic-derived stratum of language structure that he calls the "Middle Plane".
=== Phonology ===
Esperanto typically has 22 to 24 consonants (depending on the phonemic analysis and individual speaker), five vowels, and two semivowels that combine with the vowels to form six diphthongs. (The consonant and semivowel are both written ⟨j⟩, and the uncommon consonant is written with the digraph ⟨dz⟩, which is the only consonant that does not have its own letter.) Tone is not used to distinguish meanings of words. Stress is always on the second-to-last vowel in proper Esperanto words, unless a final vowel is elided, a phenomenon mostly occurring in poetry. For example, "family" is , with the stress on the second i, but when the word is used without the final (), the stress remains on the second : .
==== Consonants ====
The 23 consonants are:
There is some degree of allophony:
The sound is usually rendered as an alveolar trill , but can also be a uvular trill , a uvular fricative , and an alveolar approximant . Many other forms such as an alveolar tap are done and accepted in practice.
The is normally pronounced like English v, but may be pronounced (between English v and w) or , depending on the language background of the speaker.
A semivowel normally occurs only in diphthongs after the vowels and , not as a consonant .
Common, if debated, assimilation includes the pronunciation of as and as .
A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position (as in ', "strange") and five in medial position (as in ekssklavo, "former slave"). Final clusters are uncommon except in unassimilated names, poetic elision of final , and a very few basic words such as ' "hundred" and "after".
==== Vowels ====
Esperanto has the five vowels found in such languages as Spanish, Modern Hebrew, and Modern Greek.
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Since there are only five vowels, a good deal of variation in pronunciation is tolerated. For instance, e commonly ranges from (French ) to (French ). These details often depend on the speaker's native language. A glottal stop may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in ' "hero" ( or ) and ' "great-grandfather" ( or ).
=== Orthography ===
==== Alphabet ====
The Esperanto alphabet is based on the Latin script, using a one-sound-one-letter principle, with the exception of [d͡z]. It includes six letters with diacritics: five with circumflexes (⟨ĉ⟩, ⟨ĝ⟩, ⟨ĥ⟩, ⟨ĵ⟩, and ⟨ŝ⟩), and one with a breve (⟨ŭ⟩). The alphabet does not include the letters ⟨q⟩, ⟨w⟩, ⟨x⟩, or ⟨y⟩, which are only used in the writing of proper names and unassimilated borrowings.
The 28-letter alphabet is:
==== Phonology ====
All letters lacking diacritics are pronounced approximately as their respective IPA symbols, with the exception of ⟨c⟩.
The letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨c⟩ are used in a way that is familiar to speakers of many Central and Eastern European languages, but may be unfamiliar to English speakers. ⟨j⟩ has the sound of English ⟨y⟩, as in yellow and boy (Esperanto jes has the same pronunciation as its English cognate yes), and ⟨c⟩ has a "ts" sound, as in hits or the ⟨zz⟩ in pizza. In addition, the ⟨g⟩ in Esperanto is always 'hard', as in gift. Esperanto makes use of the five-vowel system, essentially identical to the vowels of Spanish and Modern Greek.
The accented letters are:
⟨ĉ⟩ is pronounced like English ch in chatting
⟨ĝ⟩ is pronounced like English g in gem
⟨ĥ⟩ is pronounced like the ch in German or Scottish English loch.
⟨ĵ⟩ is pronounced like the s in English fusion or the j in French Jacques
⟨ŝ⟩ is pronounced like English sh.
⟨ŭ⟩ in ⟨aŭ⟩ is pronounced like English ow in cow.
According to one of Zamenhof's entries in the Lingvaj respondoj, the letter ⟨n⟩ ought to be pronounced as [n] in all cases, but a rendering as [ŋ] is admissible before ⟨g⟩, ⟨k⟩, and ⟨ĥ⟩.
==== Diacritics and Substitutions ====
Even with the widespread adoption of Unicode, the letters with diacritics (found in the "Latin-Extended A" section of the Unicode Standard) can cause problems with printing and computing, because they are not found on most physical keyboards and are left out of certain fonts.
There are two principal workarounds to this problem, which substitute digraphs for the accented letters. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an "h-convention", which replaces ⟨ĉ⟩, ⟨ĝ⟩, ⟨ĥ⟩, ⟨ĵ⟩, ⟨ŝ⟩, and ⟨ŭ⟩ with ⟨ch⟩, ⟨gh⟩, ⟨hh⟩, ⟨jh⟩, ⟨sh⟩, and ⟨u⟩, respectively. The main issue with this convention is its ambiguity: If used in a database, a program could not easily determine whether to render, for example, ⟨ch⟩ as /c/ followed by /h/ or as /ĉ/. Such words do exist in Esperanto: could not be rendered unambiguously, unless its component parts were intentionally separated, as in senc·hava. A more recent "x-convention" has also gained prominence with the advent of computing, utilizing an otherwise absent ⟨x⟩ to produce the digraphs ⟨cx⟩, ⟨gx⟩, ⟨hx⟩, ⟨jx⟩, ⟨sx⟩, and ⟨ux⟩; this has the incidental advantage of alphabetizing correctly in most cases, since the only letter after ⟨x⟩ is ⟨z⟩.
There are computer keyboard layouts that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically replaces x- or h-convention digraphs with the corresponding diacritic letters (for example, for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, for Windows Phone, and Gboard and AnySoftKeyboard for Android).
On Linux, the GNOME, Cinnamon, and KDE desktop environments support the entry of characters with Esperanto diacritics.
=== Vocabulary ===
The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by , published by Zamenhof in 1887. This book listed 917 roots; these could be expanded into tens of thousands of words using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, , which had a larger set of roots. The rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recommended, however, that speakers use most international forms and then derive related meanings from these.
Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily (but not solely) from the European languages. Not all proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do, especially technical and scientific terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots; "computer", for instance, is formed from the verb "compute" and the suffix "tool". Words are also calqued; that is, words acquire new meanings based on usage in other languages. For example, the word "mouse" has acquired the meaning of a computer mouse from its usage in many languages (English mouse, French souris, Dutch muis, Spanish ratón, etc.). Esperanto speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether meaning can be expressed by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.
Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are not entirely straightforward; for example, , literally "give out", means "publish", paralleling the usage of certain European languages (such as German , Dutch , Russian ). In addition, the suffix -um- has no defined meaning; words using the suffix must be learned separately (such as "to the right" and "clockwise").
There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto, as these forms of speech tend to make international communication difficult—working against Esperanto's main goal. The language contains several calques of Polish expressions.
Instead of derivations of Esperanto roots, new roots are taken from European languages in the endeavor to create an international language.
=== Grammar ===
Esperanto words are mostly derived by stringing together roots, grammatical endings, and at times prefixes and suffixes. This process is regular so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood. Compound words are formed with a modifier-first, head-final order, as in English (compare "birdsong" and "songbird", and likewise, and ). Speakers may optionally insert an o between the words in a compound noun if placing them together directly without the o would make the resulting word hard to say or understand.
The different parts of speech are marked by their own suffixes: all common nouns are marked with the suffix , all adjectives with , all derived adverbs with , and all verbs except the jussive (or imperative) and infinitive end in , specifically in one of six tense and mood suffixes, such as the present tense ; the jussive mood, which is tenseless, ends in . Nouns and adjectives have two cases: nominative for grammatical subjects and in general, and accusative for direct objects and (after a preposition) to indicate direction of movement.
Singular nouns used as grammatical subjects end in , plural subject nouns in (pronounced [oi̯] like English "oy"). Singular direct object forms end in , and plural direct objects with the combination ([oi̯n]; rhymes with "coin"): indicates that the word is a noun, indicates the plural, and indicates the accusative (direct object) case. Adjectives agree with their nouns; their endings are singular subject ([a]; rhymes with "ha!"), plural subject ([ai̯], pronounced "eye"), singular object , and plural object ([ai̯n]; rhymes with "fine").
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The suffix , besides indicating the direct object, is used to indicate movement and a few other things as well.
The six verb inflections consist of three tenses and three moods. They are present tense , future tense , past tense , infinitive mood , conditional mood and jussive mood (used for wishes and commands). Verbs are not marked for person or number. Thus, means "to sing", means "I sing", means "you sing", and means "they sing".
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Word order is comparatively free. Adjectives may precede or follow nouns; subjects, verbs and objects may occur in any order. However, the article "the", demonstratives such as "that" and prepositions (such as "at") must come before their related nouns. Similarly, the negative "not" and conjunctions such as "and" and "that" must precede the phrase or clause that they introduce. In copular (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as in English: "people are animals" is distinguished from "animals are people".
=== Simple phrases ===
Listed below are some useful Esperanto words and phrases along with IPA transcriptions:
=== Sample texts ===
The following short extract gives an idea of the character of Esperanto:
Esperanto:
«»
English translation:
In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world. At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural creature. Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolized the absolute authority of a feudal emperor. The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his personal possessions carried the name "dragon" and were decorated with various dragon figures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China, and legends about dragons circulate.
== Education ==
Esperanto speakers learn the language through self-directed study, online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers. More recently, free teaching websites like and have become available.
Esperanto instruction is rarely available at schools, including four primary schools in a pilot project under the supervision of the University of Manchester, and by one count at a few universities. However, outside China and Hungary, these mostly involve informal arrangements, rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship. Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest had a department of Interlinguistics and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors. Additionally, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poland offers a diploma in Interlinguistics. The Senate of Brazil passed a bill in 2009 that would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in public schools, although mandatory if there is demand for it. , the bill is still under consideration by the Chamber of Deputies.
In the United States, Esperanto is notably offered as a weekly evening course at Stanford University's Bechtel International Center. Conversational Esperanto, The International Language, is a free drop-in class that is open to Stanford students and the general public on campus during the academic year. With administrative permission, Stanford students can take the class for two credits a quarter through the Linguistics Department.
Esperanto-USA suggests that Esperanto can be learned in, at most, one quarter of the amount of time required for other languages.
=== The Zagreb method ===
The Zagreb method is an Esperanto teaching method that was developed in the city of Zagreb in the late 1970s to early 1980s as a response to the unsatisfactory learning outcomes of traditional natural-language teaching techniques when used for Esperanto. Its goal was to streamline the material in order to equip learners with practical knowledge that could be put to use in as short a time frame as possible. It is now implemented and available on some of the well-known learning websites in the community.
=== Third-language acquisition ===
From 2006 to 2011, four primary schools in Britain, with 230 pupils, followed a course in "propaedeutic Esperanto"—that is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness, and to accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages—under the supervision of the University of Manchester. As they put it,
Many schools used to teach children the recorder, not to produce a nation of recorder players, but as a preparation for learning other instruments. [We teach] Esperanto, not to produce a nation of Esperanto-speakers, but as a preparation for learning other languages.
The results showed that the pupils achieved enhanced metalinguistic awareness, though the study did not indicate whether a course in a language other than Esperanto would have led to similar results. Similar studies have been conducted in New Zealand, the United States, England, and Germany. Many of these experiments' findings were compromised by unclear objectives, brief or anecdotal reporting, and a lack of methodological rigor. However, the results of these studies were consistently favorable, and suggested that studying Esperanto before another foreign language expedites the acquisition of the other, natural language.
== Community ==
=== Geography and demography ===
Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken constructed language in the world. Speakers are most numerous in Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas, where they often form Esperanto clubs. Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and central countries of Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia; and in Togo in Africa.
Countering a common criticism against Esperanto, the statistician Svend Nielsen has found no significant correlation between the number of Esperanto speakers and the similarity of a given national native language to Esperanto. He concludes that Esperanto tends to be more popular in rich countries with widespread Internet access and a tendency to contribute more to science and culture. Linguistic diversity within a country was found to have no, or perhaps a slightly reductive, correlation with Esperanto popularity.
==== Number of speakers ====
An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by Sidney S. Culbert, a retired psychology professor at the University of Washington and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at Foreign Service Level 3, "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.). Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of more than one million speakers, published annually in the World Almanac and Book of Facts. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff. Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.
In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number of Esperanto speakers is shown as two million. This latter figure appears in Ethnologue. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language. Although it does not meet Zamenhof's goal of a universal language, it still represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language.
Marcus Sikosek (now Ziko van Dijk) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of Cologne. Van Dijk finds only 30 fluent speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members. to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:
1,000 have Esperanto as their native family language.
10,000 speak it fluently.
100,000 can use it actively.
One million understand a large amount passively.
Ten million have studied it to some extent at some time.
In 2017, doctoral student Svend Nielsen estimated around 63,000 Esperanto speakers worldwide, taking into account association memberships, user-generated data from Esperanto websites and census statistics. This number, however, was disputed by statistician Sten Johansson, who questioned the reliability of the source data and highlighted a wide margin of error, the latter point with which Nielsen agrees. Both have stated, however, that this new number is likely more realistic than some earlier projections.
==== Native speakers ====
Native Esperanto speakers () have learned the language from birth from Esperanto-speaking parents. This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes occurs in a family of Esperanto speakers who often use the language. As of 1996, according to Corsetti, there were approximately 350 attested cases of families with native Esperanto speakers (which means there were around 700 Esperanto speaking natives in these families, not accounting for older native speakers). The 2022 edition of Ethnologue gives 1,000 L1 users citing Corsetti et al 2004.
=== Culture ===
Esperantists participate in an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature. There are more than 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed Esperanto magazines. In 2013, a museum about Esperanto opened in China. Esperantists use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the or to develop pen pals through .
Every year, Esperantists meet for the World Congress of Esperanto ().
Historically, much music has been written in the language such as . There is also a variety of classical and semi-classical choral music, both original and translated, as well as large ensemble music that includes voices singing Esperanto texts. Lou Harrison, who incorporated styles and instruments from many world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works, most notably (1973). David Gaines used Esperanto poems as well as an excerpt from a speech by Zamenhof for his Symphony No. One (Esperanto) for mezzo-soprano and orchestra (1994–98). He wrote original Esperanto text for his (I Can Cry No Longer) for unaccompanied SATB choir (1994).
There are also shared traditions, such as Zamenhof Day, celebrated on December 15. Esperantists speak primarily in Esperanto at special conventions, including the World Esperanto Congress but also more local conventions, held for instance where three or more national languages meet.
Proponents of Esperanto, such as Humphrey Tonkin, a professor at the University of Hartford, argue that Esperanto is "culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture". The late Scottish Esperanto author William Auld wrote extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is "the expression of a common human culture, unencumbered by national frontiers. Thus it is considered a culture on its own." Critics have argued that the language is eurocentric, as it draws much of its vocabulary from European languages. Poland added Esperanto to its list of intangible cultural heritage in 2014.
=== Notable authors in Esperanto ===
Muztar Abbasi (translated the Quran into Esperanto)
William Auld
Julio Baghy
Kazimierz Bein ()
Marjorie Boulton
Jorge Camacho
Fernando de Diego (mainly translations)
Vasili Eroshenko
Jean Forge
Antoni Grabowski
Kálmán Kalocsay
Anna Löwenstein
Kenji Miyazawa (translated his pre-existing works into Esperanto)
Nikolai Nekrasov
István Nemere
Claude Piron
Edmond Privat
Frederic Pujulà i Vallès
Baldur Ragnarsson
Reto Rossetti
Raymond Schwartz
Tibor Sekelj
Tivadar Soros
Spomenka Štimec
Éva Tófalvy
Vladimir Varankin
Gaston Waringhien
L. L. Zamenhof
Þórbergur Þórðarson
=== Popular culture ===
In the futuristic novel Lord of the World by Robert Hugh Benson, Esperanto is presented as the predominant language of the world, much as Latin is the language of the Church. A reference to Esperanto appears in the science-fiction story War with the Newts by Karel Čapek, published in 1936. As part of a passage on what language the salamander-looking creatures with human cognitive ability should learn, it is noted that "...in the Reform schools, Esperanto was taught as the medium of communication." (p. 206).
Esperanto has been used in many films and novels. Typically, this is done either to add the exotic flavour of a foreign language without representing any particular ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language. The Charlie Chaplin film The Great Dictator (1940) showed Jewish ghetto shop signs in Esperanto. Two full-length feature films have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto: , in 1964, and Incubus, a 1965 B-movie horror film which is also notable for starring William Shatner shortly before he began working on Star Trek. In Captain Fantastic (2016) there is a dialogue in Esperanto. The 1994 film Street Fighter contains Esperanto dialogue spoken by the character Sagat. Finally, Mexican film director Alfonso Cuarón has publicly shown his fascination for Esperanto, going as far as naming his film production company Esperanto Filmoj ("Esperanto Films").
=== Science ===
In 1921 the French Academy of Sciences recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication.
A message in Esperanto was recorded and included in Voyager 1s Golden Record.
=== Commerce and trade ===
Esperanto business groups have been active for many years. Research conducted in the 1920s by the French Chamber of Commerce and reported in The New York Times suggested that Esperanto seemed to be the best business language.
The privacy-oriented cryptocurrency Monero takes its name from the Esperanto word for coin.
=== Goals of the movement ===
Zamenhof had three goals, as he wrote already in 1887: to create an easy language, to create a language ready to use "whether the language be universally accepted or not" and to find some means to get many people to learn the language. Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations.
There are two kinds of finvenkismo: desubismo aims to spread Esperanto between ordinary people (desube, from below) to form a steadily growing community of Esperanto speakers, while desuprismo aims to act from above (desupre), beginning with politicians.
Zamenhof considered the first way more plausible, as "for such affairs as ours, governments come with their approval and help usually only when everything is completely ready".
Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called , from Rauma, Finland, where a declaration on the short-term improbability of the and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980. However the "Manifesto de Raŭmo" clearly mentions the intention to further spread the language: "We want to spread Esperanto to put into effect its positive values more and more, step by step".
In 1996 the Prague Manifesto was adopted at the annual congress of the Universal Esperanto Association (UEA); it was subscribed by individual participants and later by other Esperanto speakers. More recently, language-learning apps like Duolingo and Amikumu have helped to increase the amount of fluent speakers of Esperanto, and find others in their area to speak the language with.
=== Symbols and flags ===
The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white canton, upon a field of green. It was proposed to Zamenhof by Richard Geoghegan, author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887. The flag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer.
The green star on white () is also used by itself as a round (buttonhole, etc.) emblem by many esperantists, among other reasons to enhance their visibility outside the Esperanto world.
A version with an E superimposed over the green star is sometimes seen.
Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white Christian cross superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with the color of the field changed from green to red.
In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language.
It featured a white background with two stylised curved "E"s facing each other.
Dubbed the (jubilee symbol), it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the (melon) for its elliptical shape.
It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the (green star).
=== Politics ===
Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political situations.
The most popular of these is the Europe–Democracy–Esperanto, which aims to establish Esperanto as the official language of the European Union.
Grin's Report, published in 2005 by François Grin, found that the use of English as the lingua franca within the European Union costs billions annually and significantly benefits English-speaking countries financially.
The report considered a scenario where Esperanto would be the lingua franca, and found that it would have many advantages, particularly economically speaking, as well as ideologically.
Left-wing currents exist in the wider Esperanto world, mostly organized through the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda founded by French theorist Eugène Lanti.
Other notable Esperanto socialists include Nikolai Nekrasov and Vladimir Varankin, both of whom were put to death in October 1938 during the Stalinist repressions. Nekrasov was accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists."
=== Religion ===
==== Oomoto ====
The Oomoto religion encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits.
==== Baháʼí Faith ====
The Baháʼí Faith encourages the use of an auxiliary international language. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá praised the ideal of Esperanto, and there was an affinity between Esperantists and Baháʼís during the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Lidia Zamenhof, daughter of L. L. Zamenhof, became a Baháʼí around 1925. James Ferdinand Morton Jr., an early member of the Baháʼí Faith in Greater Boston, was vice-president of the Esperanto League for North America. Ehsan Yarshater, the founding editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, notes how as a child in Iran he learned Esperanto and that when his mother was visiting Haifa on a Baháʼí pilgrimage he wrote her a letter in Persian as well as Esperanto. At the request of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Agnes Baldwin Alexander became an early advocate of Esperanto and used it to spread the Baháʼí teachings at meetings and conferences in Japan.
Today there exists an active sub-community of Baháʼí Esperantists and various volumes of Baháʼí literature have been translated into Esperanto. In 1973, the Baháʼí Esperanto-League for active Baháʼí supporters of Esperanto was founded. The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of Spiritism's basic books, and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.
William T. Stead, a famous spiritualist and occultist in the United Kingdom, co-founded the first Esperanto club in the U.K.
==== Theosophy ====
The Teozofia Esperanta Ligo (Theosophical Esperantist League) was formed in 1911, and the organization's journal, Espero Teozofia, was published from 1913 to 1928. Since then, the Dutch Remonstrant pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the Deuterocanonical or apocryphal books, in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh. These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in , but the Deuterocanonical books have appeared in recent editions of the Londona Biblio.
==== Christianity ====
Christian Esperanto organizations and publications include:
After a failed attempt to start a Catholic Esperanto organization, Emile Peltier, a parish priest near Tours, France, published the first issue of Espero Katolika (Catholic Hope) in 1902. A year after Peltier's death, the International Union of Catholic Esperantists (Internacia Katolika Unuiĝo Esperantista, IKUE) was formed in 1910. Two Roman Catholic popes, John Paul II and Benedict XVI, have regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994.
In 1911, The International League of Christian Esperantists (, KELI) was founded during the Universal Congress of Esperanto in Antwerp. The founder, Paul Hübner (1881-1970), was an early supporter of the Nazi movement, a fact which disenfranchised liberal and Jewish members, thus severely limiting the growth of the KELI during the first half of the 20th century.
The Quaker Esperanto Society (, KES) was established in 1921 and described in multiple issues of "The Friend" Advices and Queries (Konsiloj kaj Demandoj) and several other Quaker texts have been translated. Well-known Esperantists who were also Quakers include authors and historians, Edmond Privat and Montagu Christie Butler.
The first Christadelphian publications in Esperanto were published in 1910.
Chick Publications, a publisher of Protestant fundamentalist-themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of comic book–style tracts by Jack T. Chick translated into Esperanto, including "This Was Your Life!" ("")
The Book of Mormon has been partially translated into Esperanto, although the translation has not been officially endorsed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. There exists a group of Latter-day Saint Esperantists who distribute church literature in the language.
There are instances of Christian apologists and teachers using Esperanto as a medium. Nigerian pastor Bayo Afolaranmi's "Spirita nutraĵo" ("spiritual food") Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted weekly messages since 2003.
==== Islam ====
Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds. After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international lingua franca, it began to be used in the seminaries of Qom. An Esperanto translation of the Qur'an was published by the state shortly thereafter.
== Modifications ==
Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of (Foundation of Esperanto), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with Zamenhof's proposals in 1894 and Ido in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as Universal, Saussure, Romániço, Internasia, Esperanto sen Fleksio, and Mundolingvo, were all based on Esperanto.
In modern times, conscious attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language, such as Riism. Many words with now have alternative spellings with and occasionally , so that may also be spelled ; see Esperanto phonology for further details of replacement. Reforms aimed at altering country names have also resulted in a number of different options, either due to disputes over suffixes or Eurocentrism in naming various countries.
=== Criticism of modification ===
J. R. R. Tolkien wrote in support of the language in a 1932 British Esperantist article, but criticised those who sought to adapt or "tinker" with the language, which, in his opinion, harmed unanimity and the goal of achieving wide acceptance.
== Criticism ==
There have been numerous objections to Esperanto over the years. For example, there has been criticism that Esperanto is not neutral enough, but also that it should convey a specific culture, which would make it less neutral; that Esperanto does not draw on a wide enough selection of the world's languages, but also that it should be more narrowly European.
===Language-neutrality===
Esperantists often argue for Esperanto as a culturally neutral means of communication. However, it is often accused of being Eurocentric. A 2010 linguistic typological study concluded that "Esperanto is indeed somewhat European in character, but considerably less so than the European languages themselves."
===Gender-neutrality===
Esperanto is sometimes accused of being inherently sexist, because the default form of some nouns is used for descriptions of men while a derived form is used for the women. This is said to retain traces of the male-dominated society of late 19th-century Europe of which Esperanto is a product. These nouns are primarily titles, such as baron/baroness, and kinship terms, such as sinjoro "Mr, sir" vs. sinjorino "Ms, lady" and patro "father" vs. patrino "mother". Before the movement toward equal rights for women, this also applied to professional roles assumed to be predominantly male, such as doktoro, a holder of a doctorate (male or unspecified), versus doktorino, a female doctorate-holder. This paralleled the contemporary situation with the English suffix -ess, as in the words waiter/waitress, actor/actress, etc.
On the other hand, the pronoun ĝi ("it") may be used generically to mean he/she/they; the pronoun li ("he") is always masculine and ŝi ("she") is always female, despite some authors' arguments.
A gender-neutral singular pronoun ri has gradually become more widely used in recent years, although it is minority usage.
The plural pronoun ili ("they") is always neutral, while nouns with the prefix ge– specifically includes both sexes, for example gesinjoroj (equivalent, depending on context, to either sinjoro kaj sinjorino "Mr. and Ms." or sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj "Ladies and Gentlemen"), gepatroj "parents" (equivalent to patro kaj patrino "mother and father").
===Case and number agreement===
Speakers of languages without grammatical case or adjectival agreement frequently criticise these aspects of Esperanto. In addition, in the past some people found the Classical Greek forms of the plural (nouns in -oj, adjectives in -aj) to be awkward, proposing instead that Italian -i be used for nouns, and that no plural be used for adjectives. These suggestions were adopted by the Ido reform. Because people were reluctant to learn a new language which hardly anyone spoke, Zamenhof asked people to sign a promise to start learning Esperanto once ten million people made the same promise. He "was disappointed to receive only a thousand responses".
However, Zamenhof had the goal to "enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not",
The poet Wisława Szymborska expressed doubt that Esperanto could "produce works of lasting value", saying it is "an artificial language without variety or dialects". Esperantists have replied that "lasting value" is a statement of opinion, and that Esperanto grew "naturally" by the actions of its speakers on Zamenhof's intentionally elementary Fundamento.
== Eponymous entities ==
There are some geographical and astronomical features named after Esperanto, or after its creator L. L. Zamenhof. These include Esperanto Island in Antarctica, and the asteroids 1421 Esperanto and 1462 Zamenhof discovered by Finnish astronomer and Esperantist Yrjö Väisälä.
|
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"Fascist Italy (1922–1943)",
"Zamenhof Day",
"Baháʼí Faith and auxiliary language",
"The New York Times",
"anarchism",
"Adriatic Sea",
"Michael Everson",
"International English",
"Accusative case",
"W. T. Stead",
"canton (flag)",
"Baháʼí literature",
"E",
"Comparison between Esperanto and Novial",
"present tense",
"Stanford University",
"List of Esperanto magazines",
"stop consonant",
"COVID-19 pandemic",
"Linux",
"Ethnologue",
"international auxiliary language",
"Akademio de Esperanto",
"Esperanto flag",
"Novial",
"Julio Baghy",
"semivowel",
"Russian Empire",
"world peace",
"Académie Française",
"autodidacticism",
"Kazimierz Bein",
"Cinnamon (desktop environment)",
"SWR2",
"William Shatner",
"Boulogne-sur-Mer",
"Francoist Spain",
"Gboard",
"Esperantujo",
"Reformed Esperanto",
"Soviet Union",
"Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto",
"M",
"Anna Löwenstein",
"Ĵ",
"International auxiliary language",
"Unua Libro",
"UNESCO",
"J. R. R. Tolkien",
"nasal consonant",
"Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań",
"Condominium (international law)",
"World War I",
"Esperanto manual alphabet",
"The Boston Globe",
"Bible",
"Cologne, Germany",
"tone (linguistics)",
"Latin script",
"Hungary",
"World Passport",
"Fernando de Diego",
"past tense",
"War with the Newts",
"Encyclopædia Britannica",
"Togo",
"Captain Fantastic (film)",
"diacritics",
"assimilation (linguistics)",
"Esperanto-USA",
"Esperantist",
"Lernu!",
"Dayton, Nevada",
"Baháʼí Faith in Greater Boston",
"Antoni Grabowski",
"Baháʼí Esperanto-League",
"Linguistic typology",
"information flow",
"Gabriel Hanotaux",
"Public school (government funded)",
"morphology (linguistics)",
"anationalism",
"Nitobe Inazō",
"University of Hartford",
"Spiritist Codification",
"Warsaw ghetto",
"Ŭ",
"YouTube",
"Karel Čapek",
"Republic of Molossia",
"Trill consonant",
"G",
"Incubus (1965 film)",
"Tibor Sekelj",
"Encyclopædia Iranica",
"circumflex",
"ʻAbdu'l-Bahá",
"Qur'an",
"Białystok",
"keyboard layouts",
"Back vowel",
"German language",
"demonstrative",
"infinitive",
"alveolar tap",
"Prague Manifesto (Esperanto)",
"head (linguistics)",
"Unicode Standard",
"Wisława Szymborska",
"American Radio Relay League",
"German invasion of Belgium (1914)",
"David Gaines (composer)",
"B-movie",
"Subject–verb–object word order",
"Digraph (orthography)",
"Antwerp",
"elided",
"agglutination",
"Ido (language)",
"SATB",
"Stress (linguistics)",
"Europe–Democracy–Esperanto",
"Droshky",
"Velar consonant",
"La Espero",
"Ismael Gomes Braga",
"phonology",
"Claude Piron",
"Arcaicam Esperantom",
"Pope John Paul II",
"homestay",
"Unicode",
"Part of speech",
"Volapük",
"Nazism",
"Project Gutenberg",
"Esperantology",
"Noun",
"direct object",
"Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino",
"calque",
"1421 Esperanto",
"Past tense",
"British and Foreign Bible Society",
"Esperanto Island",
"suffix",
"International Union of Catholic Esperantists",
"Opposing force",
"prefix",
"Z",
"Universal (Esperantido)",
"Voiced uvular fricative",
"lernu!",
"Mac OS X",
"University of Kansas",
"Esperanto as an international language",
"Greek language",
"Nazi Germany",
"Anarchism in Spain",
"Éva Tófalvy",
"Baháʼí Faith",
"United States Army",
"U",
"official languages of the UN",
"Baháʼí pilgrimage",
"Christadelphian",
"League of Nations",
"Finns",
"Soviet Esperantist Union",
"technical terminology",
"adjective",
"Lower case",
"Vocational university",
"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic",
"Finvenkismo",
"Red flag (politics)",
"Esperantic Studies Foundation",
"Jussive mood",
"International Academy of Sciences San Marino",
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"Eurocentrism",
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"United States",
"H",
"German Catholics' Peace Association",
"The Dong-a Ilbo",
"Jorge Camacho (writer)",
"the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
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"A posteriori language",
"Oomoto",
"William Auld",
"Gaston Waringhien",
"Ziko van Dijk",
"psychology",
"Zagreb",
"China Internet Information Center",
"accusative case",
"International League of Christian Esperantists",
"England",
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"J",
"Interlingua",
"isolating languages",
"grammatical subject",
"Reinhard Selten",
"Fricative consonant",
"Grammatical mood",
"Montagu C. Butler",
"Charlie Chaplin",
"phrase",
"textbook",
"Qom",
"Quran",
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"Christian cross",
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"Alfonso Cuarón",
"Gulag",
"Standard Average European",
"Dr. Esperanto's International Language",
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"Aryanization",
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"Vladimir Varankin",
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"Esperanto jubilee symbol",
"Yandex Translate",
"Failure Magazine",
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"article (grammar)",
"calques",
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"François Grin",
"Ĥ",
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights",
"Morphological derivation",
"jussive mood",
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"Contents of the Voyager Golden Record",
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"verb",
"S",
"hyperbaton",
"October Revolution",
"grammar",
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"František Lorenz",
"Treaty of Versailles",
"cryptocurrency",
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"Edmond Privat",
"Lord of the World",
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] |
9,251 |
Engineering
|
Engineering is systems and structures designed by using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve already existing engineering systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure, machinery, vehicles, electronics, materials, and energy systems.
The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis for applications of mathematics and science. See glossary of engineering.
The word engineering is derived from the Latin .
==Definition==
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (the predecessor of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology aka ABET) has defined "engineering" as:
==History==
Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer, which itself dates back to the 14th century when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine) referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin (), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."
Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology. The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia , The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC). The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC.
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep. The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.
Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy. Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation. Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns. Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC. Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.
Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, an early known mechanical analog computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.
Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, the trireme, the ballista and the catapult, the trebuchet by Chinese circa 6th-5th century BCE.
===Middle Ages===
The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD. The earliest practical steam-powered machine was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.
The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD, and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century, both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.
The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.
Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clockmakers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.
Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.
John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency. Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels. Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training. These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process, patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible. New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century.
One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who built railroads, dockyards and steamships.
The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine, which is considered the first machine tool. Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe, milling machine, turret lathe and the metal planer. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century.
The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.
The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from the use of fire. Important elements of modern materials science were products of the Space Race; the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors, and biomaterials.
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.
==Main branches of engineering==
Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having five main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, materials science and engineering, and mechanical engineering.
===Chemical engineering===
Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.
===Civil engineering===
Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying. It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering.
===Electrical engineering===
Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering, electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, control systems, and electronics.
=== Materials science and engineering ===
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field of researching and discovering materials. Materials engineering is an engineering field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries. Materials science incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world created dedicated schools for its study. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (processing) influences its structure, and thus the material's properties and performance. The understanding of processing -structure-properties relationships is called the materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of research areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials, and metallurgy.
===Mechanical engineering===
Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics.
==Interdisciplinary engineering==
Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical, geological, textile, industrial, and nuclear engineering. These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering.
== Other branches of engineering ==
=== Aerospace engineering ===
Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft, satellites and rockets.
===Bioengineering===
Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs.
=== Computer engineering ===
Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering.
=== Geological engineering ===
Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering, environmental engineering, and mining engineering. Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. tunnels), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation, mining excavations, and natural resource exploration.
=== Marine engineering ===
Marine engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports.
==Practice==
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated Engineering Representative.
==Methodology==
In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.
If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.
Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.
===Problem solving===
Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a particular problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.
More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the different design choices have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service. For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of the arms industry, will not harm people. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering. It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence. Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product. The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.
===Computer use===
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management (PLM).
==Social context==
The engineering profession engages in a range of activities, from collaboration at the societal level, and smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to a funding source: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The types of engineering that are less constrained by such a funding source, are pro bono, and open-design engineering.
Engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior. Most products and constructions used by modern society, are influenced by engineering. Engineering activities have an impact on the environment, society, economies, and public safety.
Engineering projects can be controversial. Examples from different engineering disciplines include: the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.
The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.
Overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers, to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. Some charitable organizations use engineering directly for development:
Engineers Without Borders
Engineers Against Poverty
Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
Engineers for a Sustainable World
Engineering for Change
Engineering Ministries International
Engineering companies in more developed economies face challenges with regard to the number of engineers being trained, compared with those retiring. This problem is prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status. There are negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues. It is agreed the engineering profession faces an "image crisis". The UK holds the most engineering companies compared to other European countries, together with the United States.
===Code of ethics===
Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. The National Society of Professional Engineers code of ethics states:
In Canada, engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.
==Relationships with other disciplines==
===Science===
There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It, Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology. Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology. For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics. Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training. Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work. But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of engineering physics and applied physics are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.
An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:
Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.
===Medicine and biology===
The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers. The fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.
The heart for example functions much like a pump, the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers, the brain produces electrical signals etc. These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design. Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic. At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.
Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.
===Business===
Business engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and change management. Engineering management or "Management engineering" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector. The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will develop industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as certified management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical and electronics, power distribution and generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives.
===Other fields===
In political science, the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Marketing engineering and financial engineering have similarly borrowed the term.
|
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9,252 |
Education
|
Education is the transmission of knowledge and skills and the development of character traits. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools, following a curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside the formal schooling system, while informal education involves unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education, and on subjects, such as science education, language education, and physical education. Additionally, the term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena.
The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms, equipping them with the skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations, such as UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.
Many factors influence the success of education. Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often associated with discrimination. Other factors encompass access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement.
The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies. It delves into the nature of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses various subfields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. Additionally, it explores topics such as comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education.
In prehistory, education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation. With the emergence of ancient civilizations, the invention of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy. In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance, paving the way for the global movement to provide primary education to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.
== Definitions ==
The term "education" originates from the Latin words , meaning "to bring up," and , meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning. Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices.
Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including imparting knowledge and understanding to the student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share a set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent.
Evaluative or thick conceptions of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives, which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally, and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty.
Various scholars emphasize the importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination. They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices.
Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of the teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It is also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems.
== Types ==
There are several classifications of education. One classification depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age and the complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding.
=== Formal, non-formal, and informal ===
The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education is usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age.
Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring, fitness classes, and participation in the scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing a dish together.
Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools, non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation, driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from the enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category.
In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom, and adults commonly assumed the role of educators. However, informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There was a greater emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating specific behaviors.
=== Levels ===
Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education, maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as the student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).
Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses the period from birth until the commencement of primary school. It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development, while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for the transition to primary education. While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.
Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in subjects such as history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. Another objective is to facilitate personal development. Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such schools.
Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school, senior high school, or college, depending on the country). Lower secondary education usually requires the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on subject-specific curricula, and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning. In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training. Lower secondary education is compulsory in numerous countries across Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia.
Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary education is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as a high school diploma, is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education. Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which is akin to secondary education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the workforce.
In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education, while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic degree. Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education, is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential known as a bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation. More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.
Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification, a prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of education and entering certain professions. Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet, poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students.
In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost. Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees, leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries, as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks.
=== Others ===
The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered instruction within a structured school environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules.
Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These variances might encompass differences in the learning environment, curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering a more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling. Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools, Waldorf education, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools. Alternative education encompasses indigenous education, which emphasizes the preservation and transmission of knowledge and skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.
Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education. Categories based on the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education. Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities, addressing various impairments on intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels. Its goal is to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also encompasses education for intellectually gifted children, who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.
Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, where the teacher plays a central role in imparting information to students, and student-centered education, where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities, which can indirectly impact the development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best available empirical evidence. This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.
Autodidacticism, or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult education, it offers the freedom to choose what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education, which entails continuous learning throughout one's life.
Categories of education based on the subject encompass science education, language education, art education, religious education, physical education, and sex education. Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education, including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education, wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education initiatives.
State education, also known as public education, is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a form of free education. In contrast, private education is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on the social institutions responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and church.
Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than legal obligation.
== Role in society ==
Education serves various roles in society, spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education establishes and maintains a stable society by imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic, and proficiency in information and communications technology. Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms, shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion, stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays a pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all.
On an economic level, individuals become productive members of society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and providing services to others. In early societies, there was minimal specialization, with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times, obedience to authority is necessary to maintain social stability.
By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty. It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness. Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that benefits society as a whole, with primary education showing particularly high rates of return. Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces unemployment, and promotes social equity. Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates, partly due to heightened awareness of family planning, expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage.
Education plays a pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues, including climate change, sustainability, and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor. By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive towards realizing a more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development. This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation, impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet. As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy, and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities.
On a more individual level, education fosters personal development, encompassing learning new skills, honing talents, nurturing creativity, enhancing self-knowledge, and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies, and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services. The social significance of education is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations, which designated 1970 as the International Education Year.
== Role of institutions ==
Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations, healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in the education sector, such as students, teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.
Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.
International organizations also play a pivotal role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education through various means. One of its activities is advocating for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child, which declares education as a fundamental human right for all children and young people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4. Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.
Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers.
== Factors of educational success ==
Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to the individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other.
=== Psychological ===
On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment. Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining a balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism.
Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education. Intelligence is often closely associated with the concept of IQ, a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics, logic, spatial cognition, language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another.
According to proponents of learning style theory, the preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers.
The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience, identified in the Big Five personality traits, are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.
=== Sociological ===
Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and gender, drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination. Consequently, they play a pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact.
Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income, including financial security, social status, social class, and various attributes related to quality of life. Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate the situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health, contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations.
Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly racist, leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on a child's ethnicity.
Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education. This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects. In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as the severe restrictions imposed on female education by the Taliban in Afghanistan, and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system.
One facet of several social factors is characterized by the expectations linked to stereotypes. These expectations operate externally, influenced by how others respond to individuals belonging to specific groups, and internally, shaped by how individuals internalize and conform to them. In this regard, these expectations can manifest as self-fulfilling prophecies by affecting the educational outcomes they predict. Such outcomes may be influenced by both positive and negative stereotypes.
=== Technology and others ===
Technology plays a crucial role in educational success. While educational technology is often linked with modern digital devices such as computers, its scope extends far beyond that. It encompasses a diverse array of resources and tools for learning, including traditional aids like books and worksheets, in addition to digital devices.
Educational technology can enhance learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often serves as the primary source of information in the classroom, allowing teachers to allocate their time and energy to other tasks such as lesson planning, student guidance, and performance assessment. By presenting information using graphics, audio, and video instead of mere text, educational technology can also enhance comprehension. Interactive elements, such as educational games, further engage learners in the learning process. Moreover, technology facilitates the accessibility of educational materials to a wide audience, particularly through online resources, while also promoting collaboration among students and communication with teachers. The integration of artificial intelligence in education holds promise for providing new learning experiences to students and supporting teachers in their work. However, it also introduces new risks related to data privacy, misinformation, and manipulation. Various organizations advocate for student access to educational technologies, including initiatives such as the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.
School infrastructure also plays a crucial role in educational success. It encompasses physical aspects such as the school's location, size, and available facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, appropriate classroom furniture, as well as access to a library and a canteen, all contribute to fostering educational success. Additionally, the quality of teachers significantly impacts student achievement. Skilled teachers possess the ability to motivate and inspire students, and tailor instructions to individual abilities and needs. Their skills depend on their own education, training, and teaching experience. A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the greatest impact on educational success.
Parent involvement also enhances achievement and can increase children's motivation and commitment when they know their parents are invested in their educational endeavors. This often results in heightened self-esteem, improved attendance rates, and more positive behavior at school. Parent involvement covers communication with teachers and other school staff to raise awareness of current issues and explore potential resolutions. Other relevant factors, occasionally addressed in academic literature, encompass historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.
== Education studies ==
The primary field exploring education is known as education studies, also termed education sciences. It seeks to understand how knowledge is transmitted and acquired by examining various methods and forms of education. This discipline delves into the goals, impacts, and significance of education, along with the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that influence it. Education theorists draw insights from various disciplines, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Consequently, some argue that education studies lacks the clear methodological and subject delineations found in disciplines like physics or history. Education studies focuses on academic analysis and critical reflection and differs in this respect from teacher training programs, which show participants how to become effective teachers. Furthermore, it encompasses not only formal education but also explores all forms and facets of educational processes.
Various research methods are utilized to investigate educational phenomena, broadly categorized into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research mirrors the methodologies of the natural sciences, employing precise numerical measurements to collect data from numerous observations and utilizing statistical tools for analysis. Its goal is to attain an objective and impartial understanding. Conversely, qualitative research typically involves a smaller sample size and seeks to gain a nuanced insight into subjective and personal factors, such as individuals' experiences within the educational process. Mixed-methods research aims to integrate data gathered from both approaches to achieve a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data collection methods vary and may include direct observation, test scores, interviews, and questionnaires. Research projects may investigate fundamental factors influencing all forms of education or focus on specific applications, seek solutions to particular problems, or evaluate the effectiveness of educational initiatives and policies.
=== Subfields ===
Education studies encompasses various subfields such as pedagogy, educational research, comparative education, and the philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, and history of education. The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the fundamental assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education. It explores education both as a process and a discipline while seeking to provide precise definitions of its nature and distinctions from other phenomena. Additionally, it delves into the purpose of education, its various types, and the conceptualization of teachers, students, and their relationship. Furthermore, it encompasses educational ethics, which examines the moral implications of education, such as the ethical principles guiding it and how teachers should apply them to specific situations. The philosophy of education boasts a long history and was a subject of discourse in ancient Greek philosophy.
The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used interchangeably with education studies, but in a more specific sense, it refers to the subfield focused on teaching methods. It investigates how educational objectives, such as knowledge transmission or the development of skills and character traits, can be achieved. Pedagogy is concerned with the methods and techniques employed in teaching within conventional educational settings. While some definitions confine it to this context, in a broader sense, it encompasses all forms of education, including teaching methods beyond traditional school environments. In this broader context, it explores how teachers can facilitate learning experiences for students to enhance their understanding of the subject matter and how learning itself occurs.
The psychology of education delves into the mental processes underlying learning, focusing on how individuals acquire new knowledge and skills and experience personal development. It investigates the various factors influencing educational outcomes, how these factors vary among individuals, and the extent to which nature or nurture contribute to these outcomes. Key psychological theories shaping education encompass behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Related disciplines include educational neuroscience and the neurology of education, which explore the neuropsychological processes and changes associated with learning.
The field of sociology of education delves into how education shapes socialization, examining how social factors and ideologies influence access to education and individual success within it. It explores the impact of education on different societal groups and its role in shaping personal identity. Specifically, the sociology of education focuses on understanding the root causes of inequalities, offering insights relevant to education policy aimed at identifying and addressing factors contributing to inequality. Two prominent perspectives within this field are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists posit that education benefits society by preparing individuals for their societal roles, while conflict theorists view education as a tool employed by the ruling class to perpetuate inequalities.
The field of economics of education investigates the production, distribution, and consumption of education. It seeks to optimize resource allocation to enhance education, such as assessing the impact of increased teacher salaries on teacher quality. Additionally, it explores the effects of smaller class sizes and investments in new educational technologies. By providing insights into resource allocation, the economics of education aids policymakers in making decisions that maximize societal benefits. Furthermore, it examines the long-term economic implications of education, including its role in fostering a highly skilled workforce and enhancing national competitiveness. A related area of interest involves analyzing the economic advantages and disadvantages of different educational systems.
Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts education systems. Comparisons can occur from a general perspective or focus on specific factors like social, political, or economic aspects. Often applied to different countries, comparative education assesses the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices, evaluating the consequences of distinct approaches. It can be used to glean insights from other countries on effective education policies and how one's own system may be improved. This practice, known as policy borrowing, presents challenges as policy success can hinge on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A related and contentious topic concerns whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed ones. Other key topics include the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from authoritarian regimes to democracies.
The history of education delves into the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It explores various key processes, their potential causes and effects, and their interrelations.
=== Aims and ideologies ===
A central topic in education studies revolves around how people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Various aims have been proposed, including the acquisition of knowledge and skills, personal development, and the cultivation of character traits. Commonly suggested attributes encompass qualities like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking, along with tendencies to think, feel, and act morally. Scholars diverge on whether to prioritize liberal values such as freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness, or qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.
Some education theorists concentrate on a single overarching purpose of education, viewing more specific aims as means to this end. At a personal level, this purpose is often equated with assisting the student in leading a good life. Societally, education aims to cultivate individuals into productive members of society. There is debate regarding whether the primary aim of education is to benefit the educated individual or society as a whole.
Educational ideologies encompass systems of fundamental philosophical assumptions and principles utilized to interpret, understand, and assess existing educational practices and policies. They address various aspects beyond the aims of education, including the subjects taught, the structure of learning activities, the role of teachers, methods for assessing educational progress, and the design of institutional frameworks and policies. These ideologies are diverse and often interrelated. Teacher-centered ideologies prioritize the role of teachers in imparting knowledge to students, while student-centered ideologies afford students a more active role in the learning process. Process-based ideologies focus on the methods of teaching and learning, contrasting with product-based ideologies, which consider education in terms of the desired outcomes. Conservative ideologies uphold traditional practices, whereas Progressive ideologies advocate for innovation and creativity. Additional categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, pragmatism, as well as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.
=== Learning theories===
Learning theories attempt to elucidate the mechanisms underlying learning. Influential theories include behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism posits that learning entails a modification in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This occurs through the presentation of a stimulus, the association of this stimulus with the desired response, and the reinforcement of this stimulus-response connection. Cognitivism views learning as a transformation in cognitive structures and emphasizes the mental processes involved in encoding, retrieving, and processing information. Constructivism asserts that learning is grounded in the individual's personal experiences and places greater emphasis on social interactions and their interpretation by the learner. These theories carry significant implications for instructional practices. For instance, behaviorists often emphasize repetitive drills, cognitivists may advocate for mnemonic techniques, and constructivists typically employ collaborative learning strategies.
Various theories suggest that learning is more effective when it is based on personal experience. Additionally, aiming for a deeper understanding by connecting new information to pre-existing knowledge is considered more beneficial than simply memorizing a list of unrelated facts. An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget, who outlines four stages of learning through which children progress on their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. These stages correspond to different levels of abstraction, with early stages focusing more on simple sensory and motor activities, while later stages involve more complex internal representations and information processing, such as logical reasoning.
===Teaching methods===
The teaching method pertains to how the content is delivered by the teacher, such as whether group work is employed rather than focusing on individual learning. There is a wide array of teaching methods available, and the most effective one in a given scenario depends on factors like the subject matter and the learner's age and level of competence. This is reflected in modern school systems, which organize students into different classes based on age, competence, specialization, and native language to ensure an effective learning process. Different subjects often employ distinct approaches; for example, language education frequently emphasizes verbal learning, while mathematical education focuses on abstract and symbolic thinking alongside deductive reasoning. One crucial aspect of teaching methodologies is ensuring that learners remain motivated, either through intrinsic factors like interest and curiosity or through external rewards.
The teaching method also includes the utilization of instructional media, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, as well as implementing some form of test or evaluation to gauge learning progress. Educational assessment is the process of documenting the student's knowledge and skills, which can happen formally or informally and may take place before, during, or after the learning activity. Another significant pedagogical element in many modern educational approaches is that each lesson is part of a broader educational framework governed by a syllabus, which often spans several months or years. According to Herbartianism, teaching is broken down into phases. The initial phase involves preparing the student's mind for new information. Subsequently, new ideas are introduced to the learner and then linked to concepts already familiar to them. In later phases, understanding transitions to a more general level beyond specific instances, and the ideas are then applied in practical contexts.
== History ==
The history of education delves into the processes, methods, and institutions entwined with teaching and learning, aiming to elucidate their interplay and influence on educational practices over time.
=== Prehistory ===
Education during prehistory primarily facilitated enculturation, emphasizing practical knowledge and skills essential for daily life, such as food production, clothing, shelter, and safety. Formal schools and specialized instructors were absent, with adults in the community assuming teaching roles, and learning transpiring informally through daily activities, including observation and imitation of elders. In oral societies, storytelling served as a pivotal means of transmitting cultural and religious beliefs across generations. With the advent of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution around 9000 BCE, a gradual educational shift toward specialization ensued, driven by the formation of larger communities and the demand for increasingly intricate artisanal and technical skills.
=== Ancient era ===
Commencing in the 4th millennium BCE and spanning subsequent eras, a pivotal transformation in educational methodologies unfolded with the advent of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China. This breakthrough profoundly influenced the trajectory of education. Writing facilitated the storage, preservation, and dissemination of information, ushering in subsequent advancements such as the creation of educational aids like textbooks and the establishment of institutions such as schools.
Another significant aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary as civilizations evolved and the volume of knowledge expanded, surpassing what informal education could effectively transmit across generations. Teachers assumed specialized roles to impart knowledge, leading to a more abstract educational approach less tied to daily life. Formal education remained relatively rare in ancient societies, primarily accessible to the intellectual elite. It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated with specific professions. Formal education introduced a new teaching paradigm that emphasized discipline and drills over the informal methods prevalent earlier. Two notable achievements of ancient education include the founding of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, often regarded as the earliest institution of higher learning, and the establishment of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt, renowned as one of the ancient world's premier libraries.
=== Medieval era ===
Many facets of education during the medieval period were profoundly influenced by religious traditions. In Europe, the Catholic Church wielded considerable authority over formal education. In the Arab world, the rapid spread of Islam led to various educational advancements during the Islamic Golden Age, integrating classical and religious knowledge and establishing madrasa schools. In Jewish communities, yeshivas emerged as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law. In China, an expansive state educational and examination system, shaped by Confucian teachings, was instituted. As new complex societies emerged in regions like Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan, some adopted existing educational practices, while others developed new traditions.
Additionally, this era witnessed the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research. Prominent among these were the University of Bologna (the world's oldest university in continuous operation), the University of Paris, and Oxford University in Europe. Other influential centers included the Al-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco, Al-Azhar University in Egypt, and the House of Wisdom in Iraq. Another significant development was the formation of guilds, associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who regulated their trades and provided vocational education. Prospective members underwent various stages of training on their journey to mastery.
=== Modern era ===
Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one that was more secular. This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs. The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences. European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives. In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-Confucianism. In the Islamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion. A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population.
These alterations paved the way for the advancement of public education during the 18th and 19th centuries. This era witnessed the establishment of publicly funded schools with the goal of providing education for all, in contrast to previous periods when formal education was primarily delivered by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors. An exception to this trend was the Aztec civilization, where formal education was compulsory for youth across social classes as early as the 14th century. Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.
=== Contemporary era ===
The promotion of public education and universal access to education gained momentum in the 20th and 21st centuries, endorsed by intergovernmental organizations such as the UN. Key initiatives included the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals. These endeavors led to a consistent increase in all forms of education, particularly impacting primary education. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide were not enrolled in school; by 2015, this figure had decreased to 9%.
The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the progress of students. Contemporary examples are the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess language proficiency in non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment, which evaluates education systems across the world based on the performance of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science. Similar shifts impacted teachers, with the establishment of institutions and norms to regulate and oversee teacher training, including certification mandates for teaching in public schools.
Emerging educational technologies have significantly influenced modern education. The widespread availability of computers and the internet has notably expanded access to educational resources and facilitated new forms of learning, such as online education. This became particularly pertinent during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools worldwide closed for prolonged periods, prompting many to adopt remote learning methods through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to sustain instruction. Additionally, contemporary education is impacted by the increasing globalization and internationalization of educational practices.
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9,253 |
Encyclopedia
|
An encyclopedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, in a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are arranged alphabetically by article name or by thematic categories, or else are hyperlinked and searchable. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries. this is unlike dictionary entries, which focus on linguistic information about words, such as their etymology, meaning, pronunciation, use, and grammatical forms.
Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years and have evolved considerably during that time as regards language (written in a major international or a vernacular language), size (few or many volumes), intent (presentation of a global or a limited range of knowledge), cultural perspective (authoritative, ideological, didactic, utilitarian), authorship (qualifications, style), readership (education level, background, interests, capabilities), and the technologies available for their production and distribution (hand-written manuscripts, small or large print runs, Internet). As a valued source of reliable information compiled by experts, printed versions found a prominent place in libraries, schools and other educational institutions.
The appearance of digital and open-source versions in the 21st century, such as Wikipedia (combining with the wiki website format), has vastly expanded the accessibility, authorship, readership, and variety of encyclopedia entries.
==Etymology==
The word encyclopedia comes from the Koine Greek , transliterated , from () and () ; together, the phrase literally translates as . However, the two separate words were reduced to a single word due to a scribal error by copyists of a Latin manuscript edition of Quintillian in 1470. The copyists took this phrase to be a single Greek word, , with the same meaning, and this spurious Greek word became the Neo-Latin word , which was in turn borrowed into English. Because of this compounded word, readers since the fifteenth century have often, and incorrectly, thought that the Roman authors Quintillian and Pliny described an ancient genre. Following Noah Webster's spelling reform, the spelling of the word varies between encyclopedia in American English, encyclopaedia in British English (although the spelling encyclopedia is increasingly gaining acceptance), and encyclopædia in certain specialized cases.
==Characteristics==
The modern encyclopedia evolved from the dictionary in the 18th century; this lineage can be seen in the alphabetical order of print encyclopedias. Historically, both encyclopedias and dictionaries have been compiled by well-educated, well-informed content experts, but they are significantly different in structure. A dictionary is a linguistic work that primarily focuses on an alphabetical listing of words and their definitions. Synonymous words and those related by the subject matter are to be found scattered around the dictionary, giving no obvious place for in-depth treatment. Thus, a dictionary typically provides limited information, analysis or background for the word defined. While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader lacking in understanding the meaning, significance or limitations of a term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge.
To address those needs, an encyclopedia article is typically not limited to simple definitions, and is not limited to defining an individual word, but provides a more extensive meaning for a subject or discipline. In addition to defining and listing synonymous terms for the topic, the article can treat the topic's more extensive meaning in more depth and convey the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject. An encyclopedia article also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography and statistics. Thus encyclopedias may contain material that is also found in dictionaries, and vice versa. a work indebted to Varro (1st century BCE). He compiled a work of 37 chapters covering natural history, architecture, medicine, geography, geology, and all aspects of the world around him. based on hundreds of classical sources, including the . Of the Etymologiae in its time it was said quaecunque fere sciri debentur, "practically everything that it is necessary to know".
== Printed encyclopedias ==
Before the advent of the printing press, encyclopedic works were all hand-copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it. The introduction of printing from Asia allowed a wider diffusion of encyclopedias and every scholar could have his or her copy. Nuremberg Chronicle from 1493 is one of the best-documented early printed books—an incunabulum—and one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text. Both Latin and German editions were printed by Anton Koberger in Nuremberg.The De expetendis et fugiendis rebus by Giorgio Valla was posthumously printed in 1501 by Aldo Manuzio in Venice. This work followed the traditional scheme of liberal arts. However, Valla added the translation of ancient Greek works on mathematics (firstly by Archimedes), newly discovered and translated. The Margarita Philosophica by Gregor Reisch, printed in 1503, was a complete encyclopedia explaining the seven liberal arts.
Financial, commercial, legal, and intellectual factors changed the size of encyclopedias. Middle classes had more time to read and encyclopedias helped them to learn more. Publishers wanted to increase their output so some countries like Germany started selling books missing alphabetical sections, to publish faster. Also, publishers could not afford all the resources by themselves, so multiple publishers would come together with their resources to create better encyclopedias. Later, rivalry grew, causing copyright to occur due to weak underdeveloped laws.
John Harris is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves – to give its full title. Organized alphabetically, its content does indeed contain an explanation not merely of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but of the arts and sciences themselves. Sir Isaac Newton contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710.
=== Encyclopédie ===
=== Encyclopædia Britannica ===
=== Brockhaus Enzyklopädie ===
===Encyclopedias in the United States===
In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the introduction of several large popular encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans. The best known of these were World Book and Funk and Wagnalls. As many as 90% were sold door to door. Jack Lynch says in his book You Could Look It Up that encyclopedia salespeople were so common that they became the butt of jokes. He describes their sales pitch saying, "They were selling not books but a lifestyle, a future, a promise of social mobility." A 1961 World Book ad said, "You are holding your family's future in your hands right now," while showing a feminine hand holding an order form. As of the 1990s, two of the most prominent encyclopedias published in the United States were Collier's Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia Americana.
== Digital encyclopedias ==
=== Physical media ===
By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers. This was the usual way computer users accessed encyclopedic knowledge from the 1980s and 1990s. Later, DVD discs replaced CD-ROMs, and by the mid-2000s, internet encyclopedias were dominant and replaced disc-based software encyclopedias. Other examples of CD-ROM encyclopedia are Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia and Britannica.
Digital encyclopedias enable "Encyclopedia Services" (such as Wikimedia Enterprise) to facilitate programmatic access to the content.
=== Online ===
==== Free encyclopedias ====
The concept of a free encyclopedia began with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet in 1993, which outlined an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content that would be freely accessible. Early projects in this vein included Everything2 and Open Site. In 1999, Richard Stallman proposed the GNUPedia, an online encyclopedia which, similar to the GNU operating system, would be a "generic" resource. The concept was very similar to Interpedia, but more in line with Stallman's GNU philosophy.
It was not until Nupedia and later Wikipedia that a stable free encyclopedia project could be established on the Internet.
The English Wikipedia, which was started in 2001, became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage. By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License. Wikipedia had over 3 million articles in English and well over 10 million combined articles in over 250 languages. Today, Wikipedia has Special:Statistics| articles in English, over 60 million combined articles in over 300 languages, and over 250 million combined pages including project and discussion pages.
Since 2002, other free encyclopedias appeared, including Hudong (2005–) and Baidu Baike (2006–) in Chinese, and Google's Knol (2008–2012) in English. Some MediaWiki-based encyclopedias have appeared, usually under a license compatible with Wikipedia, including Enciclopedia Libre (2002–2021) in Spanish and Conservapedia (2006–), Scholarpedia (2006–), and Citizendium (2007–) in English, the latter of which had become inactive by 2014.
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] |
9,256 |
Enigma machine
|
The Enigma machine is a cipher device developed and used in the early- to mid-20th century to protect commercial, diplomatic, and military communication. It was employed extensively by Nazi Germany during World War II, in all branches of the German military. The Enigma machine was considered so secure that it was used to encipher the most top-secret messages.
The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet. In typical use, one person enters text on the Enigma's keyboard and another person writes down which of the 26 lights above the keyboard illuminated at each key press. If plaintext is entered, the illuminated letters are the ciphertext. Entering ciphertext transforms it back into readable plaintext. The rotor mechanism changes the electrical connections between the keys and the lights with each keypress.
The security of the system depends on machine settings that were generally changed daily, based on secret key lists distributed in advance, and on other settings that were changed for each message. The receiving station would have to know and use the exact settings employed by the transmitting station to decrypt a message.
Although Nazi Germany introduced a series of improvements to the Enigma over the years that hampered decryption efforts, they did not prevent Poland from cracking the machine as early as December 1932 and reading messages prior to and into the war. Poland's sharing of their achievements enabled the Allies to exploit Enigma-enciphered messages as a major source of intelligence. Many commentators say the flow of Ultra communications intelligence from the decrypting of Enigma, Lorenz, and other ciphers shortened the war substantially and may even have altered its outcome.
==History==
The Enigma machine was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I. The German firm Scherbius & Ritter, co-founded by Scherbius, patented ideas for a cipher machine in 1918 and began marketing the finished product under the brand name Enigma in 1923, initially targeted at commercial markets. Early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II.
Several Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, having a plugboard, were the most complex. Japanese and Italian models were also in use. With its adoption (in slightly modified form) by the German Navy in 1926 and the German Army and Air Force soon after, the name Enigma became widely known in military circles. Pre-war German military planning emphasized fast, mobile forces and tactics, later known as blitzkrieg, which depended on radio communication for command and coordination. Since adversaries would likely intercept radio signals, messages had to be protected with secure encipherment. Compact and easily portable, the Enigma machine filled that need.
=== Breaking Enigma ===
Hans-Thilo Schmidt was a German who spied for the French, obtaining access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932. Those keys included the plugboard settings. The French passed the material to Poland. Around December 1932, Marian Rejewski, a Polish mathematician and cryptologist at the Polish Cipher Bureau, used the theory of permutations, and flaws in the German military-message encipherment procedures, to break message keys of the plugboard Enigma machine. Rejewski used the French supplied material and the message traffic that took place in September and October to solve for the unknown rotor wiring. Consequently, the Polish mathematicians were able to build their own Enigma machines, dubbed "Enigma doubles". Rejewski was aided by fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, both of whom had been recruited with Rejewski from Poznań University, which had been selected for its students' knowledge of the German language, since that area was held by Germany prior to World War I. The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, which enabled the Cipher Bureau to read German Enigma messages starting from January 1933.
Over time, the German cryptographic procedures improved, and the Cipher Bureau developed techniques and designed mechanical devices to continue reading Enigma traffic. As part of that effort, the Poles exploited quirks of the rotors, compiled catalogues, built a cyclometer (invented by Rejewski) to help make a catalogue with 100,000 entries, invented and produced Zygalski sheets, and built the electromechanical cryptologic bomba (invented by Rejewski) to search for rotor settings. In 1938 the Poles had six bomby (plural of bomba), but when that year the Germans added two more rotors, ten times as many bomby would have been needed to read the traffic.
On 26 and 27 July 1939, in Pyry, just south of Warsaw, the Poles initiated French and British military intelligence representatives into the Polish Enigma-decryption techniques and equipment, including Zygalski sheets and the cryptologic bomb, and promised each delegation a Polish-reconstructed Enigma (the devices were soon delivered).
In September 1939, British Military Mission 4, which included Colin Gubbins and Vera Atkins, went to Poland, intending to evacuate cipher-breakers Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki, and Henryk Zygalski from the country. The cryptologists, however, had been evacuated by their own superiors into Romania, at the time a Polish-allied country. On the way, for security reasons, the Polish Cipher Bureau personnel had deliberately destroyed their records and equipment. From Romania they traveled on to France, where they resumed their cryptological work, collaborating by teletype with the British, who began work on decrypting German Enigma messages, using the Polish equipment and techniques.
Gordon Welchman, who became head of Hut 6 at Bletchley Park, wrote: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have got off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." The Polish transfer of theory and technology at Pyry formed the crucial basis for the subsequent World War II British Enigma-decryption effort at Bletchley Park, where Welchman worked.
During the war, British cryptologists decrypted a vast number of messages enciphered on Enigma. The intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed "Ultra" by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort.
Though Enigma had some cryptographic weaknesses, in practice it was German procedural flaws, operator mistakes, failure to systematically introduce changes in encipherment procedures, and Allied capture of key tables and hardware that, during the war, enabled Allied cryptologists to succeed.
The Abwehr used different versions of Enigma machines. In November 1942, during Operation Torch, a machine was captured which had no plugboard and the three rotors had been changed to rotate 11, 15, and 19 times rather than once every 26 letters, plus a plate on the left acted as a fourth rotor.
The Abwehr code had been broken on 8 December 1941 by Dilly Knox. Agents sent messages to the Abwehr in a simple code which was then sent on using an Enigma machine. The simple codes were broken and helped break the daily Enigma cipher. This breaking of the code enabled the Double-Cross System to operate.
== Design ==
Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical subsystems. The mechanical subsystem consists of a keyboard; a set of rotating disks called rotors arranged adjacently along a spindle; one of various stepping components to turn at least one rotor with each key press, and a series of lamps, one for each letter. These design features are the reason that the Enigma machine was originally referred to as the rotor-based cipher machine during its intellectual inception in 1915.
=== Electrical pathway ===
An electrical pathway is a route for current to travel. By manipulating this phenomenon the Enigma machine was able to scramble messages.
The repeated changes of electrical path through an Enigma scrambler implement a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that provides Enigma's security. The diagram on the right shows how the electrical pathway changes with each key depression, which causes rotation of at least the right-hand rotor. Current passes into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, and out through the rotors again. The greyed-out lines are other possible paths within each rotor; these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other. The letter A encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to G, and then to C. This is because the right-hand rotor steps (rotates one position) on each key press, sending the signal on a completely different route. Eventually other rotors step with a key press.
=== Rotors ===
The rotors (alternatively wheels or drums, Walzen in German) form the heart of an Enigma machine. Each rotor is a disc approximately in diameter made from Ebonite or Bakelite with 26 brass, spring-loaded, electrical contact pins arranged in a circle on one face, with the other face housing 26 corresponding electrical contacts in the form of circular plates. The pins and contacts represent the alphabet — typically the 26 letters A–Z, as will be assumed for the rest of this description. When the rotors are mounted side by side on the spindle, the pins of one rotor rest against the plate contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, 26 wires connect each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. Most of the rotors are identified by Roman numerals, and each issued copy of rotor I, for instance, is wired identically to all others. The same is true for the special thin beta and gamma rotors used in the M4 naval variant.
By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of encryption, a simple substitution cipher. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter E might be wired to the contact for letter T on the opposite face, and so on. Enigma's security comes from using several rotors in series (usually three or four) and the regular stepping movement of the rotors, thus implementing a polyalphabetic substitution cipher.
Each rotor can be set to one of 26 starting positions when placed in an Enigma machine. After insertion, a rotor can be turned to the correct position by hand, using the grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal Enigma cover when closed. In order for the operator to know the rotor's position, each has an alphabet tyre (or letter ring) attached to the outside of the rotor disc, with 26 characters (typically letters); one of these is visible through the window for that slot in the cover, thus indicating the rotational position of the rotor. In early models, the alphabet ring was fixed to the rotor disc. A later improvement was the ability to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the rotor disc. The position of the ring was known as the Ringstellung ("ring setting"), and that setting was a part of the initial setup needed prior to an operating session. In modern terms it was a part of the initialization vector.
Each rotor contains one or more notches that control rotor stepping. In the military variants, the notches are located on the alphabet ring.
The Army and Air Force Enigmas were used with several rotors, initially three. On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for a given session. Rotors were marked with Roman numerals to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single turnover notches located at different points on the alphabet ring. This variation was probably intended as a security measure, but ultimately allowed the Polish Clock Method and British Banburismus attacks.
The Naval version of the Wehrmacht Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: At first six, then seven, and finally eight. The additional rotors were marked VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches, resulting in more frequent turnover. The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) machine accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner one and by adding a thin fourth rotor. That fourth rotor was one of two types, Beta or Gamma, and never stepped, but could be manually set to any of 26 positions. One of the 26 made the machine perform identically to the three-rotor machine.
=== Stepping ===
To avoid merely implementing a simple (solvable) substitution cipher, every key press caused one or more rotors to step by one twenty-sixth of a full rotation, before the electrical connections were made. This changed the substitution alphabet used for encryption, ensuring that the cryptographic substitution was different at each new rotor position, producing a more formidable polyalphabetic substitution cipher. The stepping mechanism varied slightly from model to model. The right-hand rotor stepped once with each keystroke, and other rotors stepped less frequently.
=== Turnover ===
The advancement of a rotor other than the left-hand one was called a turnover by the British. This was achieved by a ratchet and pawl mechanism. Each rotor had a ratchet with 26 teeth and every time a key was pressed, the set of spring-loaded pawls moved forward in unison, trying to engage with a ratchet. The alphabet ring of the rotor to the right normally prevented this. As this ring rotated with its rotor, a notch machined into it would eventually align itself with the pawl, allowing it to engage with the ratchet, and advance the rotor on its left. The right-hand pawl, having no rotor and ring to its right, stepped its rotor with every key depression.
The design also included a feature known as double-stepping. This occurred when each pawl aligned with both the ratchet of its rotor and the rotating notched ring of the neighbouring rotor. If a pawl engaged with a ratchet through alignment with a notch, as it moved forward it pushed against both the ratchet and the notch, advancing both rotors. In a three-rotor machine, double-stepping affected rotor two only. If, in moving forward, the ratchet of rotor three was engaged, rotor two would move again on the subsequent keystroke, resulting in two consecutive steps. Rotor two also pushes rotor one forward after 26 steps, but since rotor one moves forward with every keystroke anyway, there is no double-stepping. This double-stepping caused the rotors to deviate from odometer-style regular motion.
With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine had a period of 26×25×26 = 16,900 (not 26×26×26, because of double-stepping).
=== Entry wheel ===
The current entry wheel (Eintrittswalze in German), or entry stator, connects the plugboard to the rotor assembly. If the plugboard is not present, the entry wheel instead connects the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to security, it proved an obstacle to Rejewski's progress during his study of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on a QWERTZ keyboard: Q→A, W→B, E→C and so on. The military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: A→A, B→B, C→C, and so on. It took inspired guesswork for Rejewski to penetrate the modification.
=== Reflector ===
With the exception of models A and B, the last rotor came before a 'reflector' (German: Umkehrwalze, meaning 'reversal rotor'), a patented feature and was soon adopted by the Reichsmarine (German Navy). The plugboard contributed more cryptographic strength than an extra rotor, as it had 150 trillion possible settings (see below). Enigma without a plugboard (known as unsteckered Enigma) could be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques were generally defeated by the plugboard, driving Allied cryptanalysts to develop special machines to solve it.
A cable placed onto the plugboard connected letters in pairs; for example, E and Q might be a steckered pair. The effect was to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator pressed E, the signal was diverted to Q before entering the rotors. Up to 13 steckered pairs might be used at one time, although only 10 were normally used.
Current flowed from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeded to the entry-rotor or Eintrittswalze. Each letter on the plugboard had two jacks. Inserting a plug disconnected the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable was inserted into another letter's jacks, thus switching the connections of the two letters.
=== Accessories ===
Other features made various Enigma machines more secure or more convenient.
==== Schreibmax ====
Some M4 Enigmas used the Schreibmax, a small printer that could print the 26 letters on a narrow paper ribbon. This eliminated the need for a second operator to read the lamps and transcribe the letters. The Schreibmax was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel. To install the printer, the lamp cover and light bulbs had to be removed. It improved both convenience and operational security; the printer could be installed remotely such that the signal officer operating the machine no longer had to see the decrypted plaintext.
==== Fernlesegerät ====
Another accessory was the remote lamp panel Fernlesegerät. For machines equipped with the extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. A lamp panel version could be connected afterwards, but that required, as with the Schreibmax, that the lamp panel and light bulbs be removed. Because of the large number of possibilities, users of Enigma were confident of its security; it was not then feasible for an adversary to even begin to try a brute-force attack.
=== Indicator ===
Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. A different initial rotor position was used for each message, a concept similar to an initialisation vector in modern cryptography. The reason is that encrypting many messages with identical or near-identical settings (termed in cryptanalysis as being in depth), would enable an attack using a statistical procedure such as Friedman's Index of coincidence. The starting position for the rotors was transmitted just before the ciphertext, usually after having been enciphered. The exact method used was termed the indicator procedure. Design weakness and operator sloppiness in these indicator procedures were two of the main weaknesses that made cracking Enigma possible.
One of the earliest indicator procedures for the Enigma was cryptographically flawed and allowed Polish cryptanalysts to make the initial breaks into the plugboard Enigma. The procedure had the operator set his machine in accordance with the secret settings that all operators on the net shared. The settings included an initial position for the rotors (the Grundstellung), say, AOH. The operator turned his rotors until AOH was visible through the rotor windows. At that point, the operator chose his own arbitrary starting position for the message he would send. An operator might select EIN, and that became the message setting for that encryption session. The operator then typed EIN into the machine twice, this producing the encrypted indicator, for example XHTLOA. This was then transmitted, at which point the operator would turn the rotors to his message settings, EIN in this example, and then type the plaintext of the message.
At the receiving end, the operator set the machine to the initial settings (AOH) and typed in the first six letters of the message (XHTLOA). In this example, EINEIN emerged on the lamps, so the operator would learn the message setting that the sender used to encrypt this message. The receiving operator would set his rotors to EIN, type in the rest of the ciphertext, and get the deciphered message.
This indicator scheme had two weaknesses. First, the use of a global initial position (Grundstellung) meant all message keys used the same polyalphabetic substitution. In later indicator procedures, the operator selected his initial position for encrypting the indicator and sent that initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was a serious security flaw. The message setting was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. These security flaws enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932. The early indicator procedure was subsequently described by German cryptanalysts as the "faulty indicator technique".
During World War II, codebooks were only used each day to set up the rotors, their ring settings and the plugboard. For each message, the operator selected a random start position, let's say WZA, and a random message key, perhaps SXT. He moved the rotors to the WZA start position and encoded the message key SXT. Assume the result was UHL. He then set up the message key, SXT, as the start position and encrypted the message. Next, he transmitted the start position, WZA, the encoded message key, UHL, and then the ciphertext. The receiver set up the start position according to the first trigram, WZA, and decoded the second trigram, UHL, to obtain the SXT message setting. Next, he used this SXT message setting as the start position to decrypt the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message settings.
This procedure was used by Heer and Luftwaffe only. The Kriegsmarine procedures for sending messages with the Enigma were far more complex and elaborate. Prior to encryption the message was encoded using the Kurzsignalheft code book. The Kurzsignalheft contained tables to convert sentences into four-letter groups. A great many choices were included, for example, logistic matters such as refuelling and rendezvous with supply ships, positions and grid lists, harbour names, countries, weapons, weather conditions, enemy positions and ships, date and time tables. Another codebook contained the Kenngruppen and Spruchschlüssel: the key identification and message key.
=== Additional details ===
The Army Enigma machine used only the 26 alphabet characters. Punctuation was replaced with rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced with an X. The X was generally used as full-stop.
Some punctuation marks were different in other parts of the armed forces. The Wehrmacht replaced a comma with ZZ and the question mark with FRAGE or FRAQ.
The Kriegsmarine replaced the comma with Y and the question mark with UD. The combination CH, as in "Acht" (eight) or "Richtung" (direction), was replaced with Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three and four zeros were replaced with CENTA, MILLE and MYRIA.
The Wehrmacht and the Luftwaffe transmitted messages in groups of five characters and counted the letters.
The Kriegsmarine used four-character groups and counted those groups.
Frequently used names or words were varied as much as possible. Words like Minensuchboot (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT or MMMBOOT. To make cryptanalysis harder, messages were limited to 250 characters. Longer messages were divided into several parts, each using a different message key.
=== Example enciphering process ===
The character substitutions by the Enigma machine as a whole can be expressed as a string of letters with each position occupied by the character that will replace the character at the corresponding position in the alphabet. For example, a given machine configuration that enciphered A to L, B to U, C to S, ..., and Z to J could be represented compactly as
LUSHQOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ
and the enciphering of a particular character by that configuration could be represented by highlighting the enciphered character as in
D > LUS(H)QOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ
Since the operation of an Enigma machine enciphering a message is a series of such configurations, each associated with a single character being enciphered, a sequence of such representations can be used to represent the operation of the machine as it enciphers a message. For example, the process of enciphering the first sentence of the main body of the famous "Dönitz message" to
RBBF PMHP HGCZ XTDY GAHG UFXG EWKB LKGJ
can be represented as
0001 F > KGWNT(R)BLQPAHYDVJIFXEZOCSMU CDTK 25 15 16 26
0002 O > UORYTQSLWXZHNM(B)VFCGEAPIJDK CDTL 25 15 16 01
0003 L > HLNRSKJAMGF(B)ICUQPDEYOZXWTV CDTM 25 15 16 02
0004 G > KPTXIG(F)MESAUHYQBOVJCLRZDNW CDUN 25 15 17 03
0005 E > XDYB(P)WOSMUZRIQGENLHVJTFACK CDUO 25 15 17 04
0006 N > DLIAJUOVCEXBN(M)GQPWZYFHRKTS CDUP 25 15 17 05
0007 D > LUS(H)QOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ CDUQ 25 15 17 06
0008 E > JKGO(P)TCIHABRNMDEYLZFXWVUQS CDUR 25 15 17 07
0009 S > GCBUZRASYXVMLPQNOF(H)WDKTJIE CDUS 25 15 17 08
0010 I > XPJUOWIY(G)CVRTQEBNLZMDKFAHS CDUT 25 15 17 09
0011 S > DISAUYOMBPNTHKGJRQ(C)LEZXWFV CDUU 25 15 17 10
0012 T > FJLVQAKXNBGCPIRMEOY(Z)WDUHST CDUV 25 15 17 11
0013 S > KTJUQONPZCAMLGFHEW(X)BDYRSVI CDUW 25 15 17 12
0014 O > ZQXUVGFNWRLKPH(T)MBJYODEICSA CDUX 25 15 17 13
0015 F > XJWFR(D)ZSQBLKTVPOIEHMYNCAUG CDUY 25 15 17 14
0016 O > FSKTJARXPECNUL(Y)IZGBDMWVHOQ CDUZ 25 15 17 15
0017 R > CEAKBMRYUVDNFLTXW(G)ZOIJQPHS CDVA 25 15 18 16
0018 T > TLJRVQHGUCXBZYSWFDO(A)IEPKNM CDVB 25 15 18 17
0019 B > Y(H)LPGTEBKWICSVUDRQMFONJZAX CDVC 25 15 18 18
0020 E > KRUL(G)JEWNFADVIPOYBXZCMHSQT CDVD 25 15 18 19
0021 K > RCBPQMVZXY(U)OFSLDEANWKGTIJH CDVE 25 15 18 20
0022 A > (F)CBJQAWTVDYNXLUSEZPHOIGMKR CDVF 25 15 18 21
0023 N > VFTQSBPORUZWY(X)HGDIECJALNMK CDVG 25 15 18 22
0024 N > JSRHFENDUAZYQ(G)XTMCBPIWVOLK CDVH 25 15 18 23
0025 T > RCBUTXVZJINQPKWMLAY(E)DGOFSH CDVI 25 15 18 24
0026 Z > URFXNCMYLVPIGESKTBOQAJZDH(W) CDVJ 25 15 18 25
0027 U > JIOZFEWMBAUSHPCNRQLV(K)TGYXD CDVK 25 15 18 26
0028 G > ZGVRKO(B)XLNEIWJFUSDQYPCMHTA CDVL 25 15 18 01
0029 E > RMJV(L)YQZKCIEBONUGAWXPDSTFH CDVM 25 15 18 02
0030 B > G(K)QRFEANZPBMLHVJCDUXSOYTWI CDWN 25 15 19 03
0031 E > YMZT(G)VEKQOHPBSJLIUNDRFXWAC CDWO 25 15 19 04
0032 N > PDSBTIUQFNOVW(J)KAHZCEGLMYXR CDWP 25 15 19 05
where the letters following each mapping are the letters that appear at the windows at that stage (the only state changes visible to the operator) and the numbers show the underlying physical position of each rotor.
The character mappings for a given configuration of the machine are in turn the result of a series of such mappings applied by each pass through a component of the machine: the enciphering of a character resulting from the application of a given component's mapping serves as the input to the mapping of the subsequent component. For example, the 4th step in the enciphering above can be expanded to show each of these stages using the same representation of mappings and highlighting for the enciphered character:
G > ABCDEF(G)HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
P EFMQAB(G)UINKXCJORDPZTHWVLYS AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW
1 OFRJVM(A)ZHQNBXPYKCULGSWETDI N 03 VIII
2 (N)UKCHVSMDGTZQFYEWPIALOXRJB U 17 VI
3 XJMIYVCARQOWH(L)NDSUFKGBEPZT D 15 V
4 QUNGALXEPKZ(Y)RDSOFTVCMBIHWJ C 25 β
R RDOBJNTKVEHMLFCWZAXGYIPS(U)Q c
4 EVTNHQDXWZJFUCPIAMOR(B)SYGLK β
3 H(V)GPWSUMDBTNCOKXJIQZRFLAEY V
2 TZDIPNJESYCUHAVRMXGKB(F)QWOL VI
1 GLQYW(B)TIZDPSFKANJCUXREVMOH VIII
P E(F)MQABGUINKXCJORDPZTHWVLYS AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW
F < KPTXIG(F)MESAUHYQBOVJCLRZDNW
Here the enciphering begins trivially with the first "mapping" representing the keyboard (which has no effect), followed by the plugboard, configured as AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW which has no effect on 'G', followed by the VIII rotor in the 03 position, which maps G to A, then the VI rotor in the 17 position, which maps A to N, ..., and finally the plugboard again, which maps B to F, producing the overall mapping indicated at the final step: G to F.
This model has 4 rotors (lines 1 through 4) and the reflector (line R) also permutes (garbles) letters.
== Models ==
The Enigma family included multiple designs. The earliest were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of security-related changes. Various nations either adopted or adapted the design for their own cipher machines.
An estimated 40,000 Enigma machines were constructed. After the end of World War II, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to developing countries.
=== Commercial Enigma ===
On 23 February 1918, Arthur Scherbius applied for a patent for a ciphering machine that used rotors. Scherbius and E. Richard Ritter founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither agency was interested. Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.
==== Enigma Handelsmaschine (1923) ====
Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine, Enigma Handelsmaschine, which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a typewriter. It measured 65×45×38 cm and weighed about .
==== Schreibende Enigma (1924) ====
This was also a model with a type writer. There were a number of problems associated with the printer and the construction was not stable until 1926. Both early versions of Enigma lacked the reflector and had to be switched between enciphering and deciphering.
==== Glühlampenmaschine, Enigma A (1924) ====
The reflector, suggested by Scherbius' colleague Willi Korn, was introduced with the glow lamp version.
The machine was also known as the military Enigma. It had two rotors and a manually rotatable reflector. The typewriter was omitted and glow lamps were used for output. The operation was somewhat different from later models. Before the next key pressure, the operator had to press a button to advance the right rotor one step.
==== Enigma B (1924) ====
Enigma model B was introduced late in 1924, and was of a similar construction. While bearing the Enigma name, both models A and B were quite unlike later versions: They differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector. This model of Enigma machine was referred to as the Glowlamp Enigma or Glühlampenmaschine since it produced its output on a lamp panel rather than paper. This method of output was much more reliable and cost effective. Hence this machine was 1/8th the price of its predecessor. Soon, the Enigma D would pioneer the use of a standard keyboard layout to be used in German computing. This "QWERTZ" layout is very similar to the American QWERTY keyboard format used in many languages.
===== "Navy Cipher D" =====
Other countries used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as "Navy Cipher D". The Spanish also used commercial Enigma machines during their Civil War. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard. Enigma machines were also used by diplomatic services.
==== Enigma H (1929) ====
There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the Enigma H, called Enigma II by the Reichswehr. In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communication, but it was soon withdrawn, as it was unreliable and jammed frequently.
==== Enigma K ====
The Swiss used a version of Enigma called Model K or Swiss K for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to commercial Enigma D. The machine's code was cracked by Poland, France, the United Kingdom and the United States; the latter code-named it INDIGO. An Enigma T model, code-named Tirpitz, was used by Japan.
=== Military Enigma ===
The various services of the Wehrmacht used various Enigma versions, and replaced them frequently, sometimes with ones adapted from other services. Enigma seldom carried high-level strategic messages, which when not urgent went by courier, and when urgent went by other cryptographic systems including the Geheimschreiber.
==== Funkschlüssel C ====
The Reichsmarine was the first military branch to adopt Enigma. This version, named Funkschlüssel C ("Radio cipher C"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926.
The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters — A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü — that were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering. The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter X wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted. Three rotors were chosen from a set of five and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ. The machine was revised slightly in July 1933.
==== Enigma G (1928–1930) ====
By 15 July 1928, the German Army (Reichswehr) had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine, the Enigma G.
The Abwehr used the Enigma G. This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter that incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the "counter machine" or the Zählwerk Enigma.
==== Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938) ====
Enigma machine G was modified to the Enigma I by June 1930. Enigma I is also known as the Wehrmacht, or "Services" Enigma, and was used extensively by German military services and other government organisations (such as the railways) before and during World War II.
The major difference between Enigma I (German Army version from 1930), and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing cryptographic strength.
Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings. The machine measured and weighed around .
In August 1935, the Air Force introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications.
==== M3 (1934) ====
By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications. The Reichsmarine eventually agreed and in 1934 brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated Funkschlüssel ' or M3. While the Army used only three rotors at that time, the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five.
==== Two extra rotors (1938) ====
In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five. In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight.
==== M4 (1942) ====
A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called M4 (the network was known as Triton, or Shark to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.
File:Enigma-G.jpg|Enigma G, used by the Abwehr, had four rotors, no plugboard, and multiple notches on the rotors.
File:Enigma-IMG 0484-black.jpg|The German-made Enigma-K used by the Swiss Army had three rotors and a reflector, but no plugboard. It had locally re-wired rotors and an additional lamp panel.
File:Four-rotor-enigma.jpg|An Enigma model T (Tirpitz), a modified commercial Enigma K manufactured for use by the Japanese
File:Enigma Decoder Machine.jpg|An Enigma machine in the UK's Imperial War Museum
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-241-2173-06, Russland, Verschlüsselungsgerät Enigma.jpg|Enigma in use in Russia
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2006-0188, Verschlüsselungsgerät "Enigma".jpg|Enigma in radio car of the 7th Panzer Div. staff, August 1941
== Surviving machines ==
The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until 1973. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown. Enigmas are on public display in museums around the world, and several are in the hands of private collectors and computer history enthusiasts.
The Deutsches Museum in Munich has both the three- and four-rotor German military variants, as well as several civilian versions. The Deutsches Spionagemuseum in Berlin also showcases two military variants. Enigma machines are also exhibited at the National Codes Centre in Bletchley Park, the Government Communications Headquarters, the Science Museum in London, Discovery Park of America in Tennessee, the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, the Swedish Army Museum (Armémuseum) in Stockholm, the Military Museum of A Coruña in Spain, the Nordland Red Cross War Memorial Museum in Narvik, Norway, The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum in Hämeenlinna, Finland the Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, in Skanderborg Bunkerne at Skanderborg, Denmark, and at the Australian War Memorial and in the foyer of the Australian Signals Directorate, both in Canberra, Australia. The Jozef Pilsudski Institute in London exhibited a rare Polish Enigma double assembled in France in 1940. In 2020, thanks to the support of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, it became the property of the Polish History Museum.
In the United States, Enigma machines can be seen at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, and at the National Security Agency's National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at enciphering and deciphering messages. Two machines that were acquired after the capture of during World War II are on display alongside the submarine at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. A three-rotor Enigma is on display at Discovery Park of America in Union City, Tennessee. A four-rotor device is on display in the ANZUS Corridor of the Pentagon on the second floor, A ring, between corridors 8 and 9. This machine is on loan from Australia. The United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs has a machine on display in the Computer Science Department. There is also a machine located at The National WWII Museum in New Orleans. The International Museum of World War II near Boston has seven Enigma machines on display, including a U-boat four-rotor model, one of three surviving examples of an Enigma machine with a printer, one of fewer than ten surviving ten-rotor code machines, an example blown up by a retreating German Army unit, and two three-rotor Enigmas that visitors can operate to encode and decode messages. Mimms Museum of Technology and Art in Roswell, Georgia has a three-rotor model with two additional rotors. The machine is fully restored and CMoA has the original paperwork for the purchase on 7 March 1936 by the German Army. The National Museum of Computing also contains surviving Enigma machines in Bletchley, England.
In Canada, a Swiss Army issue Enigma-K, is in Calgary, Alberta. It is on permanent display at the Naval Museum of Alberta inside the Military Museums of Calgary. A four-rotor Enigma machine is on display at the Military Communications and Electronics Museum at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Kingston in Kingston, Ontario.
Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices have in recent years ranged from US$40,000 to US$547,500 in 2017. Replicas are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.
A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000. In September, a man identifying himself as "The Master" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatening to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom, but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer. Shortly afterward, the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, missing three rotors.
In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning The Sunday Times to arrange the return of the missing parts. The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley Park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison and served three months.
In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper El País reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid. These four-rotor commercial machines had helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War, because, though the British cryptologist Alfred Dilwyn Knox in 1937 broke the cipher generated by Franco's Enigma machines, this was not disclosed to the Republicans, who failed to break the cipher. The Nationalist government continued using its 50 Enigmas into the 1950s. Some machines have gone on display in Spanish military museums, including one at the National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) in La Coruña and one at the Spanish Army Museum. Two have been given to Britain's GCHQ.
The Bulgarian military used Enigma machines with a Cyrillic keyboard; one is on display in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia.
On 3 December 2020, German divers working on behalf of the World Wide Fund for Nature discovered a destroyed Enigma machine in Flensburg Firth (part of the Baltic Sea) which is believed to be from a scuttled U-boat. This Enigma machine will be restored by and be the property of the Archaeology Museum of Schleswig Holstein.
An M4 Enigma was salvaged in the 1980s from the German minesweeper R15, which was sunk off the Istrian coast in 1945. The machine was put on display in the Pivka Park of Military History in Slovenia on 13 April 2023.
== Derivatives ==
The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, spinning off other rotor machines. Once the British discovered Enigma's principle of operation, they created the Typex rotor cipher, which the Germans believed to be unsolvable. Typex was originally derived from the Enigma patents; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. The British paid no royalties for the use of the patents. starting in 1936, that is logically similar.
Machines like the SIGABA, NEMA, Typex, and so forth, are not considered to be Enigma derivatives as their internal ciphering functions are not mathematically identical to the Enigma transform.
A unique rotor machine called Cryptograph was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark. This device makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation to be used; each rotor contains 509 parts.
File:Japanese secure teletype 2.jpg|A Japanese Enigma clone, codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers
File:Tatjavanavark-machine.jpg|Tatjana van Vark's Enigma-inspired rotor machine
File:Enigma simulator-IMG 0515-black.jpg|Electronic implementation of an Enigma machine, sold at the Bletchley Park souvenir shop
== Simulators ==
|
[
"electrical contact",
"Geheimschreiber",
"stator",
"Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)",
"blitzkrieg",
"National Museum of Military History (Bulgaria)",
"Technical University of Denmark",
"World Wide Fund for Nature",
"The Times",
"Arne Beurling",
"Erich Fellgiebel",
"Bletchley Park",
"Munich",
"Warsaw",
"Double-Cross System",
"initialization vector",
"cyclometer",
"The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum",
"Biuro Szyfrów",
"Zygalski sheets",
"Museum of the Army (Toledo)",
"bit",
"Swedish Army Museum",
"Bulgaria",
"Jeremy Paxman",
"cyphertext",
"Vera Atkins",
"El País",
"substitution cipher",
"Reichswehr",
"RUSI",
"Brady Haran",
"Jerzy Różycki",
"alphanumeric keyboard",
"Beaumanor Hall",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Abwehr",
"Poznań",
"Sofia",
"Nazi Germany",
"Type B Cipher Machine",
"Bakelite",
"Pseudorandomness",
"electrical network",
"Polish Army Museum",
"E. Richard Ritter",
"Italian Navy",
"Canberra",
"Coprime integers",
"Computer History Museum",
"military intelligence",
"ciphertext",
"Kingston, Ontario",
"The International Museum of World War II",
"Roman numerals",
"Gordon Welchman",
"Henryk Zygalski",
"Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań",
"Schleswig Holstein",
"Deutsche Reichsbahn",
"World War I",
"Deutsches Spionagemuseum",
"Hans-Thilo Schmidt",
"cipher",
"Baltic Sea",
"Roswell, Georgia",
"Printer (computing)",
"Mimms Museum of Technology and Art",
"Marian Rejewski",
"Alastair Denniston",
"The National WWII Museum",
"Slovenia",
"Kriegsmarine",
"Gdańsk",
"Pivka Park of Military History",
"brute-force attack",
"patent",
"National Security Agency",
"Discovery Park of America",
"Pyry, Warsaw",
"Fort Meade",
"polyalphabetic cipher",
"Ebonite",
"Colin Gubbins",
"Clock (cryptography)",
"alphabet",
"Australian War Memorial",
"C-36 (cipher machine)",
"Science Museum, London",
"Stockholm",
"Cryptanalysis",
"Arlington Hall",
"Australian Signals Directorate",
"QWERTZ",
"A Coruña",
"Radio Society of Great Britain",
"Hugh Foss",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Istria",
"German Empire",
"encryption",
"French Third Republic",
"Andrew Hodges",
"The Sunday Times",
"Gisbert Hasenjaeger",
"National Cryptologic Museum",
"Hut 6",
"Involution (mathematics)",
"NEMA (machine)",
"Enigma-M4",
"axle",
"Flensburg Firth",
"Typex",
"Banburismus",
"Erhard Maertens",
"Museum of the Second World War",
"Spanish Civil War",
"Second Polish Republic",
"Bomba (cryptography)",
"Chicago",
"Allies of World War II",
"Initialization vector",
"Battle of France",
"London",
"Polish Enigma double",
"Ratchet (device)",
"Berlin",
"typewriter",
"National Museum of Computing",
"rotor machine",
"World War II",
"Arthur Scherbius",
"Discriminant Book",
"code name",
"Kurzsignale",
"Lorenz cipher",
"X, Y & Z: The Real Story of How Enigma Was Broken",
"Reichsmarine",
"Commerce",
"The Pentagon",
"Schlüsselgerät 41",
"Skanderborg Bunkerne",
"Cyrillic script",
"Military Communications and Electronics Museum",
"Names of large numbers",
"communications intelligence",
"William F. Friedman",
"CFB Kingston",
"plaintext",
"Dilly Knox",
"odometer",
"cyclic permutation",
"M-325",
"Alan Turing: The Enigma",
"Cryptanalysis of the Enigma",
"Rotor machine",
"Index of coincidence",
"Hämeenlinna",
"Fritz Thiele",
"Wehrmacht",
"UK",
"Operation Torch",
"Key (cryptography)",
"Reuters",
"Narvik",
"United States Naval Computing Machine Laboratory",
"plugboard",
"brass",
"permutation",
"Morse code",
"codebook",
"SIGABA",
"Universal Postal Union",
"Union City, Tennessee",
"Mountain View, California",
"Electric light",
"Japanese naval codes",
"QWERTY",
"Deutsches Museum",
"Ultra (cryptography)"
] |
9,257 |
Enzyme
|
An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze individual steps. The study of enzymes is called enzymology and the field of pseudoenzyme analysis recognizes that during evolution, some enzymes have lost the ability to carry out biological catalysis, which is often reflected in their amino acid sequences and unusual 'pseudocatalytic' properties.
Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types.
Other biocatalysts include catalytic RNA molecules, also called ribozymes. They are sometimes described as a type of enzyme rather than being like an enzyme, but even in the decades since ribozymes' discovery in 1980–1982, the word enzyme alone often means the protein type specifically (as is used in this article). A third category of biocatalysts is constituted by those biomolecular condensates that have catalytic ability.
An enzyme's specificity comes from its unique three-dimensional structure.
Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the reaction rate by lowering its activation energy. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity. Many therapeutic drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, and many enzymes are (permanently) denatured when exposed to excessive heat, losing their structure and catalytic properties.
Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions: enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein, starch or fat stains on clothes, and enzymes in meat tenderizer break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew.
== Etymology and history ==
By the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known but the mechanisms by which these occurred had not been identified.
French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase, in 1833. A few decades later, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that this fermentation was caused by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called "ferments", which were thought to function only within living organisms. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells."
In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne (1837–1900) first used the term enzyme, which comes , to describe this process. The word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms.
Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897. In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture. He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose "zymase". In 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "his discovery of cell-free fermentation". Following Buchner's example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out: the suffix -ase is combined with the name of the substrate (e.g., lactase is the enzyme that cleaves lactose) or to the type of reaction (e.g., DNA polymerase forms DNA polymers).
The biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s. Many scientists observed that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins, but others (such as Nobel laureate Richard Willstätter) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins per se were incapable of catalysis. In 1926, James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a pure protein and crystallized it; he did likewise for the enzyme catalase in 1937. The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively demonstrated by John Howard Northrop and Wendell Meredith Stanley, who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin (1930), trypsin and chymotrypsin. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
The discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography. This was first done for lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965. This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail.
== Classification and nomenclature ==
Enzymes can be classified by two main criteria: either amino acid sequence similarity (and thus evolutionary relationship) or enzymatic activity.
Enzyme activity. An enzyme's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in -ase.
The top-level classification is:
EC 1, Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions
EC 2, Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group)
EC 3, Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds
EC 4, Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation
EC 5, Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
EC 6, Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds.
EC 7, Translocases: catalyze the movement of ions or molecules across membranes, or their separation within membranes.
These sections are subdivided by other features such as the substrate, products, and chemical mechanism. An enzyme is fully specified by four numerical designations. For example, hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) is a transferase (EC 2) that adds a phosphate group (EC 2.7) to a hexose sugar, a molecule containing an alcohol group (EC 2.7.1).
Sequence similarity. EC categories do not reflect sequence similarity. For instance, two ligases of the same EC number that catalyze exactly the same reaction can have completely different sequences. Independent of their function, enzymes, like any other proteins, have been classified by their sequence similarity into numerous families. These families have been documented in dozens of different protein and protein family databases such as Pfam.
Non-homologous isofunctional enzymes. Unrelated enzymes that have the same enzymatic activity have been called non-homologous isofunctional enzymes. Horizontal gene transfer may spread these genes to unrelated species, especially bacteria where they can replace endogenous genes of the same function, leading to hon-homologous gene displacement.
== Structure ==
Enzymes are generally globular proteins, acting alone or in larger complexes. The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme. Although structure determines function, a novel enzymatic activity cannot yet be predicted from structure alone. Enzyme structures unfold (denature) when heated or exposed to chemical denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of activity. Enzyme denaturation is normally linked to temperatures above a species' normal level; as a result, enzymes from bacteria living in volcanic environments such as hot springs are prized by industrial users for their ability to function at high temperatures, allowing enzyme-catalysed reactions to be operated at a very high rate.
Enzymes are usually much larger than their substrates. Sizes range from just 62 amino acid residues, for the monomer of 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase, to over 2,500 residues in the animal fatty acid synthase. Only a small portion of their structure (around 2–4 amino acids) is directly involved in catalysis: the catalytic site. This catalytic site is located next to one or more binding sites where residues orient the substrates. The catalytic site and binding site together compose the enzyme's active site. The remaining majority of the enzyme structure serves to maintain the precise orientation and dynamics of the active site.
In some enzymes, no amino acids are directly involved in catalysis; instead, the enzyme contains sites to bind and orient catalytic cofactors.
A small number of RNA-based biological catalysts called ribozymes exist, which again can act alone or in complex with proteins. The most common of these is the ribosome which is a complex of protein and catalytic RNA components.
Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying and expression of the genome. Some of these enzymes have "proof-reading" mechanisms. Here, an enzyme such as DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks that the product is correct in a second step. This two-step process results in average error rates of less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high-fidelity mammalian polymerases. aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and ribosomes.
Conversely, some enzymes display enzyme promiscuity, having broad specificity and acting on a range of different physiologically relevant substrates. Many enzymes possess small side activities which arose fortuitously (i.e. neutrally), which may be the starting point for the evolutionary selection of a new function.
==== "Lock and key" model ====
To explain the observed specificity of enzymes, in 1894 Emil Fischer proposed that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model.
==== Induced fit model ====
In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continuously reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme. As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site; the amino acid side-chains that make up the active site are molded into the precise positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site. The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound, at which point the final shape and charge distribution is determined.
Induced fit may enhance the fidelity of molecular recognition in the presence of competition and noise via the conformational proofreading mechanism.
=== Catalysis ===
Enzymes can accelerate reactions in several ways, all of which lower the activation energy (ΔG‡, Gibbs free energy)
By stabilizing the transition state:
Creating an environment with a charge distribution complementary to that of the transition state to lower its energy
By providing an alternative reaction pathway:
Temporarily reacting with the substrate, forming a covalent intermediate to provide a lower energy transition state
By destabilizing the substrate ground state:
Distorting bound substrate(s) into their transition state form to reduce the energy required to reach the transition state
By orienting the substrates into a productive arrangement to reduce the reaction entropy change (the contribution of this mechanism to catalysis is relatively small)
Enzymes may use several of these mechanisms simultaneously. For example, proteases such as trypsin perform covalent catalysis using a catalytic triad, stabilize charge build-up on the transition states using an oxyanion hole, complete hydrolysis using an oriented water substrate.
=== Dynamics ===
Enzymes are not rigid, static structures; instead they have complex internal dynamic motions – that is, movements of parts of the enzyme's structure such as individual amino acid residues, groups of residues forming a protein loop or unit of secondary structure, or even an entire protein domain. These motions give rise to a conformational ensemble of slightly different structures that interconvert with one another at equilibrium. Different states within this ensemble may be associated with different aspects of an enzyme's function. For example, different conformations of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase are associated with the substrate binding, catalysis, cofactor release, and product release steps of the catalytic cycle, consistent with catalytic resonance theory. The transitions between the different conformations during the catalytic cycle involve internal viscoelatic motion that is facilitated by high-strain regions where amino acids are rearranged.
=== Substrate presentation ===
Substrate presentation is a process where the enzyme is sequestered away from its substrate. Enzymes can be sequestered to the plasma membrane away from a substrate in the nucleus or cytosol. Or within the membrane, an enzyme can be sequestered into lipid rafts away from its substrate in the disordered region. When the enzyme is released it mixes with its substrate. Alternatively, the enzyme can be sequestered near its substrate to activate the enzyme. For example, the enzyme can be soluble and upon activation bind to a lipid in the plasma membrane and then act upon molecules in the plasma membrane.
=== Allosteric modulation ===
Allosteric sites are pockets on the enzyme, distinct from the active site, that bind to molecules in the cellular environment. These molecules then cause a change in the conformation or dynamics of the enzyme that is transduced to the active site and thus affects the reaction rate of the enzyme. In this way, allosteric interactions can either inhibit or activate enzymes. Allosteric interactions with metabolites upstream or downstream in an enzyme's metabolic pathway cause feedback regulation, altering the activity of the enzyme according to the flux through the rest of the pathway.
==Cofactors==
Some enzymes do not need additional components to show full activity. Others require non-protein molecules called cofactors to be bound for activity. Cofactors can be either inorganic (e.g., metal ions and iron–sulfur clusters) or organic compounds (e.g., flavin and heme). These cofactors serve many purposes; for instance, metal ions can help in stabilizing nucleophilic species within the active site. Organic cofactors can be either coenzymes, which are released from the enzyme's active site during the reaction, or prosthetic groups, which are tightly bound to an enzyme. Organic prosthetic groups can be covalently bound (e.g., biotin in enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase).
An example of an enzyme that contains a cofactor is carbonic anhydrase, which uses a zinc cofactor bound as part of its active site. These tightly bound ions or molecules are usually found in the active site and are involved in catalysis. Examples include NADH, NADPH and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Some coenzymes, such as flavin mononucleotide (FMN), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), and tetrahydrofolate (THF), are derived from vitamins. These coenzymes cannot be synthesized by the body de novo and closely related compounds (vitamins) must be acquired from the diet. The chemical groups carried include:
the hydride ion (H−), carried by NAD or NADP+
the phosphate group, carried by adenosine triphosphate
the acetyl group, carried by coenzyme A
formyl, methenyl or methyl groups, carried by folic acid and
the methyl group, carried by S-adenosylmethionine
Coenzymes are usually continuously regenerated and their concentrations maintained at a steady level inside the cell. For example, NADPH is regenerated through the pentose phosphate pathway and S-adenosylmethionine by methionine adenosyltransferase. This continuous regeneration means that small amounts of coenzymes can be used very intensively. For example, the human body turns over its own weight in ATP each day.
==Thermodynamics==
As with all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly.
The rate of a reaction is dependent on the activation energy needed to form the transition state which then decays into products. Enzymes increase reaction rates by lowering the energy of the transition state. First, binding forms a low energy enzyme-substrate complex (ES). Second, the enzyme stabilises the transition state such that it requires less energy to achieve compared to the uncatalyzed reaction (ES‡). Finally the enzyme-product complex (EP) dissociates to release the products.
==Kinetics==
Enzyme kinetics is the investigation of how enzymes bind substrates and turn them into products. The rate data used in kinetic analyses are commonly obtained from enzyme assays. In 1913 Leonor Michaelis and Maud Leonora Menten proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics, which is referred to as Michaelis–Menten kinetics. The major contribution of Michaelis and Menten was to think of enzyme reactions in two stages. In the first, the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate complex. This is sometimes called the Michaelis–Menten complex in their honor. The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical step in the reaction and releases the product. This work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and J. B. S. Haldane, who derived kinetic equations that are still widely used today.
Enzyme rates depend on solution conditions and substrate concentration. To find the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is seen. This is shown in the saturation curve on the right. Saturation happens because, as substrate concentration increases, more and more of the free enzyme is converted into the substrate-bound ES complex. At the maximum reaction rate (Vmax) of the enzyme, all the enzyme active sites are bound to substrate, and the amount of ES complex is the same as the total amount of enzyme.
Michaelis–Menten kinetics relies on the law of mass action, which is derived from the assumptions of free diffusion and thermodynamically driven random collision. Many biochemical or cellular processes deviate significantly from these conditions, because of macromolecular crowding and constrained molecular movement. More recent, complex extensions of the model attempt to correct for these effects.
==Inhibition==
Enzyme reaction rates can be decreased by various types of enzyme inhibitors.
===Types of inhibition===
====Competitive====
A competitive inhibitor and substrate cannot bind to the enzyme at the same time. Often competitive inhibitors strongly resemble the real substrate of the enzyme. For example, the drug methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate. The similarity between the structures of dihydrofolate and this drug are shown in the accompanying figure. This type of inhibition can be overcome with high substrate concentration. In some cases, the inhibitor can bind to a site other than the binding-site of the usual substrate and exert an allosteric effect to change the shape of the usual binding-site.
====Non-competitive====
A non-competitive inhibitor binds to a site other than where the substrate binds. The substrate still binds with its usual affinity and hence Km remains the same. However the inhibitor reduces the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme so that Vmax is reduced. In contrast to competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition cannot be overcome with high substrate concentration.
====Mixed====
A mixed inhibitor binds to an allosteric site and the binding of the substrate and the inhibitor affect each other. The enzyme's function is reduced but not eliminated when bound to the inhibitor. This type of inhibitor does not follow the Michaelis–Menten equation. Penicillin and aspirin are common drugs that act in this manner.
===Functions of inhibitors===
In many organisms, inhibitors may act as part of a feedback mechanism. If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism, that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme at the beginning of the pathway that produces it, causing production of the substance to slow down or stop when there is sufficient amount. This is a form of negative feedback. Major metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle make use of this mechanism. and protease inhibitors used to treat retroviral infections such as HIV. A common example of an irreversible inhibitor that is used as a drug is aspirin, which inhibits the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes that produce the inflammation messenger prostaglandin.
== Factors affecting enzyme activity ==
As enzymes are made up of proteins, their actions are sensitive to change in many physio chemical factors such as pH, temperature, substrate concentration, etc.
The following table shows pH optima for various enzymes.
== Biological function ==
Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms. They are indispensable for signal transduction and cell regulation, often via kinases and phosphatases. They also generate movement, with myosin hydrolyzing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to generate muscle contraction, and also transport cargo around the cell as part of the cytoskeleton. Other ATPases in the cell membrane are ion pumps involved in active transport. Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions, such as luciferase generating light in fireflies. Viruses can also contain enzymes for infecting cells, such as the HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase, or for viral release from cells, like the influenza virus neuraminidase.
An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals. Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose, which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In ruminants, which have herbivorous diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, cellulase, to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.
===Metabolism===
Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways.
Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways. Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps and could not be regulated to serve the needs of the cell. Most central metabolic pathways are regulated at a few key steps, typically through enzymes whose activity involves the hydrolysis of ATP. Because this reaction releases so much energy, other reactions that are thermodynamically unfavorable can be coupled to ATP hydrolysis, driving the overall series of linked metabolic reactions. For example, in the response to insulin, the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes, including glycogen synthase, helps control the synthesis or degradation of glycogen and allows the cell to respond to changes in blood sugar. Another example of post-translational modification is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain. Chymotrypsin, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form as chymotrypsinogen in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated. This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen Another example comes from enzymes in the liver called cytochrome P450 oxidases, which are important in drug metabolism. Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause drug interactions. Enzyme levels can also be regulated by changing the rate of enzyme degradation. In addition, trafficking of the enzyme to different compartments may change the degree of protonation (e.g., the neutral cytoplasm and the acidic lysosome) or oxidative state (e.g., oxidizing periplasm or reducing cytoplasm) which in turn affects enzyme activity. In contrast to partitioning into membrane bound organelles, enzyme subcellular localisation may also be altered through polymerisation of enzymes into macromolecular cytoplasmic filaments.
====Organ specialization====
In multicellular eukaryotes, cells in different organs and tissues have different patterns of gene expression and therefore have different sets of enzymes (known as isozymes) available for metabolic reactions. This provides a mechanism for regulating the overall metabolism of the organism. For example, hexokinase, the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway, has a specialized form called glucokinase expressed in the liver and pancreas that has a lower affinity for glucose yet is more sensitive to glucose concentration. This enzyme is involved in sensing blood sugar and regulating insulin production.
=== Involvement in disease ===
Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for homeostasis, any malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease. The malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in the human body can be fatal. An example of a fatal genetic disease due to enzyme insufficiency is Tay–Sachs disease, in which patients lack the enzyme hexosaminidase.
One example of enzyme deficiency is the most common type of phenylketonuria. Many different single amino acid mutations in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of phenylalanine, result in build-up of phenylalanine and related products. Some mutations are in the active site, directly disrupting binding and catalysis, but many are far from the active site and reduce activity by destabilising the protein structure, or affecting correct oligomerisation. This can lead to intellectual disability if the disease is untreated. Another example is pseudocholinesterase deficiency, in which the body's ability to break down choline ester drugs is impaired.
Oral administration of enzymes can be used to treat some functional enzyme deficiencies, such as pancreatic insufficiency and lactose intolerance.
Another way enzyme malfunctions can cause disease comes from germline mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes. Defects in these enzymes cause cancer because cells are less able to repair mutations in their genomes. This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the development of cancers. An example of such a hereditary cancer syndrome is xeroderma pigmentosum, which causes the development of skin cancers in response to even minimal exposure to ultraviolet light.
== Evolution ==
Similar to any other protein, enzymes change over time through mutations and sequence divergence. Given their central role in metabolism, enzyme evolution plays a critical role in adaptation. A key question is therefore whether and how enzymes can change their enzymatic activities alongside. It is generally accepted that many new enzyme activities have evolved through gene duplication and mutation of the duplicate copies although evolution can also happen without duplication. One example of an enzyme that has changed its activity is the ancestor of methionyl aminopeptidase (MAP) and creatine amidinohydrolase (creatinase) which are clearly homologous but catalyze very different reactions (MAP removes the amino-terminal methionine in new proteins while creatinase hydrolyses creatine to sarcosine and urea). In addition, MAP is metal-ion dependent while creatinase is not, hence this property was also lost over time. Small changes of enzymatic activity are extremely common among enzymes. In particular, substrate binding specificity (see above) can easily and quickly change with single amino acid changes in their substrate binding pockets. This is frequently seen in the main enzyme classes such as kinases.
Artificial (in vitro) evolution is now commonly used to modify enzyme activity or specificity for industrial applications (see below).
== Industrial applications ==
Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required. Enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in organic solvents and at high temperatures. As a consequence, protein engineering is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties, either through rational design or in vitro evolution. These efforts have begun to be successful, and a few enzymes have now been designed "from scratch" to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature.
|
[
"hydrophobic",
"Phenylalanine",
"drug interaction",
"glycosylation",
"Biofuel",
"competitive inhibitor",
"Cellulase",
"denaturation (biochemistry)",
"Pfam",
"drug",
"Tay–Sachs disease",
"isomer",
"cytoplasm",
"pH",
"hexosaminidase",
"regioselectivity",
"isozyme",
"lactose",
"myristoylation",
"macromolecular crowding",
"Personal care",
"Amyloglucosidase",
"non-competitive inhibition",
"lysozyme",
"globular protein",
"Émile Duclaux",
"product (chemistry)",
"ultraviolet light",
"statin",
"protein",
"β-lactamase",
"coenzyme",
"ribozyme",
"enzyme promiscuity",
"protein complex",
"Biological detergent",
"chemical mechanism",
"Strain (mechanics)",
"citric acid cycle",
"structural biology",
"catalyst",
"Papain",
"inorganic",
"adenosine triphosphate",
"Paper",
"urease",
"DNA repair",
"MetaCyc",
"Humboldt University of Berlin",
"lung",
"Michaelis–Menten constant",
"Side chain",
"carcinogenesis",
"lignin peroxidase",
"cytosol",
"Denaturation (biochemistry)",
"heme",
"reaction rate",
"fermentation (food)",
"covalent bond",
"zymogen",
"chemical reactions",
"Tenderizer",
"David Chilton Phillips",
"muscle contraction",
"Acetolactate decarboxylase",
"tertiary structure",
"triosephosphateisomerase",
"papain",
"Michaelis–Menten kinetics",
"concentration",
"Enzyme inhibitor",
"conformational ensemble",
"phosphorylation",
"polymerase chain reaction",
"pyruvate carboxylase",
"catalytic resonance theory",
"Molecular machine",
"Translocase",
"methionyl aminopeptidase",
"transition state",
"cheese",
"Transferase",
"hypoallergenic",
"pullulanase",
"Nobel Prize in Chemistry",
"neuraminidase",
"endoplasmic reticulum",
"skin cancer",
"Adenosine triphosphate",
"lactose intolerance",
"lactase",
"activation energy",
"Solution (chemistry)",
"Gibbs free energy",
"Mannanase",
"kraft pulp",
"amylase",
"acetylcholinesterase",
"recombinant DNA",
"irreversible inhibitor",
"penicillin",
"trypsin",
"catalase",
"metabolism",
"protonation",
"superoxide dismutase",
"thermodynamic equilibrium",
"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate",
"Roquefort",
"negative feedback",
"biomass",
"mitochondrion",
"sarcosine",
"pancreas",
"catalytically perfect enzyme",
"HIV",
"4-Oxalocrotonate tautomerase",
"Penicillin",
"phosphatase",
"Chemical specificity",
"Eduard Buchner",
"Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide",
"Maud Leonora Menten",
"pseudocholinesterase deficiency",
"blood sugar",
"multicellular",
"flour",
"signal transduction",
"Transcription (genetics)",
"antibiotic",
"fat",
"ion",
"reverse transcriptase",
"genome",
"polymerase",
"monomer",
"protease inhibitors",
"inflammation",
"chymotrypsin",
"conformational change",
"Xylanase",
"alcohol dehydrogenase",
"cholesterol",
"cancer syndrome",
"coenzyme A",
"redox",
"Lyase",
"fireflies",
"creatine",
"turn (biochemistry)",
"cytochrome c oxidase",
"IntEnz",
"biotin",
"yeast",
"orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase",
"thiamine pyrophosphate",
"egg white",
"mixed inhibition",
"Substrate presentation",
"Starch",
"phenylalanine hydroxylase",
"Amylase",
"Cyclooxygenase",
"insulin",
"catalytic triad",
"temperature",
"Camembert cheese",
"protein engineering",
"dihydrofolate reductase",
"cytochrome P450 oxidase",
"Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.",
"influenza",
"guar gum",
"diastase",
"Oxidoreductase",
"Jöns Jacob Berzelius",
"magnesium",
"cyanide",
"Beta-lactam",
"Active site",
"starch",
"entropy",
"gene duplication",
"diffusion",
"biomolecular condensate",
"Chymotrypsin",
"hydrolysis",
"nomenclature",
"lysosome",
"digestive systems",
"uncompetitive inhibitor",
"glycosidases",
"germline mutation",
"kinase",
"pepsin",
"Trypsin",
"drug metabolism",
"glucanase",
"ion pump (biology)",
"flavin adenine dinucleotide",
"Anselme Payen",
"organic solvent",
"Cofactor (biochemistry)",
"nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide",
"ribosome",
"rate of reaction",
"Protease",
"hydride",
"hemicellulase",
"meat",
"Detergent enzymes",
"xylose",
"glycogen",
"chemical industry",
"β-oxidation",
"adaptation",
"Molecular biology",
"vitamin",
"Gene expression",
"List of enzymes",
"hot spring",
"molecules",
"KEGG",
"enzyme induction",
"xeroderma pigmentosum",
"pectinase",
"cellular compartment",
"Richard Willstätter",
"James B. Sumner",
"high-fructose corn syrup",
"Industrial enzymes",
"x-ray crystallography",
"gene expression",
"Iron",
"law of mass action",
"Lipase",
"mutation",
"intellectual disability",
"protease",
"Wilhelm Kühne",
"J. B. S. Haldane",
"glucokinase",
"catabolism",
"phenylketonuria",
"cell (biology)",
"flavin group",
"organ (anatomy)",
"sugar",
"iron–sulfur cluster",
"affinity (pharmacology)",
"fatty acid",
"BRENDA",
"Translation (genetics)",
"oxidation",
"Dairy",
"vital force",
"RNA polymerase",
"amino acid",
"hydrophilic",
"Virus",
"wikt:ένζυμο",
"transketolase",
"allosteric site",
"pyruvate",
"retroviral",
"homeostasis",
"substrate (chemistry)",
"glycogen synthase",
"methionine adenosyltransferase",
"poison",
"function (biology)",
"rate constant",
"luciferase",
"Inverted sugar syrup",
"cofactor (biochemistry)",
"stomach",
"-ase",
"hexokinase",
"substrate (biochemistry)",
"Isomerase",
"Nuclease",
"aminoacyl tRNA synthetase",
"recessive inheritance",
"protein secondary structure",
"Ligninase",
"binding site",
"Food processing",
"cytoskeleton",
"Bread",
"regulation of gene expression",
"ethanol",
"Brewing",
"prosthetic groups",
"urea",
"saliva",
"wort",
"Chymosin",
"lipase",
"Flux (metabolism)",
"enzyme repression",
"peptidoglycan",
"fatty acid synthase",
"enzyme inhibitor",
"myosin",
"enzyme catalysis",
"DNA ligase",
"malt",
"Leonor Michaelis",
"methionine",
"enzyme assay",
"ATPase",
"phenylalanine",
"maltose",
"prostaglandin",
"Tissue (biology)",
"herbivorous",
"Betaglucanase",
"Enzyme Commission number",
"Hydrolyze",
"folic acid",
"Viscoelasticity",
"fumarase",
"Neutral evolution",
"protein targeting",
"active site",
"antibiotic resistance",
"beer",
"flavin mononucleotide",
"active transport",
"beta-lactamase",
"pentose phosphate pathway",
"Chemical equilibrium",
"glycolysis",
"Ribonucleic acid",
"endothermic",
"tetrahydrofolate",
"functional group",
"Ligase",
"creatinase",
"cellular respiration",
"Wendell Meredith Stanley",
"aspirin",
"biscuit",
"ruminant",
"stereospecificity",
"Proofreading (biology)",
"chymotrypsinogen",
"International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology",
"S-adenosylmethionine",
"ExPASy",
"enzyme activator",
"metabolic pathway",
"Hydrolase",
"conformational proofreading",
"Hermann Emil Fischer",
"HIV integrase",
"feedback",
"protein domain",
"Protein primary structure",
"post-translational modification",
"Louis Pasteur",
"George Edward Briggs",
"Metabolic pathway",
"methotrexate",
"tetrahydrobiopterin",
"xylulose 5-phosphate",
"De novo synthesis",
"restriction enzyme",
"periplasm",
"DNA polymerase",
"pancreatic insufficiency",
"contact lens",
"golgi apparatus",
"Ribozyme",
"α-Amylase",
"pseudoenzyme",
"zymase",
"carbonic anhydrase",
"cellulase",
"organic compound",
"cellulosic ethanol",
"Horizontal gene transfer",
"liver",
"chemoselectivity",
"Cooking",
"oxyanion hole",
"John Howard Northrop",
"lignin",
"glucose",
"molecule",
"eukaryote",
"blue cheese",
"fruit juice",
"diacetyl",
"tissue (biology)"
] |
9,258 |
Ethics
|
Ethics is the philosophical study of moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches include normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.
Normative ethics aims to find general principles that govern how people should act. Applied ethics examines concrete ethical problems in real-life situations, such as abortion, treatment of animals, and business practices. Metaethics explores the underlying assumptions and concepts of ethics. It asks whether there are objective moral facts, how moral knowledge is possible, and how moral judgments motivate people. Influential normative theories are consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. According to consequentialists, an act is right if it leads to the best consequences. Deontologists focus on acts themselves, saying that they must adhere to duties, like telling the truth and keeping promises. Virtue ethics sees the manifestation of virtues, like courage and compassion, as the fundamental principle of morality.
Ethics is closely connected to value theory, which studies the nature and types of value, like the contrast between intrinsic and instrumental value. Moral psychology is a related empirical field and investigates psychological processes involved in morality, such as reasoning and the formation of character. Descriptive ethics describes the dominant moral codes and beliefs in different societies and considers their historical dimension.
The history of ethics started in the ancient period with the development of ethical principles and theories in ancient Egypt, India, China, and Greece. This period saw the emergence of ethical teachings associated with Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and contributions of philosophers like Socrates and Aristotle. During the medieval period, ethical thought was strongly influenced by religious teachings. In the modern period, this focus shifted to a more secular approach concerned with moral experience, reasons for acting, and the consequences of actions. An influential development in the 20th century was the emergence of metaethics.
== Definition ==
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the study of moral phenomena. It is one of the main branches of philosophy and investigates the nature of morality and the principles that govern the moral evaluation of conduct, character traits, and institutions. It examines what obligations people have, what behavior is right and wrong, and how to lead a good life. Some of its key questions are "How should one live?" and "What gives meaning to life?". In contemporary philosophy, ethics is usually divided into normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.
Morality is about what people ought to do rather than what they actually do, what they want to do, or what social conventions require. As a rational and systematic field of inquiry, ethics studies practical reasons why people should act one way rather than another. Most ethical theories seek universal principles that express a general standpoint of what is objectively right and wrong. In a slightly different sense, the term ethics can also refer to individual ethical theories in the form of a rational system of moral principles, such as Aristotelian ethics, and to a moral code that certain societies, social groups, or professions follow, as in Protestant work ethic and medical ethics.
The English word ethics has its roots in the Ancient Greek word (), meaning and . This word gave rise to the Ancient Greek word (), which was translated into Latin as and entered the English language in the 15th century through the Old French term . The term morality originates in the Latin word , meaning and . It was introduced into the English language during the Middle English period through the Old French term .
The terms ethics and morality are usually used interchangeably but some philosophers distinguish between the two. According to one view, morality focuses on what moral obligations people have while ethics is broader and includes ideas about what is good and how to lead a meaningful life. Another difference is that codes of conduct in specific areas, such as business and environment, are usually termed ethics rather than morality, as in business ethics and environmental ethics.
== Normative ethics ==
Normative ethics is the philosophical study of ethical conduct and investigates the fundamental principles of morality. It aims to discover and justify general answers to questions like "How should one live?" and "How should people act?", usually in the form of universal or domain-independent principles that determine whether an act is right or wrong. For example, given the particular impression that it is wrong to set a child on fire for fun, normative ethics aims to find more general principles that explain why this is the case, like the principle that one should not cause extreme suffering to the innocent, which may itself be explained in terms of a more general principle. Many theories of normative ethics also aim to guide behavior by helping people make moral decisions.
Theories in normative ethics state how people should act or what kind of behavior is correct. They do not aim to describe how people normally act, what moral beliefs ordinary people have, how these beliefs change over time, or what ethical codes are upheld in certain social groups. These topics belong to descriptive ethics and are studied in fields like anthropology, sociology, and history rather than normative ethics.
Some systems of normative ethics arrive at a single principle covering all possible cases. Others encompass a small set of basic rules that address all or at least the most important moral considerations. One difficulty for systems with several basic principles is that these principles may conflict with each other in some cases and lead to ethical dilemmas.
Distinct theories in normative ethics suggest different principles as the foundation of morality. The three most influential schools of thought are consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. These schools are usually presented as exclusive alternatives, but depending on how they are defined, they can overlap and do not necessarily exclude one another. In some cases, they differ in which acts they see as right or wrong. In other cases, they recommend the same course of action but provide different justifications for why it is right.
=== Consequentialism ===
Consequentialism, also called teleological ethics, says that morality depends on consequences. According to the most common view, an act is right if it brings the best future. This means that there is no alternative course of action that has better consequences. A key aspect of consequentialist theories is that they provide a characterization of what is good and then define what is right in terms of what is good. For example, classical utilitarianism says that pleasure is good and that the action leading to the most overall pleasure is right. Consequentialism has been discussed indirectly since the formulation of classical utilitarianism in the late 18th century. A more explicit analysis of this view happened in the 20th century, when the term was coined by G. E. M. Anscombe.
Consequentialists usually understand the consequences of an action in a very wide sense that includes the totality of its effects. This is based on the idea that actions make a difference in the world by bringing about a causal chain of events that would not have existed otherwise. A core intuition behind consequentialism is that the future should be shaped to achieve the best possible outcome.
The act itself is usually not seen as part of the consequences. This means that if an act has intrinsic value or disvalue, it is not included as a factor. Some consequentialists see this as a flaw, saying that all value-relevant factors need to be considered. They try to avoid this complication by including the act itself as part of the consequences. A related approach is to characterize consequentialism not in terms of consequences but in terms of outcome, with the outcome being defined as the act together with its consequences.
Most forms of consequentialism are agent-neutral. This means that the value of consequences is assessed from a neutral perspective, that is, acts should have consequences that are good in general and not just good for the agent. It is controversial whether agent-relative moral theories, like ethical egoism, should be considered as types of consequentialism.
==== Types ====
There are many different types of consequentialism. They differ based on what type of entity they evaluate, what consequences they take into consideration, and how they determine the value of consequences. Most theories assess the moral value of acts. However, consequentialism can also be used to evaluate motives, character traits, rules, and policies.
Many types assess the value of consequences based on whether they promote happiness or suffering. But there are also alternative evaluative principles, such as desire satisfaction, autonomy, freedom, knowledge, friendship, beauty, and self-perfection. Some forms of consequentialism hold that there is only a single source of value. The most prominent among them is classical utilitarianism, which states that the moral value of acts only depends on the pleasure and suffering they cause. An alternative approach says that there are many different sources of value, which all contribute to one overall value.
There are disagreements about which consequences should be assessed. An important distinction is between act consequentialism and rule consequentialism. According to act consequentialism, the consequences of an act determine its moral value. This means that there is a direct relation between the consequences of an act and its moral value. Rule consequentialism, by contrast, holds that an act is right if it follows a certain set of rules. Rule consequentialism determines the best rules by considering their outcomes at a community level. People should follow the rules that lead to the best consequences when everyone in the community follows them. This implies that the relation between an act and its consequences is indirect. For example, if telling the truth is one of the best rules, then according to rule consequentialism, a person should tell the truth even in specific cases where lying would lead to better consequences.
Another disagreement is between actual and expected consequentialism. According to the traditional view, only the actual consequences of an act affect its moral value. One difficulty of this view is that many consequences cannot be known in advance. This means that in some cases, even well-planned and intentioned acts are morally wrong if they inadvertently lead to negative outcomes. An alternative perspective states that what matters are not the actual consequences but the expected consequences. This view takes into account that when deciding what to do, people have to rely on their limited knowledge of the total consequences of their actions. According to this view, a course of action has positive moral value despite leading to an overall negative outcome if it had the highest expected value, for example, because the negative outcome could not be anticipated or was unlikely.
A further difference is between maximizing and satisficing consequentialism. According to maximizing consequentialism, only the best possible act is morally permitted. This means that acts with positive consequences are wrong if there are alternatives with even better consequences. One criticism of maximizing consequentialism is that it demands too much by requiring that people do significantly more than they are socially expected to. For example, if the best action for someone with a good salary would be to donate 70% of their income to charity, it would be morally wrong for them to only donate 65%. Satisficing consequentialism, by contrast, only requires that an act is "good enough" even if it is not the best possible alternative. According to this view, it is possible to do more than one is morally required to do.
Mohism in ancient Chinese philosophy is one of the earliest forms of consequentialism. It arose in the 5th century BCE and argued that political action should promote justice as a means to increase the welfare of the people.
==== Utilitarianism ====
The most well-known form of consequentialism is utilitarianism. In its classical form, it is an act consequentialism that sees happiness as the only source of intrinsic value. This means that an act is morally right if it produces "the greatest good for the greatest number" by increasing happiness and reducing suffering. Utilitarians do not deny that other things also have value, like health, friendship, and knowledge. However, they deny that these things have intrinsic value. Instead, they say that they have extrinsic value because they affect happiness and suffering. In this regard, they are desirable as a means but, unlike happiness, not as an end. The view that pleasure is the only thing with intrinsic value is called ethical or evaluative hedonism.
Classical utilitarianism was initially formulated by Jeremy Bentham at the end of the 18th century and further developed by John Stuart Mill. Bentham introduced the hedonic calculus to assess the value of consequences. Two key aspects of the hedonic calculus are the intensity and the duration of pleasure. According to this view, a pleasurable experience has a high value if it has a high intensity and lasts for a long time. A common criticism of Bentham's utilitarianism argued that its focus on the intensity of pleasure promotes an immoral lifestyle centered around indulgence in sensory gratification. Mill responded to this criticism by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures. He stated that higher pleasures, like the intellectual satisfaction of reading a book, are more valuable than lower pleasures, like the sensory enjoyment of food and drink, even if their intensity and duration are the same. Since its original formulation, many variations of utilitarianism have developed, including the difference between act and rule utilitarianism and between maximizing and satisficing utilitarianism.
=== Deontology ===
Deontology assesses the moral rightness of actions based on a set of norms or principles. These norms describe the requirements that all actions need to follow. They may include principles like telling the truth, keeping promises, and not intentionally harming others. Unlike consequentialists, deontologists hold that the validity of general moral principles does not directly depend on their consequences. They state that these principles should be followed in every case since they express how actions are inherently right or wrong. According to moral philosopher David Ross, it is wrong to break a promise even if no harm comes from it. Deontologists are interested in which actions are right and often allow that there is a gap between what is right and what is good. Many focus on prohibitions and describe which acts are forbidden under any circumstances.
==== Agent-centered and patient-centered ====
Agent-centered deontological theories focus on the person who acts and the duties they have. Agent-centered theories often focus on the motives and intentions behind people's actions, highlighting the importance of acting for the right reasons. They tend to be agent-relative, meaning that the reasons for which people should act depend on personal circumstances. For example, a parent has a special obligation to their child, while a stranger does not have this kind of obligation toward a child they do not know. Patient-centered theories, by contrast, focus on the people affected by actions and the rights they have. An example is the requirement to treat other people as ends and not merely as a means to an end. This requirement can be used to argue, for example, that it is wrong to kill a person against their will even if this act would save the lives of several others. Patient-centered deontological theories are usually agent-neutral, meaning that they apply equally to everyone in a situation, regardless of their specific role or position.
==== Kantianism ====
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is one of the most well-known deontologists. He states that reaching outcomes that people desire, such as being happy, is not the main purpose of moral actions. Instead, he argues that there are universal principles that apply to everyone independent of their desires. He uses the term categorical imperative for these principles, saying that they have their source in the structure of practical reason and are true for all rational agents. According to Kant, to act morally is to act in agreement with reason as expressed by these principles while violating them is both immoral and irrational.
Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative. One formulation says that a person should only follow maxims that can be universalized. This means that the person would want everyone to follow the same maxim as a universal law applicable to everyone. Another formulation states that one should treat other people always as ends in themselves and never as mere means to an end. This formulation focuses on respecting and valuing other people for their own sake rather than using them in the pursuit of personal goals.
In either case, Kant says that what matters is to have a good will. A person has a good will if they respect the moral law and form their intentions and motives in agreement with it. Kant states that actions motivated in such a way are unconditionally good, meaning that they are good even in cases where they result in undesirable consequences.
==== Others ====
Divine command theory says that God is the source of morality. It states that moral laws are divine commands and that to act morally is to obey and follow God's will. While all divine command theorists agree that morality depends on God, there are disagreements about the precise content of the divine commands, and theorists belonging to different religions tend to propose different moral laws. For example, Christian and Jewish divine command theorists may argue that the Ten Commandments express God's will while Muslims may reserve this role for the teachings of the Quran.
Contractualists reject the reference to God as the source of morality and argue instead that morality is based on an explicit or implicit social contract between humans. They state that actual or hypothetical consent to this contract is the source of moral norms and duties. To determine which duties people have, contractualists often rely on a thought experiment about what rational people under ideal circumstances would agree on. For example, if they would agree that people should not lie then there is a moral obligation to refrain from lying. Because it relies on consent, contractualism is often understood as a patient-centered form of deontology. Famous social contract theorists include Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Rawls.
Discourse ethics also focuses on social agreement on moral norms but says that this agreement is based on communicative rationality. It aims to arrive at moral norms for pluralistic modern societies that encompass a diversity of viewpoints. A universal moral norm is seen as valid if all rational discourse participants do or would approve. This way, morality is not imposed by a single moral authority but arises from the moral discourse within society. This discourse should aim to establish an ideal speech situation to ensure fairness and inclusivity. In particular, this means that discourse participants are free to voice their different opinions without coercion but are at the same time required to justify them using rational argumentation.
=== Virtue ethics ===
The main concern of virtue ethics is how virtues are expressed in actions. As such, it is neither directly interested in the consequences of actions nor in universal moral duties. Virtues are positive character traits like honesty, courage, kindness, and compassion. They are usually understood as dispositions to feel, decide, and act in a certain manner by being wholeheartedly committed to this manner. Virtues contrast with vices, which are their harmful counterparts.
Virtue theorists usually say that the mere possession of virtues by itself is not sufficient. Instead, people should manifest virtues in their actions. An important factor is the practical wisdom, also called phronesis, of knowing when, how, and which virtue to express. For example, a lack of practical wisdom may lead courageous people to perform morally wrong actions by taking unnecessary risks that should better be avoided.
Different types of virtue ethics differ on how they understand virtues and their role in practical life. Eudaimonism is the original form of virtue theory developed in Ancient Greek philosophy and draws a close relation between virtuous behavior and happiness. It states that people flourish by living a virtuous life. Eudaimonist theories often hold that virtues are positive potentials residing in human nature and that actualizing these potentials results in leading a good and happy life. Agent-based theories, by contrast, see happiness only as a side effect and focus instead on the admirable traits and motivational characteristics expressed while acting. This is often combined with the idea that one can learn from exceptional individuals what those characteristics are.
Influential schools of virtue ethics in ancient philosophy were Aristotelianism and Stoicism. According to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), each virtue is a golden mean between two types of vices: excess and deficiency. For example, courage is a virtue that lies between the deficient state of cowardice and the excessive state of recklessness. Aristotle held that virtuous action leads to happiness and makes people flourish in life. Stoicism emerged about 300 BCE and taught that, through virtue alone, people can achieve happiness characterized by a peaceful state of mind free from emotional disturbances. The Stoics advocated rationality and self-mastery to achieve this state. In the 20th century, virtue ethics experienced a resurgence thanks to philosophers such as Elizabeth Anscombe, Philippa Foot, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Martha Nussbaum.
=== Other traditions ===
There are many other schools of normative ethics in addition to the three main traditions. Pragmatist ethics focuses on the role of practice and holds that one of the key tasks of ethics is to solve practical problems in concrete situations. It has certain similarities to utilitarianism and its focus on consequences but concentrates more on how morality is embedded in and relative to social and cultural contexts. Pragmatists tend to give more importance to habits than to conscious deliberation and understand morality as a habit that should be shaped in the right way.
Postmodern ethics agrees with pragmatist ethics about the cultural relativity of morality. It rejects the idea that there are objective moral principles that apply universally to all cultures and traditions. It asserts that there is no one coherent ethical code since morality itself is irrational and humans are morally ambivalent beings. Postmodern ethics instead focuses on how moral demands arise in specific situations as one encounters other people.
Ethical egoism is the view that people should act in their self-interest or that an action is morally right if the person acts for their own benefit. It differs from psychological egoism, which states that people actually follow their self-interest without claiming that they should do so. Ethical egoists may act in agreement with commonly accepted moral expectations and benefit other people, for example, by keeping promises, helping friends, and cooperating with others. However, they do so only as a means to promote their self-interest. Ethical egoism is often criticized as an immoral and contradictory position.
Normative ethics has a central place in most religions. Key aspects of Jewish ethics are to follow the 613 commandments of God according to the Mitzvah duty found in the Torah and to take responsibility for societal welfare. Christian ethics puts less emphasis on following precise laws and teaches instead the practice of selfless love, such as the Great Commandment to "Love your neighbor as yourself". The Five Pillars of Islam constitute a basic framework of Muslim ethics and focus on the practice of faith, prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca.
Buddhists emphasize the importance of compassion and loving-kindness towards all sentient entities. A similar outlook is found in Jainism, which has non-violence as its principal virtue. Duty is a central aspect of Hindu ethics and is about fulfilling social obligations, which may vary depending on a person's social class and stage of life. Confucianism places great emphasis on harmony in society and sees benevolence as a key virtue. Taoism extends the importance of living in harmony to the whole world and teaches that people should practice effortless action by following the natural flow of the universe. Indigenous belief systems, like Native American philosophy and the African Ubuntu philosophy, often emphasize the interconnectedness of all living beings and the environment while stressing the importance of living in harmony with nature.
== Metaethics ==
Metaethics is the branch of ethics that examines the nature, foundations, and scope of moral judgments, concepts, and values. It is not interested in which actions are right but in what it means for an action to be right and whether moral judgments are objective and can be true at all. It further examines the meaning of morality and other moral terms. Metaethics is a metatheory that operates on a higher level of abstraction than normative ethics by investigating its underlying assumptions. Metaethical theories typically do not directly judge which normative ethical theories are correct. However, metaethical theories can still influence normative theories by examining their foundational principles.
Metaethics overlaps with various branches of philosophy. On the level of ontology, it examines whether there are objective moral facts. Concerning semantics, it asks what the meaning of moral terms are and whether moral statements have a truth value. The epistemological side of metaethics discusses whether and how people can acquire moral knowledge. Metaethics overlaps with psychology because of its interest in how moral judgments motivate people to act. It also overlaps with anthropology since it aims to explain how cross-cultural differences affect moral assessments.
=== Basic concepts ===
Metaethics examines basic ethical concepts and their relations. Ethics is primarily concerned with normative statements about what ought to be the case, in contrast to descriptive statements, which are about what is the case. Duties and obligations express requirements of what people ought to do. Duties are sometimes defined as counterparts of the rights that always accompany them. According to this view, someone has a duty to benefit another person if this other person has the right to receive that benefit.
Obligation and permission are contrasting terms that can be defined through each other: to be obligated to do something means that one is not permitted not to do it and to be permitted to do something means that one is not obligated not to do it.{{efn|Deontic logic provides a formal system describing the logical relations between these and similar concepts.
Obligations are used to assess the moral status of actions, motives, and character traits. An action is morally right if it is in tune with a person's obligations and morally wrong if it violates them. Supererogation is a special moral status that applies to cases in which the agent does more than is morally required of them. To be morally responsible for an action usually means that the person possesses and exercises certain capacities or some form of control. If a person is morally responsible then it is appropriate to respond to them in certain ways, for example, by praising or blaming them.
=== Realism, relativism, and nihilism ===
A major debate in metaethics is about the ontological status of morality, questioning whether ethical values and principles are real. It examines whether moral properties exist as objective features independent of the human mind and culture rather than as subjective constructs or expressions of personal preferences and cultural norms.
Moral realists accept the claim that there are objective moral facts. This view implies that moral values are mind-independent aspects of reality and that there is an absolute fact about whether a given action is right or wrong. A consequence of this view is that moral requirements have the same ontological status as non-moral facts: it is an objective fact whether there is an obligation to keep a promise just as it is an objective fact whether a thing is rectangular. It implies that if two people disagree about a moral evaluation then at least one of them is wrong. This observation is sometimes taken as an argument against moral realism since moral disagreement is widespread in most fields.
Moral relativists reject the idea that morality is an objective feature of reality. They argue instead that moral principles are human inventions. This means that a behavior is not objectively right or wrong but only subjectively right or wrong relative to a certain standpoint. Moral standpoints may differ between persons, cultures, and historical periods. For example, moral statements like "Slavery is wrong" or "Suicide is permissible" may be true in one culture and false in another. Some moral relativists say that moral systems are constructed to serve certain goals such as social coordination. According to this view, different societies and different social groups within a society construct different moral systems based on their diverging purposes. Emotivism provides a different explanation, stating that morality arises from moral emotions, which are not the same for everyone.
Moral nihilists deny the existence of moral facts. They reject the existence of both objective moral facts defended by moral realism and subjective moral facts defended by moral relativism. They believe that the basic assumptions underlying moral claims are misguided. Some moral nihilists conclude from this that anything is allowed. A slightly different view emphasizes that moral nihilism is not itself a moral position about what is allowed and prohibited but the rejection of any moral position. Moral nihilism, like moral relativism, recognizes that people judge actions as right or wrong from different perspectives. However, it disagrees that this practice involves morality and sees it as just one type of human behavior.
==== Naturalism and non-naturalism ====
A central disagreement among moral realists is between naturalism and non-naturalism. Naturalism states that moral properties are natural properties accessible to empirical observation. They are similar to the natural properties investigated by the natural sciences, like color and shape. Some moral naturalists hold that moral properties are a unique and basic type of natural property. Another view states that moral properties are real but not a fundamental part of reality and can be reduced to other natural properties, such as properties describing the causes of pleasure and pain.
Non-naturalism argues that moral properties form part of reality and that moral features are not identical or reducible to natural properties. This view is usually motivated by the idea that moral properties are unique because they express what should be the case. Proponents of this position often emphasize this uniqueness by claiming that it is a fallacy to define ethics in terms of natural entities or to infer prescriptive from descriptive statements.
=== Cognitivism and non-cognitivism ===
The metaethical debate between cognitivism and non-cognitivism is about the meaning of moral statements and is a part of the study of semantics. According to cognitivism, moral statements like "Abortion is morally wrong" and "Going to war is never morally justified" are truth-apt, meaning that they all have a truth value: they are either true or false. Cognitivism claims that moral statements have a truth value but is not interested in which truth value they have. It is often seen as the default position since moral statements resemble other statements, like "Abortion is a medical procedure" or "Going to war is a political decision", which have a truth value.
There is a close relation between the semantic theory of cognitivism and the ontological theory of moral realism. Moral realists assert that moral facts exist. This can be used to explain why moral statements are true or false: a statement is true if it is consistent with the facts and false otherwise. As a result, philosophers who accept one theory often accept the other as well. An exception is error theory, which combines cognitivism with moral nihilism by claiming that all moral statements are false because there are no moral facts.
Non-cognitivism is the view that moral statements lack a truth value. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" is neither true nor false. Some non-cognitivists claim that moral statements have no meaning at all. A different interpretation is that they have another type of meaning. Emotivism says that they articulate emotional attitudes. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" expresses that the speaker has a negative moral attitude towards murder or disapproves of it. Prescriptivism, by contrast, understands moral statements as commands. According to this view, stating that "Murder is wrong" expresses a command like "Do not commit murder".
=== Moral knowledge ===
The epistemology of ethics studies whether or how one can know moral truths. Foundationalist views state that some moral beliefs are basic and do not require further justification. Ethical intuitionism is one such view that says that humans have a special cognitive faculty through which they can know right from wrong. Intuitionists often argue that general moral truths, like "Lying is wrong", are self-evident and that it is possible to know them without relying on empirical experience. A different foundationalist position focuses on particular observations rather than general intuitions. It says that if people are confronted with a concrete moral situation, they can perceive whether right or wrong conduct was involved.
In contrast to foundationalists, coherentists say that there are no basic moral beliefs. They argue that beliefs form a complex network and mutually support and justify one another. According to this view, a moral belief can only amount to knowledge if it coheres with the rest of the beliefs in the network.
Thought experiments are used as a method in ethics to decide between competing theories. They usually present an imagined situation involving an ethical dilemma and explore how people's intuitions of right and wrong change based on specific details in that situation. For example, in Philippa Foot's trolley problem, a person can flip a switch to redirect a trolley from one track to another, thereby sacrificing the life of one person to save five. This scenario explores how the difference between doing and allowing harm affects moral obligations. Another thought experiment, proposed by Judith Jarvis Thomson, examines the moral implications of abortion by imagining a situation in which a person gets connected without their consent to an ill violinist. In this scenario, the violinist dies if the connection is severed, similar to how a fetus dies in the case of abortion. The thought experiment explores whether it would be morally permissible to sever the connection within the next nine months.
=== Moral motivation ===
On the level of psychology, metaethics is interested in how moral beliefs and experiences affect behavior. According to motivational internalists, there is a direct link between moral judgments and action. This means that every judgment about what is right motivates the person to act accordingly. For example, Socrates defends a strong form of motivational internalism by holding that a person can only perform an evil deed if they are unaware that it is evil. Weaker forms of motivational internalism say that people can act against their own moral judgments, for example, because of the weakness of the will. Motivational externalists accept that people can judge an act to be morally required without feeling a reason to engage in it. This means that moral judgments do not always provide motivational force. A closely related question is whether moral judgments can provide motivation on their own or need to be accompanied by other mental states, such as a desire to act morally.
== Applied ethics ==
Applied ethics, also known as practical ethics, is the branch of ethics and applied philosophy that examines concrete moral problems encountered in real-life situations. Unlike normative ethics, it is not concerned with discovering or justifying universal ethical principles. Instead, it studies how those principles can be applied to specific domains of practical life, what consequences they have in these fields, and whether additional domain-specific factors need to be considered.
One of the main challenges of applied ethics is to breach the gap between abstract universal theories and their application to concrete situations. For example, an in-depth understanding of Kantianism or utilitarianism is usually not sufficient to decide how to analyze the moral implications of a medical procedure like abortion. One reason is that it may not be clear how the Kantian requirement of respecting everyone's personhood applies to a fetus or, from a utilitarian perspective, what the long-term consequences are in terms of the greatest good for the greatest number. This difficulty is particularly relevant to applied ethicists who employ a top-down methodology by starting from universal ethical principles and applying them to particular cases within a specific domain. A different approach is to use a bottom-up methodology, known as casuistry. This method does not start from universal principles but from moral intuitions about particular cases. It seeks to arrive at moral principles relevant to a specific domain, which may not be applicable to other domains. In either case, inquiry into applied ethics is often triggered by ethical dilemmas in which a person is subject to conflicting moral requirements.
Applied ethics covers issues belonging to both the private sphere, like right conduct in the family and close relationships, and the public sphere, like moral problems posed by new technologies and duties toward future generations. Major branches include bioethics, business ethics, and professional ethics. There are many other branches, and their domains of inquiry often overlap.
=== Bioethics ===
Bioethics covers moral problems associated with living organisms and biological disciplines. A key problem in bioethics is how features such as consciousness, being able to feel pleasure and pain, rationality, and personhood affect the moral status of entities. These differences concern, for example, how to treat non-living entities like rocks and non-sentient entities like plants in contrast to animals, and whether humans have a different moral status than other animals. According to anthropocentrism, only humans have a basic moral status. This suggests that all other entities possess a derivative moral status only insofar as they impact human life. Sentientism, by contrast, extends an inherent moral status to all sentient beings. Further positions include biocentrism, which also covers non-sentient lifeforms, and ecocentrism, which states that all of nature has a basic moral status.
Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and many professions. It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like abortion, cloning, stem cell research, euthanasia, suicide, animal testing, intensive animal farming, nuclear waste, and air pollution.
Bioethics can be divided into medical ethics, animal ethics, and environmental ethics based on whether the ethical problems relate to humans, other animals, or nature in general. Medical ethics is the oldest branch of bioethics. The Hippocratic Oath is one of the earliest texts to engage in medical ethics by establishing ethical guidelines for medical practitioners like a prohibition to harm the patient. Medical ethics often addresses issues related to the start and end of life. It examines the moral status of fetuses, for example, whether they are full-fledged persons and whether abortion is a form of murder. Ethical issues also arise about whether a person has the right to end their life in cases of terminal illness or chronic suffering and if doctors may help them do so. Other topics in medical ethics include medical confidentiality, informed consent, research on human beings, organ transplantation, and access to healthcare. A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of animal rights. Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans should respect this status when interacting with them. Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.
Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants, natural resources, and ecosystems. In its widest sense, it covers the whole cosmos. In the domain of agriculture, this concerns the circumstances under which the vegetation of an area may be cleared to use it for farming and the implications of planting genetically modified crops. On a wider scale, environmental ethics addresses the problem of global warming and people's responsibility on the individual and collective levels, including topics like climate justice and duties towards future generations. Environmental ethicists often promote sustainable practices and policies directed at protecting and conserving ecosystems and biodiversity.
=== Business and professional ethics ===
Business ethics examines the moral implications of business conduct and how ethical principles apply to corporations and organizations. A key topic is corporate social responsibility, which is the responsibility of corporations to act in a manner that benefits society at large. Corporate social responsibility is a complex issue since many stakeholders are directly and indirectly involved in corporate decisions, such as the CEO, the board of directors, and the shareholders. A closely related topic is the question of whether corporations themselves, and not just their stakeholders, have moral agency. Business ethics further examines the role of honesty and fairness in business practices as well as the moral implications of bribery, conflict of interest, protection of investors and consumers, worker's rights, ethical leadership, and corporate philanthropy. Principles applying to many professions include that the professional has the required expertise for the intended work and that they have personal integrity and are trustworthy. Further principles are to serve the interest of their target group, follow client confidentiality, and respect and uphold the client's rights, such as informed consent. More precise requirements often vary between professions. A cornerstone of engineering ethics is to protect public safety, health, and well-being. Legal ethics emphasizes the importance of respect for justice, personal integrity, and confidentiality. Key factors in journalism ethics include accuracy, truthfulness, independence, and impartiality as well as proper attribution to avoid plagiarism.
=== Other subfields ===
Many other fields of applied ethics are discussed in the academic literature. Communication ethics covers moral principles of communicative conduct. Two key issues in it are freedom of speech and speech responsibility. Freedom of speech concerns the ability to articulate one's opinions and ideas without the threats of punishment and censorship. Speech responsibility is about being accountable for the consequences of communicative action and inaction. A closely related field is information ethics, which focuses on the moral implications of creating, controlling, disseminating, and using information.
The ethics of technology examines the moral issues associated with the creation and use of any artifact, from simple spears to high-tech computers and nanotechnology. Central topics in the ethics of technology include the risks associated with creating new technologies, their responsible use, and questions about human enhancement through technological means, such as performance-enhancing drugs and genetic enhancement. Important subfields include computer ethics, ethics of artificial intelligence, machine ethics, ethics of nanotechnology, and nuclear ethics.
The ethics of war investigates moral problems of war and violent conflicts. According to just war theory, waging war is morally justified if it fulfills certain conditions. These conditions are commonly divided into requirements concerning the cause to initiate violent activities, such as self-defense, and the way those violent activities are conducted, such as avoiding excessive harm to civilians in the pursuit of legitimate military targets. Military ethics is a closely related field that is interested in the conduct of military personnel. It governs questions of the circumstances under which they are permitted to kill enemies, destroy infrastructure, and put the lives of their own troops at risk. Additional topics are the recruitment, training, and discharge of military personnel.
Other fields of applied ethics include political ethics, which examines the moral dimensions of political decisions, educational ethics, which covers ethical issues related to proper teaching practices, and sexual ethics, which addresses the moral implications of sexual behavior.
== Related fields ==
=== Value theory ===
Value theory, also called axiology, is the philosophical study of value. It examines the nature and types of value. A central distinction is between intrinsic and instrumental value. An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake. An entity has instrumental value if it is valuable as a means to something else, for example, by causing something that has intrinsic value. Other topics include what kinds of things have value and how valuable they are. For instance, axiological hedonists say that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value and that the magnitude of value corresponds to the degree of pleasure. Axiological pluralists, by contrast, hold that there are different sources of intrinsic value, such as happiness, knowledge, and beauty.
There are disagreements about the exact relation between value theory and ethics. Some philosophers characterize value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics while others see value theory as the broader term that encompasses other fields besides ethics, such as aesthetics and political philosophy. A different characterization sees the two disciplines as overlapping but distinct fields. The term axiological ethics is sometimes used for the discipline studying this overlap, that is, the part of ethics that studies values. The two disciplines are sometimes distinguished based on their focus: ethics is about moral behavior or what is right while value theory is about value or what is good. Some ethical theories, like consequentialism, stand very close to value theory by defining what is right in terms of what is good. But this is not true for ethics in general and deontological theories tend to reject the idea that what is good can be used to define what is right.
=== Moral psychology ===
Moral psychology explores the psychological foundations and processes involved in moral behavior. It is an empirical science that studies how humans think and act in moral contexts. It is interested in how moral reasoning and judgments take place, how moral character forms, what sensitivity people have to moral evaluations, and how people attribute and react to moral responsibility.
One of its key topics is moral development or the question of how morality develops on a psychological level from infancy to adulthood. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, children go through different stages of moral development as they understand moral principles first as fixed rules governing reward and punishment, then as conventional social norms, and later as abstract principles of what is objectively right across societies. A closely related question is whether and how people can be taught to act morally.
Evolutionary ethics, a closely related field, explores how evolutionary processes have shaped ethics. One of its key ideas is that natural selection is responsible for moral behavior and moral sensitivity. It interprets morality as an adaptation to evolutionary pressure that augments fitness by offering a selective advantage. Altruism, for example, can provide benefits to group survival by improving cooperation. Some theorists, like Mark Rowlands, argue that morality is not limited to humans, meaning that some non-human animals act based on moral emotions. Others explore evolutionary precursors to morality in non-human animals.
=== Descriptive ethics ===
Descriptive ethics, also called comparative ethics, studies existing moral codes, practices, and beliefs. It investigates and compares moral phenomena in different societies and different groups within a society. It aims to provide a value-neutral and empirical description without judging or justifying which practices are objectively right. For instance, the question of how nurses think about the ethical implications of abortion belongs to descriptive ethics. Another example is descriptive business ethics, which describes ethical standards in the context of business, including common practices, official policies, and employee opinions. Descriptive ethics also has a historical dimension by exploring how moral practices and beliefs have changed over time.
Descriptive ethics is a multidisciplinary field that is covered by disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and history. Its empirical outlook contrasts with the philosophical inquiry into normative questions, such as which ethical principles are correct and how to justify them.
== History ==
The history of ethics studies how moral philosophy has developed and evolved in the course of history. It has its origin in ancient civilizations. In ancient Egypt, the concept of Maat was used as an ethical principle to guide behavior and maintain order by emphasizing the importance of truth, balance, and harmony. In ancient India starting in the 2nd millennium BCE, the Vedas and later Upanishads were composed as the foundational texts of Hindu philosophy and discussed the role of duty and the consequences of one's actions. Buddhist ethics originated in ancient India between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and advocated compassion, non-violence, and the pursuit of enlightenment. Ancient China in the 6th century BCE saw the emergence of Confucianism, which focuses on moral conduct and self-cultivation by acting in agreement with virtues, and Daoism, which teaches that human behavior should be in harmony with the natural order of the universe.
In ancient Greece, Socrates () emphasized the importance of inquiry into what a good life is by critically questioning established ideas and exploring concepts like virtue, justice, courage, and wisdom. According to Plato (), to lead a good life means that the different parts of the soul are in harmony with each other. For Aristotle (384–322 BCE), a good life is associated with being happy by cultivating virtues and flourishing. Starting in the 4th century BCE, the close relation between right action and happiness was also explored by the Hellenistic schools of Epicureanism, which recommended a simple lifestyle without indulging in sensory pleasures, and Stoicism, which advocated living in tune with reason and virtue while practicing self-mastery and becoming immune to disturbing emotions.
Ethical thought in the medieval period was strongly influenced by religious teachings. Christian philosophers interpreted moral principles as divine commands originating from God. Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274 CE) developed natural law ethics by claiming that ethical behavior consists in following the laws and order of nature, which he believed were created by God. In the Islamic world, philosophers like Al-Farabi () and Avicenna (980–1037 CE) synthesized ancient Greek philosophy with the ethical teachings of Islam while emphasizing the harmony between reason and faith. In medieval India, Hindu philosophers like Adi Shankara () and Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE) saw the practice of spirituality to attain liberation as the highest goal of human behavior.
Moral philosophy in the modern period was characterized by a shift toward a secular approach to ethics. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) identified self-interest as the primary drive of humans. He concluded that it would lead to "a war of every man against every man" unless a social contract is established to avoid this outcome. David Hume (1711–1776) thought that only moral sentiments, like empathy, can motivate ethical actions while he saw reason not as a motivating factor but only as what anticipates the consequences of possible actions. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), by contrast, saw reason as the source of morality. He formulated a deontological theory, according to which the ethical value of actions depends on their conformity with moral laws independent of their outcome. These laws take the form of categorical imperatives, which are universal requirements that apply to every situation.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) saw Kant's categorical imperative on its own as an empty formalism and emphasized the role of social institutions in providing concrete content to moral duties. According to the Christian philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), the demands of ethical duties are sometimes suspended when doing God's will. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) formulated criticisms of both Christian and Kantian morality. Another influential development in this period was the formulation of utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). According to the utilitarian doctrine, actions should promote happiness while reducing suffering and the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
An important development in 20th-century ethics in analytic philosophy was the emergence of metaethics. Significant early contributions to this field were made by G. E. Moore (1873–1958), who argued that moral values are essentially different from other properties found in the natural world. R. M. Hare (1919–2002) followed this idea in formulating his prescriptivism, which states that moral statements are commands that, unlike regular judgments, are neither true nor false. J. L. Mackie (1917–1981) suggested that every moral statement is false since there are no moral facts. An influential argument for moral realism was made by Derek Parfit (1942–2017), who argued that morality concerns objective features of reality that give people reasons to act in one way or another. Bernard Williams (1929–2003) agreed with the close relation between reasons and ethics but defended a subjective view instead that sees reasons as internal mental states that may or may not reflect external reality.
Another development in this period was the revival of ancient virtue ethics by philosophers like Philippa Foot (1920–2010). In the field of political philosophy, John Rawls (1921–2002) relied on Kantian ethics to analyze social justice as a form of fairness. In continental philosophy, phenomenologists such as Max Scheler (1874–1928) and Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950) built ethical systems based on the claim that values have objective reality that can be investigated using the phenomenological method. Existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) and Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986), by contrast, held that values are created by humans and explored the consequences of this view in relation to individual freedom, responsibility, and authenticity. This period also saw the emergence of feminist ethics, which questions traditional ethical assumptions associated with a male perspective and puts alternative concepts, like care, at the center.
|
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"Biocentrism (ethics)",
"desire",
"ethics of artificial intelligence",
"mind",
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"medical procedure",
"habit",
"rights",
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"corporate social responsibility",
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"moral responsibility",
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"Jeremy Bentham",
"Universalizability",
"phronesis",
"Tao",
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"consent",
"animal ethics",
"courage",
"Elizabeth Anscombe",
"biodiversity",
"Moral nihilism",
"air pollution",
"Imperative mood",
"G. E. M. Anscombe",
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"Tikkun Olam",
"Jus ad bellum",
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"morality",
"ancient India",
"Ethics committee",
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"Moral reasoning",
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"weakness of the will",
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"Hindu ethics",
"Adi Shankara",
"philosophy",
"John Rawls",
"Axiology",
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"agriculture",
"treatment of animals",
"Is–ought problem",
"engineering ethics",
"Maat",
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"Life",
"Thomas Hobbes",
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"Judith Jarvis Thomson",
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"knowledge",
"Control (psychology)",
"Legal ethics",
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"Hajj",
"Āśrama (stage)",
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"John Stuart Mill",
"Maxim (philosophy)",
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"ethical leadership",
"Causality",
"character trait",
"rule utilitarianism",
"Moral obligation",
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"Duty",
"Bernard Williams",
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"Great Commandment",
"Jus in bello",
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"Social norm",
"metaethics",
"Lawrence Kohlberg",
"virtue ethics",
"culture",
"Ancient Greece",
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"Moral psychology",
"virtue",
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"suicide",
"political philosophy",
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"applied philosophy",
"expected value",
"Moral realism",
"Medical ethics",
"God's will",
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"Action (philosophy)",
"empirical science",
"ethics of war",
"Philippa Foot",
"judgment",
"Rationality",
"Epicureanism",
"Sentientism",
"error theory",
"Ancient Greek",
"lawyer",
"informed consent",
"Collective responsibility",
"G. E. Moore",
"Moksha",
"animal rights",
"self-interest",
"existentialism",
"Mohism",
"personhood",
"Eudaimonia",
"methodology",
"Native American philosophy",
"healthcare",
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"contradictory",
"nuclear ethics",
"formal system",
"cosmos",
"Moral education",
"Ubuntu philosophy",
"Taoism",
"Act utilitarianism",
"Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel",
"Moral responsibility",
"ignorance",
"nanotechnology",
"social convention",
"well-being",
"W. D. Ross",
"Søren Kierkegaard",
"innocent",
"David Hume",
"global warming",
"Jewish ethics",
"Moral skepticism",
"Aristotelianism",
"murder",
"Positive statement",
"Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)",
"philanthropy",
"ethical code",
"ethical dilemma",
"freedom",
"Christian ethics",
"Value (ethics and social sciences)",
"Norm (philosophy)",
"beauty",
"Mark Rowlands",
"vice",
"Secular ethics",
"ecosystem",
"deontology",
"Motivation",
"Kantian ethics",
"Alasdair MacIntyre",
"engineer",
"character traits",
"freedom of speech",
"613 commandments",
"Recklessness (psychology)",
"animal testing",
"ethical egoism",
"Aristotelian ethics",
"moral emotions",
"sexual ethics",
"Golden mean (philosophy)",
"Max Scheler",
"Internalism and externalism",
"evaluation",
"Ancient India",
"Decision-making",
"sociology",
"casuistry",
"supererogation",
"Postmodernism",
"A priori and a posteriori",
"Sawm",
"Human genetic enhancement",
"axiological ethics",
"Principia Ethica",
"R. M. Hare",
"Communication",
"impartiality",
"utilitarianism",
"Deontic logic",
"compassion",
"Intuition",
"medical confidentiality",
"natural sciences",
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"moral reasoning",
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"Meaning of life",
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"psychology",
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"history",
"medical ethics",
"Quran",
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"role model",
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"promise",
"Pragmatist ethics",
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"feminist ethics",
"legitimate military target",
"practical reason",
"Chinese philosophy",
"Karma",
"institution",
"metatheory",
"happiness",
"immoral",
"Martha Nussbaum",
"Old French",
"Ancient China",
"organ transplantation",
"normative statement",
"Supererogation",
"information",
"Dharma",
"ethics of care",
"Fitness (biology)",
"Simone de Beauvoir",
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"truth value",
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"genetically modified crops",
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"mental states",
"is–ought problem",
"Zakat",
"conflict of interest",
"value-neutral",
"Buddhism",
"J. L. Mackie",
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"Hellenistic",
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"Nicolai Hartmann",
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"anthropocentrism",
"Shahada",
"Human sexual activity",
"professional ethics",
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"machine ethics",
"Immanuel Kant",
"Wu wei",
"Daoism",
"interpersonal relationship",
"Plato",
"bioethics",
"pain",
"Ethos",
"information ethics",
"Contemporary ethics",
"ontology",
"Salat",
"blame",
"profession",
"Jean-Paul Sartre",
"ancient period",
"Ramanuja",
"pleasure",
"climate justice",
"honesty",
"epistemological",
"Justice as Fairness",
"value theory",
"Mettā",
"moral development",
"Attribution (journalism)",
"hedonic calculus",
"Upanishads",
"social contract",
"moral luck",
"military personnel",
"A Defense of Abortion",
"societies",
"Buddhist ethics",
"Ethics of care",
"moral character",
"client confidentiality",
"descriptive ethics",
"Coherentism",
"Deontology",
"communicative rationality",
"Al-Farabi",
"praise",
"journalism ethics",
"Evolution of morality",
"Enlightenment in Buddhism",
"Freedom of speech",
"Altruism",
"Thomas Aquinas",
"Five Pillars of Islam",
"self-evident",
"Jürgen Habermas",
"Thought experiment",
"Evolutionary ethics",
"psychological egoism",
"Latin",
"modern period",
"cultural relativity",
"analytic philosophy",
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"frame of reference",
"ancient Egypt",
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"Dao",
"Cruelty to animals",
"trolley problem",
"Outline of ethics",
"plagiarism",
"anthropology",
"ethics of technology",
"John Locke",
"Einstein's theory of relativity",
"divine command",
"suffering",
"Ethical intuitionism"
] |
9,259 |
Equivalence relation
|
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation. A simpler example is equality. Any number a is equal to itself (reflexive). If a = b, then b = a (symmetric). If a = b and b = c, then a = c (transitive).
Each equivalence relation provides a partition of the underlying set into disjoint equivalence classes. Two elements of the given set are equivalent to each other if and only if they belong to the same equivalence class.
== Notation ==
Various notations are used in the literature to denote that two elements a and b of a set are equivalent with respect to an equivalence relation R; the most common are "a \sim b" and "", which are used when R is implicit, and variations of "a \sim_R b", "", or "{a\mathop{R}b}" to specify R explicitly. Non-equivalence may be written "" or "a \not\equiv b".
== Definition ==
A binary relation \,\sim\, on a set X is said to be an equivalence relation, if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. That is, for all a, b, and c in X:
a \sim a (reflexivity).
a \sim b if and only if b \sim a (symmetry).
If a \sim b and b \sim c then a \sim c (transitivity).
X together with the relation \,\sim\, is called a setoid. The equivalence class of a under \,\sim, denoted [a], is defined as [a] = \{x \in X : x \sim a\}.
=== Alternative definition using relational algebra ===
In relational algebra, if R\subseteq X\times Y and S\subseteq Y\times Z are relations, then the composite relation SR\subseteq X\times Z is defined so that x \, SR \, z if and only if there is a y\in Y such that x \, R \, y and y \, S \, z. This definition is a generalisation of the definition of functional composition. The defining properties of an equivalence relation R on a set X can then be reformulated as follows:
\operatorname{id} \subseteq R. (reflexivity). (Here, \operatorname{id} denotes the identity function on X.)
R=R^{-1} (symmetry).
RR\subseteq R (transitivity).
== Examples ==
=== Simple example ===
On the set X = \{a, b, c\}, the relation R = \{(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (b, c), (c, b)\} is an equivalence relation. The following sets are equivalence classes of this relation:
[a] = \{a\}, ~~~~ [b] = [c] = \{b, c\}.
The set of all equivalence classes for R is \{\{a\}, \{b, c\}\}. This set is a partition of the set X. It is also called the quotient set of X by R.
=== Equivalence relations ===
The following relations are all equivalence relations:
"Is equal to" on the set of numbers. For example, \tfrac{1}{2} is equal to \tfrac{4}{8}.
"Has the same birthday as" on the set of all people.
=== Relations that are not equivalences ===
The relation "≥" between real numbers is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric. For example, 7 ≥ 5 but not 5 ≥ 7.
The relation "has a common factor greater than 1 with" between natural numbers greater than 1, is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive. For example, the natural numbers 2 and 6 have a common factor greater than 1, and 6 and 3 have a common factor greater than 1, but 2 and 3 do not have a common factor greater than 1.
The empty relation R (defined so that aRb is never true) on a set X is vacuously symmetric and transitive; however, it is not reflexive (unless X itself is empty).
The relation "is approximately equal to" between real numbers, even if more precisely defined, is not an equivalence relation, because although reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive, since multiple small changes can accumulate to become a big change. However, if the approximation is defined asymptotically, for example by saying that two functions f and g are approximately equal near some point if the limit of f − g is 0 at that point, then this defines an equivalence relation.
== Connections to other relations ==
A partial order is a relation that is reflexive, , and transitive.
Equality is both an equivalence relation and a partial order. Equality is also the only relation on a set that is reflexive, symmetric and antisymmetric. In algebraic expressions, equal variables may be substituted for one another, a facility that is not available for equivalence related variables. The equivalence classes of an equivalence relation can substitute for one another, but not individuals within a class.
A strict partial order is irreflexive, transitive, and asymmetric.
A partial equivalence relation is transitive and symmetric. Such a relation is reflexive if and only if it is total, that is, if for all a, there exists some b \text{ such that } a \sim b. Therefore, an equivalence relation may be alternatively defined as a symmetric, transitive, and total relation.
A ternary equivalence relation is a ternary analogue to the usual (binary) equivalence relation.
A reflexive and symmetric relation is a dependency relation (if finite), and a tolerance relation if infinite.
A preorder is reflexive and transitive.
A congruence relation is an equivalence relation whose domain X is also the underlying set for an algebraic structure, and which respects the additional structure. In general, congruence relations play the role of kernels of homomorphisms, and the quotient of a structure by a congruence relation can be formed. In many important cases, congruence relations have an alternative representation as substructures of the structure on which they are defined (e.g., the congruence relations on groups correspond to the normal subgroups).
Any equivalence relation is the negation of an apartness relation, though the converse statement only holds in classical mathematics (as opposed to constructive mathematics), since it is equivalent to the law of excluded middle.
Each relation that is both reflexive and left (or right) Euclidean is also an equivalence relation.
== Well-definedness under an equivalence relation ==
If \,\sim\, is an equivalence relation on X, and P(x) is a property of elements of X, such that whenever x \sim y, P(x) is true if P(y) is true, then the property P is said to be well-defined or a under the relation \,\sim.
A frequent particular case occurs when f is a function from X to another set Y; if x_1 \sim x_2 implies f\left(x_1\right) = f\left(x_2\right) then f is said to be a for \,\sim, a \,\sim, or simply \,\sim. This occurs, e.g. in the character theory of finite groups. The latter case with the function f can be expressed by a commutative triangle. See also invariant. Some authors use "compatible with \,\sim" or just "respects \,\sim" instead of "invariant under \,\sim".
More generally, a function may map equivalent arguments (under an equivalence relation \,\sim_A) to equivalent values (under an equivalence relation \,\sim_B). Such a function is known as a morphism from \,\sim_A to \,\sim_B.
== Related important definitions ==
Let a, b \in X, and \sim be an equivalence relation. Some key definitions and terminology follow:
=== Equivalence class ===
A subset Y of X such that a \sim b holds for all a and b in Y, and never for a in Y and b outside Y, is called an equivalence class of X by \sim. Let [a] := \{x \in X : a \sim x\} denote the equivalence class to which a belongs. All elements of X equivalent to each other are also elements of the same equivalence class.
=== Quotient set ===
The set of all equivalence classes of X by \sim, denoted X / \mathord{\sim} := \{[x] : x \in X\}, is the quotient set of X by \sim. If X is a topological space, there is a natural way of transforming X / \sim into a topological space; see Quotient space for the details.
=== Projection ===
The projection of \,\sim\, is the function \pi : X \to X/\mathord{\sim} defined by \pi(x) = [x] which maps elements of X into their respective equivalence classes by \,\sim.
Theorem on projections: Let the function f : X \to B be such that if a \sim b then f(a) = f(b). Then there is a unique function g : X / \sim \to B such that f = g \pi. If f is a surjection and a \sim b \text{ if and only if } f(a) = f(b), then g is a bijection.
=== Equivalence kernel ===
The equivalence kernel of a function f is the equivalence relation ~ defined by x \sim y \text{ if and only if } f(x) = f(y). The equivalence kernel of an injection is the identity relation.
=== Partition ===
A partition of X is a set P of nonempty subsets of X, such that every element of X is an element of a single element of P. Each element of P is a cell of the partition. Moreover, the elements of P are pairwise disjoint and their union is X.
==== Counting partitions ====
Let X be a finite set with n elements. Since every equivalence relation over X corresponds to a partition of X, and vice versa, the number of equivalence relations on X equals the number of distinct partitions of X, which is the nth Bell number Bn:
B_n = \frac{1}{e} \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{k^n}{k!} \quad (Dobinski's formula).
== Fundamental theorem of equivalence relations ==
A key result links equivalence relations and partitions:
An equivalence relation ~ on a set X partitions X.
Conversely, corresponding to any partition of X, there exists an equivalence relation ~ on X.
In both cases, the cells of the partition of X are the equivalence classes of X by ~. Since each element of X belongs to a unique cell of any partition of X, and since each cell of the partition is identical to an equivalence class of X by ~, each element of X belongs to a unique equivalence class of X by ~. Thus there is a natural bijection between the set of all equivalence relations on X and the set of all partitions of X.
== Comparing equivalence relations ==
If \sim and \approx are two equivalence relations on the same set S, and a \sim b implies a \approx b for all a, b \in S, then \approx is said to be a coarser relation than \sim, and \sim is a finer relation than \approx. Equivalently,
\sim is finer than \approx if every equivalence class of \sim is a subset of an equivalence class of \approx, and thus every equivalence class of \approx is a union of equivalence classes of \sim.
\sim is finer than \approx if the partition created by \sim is a refinement of the partition created by \approx.
The equality equivalence relation is the finest equivalence relation on any set, while the universal relation, which relates all pairs of elements, is the coarsest.
The relation "\sim is finer than \approx" on the collection of all equivalence relations on a fixed set is itself a partial order relation, which makes the collection a geometric lattice.
== Generating equivalence relations ==
Given any set X, an equivalence relation over the set [X \to X] of all functions X \to X can be obtained as follows. Two functions are deemed equivalent when their respective sets of fixpoints have the same cardinality, corresponding to cycles of length one in a permutation.
An equivalence relation \,\sim\, on X is the equivalence kernel of its surjective projection \pi : X \to X / \sim. Conversely, any surjection between sets determines a partition on its domain, the set of preimages of singletons in the codomain. Thus an equivalence relation over X, a partition of X, and a projection whose domain is X, are three equivalent ways of specifying the same thing.
The intersection of any collection of equivalence relations over X (binary relations viewed as a subset of X \times X) is also an equivalence relation. This yields a convenient way of generating an equivalence relation: given any binary relation R on X, the equivalence relation is the intersection of all equivalence relations containing R (also known as the smallest equivalence relation containing R). Concretely, R generates the equivalence relation
a \sim b if there exists a natural number n and elements x_0, \ldots, x_n \in X such that a = x_0, b = x_n, and x_{i-1} \mathrel{R} x_i or x_i \mathrel{R} x_{i-1}, for i = 1, \ldots, n.
The equivalence relation generated in this manner can be trivial. For instance, the equivalence relation generated by any total order on X has exactly one equivalence class, X itself.
Equivalence relations can construct new spaces by "gluing things together." Let X be the unit Cartesian square [0, 1] \times [0, 1], and let ~ be the equivalence relation on X defined by (a, 0) \sim (a, 1) for all a \in [0, 1] and (0, b) \sim (1, b) for all b \in [0, 1], Then the quotient space X / \sim can be naturally identified (homeomorphism) with a torus: take a square piece of paper, bend and glue together the upper and lower edge to form a cylinder, then bend the resulting cylinder so as to glue together its two open ends, resulting in a torus.
== Algebraic structure ==
Much of mathematics is grounded in the study of equivalences, and order relations. Lattice theory captures the mathematical structure of order relations. Even though equivalence relations are as ubiquitous in mathematics as order relations, the algebraic structure of equivalences is not as well known as that of orders. The former structure draws primarily on group theory and, to a lesser extent, on the theory of lattices, categories, and groupoids.
=== Group theory ===
Just as order relations are grounded in ordered sets, sets closed under pairwise supremum and infimum, equivalence relations are grounded in partitioned sets, which are sets closed under bijections that preserve partition structure. Since all such bijections map an equivalence class onto itself, such bijections are also known as permutations. Hence permutation groups (also known as transformation groups) and the related notion of orbit shed light on the mathematical structure of equivalence relations.
Let '~' denote an equivalence relation over some nonempty set A, called the universe or underlying set. Let G denote the set of bijective functions over A that preserve the partition structure of A, meaning that for all x \in A and g \in G, g(x) \in [x]. Then the following three connected theorems hold:
~ partitions A into equivalence classes. (This is the , mentioned above);
Given a partition of A, G is a transformation group under composition, whose orbits are the cells of the partition;
Given a transformation group G over A, there exists an equivalence relation ~ over A, whose equivalence classes are the orbits of G.
In sum, given an equivalence relation ~ over A, there exists a transformation group G over A whose orbits are the equivalence classes of A under ~.
This transformation group characterisation of equivalence relations differs fundamentally from the way lattices characterize order relations. The arguments of the lattice theory operations meet and join are elements of some universe A. Meanwhile, the arguments of the transformation group operations composition and inverse are elements of a set of bijections, A → A.
Moving to groups in general, let H be a subgroup of some group G. Let ~ be an equivalence relation on G, such that a \sim b \text{ if and only if } a b^{-1} \in H. The equivalence classes of ~—also called the orbits of the action of H on G—are the right cosets of H in G. Interchanging a and b yields the left cosets.
Related thinking can be found in Rosen (2008: chpt. 10).
=== Categories and groupoids ===
Let G be a set and let "~" denote an equivalence relation over G. Then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows. The objects are the elements of G, and for any two elements x and y of G, there exists a unique morphism from x to y if and only if x \sim y.
The advantages of regarding an equivalence relation as a special case of a groupoid include:
Whereas the notion of "free equivalence relation" does not exist, that of a free groupoid on a directed graph does. Thus it is meaningful to speak of a "presentation of an equivalence relation," i.e., a presentation of the corresponding groupoid;
Bundles of groups, group actions, sets, and equivalence relations can be regarded as special cases of the notion of groupoid, a point of view that suggests a number of analogies;
In many contexts "quotienting," and hence the appropriate equivalence relations often called congruences, are important. This leads to the notion of an internal groupoid in a category.
=== Lattices ===
The equivalence relations on any set X, when ordered by set inclusion, form a complete lattice, called Con X by convention. The canonical map ker : X^X → Con X, relates the monoid X^X of all functions on X and Con X. ker is surjective but not injective. Less formally, the equivalence relation ker on X, takes each function f : X → X to its kernel ker f. Likewise, ker(ker) is an equivalence relation on X^X.
== Equivalence relations and mathematical logic ==
Equivalence relations are a ready source of examples or counterexamples. For example, an equivalence relation with exactly two infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical, but not categorical for any larger cardinal number.
An implication of model theory is that the properties defining a relation can be proved independent of each other (and hence necessary parts of the definition) if and only if, for each property, examples can be found of relations not satisfying the given property while satisfying all the other properties. Hence the three defining properties of equivalence relations can be proved mutually independent by the following three examples:
Reflexive and transitive: The relation ≤ on N. Or any preorder;
Symmetric and transitive: The relation R on N, defined as aRb ↔ ab ≠ 0. Or any partial equivalence relation;
Reflexive and symmetric: The relation R on Z, defined as aRb ↔ "a − b is divisible by at least one of 2 or 3." Or any dependency relation.
Properties definable in first-order logic that an equivalence relation may or may not possess include:
The number of equivalence classes is finite or infinite;
The number of equivalence classes equals the (finite) natural number n;
All equivalence classes have infinite cardinality;
The number of elements in each equivalence class is the natural number n.
|
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] |
9,260 |
Equivalence class
|
In mathematics, when the elements of some set S have a notion of equivalence (formalized as an equivalence relation), then one may naturally split the set S into equivalence classes. These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a and b belong to the same equivalence class if, and only if, they are equivalent.
Formally, given a set S and an equivalence relation \,\sim\, on S, the of an element a in S is denoted [a] or, equivalently, [a]_{\sim} to emphasize its equivalence relation \sim. The definition of equivalence relations implies that the equivalence classes form a partition of S,
meaning, that every element of the set belongs to exactly one equivalence class.
The set of the equivalence classes is sometimes called the quotient set or the quotient space of S by \,\sim\,, and is denoted by S /{\sim}.
When the set S has some structure (such as a group operation or a topology) and the equivalence relation \,\sim\, is compatible with this structure, the quotient set often inherits a similar structure from its parent set. Examples include quotient spaces in linear algebra, quotient spaces in topology, quotient groups, homogeneous spaces, quotient rings, quotient monoids, and quotient categories.
==Definition and notation==
An equivalence relation on a set X is a binary relation \,\sim\, on X satisfying the three properties:
a \sim a for all a \in X (reflexivity),
a \sim b implies b \sim a for all a, b \in X (symmetry),
if a \sim b and b \sim c then a \sim c for all a, b, c \in X (transitivity).
The equivalence class of an element a is defined as
[a] = \{ x \in X : a \sim x \}.
The word "class" in the term "equivalence class" may generally be considered as a synonym of "set", although some equivalence classes are not sets but proper classes. For example, "being isomorphic" is an equivalence relation on groups, and the equivalence classes, called isomorphism classes, are not sets.
The set of all equivalence classes in X with respect to an equivalence relation R is denoted as X / R, and is called X modulo R (or the ' of X by R). The surjective map x \mapsto [x] from X onto X / R, which maps each element to its equivalence class, is called the ', or the canonical projection.
Every element of an equivalence class characterizes the class, and may be used to represent it. When such an element is chosen, it is called a representative of the class. The choice of a representative in each class defines an injection from X / R to . Since its composition with the canonical surjection is the identity of X / R, such an injection is called a section, when using the terminology of category theory.
Sometimes, there is a section that is more "natural" than the other ones. In this case, the representatives are called . For example, in modular arithmetic, for every integer greater than , the congruence modulo is an equivalence relation on the integers, for which two integers and are equivalent—in this case, one says congruent—if divides a-b; this is denoted a\equiv b \pmod m. Each class contains a unique non-negative integer smaller than m, and these integers are the canonical representatives.
The use of representatives for representing classes allows avoiding to consider explicitly classes as sets. In this case, the canonical surjection that maps an element to its class is replaced by the function that maps an element to the representative of its class. In the preceding example, this function is denoted a \bmod m, and produces the remainder of the Euclidean division of by .
==Properties==
Every element x of X is a member of the equivalence class [x]. Every two equivalence classes [x] and [y] are either equal or disjoint. Therefore, the set of all equivalence classes of X forms a partition of X: every element of X belongs to one and only one equivalence class. Conversely, every partition of X comes from an equivalence relation in this way, according to which x \sim y if and only if x and y belong to the same set of the partition.
It follows from the properties in the previous section that if \,\sim\, is an equivalence relation on a set X, and x and y are two elements of X, the following statements are equivalent:
x \sim y
[x] = [y]
[x] \cap [y] \ne \emptyset.
==Examples==
Let X be the set of all rectangles in a plane, and \,\sim\, the equivalence relation "has the same area as", then for each positive real number A, there will be an equivalence class of all the rectangles that have area A.
Consider the modulo 2 equivalence relation on the set of integers, \Z, such that x \sim y if and only if their difference x - y is an even number. This relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes: one class consists of all even numbers, and the other class consists of all odd numbers. Using square brackets around one member of the class to denote an equivalence class under this relation, [7], [9], and [1] all represent the same element of \Z /{\sim}.
Let X be the set of ordered pairs of integers (a, b) with non-zero b, and define an equivalence relation \,\sim\, on X such that (a, b) \sim (c, d) if and only if a d = b c, then the equivalence class of the pair (a, b) can be identified with the rational number a / b, and this equivalence relation and its equivalence classes can be used to give a formal definition of the set of rational numbers. The same construction can be generalized to the field of fractions of any integral domain.
If X consists of all the lines in, say, the Euclidean plane, and L \sim M means that L and M are parallel lines, then the set of lines that are parallel to each other form an equivalence class, as long as a line is considered parallel to itself. In this situation, each equivalence class determines a point at infinity.
==Graphical representation==
An undirected graph may be associated to any symmetric relation on a set X, where the vertices are the elements of X, and two vertices s and t are joined if and only if s \sim t. Among these graphs are the graphs of equivalence relations. These graphs, called cluster graphs, are characterized as the graphs such that the connected components are cliques.
==Invariants==
If \,\sim\, is an equivalence relation on X, and P(x) is a property of elements of X such that whenever x \sim y, P(x) is true if P(y) is true, then the property P is said to be an invariant of \,\sim\,, or well-defined under the relation \,\sim.
A frequent particular case occurs when f is a function from X to another set Y; if f\left(x_1\right) = f\left(x_2\right) whenever x_1 \sim x_2, then f is said to be \,\sim\,, or simply \,\sim. This occurs, for example, in the character theory of finite groups. Some authors use "compatible with \,\sim\," or just "respects \,\sim\," instead of "invariant under \,\sim\,".
Any function f : X \to Y is class invariant under \,\sim\,, according to which x_1 \sim x_2 if and only if f\left(x_1\right) = f\left(x_2\right). The equivalence class of x is the set of all elements in X which get mapped to f(x), that is, the class [x] is the inverse image of f(x). This equivalence relation is known as the kernel of f.
More generally, a function may map equivalent arguments (under an equivalence relation \sim_X on X) to equivalent values (under an equivalence relation \sim_Y on Y). Such a function is a morphism of sets equipped with an equivalence relation.
==Quotient space in topology==
In topology, a quotient space is a topological space formed on the set of equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on a topological space, using the original space's topology to create the topology on the set of equivalence classes.
In abstract algebra, congruence relations on the underlying set of an algebra allow the algebra to induce an algebra on the equivalence classes of the relation, called a quotient algebra. In linear algebra, a quotient space is a vector space formed by taking a quotient group, where the quotient homomorphism is a linear map. By extension, in abstract algebra, the term quotient space may be used for quotient modules, quotient rings, quotient groups, or any quotient algebra. However, the use of the term for the more general cases can as often be by analogy with the orbits of a group action.
The orbits of a group action on a set may be called the quotient space of the action on the set, particularly when the orbits of the group action are the right cosets of a subgroup of a group, which arise from the action of the subgroup on the group by left translations, or respectively the left cosets as orbits under right translation.
A normal subgroup of a topological group, acting on the group by translation action, is a quotient space in the senses of topology, abstract algebra, and group actions simultaneously.
Although the term can be used for any equivalence relation's set of equivalence classes, possibly with further structure, the intent of using the term is generally to compare that type of equivalence relation on a set X, either to an equivalence relation that induces some structure on the set of equivalence classes from a structure of the same kind on X, or to the orbits of a group action. Both the sense of a structure preserved by an equivalence relation, and the study of invariants under group actions, lead to the definition of invariants of equivalence relations given above.
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] |
9,262 |
Entertainment
|
Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but it is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.
Although people's attention is held by different things because individuals have different preferences, most forms of entertainment are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, and developed into sophisticated forms over time, becoming available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products, to a banquet adapted for two, to any size or type of party with appropriate music and dance, to performances intended for thousands, and even for a global audience.
The experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose. This may be the case in various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire, for example. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears to be entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.
An important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of people watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant and audience roles may be routinely reversed. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performances, as in the case of theatre or concerts, or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of children's games. Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion, as with stage magic. Films and video games, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days.
Some entertainment, such as public executions, is now illegal in most countries. Activities such as fencing or archery, once used in hunting or war, have become spectator sports. In the same way, other activities, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions, and then broadcast for entertainment. What is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work or an act of cruelty by another.
The familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over into different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix. This has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures.
== Etymology ==
The Oxford English Dictionary gives Latin and French origins for the word "entertain", including inter (among) + tenir (to hold) as derivations, giving translations of "to hold mutually" or "to hold intertwined" and "to engage, keep occupied, the attention, thoughts, or time (of a person)". It also provides words like "merry-making", "pleasure", and "delight", as well as "to receive as a guest and show hospitality to". It cites a 1490 usage by William Caxton.
== Psychology and philosophy ==
Entertainment can be distinguished from other activities such as education and marketing even though they have learned how to use the appeal of entertainment to achieve their different goals. Sometimes entertainment can be a mixture for both. The importance and impact of entertainment is recognised by scholars and its increasing sophistication has influenced practices in other fields such as museology.
Psychologists say the function of media entertainment is "the attainment of gratification". No other results or measurable benefits are usually expected from it (except perhaps the final score in a sporting entertainment). This is in contrast to education (which is designed with the purpose of developing understanding or helping people to learn) and marketing (which aims to encourage people to purchase commercial products). However, the distinctions become blurred when education seeks to be more "entertaining" and entertainment or marketing seek to be more "educational". Such mixtures are often known by the neologisms "edutainment" or "infotainment". The psychology of entertainment as well as of learning has been applied to all these fields. Some education-entertainment is a serious attempt to combine the best features of the two. Some people are entertained by others' pain or the idea of their unhappiness (schadenfreude).
An entertainment might go beyond gratification and produce some insight in its audience. Entertainment may skilfully consider universal philosophical questions such as: "What does it mean to be human?"; "What is the right thing to do?"; or "How do I know what I know?". "The meaning of life", for example, is the subject in a wide range of entertainment forms, including film, music and literature. Questions such as these drive many narratives and dramas, whether they are presented in the form of a story, film, play, poem, book, dance, comic, or game. Dramatic examples include Shakespeare's influential play Hamlet, whose hero articulates these concerns in poetry; and films, such as The Matrix, which explores the nature of knowledge and was released worldwide. Novels give great scope for investigating these themes while they entertain their readers. An example of a creative work that considers philosophical questions so entertainingly that it has been presented in a very wide range of forms is The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Originally a radio comedy, this story became so popular that it has also appeared as a novel, film, television series, stage show, comic, audiobook, LP record, adventure game and online game, its ideas became popular references (see Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy) and has been translated into many languages. Its themes encompass the meaning of life, as well as "the ethics of entertainment, artificial intelligence, multiple worlds, God, and philosophical method".
== History ==
The "ancient craft of communicating events and experiences, using words, images, sounds and gestures" by telling a story is not only the means by which people passed on their cultural values and traditions and history from one generation to another, it has been an important part of most forms of entertainment ever since the earliest times. Stories are still told in the early forms, for example, around a fire while camping, or when listening to the stories of another culture as a tourist. "The earliest storytelling sequences we possess, now of course, committed to writing, were undoubtedly originally a speaking from mouth to ear and their force as entertainment derived from the very same elements we today enjoy in films and novels." Storytelling is an activity that has evolved and developed "toward variety". The equipment for such sports has become increasingly sophisticated. Vaulting poles, for example, were originally made from woods such as ash, hickory or hazel; in the 19th century bamboo was used and in the 21st century poles can be made of carbon fibre.
Changes to what is regarded as entertainment can occur in response to cultural or historical shifts. Hunting wild animals, for example, was introduced into the Roman Empire from Carthage and became a popular public entertainment and spectacle, supporting an international trade in wild animals.
Entertainment also evolved into different forms and expressions as a result of social upheavals such as wars and revolutions. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, for example, Revolutionary opera was sanctioned by the Communist party and World War I, the Great Depression and the Russian Revolution all affected entertainment.
Relatively minor changes to the form and venue of an entertainment continue to come and go as they are affected by the period, fashion, culture, technology, and economics. For example, a story told in dramatic form can be presented in an open-air theatre, a music hall, a cinema, a multiplex, or as technological possibilities advanced, via a personal electronic device such as a tablet computer. Entertainment is provided for mass audiences in purpose-built structures such as a theatre, auditorium, or stadium. One of the most famous venues in the Western world, the Colosseum, "dedicated AD 80 with a hundred days of games, held fifty thousand spectators," and in it audiences "enjoyed blood sport with the trappings of stage shows". Spectacles, competitions, races, and sports were once presented in this purpose-built arena as public entertainment. New stadia continue to be built to suit the ever more sophisticated requirements of global audiences.
=== Court entertainment ===
Imperial and royal courts have provided training grounds and support for professional entertainers, with different cultures using palaces, castles and forts in different ways. In the Maya city states, for example, "spectacles often took place in large plazas in front of palaces; the crowds gathered either there or in designated places from which they could watch at a distance." Court entertainments also crossed cultures. For example, the durbar was introduced to India by the Mughals, and passed onto the British Empire, which then followed Indian tradition: "institutions, titles, customs, ceremonies by which a Maharaja or Nawab were installed ... the exchange of official presents ... the order of precedence", for example, were "all inherited from ... the Emperors of Delhi". In Korea, the "court entertainment dance" was "originally performed in the palace for entertainment at court banquets."
Court entertainment often moved from being associated with the court to more general use among commoners. This was the case with "masked dance-dramas" in Korea, which "originated in conjunction with village shaman rituals and eventually became largely an entertainment form for commoners". Nautch dancers in the Mughal Empire performed in Indian courts and palaces. Another evolution, similar to that from courtly entertainment to common practice, was the transition from religious ritual to secular entertainment, such as happened during the Goryeo dynasty with the Narye festival. Originally "solely religious or ritualistic, a secular component was added at the conclusion". Former courtly entertainments, such as jousting, often also survived in children's games.
In some courts, such as those during the Byzantine Empire, the genders were segregated among the upper classes, so that "at least before the period of the Komnenoi" (1081–1185) men were separated from women at ceremonies where there was entertainment such as receptions and banquets.
Court ceremonies, palace banquets and the spectacles associated with them, have been used not only to entertain but also to demonstrate wealth and power. Such events reinforce the relationship between ruler and ruled; between those with power and those without, serving to "dramatise the differences between ordinary families and that of the ruler". This is the case as much as for traditional courts as it is for contemporary ceremonials, such as the Hong Kong handover ceremony in 1997, at which an array of entertainments (including a banquet, a parade, fireworks, a festival performance and an art spectacle) were put to the service of highlighting a change in political power. Court entertainments were typically performed for royalty and courtiers as well as "for the pleasure of local and visiting dignitaries". Royal courts, such as the Korean one, also supported traditional dances. In Sudan, musical instruments such as the so-called "slit" or "talking" drums, once "part of the court orchestra of a powerful chief", had multiple purposes: they were used to make music; "speak" at ceremonies; mark community events; send long-distance messages; and call men to hunt or war.
Courtly entertainments also demonstrate the complex relationship between entertainer and spectator: individuals may be either an entertainer or part of the audience, or they may swap roles even during the course of one entertainment. In the court at the Palace of Versailles, "thousands of courtiers, including men and women who inhabited its apartments, acted as both performers and spectators in daily rituals that reinforced the status hierarchy".
Like court entertainment, royal occasions such as coronations and weddings provided opportunities to entertain both the aristocracy and the people. For example, the splendid 1595 Accession Day celebrations of Queen Elizabeth I offered tournaments and jousting and other events performed "not only before the assembled court, in all their finery, but also before thousands of Londoners eager for a good day's entertainment. Entry for the day's events at the Tiltyard in Whitehall was set at 12d".
=== Public punishment ===
Although most forms of entertainment have evolved and continued over time, some once-popular forms are no longer as acceptable. For example, during earlier centuries in Europe, watching or participating in the punishment of criminals or social outcasts was an accepted and popular form of entertainment. Many forms of public humiliation also offered local entertainment in the past. Even capital punishment such as hanging and beheading, offered to the public as a warning, were also regarded partly as entertainment. Capital punishments that lasted longer, such as stoning and drawing and quartering, afforded a greater public spectacle. "A hanging was a carnival that diverted not merely the unemployed but the unemployable. Good bourgeois or curious aristocrats who could afford it watched it from a carriage or rented a room." Both Dickens and Thackeray wrote about a hanging in Newgate Prison in 1840, and "taught an even wider public that executions are obscene entertainments". but encompasses a wide range of specializations, including magicians, costumed performers, puppeteers and party princesses. Many activities that appeal to children such as puppets, clowns, pantomimes and cartoons are also enjoyed by adults.
Children have always played games. It is accepted that as well as being entertaining, playing games helps children's development. One of the most famous visual accounts of children's games is a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called Children's Games, painted in 1560. It depicts children playing a range of games that presumably were typical of the time. Many of these games, such as marbles, hide-and-seek, blowing soap bubbles and piggyback riding continue to be played.
Most forms of entertainment can be or are modified to suit children's needs and interests. During the 20th century, starting with the often criticised but nonetheless important work of G. Stanley Hall, who "promoted the link between the study of development and the 'new' laboratory psychology", and especially with the work of Jean Piaget, who "saw cognitive development as being analogous to biological development", it became understood that the psychological development of children occurs in stages and that their capacities differ from adults. Hence, stories and activities, whether in books, film, or video games were developed specifically for child audiences. Countries have responded to the special needs of children and the rise of digital entertainment by developing systems such as television content rating systems, to guide the public and the entertainment industry.
In the 21st century, as with adult products, much entertainment is available for children on the internet for private use. This constitutes a significant change from earlier times. The amount of time expended by children indoors on screen-based entertainment and the "remarkable collapse of children's engagement with nature" has drawn criticism for its negative effects on imagination, adult cognition and psychological well-being.
File:Toy Soldiers British Coldstream Guards.jpg|Toy Coldstream Guards soldiers (19th century)
File:6. Reborn doll - Jessy od Elizabeth Maris.jpg|Doll of a newborn baby
File:Two children playing with a dog.jpg|Children being entertained by a dog (19th century painting)
File:Kids Playing duduk.jpg|Boys play recorders
File:Girl with styrofoam swimming board.jpg|Girl in a swimming pool
File:Playing together 4.jpg|Children in a group game
File:Children watching TV.jpg|Boys watch children's TV
File:Interest.jpg|Toddler using a tablet computer
== Forms ==
=== Banquets ===
Banquets have been a venue for amusement, entertainment or pleasure since ancient times, continuing into the modern era. until the 21st century when they are still being used for many of their original purposesto impress visitors, especially important ones; to show hospitality; as an occasion to showcase supporting entertainments such as music or dancing, or both. They were an integral part of court entertainments and helped entertainers develop their skills. They are also important components of celebrations such as coronations, weddings, birthdays civic or political achievements, military engagements or victories as well as religious obligations, one of the most famous being the Banqueting House, Whitehall in London. In modern times, banquets are available privately, or commercially in restaurants, sometimes combined with a dramatic performance in dinner theatres. Cooking by professional chefs has also become a form of entertainment as part of global competitions such as the Bocuse d'Or.
File:An Egyptian Banquet.jpg| A banquet scene from Ancient Egypt (from a wall painting in Thebes)
File:Byzantine Greek Banquet Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG| Byzantine banquet showing musicians and various musical instruments (1204–1453)
File:Banquet de Charles V le Sage.jpg| Jean Fouquet, Banquet for Charles V of France (1455–1460)
File:A banquet for Babur.jpg| A banquet including roast goose given for Babur by the Mirzas in 1507 (miniature )
File:Helst, Peace of Münster.jpg| Bartholomeus van der Helst, Peace of Münster Amsterdam (1648)
File:Victory banquet 1788.jpg| Victory banquet by Emperor Qianlong to greet the officers who attended the campaign against Taiwan (late 18th century)
File:Wedding in Toropets (landlords coming to the peasants’ wedding)..jpg| Landlords coming to the peasants' wedding banquet (late 18th century)
File:The banquet hall in King Sahla Sellases palace colour.jpg| The banquet hall in the palace of King Sahle Selassie painting from a photo, Ethiopia (1852)
File:George IV coronation banquet.jpg| Coronation banquet of George IV in Westminster Hall (1821)
File:Chinese banquet in a banquet hall.JPG| Chinese banquet in a banquet hall given as a birthday celebration (2012)
=== Music ===
Music is a supporting component of many kinds of entertainment and most kinds of performance. For example, it is used to enhance storytelling, it is indispensable in dance and opera, and is usually incorporated into dramatic film or theatre productions.
Music is also a universal and popular type of entertainment on its own, constituting an entire performance such as when concerts are given. Depending on the rhythm, instrument, performance and style, music is divided into many genres, such as classical, jazz, folk, rock, pop music or traditional. Since the 20th century, performed music, once available only to those who could pay for the performers, has been available cheaply to individuals by the entertainment industry, which broadcasts it or pre-records it for sale.
The wide variety of musical performances, whether or not they are artificially amplified, all provide entertainment irrespective of whether the performance is from soloists, choral or orchestral groups, or ensemble. Live performances use specialised venues, which might be small or large; indoors or outdoors; free or expensive. The audiences have different expectations of the performers as well as of their own role in the performance. For example, some audiences expect to listen silently and are entertained by the excellence of the music, its rendition or its interpretation. Other audiences of live performances are entertained by the ambience and the chance to participate. Even more listeners are entertained by pre-recorded music and listen privately.
The instruments used in musical entertainment are either solely the human voice or solely instrumental or some combination of the two. Whether the performance is given by vocalists or instrumentalists, the performers may be soloists or part of a small or large group, in turn entertaining an audience that might be individual, passing by, small or large. Singing is generally accompanied by instruments although some forms, notably a cappella and overtone singing, are unaccompanied. Modern concerts often use various special effects and other theatrics to accompany performances of singing and dancing.
File:Lama orchestra.jpg| Traditional instruments used to accompany dance (Tibet, 1949)
File:RIAN archive 24089 The youngsters singing.jpg| Children's choir providing musical entertainment (Soviet Union, 1979)
File:Paris Metro orchestra.jpg| Ensemble entertains travellers in the Paris Métro (2002)
File:Boduberu performer.jpg| Drummer playing Boduberu (Maldives, 2010)
File:CORO ECCLESIA.jpg| Choir and orchestra in ecclesiastical setting (Italy, 2008)
File:Rouvas fans.jpg| Contemporary audience in ancient outdoor stadium (Greece, 2009)
File:Jay Chou The Era Singapore 2010 concert.jpg| A concert with a 3D enhanced stage (Singapore, 2010)
File:Concertkoor Haarlem 19-11-2010 Philharmonie.jpg| Concert hall audience (Netherlands, 2010)
File:Phoenix ThomasMars1.jpg| Crowd surfing at a concert (France, 2011)
File:Music listener.jpg| Woman listening privately to music through headphones (Russia, 2010)
=== Games ===
Games are played for entertainmentsometimes purely for recreation, sometimes for achievement or reward as well. They can be played alone, in teams, or online; by amateurs or by professionals. The players may have an audience of non-players, such as when people are entertained by watching a chess championship. On the other hand, players in a game may constitute their own audience as they take their turn to play. Often, part of the entertainment for children playing a game is deciding who is part of their audience and who is a player.
Equipment varies with the game. Board games, such as Go, Monopoly or backgammon need a board and markers. One of the oldest known board games is Senet, a game played in Ancient Egypt, enjoyed by the pharaoh Tutankhamun. Card games, such as whist, poker and Bridge have long been played as evening entertainment among friends. For these games, all that is needed is a deck of playing cards. Other games, such as bingo, played with numerous strangers, have been organised to involve the participation of non-players via gambling. Many are geared for children, and can be played outdoors, including hopscotch, hide and seek, or Blind man's bluff. The list of ball games is quite extensive. It includes, for example, croquet, lawn bowling and paintball as well as many sports using various forms of balls. The options cater to a wide range of skill and fitness levels. Physical games can develop agility and competence in motor skills. Number games such as Sudoku and puzzle games like the Rubik's cube can develop mental prowess.
Video games are played using a controller to create results on a screen. They can also be played online with participants joining in remotely. In the second half of the 20th century and in the 21st century the number of such games increased enormously, providing a wide variety of entertainment to players around the world. Video games are popular across the world.
File:The Chess Game (Sofonisba Anguissola) 1555 (4096x3236px).jpg|Sofonisba Anguissola The Chess Game (1555) An intellectual game
File:Duverger Hopscotch.jpg|Théophile Emmanuel Duverger (before 1901) Hopscotch A physical game
File:Televised Star Craft.jpg|Televised match of StarCraft (2006) South Korea An electronic game
=== Literature ===
Reading has been a source of entertainment for a very long time, especially when other forms, such as performance entertainments, were (or are) either unavailable or too costly. Even when the primary purpose of the writing is to inform or instruct, reading is well known for its capacity to distract from everyday worries. Both stories and information have been passed on through the tradition of orality and oral traditions survive in the form of performance poetry for example. However, they have drastically declined. "Once literacy had arrived in strength, there was no return to the oral prerogative." The advent of printing, the reduction in costs of books and an increasing literacy all served to enhance the mass appeal of reading. Furthermore, as fonts were standardised and texts became clearer, "reading ceased being a painful process of decipherment and became an act of pure pleasure". By the 16th century in Europe, the appeal of reading for entertainment was well established.
Among literature's many genres are some designed, in whole or in part, purely for entertainment. Limericks, for example, use verse in a strict, predictable rhyme and rhythm to create humour and to amuse an audience of listeners or readers. Interactive books such as "choose your own adventure" can make literary entertainment more participatory.
Comics and editorial cartoons are literary genres that use drawings or graphics, usually in combination with text, to convey an entertaining narrative. Many contemporary comics have elements of fantasy and are produced by companies that are part of the entertainment industry. Others have unique authors who offer a more personal, philosophical view of the world and the problems people face. Comics about superheroes such as Superman are of the first type. Examples of the second sort include the individual work over 50 years of Charles M. Schulz who produced a popular comic called Peanuts about the relationships among a cast of child characters; and Michael Leunig who entertains by producing whimsical cartoons that also incorporate social criticism. The Japanese Manga style differs from the western approach in that it encompasses a wide range of genres and themes for a readership of all ages. Caricature uses a kind of graphic entertainment for purposes ranging from merely putting a smile on the viewer's face, to raising social awareness, to highlighting the moral characteristics of a person being caricatured.
=== Comedy ===
Comedy is both a genre of entertainment and a component of it, providing laughter and amusement, whether the comedy is the sole purpose or used as a form of contrast in an otherwise serious piece. It is a valued contributor to many forms of entertainment, including in literature, theatre, opera, film and games. In royal courts, such as in the Byzantine court, and presumably, also in its wealthy households, "mimes were the focus of orchestrated humour, expected or obliged to make fun of all at court, not even excepting the emperor and members of the imperial family. This highly structured role of jester consisted of verbal humour, including teasing, jests, insult, ridicule, and obscenity and non-verbal humour such as slapstick and horseplay in the presence of an audience."
Shakespeare wrote seventeen comedies that incorporate many techniques still used by performers and writers of comedysuch as jokes, puns, parody, wit, observational humour, or the unexpected effect of irony. One-liner jokes and satire are also used to comedic effect in literature. In farce, the comedy is a primary purpose.
The meaning of the word "comedy" and the audience's expectations of it have changed over time and vary according to culture. Simple physical comedy such as slapstick is entertaining to a broad range of people of all ages. However, as cultures become more sophisticated, national nuances appear in the style and references so that what is amusing in one culture may be unintelligible in another.
=== Performance ===
Live performances before an audience constitute a major form of entertainment, especially before the invention of audio and video recording. Performance takes a wide range of forms, including theatre, music and drama. In the 16th and 17th centuries, European royal courts presented masques that were complex theatrical entertainments involving dancing, singing and acting. Opera is a similarly demanding performance style that remains popular. It also encompass all three forms, demanding a high level of musical and dramatic skill, collaboration and like the masque, production expertise as well.
Audiences generally show their appreciation of an entertaining performance with applause. However, all performers run the risk of failing to hold their audience's attention and thus, failing to entertain. Audience dissatisfaction is often brutally honest and direct.
==== Storytelling ====
Storytelling is an ancient form of entertainment that has influenced almost all other forms. It is "not only entertainment, it is also thinking through human conflicts and contradictions". Stories remain a common way of entertaining a group that is on a journey. Showing how stories are used to pass the time and entertain an audience of travellers, Chaucer used pilgrims in his literary work The Canterbury Tales in the 14th century, as did Wu Cheng'en in the 16th century in Journey to the West. Even though journeys can now be completed much faster, stories are still told to passengers en route in cars and aeroplanes either orally or delivered by some form of technology.
The power of stories to entertain is evident in one of the most famous onesScheherazadea story in the Persian professional storytelling tradition, of a woman who saves her own life by telling stories. The connections between the different types of entertainment are shown by the way that stories like this inspire a retelling in another medium, such as music, film or games. For example, composers Rimsky-Korsakov, Ravel and Szymanowski have each been inspired by the Scheherazade story and turned it into an orchestral work; director Pasolini made a film adaptation; and there is an innovative video game based on the tale. Stories may be told wordlessly, in music, dance or puppetry for example, such as in the Javanese tradition of wayang, in which the performance is accompanied by a gamelan orchestra or the similarly traditional Punch and Judy show.
Epic narratives, poems, sagas and allegories from all cultures tell such gripping tales that they have inspired countless other stories in all forms of entertainment. Examples include the Hindu Ramayana and Mahabharata; Homer's Odyssey and Iliad; the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan; the Persian epic Shahnameh; the Sagas of Icelanders and the celebrated Tale of the Genji. Collections of stories, such as Grimms' Fairy Tales or those by Hans Christian Andersen, have been similarly influential. Originally published in the early 19th century, this collection of folk stories significantly influence modern popular culture, which subsequently used its themes, images, symbols, and structural elements to create new entertainment forms.
Some of the most powerful and long-lasting stories are the foundation stories, also called origin or creation myths such as the Dreamtime myths of the Aboriginal Australians, the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, or the Hawaiian stories of the origin of the world. These too are developed into books, films, music and games in a way that increases their longevity and enhances their entertainment value.
File:William Blake - Canterbury Pilgrims Picture.jpg|William Blake's painting of the pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales
File:Sultan Pardons Scheherazade.jpg|Scheherazade telling her stories to King Shahryar in The Arabian Nights
File:Wayang golek SF Asian Art Museum.JPG|Telling stories via Wayang golek puppets in Java
File:Tosa Mitsuoki—Portrait of Murasaki Shikibu.jpg|Tosa Mitsuoki illustrating her Tale of Genji
==== Theatre ====
Theatre performances, typically dramatic or musical, are presented on a stage for an audience and have a history that goes back to Hellenistic times when "leading musicians and actors" performed widely at "poetical competitions", for example at "Delphi, Delos, Ephesus". Aristotle and his teacher Plato both wrote on the theory and purpose of theatre. Aristotle posed questions such as "What is the function of the arts in shaping character? Should a member of the ruling class merely watch performances or be a participant and perform? What kind of entertainment should be provided for those who do not belong to the elite?" The "Ptolemys in Egypt, the Seleucids in Pergamum" also had a strong theatrical tradition and later, wealthy patrons in Rome staged "far more lavish productions".
Expectations about the performance and their engagement with it have changed over time. For example, in England during the 18th century, "the prejudice against actresses had faded" and in Europe generally, going to the theatre, once a socially dubious activity, became "a more respectable middle-class pastime" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the variety of popular entertainments increased. Operetta and music halls became available, and new drama theatres such as the Moscow Art Theatre and the Suvorin Theatre in Russia opened. At the same time, commercial newspapers "began to carry theatre columns and reviews" that helped make theatre "a legitimate subject of intellectual debate" in general discussions about art and culture. Audiences began to gather to "appreciate creative achievement, to marvel at, and be entertained by, the prominent 'stars'." Vaudeville and music halls, popular at this time in the United States, England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, were themselves eventually superseded.
Plays, musicals, monologues, pantomimes, and performance poetry are part of the very long history of theatre, which is also the venue for the type of performance known as comedy. In the 20th century, radio and television, often broadcast live, extended the theatrical tradition that continued to exist alongside the new forms.
The stage and the spaces set out in front of it for an audience create a theatre. All types of stage are used with all types of seating for the audience, including the impromptu or improvised; the temporary; the elaborate; or the traditional and permanent. They are erected indoors or outdoors. The skill of managing, organising and preparing the stage for a performance is known as stagecraft. The audience's experience of the entertainment is affected by their expectations, the stagecraft, the type of stage, and the type and standard of seating provided.
File:Isaac Cruikshank King John's first appearance at the New Theatre Covent Garden 1809.jpg| Satirical representation of audience reaction (1809)
File:Öffentlich durchgeführte medizinische Behandlung auf einem französischen Jahrmarkt.jpg| Improvised stage for a public performance at a fair (1642)
File:The stage.jpg| Improvised stage for domestic theatre
File:Dalhalla stage before show.JPG| Outdoor stage before a show
File:Troldsalen-inne03.jpg| Concert theatre ready for solo instrumentalist
File:PipesAndDrums.jpg| Outdoor theatre created from Edinburgh castle forecourt
File:Noh stage Miyajima Sep2008.jpg| Traditional stage for Japanese Noh theatre
File:Music Circus Stage 2011.jpg| Stage for theatre in the round
File:Colon-interior-escenario-TM.jpg| Teatro Colón, a highly decorative, horseshoe theatre
File:SWHS locking rail.jpg| Stagecraft a locking rail backstage
==== Cinema and film ====
Films are a major form of entertainment, although not all films have entertainment as their primary purpose: documentary film, for example, aims to create a record or inform, although the two purposes often work together. The medium was a global business from the beginning: "The Lumière brothers were the first to send cameramen throughout the world, instructing them to film everything which could be of interest for the public." In 1908, Pathé launched and distributed newsreels The advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the 21st century made it "possible to do spectacle" more cheaply and "on a scale never dreamed of" by Cecil B. DeMille. From the 1930s to 1950s, movies and radio were the "only mass entertainment" but by the second decade of the 21st century, technological changes, economic decisions, risk aversion and globalisation reduced both the quality and range of films being produced. Sophisticated visual effects and CGI techniques, for example, rather than humans, were used not only to create realistic images of people, landscapes and events (both real and fantastic) but also to animate non-living items such as Lego normally used as entertainment as a game in physical form. Creators of The Lego Movie "wanted the audience to believe they were looking at actual Lego bricks on a tabletop that were shot with a real camera, not what we actually did, which was create vast environments with digital bricks inside the computer." The Story of Film, a documentary about the history of film, gives a survey of global achievements and innovations in the medium, as well as changes in the conception of film-making. It demonstrates that while some films, particularly those in the Hollywood tradition that combines "realism and melodramatic romanticism", are intended as a form of escapism, others require a deeper engagement or more thoughtful response from their audiences. For example, the award-winning Senegalese film Xala takes government corruption as its theme. Charlie Chaplin's film The Great Dictator was a brave and innovative parody, also on a political theme. Stories that are thousands of years old, such as Noah, have been re-interpreted in film, applying familiar literary devices such as allegory and personification with new techniques such as CGI to explore big themes such as "human folly", good and evil, courage and despair, love, faith, and death themes that have been a main-stay of entertainment across all its forms.
As in other media, excellence and achievement in films is recognised through a range of awards, including ones from the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, the Cannes International Film Festival in France and the Asia Pacific Screen Awards.
==== Dance ====
The many forms of dance provide entertainment for all age groups and cultures. Dance can be serious in tone, such as when it is used to express a culture's history or important stories; it may be provocative; or it may put in the service of comedy. Since it combines many forms of entertainment music, movement, storytelling, theatre it provides a good example of the various ways that these forms can be combined to create entertainment for different purposes and audiences.
Dance is "a form of cultural representation" that involves not just dancers, but "choreographers, audience members, patrons and impresarios ... coming from all over the globe and from vastly varied time periods." Whether from Africa, Asia or Europe, dance is constantly negotiating the realms of political, social, spiritual and artistic influence." Even though dance traditions may be limited to one cultural group, they all develop. For example, in Africa, there are "Dahomean dances, Hausa dances, Masai dances and so forth." Ballet is an example of a highly developed Western form of dance that moved to the theatres from the French court during the time of Louis XIV, the dancers becoming professional theatrical performers. Some dances, such as the quadrille, a square dance that "emerged during the Napoleonic years in France" and other country dances were once popular at social gatherings like balls, but are now rarely performed. On the other hand, many folk dances (such as Scottish Highland dancing and Irish dancing), have evolved into competitions, which by adding to their audiences, has increased their entertainment value. "Irish dance theatre, which sometimes features traditional Irish steps and music, has developed into a major dance form with an international reputation."
Since dance is often "associated with the female body and women's experiences", female dancers, who dance to entertain, have in some cases been regarded as distinct from "decent" women because they "use their bodies to make a living instead of hiding them as much as possible". Society's attitudes to female dancers depend on the culture, its history and the entertainment industry itself. For example, while some cultures regard any dancing by women as "the most shameful form of entertainment", other cultures have established venues such as strip clubs where deliberately erotic or sexually provocative dances such as striptease are performed in public by professional women dancers for mostly male audiences.
Various political regimes have sought to control or ban dancing or specific types of dancing, sometimes because of disapproval of the music or clothes associated with it. Nationalism, authoritarianism and racism have played a part in banning dances or dancing. For example, during the Nazi regime, American dances such as swing, regarded as "completely un-German", had "become a public offense and needed to be banned". Similarly, in Shanghai, China, in the 1930s, "dancing and nightclubs had come to symbolise the excess that plagued Chinese society" and officials wondered if "other forms of entertainment such as brothels" should also be banned. Banning had the effect of making "the dance craze" even greater. In Ireland, the Public Dance Hall Act of 1935 "banned but did not stop dancing at the crossroads and other popular dance forms such as house and barn dances." or because, like the Twist, they were associated with African Americans. "African American dancers were typically banned from performing in minstrel shows until after the American Civil War."
Dances can be performed solo, in pairs, in groups, or by massed performers. They might be improvised or highly choreographed; spontaneous for personal entertainment (such as when children begin dancing for themselves); a private audience, a paying audience, a world audience, or an audience interested in a particular dance genre. They might be a part of a celebration, such as a wedding or New Year, or a cultural ritual with a specific purpose, such as a dance by warriors like a haka. Some dances, such as traditional dance and ballet, need a very high level of skill and training; others, such as the can-can, require a very high level of energy and physical fitness. Entertaining the audience is a normal part of dance but its physicality often also produces joy for the dancers themselves.
File:Korea-Andong-Hahoe Folk Village-Thai dancer-01.jpg| Traditional dancer (Thailand)
File:Harlekin Columbine Tivoli Denmark.jpg| Harlequin and Columbine (Denmark)
File:Ballroom dance exhibition.jpg| Ballroom dancing (Czech Republic)
File:Belly dancer dancing in Morocco.jpg| Belly dancer (Morocco)
File:Morris dancing at Berwick St John - geograph.org.uk - 903611.jpg| Morris dancing (England)
File:Allan-highlandwedding1780.jpg| Highland wedding (Scotland, 1780)
File:Mt Hagen Cultural Show PNG 2008.jpg| Warrior dancers (Papua New Guinea)
File:Fire Dragon dance.jpg| Fire Dragon dance for Chinese New Year
File:Bhangra 1.jpg| Bhangra dancers at the International Children's Festival
File:Arirang Mass Games, Pyongyang, North Korea-1.jpg| Children in Mass Games (North Korea)
==== Animals ====
Animals have been used for the purposes of entertainment for millennia. They have been hunted for entertainment (as opposed to hunted for food); displayed while they hunt for prey; watched when they compete with each other; and watched while they perform a trained routine for human amusement. The Romans, for example, were entertained both by competitions involving wild animals and acts performed by trained animals. They watched as "lions and bears danced to the music of pipes and cymbals; horses were trained to kneel, bow, dance and prance ... acrobats turning handsprings over wild lions and vaulting over wild leopards." There were "violent confrontations with wild beasts" and "performances over time became more brutal and bloodier".
Animals that perform trained routines or "acts" for human entertainment include fleas in flea circuses, dolphins in dolphinaria, and monkeys doing tricks for an audience on behalf of the player of a street organ. Animals kept in zoos in ancient times were often kept there for later use in the arena as entertainment or for their entertainment value as exotica.
Many contests between animals are now regarded as sports for example, horse racing is regarded as both a sport and an important source of entertainment. Its economic impact means that it is also considered a global industry, one in which horses are carefully transported around the world to compete in races. In Australia, the horse race run on Melbourne Cup Day is a public holiday and the public regards the race as an important annual event. Like horse racing, camel racing requires human riders, while greyhound racing does not. People find it entertaining to watch animals race competitively, whether they are trained, like horses, camels or dogs, or untrained, like cockroaches.
The use of animals for entertainment is sometimes controversial, especially the hunting of wild animals. Some contests between animals, once popular entertainment for the public, have become illegal because of the cruelty involved. Among these are blood sports such as bear-baiting, dog fighting and cockfighting. Other contests involving animals remain controversial and have both supporters and detractors. For example, the conflict between opponents of pigeon shooting who view it as "a cruel and moronic exercise in marksmanship, and proponents, who view it as entertainment" has been tested in a court of law. Fox hunting, which involves the use of horses as well as hounds, and bullfighting, which has a strong theatrical component, are two entertainments that have a long and significant cultural history. They both involve animals and are variously regarded as sport, entertainment or cultural tradition. Among the organisations set up to advocate for the rights of animals are some whose concerns include the use of animals for entertainment. However, "in many cases of animal advocacy groups versus organisations accused of animal abuse, both sides have cultural claims."
File:Ala-uddin and Mahima hunting.JPG|'Ala'ud-Din and Mahima Dharma hunting a tiger while in an intimate relationship, Punjab Hills, India, 1790
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Arabische man met twee gedresseerde aapjes aan de ketting TMnr 60020423.jpg|Trained monkey performing for an audience of children (1900–20)
File:Pharlap1930melbournecup.jpg|Crowd watches Pharlap win the Melbourne Cup in Australia, 1930.
File:San marcos bullfight 04.jpg|Crowd watches a bullfight in Mexico, 2010.
==== Circus ====
A circus, described as "one of the most brazen of entertainment forms", is a special type of theatrical performance, involving a variety of physical skills such as acrobatics and juggling and sometimes performing animals. Usually thought of as a travelling show performed in a big top, circus was first performed in permanent venues. Philip Astley is regarded as the founder of the modern circus in the second half of the 18th century and Jules Léotard is the French performer credited with developing the art of the trapeze, considered synonymous with circuses. Astley brought together performances that were generally familiar in traditional British fairs "at least since the beginning of the 17th century": "tumbling, rope-dancing, juggling, animal tricks and so on".
Stage magic is performed for an audience in a variety of media and locations: on stage, on television, in the street, and live at parties or events. It is often combined with other forms of entertainment, such as comedy or music and showmanship is often an essential part of magic performances. Performance magic relies on deception, psychological manipulation, sleight of hand and other forms of trickery to give an audience the illusion that a performer can achieve the impossible. Audiences amazed at the stunt performances and escape acts of Harry Houdini, for example, regarded him as a magician.
Fantasy magicians have held an important place in literature for centuries, offering entertainment to millions of readers. Famous wizards such as Merlin in the Arthurian legends have been written about since the 5th and 6th centuries, while in the 21st century, the young wizard Harry Potter became a global entertainment phenomenon when the book series about him sold about 450 million copies (as at June 2011), making it the best-selling book series in history.
==== Street performance ====
Street entertainment, street performance, or "busking" are forms of performance that have been meeting the public's need for entertainment for centuries. It was "an integral aspect of London's life", for example, when the city in the early 19th century was "filled with spectacle and diversion". Minstrels or troubadours are part of the tradition. The art and practice of busking is still celebrated at annual busking festivals.
There are three basic forms of contemporary street performance. The first form is the "circle show". It tends to gather a crowd, usually has a distinct beginning and end, and is done in conjunction with street theatre, puppeteering, magicians, comedians, acrobats, jugglers and sometimes musicians. This type has the potential to be the most lucrative for the performer because there are likely to be more donations from larger audiences if they are entertained by the act. Good buskers control the crowd so patrons do not obstruct foot traffic. The second form, the walk-by act, has no distinct beginning or end. Typically, the busker provides an entertaining ambience, often with an unusual instrument, and the audience may not stop to watch or form a crowd. Sometimes a walk-by act spontaneously turns into a circle show. The third form, café busking, is performed mostly in restaurants, pubs, bars and cafés. This type of act occasionally uses public transport as a venue.
==== Parades ====
Parades are held for a range of purposes, often more than one. Whether their mood is sombre or festive, being public events that are designed to attract attention and activities that necessarily divert normal traffic, parades have a clear entertainment value to their audiences. Cavalcades and the modern variant, the motorcade, are examples of public processions. Some people watching the parade or procession may have made a special effort to attend, while others become part of the audience by happenstance. Whatever their mood or primary purpose, parades attract and entertain people who watch them pass by. Occasionally, a parade takes place in an improvised theatre space (such as the Trooping the Colour in ) and tickets are sold to the physical audience while the global audience participates via broadcast.
One of the earliest forms of parade were "triumphs" grand and sensational displays of foreign treasures and spoils, given by triumphant Roman generals to celebrate their victories. They presented conquered peoples and nations that exalted the prestige of the victor. "In the summer of 46 BCE Julius Caesar chose to celebrate four triumphs held on different days extending for about one month." In Europe from the Middle Ages to the Baroque the Royal Entry celebrated the formal visit of the monarch to the city with a parade through elaborately decorated streets, passing various shows and displays. The annual Lord Mayor's Show in London is an example of a civic parade that has survived since medieval times.
Many religious festivals (especially those that incorporate processions, such as Holy Week processions or the Indian festival of Holi) have some entertainment appeal in addition to their serious purpose. Sometimes, religious rituals have been adapted or evolved into secular entertainments, or like the Festa del Redentore in Venice, have managed to grow in popularity while holding both secular and sacred purposes in balance. However, pilgrimages, such as the Roman Catholic pilgrimage of the Way of St. James, the Muslim Hajj and the Hindu Kumbh Mela, which may appear to the outsider as an entertaining parade or procession, are not intended as entertainment: they are instead about an individual's spiritual journey. Hence, the relationship between spectator and participant, unlike entertainments proper, is different. The manner in which the Kumbh Mela, for example, "is divorced from its cultural context and repackaged for Western consumption renders the presence of voyeurs deeply problematic."
Parades generally impress and delight often by including unusual, colourful costumes. Sometimes they also commemorate or celebrate. Sometimes they have a serious purpose, such as when the context is military, when the intention is sometimes to intimidate; or religious, when the audience might participate or have a role to play. Even if a parade uses new technology and is some distance away, it is likely to have a strong appeal, draw the attention of onlookers and entertain them.
File:Triunphus Caesaris plate 6 - Andreani.jpg| Triumph of Caesar, Andreani (1588/9)
File:Alfred Jacob Miller - Cavalcade - Walters 371940199.jpg| Alfred Jacob Miller Cavalcade by the Snake Indians (1858–60)
File:Edmund Blair Leighton - 1816.jpg| Parade from the onlooker perspective (1816)
File:William McKinley 1901 inauguration.ogv| Inauguration parade of US President McKinley (1897)
File:1945 Eelde Canadezen.jpg| Respectful crowd at motorcade in Canada (1945)
File:Anant Chaturdashi.jpg| Ganesh Visarjan, Mumbai (2007)
File:West Indian Day Parade 2008-09-01 man in costume.jpg| Costumes in West Indian Day parade (2008)
File:Trooping the Colour March on.JPG| Celebratory parade in London before seated audience (2008)
File:Red Arrows over the Mall.JPG| Flypast (2012)
File:Desfile Portela 2014 (906185).jpg| Festive parade in Brazil (2014)
==== Fireworks ====
Fireworks are a part of many public entertainments and have retained an enduring popularity since they became a "crowning feature of elaborate celebrations" in the 17th century. First used in China, classical antiquity and Europe for military purposes, fireworks were most popular in the 18th century and high prices were paid for pyrotechnists, especially the skilled Italian ones, who were summoned to other countries to organise displays. Fire and water were important aspects of court spectacles because the displays "inspired by means of fire, sudden noise, smoke and general magnificence the sentiments thought fitting for the subject to entertain of his sovereign: awe fear and a vicarious sense of glory in his might. Birthdays, name-days, weddings and anniversaries provided the occasion for celebration." One of the most famous courtly uses of fireworks was one used to celebrate the end of the War of the Austrian Succession and while the fireworks themselves caused a fire, the accompanying Music for the Royal Fireworks written by Handel has been popular ever since. Aside from their contribution to entertainments related to military successes, courtly displays and personal celebrations, fireworks are also used as part of religious ceremony. For example, during the Indian Dashavatara Kala of Gomantaka "the temple deity is taken around in a procession with a lot of singing, dancing and display of fireworks".
The "fire, sudden noise and smoke" of fireworks is still a significant part of public celebration and entertainment. For example, fireworks were one of the primary forms of display chosen to celebrate the turn of the millennium around the world. As the clock struck midnight and 1999 became 2000, firework displays and open-air parties greeted the New Year as the time zones changed over to the next century. Fireworks, carefully planned and choreographed, were let off against the backdrop of many of the world's most famous buildings, including the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Pyramids of Giza in Egypt, the Acropolis in Athens, Red Square in Moscow, Vatican City in Rome, the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and Elizabeth Tower in London.
=== Sport ===
Sporting competitions have always provided entertainment for crowds. To distinguish the players from the audience, the latter are often known as spectators. Developments in stadium and auditorium design, as well as in recording and broadcast technology, have allowed off-site spectators to watch sport, with the result that the size of the audience has grown ever larger and spectator sport has become increasingly popular. Two of the most popular sports with global appeal are association football and cricket. Their ultimate international competitions, the FIFA World Cup and the Cricket World Cup, are broadcast around the world. Beyond the very large numbers involved in playing these sports, they are notable for being a major source of entertainment for many millions of non-players worldwide. A comparable multi-stage, long-form sport with global appeal is the Tour de France, unusual in that it takes place outside of special stadia, being run instead in the countryside.
Aside from sports that have worldwide appeal and competitions, such as the Olympic Games, the entertainment value of a sport depends on the culture and country where people play it. For example, in the United States, baseball and basketball games are popular forms of entertainment; in Bhutan, the national sport is archery; in New Zealand, it is rugby union; in Iran, it is freestyle wrestling. Japan's unique sumo wrestling contains ritual elements that derive from its long history. In some cases, such as the international running group Hash House Harriers, participants create a blend of sport and entertainment for themselves, largely independent of spectator involvement, where the social component is more important than the competitive.
The evolution of an activity into a sport and then an entertainment is also affected by the local climate and conditions. For example, the modern sport of surfing is associated with Hawaii and that of snow skiing probably evolved in Scandinavia. While these sports and the entertainment they offer to spectators have spread around the world, people in the two originating countries remain well known for their prowess. Sometimes the climate offers a chance to adapt another sport such as in the case of ice hockeyan important entertainment in Canada.
=== Fairs, expositions, shopping ===
Fairs and exhibitions have existed since ancient and medieval times, displaying wealth, innovations and objects for trade and offering specific entertainments as well as being places of entertainment in themselves. Whether in a medieval market or a small shop, "shopping always offered forms of exhilaration that took one away from the everyday". However, in the modern world, "merchandising has become entertainment: spinning signs, flashing signs, thumping music ... video screens, interactive computer kiosks, day care .. cafés". Since World War II "well over 500 million visits have been recorded through world expo turnstiles". As a form of spectacle and entertainment, expositions influenced "everything from architecture, to patterns of globalisation, to fundamental matters of human identity" the modern world of mass consumption and the entertainment industry.
File:Paris 1889 plakat.jpg|Advertisement for 1889 Paris Universal Exposition
File:Qatar's Pavillion at the 2010 World Expo in Shanghai.jpg|Audience queuing for Qatar's World Exposition Pavilion at the 2010 Shanghai World Expo
File:Ballpit.jpg|Ball pit of the type provided for children's entertainment in shopping malls
== Safety ==
Some entertainments, such as at large festivals (whether religious or secular), concerts, clubs, parties and celebrations, involve big crowds. From earliest times, crowds at an entertainment have associated hazards and dangers, especially when combined with the recreational consumption of intoxicants such as alcohol. The Ancient Greeks had Dionysian Mysteries, for example, and the Romans had Saturnalia. The consequence of excess and crowds can produce breaches of social norms of behaviour, sometimes causing injury or even death, such as for example, at the Altamont Free Concert, an outdoor rock festival. The list of serious incidents at nightclubs includes those caused by crowd crush; terrorism, such as the 2002 Bali bombings that targeted a nightclub; and especially fire. Investigations, such as that carried out in the US after The Station nightclub fire often demonstrate that lessons learned "regarding fire safety in nightclubs" from earlier events such as the Cocoanut Grove fire do "not necessarily result in lasting effective change". Efforts to prevent such incidents include appointing special officers, such as the medieval Lord of Misrule or, in modern times, security officers who control access; and also ongoing improvement of relevant standards such as those for building safety. The tourism industry now regards safety and security at entertainment venues as an important management task.
== Industry ==
Entertainment is big business, especially in the United States, but ubiquitous in all cultures.
Although kings, rulers and powerful people have always been able to pay for entertainment to be provided for them and in many cases have paid for public entertainment, people generally have made their own entertainment or when possible, attended a live performance. Technological developments in the 20th century, especially in the area of mass media, meant that entertainment could be produced independently of the audience, packaged and sold on a commercial basis by an entertainment industry. Sometimes referred to as show business, the industry relies on business models to produce, market, broadcast or otherwise distribute many of its traditional forms, including performances of all types. The industry became so sophisticated that its economics became a separate area of academic study.
The film industry is a part of the entertainment industry. Components of it include the Hollywood and Bollywood film industries, as well as the cinema of the United Kingdom and all the cinemas of Europe, including France, Germany, Spain, Italy and others. The sex industry is another component of the entertainment industry, applying the same forms and media (for example, film, books, dance and other performances) to the development, marketing and sale of sex products on a commercial basis.
Amusement parks entertain paying guests with rides, such as roller coasters, ridable miniature railways, water rides, and dark rides, as well as other events and associated attractions. The parks are built on a large area subdivided into themed areas named "lands". Sometimes the whole amusement park is based on one theme, such as the various SeaWorld parks that focus on the theme of sea life.
One of the consequences of the development of the entertainment industry has been the creation of new types of employment. While jobs such as writer, musician and composer exist as they always have, people doing this work are likely to be employed by a company rather than a patron as they once would have been. New jobs have appeared, such as gaffer or special effects supervisor in the film industry, and attendants in an amusement park.
Prestigious awards are given by the industry for excellence in the various types of entertainment. For example, there are awards for music, games (including video games), comics, theatre, television, film, dance and magical arts. Sporting awards are made for the results and skill, rather than for the entertainment value.
File:Film reel.jpg|Packaged entertainment35mm film reels in boxes
File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F079073-0006, Bonn, Sternstraße, Schallplattengeschäft.jpg|Choosing music from a record store (Germany, 1988)
File:LOceanogràfic, Ciudad de las artes y las ciencias, 2005, Valencia.jpg|Ticket showing electronic barcode (Valencia, 2005)
== Architecture ==
=== Architecture for entertainment ===
Purpose-built structures as venues for entertainment that accommodate audiences have produced many famous and innovative buildings, among the most recognisable of which are theatre structures. For the ancient Greeks, "the architectural importance of the theatre is a reflection of their importance to the community, made apparent in their monumentality, in the effort put into their design, and in the care put into their detail." The Romans subsequently developed the stadium in an oval form known as a circus. In modern times, some of the grandest buildings for entertainment have brought fame to their cities as well as their designers. The Sydney Opera House, for example, is a World Heritage Site and The O₂ in London is an entertainment precinct that contains an indoor arena, a music club, a cinema and exhibition space. The Bayreuth Festspielhaus in Germany is a theatre designed and built for performances of one specific musical composition.
Two of the chief architectural concerns for the design of venues for mass audiences are speed of egress and safety. The speed at which the venue empty is important both for amenity and safety, because large crowds take a long time to disperse from a badly designed venue, which creates a safety risk. The Hillsborough disaster is an example of how poor aspects of building design can contribute to audience deaths. Sightlines and acoustics are also important design considerations in most theatrical venues.
In the 21st century, entertainment venues, especially stadia, are "likely to figure among the leading architectural genres". However, they require "a whole new approach" to design, because they need to be "sophisticated entertainment centres, multi-experience venues, capable of being enjoyed in many diverse ways". Hence, architects now have to design "with two distinct functions in mind, as sports and entertainment centres playing host to live audiences, and as sports and entertainment studios serving the viewing and listening requirements of the remote audience".
File:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg|Colosseum, Rome (70–80 AD), Roman venue for mass entertainment
File:Palais Garnier's grand salon, 12 February 2008.jpg|The Grand Foyer in the Palais Garnier, Paris (1875), influenced architecture around the world.
File:Maracana-predefinicao.jpg|Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro, at inauguration (1950) the world's largest stadium by capacity
File:Flamingo Spa Vesipuisto.jpg|Flamingo Entertainment Centre, Vantaa (2008), includes a variety of entertainment activities (e.g. a cinema, spa, bowling, laser games, virtual experiences), 40 different stores and a hotel.
=== Architecture as entertainment ===
Architects who push the boundaries of design or construction sometimes create buildings that are entertaining because they exceed the expectations of the public and the client and are aesthetically outstanding. Buildings such as Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, designed by Frank Gehry, are of this type, becoming a tourist attraction as well as a significant international museum. Other apparently usable buildings are really follies, deliberately constructed for a decorative purpose and never intended to be practical.
On the other hand, sometimes architecture is entertainment, while pretending to be functional. The tourism industry, for example, creates or renovates buildings as "attractions" that have either never been used or can never be used for their ostensible purpose. They are instead re-purposed to entertain visitors often by simulating cultural experiences. Buildings, history and sacred spaces are thus made into commodities for purchase. Such intentional tourist attractions divorce buildings from the past so that "the difference between historical authenticity and contemporary entertainment venues/theme parks becomes hard to define". Examples include "the preservation of the Alcázar of Toledo, with its grim Civil War History, the conversion of slave dungeons into tourist attractions in Ghana, [such as, for example, Cape Coast Castle] and the presentation of indigenous culture in Libya". The specially constructed buildings in amusement parks represent the park's theme and are usually neither authentic nor completely functional.
== Effects of developments in electronic media ==
=== Globalisation ===
By the second half of the 20th century, developments in electronic media made possible the delivery of entertainment products to mass audiences across the globe. The technology enabled people to see, hear and participate in all the familiar forms stories, theatre, music, dance wherever they live. The rapid development of entertainment technology was assisted by improvements in data storage devices such as cassette tapes or compact discs, along with increasing miniaturisation. Computerisation and the development of barcodes also made ticketing easier, faster and global.
=== Obsolescence ===
In the 1940s, radio was the electronic medium for family entertainment and information. In the 1950s, it was television that was the new medium and it rapidly became global, bringing visual entertainment, first in black and white, then in colour, to the world. By the 1970s, games could be played electronically, then hand-held devices provided mobile entertainment, and by the last decade of the 20th century, via networked play. In combination with products from the entertainment industry, all the traditional forms of entertainment became available personally. People could not only select an entertainment product such as a piece of music, film or game, they could choose the time and place to use it. The "proliferation of portable media players and the emphasis on the computer as a site for film consumption" together have significantly changed how audiences encounter films. One of the most notable consequences of the rise of electronic entertainment has been the rapid obsolescence of the various recording and storage methods. As an example of speed of change driven by electronic media, over the course of one generation, television as a medium for receiving standardised entertainment products went from unknown, to novel, to ubiquitous and finally to superseded. One estimate was that by 2011 over 30 per cent of households in the US would own a Wii console, "about the same percentage that owned a television in 1953". Some expected that halfway through the second decade of the 21st century, online entertainment would have completely replaced televisionwhich did not happen. The so-called "digital revolution" has produced an increasingly transnational marketplace that has caused difficulties for governments, business, industries, and individuals, as they all try to keep up. Even the sports stadium of the future will increasingly compete with television viewing "...in terms of comfort, safety and the constant flow of audio-visual information and entertainment available." Other flow on effects of the shift are likely to include those on public architecture such as hospitals and nursing homes, where television, regarded as an essential entertainment service for patients and residents, will need to be replaced by access to the internet. At the same time, the ongoing need for entertainers as "professional engagers" shows the continuity of traditional entertainment.
=== Convergence ===
By the second decade of the 21st century, analogue recording was being replaced by digital recording and all forms of electronic entertainment began to converge. For example, convergence is challenging standard practices in the film industry: whereas "success or failure used to be determined by the first weekend of its run. Today, ... a series of exhibition 'windows', such as DVD, pay-per-view, and fibre-optic video-on-demand are used to maximise profits." Part of the industry's adjustment is its release of new commercial product directly via video hosting services. Media convergence is said to be more than technological: the convergence is cultural as well. It is also "the result of a deliberate effort to protect the interests of business entities, policy institutions and other groups". The "greater diversity in the ways that signals may be received and packaged for the viewer, via terrestrial, satellite or cable television, and of course, via the Internet" also affects entertainment venues, such as sports stadia, which now need to be designed so that both live and remote audiences can interact in increasingly sophisticated ways for example, audiences can "watch highlights, call up statistics", "order tickets and merchandise" and generally "tap into the stadium's resources at any time of the day or night".
The introduction of television altered the availability, cost, variety and quality of entertainment products for the public and the convergence of online entertainment is having a similar effect. For example, the possibility and popularity of user-generated content, as distinct from commercial product, creates a "networked audience model [that] makes programming obsolete". Individuals and corporations use video hosting services to broadcast content that is equally accepted by the public as legitimate entertainment.
While technology increases demand for entertainment products and offers increased speed of delivery, the forms that make up the content are in themselves, relatively stable. Storytelling, music, theatre, dance and games are recognisably the same as in earlier centuries.
|
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] |
9,263 |
Ether
|
In organic chemistry, ethers are a class of compounds that contain an ether group, a single oxygen atom bonded to two separate carbon atoms, each part of an organyl group (e.g., alkyl or aryl). They have the general formula , where R and R′ represent the organyl groups. Ethers can again be classified into two varieties: if the organyl groups are the same on both sides of the oxygen atom, then it is a simple or symmetrical ether, whereas if they are different, the ethers are called mixed or unsymmetrical ethers. A typical example of the first group is the solvent and anaesthetic diethyl ether, commonly referred to simply as "ether" (). Ethers are common in organic chemistry and even more prevalent in biochemistry, as they are common linkages in carbohydrates and lignin.
==Structure and bonding==
Ethers feature bent linkages. In dimethyl ether, the bond angle is 111° and C–O distances are 141 pm. The barrier to rotation about the C–O bonds is low. The bonding of oxygen in ethers, alcohols, and water is similar. In the language of valence bond theory, the hybridization at oxygen is sp3.
Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, thus the alpha hydrogens of ethers are more acidic than those of simple hydrocarbons. They are far less acidic than alpha hydrogens of carbonyl groups (such as in ketones or aldehydes), however.
Ethers can be symmetrical of the type ROR or unsymmetrical of the type ROR'. Examples of the former are dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, dipropyl ether etc. Illustrative unsymmetrical ethers are anisole (methoxybenzene) and dimethoxyethane.
===Vinyl- and acetylenic ethers===
Vinyl- and acetylenic ethers are far less common than alkyl or aryl ethers. Vinylethers, often called enol ethers, are important intermediates in organic synthesis. Acetylenic ethers are especially rare. Di-tert-butoxyacetylene is the most common example of this rare class of compounds.
==Nomenclature==
In the IUPAC Nomenclature system, ethers are named using the general formula "alkoxyalkane", for example CH3–CH2–O–CH3 is methoxyethane. If the ether is part of a more-complex molecule, it is described as an alkoxy substituent, so –OCH3 would be considered a "methoxy-" group. The simpler alkyl radical is written in front, so CH3–O–CH2CH3 would be given as methoxy(CH3O)ethane(CH2CH3).
===Trivial name===
IUPAC rules are often not followed for simple ethers. The trivial names for simple ethers (i.e., those with none or few other functional groups) are a composite of the two substituents followed by "ether". For example, ethyl methyl ether (CH3OC2H5), diphenylether (C6H5OC6H5). As for other organic compounds, very common ethers acquired names before rules for nomenclature were formalized. Diethyl ether is simply called ether, but was once called sweet oil of vitriol. Methyl phenyl ether is anisole, because it was originally found in aniseed. The aromatic ethers include furans. Acetals (α-alkoxy ethers R–CH(–OR)–O–R) are another class of ethers with characteristic properties.
===Polyethers===
Polyethers are generally polymers containing ether linkages in their main chain. The term polyol generally refers to polyether polyols with one or more functional end-groups such as a hydroxyl group. The term "oxide" or other terms are used for high molar mass polymer when end-groups no longer affect polymer properties.
Crown ethers are cyclic polyethers. Some toxins produced by dinoflagellates such as brevetoxin and ciguatoxin are extremely large and are known as cyclic or ladder polyethers.
The phenyl ether polymers are a class of aromatic polyethers containing aromatic cycles in their main chain: polyphenyl ether (PPE) and poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO).
===Related compounds===
Many classes of compounds with C–O–C linkages are not considered ethers: Esters (R–C(=O)–O–R′), hemiacetals (R–CH(–OH)–O–R′), carboxylic acid anhydrides (RC(=O)–O–C(=O)R′).
There are compounds which, instead of C in the linkage, contain heavier group 14 chemical elements (e.g., Si, Ge, Sn, Pb). Such compounds are considered ethers as well. Examples of such ethers are silyl enol ethers (containing the linkage), disiloxane (the other name of this compound is disilyl ether, containing the linkage) and stannoxanes (containing the linkage).
==Physical properties==
Ethers have boiling points similar to those of the analogous alkanes. Simple ethers are generally colorless.
==Reactions==
The C-O bonds that comprise simple ethers are strong. They are unreactive toward all but the strongest bases. Although generally of low chemical reactivity, they are more reactive than alkanes.
Specialized ethers such as epoxides, ketals, and acetals are unrepresentative classes of ethers and are discussed in separate articles. Important reactions are listed below.
===Cleavage===
Although ethers resist hydrolysis, they are cleaved by hydrobromic acid and hydroiodic acid. Hydrogen chloride cleaves ethers only slowly. Methyl ethers typically afford methyl halides:
ROCH3 + HBr → CH3Br + ROH
These reactions proceed via onium intermediates, i.e. [RO(H)CH3]+Br−.
Some ethers undergo rapid cleavage with boron tribromide (even aluminium chloride is used in some cases) to give the alkyl bromide. Depending on the substituents, some ethers can be cleaved with a variety of reagents, e.g. strong base.
Despite these difficulties the chemical paper pulping processes are based on cleavage of ether bonds in the lignin.
===Peroxide formation===
When stored in the presence of air or oxygen, ethers tend to form explosive peroxides, such as diethyl ether hydroperoxide. The reaction is accelerated by light, metal catalysts, and aldehydes. In addition to avoiding storage conditions likely to form peroxides, it is recommended, when an ether is used as a solvent, not to distill it to dryness, as any peroxides that may have formed, being less volatile than the original ether, will become concentrated in the last few drops of liquid. The presence of peroxide in old samples of ethers may be detected by shaking them with freshly prepared solution of a ferrous sulfate followed by addition of KSCN. Appearance of blood red color indicates presence of peroxides. The dangerous properties of ether peroxides are the reason that diethyl ether and other peroxide forming ethers like tetrahydrofuran (THF) or ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (1,2-dimethoxyethane) are avoided in industrial processes.
=== Lewis bases ===
Ethers serve as Lewis bases. For instance, diethyl ether forms a complex with boron trifluoride, i.e. borane diethyl etherate (). Ethers also coordinate to the Mg center in Grignard reagents. Tetrahydrofuran is more basic than acyclic ethers. It forms with many complexes.
===Alpha-halogenation===
This reactivity is similar to the tendency of ethers with alpha hydrogen atoms to form peroxides. Reaction with chlorine produces alpha-chloroethers.
==Synthesis==
===Dehydration of alcohols===
The dehydration of alcohols affords ethers:
2 R–OH → R–O–R + H2O at high temperature
This direct nucleophilic substitution reaction requires elevated temperatures (about 125 °C). The reaction is catalyzed by acids, usually sulfuric acid. The method is effective for generating symmetrical ethers, but not unsymmetrical ethers, since either OH can be protonated, which would give a mixture of products. Diethyl ether is produced from ethanol by this method. Cyclic ethers are readily generated by this approach. Elimination reactions compete with dehydration of the alcohol:
R–CH2–CH2(OH) → R–CH=CH2 + H2O
The dehydration route often requires conditions incompatible with delicate molecules. Several milder methods exist to produce ethers.
===Electrophilic addition of alcohols to alkenes===
Alcohols add to electrophilically activated alkenes. The method is atom-economical:
R2C=CR2 + R–OH → R2CH–C(–O–R)–R2
Acid catalysis is required for this reaction. Commercially important ethers prepared in this way are derived from isobutene or isoamylene, which protonate to give relatively stable carbocations. Using ethanol and methanol with these two alkenes, four fuel-grade ethers are produced: methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), methyl tert-amyl ether (TAME), ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), and ethyl tert-amyl ether (TAEE).
==Important ethers==
|
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"carbon",
"ketones",
"IUPAC Nomenclature",
"Di-tert-butoxyacetylene",
"Covestro",
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"Meta-Chloroperoxybenzoic acid",
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"tetrahydrofuran",
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"iodide",
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"perfumery",
"cosmetics",
"aromatic",
"bromide",
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"onium compounds",
"Acid",
"Polyoxymethylene plastic",
"germanium",
"tin",
"Miscibility",
"silicon",
"DuPont",
"solvent",
"methoxy",
"biochemistry",
"enol ether",
"reactivity (chemistry)",
"Lewis base",
"Inhalant",
"alkene",
"diethyl ether hydroperoxide",
"polyurethanes",
"Ester",
"dimethoxyethane",
"SN2",
"Ether (song)",
"smokeless gunpowder",
"Williamson ether synthesis",
"methyl tert-butyl ether",
"Soda pulping",
"phenoxide",
"end-group",
"boron trifluoride",
"ciguatoxin",
"catalysis",
"functional group",
"halohydrin",
"aldehydes",
"leaving group",
"Hydrogen",
"hydroiodic acid",
"Explosive material",
"Water",
"ether lipid",
"Crown ether",
"Paraformaldehyde",
"Kraft process",
"Sulfite process",
"chemical elements",
"anaesthetic",
"crown ether",
"diethyl ether",
"Polypropylene glycol",
"organic chemistry",
"phenols",
"Grignard reagent",
"alkyl halide",
"Alcohol (drug)",
"boiling point",
"oxygen",
"Halide",
"Dimethoxyethane",
"dehydration reaction",
"History of general anesthesia",
"1,4-Dioxane",
"lead",
"furan",
"Step-growth polymerisation",
"polyol",
"group 14",
"alkane",
"BASF",
"Poly(p-phenylene oxide)",
"boron tribromide",
"Tetrahydrofuran",
"Diethyl ether",
"pharmaceuticals",
"carbocation",
"ethyl tert-amyl ether",
"methoxyethane",
"alpha",
"Ethylene oxide",
"peroxyacid",
"Picometre",
"pulp (paper)",
"sodium hydroxide",
"phase transfer catalyst",
"aromatic compound",
"Nitrogen",
"hydroxyl",
"brevetoxin",
"dinoflagellate",
"Debye",
"disiloxane",
"Organic reaction",
"anisole",
"ethyl tert-butyl ether",
"aniseed",
"carboxylic acid anhydride",
"aliphatic compound",
"aryl",
"anise",
"Ullmann condensation",
"organic compound",
"magnesium",
"Chlorine",
"formaldehyde",
"propylene oxide",
"sulfonate",
"Ether lipid",
"Carbon",
"essential oil",
"bromobenzene",
"lignin",
"silyl enol ether",
"organic peroxide",
"Ring-opening polymerization",
"tert-Amyl methyl ether",
"isoamylene",
"Solid acid catalyst",
"cetane number",
"Base (chemistry)",
"Polyethylene glycol",
"aluminium chloride",
"acetal",
"refrigerant",
"methyl halide",
"Polytetrahydrofuran",
"dimethyl ether",
"stannoxane",
"Molecular geometry",
"transition metal ether complex",
"carbohydrate"
] |
9,264 |
Ecliptic
|
The ecliptic or ecliptic plane is the orbital plane of Earth around the Sun. It was a central concept in a number of ancient sciences, providing the framework for key measurements in astronomy, astrology and calendar-making.
From the perspective of an observer on Earth, the Sun's movement around the celestial sphere over the course of a year traces out a path along the ecliptic against the background of stars – specifically the Zodiac constellations. The planets of the Solar System can also be seen along the ecliptic, because their orbital planes are very close to Earth's. The Moon's orbital plane is also similar to Earth's; the ecliptic is so named because the ancients noted that eclipses only occur when the Moon is crossing it.
Because Earth takes one year to orbit the Sun, the apparent position of the Sun takes one year to make a complete circuit of the ecliptic. With slightly more than 365 days in one year, the Sun moves a little less than 1° eastward The variation of orbital speed accounts for part of the equation of time.
Because of the movement of Earth around the Earth–Moon center of mass, the apparent path of the Sun wobbles slightly, with a period of about one month. Because of further perturbations by the other planets of the Solar System, the Earth–Moon barycenter wobbles slightly around a mean position in a complex fashion.
== Relationship to the celestial equator ==
Because Earth's rotational axis is not perpendicular to its orbital plane, Earth's equatorial plane is not coplanar with the ecliptic plane, but is inclined to it by an angle of about 23.4°, which is known as the obliquity of the ecliptic. If the equator is projected outward to the celestial sphere, forming the celestial equator, it crosses the ecliptic at two points known as the equinoxes. The Sun, in its apparent motion along the ecliptic, crosses the celestial equator at these points, one from south to north, the other from north to south. The crossing from south to north is known as the March equinox, also known as the first point of Aries and the ascending node of the ecliptic on the celestial equator. The crossing from north to south is the September equinox or descending node.
The orientation of Earth's axis and equator are not fixed in space, but rotate about the poles of the ecliptic with a period of about 26,000 years, a process known as lunisolar precession, as it is due mostly to the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun on Earth's equatorial bulge. Likewise, the ecliptic itself is not fixed. The gravitational perturbations of the other bodies of the Solar System cause a much smaller motion of the plane of Earth's orbit, and hence of the ecliptic, known as planetary precession. The combined action of these two motions is called general precession, and changes the position of the equinoxes by about 50 arc seconds (about 0.014°) per year.
Once again, this is a simplification. Periodic motions of the Moon and apparent periodic motions of the Sun (actually of Earth in its orbit) cause short-term small-amplitude periodic oscillations of Earth's axis, and hence the celestial equator, known as nutation.
This adds a periodic component to the position of the equinoxes; the positions of the celestial equator and (March) equinox with fully updated precession and nutation are called the true equator and equinox; the positions without nutation are the mean equator and equinox.
== Obliquity of the ecliptic ==
Obliquity of the ecliptic is the term used by astronomers for the inclination of Earth's equator with respect to the ecliptic, or of Earth's rotation axis to a perpendicular to the ecliptic. It is about 23.4° and is currently decreasing 0.013 degrees (47 arcseconds) per hundred years because of planetary perturbations.
The angular value of the obliquity is found by observation of the motions of Earth and other planets over many years. Astronomers produce new fundamental ephemerides as the accuracy of observation improves and as the understanding of the dynamics increases, and from these ephemerides various astronomical values, including the obliquity, are derived.
thumb|upright=1.4|left|Obliquity of the ecliptic for 20,000 years, from Laskar (1986).
From 1984, the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory Development Ephemeris|Jet Propulsion Laboratory's DE series of computer-generated ephemerides took over as the fundamental ephemeris of the Astronomical Almanac. Obliquity based on DE200, which analyzed observations from 1911 to 1979, was calculated:
where hereafter is Julian centuries from J2000.0.
JPL's fundamental ephemerides have been continually updated. The Astronomical Almanac for 2010 specifies:
These expressions for the obliquity are intended for high precision over a relatively short time span, perhaps several centuries. J. Laskar computed an expression to order good to /1000 years over 10,000 years.
All of these expressions are for the mean obliquity, that is, without the nutation of the equator included. The true or instantaneous obliquity includes the nutation.
==Plane of the Solar System==
Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk. Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the invariable plane of the Solar System. Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, Jupiter's orbit is within a little more than ½° of it, and the other major planets are all within about 6°. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky.
The invariable plane is defined by the angular momentum of the entire Solar System, essentially the vector sum of all of the orbital and rotational angular momenta of all the bodies of the system; more than 60% of the total comes from the orbit of Jupiter. That sum requires precise knowledge of every object in the system, making it a somewhat uncertain value. Because of the uncertainty regarding the exact location of the invariable plane, and because the ecliptic is well defined by the apparent motion of the Sun, the ecliptic is used as the reference plane of the Solar System both for precision and convenience. The only drawback of using the ecliptic instead of the invariable plane is that over geologic time scales, it will move against fixed reference points in the sky's distant background.
==Celestial reference plane==
The ecliptic forms one of the two fundamental planes used as reference for positions on the celestial sphere, the other being the celestial equator. Perpendicular to the ecliptic are the ecliptic poles, the north ecliptic pole being the pole north of the equator. Of the two fundamental planes, the ecliptic is closer to unmoving against the background stars, its motion due to planetary precession being roughly 1/100 that of the celestial equator.
Spherical coordinates, known as ecliptic longitude and latitude or celestial longitude and latitude, are used to specify positions of bodies on the celestial sphere with respect to the ecliptic. Longitude is measured positively eastward
Ecliptic coordinates are convenient for specifying positions of Solar System objects, as most of the planets' orbits have small inclinations to the ecliptic, and therefore always appear relatively close to it on the sky. Because Earth's orbit, and hence the ecliptic, moves very little, it is a relatively fixed reference with respect to the stars.
Because of the precessional motion of the equinox, the ecliptic coordinates of objects on the celestial sphere are continuously changing. Specifying a position in ecliptic coordinates requires specifying a particular equinox, that is, the equinox of a particular date, known as an epoch; the coordinates are referred to the direction of the equinox at that date. For instance, the Astronomical Almanac lists the heliocentric position of Mars at 0h Terrestrial Time, 4 January 2010 as: longitude 118°09′15.8″, latitude +1°43′16.7″, true heliocentric distance 1.6302454 AU, mean equinox and ecliptic of date. This specifies the mean equinox of 4 January 2010 0h TT as above, without the addition of nutation.
==Eclipses==
Because the orbit of the Moon is inclined only about 5.145° to the ecliptic and the Sun is always very near the ecliptic, eclipses always occur on or near it. Because of the inclination of the Moon's orbit, eclipses do not occur at every conjunction and opposition of the Sun and Moon, but only when the Moon is near an ascending or descending node at the same time it is at conjunction (new) or opposition (full). The ecliptic is so named because the ancients noted that eclipses only occur when the Moon is crossing it.
==Equinoxes and solstices==
The exact instants of equinoxes and solstices are the times when the apparent ecliptic longitude (including the effects of aberration and nutation) of the Sun is 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. Because of perturbations of Earth's orbit and anomalies of the calendar, the dates of these are not fixed.
==In the constellations==
The ecliptic currently passes through the following thirteen constellations:
There are twelve constellations that are not on the ecliptic, but are close enough that the Moon and planets can occasionally appear in them.
Cetus
Pegasus
Aquila
Scutum
Serpens
Hydra
Corvus
Crater
Sextans
Canis Minor
Auriga
Orion
==Astrology==
The ecliptic forms the center of the zodiac, a celestial belt about 20° wide in latitude through which the Sun, Moon, and planets always appear to move.
Traditionally, this region is divided into 12 signs of 30° longitude, each of which approximates the Sun's motion in one month. In ancient times, the signs corresponded roughly to 12 of the constellations that straddle the ecliptic.
These signs are sometimes still used in modern terminology. The "First Point of Aries" was named when the March equinox Sun was actually in the constellation Aries; it has since moved into Pisces because of precession of the equinoxes.
|
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"polar day",
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"barycenter",
"lunar eclipse",
"solstice",
"Hydra (constellation)",
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"mean equinox",
"Newcomb's Tables of the Sun",
"nutation",
"Crater (constellation)",
"Protoplanetary disk",
"polar night",
"Orbital plane (astronomy)",
"solar eclipse",
"Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)",
"Venus",
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Invariable plane",
"aberration of light",
"Terrestrial Time",
"Sagittarius (constellation)",
"Taurus (constellation)",
"Perturbation (astronomy)",
"March equinox",
"Observational astronomy",
"Heliocentric",
"eclipse",
"Mercury (planet)",
"Equatorial coordinate system",
"equator",
"eclipse season",
"Aquarius (constellation)",
"Serpens (constellation)",
"zodiac",
"Gregorian calendar",
"orbital plane",
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"Plane of reference",
"Earth",
"Capricornus",
"fundamental ephemeris",
"angular momentum"
] |
9,269 |
List of former sovereign states
|
A historical sovereign state is a state that once existed, but has since been dissolved due to conflict, war, rebellion, annexation, or uprising. This page lists sovereign states, countries, nations, or empires that ceased to exist as political entities sometime after 1453, grouped geographically and by constitutional nature.
==Criteria for inclusion==
The criteria for inclusion in this list are similar to that of the list of states with limited recognition. To be included here, a polity must have claimed statehood and either:
had de facto control over a territory, a population, a government, a capacity to enter into relations with other states, or
have been recognised as a state by at least one other state.
This is not a list for all variant governments of a state, nor is it a list of variations of countries' official long form name.
For purposes of this list, the cutoff between medieval and early modern states is the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
==Ancient and medieval states==
List of Copper Age states
List of Bronze Age states
List of Iron Age states
List of Classical Age states
List of states during Late Antiquity
List of states during the Middle Ages
==Modern states and territories by geography==
===Africa===
====Morocco (Maghreb al-Aqsa)====
Marinid Sultanate (1244–1465)
Wattasid dynasty (1472–1549)
Saadi Sultanate (1510–1649)
Naqsid Principality of Tetouan (1597–1673 CE)
Republic of Salé (1627–1668)
'Alawi dynasty (1631–1912)
Zawiya Dila'iya (1637–1668)
Sharifian Sultanate (1666–1912)
Republic of the Rif (1921–1926)
====Egypt, Sudan and Libya====
Makuria (5th century–1518)
Emirate of Banu Talis (1228 - 1551)
Alodia (6th century–1504)
Kingdom of al-Abwab (13th century–15th/16th century?]
Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)
Shilluk Kingdom (15th century–1861)
Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867)
Kingdom of Fazughli (–1685)
Sultanate of Sennar (1504–1821)
Fezzan Sultanate (1550-1812)
Sultanate of Darfur (1603–1874/1898–1916)
Taqali (1750–1969)
Mahdist State (1885–1899)
Tripolitanian Republic (1918–1922)
Emirate of Cyrenaica (1949–1951)
United Arab Republic (1958–1971)
====Algeria (Central Maghreb)====
Hafsid dynasty (1229–1574)
Hafsid Emirate of Béjaïa (1285–1510)
Kingdom of Tlemcen (1235–1556)
Kingdom of Kuku (1515–1638)
Kingdom of Beni Abbas (1510–1871)
Sultanate of Tuggurt (1414–1871)
Regency of Algiers (1516–1830)
Emirate of Abdelkader (1832–1847)
==== Comoro Islands ====
Ali Soilih Regime (1976–1978)
State of Anjouan (1997–2002), (2007–2008)
==== Madagascar ====
Kingdom of Antankarana – made a French protectorate in 1843, annexed in 1895
Kingdom of Antongil (1773–1786)
Kingdom of Boina (–1840)
Kingdom of Menabe (–1834)
Kingdom of Imerina (1540–1897)
Kingdom of Tamatave (1712–1828)
Kingdom of Tanibe (1822–1828)
====Sub-Saharan Africa====
Bornu Empire (–1893)
Shilluk Kingdom (15th century–1861)
Wadai Empire (1501–1912)
Kingdom of Baguirmi (1480/1522–1897)
==== Horn of Africa ====
Medri Bahri (–1879)
Welayta Kingdom (c.1251–1896)
Hadiya Sultanate (13th century–15th century)
Ajuran Sultanate (13th/14th century–17th century)
Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)
Ennarea (14th century–)
Kingdom of Kaffa (–1897)
Adal Sultanate (1415–1559)
Kingdom of Janjero (c.15th century–1894)
Majeerteen Sultanate (15th/16th century–1927)
Imamate of Aussa (1577–1734)
Emirate of Harar (1647–1887)
Sultanate of the Geledi (1695–1911)
Aussa Sultanate (1734–1936)
Isaaq Sultanate (1750–1884)
Habr Yunis Sultanate (–1907)
Kingdom of Gumma (–1902)
Kingdom of Gomma (–1886)
Kingdom of Jimma (1790–1932)
Kingdom of Limmu-Ennarea (1801–1891)
Kingdom of Gera (1835–1887)
Sultanate of Hobyo (1878–1927)
State of Somaliland (1960)
==== Western Africa ====
Emirate of Trarza (1640–1902)
Emirate of Tagant
Emirate of Brakna
Mali Empire (–1672)
Bamana Empire (1712–1861)
Khasso (17th century–19th century)
Sultanate of Agadez (1449–1900)
Songhai Empire (–1591)
Mossi States
Gurunsi (–1899)
Gwiriko Kingdom (1714–1897)
Liptako (1718–1897, fully disestablished 1963)
Tenkodogo (–1897)
Wogodogo (1182?–1897)
Yatenga (?–1895)
Bilanga
Bilayanga
Bongandini
Con
Macakoali
Piela
Nungu (1204–1895)
Zabarma Emirate (1860–1897)
Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903)
Sultanate of Damagaram (1731–1851)
Empire of Great Fulo (Denanke Kingdom) (1490–1776)
Imamate of Futa Toro (1725–1861)
Jolof Empire (1350–1549)
Kingdom of Jolof (1549–1875)
Kingdom of Sine (c. 1520–1867, fully disestablished 1969)
Kingdom of Saloum (1494–1864, fully disestablished 1969)
Kingdom of Baol (1555–1895)
Kingdom of Cayor (1549–1879)
Kingdom of Waalo (1287–1855)
Bundu (1690–1858)
Kaabu (1537–1867)
Solimana (1600s-1869)
Imamate of Futa Jallon (1725–1912)
Toucouleur Empire (1861–1890)
Wassoulou Empire (1878–1898)
Kong Empire (1710–1898)
Kingdom of Dagbon (–1899?)
Ashanti Empire (1670/1701–1902, still exists as a region)
Bonoman (11th century–20th century)
Gyaaman (–1895)
Denkyira (–1701)
Mankessim Kingdom (1252–1844)
Fante Confederacy (16th century–1873)
Kingdom of Whydah (–1727)
Kingdom of Dahomey (–1904)
Oyo Empire (–1896)
Kingdom of Benin (1180–1897)
Kingdom of Nri (9th century–1911)
Aro Confederacy (1690–1902)
Kwararafa ()
Thomas Sankara's Burkina Faso government (1984–1987)
People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea (1979–1984)
Republic of Maryland (1854–1857)
Republic of Dahomey (1958–1975)
Republic of Benin (September 19, 1967 – September 20, 1967)
Biafra (1967–1970)
==== African Great Lakes ====
Buganda (14th century–1894, still exists as traditional kingdom)
Bunyoro (13th century–1897, still exists as traditional kingdom)
Ankole (1478–1901, fully disestablished 1967)
Toro Kingdom (1830–1876, still exists as traditional kingdom)
Busoga (?–1906, still exists as traditional kingdom)
Kingdom of Rwanda (11th century–1885, fully disestablished 1962)
Kingdom of Burundi (1680–1890/1962–1966)
Kingdom of Karagwe (1450–1963)
==== Eastern Africa ====
Pate Sultanate (1203–1870)
Malindi Kingdom (9th century–15th century)
Mombasa Sultanate (1502–1887, fully disestablished 1963)
Witu Sultanate (–1905/1923)
Kilwa Sultanate (957–1513)
Kingdom of Maravi (–1891)
Sultanate of Zanzibar (pre–1503/4, 1856–1890, 1963–1964)
People's Republic of Zanzibar (1964)
Tanganyika (1961–1964)
====Central Africa====
Kingdom of Loango ()
Yaka Kingdom (17th century–18th century)
Anziku Kingdom (?–19th century)
Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914)
Kuba Kingdom (1625–1884)
Kingdom of Luba (1585–1889)
Kingdom of Lunda (–1887)
Yeke Kingdom (1856–1891)
Kingdom of Ndongo (16th century–1671)
Kasanje Kingdom (1620–1910)
Kingdom of Matamba (1631–1744)
Mbunda Kingdom (1700–1914)
Chokwe Kingdom
Kazembe Kingdom (c. 1740–1894)
International Association of the Congo (1879–1885)
Congo Free State (1885–1908)
Republic of Zaire (1971–1997)
====Southern Africa====
Kingdom of Barotseland (19th century)
Kingdom of Mutapa (1430–1760)
Kingdom of Zimbabwe (1220–1450)
Kingdom of Butua (1450–)
Rozvi Empire (1660–1889)
Kingdom of Mthwakazi (1823–1894)
Ndebele Kingdom
Gaza Empire (1824–1895)
Mthethwa Empire (–1817)
Gciriku (1780–1894)
Swellendam (1795)
Graaff-Reinet (1795–1796)
Zulu Kingdom (1816–1897)
South African Republic (Transvaal) (1852–1877, 1881–1902)
Orange Free State (1854–1902)
Griqualand East (1862–1874)
Nieuwe Republiek (1884–1888)
Natalia Republic (1839–1843)
State of Goshen (1882–1883)
Republic of Stellaland (1882–1885)
United States of Stellaland (1883–1885)
Republic of Upingtonia (1885–1887)
Union of South Africa (1910–1961)
Bophuthatswana (1977–1994)
Ciskei (1981–1994)
Transkei (1976–1994)
Venda (1979–1994)
(1965–1979)
(1979)
Natal (1843–1910)
===Asia===
====Central Asia====
Chagatai Khanate (1225–1680)
Kart dynasty (1244–1381)
Moghulistan (1347-1462)
Uzbek Khanate (1428–1471)
Nogai Horde (1440–1634)
Kazakh Khanate (1465–1848)
Khanate of Bukhara (1506–1785)
Yarkent Khanate (1514-1705)
Dzungar Khanate (1634–1755)
Khanate of Kokand (1709–1868)
Emirate of Bukhara (1785–1873)
Alash Autonomy (1917–1918)
Turkestan Autonomy (1917–1918)
Khanate of Khiva (1511–1920)
Confederated Republic of Altai (1918–1920)
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
(1933–1934)
(1944–1949)
====East Asia====
Kingdom of Bumthang (7th century-17th century)
Kingdom of Tungning (1661-1683)
Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1924)
Republic of China (based on mainland China 1912–1949; continued existence on Taiwan since 1949)
People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China (1933–1934)
Reformed Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)
Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China (Wang Jingwei Regime) (1940–1945)
Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)
East Hebei Autonomous Government (1935–1938)
Republic of Formosa (1895)
Great Han Sichuan Military Government (1911–1912)
Guangzhou Commune (1927)
Hunan Soviet (1927)
Hunan Soviet in a continental Chinese province (1927)
Inner Mongolian People's Republic (1945)
Jaxa (1665–1674)
Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet (1931–1934)
Jiangxi Soviet (1931–1937)
Korean People's Association in Manchuria (1929–1931)
Manchukuo (1932–1945)
Mengjiang United Autonomous Government (1939–1945)
Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Southern Ming (1644–1662)
Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
Ryukyu Kingdom (1429–1879)
Shanghai Great Way Government (1937–1938)
Shun dynasty (1644–1646)
Soviet Zone of China (1927–1949)
Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864)
Tibet under Ganden Phodrang government (1644–1720)
Tibet (1912–1951)
Tibetan states (900–1240, 1300–1620)
Tibetan People's Republic (1936)
Kingdom of Tungning (1661–1683)
Tuvan People's Republic (1921–1944)
Uryankhay Republic (1911–1914)
Uryankhay Krai (1914)
Xi dynasty (1643–1647)
Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and the Northern Yuan (1368–1635)
===== Japanese Archipelago =====
Allied Occupied Japan (1945–1952)
Ashikaga shogunate (1336–1573)
Azuchi–Momoyama (1568–1600)
Empire of Japan (1868–1947)
Republic of Ezo (1869)
Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)
===== Korean Peninsula =====
Joseon (1392–1897)
Korean Empire (1897–1910)
People's Republic of Korea (1945–1946)
Provisional People's Committee of North Korea (1946–1947)
People's Committee of North Korea
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (1945)
First Republic of Korea (1948–1960)
Second Republic of Korea (1960–1961)
Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (1961–1963)
Third Republic of Korea (1963–1972)
Fourth Republic of Korea (1972–1981)
Fifth Republic of Korea (1981–1988)
====West Asia====
===== Afghanistan =====
Hotak dynasty (1709–1738)
Durrani Empire (1747–1826)
Islamic Emirate of Badakhshan (1996)
Islamic Emirate of Kunar (1991)
(2004-2021, still exists as a unrecognized state)
===== Balochistan =====
Ma'danid dynasty (9th century–11th century)
Khanate of Kalat (1666–1736, 1747–1749, 1758–1955)
Durrani Empire (1749–1758)
=====Anatolia=====
Beylik of Candar (1292–1461)
Alaiye (1293–1471)
Beylik of Bafra (14th century–1460)
Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)
Beylik of Alaiye (1293–1471)
Beylik of Karaman (1250–1487)
Beylik of Dulkadir (1337–1522)
Ramadanid Emirate (1352–1608)
Aq Qoyunlu (1378–1501)
Kara Koyunlu (1374–1468)
Emirate of Hasankeyf (1232–1524)
Kars Republic (1918–1919)
Ottoman Empire (–1923)
=====Cyprus=====
Kingdom of Cyprus (1192–1489)
Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (1975–1983)
=====Mesopotamia=====
Kingdom of Kurdistan (1922–1924)
All-Palestine Government (1948–1967)
Arab Federation (1958)
=====Persia/Iran=====
Baduspanids (665–1598)
Kar-Kiya dynasty (1370s–1592)
Marashiyan dynasty (1359–1596)
Afrasiyab dynasty (1349–1504)
Mihrabanid dynasty (1236–1537)
Iran-u-Turan (Timurid) (1370–1507)
The Expansive Realm of Iran (Safavid dynasty) (1501–1736)
Guarded Domains of Iran (Afsharid dynasty) (1736–1796)
Guarded Domains of Iran (Zand dynasty) (1751–1794)
Sublime State of Persia/Iran (1794–1925)
Military Dictatorship of Mughan (1918–1919)
Persian Socialist Soviet Republic in Gilan (Iran) (1920–1921)
Imperial State of Persia/Iran (1925–1979)
Azerbaijan People's Government (1945–1946)
Republic of Mahabad (1946)
=====Levant=====
Arab Kingdom of Syria (1920)
United Arab Republic (1958–1971)
Free Lebanon State (1979–1984)
Islamic State (2014–2017)
Syrian Arab Republic (1971–2024)
=====Arabian Peninsula=====
Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1613–1961)
Bani Khalid Emirate (1669–1796)
Emirate of Diriyah (1744–1812)
Emirate of Nejd (1812–1891)
Muscat and Oman (1820–1970)
Emirate of Jabal Shammar (1836–1921)
Emirate of Riyadh (1902–1913)
Idrisid Emirate of Asir (1906–1934)
Sheikdom of Upper Asir (1916–1920)
Emirate of Nejd and Hasa (1913–1921)
Sultanate of Nejd (1921–1925)
Kingdom of Hejaz (1916–1925)
Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd (1926–1932)
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1918–1970)
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967–1990)
Yemen Arab Republic (1962–1990)
Fadhli Sultanate (15th century–1888)
Qu'aiti Sultanate in Hadhramaut (1858–1888)
Sultanate of Upper Yafa (1800–1903)
Sultanate of Lower Yafa (1800–1895)
Emirate of Beihan (1680–1872)
Emirate of Dhala (15th century–1904)
Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf (1640–1888)
Wahidi Sultanate of Haban (1640–1895)
Kathiri Sultanate in Hadhramaut (14th century–1888)
Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra (1432–1886)
Sultanate of Lahej (1728–1839)
Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967)
Republic of Kuwait (1990)
====South Asia====
Garhwal Kingdom (823–1949)
Kingdom of Cochin (Before 12th century CE–1949)
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
Sur Empire (1540–1556)
Laur Kingdom (600–1565)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Jaunpur Sultanate (1394–1479)
Kingdom of Mysore (1399–1948)
Bijapur Sultanate (Adil Shahi dynasty, 1490–1686)
Pratapgarh Kingdom (1489–1700s)
Bengal Subah (1717–1757)
Maratha Confederacy (1674–1820)
Jaintia Kingdom (500–1835)
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
Provisional Government of Free India (1943–1945)
Hyderabad State (1724–1798)
Travancore (1729–1949)
Udaipur State (734–1818)
Manikya dynasty (1400–1761)
United Suvadive Republic (1959–1963)
Sultanate of Maldives (1117–1796), (1954–1968)
Sikkim (1642–1975)
====Southeast Asia====
Kingdom of Cambodia (1431–1863)
Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)
In Laos:
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (1707–1893)
Kingdom of Vientiane (1707–1828)
Kingdom of Champasak (1713–1904)
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (1945)
Lao Issara (1945–1946)
In Vietnam:
Champa kingdom (192–1832)
Đại Việt (968–1407/1428–1804)
Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviet (1930–1931)
Empire of Vietnam (1945)
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) (1945–1976)
Republic of Cochinchina (1946–1949)
Provisional Central Government of Vietnam (1948–1949)
State of Vietnam (known as South Vietnam after the Geneva Conference of 1954) (1949–1955)
Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) (1955–1975)
Republic of South Vietnam (1975–1976)
In Myanmar (Burma):
Mon kingdoms (9th–11th, 13th–16th, 18th centuries)
Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1552)
Ava (1364–1555)
Pegu (1287–1539, 1747–1757)
Kingdom of Mrauk U (1429–1785)
Taungoo dynasty (1486–1752, 2nd Empire)
Konbaung dynasty (1752–1885, 3rd Empire)
Shan States (1287–1557)
Arakan (1287–1784)
State of Burma (1943–1945)
In Thailand:
Langkasuka (2nd–15th century)
Sultanate of Singora (1605–1680)
Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767)
Thonburi Kingdom (1767–1782)
Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom (13th century–1782)
Lan Na (1292–1775)
Kingdom of Chiang Mai (1782–1894)
Pattani kingdom (1516–1902)
Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara (1808–1916)
Kingdom of Siam (1782–1932)
In Indonesia:
Republic of Indonesia (1945–1949)
United States of Indonesia (1949–1950)
State of East Indonesia (1946–1950)
State of East Java (1948–1950)
State of East Sumatra (1947–1950)
State of Madura (1948–1950)
State of Pasundan (1948–1950)
State of South Sumatra (1948–1950)
Great Dayak (1946–1950)
West Kalimantan (1946–1950)
In Sumatra:
Sultanate of Aceh (1496–1903)
Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura
Palembang Sultanate (1659–1823)
Sultanate of Deli (1609–1862, fully disestablished 1956)
Sultanate of Langkat (1568–1946)
Jambi Sultanate (1615-1904)
Sultanate of Serdang (1723–1946)
In Java:
Majapahit (1293–1527)
Sultanate of Mataram (1588–1681)
Sultanate of Banten (1527–1813)
Sultanate of Cirebon (1445–1677)
Sultanate of Demak (1475–1548)
Kingdom of Pajang (1568–1586)
In Lesser Sunda Islands
Bali Kingdoms (914–1908)
Bima Sultanate (1620–1951, fully disestablished 1958)
Kingdom of Larantuka (1515–1904)
In Sulawesi:
Kingdom of Banggai (? – 1907)
Sultanate of Gowa (14th century–1911, fully disestablished 1945)
Sultanate of Bone (14th century – 1905)
Kingdom of Wajoq (–1906, fully disestablished 1957)
In Maluku:
Sultanate of Ternate (1257–1914)
Sultanate of Tidore (1273–1920)
In Borneo:
Bruneian Empire (1368–1888)
Sambas Sultanate (1609–1819, fully disestablished 1956)
Pontianak Sultanate (1771–1779)
Kingdom of Sarawak (1841–1888)
Berau Sultanate
Sultanate of Bulungan (1731–, fully disestablished 1964)
Kingdom of Kutai Martadipura (399–1635)
Sultanate of Kutai Kartanegara (1300–1844)
Sultanate of Banjar (1526–1860)
Lanfang Republic (1777–1884)
In Riau Islands:
Riau-Lingga Sultanate (1824–1911)
In Malaysia:
Sultanate of Malacca (1400–1511)
Johor Sultanate (1528–1855)
Pahang Sultanate (1470–1623)
Pahang Kingdom (1770–1881)
Malayan Union (1946–1948)
Federation of Malaya (1957–1963)
In the Philippines
Sultanate of Maguindanao (1500–1888)
Sultanate of Sulu (1405–1915)
Republic of Negros (1898–1899)
Cantonal Government of Negros (1898–1901)
Tejeros Revolutionary Government (1897)
Sovereign Tagalog Nation (1896–1897)
First Philippine Republic (1899–1902)
Tagalog Republic (1902–1906)
Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945)
===Europe===
====Nordic countries====
In the Nordic countries, unions were personal, not unitary
Icelandic Commonwealth (c. 930–1262)
Kingdom of Finland (1742–1743)
Kingdom of Finland (1918–1919)
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (1918–1919)
United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway (1814–1905)
Kingdom of Norway (1814)
Denmark–Norway (1524–1814, intermittent)
Kalmar Union (1397–1523, intermittent)
Schleswig (1058–1864)
====Modern France====
Kingdom of France (843–1792) (1814/15–1848)
Duchy of Brittany (939–1532)
Duchy of Burgundy (918–1482)
French Empire (1804-1814/15) (1852–1870)
First French Empire (1804–1814/15)
Second French Empire (1852–1870)
Duchy of Normandy (911–1259/1469)
Duchy of Lorraine (959–1766)
Viscounty of Béarn (9th century–1620)
Free City of Danzig (1807–1814)
Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815)
Territory of the Saar Basin (1920–1935)
Third French Republic (1870–1940)
Vichy France (1940–1944)
Saar Protectorate (1946–1956)
Kingdom of Corsica (1736)
Corsican Republic (1755–1769)
Anglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794–1796)
County of Foix (1010–1607)
Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune (1848–1849)
Fourth French Republic (1946–1958)
====Modern Germany====
Holy Roman Empire (843–1806)
Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)
Duchy of Anhalt (1806–1918)
Principality of Reuss-Gera (1806–1918)
Grand Duchy of Frankfurt (1810–1813)
German Confederation (1815–1866)
German Empire (1848–1849)
North German Federation (1867–1871)
German Empire (1871–1918)
Weimar Republic (1918–1933)
Nazi Germany (1933–1945)
(1948–1990), Western Bloc-aligned political enclave.
German Democratic Republic (1949–1990) (also known as East Germany or GDR), its states acceded to Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.
Alsace Soviet Republic (1918)
Baden (Grand Duchy – 1806–1871)
Kingdom of Bavaria (1806–1871)
Bavarian Soviet Republic (1919)
Bremen (1815–1871)
Brunswick (1815–1871)
Frankfurt (Free Imperial City of Frankfurt (HRE), before 1806; City of Frankfurt, 1815–1866)
Hamburg (1189–1871)
Kingdom of Hanover (1814–1866)
Hesse-Homburg (1815–1866)
Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) (Electorate, 1803–1807, 1813–1866)
Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1623–1850)
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1623–1850)
Holstein (1815–1864)
Lippe (1123–1871)
Lübeck (Free city 1226–1871)
Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1815–1871)
Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1815–1871)
Nassau (1806–1866)
Oldenburg (1815–1871)
Pomerania (1121–1637)
Prussia (1525–1871)
Duchy of Prussia (1525–1618)
Brandenburg-Prussia (1618–1701)
Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1871)
Reuss (1010–1806)
Saxe-Altenburg (1602–1871)
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1735–1826)
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1826–1871)
Saxe-Gotha (1640–1680)
Saxe-Hildburghausen (1680–1826)
Saxe-Lauenburg (or Duchy of Lauenburg) (1296–1871)
Saxe-Meiningen (1680–1871)
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1809–1871)
Saxony (kingdom) – 1806–1871)
Schaumburg-Lippe (1647–1871)
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1599–1871)
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (1599–1871)
Waldeck (1180–1871)
Württemberg (kingdom) – 1806–1871)
Free State of Bottleneck (1919–1923)
, (1949-1990)
, (1949-1990)
====Austria====
Archduchy of Austria (1453–1804, 1867–1918)
County of Tyrol (1140–1919)
Duchy of Styria (1180–1918)
Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg (1328–1803)
Republic of German-Austria (1918–1919)
Austrian Empire (1804–1867)
==== Switzerland ====
Old Swiss Confederacy (1300–1798)
Helvetic Republic (1798–1803)
Rhodanic Republic (1802–1810)
====Italy====
Republic of Crema (1797)
Republic of Alba (1796)
Republic of Ancona (–1532)
Republic of Florence (1115–1569)
Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816)
Duchy of Urbino (1443–1625)
Anconine Republic (1797–1798)
Judicate of Arborea (9th century–1420)
Kingdom of Etruria (1801–1807)
United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860)
Cisalpine Republic (1797–1802)
Cispadane Republic (1796–1797)
Republic of Cospaia (1440–1826)
Principality of Elba (Elba) (1814–1815)
Kingdom of Etruria (1801–1807)
Marquisate of Finale (967–1602)
Regency of Carnaro (1919–1920)
Gozitan Nation (1798–1801)
Italian Republic (Napoleonic) (1802–1805)
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic) (1805–1814)
Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866)
Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847)
Principality of Lucca and Piombino (1805–1814)
Republic of Lucca (1160–1805)
Sovereign Military Order of Malta (1530–1798)
Duchy of Mantua (1273–1707)
Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1473–1829)
Duchy of Milan (1395–1797)
Provisional Government of Milan (1848)
Duchy of Modena (1452–1796, 1815–1859)
Kingdom of Naples (1285–1816)
Republic of Noli (1192–1797)
Duchy of Parma (1545–1859)
Papal States (752–1870)
Republic of Pisa (–1406)
Roman Republic (19th century) (1849)
Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)
Republic of San Marco (1848–1849)
Republic of Senarica (1343–1797)
Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816)
Kingdom of Sicily (1848)
Transpadane Republic (1796–1797)
Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1569–1801, 1815–1859)
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1815–1860)
Republic of Venice (697–1797)
Republic of Genoa (1095–1797)
Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)
Italian governorate of Montenegro (1941–1943)
Kingdom of Tavolara (1836–1934)
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)
Republic of Rose Island (1968–1969)
====Modern United Kingdom====
Kingdom of Gwynedd (450–1216)
Kingdom of Powys (5th century–1160)
Kingdom of Scotland (843–1707)
Kingdom of England (927–1707)
Angevin Empire (1154–1214)
Principality of Wales (1216–1536)
Commonwealth of England (1649–1653) and (1659–1660)
The Protectorate (1653–1659)
Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800)
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922)
====Ireland====
Kingdom of Leinster (7th century BC–1603)
Osraige (150–1541)
Airgíalla (331–1585)
Uí Maine (–1611)
Ailech (450–1617)
Tyrconnell (5th century–1607)
Tír Eoghain (5th century–1607)
Fermanagh (10th century–1607)
Magh Luirg (–1585)
Thomond (1118–1543)
Kingdom of Desmond (1118–1596)
Lordship of Ireland (1171–1542)
Clandeboye (1283–1605)
Kingdom of Uí Failghe (Unknown–1550)
Kingdom of Connacht
Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1801)
Irish Catholic Confederation (1641–1649)
Republic of Connacht (1798)
Irish soviets (1919–1922)
Limerick Soviet (1919)
(1922–1937)
====Benelux====
Prince-Bishopric of Liège (972–1795) annexed by France in 1795.
Duchy of Brabant (1183–1794)
Duchy of Bouillon (1456? – 1794)
United Belgian States (1789–1790)
Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581–1795) (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën) Independence from Spain after Eighty Years' War in 1581, conquered by France 1795.
Batavian Republic (1795–1806) (Bataafse Republiek) France's vassal state.
Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) (Koninkrijk Holland/Royaume d'Hollande) Ruled by Louis Bonaparte, annexed by France 1810.
Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands (1813–1815)
United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)
====Poland====
Duchy of Pomerania (1121–1160, 1264–1295, 1478–1531, 1625–1637)
Demmin Principality (1160–1264)
Szczecin Principality (1160–1264, 1295–1523)
Duchy of Pomerania-Wolgast (1295–1478)
Duchy of Masovia (1138–1275, 1294–1310, 1370–1381, 1495–1526)
Duchy of Pomerania-Stolp (1368–1478)
Duchy of Pomerania-Neustettin (1368–1390)
Duchy of Kraków (1227–1320)
Principality of Halych (1110–1339)
Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (1199–1349)
Duchy of Bytom (1281–1498)
Duchy of Silesia (1138–1335)
Duchy of Opole (1172–1202, 1281–1532)
Duchy of Racibórz (1172–1202, 1281–1521)
Duchy of Opole and Racibórz (1202–1281, 1521–1532, 1551–1556)
Duchy of Inowrocław (1267–1364)
Duchy of Teschen (1281–1918)
Duchy of Poland (966–1025, 1031–1076, 1079–1138, 1138–1227)
Kingdom of Poland (1025–1031, 1076–1079, 1295–1296, 1300–1320)
United Kingdom of Poland (1320–1386)
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795)
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland (1386–1795)
Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1236–1795)
Royal Prussia (1466–1569)
Duchy of Prussia (1525–1657)
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1561–1795)
New Courland (1637, 1639, 1642, 1654–1659, 1660–1666, 1680–1683, 1686–1690)
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (1772–1918, part of the Austrian Empire, later part of Austria-Hungary)
Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815; part of First French Empire, personal union with the Kingdom of Saxony)
Free, Independent, and Strictly Neutral City of Cracow with its Territory (1815–1846)
Kingdom of Poland (1815–1832; personal union with the Russian Empire)
Vistula Land (1867–1915; part of the Russian Empire)
Grand Duchy of Posen (1815–1848; part of the Kingdom of Prussia)
Grand Duchy of Kraków (1846–1918; part of Austria-Hungary)
Polish National Government (1830–1831)
Polish National Government (1846)
Polish National Government (1863–1864)
Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)
Republic of Zakopane (1918)
Republic of Tarnobrzeg (1918–1919)
Komancza Republic (1918–1919)
Lemko-Rusyn People's Republic (1918–1920)
Second Polish Republic (1918–1939)
Republic of Central Lithuania (1920–1922)
Free City of Danzig (1920–1939)
Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (1920)
Military Administration in Poland (1939)
General Governorate for the Occupied Polish Region (1939–1945)
Polish Underground State (1939–1945)
Polish Committee of National Liberation (1944)
Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland (1944–1945)
Provisional Government of National Unity (1945–1947)
Republic of Poland (1947–1952)
Polish People's Republic (1952–1989)
Polish National-Territorial Region (1990–1991)
====Ukraine====
Kholodny Yar Republic (1919–1922)
Zaporozhian Sich (1552–1775)
Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)
Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920)
Ukrainian State (1918)
West Ukrainian People's Republic (1918–1919)
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991; sovereign until 1922)
Makhnovshchina (1918–1921)
Hutsul Republic (1919)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
Carpatho-Ukraine (1939)
Ukrainian National Government (1941)
Donetsk People's Republic (2014–2022)
Luhansk People's Republic (2014–2022)
====Crimea====
Principality of Theodoro (13th century–1475)
Crimean Khanate (1449–1783)
Crimean People's Republic (1917–1918)
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1941/1944–1945/1991–1992)
Republic of Crimea (2014)
====Baltic countries and Belarus====
Principality of Polotsk (10th century–1397)
Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1236–1795)
Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)
Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940)
Republic of Perloja (1918–1923)
Republic of Central Lithuania (1920–1922)
Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919)
Belarusian People's Republic (1918–1919)
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1922)
State of the Teutonic Order (1230–1525)
Kingdom of Livonia (1570–1578)
United Baltic Duchy (1918)
Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920)
First Latvian Republic (1918–1940)
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)
Soviet Republic of Naissaar on an Estonian Baltic Sea island (1917–1918)
Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919)
First Estonian Republic (1918–1940)
====Romania and Moldova====
Dacian Kingdom (168 BC–106 AD)
Țara Litua (1247–1330)
Voievodeship of Gelu (9th–11th century)
Voivodeship of Maramureș (9th century–1402)
Jupanat of Dimitrie (c. 943)
Voivodeship of Glad (10th century)
Voivodeship of Menumorut (9th–11th century)
Jupanat of Gheorghe (10th century)
Jupanat of Tatos (c. 1190)
Jupanat of Sacea (11th century)
Jupanat of Setslav (c. 1085)
Voivodship of Transylvania (12th century–1541)
Banat of Severin (1228–1526)
Voivodship of Seneslav (13th century)
Cnezatul lui Ioan (13th century)
Cnezatul lui Farcaș (13th century)
Principality of Wallachia (1330–1859)
Principality of Moldavia (1346–1859)
Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)
Wallachian Eyalet (1595)
Temeşvar Eyalet (1552–1716)
Varat Eyalet (1660–1692)
Grand Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)
Banat of Temeswar (1718–1778)
Duchy of Bukovina (1849–1918)
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1859–1881)
Kingdom of Romania (1881–1947)
Banat Republic (1918–1919)
Moldavian Democratic Republic (1917–1918)
Socialist Republic of Romania (1947–1989)
====Russia====
Novgorod Republic (1136–1478)
Pskov Republic (1348–1510)
Principality of Tver (1246–1483)
Principality of Beloozero (13th–15th century)
Principality of Yaroslavl (1218–1463)
Grand Duchy of Ryazan (1097–1521)
Principality of Great Perm (1323–1505)
Vyatka Land
Golden Horde (1320–1547)
Astrakhan Khanate (1466–1556)
Khanate of Kazan (1438–1552)
Qasim Khanate (1452–1681)
Khanate of Sibir (1468–1598)
Kalmyk Khanate (1630–1771)
Republic of Uhtua (1918–1920)
Kuban People's Republic (1918–1920)
Don Republic (1918–1920)
Idel-Ural State (1 March 1918 – 28 March 1918)
Far Eastern Republic (1920–1922)
Green Ukraine (1920–1922)
Tungus Republic (1924–1925)
State of Buryat-Mongolia (1917–1920)
Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547)
North Ingria(1919–1920)Jaxa (1665–1674)
Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721)
Russian Empire (1721–1917)
Kingdom of Poland (1815–1867)
Grand Duchy of Finland (1809–1917)
Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies (1917–1924)
Russian Republic (1917)
Russian Republic (1918)
Russian State (1918–1920)
Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1918)
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1922)
Supreme Administration of the Northern Region (1918)
Provisional Government of the Northern Region (1918–1920)
Armed Forces of South Russia (1918–1919)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1991)
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1956)
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1990)
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1990)
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1991)
Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991)
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1924)
Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1941)
Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990)
Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1936)
Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1924)
Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1945)
Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1990)
Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1940; 1956–1991)
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1926–1936)
Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)
Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)
Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1935–1943; 1957–1991)
Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)
Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)
Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1992)
Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1957)
Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1961–1992)
Khakas Autonomous Oblast (1990–1991)
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991)
Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (1929–1991)
Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)
====Hungary====
Principality of Hungary (895–1000)
Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1804)
Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1526–1551, 1556–1570)
Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)
Principality of Upper Hungary (1682–1685)
Principality of Transylvania (1711–1804)
Kingdom of Croatia (1102–1526)
Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)
Hungarian State (1849)
Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989)
====Czechia and Slovakia====
Duchy of Bohemia (–1198)
Kingdom of Bohemia (1198–1918)
Margraviate of Moravia (1182–1918)
Slovak Soviet Republic (1919)
Slovak Republic (1939–1945)
First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)
Second Czechoslovak Republic (1938–1939)
Third Czechoslovak Republic (1945–1948)
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1948–1989; before 1960 as Czechoslovak Republic)
Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (1990–1992)
====Austria====
Duchy of Austria (1156–1453)
Archduchy of Austria (1453–1804)
Austrian Empire (1804–1867)
Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
====Balkans====
In Albania:
Independent Albania (1912–1914)
Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914)
Republic of Central Albania (1913–1914)
Principality of Albania (1914–1925)
Italian protectorate over Albania (1917–1920)
Republic of Mirdita (1921)
Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)
German occupation of Albania (1943–1944)
People's Socialist Republic of Albania (1946–1992)
In Aromania:
First Hellenic Republic (1828–1832)
Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821–1825)
Kingdom of Greece (1832–1924, 1935–1941, 1944–1974)
Italian Islands of the Aegean (1912–1945)
Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935)
In Bosnia:
Kingdom of Bosnia (1377–1463)
Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)
Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995)
Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia (1993–1995)
Republika Srpska (1992–1995)
Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (1991–1996)
In Bulgaria:
Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396)
Despotate of Dobruja (1356–1411)
Principality of Bulgaria (1878–1908)
Strandzha Commune (1903)
Kingdom of Bulgaria (1908–1946)
People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990)
In Croatia:
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918)
Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)
Kingdom of Croatia (1527–1868)
Kingdom of Slavonia (1699–1868)
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1868–1918)
Free State of Fiume (1920–1924)
Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)
Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)
Republic of Ragusa (1358–1808)
Republic of Serbian Krajina (1991–1995)
In Greece:
First Hellenic Republic (1828–1832)
Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821–1825)
Kingdom of Greece (1832–1924, 1935–1941, 1944–1974)
United States of the Ionian Islands (1815–1864)
Septinsular Republic (1800–1815)
Principality of Samos (1815–1864)
Cretan State (1898–1913)
Free State of Ikaria (1912)
Italian Islands of the Aegean (1912–1945)
Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935)
In Montenegro:
Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro (1516–1852)
Principality of Montenegro (1852–1910)
Kingdom of Montenegro (1910–1918)
Italian governorate of Montenegro (1941–1943)
German-occupied territory of Montenegro (1943–1944)
In North Macedonia:
Kruševo Republic (1903)
Independent Macedonia (1944) [proposed]
In Serbia:
Revolutionary Serbia (1804–1813)
Principality of Serbia (1815–1882)
Kingdom of Serbia (1882–1918)
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918)
Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1929–1943)
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1943–1992)
(1992–2003)
(2003–2006)
Republic of Kosova (1991–1999)
In Turkey:
Byzantine Empire (395–1453)
Duchy of Athens (1205–1458)
Despotate of Epirus (1356–1479)
Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261)
Ottoman Empire (–1922)
Government of the Grand National Assembly (1920–1923)
====Caucasus====
Caucasian Albania (2nd century BC–8th century AD)
Kabardia (–)
Circassia (13th century–1864)
Kingdom of Abkhazia (778–1008)
Elisu Sultanate (1604–1844)
Avar Khanate (13th century–1864)
Caucasian Imamate (1828–1859)
Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus (1917–1921)
North Caucasian Emirate (1919–1920)
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1991–2000)
Kingdom of Georgia (1008–1490)
Kingdom of Imereti (1260–1810)
Principality of Svaneti (1463–1858)
Principality of Mingrelia (1557–1867)
Principality of Guria (1460–1829)
Samtskhe-Saatabago (1266–1625)
Kingdom of Kartli (1478–1762)
Kingdom of Kakheti (1465–1762)
Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1762–1801)
Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921)
First Republic of Armenia (1918–1920)
Republic of Mountainous Armenia (April 1921–July 1921)
Republic of Artsakh (1991–2024)
Republic of Aras (1918–1919)
Centrocaspian Dictatorship (1918)
Military Dictatorship of Mughan (1918–1919)
Baku Commune (1918)
Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (1918–1920)
Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (February 1918–May 1918)
====Iberian Peninsula====
Kingdom of Galicia (410–1833)
Emirate of Córdoba (756–929)
Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)
Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620)
Kingdom of León (910–1230)
Couto Misto (10th century–1868)
Kingdom of Castile (1065–1833)
Principality of Catalonia (12th century – 1714/1833)
Crown of Aragon (1164–1707/1715)
Crown of Castile (1230–1716)
Kingdom of Majorca (1231–1715)
Emirate of Granada (1232–1492)
Iberian Union (1580–1640)
First Catalan Republic (1640–1641)
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815–1825)
Kingdom of Portugal (Monarchy of the North) (1919)
Ditadura Nacional (1926–1933)
Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939)
Republic of Galicia (1931)
Second Catalan Republic (1931)
Asturian Socialist Republic (October 1934)
Revolutionary Catalonia (1936–1937)
Catalonia (2017, disputed)
===North America===
==== Anguilla ====
Republic of Anguilla (1967–1969)
==== Bahamas ====
Republic of Pirates (1706–1718)
==== Canada ====
Republic of Madawaska (1827)
Republic of Canada (1837–1838)
Republic of Lower Canada (1838)
Miꞌkmaꞌki (1867)
Republic of Manitoba (1867–1870)
Provisional Government of Saskatchewan (1885)
Dominion of Newfoundland (1907–1949)
==== Dominican Republic ====
Republic of Spanish Haiti (1821–1822)
First Dominican Republic (1844–1861)
==== Guatemala ====
United Provinces of Central America
State of Los Altos (1838–1840), (1848–1849)
==== Haiti ====
First Empire of Haiti (1804–1806)
State of Haiti (1806–1811)
Kingdom of Haiti (1811–1820)
==== Mexico ====
Toltec Empire (674 (disputed)–1122 (disputed))
Cocollán (1100–1521)
Aztec Empire (1428–1521)
Zapotec civilization (–1521)
Governing Junta of Mexico (1808)
Northern America (1813)
First Mexican Empire (1821–1823)
Provisional Government of Mexico (1823–1824)
First Mexican Republic (1824–1835)
Republic of the Rio Grande (1840)
Centralist Republic of Mexico (1835–1846)
Republic of Yucatán (1841–1848)
Second Federal Republic of Mexico (1846–1863)
Republic of Sonora (1853–1854)
Republic of Baja California (1853–1854)
Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867)
==== United States ====
Iroquois Confederacy (between 1450 and 1660–1867)
Cherokee Nation (1794–1865)
Vermont Republic (1777–1791)
State of Muskogee (1799–1803)
Republic of West Florida (1810)
Republic of East Florida (1812)
Republic of the Floridas (1817)
Republic of Indian Stream (1832–1835)
Republic of Texas (1836–1846)
Provisional Government of Oregon (1841/1843–1849)
State of Deseret (1849–1850)
California Republic (June 14 – July 9, 1846)
The Great Republic of Rough and Ready (1850)
Palmetto Republic (1860–1861)
Alabama Republic (1861)
Republic of Louisiana (1861)
Republic of Georgia (1861)
Republic of Mississippi (1861)
(1861–1865)
Republic of Puerto Rico (1868, 1898)
===Oceania===
Tuʻi Tonga Empire (–1865)
Kingdom of ʻUvea (15th century–1887)
Kingdom of Alo
Kingdom of Sigave
Mangareva (1881)
Kingdom of Bora Bora (till 1888 or 1895)
Kingdom of Raiatea (till 1888, French protectorate since 1880)
Kingdom of Huahine (till 1895, French protectorate since 1888)
Kingdom of Tahiti (1788/91–1880, French protectorate since 1842)
Kingdom of Rurutu (till 1900, French protectorate since 1888)
Kingdom of Rimatara (till 1901, French protectorate since 1888)
Kingdom of Tahuata (till 1880, French protectorate since 1842)
Kingdom of Rapa Iti (till 1881, kingship continued to 1887)
Kingdom of Mangareva (till 1881, French protectorate since 1844/1871)
Taiohae Kingdom of Nuku Hiva (till 1901, sovereignty ceded to France in 1842)
Kingdom of Tuamotu
Kingdom of Fiji (1871–1874)
Dominion of Fiji (1970–1987)
Kingdom of Hawaii (1795–1893)
Provisional Government of Hawaii (1893–1894)
Republic of Hawaii (1894–1898)
Kingdom of Niuē-Fekai (–1901)
Kingdom of Rarotonga (1858–1893)
Saudeleur dynasty ()
Kingdom of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (till 1888)
Kingdom of Nauru (till 1888)
Kingdom of Abemama (1795–1892)
People's Provisional Government of Vanuatu (1977–1978)
===South America===
==== Argentina ====
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (1810–1831)
Argentine Confederation (1831–1861)
Republic of Entre Ríos (1820–1821)
Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
State of Buenos Aires (1852–1861)
Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia (1860–1862)
==== Bolivia ====
State of Upper Peru (1825)
Republic of Bolívar (1825)
Republic of Upper Peru (1828)
Bolivian Republic (1836–1839)
Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)
==== Brazil ====
(1899–1900; 1903)
(1822–1889)
Confederation of the Equator (1824)
Riograndense Republic (1836–1845)
Juliana Republic (1839)
Republic of Counani (1886–1891)
Principality of Trinidad (1893–1895)
==== Chile ====
Kingdom of Chile (1810–1814)
New State of Chile (1819–1826)
Conservative Republic (1830–1861)
Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia (1862)
==== Colombia ====
Muisca Confederation (1450–1537)
Governing Junta of the Province of Cartagena (1810–1811)
Free State of Cartagena (1811)
Governing Junta of Santiago de Cali (1810–1811)
Confederate Cities of Valle del Cauca (1811)
Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca (1811–1815)
United Provinces of New Granada (1811–1816)
Gran Colombia (1819–1831)
Republic of New Granada (1831–1858)
==== Ecuador ====
State of Quito (1809–1812) Estado de Quito
Free Province of Guayaquil (1820–1822)
==== Paraguay ====
El Stronato (1954–1989)
==== Peru ====
Kingdom of Chimor (–1470)
Inca Empire (1438–1533)
Protectorate of Peru (1821–1822)
Iquicha (1821–1839)
Republic of South Peru (1836–1839)
Republic of North Peru (1836–1839)
Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)
Peruvian Republic (1837)
Peruvian Republic (1838–1839)
Federal State of Loreto (1896)
Jungle Nation (1899–1900)
==== Uruguay ====
Governing Junta of Montevideo (1808–1809)
Liga Federal (1815–1820)
==== Venezuela ====
Supreme Junta (1810–1811)
First Republic of Venezuela (1811–1812)
Second Republic of Venezuela (1813–1814)
Third Republic of Venezuela (1817–1819)
==Modern states and territories by type==
===Dismembered countries===
These states are now dissolved into a number of states.
– Dissolved in 1945, its former territory now consists of the entirety of the countries of Austria and Germany, and parts of what is now Belarus, the Czech Republic, France, Luxembourg, Poland, Russia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Serbia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Slovenia.
– An empire created after Brazil declared its independence in 1822 and dissolved in 1889, now the countries of Brazil and Uruguay (who declared their independence in 1825, and was recognized in 1828).
– Existed from 1821 to 1841, broke up into Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
– Polity existed to 7 December 1949 and its territory now controlled by the People's Republic of China (Mainland China), Mongolia, portion of the territory claimed by India and Japan, and parts of Afghanistan, Bhutan, Pakistan, Russia and Tajikistan. The rump state, still known as the "Republic of China", continues to control Taiwan and Penghu which was acquired from Japan in 1945, as well as Kinmen and Matsu Islands, forming part of the rump Fujian Province. See also the political status of Taiwan and the Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan.
– Existed from 1918 to 1992, the country wasn't active in World War II, but the government was in exile, dissolved in 1992 and broke up into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
– Ceased to exist in 1910, its former territory now consists of the entirety of territory controlled by North Korea and South Korea, and a portion of territory claimed by Japan.
Mali Federation – In 1959 formed by Senegal and French Sudan, both parts of French West Africa, as an independent nation. It collapsed in 1960, and is now Senegal and Mali.
Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves) created in 1815 when Brazil was upgraded to the rank of kingdom, once the Portuguese royal family was living in Rio de Janeiro since 1809. This country was dissolved in 1822 when Brazil became independent. Now the countries of Portugal, Brazil, Cabo Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Angola, East Timor and Mozambique.
– Dissolved in 1979, now the country of Zimbabwe.
– Dissolved in 2006, now the countries of Montenegro, Serbia, and the partially recognized Kosovo.
Somali Republic – Dissolved in 1991, now the countries of Somalia and unrecognized Somaliland.
– Dissolved in 1991, now the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. The Baltic countries occupied by USSR until 1991 (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) were not considered by most Western countries de jure part of the USSR.
United Arab Republic – A union formed by Egypt and Syria in 1958. It was dissolved in 1961, though Egypt used the name until 1971. Other Pan-Arab unity agreements with Iraq and Jordan in the 1950s failed.
United Arab States – A confederation formed by the United Arab Republic and North Yemen in 1958; it was dissolved in 1961.
– Dissolved in 1991 and 1992, now the countries of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, and the partially recognized Kosovo.
===Nominally independent homelands of South Africa===
Four of the homelands, or bantustans, for black South Africans, were granted nominal independence by the apartheid regime of South Africa. Not recognised by other nations, these effectively were puppet states and were re-incorporated in 1994.
Bophuthatswana – Declared independent in 1977, reincorporated in 1994.
Ciskei – Declared independent in 1981, reincorporated in 1994.
Transkei – Declared independent in 1976, reincorporated in 1994.
Venda – Declared independent in 1979, reincorporated in 1994.
===Secessionist states===
These nations declared themselves independent, but failed to achieve it in fact or did not seek permanent independence and were either re-incorporated into the mother country or incorporated into another country.
Carpatho-Ukraine – declared independence from Czechoslovakia in 1939, but was occupied and annexed by Hungary in one day.
Cartagena Canton – the haven city of Cartagena, Spain seceded from the First Spanish Republic in 1873.
Catalan Republic (April 14–17, 1931).
Chechnya – Virtually independent from Russia from 1996 as Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, however the country was recognized only by the Taliban. After terrorist attacks in 1999 the republic was returned to Russia's control in the Second Chechen War.
– Occupied the southeastern United States, stretching from Texas to Virginia. Declared secession from the U.S. in 1861, reintegrated into the U.S. in 1865. Reconstruction ended in 1876 and U.S. troops withdrew as an occupation force in 1877. South Carolina was the first state to declare its secession from the United States, doing so on December 20, 1860. Political factions in the "border states" of Kentucky and Missouri declared themselves parts of the Confederacy and controlled small portions of those regions early in the war. The major Indian tribes in Oklahoma signed an alliance with the Confederacy, and participated in its military efforts against the U.S.
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, declared independence from Ukraine in 1992 but soon settled for being an autonomous republic within Ukraine.
Cruzob, achieved independence from Mexico in 1856, but was reannexed in 1901.
Green Ukraine – Declared independence from Far Eastern Republic in 1920, dissolved in 1922.
Herzeg-Bosnia – Separated from Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, reincorporated into the country in 1994.
Italian Social Republic (1943–1945)
Katanga – Declared its independence of the newly formed Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1960, was incorporated again into the country in 1963.
Manitoba – short-lived republic led by Thomas Spence, declared after the Hudson's Bay Company gave up Rupert's Land and before the government of Canada took control (1867).
Red River Rebellion – provisional government in Rupert's Land, led by Louis Riel in (1869–1870).
Serbian Krajina – declared independence from Croatia in 1991, reincorporated into the country in 1995.
South Kasai – declared independence from the Democratic Republic of the Congo in June 1960, reincorporated into the country in December 1961.
Supreme Administration of Northern Region – Proclaimed independent in 1918, later became the Provisional Government of the Northern Region.
– Separated from Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, reincorporated into the country in 1995.
Principality of Trinidad – Declared independence in 1893, claimed by United Kingdom in 1895, but incorporated by Brazil.
Western Bosnia – Declared independence from Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1993 and reincorporated into it in 1995.
– Established in 2015 as a result of the merger of the Donetsk People's Republic with the Luhansk People's Republic and at the beginning of 2015 the confederation project was suspended.
– Declared independence on April 7, 2014. As a result of a staged referendum of September 30, 2022, it was incorporated as a republic into the Russian Federation. The incorporation is not recognised.
– Declared independence on April 27, 2014. As a result of a staged referendum of September 30, 2022, it was incorporated as a republic into the Russian Federation. The incorporation is not recognised.
Republic of Artsakh – Declared independence from Azerbaijan in 1991, reincorporated into the country in 2024.
===Annexed countries===
These nations, once separate, are now part of another country. Cases of voluntary accession are included.
Regency of Carnaro in 1919 and Free State of Fiume 1920–1924, two short-lived states in the port city of Fiume/Rijeka proclaimed by Gabriele D'Annunzio. Following World War I, the city was disputed between Italy and Yugoslavia, and eventually captured by Italy in 1921. The city passed to Yugoslavia after World War II and is now in Croatia.
Couto Misto – Tiny 10th century border territory that was split between Spain and Portugal in 1864–8.
Crete – Autonomous under Ottoman suzerainty in 1898, unilaterally declared union with Greece in 1908, which was recognized in 1913.
– Joined West Germany in 1990 and now part of Germany.
– Merged with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, now part of the United Kingdom.
Franceville (1889–1890) – Independent in 1889, later governed by France and Britain as part of the New Hebrides; now part of Vanuatu.
Hatay – Part of the Mandate of Syria that became part of Turkey; independent 1938–1939
– Annexed on July 7, 1898 by the Fifty-Fifth Congress of the United States of America.
Khanate of Kalat (1638, 1666–1955) – 1666 to 1955, became part of Pakistan.
Free States of Menton and Roquebrune – Seceded from Monaco in 1848, under nominal protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia, then annexed by France in 1861.
Moresnet – 1816–1920, Tiny European territory that endured for a hundred years before definitively becoming part of Belgium.
Natalia Republic – 1839–1843, Was quickly made into a British colony
– 1907–1949, joined Canada as the tenth province
Islands of Refreshment – The islands of Tristan da Cunha were settled in 1810 and declared independence in 1811. Annexed by the United Kingdom in 1815.
– Merged with England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, now part of the United Kingdom.
– Occupied by North Vietnam in 1975 and annexed into it in 1976.
Republic of Tatarstan – Existed from 1992 until annexed by Russia in 1994.
– Now part of South Africa.
– Annexed by the U.S. in 1845.
Vermont Republic – Annexed by the US in 1791.
|
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"pl:Władcy Pomorza Zachodniego",
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"list of states with limited recognition",
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"Cnezatul lui Ioan",
"The Great Republic of Rough and Ready",
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"Jaxa (state)",
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"Joseon",
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"List of rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Macakoali",
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"Mamluk Sultanate",
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"Duchy of Modena",
"Magh Luirg",
"Georgia in the American Civil War",
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"Anjouan",
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"Crown of Castile",
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"Wajoq",
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"Habr Yunis Sultanate",
"Prussia",
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"Principality of Tver",
"Black (racial term)",
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"Don Republic",
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"Gwiriko",
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"Free City of Lübeck",
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"Lan Na",
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"Rozvi Empire",
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"Sheikhdom of Kuwait",
"Cruzob",
"Republic of Tarnobrzeg",
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"Republic of Ezo",
"Saxe-Hildburghausen",
"Guangzhou Uprising",
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"Kingdom of Imereti",
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"State of Somaliland",
"Tamatave",
"Kingdom of Beni Abbas",
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"Menton",
"Kingdom of Serbia",
"Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia",
"Jupanat of Tatos",
"Republic of Upper Peru",
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"French Sudan",
"Icelandic Commonwealth",
"Kingdom of Norway (1814)",
"Kingdom of Baguirmi",
"Sigave",
"Louis Riel",
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"North Caucasian Emirate",
"Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic",
"Maratha Confederacy",
"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia",
"The Protectorate",
"United Belgian States",
"Kingdom of Bulgaria",
"Moldavian Democratic Republic",
"Republic of Tucumán",
"Matsu Island",
"Grand Duchy of Finland",
"Alsace Soviet Republic",
"Kingdom of Desmond",
"Khanate of Kalat",
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"Alaiye",
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"Principality of Hungary",
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"Kingdom of Tahiti",
"Ennarea",
"5th Dalai Lama",
"Astrakhan Khanate",
"Italian Regency of Carnaro",
"Republic of Kosova",
"Pan-Arab",
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"Aztec Empire",
"Nogai Horde",
"Myanmar",
"Idrisid Emirate of Asir",
"Aro Confederacy",
"Principality of Catalonia",
"Grand Duchy of Lithuania",
"Emirate of Nejd and Hasa",
"Kingdom of Ndongo",
"List of pre-modern states",
"Travancore",
"Empire of Trebizond",
"Khasso",
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"Netherlands",
"Airgíalla",
"Nazi Germany",
"Franceville, New Hebrides",
"Republic of the Seven United Netherlands",
"Fourth French Republic",
"Estonia",
"Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic",
"Jordan",
"Khanate of Khiva",
"Uzbek Khanate",
"Serbia",
"Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Independent Albania",
"Third Czechoslovak Republic",
"Wahidi Balhaf",
"Tanganyika (1961–1964)",
"Missouri",
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"Los Altos (state)",
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"Duchy of Pomerania",
"Republic of Swellendam",
"Egypt",
"List of rulers of the Mossi state of Wogodogo",
"South Kasai",
"Principality of Trinidad",
"Wassoulou Empire",
"Cnezatul lui Farcaș",
"South Yemen",
"Provisional Central Government of Vietnam",
"Antankarana",
"Republic of Artsakh",
"Turkish Federated State of Cyprus",
"Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)",
"sovereignty",
"Roman Republic (19th century)",
"Barotseland",
"Țara Litua",
"Maluku Islands",
"Empire of Great Fulo",
"Jaintia Kingdom",
"List of rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Con",
"Yugoslavia",
"Islamic Emirate of Kunar",
"Kingdom of Sikkim",
"List of rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Piela",
"Kart dynasty",
"Kalmar Union",
"Duchy of Warsaw",
"Argentine War of Independence",
"Republic of Cospaia",
"Kazembe",
"Republic of Benin (1967)",
"Safavid Iran",
"Italian Republic (Napoleonic)",
"Kong Empire",
"Red River Rebellion",
"Luxembourg",
"Sultanate of Singora",
"State of East Sumatra",
"Angevin Empire",
"Elisu Sultanate",
"Ryukyu Kingdom",
"Grand Duchy of Kraków",
"puppet state",
"Duchy of Brittany",
"Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz",
"Protectorate of Peru",
"Islands of Refreshment",
"United States of the Ionian Islands",
"Provisional Government of Hawaii",
"Principality of Montenegro",
"Cretan State",
"Kruševo Republic",
"Saar Protectorate",
"Moghulistan",
"Republic of Galicia",
"Mar'ashis",
"Kingdom of Kongo",
"Free City of Danzig",
"Kingdom of Gomma",
"New Hebrides",
"Confederation of the Equator",
"United States of Indonesia",
"Bima Sultanate",
"Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America",
"Tajikistan",
"Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti",
"French West Africa",
"Saloum",
"Sultanate of Banten",
"Emirate of Dhala",
"Republic of Connacht",
"Kingdom of Sarawak",
"Vistula Land",
"Republic of Crimea (country)",
"Arab Kingdom of Syria",
"Duchy of Austria",
"Duchy of Bytom",
"Kazakh Khanate",
"First Republic of Venezuela",
"North Macedonia",
"Principality of Lippe",
"Toucouleur Empire",
"Federal Republic of Germany",
"Matabeleland",
"List of rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Nungu",
"Beylik of Bafra",
"Belize",
"Kabardia",
"History of Shan States",
"List of rulers of the Mossi state of Gurunsi",
"Principality of Polotsk",
"Russian Republic",
"Aq Qoyunlu",
"World War II",
"Thonburi Kingdom",
"Voivodeship of Menumorut",
"Kleinstaaterei",
"Kingdom of Fazughli",
"Free Lebanon State",
"Solimana (state)",
"Jaunpur Sultanate",
"South Africa",
"Hotak dynasty",
"Kingdom of Abemama",
"Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Schaumburg-Lippe",
"Sultanate of Agadez",
"Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune",
"Kingdom of Benin",
"Autumn Harvest Uprising",
"Kingdom of Sicily",
"Duchy of Opole and Racibórz",
"Republic of China (1912–1949)",
"Republic of Uhtua",
"Cartagena Canton",
"Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)",
"Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Principality of Mingrelia",
"Bani Khalid Emirate",
"Niue",
"Slovak Republic (1939–1945)",
"Kingdom of Haiti",
"Kingdom of Finland (1742)",
"Supreme Council for National Reconstruction",
"United Arab Republic",
"Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Bono state",
"Second Philippine Republic",
"Bone state",
"Poland",
"Sultanate of Ternate",
"Emirate of Banu Talis",
"Republic of Florence",
"Kwararafa",
"Kingdom of Luang Phrabang",
"Pasundan",
"Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia",
"Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria",
"Qu'aiti",
"Kingdom of Great Britain",
"Hunan Soviet",
"North Ingria",
"Principality of Upper Hungary",
"Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Republic of Hatay",
"Polish National Government (November Uprising)",
"Provisional Government of National Unity",
"Kingdom of Bumthang",
"Muscat and Oman",
"Transpadane Republic",
"Juliana Republic",
"Ethiopian Empire",
"First Hellenic Republic",
"Biafra",
"Latvia",
"country",
"Vanuatu",
"Katanga Province",
"Kingdom of Janjero",
"Xi dynasty",
"Third Republic of Korea",
"Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro",
"Hanthawaddy Kingdom",
"Republic of Canada",
"Menabe",
"São Tomé and Príncipe",
"Kingdom of Slavonia",
"Orange Free State",
"Durrani Empire",
"China",
"Free Territory of Trieste",
"Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia",
"Alash Autonomy",
"Montenegro",
"Mainland China",
"Duchy of Milan",
"Maravi",
"Sultanate of Tuggurt",
"Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan",
"Shilluk Kingdom",
"Emirate of Harar",
"Yaka people",
"Louis Bonaparte",
"People's Republic of Bulgaria",
"Galician Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Kingdom of Bora Bora",
"Russia",
"Bornu Empire",
"Iraq",
"Moresnet",
"Pomerania-Neustettin",
"Electorate of Hesse",
"Sultanate of Lower Yafa",
"Cispadane Republic",
"Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Emirate of Trarza",
"Muisca Confederation",
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] |
9,277 |
Ellipse
|
In mathematics, an ellipse is a plane curve surrounding two focal points, such that for all points on the curve, the sum of the two distances to the focal points is a constant. It generalizes a circle, which is the special type of ellipse in which the two focal points are the same. The elongation of an ellipse is measured by its eccentricity e, a number ranging from e = 0 (the limiting case of a circle) to e = 1 (the limiting case of infinite elongation, no longer an ellipse but a parabola).
An ellipse has a simple algebraic solution for its area, but for its perimeter (also known as circumference), integration is required to obtain an exact solution.
The largest and smallest diameters of an ellipse, also known as its width and height, are typically denoted and . An ellipse has four extreme points: two vertices at the endpoints of the major axis and two co-vertices at the endpoints of the minor axis.
Analytically, the equation of a standard ellipse centered at the origin is:
\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1 .
Assuming a \ge b, the foci are (\pm c, 0) where c = \sqrt{a^2-b^2}, called linear eccentricity, is the distance from the center to a focus. The standard parametric equation is:
(x,y) = (a\cos(t),b\sin(t)) \quad \text{for} \quad 0\leq t\leq 2\pi.
Ellipses are the closed type of conic section: a plane curve tracing the intersection of a cone with a plane (see figure). Ellipses have many similarities with the other two forms of conic sections, parabolas and hyperbolas, both of which are open and unbounded. An angled cross section of a right circular cylinder is also an ellipse.
An ellipse may also be defined in terms of one focal point and a line outside the ellipse called the directrix: for all points on the ellipse, the ratio between the distance to the focus and the distance to the directrix is a constant, called the eccentricity:
e = \frac{c}{a} = \sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}{a^2}}.
Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engineering. For example, the orbit of each planet in the Solar System is approximately an ellipse with the Sun at one focus point (more precisely, the focus is the barycenter of the Sunplanet pair). The same is true for moons orbiting planets and all other systems of two astronomical bodies. The shapes of planets and stars are often well described by ellipsoids. A circle viewed from a side angle looks like an ellipse: that is, the ellipse is the image of a circle under parallel or perspective projection. The ellipse is also the simplest Lissajous figure formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency: a similar effect leads to elliptical polarization of light in optics.
The name, (, "omission"), was given by Apollonius of Perga in his Conics.
== Definition as locus of points ==
An ellipse can be defined geometrically as a set or locus of points in the Euclidean plane:
The midpoint C of the line segment joining the foci is called the center of the ellipse. The line through the foci is called the major axis, and the line perpendicular to it through the center is the minor axis. The major axis intersects the ellipse at two vertices V_1,V_2, which have distance a to the center. The distance c of the foci to the center is called the focal distance or linear eccentricity. The quotient e = \tfrac{c}{a} is defined as the eccentricity.
The case F_1 = F_2 yields a circle and is included as a special type of ellipse.
The equation \left|PF_2\right| + \left|PF_1\right| = 2a can be viewed in a different way (see figure):
c_2 is called the circular directrix (related to focus of the ellipse. This property should not be confused with the definition of an ellipse using a directrix line below.
Using Dandelin spheres, one can prove that any section of a cone with a plane is an ellipse, assuming the plane does not contain the apex and has slope less than that of the lines on the cone.
== In Cartesian coordinates ==
=== Standard equation ===
The standard form of an ellipse in Cartesian coordinates assumes that the origin is the center of the ellipse, the x-axis is the major axis, and:
For an arbitrary point (x,y) the distance to the focus (c,0) is \sqrt{(x - c)^2 + y^2 } and to the other focus \sqrt{(x + c)^2 + y^2}. Hence the point (x,\, y) is on the ellipse whenever:
\sqrt{(x - c)^2 + y^2} + \sqrt{(x + c)^2 + y^2} = 2a\ .
Removing the radicals by suitable squarings and using b^2 = a^2-c^2 (see diagram) produces the standard equation of the ellipse:
\frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1,
or, solved for y:
y = \pm\frac{b}{a}\sqrt{a^2 - x^2} = \pm \sqrt{\left(a^2 - x^2\right)\left(1 - e^2\right)}.
The width and height parameters a,\; b are called the semi-major and semi-minor axes. The top and bottom points V_3 = (0,\, b),\; V_4 = (0,\, -b) are the co-vertices. The distances from a point (x,\, y) on the ellipse to the left and right foci are a + ex and a - ex.
It follows from the equation that the ellipse is symmetric with respect to the coordinate axes and hence with respect to the origin.
=== Parameters ===
==== Principal axes ====
Throughout this article, the semi-major and semi-minor axes are denoted a and b, respectively, i.e. a \ge b > 0 \ .
In principle, the canonical ellipse equation \tfrac{x^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{y^2}{b^2} = 1 may have a < b (and hence the ellipse would be taller than it is wide). This form can be converted to the standard form by transposing the variable names x and y and the parameter names a and b.
==== Linear eccentricity ====
This is the distance from the center to a focus: c = \sqrt{a^2 - b^2}.
==== Eccentricity ====
The eccentricity can be expressed as:
e = \frac{c}{a} = \sqrt{1 - \left(\frac{b}{a}\right)^2},
assuming a > b. An ellipse with equal axes (a = b) has zero eccentricity, and is a circle.
==== Semi-latus rectum ====
The length of the chord through one focus, perpendicular to the major axis, is called the latus rectum. One half of it is the semi-latus rectum \ell. A calculation shows:
\ell = \frac{b^2}a = a \left(1 - e^2\right).
The semi-latus rectum \ell is equal to the radius of curvature at the vertices (see section curvature).
=== Tangent ===
An arbitrary line g intersects an ellipse at 0, 1, or 2 points, respectively called an exterior line, tangent and secant. Through any point of an ellipse there is a unique tangent. The tangent at a point (x_1,\, y_1) of the ellipse \tfrac{x^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{y^2}{b^2} = 1 has the coordinate equation:
\frac{x_1}{a^2}x + \frac{y_1}{b^2}y = 1.
A vector parametric equation of the tangent is:
\vec x = \begin{pmatrix} x_1 \\ y_1 \end{pmatrix} + s \left(\begin{array}{r}
-y_1 a^2 \\
x_1 b^2
\end{array}\right) , \quad s \in \R.
Proof:
Let (x_1,\, y_1) be a point on an ellipse and \vec{x} = \begin{pmatrix} x_1 \\ y_1 \end{pmatrix} + s \begin{pmatrix} u \\ v \end{pmatrix} be the equation of any line g containing (x_1,\, y_1). Inserting the line's equation into the ellipse equation and respecting \frac{x_1^2}{a^2} + \frac{y_1^2}{b^2} = 1 yields:
\frac{\left(x_1 + su\right)^2}{a^2} + \frac{\left(y_1 + sv\right)^2}{b^2} = 1\ \quad\Longrightarrow\quad
2s\left(\frac{x_1u}{a^2} + \frac{y_1v}{b^2}\right) + s^2\left(\frac{u^2}{a^2} + \frac{v^2}{b^2}\right) = 0\ .
There are then cases:
\frac{x_1}{a^2}u + \frac{y_1}{b^2}v = 0. Then line g and the ellipse have only point (x_1,\, y_1) in common, and g is a tangent. The tangent direction has perpendicular vector \begin{pmatrix} \frac{x_1}{a^2} & \frac{y_1}{b^2} \end{pmatrix}, so the tangent line has equation \frac{x_1}{a^2}x + \tfrac{y_1}{b^2}y = k for some k. Because (x_1,\, y_1) is on the tangent and the ellipse, one obtains k = 1.
\frac{x_ 1}{a^2}u + \frac{y_1}{b^2}v \ne 0. Then line g has a second point in common with the ellipse, and is a secant.
Using (1) one finds that \begin{pmatrix} -y_1 a^2 & x_1 b^2 \end{pmatrix} is a tangent vector at point (x_1,\, y_1), which proves the vector equation.
If (x_1, y_1) and (u, v) are two points of the ellipse such that \frac{x_1u}{a^2} + \tfrac{y_1v}{b^2} = 0, then the points lie on two conjugate diameters (see below). (If a = b, the ellipse is a circle and "conjugate" means "orthogonal".)
=== Shifted ellipse ===
If the standard ellipse is shifted to have center \left(x_\circ,\, y_\circ\right), its equation is
\frac{\left(x - x_\circ\right)^2}{a^2} + \frac{\left(y - y_\circ\right)^2}{b^2} = 1 \ .
The axes are still parallel to the x- and y-axes.
=== General ellipse ===
In analytic geometry, the ellipse is defined as a quadric: the set of points (x,\, y) of the Cartesian plane that, in non-degenerate cases, satisfy the implicit equation
Ax^2 + Bxy + Cy^2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
provided B^2 - 4AC < 0.
To distinguish the degenerate cases from the non-degenerate case, let ∆ be the determinant
\Delta = \begin{vmatrix}
A & \frac{1}{2}B & \frac{1}{2}D \\
\frac{1}{2}B & C & \frac{1}{2}E \\
\frac{1}{2}D & \frac{1}{2}E & F
\end{vmatrix} = ACF + \tfrac14 BDE - \tfrac14(AE^2 + CD^2 + FB^2).
Then the ellipse is a non-degenerate real ellipse if and only if C∆ < 0. If C∆ > 0, we have an imaginary ellipse, and if ∆ = 0, we have a point ellipse.
The general equation's coefficients can be obtained from known semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b, center coordinates \left(x_\circ,\, y_\circ\right), and rotation angle \theta (the angle from the positive horizontal axis to the ellipse's major axis) using the formulae:
\begin{align}
A &= a^2 \sin^2\theta + b^2 \cos^2\theta &
B &= 2\left(b^2 - a^2\right) \sin\theta \cos\theta \\[1ex]
C &= a^2 \cos^2\theta + b^2 \sin^2\theta &
D &= -2A x_\circ - B y_\circ \\[1ex]
E &= - B x_\circ - 2C y_\circ &
F &= A x_\circ^2 + B x_\circ y_\circ + C y_\circ^2 - a^2 b^2.
\end{align}
These expressions can be derived from the canonical equation
\frac{X^2}{a^2} + \frac{Y^2}{b^2} = 1
by a Euclidean transformation of the coordinates (X,\, Y):
\begin{align}
X &= \left(x - x_\circ\right) \cos\theta + \left(y - y_\circ\right) \sin\theta, \\
Y &= -\left(x - x_\circ\right) \sin\theta + \left(y - y_\circ\right) \cos\theta.
\end{align}
Conversely, the canonical form parameters can be obtained from the general-form coefficients by the equations:
===Rational representation===
With the substitution u = \tan\left(\frac{t}{2}\right) and trigonometric formulae one obtains
\cos t = \frac{1 - u^2}{1 + u^2}\ ,\quad \sin t = \frac{2u}{1 + u^2}
and the rational parametric equation of an ellipse
\begin{cases}
x(u) = a \, \dfrac{1 - u^2}{1 + u^2} \\[10mu]
y(u) = b \, \dfrac{2u}{1 + u^2} \\[10mu]
-\infty < u < \infty
\end{cases}
which covers any point of the ellipse \tfrac{x^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{y^2}{b^2} = 1 except the left vertex (-a,\, 0).
For u \in [0,\, 1], this formula represents the right upper quarter of the ellipse moving counter-clockwise with increasing u. The left vertex is the limit \lim_{u \to \pm \infty} (x(u),\, y(u)) = (-a,\, 0)\;.
Alternately, if the parameter [u:v] is considered to be a point on the real projective line \mathbf{P}(\mathbf{R}), then the corresponding rational parametrization is
[u:v] \mapsto \left(a\frac{v^2 - u^2}{v^2 + u^2}, b\frac{2uv}{v^2 + u^2} \right).
Then [1:0] \mapsto (-a,\, 0).
Rational representations of conic sections are commonly used in computer-aided design (see Bézier curve).
===Tangent slope as parameter===
A parametric representation, which uses the slope m of the tangent at a point of the ellipse
can be obtained from the derivative of the standard representation \vec x(t) = (a \cos t,\, b \sin t)^\mathsf{T}:
\vec x'(t) = (-a\sin t,\, b\cos t)^\mathsf{T} \quad \rightarrow \quad m = -\frac{b}{a}\cot t\quad \rightarrow \quad \cot t = -\frac{ma}{b}.
With help of trigonometric formulae one obtains:
\cos t = \frac{\cot t}{\pm\sqrt{1 + \cot^2t}} = \frac{-ma}{\pm\sqrt{m^2 a^2 + b^2}}\ ,\quad\quad
\sin t = \frac{1}{\pm\sqrt{1 + \cot^2t}} = \frac{b}{\pm\sqrt{m^2 a^2 + b^2}}.
Replacing \cos t and \sin t of the standard representation yields:
\vec c_\pm(m) = \left(-\frac{ma^2}{\pm\sqrt{m^2 a^2 + b^2}},\;\frac{b^2}{\pm\sqrt{m^2a^2 + b^2}}\right),\, m \in \R.
Here m is the slope of the tangent at the corresponding ellipse point, \vec c_+ is the upper and \vec c_- the lower half of the ellipse. The vertices(\pm a,\, 0), having vertical tangents, are not covered by the representation.
The equation of the tangent at point \vec c_\pm(m) has the form y = mx + n. The still unknown n can be determined by inserting the coordinates of the corresponding ellipse point \vec c_\pm(m):
y = mx \pm \sqrt{m^2 a^2 + b^2}\, .
This description of the tangents of an ellipse is an essential tool for the determination of the orthoptic of an ellipse. The orthoptic article contains another proof, without differential calculus and trigonometric formulae.
===General ellipse===
Another definition of an ellipse uses affine transformations:
Any ellipse is an affine image of the unit circle with equation x^2 + y^2 = 1.
Parametric representation
An affine transformation of the Euclidean plane has the form \vec x \mapsto \vec f\!_0 + A\vec x, where A is a regular matrix (with non-zero determinant) and \vec f\!_0 is an arbitrary vector. If \vec f\!_1, \vec f\!_2 are the column vectors of the matrix A, the unit circle (\cos(t), \sin(t)), 0 \leq t \leq 2\pi, is mapped onto the ellipse:
\vec x = \vec p(t) = \vec f\!_0 + \vec f\!_1 \cos t + \vec f\!_2 \sin t \, .
Here \vec f\!_0 is the center and \vec f\!_1,\; \vec f\!_2 are the directions of two conjugate diameters, in general not perpendicular.
Vertices
The four vertices of the ellipse are \vec p(t_0),\;\vec p\left(t_0 \pm \tfrac{\pi}{2}\right),\; \vec p\left(t_0 + \pi\right), for a parameter t = t_0 defined by:
\cot (2t_0) = \frac{\vec f\!_1^{\,2} - \vec f\!_2^{\,2}}{2\vec f\!_1 \cdot \vec f\!_2}.
(If \vec f\!_1 \cdot \vec f\!_2 = 0, then t_0 = 0.) This is derived as follows. The tangent vector at point \vec p(t) is:
\vec p\,'(t) = -\vec f\!_1\sin t + \vec f\!_2\cos t \ .
At a vertex parameter t = t_0, the tangent is perpendicular to the major/minor axes, so:
0 = \vec p'(t) \cdot \left(\vec p(t) -\vec f\!_0\right) = \left(-\vec f\!_1\sin t + \vec f\!_2\cos t\right) \cdot \left(\vec f\!_1 \cos t + \vec f\!_2 \sin t\right).
Expanding and applying the identities \; \cos^2 t -\sin^2 t=\cos 2t,\ \ 2\sin t \cos t = \sin 2t\; gives the equation for t = t_0\; .
Area
From Apollonios theorem (see below) one obtains:
The area of an ellipse \;\vec x = \vec f_0 +\vec f_1 \cos t +\vec f_2 \sin t\; is
A=\pi \left|\det(\vec f_1, \vec f_2)\right| .
Semiaxes
With the abbreviations
\; M=\vec f_1^2+\vec f_2^2, \ N = \left|\det(\vec f_1,\vec f_2)\right| the statements of Apollonios's theorem can be written as:
a^2+b^2=M, \quad ab=N \ .
Solving this nonlinear system for a,b yields the semiaxes:
\begin{align}
a &= \frac{1}{2}(\sqrt{M+2N}+\sqrt{M-2N}) \\[1ex]
b &= \frac{1}{2}(\sqrt{M+2N}-\sqrt{M-2N})\, .
\end{align}
Implicit representation
Solving the parametric representation for \; \cos t,\sin t\; by Cramer's rule and using \;\cos^2t+\sin^2t -1=0\; , one obtains the implicit representation
\det{\left(\vec x\!-\!\vec f\!_0,\vec f\!_2\right)^2} + \det{\left(\vec f\!_1,\vec x\!-\!\vec f\!_0\right)^2} - \det{\left(\vec f\!_1,\vec f\!_2\right)^2} = 0.
Conversely: If the equation
x^2+2cxy+d^2y^2-e^2=0\ , with \; d^2-c^2 >0 \; ,
of an ellipse centered at the origin is given, then the two vectors
\vec f_1={e \choose 0},\quad \vec f_2=\frac{e}{\sqrt{d^2-c^2}}{-c\choose 1}
point to two conjugate points and the tools developed above are applicable.
Example: For the ellipse with equation \;x^2+2xy+3y^2-1=0\; the vectors are
\vec f_1={1 \choose 0},\quad \vec f_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}{-1\choose 1} .
Rotated standard ellipse
For \vec f_0= {0\choose 0},\;\vec f_1= a {\cos \theta\choose \sin \theta},\;\vec f_2= b{-\sin \theta\choose \;\cos \theta} one obtains a parametric representation of the standard ellipse rotated by angle \theta:
\begin{align}
x &= x_\theta(t) = a\cos\theta\cos t - b\sin\theta\sin t \, , \\
y &= y_\theta(t) = a\sin\theta\cos t + b\cos\theta\sin t \, .
\end{align}
Ellipse in space
The definition of an ellipse in this section gives a parametric representation of an arbitrary ellipse, even in space, if one allows \vec f\!_0, \vec f\!_1, \vec f\!_2 to be vectors in space.
== Polar forms ==
=== Polar form relative to center ===
In polar coordinates, with the origin at the center of the ellipse and with the angular coordinate \theta measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation is
Let c_1 and c_2 be halves of two conjugate diameters (see diagram) then
c_1^2 + c_2^2 = a^2 + b^2.
The triangle O,P_1,P_2 with sides c_1,\, c_2 (see diagram) has the constant area A_\Delta = \frac{1}{2}ab, which can be expressed by A_\Delta=\tfrac 1 2 c_2d_1=\tfrac 1 2 c_1c_2\sin\alpha, too. d_1 is the altitude of point P_1 and \alpha the angle between the half diameters. Hence the area of the ellipse (see section metric properties) can be written as A_{el}=\pi ab=\pi c_2d_1=\pi c_1c_2\sin\alpha.
The parallelogram of tangents adjacent to the given conjugate diameters has the \text{Area}_{12} = 4ab\ .
Proof:
Let the ellipse be in the canonical form with parametric equation
\vec p(t) = (a\cos t,\, b\sin t).
The two points \vec c_1 = \vec p(t),\ \vec c_2 = \vec p\left(t + \frac{\pi}{2}\right) are on conjugate diameters (see previous section). From trigonometric formulae one obtains \vec c_2 = (-a\sin t,\, b\cos t)^\mathsf{T} and
\left|\vec c_1\right|^2 + \left|\vec c_2\right|^2 = \cdots = a^2 + b^2\, .
The area of the triangle generated by \vec c_1,\, \vec c_2 is
A_\Delta = \tfrac{1}{2} \det\left(\vec c_1,\, \vec c_2\right) = \cdots = \tfrac{1}{2}ab
and from the diagram it can be seen that the area of the parallelogram is 8 times that of A_\Delta. Hence
\text{Area}_{12} = 4ab\, .
== Orthogonal tangents ==
For the ellipse \tfrac{x^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{y^2}{b^2} = 1 the intersection points of orthogonal tangents lie on the circle x^2 + y^2 = a^2 + b^2.
This circle is called orthoptic or director circle of the ellipse (not to be confused with the circular directrix defined above).
== Drawing ellipses ==
Ellipses appear in descriptive geometry as images (parallel or central projection) of circles. There exist various tools to draw an ellipse. Computers provide the fastest and most accurate method for drawing an ellipse. However, technical tools (ellipsographs) to draw an ellipse without a computer exist. The principle was known to the 5th century mathematician Proclus, and the tool now known as an elliptical trammel was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.
If there is no ellipsograph available, one can draw an ellipse using an approximation by the four osculating circles at the vertices.
For any method described below, knowledge of the axes and the semi-axes is necessary (or equivalently: the foci and the semi-major axis). If this presumption is not fulfilled one has to know at least two conjugate diameters. With help of Rytz's construction the axes and semi-axes can be retrieved.
=== de La Hire's point construction ===
The following construction of single points of an ellipse is due to de La Hire. It is based on the standard parametric representation (a\cos t,\, b\sin t) of an ellipse:
Draw the two circles centered at the center of the ellipse with radii a,b and the axes of the ellipse.
Draw a line through the center, which intersects the two circles at point A and B, respectively.
Draw a line through A that is parallel to the minor axis and a line through B that is parallel to the major axis. These lines meet at an ellipse point P (see diagram).
Repeat steps (2) and (3) with different lines through the center.
Elliko-sk.svg|de La Hire's method
Parametric ellipse.gif|Animation of the method
===Pins-and-string method===
The characterization of an ellipse as the locus of points so that sum of the distances to the foci is constant leads to a method of drawing one using two drawing pins, a length of string, and a pencil. In this method, pins are pushed into the paper at two points, which become the ellipse's foci. A string is tied at each end to the two pins; its length after tying is 2a. The tip of the pencil then traces an ellipse if it is moved while keeping the string taut. Using two pegs and a rope, gardeners use this procedure to outline an elliptical flower bed—thus it is called the gardener's ellipse. The Byzantine architect Anthemius of Tralles () described how this method could be used to construct an elliptical reflector, and it was elaborated in a now-lost 9th-century treatise by Al-Ḥasan ibn Mūsā.
A similar method for drawing confocal ellipses with a closed string is due to the Irish bishop Charles Graves.
=== Paper strip methods ===
The two following methods rely on the parametric representation (see , above):
(a\cos t,\, b\sin t)
This representation can be modeled technically by two simple methods. In both cases center, the axes and semi axes a,\, b have to be known.
Method 1
The first method starts with
a strip of paper of length a + b.
The point, where the semi axes meet is marked by P. If the strip slides with both ends on the axes of the desired ellipse, then point P traces the ellipse. For the proof one shows that point P has the parametric representation (a\cos t,\, b\sin t), where parameter t is the angle of the slope of the paper strip.
A technical realization of the motion of the paper strip can be achieved by a Tusi couple (see animation). The device is able to draw any ellipse with a fixed sum a + b, which is the radius of the large circle. This restriction may be a disadvantage in real life. More flexible is the second paper strip method.
Elliko-pap1.svg|Ellipse construction: paper strip method 1
Tusi couple vs Paper strip plus Ellipses horizontal.gif|Ellipses with Tusi couple. Two examples: red and cyan.
A variation of the paper strip method 1 uses the observation that the midpoint N of the paper strip is moving on the circle with center M (of the ellipse) and radius \tfrac{a + b}{2}. Hence, the paperstrip can be cut at point N into halves, connected again by a joint at N and the sliding end K fixed at the center M (see diagram). After this operation the movement of the unchanged half of the paperstrip is unchanged. This variation requires only one sliding shoe.
Ellipse-papsm-1a.svg|Variation of the paper strip method 1
Ellipses with SliderCrank inner Ellipses.gif|Animation of the variation of the paper strip method 1
Method 2:
The second method starts with
a strip of paper of length a.
One marks the point, which divides the strip into two substrips of length b and a - b. The strip is positioned onto the axes as described in the diagram. Then the free end of the strip traces an ellipse, while the strip is moved. For the proof, one recognizes that the tracing point can be described parametrically by (a\cos t,\, b\sin t), where parameter t is the angle of slope of the paper strip.
This method is the base for several ellipsographs (see section below).
Similar to the variation of the paper strip method 1 a variation of the paper strip method 2 can be established (see diagram) by cutting the part between the axes into halves.
File:Archimedes Trammel.gif|Elliptical trammel (principle)
File:L-Ellipsenzirkel.png|Ellipsograph due to Benjamin Bramer
File:Ellipses with SliderCrank Ellipses at Slider Side.gif|Variation of the paper strip method 2
Most ellipsograph drafting instruments are based on the second paperstrip method.
=== Approximation by osculating circles ===
From Metric properties below, one obtains:
The radius of curvature at the vertices V_1,\, V_2 is: \tfrac{b^2}{a}
The radius of curvature at the co-vertices V_3,\, V_4 is: \tfrac{a^2}{b}\ .
The diagram shows an easy way to find the centers of curvature C_1 = \left(a - \tfrac{b^2}{a}, 0\right),\, C_3 = \left(0, b - \tfrac{a^2}{b}\right) at vertex V_1 and co-vertex V_3, respectively:
mark the auxiliary point H = (a,\, b) and draw the line segment V_1 V_3\ ,
draw the line through H, which is perpendicular to the line V_1 V_3\ ,
the intersection points of this line with the axes are the centers of the osculating circles.
(proof: simple calculation.)
The centers for the remaining vertices are found by symmetry.
With help of a French curve one draws a curve, which has smooth contact to the osculating circles.
=== Steiner generation ===
The following method to construct single points of an ellipse relies on the Steiner generation of a conic section:
Given two pencils B(U),\, B(V) of lines at two points U,\, V (all lines containing U and V, respectively) and a projective but not perspective mapping \pi of B(U) onto B(V), then the intersection points of corresponding lines form a non-degenerate projective conic section.
For the generation of points of the ellipse \tfrac{x^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{y^2}{b^2} = 1 one uses the pencils at the vertices V_1,\, V_2. Let P = (0,\, b) be an upper co-vertex of the ellipse and A = (-a,\, 2b),\, B = (a,\,2b).
P is the center of the rectangle V_1,\, V_2,\, B,\, A. The side \overline{AB} of the rectangle is divided into n equal spaced line segments and this division is projected parallel with the diagonal AV_2 as direction onto the line segment \overline{V_1B} and assign the division as shown in the diagram. The parallel projection together with the reverse of the orientation is part of the projective mapping between the pencils at V_1 and V_2 needed. The intersection points of any two related lines V_1 B_i and V_2 A_i are points of the uniquely defined ellipse. With help of the points C_1,\, \dotsc the points of the second quarter of the ellipse can be determined. Analogously one obtains the points of the lower half of the ellipse.
Steiner generation can also be defined for hyperbolas and parabolas. It is sometimes called a parallelogram method because one can use other points rather than the vertices, which starts with a parallelogram instead of a rectangle.
=== As hypotrochoid ===
The ellipse is a special case of the hypotrochoid when R = 2r, as shown in the adjacent image. The special case of a moving circle with radius r inside a circle with radius R = 2r is called a Tusi couple.
== Inscribed angles and three-point form ==
=== Circles ===
A circle with equation \left(x - x_\circ\right)^2 + \left(y - y_\circ\right)^2 = r^2 is uniquely determined by three points \left(x_1, y_1\right),\; \left(x_2,\,y_2\right),\; \left(x_3,\, y_3\right) not on a line. A simple way to determine the parameters x_\circ,y_\circ,r uses the inscribed angle theorem for circles:
For four points P_i = \left(x_i,\, y_i\right),\ i = 1,\, 2,\, 3,\, 4,\, (see diagram) the following statement is true:
The four points are on a circle if and only if the angles at P_3 and P_4 are equal.
Usually one measures inscribed angles by a degree or radian θ, but here the following measurement is more convenient:
In order to measure the angle between two lines with equations y = m_1x + d_1,\ y = m_2x + d_2,\ m_1 \ne m_2, one uses the quotient: \frac{1 + m_1 m_2}{m_2 - m_1} = \cot\theta\ .
====Inscribed angle theorem for circles====
For four points P_i = \left(x_i,\, y_i\right),\ i = 1,\, 2,\, 3,\, 4,\, no three of them on a line, we have the following (see diagram):
The four points are on a circle, if and only if the angles at P_3 and P_4 are equal. In terms of the angle measurement above, this means:
\frac{(x_4 - x_1)(x_4 - x_2) + (y_4 - y_1)(y_4 - y_2)}
{(y_4 - y_1)(x_4 - x_2) - (y_4 - y_2)(x_4 - x_1)} =
\frac{(x_3 - x_1)(x_3 - x_2) + (y_3 - y_1)(y_3 - y_2)}
{(y_3 - y_1)(x_3 - x_2) - (y_3 - y_2)(x_3 - x_1)}.
At first the measure is available only for chords not parallel to the y-axis, but the final formula works for any chord.
====Three-point form of circle equation====
As a consequence, one obtains an equation for the circle determined by three non-collinear points P_i = \left(x_i,\, y_i\right):
\frac{({\color{red}x} - x_1)({\color{red}x} - x_2) + ({\color{red}y} - y_1)({\color{red}y} - y_2)}
{({\color{red}y} - y_1)({\color{red}x} - x_2) - ({\color{red}y} - y_2)({\color{red}x} - x_1)} =
\frac{(x_3 - x_1)(x_3 - x_2) + (y_3 - y_1)(y_3 - y_2)}
{(y_3 - y_1)(x_3 - x_2) - (y_3 - y_2)(x_3 - x_1)}.
For example, for P_1 = (2,\, 0),\; P_2 = (0,\, 1),\; P_3 = (0,\,0) the three-point equation is:
\frac{(x - 2)x + y(y - 1)}{yx - (y - 1)(x - 2)} = 0, which can be rearranged to (x - 1)^2 + \left(y - \tfrac{1}{2}\right)^2 = \tfrac{5}{4}\ .
Using vectors, dot products and determinants this formula can be arranged more clearly, letting \vec x = (x,\, y):
\frac{\left({\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_1\right) \cdot \left({\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_2\right)}
{\det\left({\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_1,{\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_2\right)} =
\frac{\left(\vec x_3 - \vec x_1\right) \cdot \left(\vec x_3 - \vec x_2\right)}
{\det\left(\vec x_3 - \vec x_1, \vec x_3 - \vec x_2\right)}.
The center of the circle \left(x_\circ,\, y_\circ\right) satisfies:
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & \dfrac{y_1 - y_2}{x_1 - x_2} \\[2ex]
\dfrac{x_1 - x_3}{y_1 - y_3} & 1
\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix} x_\circ \\[1ex] y_\circ \end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
\dfrac{x_1^2 - x_2^2 + y_1^2 - y_2^2}{2(x_1 - x_2)} \\[2ex]
\dfrac{y_1^2 - y_3^2 + x_1^2 - x_3^2}{2(y_1 - y_3)}
\end{bmatrix}.
The radius is the distance between any of the three points and the center.
r = \sqrt{\left(x_1 - x_\circ\right)^2 + \left(y_1 - y_\circ\right)^2}
= \sqrt{\left(x_2 - x_\circ\right)^2 + \left(y_2 - y_\circ\right)^2}
= \sqrt{\left(x_3 - x_\circ\right)^2 + \left(y_3 - y_\circ\right)^2}.
=== Ellipses ===
This section considers the family of ellipses defined by equations \tfrac{\left(x - x_\circ\right)^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{\left(y - y_\circ\right)^2}{b^2} = 1 with a fixed eccentricity e. It is convenient to use the parameter:
{\color{blue}q} = \frac{a^2}{b^2} = \frac{1}{1 - e^2},
and to write the ellipse equation as:
\left(x - x_\circ\right)^2 + {\color{blue}q}\, \left(y - y_\circ\right)^2 = a^2,
where q is fixed and x_\circ,\, y_\circ,\, a vary over the real numbers. (Such ellipses have their axes parallel to the coordinate axes: if q < 1, the major axis is parallel to the x-axis; if q > 1, it is parallel to the y-axis.)
Like a circle, such an ellipse is determined by three points not on a line.
For this family of ellipses, one introduces the following q-analog angle measure, which is not a function of the usual angle measure θ:
In order to measure an angle between two lines with equations y = m_1x + d_1,\ y = m_2x + d_2,\ m_1 \ne m_2 one uses the quotient: \frac{1 + {\color{blue}q}\; m_1 m_2}{m_2 - m_1}\ .
====Inscribed angle theorem for ellipses====
Given four points P_i = \left(x_i,\, y_i\right),\ i = 1,\, 2,\, 3,\, 4, no three of them on a line (see diagram).
The four points are on an ellipse with equation (x - x_\circ)^2 + {\color{blue}q}\, (y - y_\circ)^2 = a^2 if and only if the angles at P_3 and P_4 are equal in the sense of the measurement above—that is, if
\frac{(x_4 - x_1)(x_4 - x_2) + {\color{blue}q}\;(y_4 - y_1)(y_4 - y_2)}
{(y_4 - y_1)(x_4 - x_2) - (y_4 - y_2)(x_4 - x_1)} =
\frac{(x_3 - x_1)(x_3 - x_2) + {\color{blue}q}\;(y_3 - y_1)(y_3 - y_2)}
{(y_3 - y_1)(x_3 - x_2) - (y_3 - y_2)(x_3 - x_1)}\ .
At first the measure is available only for chords which are not parallel to the y-axis. But the final formula works for any chord. The proof follows from a straightforward calculation. For the direction of proof given that the points are on an ellipse, one can assume that the center of the ellipse is the origin.
====Three-point form of ellipse equation====
A consequence, one obtains an equation for the ellipse determined by three non-collinear points P_i = \left(x_i,\, y_i\right):
\frac{({\color{red}x} - x_1)({\color{red}x} - x_2) + {\color{blue}q}\;({\color{red}y} - y_1)({\color{red}y} - y_2)}
{({\color{red}y} - y_1)({\color{red}x} - x_2) - ({\color{red}y} - y_2)({\color{red}x} - x_1)} =
\frac{(x_3 - x_1)(x_3 - x_2) + {\color{blue}q}\;(y_3 - y_1)(y_3 - y_2)}
{(y_3 - y_1)(x_3 - x_2) - (y_3 - y_2)(x_3 - x_1)}\ .
For example, for P_1 = (2,\, 0),\; P_2 = (0,\,1),\; P_3 = (0,\, 0) and q = 4 one obtains the three-point form
\frac{(x - 2)x + 4y(y - 1)}{yx - (y - 1)(x - 2)} = 0 and after conversion \frac{(x - 1)^2}{2} + \frac{\left(y - \frac{1}{2}\right)^2}{\frac{1}{2}} = 1.
Analogously to the circle case, the equation can be written more clearly using vectors:
\frac{\left({\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_1\right)*\left({\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_2\right)}
{\det\left({\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_1,{\color{red}\vec x} - \vec x_2\right)}
= \frac{\left(\vec x_3 - \vec x_1\right)*\left(\vec x_3 - \vec x_2\right)}
{\det\left(\vec x_3 - \vec x_1, \vec x_3 - \vec x_2\right)},
where * is the modified dot product \vec u*\vec v = u_x v_x + {\color{blue}q}\,u_y v_y.
== Pole-polar relation ==
Any ellipse can be described in a suitable coordinate system by an equation \tfrac{x^2}{a^2} + \tfrac{y^2}{b^2} = 1. The equation of the tangent at a point P_1 = \left(x_1,\, y_1\right) of the ellipse is \tfrac{x_1x}{a^2} + \tfrac{y_1y}{b^2} = 1. If one allows point P_1 = \left(x_1,\, y_1\right) to be an arbitrary point different from the origin, then
point P_1 = \left(x_1,\, y_1\right) \neq (0,\, 0) is mapped onto the line \tfrac{x_1 x}{a^2} + \tfrac{y_1 y}{b^2} = 1, not through the center of the ellipse.
This relation between points and lines is a bijection.
The inverse function maps
line y = mx + d,\ d \ne 0 onto the point \left(-\tfrac{ma^2}{d},\, \tfrac{b^2}{d}\right) and
line x = c,\ c \ne 0 onto the point \left(\tfrac{a^2}{c},\, 0\right).
Such a relation between points and lines generated by a conic is called pole-polar relation or polarity. The pole is the point; the polar the line.
By calculation one can confirm the following properties of the pole-polar relation of the ellipse:
For a point (pole) on the ellipse, the polar is the tangent at this point (see diagram:
For a pole P outside the ellipse, the intersection points of its polar with the ellipse are the tangency points of the two tangents passing P (see diagram:
For a point within the ellipse, the polar has no point with the ellipse in common (see diagram:
The intersection point of two polars is the pole of the line through their poles.
The foci (c,\, 0) and (-c,\, 0), respectively, and the directrices x = \tfrac{a^2}{c} and x = -\tfrac{a^2}{c}, respectively, belong to pairs of pole and polar. Because they are even polar pairs with respect to the circle x^2+y^2=a^2, the directrices can be constructed by compass and straightedge (see Inversive geometry).
Pole-polar relations exist for hyperbolas and parabolas as well.
== Metric properties ==
All metric properties given below refer to an ellipse with equation
except for the section on the area enclosed by a tilted ellipse, where the generalized form of Eq.() will be given.
=== Area ===
The area A_\text{ellipse} enclosed by an ellipse is:
where a and b are the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively. The area formula \pi a b is intuitive: start with a circle of radius b (so its area is \pi b^2) and stretch it by a factor a/b to make an ellipse. This scales the area by the same factor: \pi b^2(a/b) = \pi a b. However, using the same approach for the circumference would be fallacious – compare the integrals \int f(x)\, dx and \int \sqrt{1+f'^2(x)}\, dx. It is also easy to rigorously prove the area formula using integration as follows. Equation () can be rewritten as y(x) = b \sqrt{1 - x^2 / a^2}. For x\in[-a,a], this curve is the top half of the ellipse. So twice the integral of y(x) over the interval [-a,a] will be the area of the ellipse:
\begin{align}
A_\text{ellipse} &= \int_{-a}^a 2b\sqrt{1 - \frac{x^2}{a^2}}\,dx\\
&= \frac ba \int_{-a}^a 2\sqrt{a^2 - x^2}\,dx.
\end{align}
The second integral is the area of a circle of radius a, that is, \pi a^2. So
A_\text{ellipse} = \frac{b}{a}\pi a^2 = \pi ab.
An ellipse defined implicitly by Ax^2+ Bxy + Cy^2 = 1 has area 2\pi / \sqrt{4AC - B^2}.
The area can also be expressed in terms of eccentricity and the length of the semi-major axis as a^2\pi\sqrt{1-e^2} (obtained by solving for flattening, then computing the semi-minor axis).
So far we have dealt with erect ellipses, whose major and minor axes are parallel to the x and y axes. However, some applications require tilted ellipses. In charged-particle beam optics, for instance, the enclosed area of an erect or tilted ellipse is an important property of the beam, its emittance. In this case a simple formula still applies, namely
where y_{\text{int}}, x_{\text{int}} are intercepts and x_{\text{max}}, y_{\text{max}} are maximum values. It follows directly from Apollonios's theorem.
===Circumference===
The circumference C of an ellipse is:
C \,=\, 4a\int_0^{\pi/2}\sqrt {1 - e^2 \sin^2\theta}\ d\theta \,=\, 4 a \,E(e)
where again a is the length of the semi-major axis, e=\sqrt{1 - b^2/a^2} is the eccentricity, and the function E is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind,
E(e) \,=\, \int_0^{\pi/2}\sqrt {1 - e^2 \sin^2\theta}\ d\theta
which is in general not an elementary function.
The circumference of the ellipse may be evaluated in terms of E(e) using Gauss's arithmetic-geometric mean; this is a quadratically converging iterative method (see here for details).
The exact infinite series is:
\begin{align}
\frac C{2\pi a} &= 1 - \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^2e^2 - \left(\frac{1\cdot 3}{2\cdot 4}\right)^2\frac{e^4}{3} - \left(\frac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5}{2\cdot 4\cdot 6}\right)^2\frac{e^6}{5} - \cdots \\
&= 1 - \sum_{n=1}^\infty \left(\frac{(2n-1)!!}{(2n)!!}\right)^2 \frac{e^{2n}}{2n-1} \\
&= -\sum_{n=0}^\infty \left(\frac{(2n-1)!!}{(2n)!!}\right)^2 \frac{e^{2n}}{2n-1},
\end{align}
where n!! is the double factorial (extended to negative odd integers in the usual way, giving (-1)!! = 1 and (-3)!! = -1).
This series converges, but by expanding in terms of h = (a-b)^2 / (a+b)^2, James Ivory, Bessel and Kummer derived a series that converges much more rapidly. It is most concisely written in terms of the binomial coefficient with n = 1/2:
\begin{align}
\frac{C}{\pi(a+b)}
&= \sum_{n=0}^\infty {\frac 12 \choose n}^2 h^n \\
&= \sum_{n=0}^\infty \left(\frac{(2n-3)!!}{(2n)!!}\right)^2 h^n \\
&= \sum_{n=0}^\infty \left(\frac{(2n-3)!!}{2^n n!}\right)^2 h^n \\
&= \sum_{n=0}^\infty \left(\frac{1}{(2n-1)4^n}\binom{2n}{n}\right)^2 h^n \\
&= 1 + \frac{h}{4} + \frac{h^2}{64} + \frac{h^3}{256} + \frac{25\,h^4}{16384} + \frac{49\,h^5}{65536} + \frac{441\,h^6}{2^{20}} + \frac{1089\,h^7}{2^{22}} + \cdots.
\end{align}
The coefficients are slightly smaller (by a factor of 2n-1), but also e^4/16 \le h \le e^4 is numerically much smaller than e except at h = e = 0 and h = e = 1. For eccentricities less than 0.5 the error is at the limits of double-precision floating-point after the h^4 term.
Srinivasa Ramanujan gave two close approximations for the circumference in §16 of "Modular Equations and Approximations to \pi"; they are
\frac C\pi \approx 3(a + b) - \sqrt{(3a + b)(a + 3b)} = 3(a + b) - \sqrt{3(a+b)^2 + 4ab}
and
\frac C{\pi(a+b)} \approx 1+\frac{3h}{10+\sqrt{4-3h}},
where h takes on the same meaning as above. The errors in these approximations, which were obtained empirically, are of order h^3 and h^5, respectively. This is because the second formula's infinite series expansion matches Ivory's formula up to the h^4 term.
===Arc length===
More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended (or of any two points on the upper half of the ellipse), is given by an incomplete elliptic integral. The upper half of an ellipse is parameterized by
y = b\ \sqrt{ 1-\frac{x^{2}}{a^{2}}\ } ~.
Then the arc length s from \ x_{1}\ to \ x_{2}\ is:
s = -b\int_{\arccos \frac{x_1}{a}}^{\arccos \frac{x_2}{a}} \sqrt{\ 1 + \left( \tfrac{a^2}{b^2} - 1 \right)\ \sin^2 z ~} \; dz ~.
This is equivalent to
s = b\ \left[ \; E\left(z \;\Biggl|\; 1 - \frac{a^2}{b^2} \right) \; \right]^{\arccos \frac{x_1}{a}}_{z\ =\ \arccos \frac{x_2}{a}}
where E(z \mid m) is the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind with parameter m=k^{2}.
Some lower and upper bounds on the circumference of the canonical ellipse \ x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 = 1\ with \ a \geq b\ are
\begin{align}
2\pi b &\le C \le 2\pi a\ , \\
\pi (a+b) &\le C \le 4(a+b)\ , \\
4\sqrt{a^2+b^2\ } &\le C \le \sqrt{2\ } \pi \sqrt{a^2 + b^2\ } ~.
\end{align}
Here the upper bound \ 2\pi a\ is the circumference of a circumscribed concentric circle passing through the endpoints of the ellipse's major axis, and the lower bound 4\sqrt{a^2+b^2} is the perimeter of an inscribed rhombus with vertices at the endpoints of the major and the minor axes.
Given an ellipse whose axes are drawn, we can construct the endpoints of a particular elliptic arc whose length is one eighth of the ellipse's circumference using only straightedge and compass in a finite number of steps; for some specific shapes of ellipses, such as when the axes have a length ratio of , it is additionally possible to construct the endpoints of a particular arc whose length is one twelfth of the circumference. (The vertices and co-vertices are already endpoints of arcs whose length is one half or one quarter of the ellipse's circumference.) However, the general theory of straightedge-and-compass elliptic division appears to be unknown, unlike in the case of the circle and the lemniscate. The division in special cases has been investigated by Legendre in his classical treatise.
=== Curvature ===
The curvature is given by:
\kappa = \frac{1}{a^2 b^2}\left(\frac{x^2}{a^4}+\frac{y^2}{b^4}\right)^{-\frac{3}{2}}\ ,
and the radius of curvature, ρ = 1/κ, at point (x,y):
\rho = a^2 b^2 \left(\frac{x^{2}}{a^4} + \frac{y^{2}}{b^4}\right)^\frac{3}{2} = \frac{1}{a^4 b^4} \sqrt{\left(a^4 y^{2} + b^4 x^{2}\right)^3} \ .The radius of curvature of an ellipse, as a function of angle from the center, is:
R(\theta)=\frac{a^2}{b}\biggl(\frac{1-e^2(2-e^2)(\cos\theta)^2)}{1-e^2(\cos\theta)^2}\biggr)^{3/2}\,,where e is the eccentricity.
Radius of curvature at the two vertices (\pm a,0) and the centers of curvature:
\rho_0 = \frac{b^2}{a}=p\ , \qquad \left(\pm\frac{c^2}{a}\,\bigg|\,0\right)\ .
Radius of curvature at the two co-vertices (0,\pm b) and the centers of curvature:
\rho_1 = \frac{a^2}{b}\ , \qquad \left(0\,\bigg|\,\pm\frac{c^2}{b}\right)\ .The locus of all the centers of curvature is called an evolute. In the case of an ellipse, the evolute is an astroid.
== In triangle geometry ==
Ellipses appear in triangle geometry as
Steiner ellipse: ellipse through the vertices of the triangle with center at the centroid,
inellipses: ellipses which touch the sides of a triangle. Special cases are the Steiner inellipse and the Mandart inellipse.
== As plane sections of quadrics ==
Ellipses appear as plane sections of the following quadrics:
Ellipsoid
Elliptic cone
Elliptic cylinder
Hyperboloid of one sheet
Hyperboloid of two sheets
Ellipsoid Quadric.png|Ellipsoid
Quadric Cone.jpg|Elliptic cone
Elliptic Cylinder Quadric.png|Elliptic cylinder
Hyperboloid1.png|Hyperboloid of one sheet
Hyperboloid2.png|Hyperboloid of two sheets
== Applications ==
===Physics===
==== Elliptical reflectors and acoustics ====
If the water's surface is disturbed at one focus of an elliptical water tank, the circular waves of that disturbance, after reflecting off the walls, converge simultaneously to a single point: the second focus. This is a consequence of the total travel length being the same along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci.
Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a circle with a source at its center all light would be reflected back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its major axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a prolate spheroid), this property holds for all rays out of the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with elliptical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors are used in some document scanners.
Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a person standing at the other focus remarkably well. The effect is even more evident under a vaulted roof shaped as a section of a prolate spheroid. Such a room is called a whisper chamber. The same effect can be demonstrated with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance. Examples are the National Statuary Hall at the United States Capitol (where John Quincy Adams is said to have used this property for eavesdropping on political matters); the Mormon Tabernacle at Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah; at an exhibit on sound at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago; in front of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Foellinger Auditorium; and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in the Alhambra.
==== Planetary orbits ====
In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun [approximately] at one focus, in his first law of planetary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation.
More generally, in the gravitational two-body problem, if the two bodies are bound to each other (that is, the total energy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse. The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical significance. The orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at the same focus.
Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially directed attraction force whose strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Thus, in principle, the motion of two oppositely charged particles in empty space would also be an ellipse. (However, this conclusion ignores losses due to electromagnetic radiation and quantum effects, which become significant when the particles are moving at high speed.)
For elliptical orbits, useful relations involving the eccentricity e are:
\begin{align}
e &= \frac{r_a - r_p}{r_a + r_p} = \frac{r_a - r_p}{2a} \\
r_a &= (1 + e)a \\
r_p &= (1 - e)a
\end{align}
where
r_a is the radius at apoapsis, i.e., the farthest distance of the orbit to the barycenter of the system, which is a focus of the ellipse
r_p is the radius at periapsis, the closest distance
a is the length of the semi-major axis
Also, in terms of r_a and r_p, the semi-major axis a is their arithmetic mean, the semi-minor axis b is their geometric mean, and the semi-latus rectum \ell is their harmonic mean. In other words,
\begin{align}
a &= \frac{r_a + r_p}{2} \\[2pt]
b &= \sqrt{r_a r_p} \\[2pt]
\ell &= \frac{2}{\frac{1}{r_a} + \frac{1}{r_p}} = \frac{2r_ar_p}{r_a + r_p}.
\end{align}
==== Harmonic oscillators ====
The general solution for a harmonic oscillator in two or more dimensions is also an ellipse. Such is the case, for instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two dimensions; of a mass attached to a fixed point by a perfectly elastic spring; or of any object that moves under influence of an attractive force that is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed attractor. Unlike Keplerian orbits, however, these "harmonic orbits" have the center of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and have fairly simple equations of motion.
==== Phase visualization ====
In electronics, the relative phase of two sinusoidal signals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope. If the Lissajous figure display is an ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out of phase.
==== Elliptical gears ====
Two non-circular gears with the same elliptical outline, each pivoting around one focus and positioned at the proper angle, turn smoothly while maintaining contact at all times. Alternatively, they can be connected by a link chain or timing belt, or in the case of a bicycle the main chainring may be elliptical, or an ovoid similar to an ellipse in form. Such elliptical gears may be used in mechanical equipment to produce variable angular speed or torque from a constant rotation of the driving axle, or in the case of a bicycle to allow a varying crank rotation speed with inversely varying mechanical advantage.
Elliptical bicycle gears make it easier for the chain to slide off the cog when changing gears.
An example gear application would be a device that winds thread onto a conical bobbin on a spinning machine. The bobbin would need to wind faster when the thread is near the apex than when it is near the base.
==== Optics ====
In a material that is optically anisotropic (birefringent), the refractive index depends on the direction of the light. The dependency can be described by an index ellipsoid. (If the material is optically isotropic, this ellipsoid is a sphere.)
In lamp-pumped solid-state lasers, elliptical cylinder-shaped reflectors have been used to direct light from the pump lamp (coaxial with one ellipse focal axis) to the active medium rod (coaxial with the second focal axis).
In laser-plasma produced EUV light sources used in microchip lithography, EUV light is generated by plasma positioned in the primary focus of an ellipsoid mirror and is collected in the secondary focus at the input of the lithography machine.
===Statistics and finance===
In statistics, a bivariate random vector (X, Y) is jointly elliptically distributed if its iso-density contours—loci of equal values of the density function—are ellipses. The concept extends to an arbitrary number of elements of the random vector, in which case in general the iso-density contours are ellipsoids. A special case is the multivariate normal distribution. The elliptical distributions are important in the financial field because if rates of return on assets are jointly elliptically distributed then all portfolios can be characterized completely by their mean and variance—that is, any two portfolios with identical mean and variance of portfolio return have identical distributions of portfolio return.
=== Computer graphics ===
Drawing an ellipse as a graphics primitive is common in standard display libraries, such as the MacIntosh QuickDraw API, and Direct2D on Windows. Jack Bresenham at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit. M. L. V. Pitteway extended Bresenham's algorithm for lines to conics in 1967. Another efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by Jerry Van Aken.
In 1970 Danny Cohen presented at the "Computer Graphics 1970" conference in England a linear algorithm for drawing ellipses and circles. In 1971, L. B. Smith published similar algorithms for all conic sections and proved them to have good properties. These algorithms need only a few multiplications and additions to calculate each vector.
It is beneficial to use a parametric formulation in computer graphics because the density of points is greatest where there is the most curvature. Thus, the change in slope between each successive point is small, reducing the apparent "jaggedness" of the approximation.
Drawing with Bézier paths:
Composite Bézier curves may also be used to draw an ellipse to sufficient accuracy, since any ellipse may be construed as an affine transformation of a circle. The spline methods used to draw a circle may be used to draw an ellipse, since the constituent Bézier curves behave appropriately under such transformations.
=== Optimization theory ===
It is sometimes useful to find the minimum bounding ellipse on a set of points. The ellipsoid method is quite useful for solving this problem.
|
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"physics",
"inverse function",
"Elliptic partial differential equation",
"eccentric anomaly",
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"true anomaly",
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"Pole and polar",
"Cross section (geometry)",
"circumference",
"James Ivory (mathematician)",
"conjugate diameter",
"apoapsis",
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"optics",
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"Oval",
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"Quadratic form",
"line at infinity",
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"parametric equation",
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"oscilloscope",
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"mathematics",
"inscribed angle theorem"
] |
9,278 |
Extension
|
Extension, extend or extended may refer to:
==Mathematics==
===Logic or set theory===
Axiom of extensionality
Extensible cardinal
Extension (model theory)
Extension (proof theory)
Extension (predicate logic), the set of tuples of values that satisfy the predicate
Extension (semantics), the set of things to which a property applies
Extension by definitions
Extensional definition, a definition that enumerates every individual a term applies to
Extensionality
===Other uses===
Extension of a function, defined on a larger domain
Extension of a polyhedron, in geometry
Extension of a line segment (finite) into an infinite line (e.g., extended base)
Exterior algebra, Grassmann's theory of extension, in geometry
Field extension, in Galois theory
Group extension, in abstract algebra and homological algebra
Homotopy extension property, in topology
Kolmogorov extension theorem, in probability theory
Linear extension, in order theory
Sheaf extension, in algebraic geometry
Tietze extension theorem, in topology
Whitney extension theorem, in differential geometry
==Music==
Extension (music), notes that fit outside the standard range
Extended (Solar Fields album), 2005
Extension (George Braith album), 1964
Extension (Clare Fischer album), 1963
Extensions (Ahmad Jamal album), 1965
Extensions, a 1969 album by Mystic Moods Orchestra
Extensions (McCoy Tyner album), 1970
Extensions (Dave Holland album), 1988
Extensions (The Manhattan Transfer album), 1979
Extension (The Extended Mixes), 2023 album reissue by Kylie Minogue
==Places==
Extension, British Columbia, a village near Regional District of Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada
Extension, Louisiana, unincorporated community, United States
==Science==
Extension (geology), relating to the pulling apart of the Earth's crust and lithosphere
Extension (anatomy), a movement at a joint that increases the angle between the two ends of the joint; the opposite of flexion
Extension locus, the gene locus of Melanocortin 1 receptor
==Other uses==
Agricultural Extension
Browser extension, a small software module for customizing a web browser
Building extension
Continuing education, or extension school, a school for continuing education
Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, a former division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
Extension (metaphysics), the property of stretching out or taking up space
Extension (telephone), telephone line attached to a main line or to a PBX or Centrex system
Extension cord, power cable with a plug on one end and one or more sockets on the other end
Eyelash extensions, material applied to eyelashes
Hair extensions, strands of hair added to existing hair
Extension, the building of community capacity by outsiders, for instance agricultural extension
Filename extension, for computer file systems
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[
"Extensions (McCoy Tyner album)",
"Extension by definitions",
"Extension (semantics)",
"Continuing education",
"Extensive (disambiguation)",
"Extensional definition",
"Kolmogorov extension theorem",
"Linear extension",
"Extension of a polyhedron",
"Extension (anatomy)",
"Extension (predicate logic)",
"Exterior algebra",
"Melanocortin 1 receptor",
"Sheaf extension",
"Extension of a function",
"Kylie Minogue",
"Extension (music)",
"Extension (George Braith album)",
"Extensions (Dave Holland album)",
"Whitney extension theorem",
"Extensions (The Manhattan Transfer album)",
"Mystic Moods Orchestra",
"line segment",
"Extension, Louisiana",
"flexion",
"Extension cord",
"Extensions (Ahmad Jamal album)",
"Homotopy extension property",
"Extension (geology)",
"extended base",
"Extension (model theory)",
"Eyelash extensions",
"Extension, British Columbia",
"joint",
"Extensible cardinal",
"Group extension",
"Extended (Solar Fields album)",
"Hair extensions",
"Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service",
"Browser extension",
"Field extension",
"agricultural extension",
"Filename extension",
"Renovation",
"Extension (proof theory)",
"Extensionality",
"Tietze extension theorem",
"Agricultural Extension",
"Extension (Clare Fischer album)",
"Extension (telephone)",
"Axiom of extensionality",
"Extension (metaphysics)"
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Elephant
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Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), the African forest elephant (L. cyclotis), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea; extinct relatives include mammoths and mastodons. Distinctive features of elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, pillar-like legs, and tough but sensitive grey skin. The trunk is prehensile, bringing food and water to the mouth and grasping objects. Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging. The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication. African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs.
Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are found in different habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes. They are herbivorous, and they stay near water when it is accessible. They are considered to be keystone species, due to their impact on their environments. Elephants have a fission–fusion society, in which multiple family groups come together to socialise. Females (cows) tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring. The leader of a female group, usually the oldest cow, is known as the matriarch.
Males (bulls) leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males. Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate. They enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance over other males as well as reproductive success. Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years. Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild. They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound and seismic communication over long distances. Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans. They appear to have self-awareness, and possibly show concern for dying and dead individuals of their kind.
African bush elephants and Asian elephants are listed as endangered and African forest elephants as critically endangered on the IUCN Red Lists. One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people. Elephants are used as working animals in Asia. In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or employed for entertainment in circuses. Elephants have an iconic status in human culture and have been widely featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture.
==Etymology==
The word elephant is derived from the Latin word (genitive ) , which is the Latinised form of the ancient Greek () (genitive (,)) probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician. It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as (genitive ) in Linear B syllabic script. As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal.
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Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea. Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria. Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria.
Three species of living elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis), and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). African elephants were traditionally considered a single species, Loxodonta africana, but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species. Mammoths (Mammuthus) are nested within living elephants as they are more closely related to Asian elephants than to African elephants. Another extinct genus of elephant, Palaeoloxodon, is also recognised, which appears to have close affinities with African elephants and to have hybridised with African forest elephants. Some species of the extinct Palaeoloxodon were even larger, all exceeding 4 metres in height and 10 tonnes in body mass, with P. namadicus being a contender for the largest land mammal to have ever existed. By the late Eocene, some members of Proboscidea like Barytherium had reached considerable size, with an estimated mass of around 2 tonnes,
{{cladogram|style=font-size:70%|caption=Proboscidea phylogeny based on morphological and DNA evidence Around 10 million years ago, the earliest members of the family Elephantidae emerged in Africa, having originated from gomphotheres.
Elephantids are distinguished from earlier proboscideans by a major shift in the molar morphology to parallel lophs rather than the cusps of earlier proboscideans, allowing them to become higher-crowned (hypsodont) and more efficient in consuming grass. The Late Miocene saw major climactic changes, which resulted in the decline and extinction of many proboscidean groups. The elephantid genera Elephas (which includes the living Asian elephant) and Mammuthus (mammoths) migrated out of Africa during the late Pliocene, around 3.6 to 3.2 million years ago.
Over the course of the Early Pleistocene, all non-elephantid probobscidean genera outside of the Americas became extinct with the exception of Stegodon, and mammoths migrating into North America around 1.5 million years ago. At the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 800,000 years ago the elephantid genus Palaeoloxodon dispersed outside of Africa, becoming widely distributed in Eurasia. Proboscideans were represented by around 23 species at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene. Proboscideans underwent a dramatic decline during the Late Pleistocene as part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions of most large mammals globally, with all remaining non-elephantid proboscideans (including Stegodon, mastodons, and the American gomphotheres Cuvieronius and Notiomastodon) and Palaeoloxodon becoming extinct, with mammoths only surviving in relict populations on islands around the Bering Strait into the Holocene, with their latest survival being on Wrangel Island, where they persisted until around 4,000 years ago.
Over the course of their evolution, probobscideans grew in size. With that came longer limbs and wider feet with a more digitigrade stance, along with a larger head and shorter neck. The trunk evolved and grew longer to provide reach. The number of premolars, incisors, and canines decreased, and the cheek teeth (molars and premolars) became longer and more specialised. The incisors developed into tusks of different shapes and sizes. some dramatically reducing in body size, such as the tall dwarf elephant species Palaeoloxodon falconeri.
===Living species===
==Anatomy==
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals. The skeleton is made up of 326–351 bones. The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength. These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance. By contrast, the lower jaw is dense. The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head. The skull is built to withstand great stress, particularly when fighting or using the tusks. The brain is surrounded by arches in the skull, which serve as protection. Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support.
Elephants are homeotherms and maintain their average body temperature at ~ 36 °C (97 °F), with a minimum of 35.2 °C (95.4 °F) during the cool season, and a maximum of 38.0 °C (100.4 °F) during the hot dry season.
===Ears and eyes===
Elephant ear flaps, or pinnae, are thick in the middle with a thinner tip and supported by a thicker base. They contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries. Warm blood flows into the capillaries, releasing excess heat into the environment. This effect is increased by flapping the ears back and forth. Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released. Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates and have the largest ear flaps. The ossicles are adapted for hearing low frequencies, being most sensitive at 1 kHz.
Lacking a lacrimal apparatus (tear duct), the eye relies on the harderian gland in the orbit to keep it moist. A durable nictitating membrane shields the globe. The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes. Elephants are dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light. A unique proboscis nerve – a combination of the maxillary and facial nerves – lines each side of the appendage. The skin is more elastic on the dorsal side of the elephant trunk than underneath; allowing the animal to stretch and coil while maintaining a strong grasp. The flexibility of the trunk is aided by the numerous wrinkles in the skin. The African elephants have two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow them to pluck small food. The Asian elephant has only one and relies more on wrapping around a food item. Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right. Elephant trunks are capable of powerful siphoning. They can expand their nostrils by 30%, leading to a 64% greater nasal volume, and can breathe in almost 30 times faster than a human sneeze, at over . They suck up water, which is squirted into the mouth or over the body.
Damaging the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival,
===Teeth===
Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks; 12 deciduous premolars; and 12 molars. Unlike most mammals, teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically. Instead, new teeth start at the back of the mouth and push out the old ones. The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old. This is followed by four more tooth replacements at the ages of four to six, 9–15, 18–28, and finally in their early 40s. The final (usually sixth) set must last the elephant the rest of its life. Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are more diamond-shaped in African elephants.
====Tusks====
The tusks of an elephant are modified second incisors in the upper jaw. They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and keep growing at about a year. As the tusk develops, it is topped with smooth, cone-shaped enamel that eventually wanes. The dentine is known as ivory and has a cross-section of intersecting lines, known as "engine turning", which create diamond-shaped patterns. Being living tissue, tusks are fairly soft and about as dense as the mineral calcite. The tusk protrudes from a socket in the skull, and most of it is external. At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp, and some have nerves that stretch even further. Thus, it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal. When removed, ivory will dry up and crack if not kept cool and wet. Tusks function in digging, debarking, marking, moving objects, and fighting. In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all. Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants. Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was long and weighed . Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has resulted in an effective selection pressure for shorter tusks and tusklessness.
=== Skin ===
An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at thick on the back and parts of the head. The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner. Elephants are typically grey, but African elephants look brown or reddish after rolling in coloured mud. Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the head. Calves have brownish or reddish hair, with the head and back being particularly hairy. As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the tip of the tail and parts of the head and genitals. Normally, the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart. Their hair is thought to help them lose heat in their hot environments.
Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive and requires mud baths to maintain moisture and protection from burning and insect bites. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body, which dries into a protective crust. Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human. They have even been observed lifting up their legs to expose their soles to the air. but the skin allows water to disperse and evaporate, cooling the animal. In addition, cracks in the skin may reduce dehydration and allow for increased thermal regulation in the long term.
=== Legs, locomotion, and posture ===
To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals. The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bones in place of medullary cavities. This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis (blood cell creation). Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front. The position of the limbs and leg bones allows an elephant to stand still for extended periods of time without tiring. Elephants are incapable of turning their manus as the ulna and radius of the front legs are secured in pronation. The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues, or "cushion pads" beneath the manus or pes, which allow them to bear the animal's great mass. As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet. The cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving.
=== Internal systems ===
The brain of an elephant weighs compared to for a human brain. While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller than the human brain. At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight. The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally.
The heart of an elephant weighs . Its apex has two pointed ends, an unusual trait among mammals. When upright, the elephant's heart beats around 28 beats per minute and actually speeds up to 35 beats when it lies down. Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity. This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air. Elephants breathe mostly with the trunk but also with the mouth. They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach in length. Less than half of an elephant's food intake gets digested, despite the process lasting a day. and its kidneys can produce more than 50 litres of urine per day. are internally located near the kidneys. The penis can be as long as with a wide base. It curves to an 'S' when fully erect and has an orifice shaped like a Y. The female's clitoris may be . The vulva is found lower than in other herbivores, between the hind legs instead of under the tail. Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large belly. The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk. Females have also been observed with these secretions.
==Behaviour and ecology==
Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass, and roots. African elephants mostly browse, while Asian elephants mainly graze. Both males and family groups typically move no more than a day, but distances as far as have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia. Elephants go on seasonal migrations in response to changes in environmental conditions. In northern Botswana, they travel to the Chobe River after the local waterholes dry up in late August.
Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species. Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal. This ecological niche cannot be filled by the smaller Malayan tapir. Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys. Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems. At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda, elephant numbers have threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands. Their weight causes the soil to compress, leading to runoff and erosion.
Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way. Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded. and tigers in Asia. There are rare reports of adult Asian elephants falling prey to tigers. Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to many other mammals. This may be due to elephants being less vulnerable to predation; in other mammal species, individuals weakened by significant parasite loads are easily killed off by predators, removing them from the population.
===Social organisation===
Elephants are generally gregarious animals. African bush elephants in particular have a complex, stratified social structure. She remains leader of the group until death a study on zoo elephants found that the death of the matriarch led to greater stress in the surviving elephants. When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place instead of her sister (if present). Large family groups may split if they cannot be supported by local resources.
At Amboseli National Park, Kenya, female groups may consist of around ten members, including four adults and their dependent offspring. Here, a cow's life involves interaction with those outside her group. Two separate families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups. During the dry season, elephant families may aggregate into clans. These may number around nine groups, in which clans do not form strong bonds but defend their dry-season ranges against other clans. The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations.
Female Asian elephants tend to have more fluid social associations. In Sri Lanka, there appear to be stable family units or "herds" and larger, looser "groups". They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units". In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups, and possibly clans. Family groups tend to be small, with only one or two adult females and their offspring. A group containing more than two cows and their offspring is known as a "joint family". Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units and do not reach levels above a bond group. Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one cow with one to three offspring. These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings. Older bulls act as the leaders of these groups. The presence of older males appears to subdue the aggression and "deviant" behaviour of younger ones. The largest all-male groups can reach close to 150 individuals. Adult males and females come together to breed. Bulls will accompany family groups if a cow is in oestrous.
===Sexual behaviour===
====Musth====
Adult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth. In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at 15 years old, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25. At Amboseli, no bulls under 24 were found to be in musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 were. In some areas, there may be seasonal influences on the timing of musths. The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid discharged from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face. Behaviours associated with musth include walking with a high and swinging head, nonsynchronous ear flapping, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling, and urinating in the sheath. The length of this varies between males of different ages and conditions, lasting from days to months.
There is at least one documented case of infanticide among Asian elephants at Dong Yai Wildlife Sanctuary, with the researchers describing it as most likely normal behaviour among aggressive musth elephants.
====Mating====
Elephants are polygynous breeders, and most copulations occur during rainfall. An oestrous cow uses pheromones in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate. A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response, which requires him to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and taste it with the vomeronasal organ at the roof of the mouth. The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks, with the follicular phase lasting 4–6 weeks and the luteal phase lasting 8–10 weeks. While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants have two. The first (or anovulatory) surge, appears to change the female's scent, signaling to males that she is in heat, but ovulation does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge. Cows over 45–50 years of age are less fertile. Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females seek them out, particularly older ones. Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths. For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby for comfort. The penis is mobile enough to move without the pelvis. Before mounting, it curves forward and upward. Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or an ejaculatory pause.
Homosexual behaviour has been observed in both sexes. As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting. Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting, and "championships" may form between old bulls and younger males. Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity, where they engage in mutual masturbation with their trunks.
===Birth and development===
Gestation in elephants typically lasts between one and a half and two years and the female will not give birth again for at least four years. The relatively long pregnancy is supported by several corpus luteums and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk. Births tend to take place during the wet season. They are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd.
Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight. The former are sexually mature by the age of nine years Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age.
===Communication===
Elephants communicate in various ways. Individuals greet one another by touching each other on the mouth, temporal glands, and genitals. This allows them to pick up chemical cues. Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to control younger ones. Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication. When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them. A calf will press against its mother's front legs to signal it wants to rest and will touch her breast or leg when it wants to suckle.
Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations. Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears. They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as tossing around dust and vegetation. They are usually bluffing when performing these actions. Excited elephants also raise their heads and spread their ears but additionally may raise their trunks. Submissive elephants will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that are ready to fight will bend their ears in a V shape.
Elephants produce several vocalisations—some of which pass through the trunk—for both short and long range communication. This includes trumpeting, bellowing, roaring, growling, barking, snorting, and rumbling. Elephants can produce infrasonic rumbles. For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, with sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB and last 10–15 seconds. For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, possibly over . Elephants are known to communicate with seismics, vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it. An individual foot stomping or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at travel distances of up to . Seismic waveforms produced by rumbles travel .
===Intelligence and cognition===
Elephants are among the most intelligent animals. They exhibit mirror self-recognition, an indication of self-awareness and cognition that has also been demonstrated in some apes and dolphins. One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs. This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later. Elephants are among the species known to use tools. An Asian elephant has been observed fine-tuning branches for use as flyswatters. Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of chimpanzees. Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory. This could have a factual basis; they possibly have cognitive maps which give them long lasting memories of their environment on a wide scale. Individuals may be able to remember where their family members are located.
Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion. They are attracted to the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related. As with chimpanzees and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups. This has been interpreted as expressing "concern"; however, the Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour (1987) said that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion".
==Conservation==
===Status===
African bush elephants were listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2021, and African forest elephants were listed as Critically Endangered in the same year. In 1979, Africa had an estimated population of at least 1.3 million elephants, possibly as high as 3.0 million. A decade later, the population was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Central Africa, 110,000 in Eastern Africa, 204,000 in Southern Africa, and 19,000 in Western Africa. The population of rainforest elephants was lower than anticipated, at around 214,000 individuals. Between 1977 and 1989, elephant populations declined by 74% in East Africa. After 1987, losses in elephant numbers hastened, and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia experienced a decline of 80%. African forest elephants had a total loss of 43%. Population trends in southern Africa were various, with unconfirmed losses in Zambia, Mozambique and Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa. The IUCN estimated that total population in Africa is estimated at to 415,000 individuals for both species combined as of 2016.
African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found. Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities while failures have led to declines as high as 70% or more of the course of ten years. As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation. Large-scale cullings stopped in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1989, the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), making trade illegal. Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000. In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies. Asian elephants once ranged from Western to East Asia and south to Sumatra. and Java. It is now extinct in these areas, The ivory trade contributed to the fall of the African elephant population in the late 20th century. Ivory was banned internationally by CITES in 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not as badly affected. This has been called "one of the worst concentrated killings" since the ivory ban.
Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation. The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations and may be confined to small islands of forest among human-dominated landscapes. Elephants commonly trample and consume crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result. Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation. One proposed solution is the protection of wildlife corridors which give populations greater interconnectivity and space.
==Human relations==
===Working animal===
Elephants have been working animals since at least the Indus Valley civilization over 4,000 years ago and continue to be used in modern times. There were 13,000–16,500 working elephants employed in Asia in 2000. These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10–20 years old, the age range when they are both more trainable and can work for more years. Individuals of the Asian species have often been trained as working animals. Asian elephants are used to carry and pull both objects and people in and out of areas as well as lead people in religious celebrations. They are valued over mechanised tools as they can perform the same tasks but in more difficult terrain, with strength, memory, and delicacy. Elephants can learn over 30 commands. Musth bulls are difficult and dangerous to work with and so are chained up until their condition passes.
In India, many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse. They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960. In both Myanmar and Thailand, deforestation and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live.
The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa. The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre.
===Warfare===
Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war. They were described in Sanskrit texts as far back as 1500 BC. From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Persia War elephants were also employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period since the reign of Ptolemy II in Egypt. The Carthaginian general Hannibal famously took African elephants across the Alps during his war with the Romans and reached the Po Valley in 218 BC with all of them alive, but died of disease and combat a year later.
An elephant's head and sides were equipped with armour, the trunk may have had a sword tied to it and tusks were sometimes covered with sharpened iron or brass. Trained elephants would attack both humans and horses with their tusks. They might have grasped an enemy soldier with the trunk and tossed him to their mahout, or pinned the soldier to the ground and speared him. Some shortcomings of war elephants included their great visibility, which made them easy to target, and limited maneuverability compared to horses. Alexander the Great achieved victory over armies with war elephants by having his soldiers injure the trunks and legs of the animals which caused them to panic and become uncontrollable.
Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy. Proponents of zoos argue that they allow easy access to the animals and provide fund and knowledge for preserving their natural habitats, as well as safekeeping for the species. Opponents claim that animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress. Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of wobbling the body or head and pacing the same route both forwards and backwards. This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos. One study claims wild elephants in protected areas of Africa and Asia live more than twice as long as those in European zoos; the median lifespan of elephants in European zoos being 17 years. Other studies suggest that elephants in zoos live a similar lifespan as those in the wild.
The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals. In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins, and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus. Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was rebuked for using an electric prod on an elephant. Despite this, he denied that any of these practices hurt the animals. Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment. Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on positive reinforcement when training his animals. Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016.
===Attacks===
Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans. In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s. Because of the timing, these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive. In parts of India, male elephants have entered villages at night, destroying homes and killing people. From 2000 to 2004, 300 people died in Jharkhand, and in Assam, 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006. Local people have reported that some elephants were drunk during the attacks, though officials have disputed this. Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the retaliatory slaughter of about 200 elephants by locals.
===Cultural significance===
Elephants have a universal presence in global culture. They have been represented in art since Paleolithic times. Africa, in particular, contains many examples of elephant rock art, especially in the Sahara and southern Africa. In Asia, the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples. The ancient Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted elephants more accurately than medieval Europeans who portrayed them more like fantasy creatures, with horse, bovine, and boar-like traits, and trumpet-like trunks. As Europeans gained more access to captive elephants during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinci.
Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs. The Mbuti people of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants. Similar ideas existed among other African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants. During the 10th century AD, the people of Igbo-Ukwu, in modern-day Nigeria, placed elephant tusks underneath their dead leader's feet in the grave. The animals' importance is only totemic in Africa but is much more significant in Asia. In Sumatra, elephants have been associated with lightning. Likewise, in Hinduism, they are linked with thunderstorms as Airavata, the father of all elephants, represents both lightning and rainbows. Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants, and it is believed that he can give people success as well as grant them their desires, but could also take these things away.
In Western popular culture, elephants symbolise the exotic, especially since – as with the giraffe, hippopotamus, and rhinoceros – there are no similar animals familiar to Western audiences. As characters, elephants are most common in children's stories, where they are portrayed positively. They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values. Many stories tell of isolated young elephants returning to or finding a family, such as "The Elephant's Child" from Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, Disney's Dumbo, and Kathryn and Byron Jackson's The Saggy Baggy Elephant. Other elephant heroes given human qualities include Jean de Brunhoff's Babar, David McKee's Elmer, and Dr. Seuss's Horton.
Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and strangeness. For instance, a "white elephant" is a byword for something that is weird, unwanted, and has no value. The story of the blind men and an elephant involves blind men touching different parts of an elephant and trying to figure out what it is.
|
[
"The Sydney Morning Herald",
"Macroscelididae",
"beehive fence",
"penis",
"Totemism",
"Fetus",
"mahout",
"critically endangered",
"primate",
"Herbivore",
"Cultural depictions of elephants",
"vocal fold",
"nictitating membrane",
"Dorsoventral",
"blind men and an elephant",
"Carl Linnaeus",
"Grazing (behaviour)",
"Barytherium",
"Chrysochloridae",
"Quadrupedalism",
"Bark (sound)",
"Connective tissue",
"West Africa",
"Sahara",
"Sub-Saharan Africa",
"giant panda",
"Elephants' graveyard",
"Malay Peninsula",
"ossicles",
"Wikisource",
"bloodhound",
"savanna",
"Pes (anatomy)",
"Late Pleistocene extinctions",
"Polygyny in animals",
"cerebellum",
"South Asia",
"The Walt Disney Company",
"infrasound",
"Amboseli National Park",
"dwarf elephant",
"Sri Lankan elephant",
"Paleocene",
"surface runoff",
"IUCN Red List",
"muscular hydrostat",
"luteal phase",
"Api Elephant Domestication Center",
"African elephant",
"Leopold II of Belgium",
"tooth enamel",
"hindgut fermentation",
"Browsing (herbivory)",
"follicular phase",
"Alps",
"Elephas",
"Moeritherium",
"elephant in the room",
"luteinizing hormone",
"Achaemenid Empire",
"Mela shikar",
"Horton the Elephant",
"spotted hyena",
"cognition",
"Manus (anatomy)",
"Chobe River",
"Elephant communication",
"calcite",
"National Elephant Day (Thailand)",
"Western Ghats",
"Temporin",
"corpus luteum",
"Mycenaean Greek",
"Assam",
"Poaching",
"Motif (visual arts)",
"Dr. Seuss",
"Encephalization quotient",
"kidneys",
"Macroscelidea",
"Ventricle (heart)",
"ulna",
"keystone species",
"sirenia",
"World Elephant Day",
"tusk",
"s:The Blindmen and the Elephant",
"Humane Society of the United States",
"Infrasound",
"Alloparenting",
"fission–fusion society",
"The New York Times",
"Submarine snorkel",
"Mikumi National Park",
"Mammuthus",
"testosterone",
"medieval",
"Ancient Rome",
"rock art",
"ape",
"endangered",
"cerebrum",
"Children's literature",
"vulva",
"Copulation (zoology)",
"Airavata",
"Mount Elgon",
"clitoris",
"Just So Stories",
"Henri-Paul Motte",
"Afroinsectiphilia",
"surface-area-to-volume ratio",
"motor coordination",
"External urethral orifice (male)",
"tiger",
"Elephant goad",
"digitigrade",
"Whiskers",
"Infanticide (zoology)",
"Elephantimorpha",
"Afroinsectivora",
"Dichromacy",
"electric fences",
"Alexander the Great",
"ovulation",
"homeothermy",
"pinna (anatomy)",
"Habitat fragmentation",
"Estrous cycle",
"growling",
"dominance hierarchy",
"Western Asia",
"wikt:radiate",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"Elmer the Patchwork Elephant",
"Brahma",
"Shiva",
"muscle fascicle",
"Stereotypy (non-human)",
"Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests",
"Transverse plane",
"erosion",
"sound pressure",
"deforestation",
"Relict (biology)",
"Largest and heaviest animals",
"Pan (genus)",
"Paleolithic",
"The New Indian Express",
"Stegodontidae",
"Mammoth",
"Ganesha",
"medullary cavity",
"Bering Strait",
"Peripheral nervous system",
"Sinus (anatomy)",
"Elephantidae",
"Elephant (disambiguation)",
"East Asia",
"facial nerve",
"10th edition of Systema Naturae",
"habitat destruction",
"musth",
"Tenrecidae",
"Pronator quadratus muscle",
"Motty",
"Belgian Congo",
"Bouba Njida National Park",
"depigmentation",
"precocial",
"Radius (bone)",
"Southeast Asia",
"Tool use by animals",
"CITES",
"Hyrax",
"ivory",
"Floppy trunk syndrome",
"Sesamoid bone",
"sexually mature",
"mammary gland",
"Leonardo da Vinci",
"cetacea",
"Wrangel Island",
"Beringia",
"cognitive map",
"International Union for Conservation of Nature",
"Cuvieronius",
"Trichechidae",
"Bellow (sound)",
"haematopoiesis",
"emotion",
"temporal lobe",
"Gautama Buddha",
"Pulp (tooth)",
"Hannibal",
"Matrilineality",
"Cross section (geometry)",
"Dumbo",
"proboscis",
"milk teeth",
"mastodon",
"nasal septum",
"Handedness",
"Elephant cognition",
"Tethytheria",
"Chobe National Park",
"dugong",
"capillary",
"wildlife corridor",
"ungulate",
"Periyar National Park",
"mammoth",
"Horse gait",
"Linear B",
"Hinduism",
"Vishnu",
"sub-Saharan Africa",
"pronation",
"anus",
"Decibel",
"deinothere",
"ecotone",
"Field of view",
"Stegodon",
"Fly-killing device",
"Malayan tapir",
"jumping",
"The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960",
"Thoracic diaphragm",
"nematode",
"Hertz",
"Seed dispersal",
"ancient Greek",
"premolar",
"Paenungulata",
"Babar the Elephant",
"Deccan thorn scrub forests",
"FAO",
"Molar (tooth)",
"working animal",
"Deinotheriidae",
"Endangered species (IUCN status)",
"penile sheath",
"Rudyard Kipling",
"African forest elephant",
"Igbo-Ukwu",
"lion",
"honeycomb",
"hippopotamus",
"selection pressure",
"Phoenician language",
"zoo",
"Sumatra",
"pleural cavity",
"maxillary nerve",
"Lin Wang",
"Sirenia",
"White elephant (animal)",
"Optic nerve",
"Rumble (noise)",
"Species translocation",
"Old French",
"larynx",
"Endangered",
"Kenneth Jeffrey Feld",
"dentin",
"Tubulidentata",
"Murchison Falls National Park",
"genitive",
"Maya (mother of Buddha)",
"Wallowing",
"Ptolemy II Philadelphus",
"Cochlear nerve",
"harderian gland",
"Buddhism",
"evergreen forest",
"Jumbo",
"Afrosoricida",
"National Geographic",
"Latinisation of names",
"roaring",
"hyrax",
"Mammutidae",
"Gestation",
"Choerolophodontidae",
"Elephantiformes",
"litre",
"Carthage",
"Middle English",
"Homosexual behavior in animals",
"giraffe",
"Indus Valley civilization",
"clade",
"David McKee",
"Proboscidea",
"Homer",
"paralysis",
"predator",
"white elephant",
"Deciduous teeth",
"Etosha National Park",
"herbivorous",
"circus",
"Lateral and medial",
"Matriarchy",
"Pronator teres muscle",
"Ambling gait",
"Jean de Brunhoff",
"Afrotheria",
"Jharkhand",
"Ralph Helfer",
"marsh",
"ivory trade",
"gomphothere",
"poaching",
"incisor",
"cancellous bone",
"insular dwarfism",
"Palaeoloxodon",
"infraorbital nerve",
"cartilage",
"List of individual elephants",
"Sanskrit",
"Agonistic behaviour",
"Indo-European language",
"Great American interchange",
"African Zoology",
"trotting",
"Late Pleistocene",
"Orycteropodidae",
"Deutsche Welle",
"Family (biology)",
"African bush elephant",
"Platybelodon",
"dolphin",
"Desert elephant",
"John Godfrey Saxe",
"species",
"Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus",
"Mirror test",
"self-awareness",
"Early Pleistocene",
"Animal track",
"germination",
"pheromone",
"Palaeoloxodon namadicus",
"Notiomastodon",
"epiglottis",
"flehmen response",
"Gomphotheriidae",
"Eritherium",
"culling",
"Dugongidae",
"Herodotus",
"Po Valley",
"dung beetle",
"manatee",
"Palaeoloxodon falconeri",
"Lycaon pictus",
"lacrimal apparatus",
"vomeronasal organ",
"Latin",
"Order (biology)",
"extant taxon",
"Dominance (ethology)",
"Mbuti people",
"Critically Endangered",
"Central Africa",
"gallery forest",
"rhinoceros",
"Prehensility",
"Amebelodontidae",
"reincarnation",
"Anthropomorphism",
"Heart",
"Trophy hunting",
"seismic communication",
"pelvic thrust",
"parasite load",
"Loxodonta",
"sedative",
"sweat gland",
"classical antiquity",
"Asian elephant",
"Animal sexual behaviour",
"gregarious"
] |
9,281 |
Evolutionary linguistics
|
Evolutionary linguistics or Darwinian linguistics is a sociobiological approach to the study of language. Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics as a subfield of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. The approach is also closely linked with evolutionary anthropology, cognitive linguistics and biolinguistics. Studying languages as the products of nature, it is interested in the biological origin and development of language. Evolutionary linguistics is contrasted with humanistic approaches, especially structural linguistics.
A main challenge in this research is the lack of empirical data: there are no archaeological traces of early human language. Computational biological modelling and clinical research with artificial languages have been employed to fill in gaps of knowledge. Although biology is understood to shape the brain, which processes language, there is no clear link between biology and specific human language structures or linguistic universals.
For lack of a breakthrough in the field, there have been numerous debates about what kind of natural phenomenon language might be. Some researchers focus on the innate aspects of language. It is suggested that grammar has emerged adaptationally from the human genome, bringing about a language instinct; or that it depends on a single mutation which has caused a language organ to appear in the human brain. This is hypothesized to result in a crystalline grammatical structure underlying all human languages. Others suggest language is not crystallized, but fluid and ever-changing. Others, yet, liken languages to living organisms. Languages are considered analogous to a parasite or populations of mind-viruses. There is so far little scientific evidence for any of these claims, and some of them have been labelled as pseudoscience.
==History==
===1863–1945: social Darwinism===
Although pre-Darwinian theorists had compared languages to living organisms as a metaphor, the comparison was first taken literally in 1863 by the historical linguist August Schleicher who was inspired by Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. At the time there was not enough evidence to prove that Darwin's theory of natural selection was correct. Schleicher proposed that linguistics could be used as a testing ground for the study of the evolution of species. A review of Schleicher's book Darwinism as Tested by the Science of Language appeared in the first issue of Nature journal in 1870. Darwin reiterated Schleicher's proposition in his 1871 book The Descent of Man, claiming that languages are comparable to species, and that language change occurs through natural selection as words 'struggle for life'. Darwin believed that languages had evolved from animal mating calls. Darwinists considered the concept of language creation as unscientific.
August Schleicher and his friend Ernst Haeckel were keen gardeners and regarded the study of cultures as a type of botany, with different species competing for the same living space. Highly influential until the end of World War II, social Darwinism was eventually banished from human sciences, leading to a strict separation of natural and sociocultural studies.
Chomsky became an influential opponent of the French intellectuals during the following decades, and his supporters successfully confronted the post-structuralists in the Science Wars of the late 1990s. The shift of the century saw a new academic funding policy where interdisciplinary research became favoured, effectively directing research funds to biological humanities. The decline of structuralism was evident by 2015 with Sorbonne having lost its former spirit.
Chomsky eventually claimed that syntactic structures are caused by a random mutation in the human genome,
===From 1976 onwards: Neo-Darwinism===
At the same time when the Chomskyan paradigm of biological determinism defeated humanism, it was losing its own clout within sociobiology. It was reported likewise in 2015 that generative grammar was under fire in applied linguistics and in the process of being replaced with usage-based linguistics; a derivative of Richard Dawkins's memetics. It is a concept of linguistic units as replicators. Following the publication of memetics in Dawkins's 1976 nonfiction bestseller The Selfish Gene, many biologically inclined linguists, frustrated with the lack of evidence for Chomsky's Universal Grammar, grouped under different brands including a framework called Cognitive Linguistics (with capitalised initials), and 'functional' (adaptational) linguistics (not to be confused with functional linguistics) to confront both Chomsky and the humanists. concepts which are not to be confused with functionalism and formalism in the humanistic reference. Functional evolutionary linguistics considers languages as adaptations to human mind. The formalist view regards them as crystallised or non-adaptational. It is hypothesised that the evolution of the animal brain provides humans with a mechanism of abstract reasoning which is a 'metaphorical' version of image-based reasoning. Language is not considered as a separate area of cognition, but as coinciding with general cognitive capacities, such as perception, attention, motor skills, and spatial and visual processing. It is argued to function according to the same principles as these.
It is thought that the brain links action schemes to form–meaning pairs which are called constructions. Cognitive linguistic approaches to syntax are called cognitive and construction grammar. What correspond to replicators or mind-viruses in memetics are called linguemes in Croft's theory of Utterance Selection (TUS), and likewise linguemes or constructions in construction grammar and usage-based linguistics; and metaphors, frames or schemas in cognitive and construction grammar. The reference of memetics has been largely replaced with that of a Complex Adaptive System. In current linguistics, this term covers a wide range of evolutionary notions while maintaining the Neo-Darwinian concepts of replication and replicator population.
Functional evolutionary linguistics is not to be confused with functional humanistic linguistics.
===Formalism (structuralism)===
Advocates of formal evolutionary explanation in linguistics argue that linguistic structures are crystallised. Inspired by 19th century advances in crystallography, Schleicher argued that different types of languages are like plants, animals and crystals. The idea of linguistic structures as frozen drops was revived in tagmemics, an approach to linguistics with the goal to uncover divine symmetries underlying all languages, as if caused by the Creation.
In modern biolinguistics, the X-bar tree is argued to be like natural systems such as ferromagnetic droplets and botanic forms. Generative grammar considers syntactic structures similar to snowflakes. There is little support, however, for the idea that FOXP2 is 'the grammar gene' or that it had much to do with the relatively recent emergence of syntactical speech. The idea that people have a language instinct is disputed.
Memetics is sometimes discredited as pseudoscience
==Criticism==
Evolutionary linguistics has been criticised by advocates of (humanistic) structural and functional linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure commented on 19th century evolutionary linguistics:
Mark Aronoff, however, argues that historical linguistics had its golden age during the time of Schleicher and his supporters, enjoying a place among the hard sciences, and considers the return of Darwinian linguistics as a positive development. Esa Itkonen nonetheless deems the revival of Darwinism as a hopeless enterprise:
Itkonen also points out that the principles of natural selection are not applicable because language innovation and acceptance have the same source which is the speech community. In biological evolution, mutation and selection have different sources. This makes it possible for people to change their languages, but not their genotype.
|
[
"Charles Darwin",
"physics",
"Complex Adaptive System",
"Frame semantics (linguistics)",
"X-bar theory",
"Société Linguistique de Paris",
"syntactic structure",
"syntax",
"hermeneutics",
"Ecology",
"University of Paris",
"biological determinism",
"crystal",
"cognitive linguistics",
"gene",
"botany",
"Formalism (philosophy)",
"applied linguistics",
"tagmemics",
"language processing in the brain",
"Adaptationism",
"adaptation",
"William Croft (linguist)",
"scientific evidence",
"The Selfish Gene",
"sociobiology",
"Evolutionary psychology of language",
"archaeology",
"Historical linguistics",
"language organ",
"Phylogenetic tree",
"Universal Darwinism",
"Nature versus nurture",
"linguistic universal",
"snowflake",
"Ernst Haeckel",
"ethics",
"structural linguistics",
"Competition (biology)",
"Nature (journal)",
"genotype",
"biolinguistics",
"brain",
"United States",
"Functional theories of grammar",
"parasite",
"David Hull (philosopher)",
"computational linguistics",
"Oxford University Press",
"Universal Grammar",
"social selection",
"instinct",
"Neo-Darwinism",
"organism",
"clinical research",
"Biolinguistics",
"Schema (psychology)",
"genome",
"mutation",
"Innateness hypothesis",
"Structural functionalism",
"Esa Itkonen",
"motor skills",
"August Schleicher",
"population",
"structuralism",
"Noam Chomsky",
"species",
"Course in General Linguistics",
"Mark Aronoff",
"behavioural psychology",
"National socialism",
"Replicator (evolution unit)",
"perception",
"Cognitive Grammar",
"cognition",
"Usage-based models of language",
"Creation myth",
"language change",
"Richard Dawkins",
"Origin of language",
"Functional linguistics",
"working class",
"World War II",
"The Descent of Man",
"social Darwinism",
"crystallography",
"Post-structuralism",
"natural selection",
"generative grammar",
"FOXP2",
"artificial language",
"Viruses of the Mind",
"metaphor",
"visual processing",
"language",
"evolutionary anthropology",
"Parasitism",
"construction grammar",
"symbiosis",
"Innatism",
"Ferrofluid",
"Steven Pinker",
"Structuralism (biology)",
"Louis Hjelmslev",
"Science Wars",
"On the Origin of Species",
"evolutionary psychology",
"Cognitive linguistics",
"pseudoscience",
"The Power of Babel",
"linguistic typology",
"Ferdinand de Saussure",
"attention",
"Grammatical construction",
"mating call",
"memetics",
"Modelling biological systems",
"humanism"
] |
9,282 |
ECHELON
|
ECHELON, originally a secret government code name, is a surveillance program (signals intelligence/SIGINT collection and analysis network) operated by the five signatory states to the UKUSA Security Agreement: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, also known as the Five Eyes.
Created in the late 1960s to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies during the Cold War, the ECHELON project became formally established in 1971. By the end of the 20th century, it had greatly expanded.
== Organization ==
The UKUSA intelligence community was assessed by the European Parliament (EP) in 2000 to include the signals intelligence agencies of each of the member states:
the Government Communications Headquarters of the United Kingdom,
the National Security Agency of the United States,
the Communications Security Establishment of Canada,
the Australian Signals Directorate of Australia, and
the Government Communications Security Bureau of New Zealand.
{| class="wikitable" style="float: center; margin:10px"
|+List of intercept stations according to Edward Snowden's documents
|-
!colspan="4" style="background: #ffdead;" |Operated by the United States
|-
! Country
! Location
! Operator(s)
! Codename
|-
|
| Brasília, Federal District
|
CIA
| SCS
|-
|
| Bad Aibling, Bavaria
|
BND
NSA
|-
|
| New Delhi
|
CIA
NSA
|-
|
| Bangkok (?)
|
CIA (?)
NSA (?)
|LEMONWOOD* GCHQ
| MOONPENNY
| TIMBERLINE
| JACKKNIFE
|-
| Sábana Seca, Puerto Rico
|
NSA
|-
| Darwin, NT
|
ASD
NSA
|-
|
| Ayios Nikolaos Station
|
GCHQ
|-
|
| Nairobi
|
GCHQ when he revealed the existence of a global network of listening posts and told of his experiences working there. He also revealed the existence of nuclear weapons in Israel in 1972, the widespread involvement of CIA and NSA personnel in drugs and human smuggling, and CIA operatives leading Nationalist Chinese (Taiwan) commandos in burning villages inside PRC borders.
In 1982, investigative journalist and author James Bamford wrote The Puzzle Palace, an in-depth history of the NSA and its practices, which notably leaked the existence of the eavesdropping operation Project SHAMROCK. Project SHAMROCK ran from 1945 to 1975, after which it evolved into ECHELON.
In 1988, Margaret Newsham, a Lockheed employee under NSA contract, disclosed the ECHELON surveillance system to members of Congress. Newsham told a member of the US Congress that the telephone calls of Strom Thurmond, a Republican US senator, were being collected by the NSA. Congressional investigators determined that "targeting of US political figures would not occur by accident, but was designed into the system from the start." Bamford described the system as the software controlling the collection and distribution of civilian telecommunications traffic conveyed using communication satellites, with the collection being undertaken by ground stations located in the footprint of the downlink leg.
A detailed description of ECHELON was provided by the New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in his 1996 book Secret Power: New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network. Two years later, Hager's book was cited by the European Parliament in a report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184).
In March 1999, for the first time in history, the Australian government admitted that news reports about the top secret UKUSA Agreement were true.
In 2000, James Woolsey, the former Director of the US Central Intelligence Agency, confirmed that US intelligence uses interception systems and keyword searches to monitor European businesses.
Lawmakers in the United States feared that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor US citizens. Critics said the ECHELON system emerged from the Cold War as a "Big Brother without a cause".
===European Parliament investigation (2000–2001)===
The program's capabilities and political implications were investigated by a committee of the European Parliament during 2000 and 2001 with a report published in 2001. It was chaired by the Portuguese politician Carlos Coelho, who was in charge of supervising investigations throughout 2000 and 2001.
In May 2001, as the committee finalised its report on the ECHELON system, a delegation travelled to Washington, D.C. to attend meetings with US officials from the following agencies and departments:
US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) According to a BBC correspondent in May 2001, "The US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists." The EP report concluded that it seemed likely that ECHELON is a method of sorting captured signal traffic, rather than a comprehensive analysis tool.
The European Parliament stated in its report that the term ECHELON is used in a number of contexts, but that the evidence presented indicates that it was the name for a signals intelligence collection system.
TRANSIENT: for intercepting Soviet satellite transmissions
ECHELON: for intercepting Intelsat satellite transmissions
The European Parliament's Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System stated, "It seems likely, in view of the evidence and the consistent pattern of statements from a very wide range of individuals and organisations, including American sources, that its name is in fact ECHELON, although this is a relatively minor detail". At that time, according to Newsham, the code name ECHELON was NSA's term for the computer network itself. Lockheed called it P415. The software programs were called SILKWORTH and SIRE. A satellite named VORTEX intercepted communications. An image available on the internet of a fragment apparently torn from a job description shows Echelon listed along with several other code names.
Britain's The Guardian newspaper summarized the capabilities of the ECHELON system as follows:
Documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed that the ECHELON system's collection of satellite data is also referred to as FORNSAT - an abbreviation for "Foreign Satellite Collection".
==Intercept stations==
First revealed by the European Parliament report (p. 54 ff) Map
Misawa Security Operations Center (Oura, Misawa, Aomori, Tōhoku, Japan) Map
GCHQ Bude (formerly CSO Morwenstow) (Cornwall, UK) (Washington State, US) Map
Buckley Space Force Base (Aurora, Colorado) Map
GCSB Waihopai (Marlborough, New Zealand) Map
GCSB Tangimoana (Manawatū-Whanganui, New Zealand) Map
Teufelsberg (Closed 1992), *Berlin, Germany – Responsible for listening in to the Eastern Bloc.) Map
Ayios Nikolaos (British Sovereign Base area of Dhekelia, Cyprus – Cyprus)
Gibraltar (UK)
Diego Garcia (UK)
Bad Aibling Station (Bad Aibling, Germany – US)
relocated to Griesheim/Darmstadt in 2004.
Fort Eisenhower (Georgia, US)
CFB Gander (Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada)
Guam (Pacific Ocean, US)
Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center (Hawaii, US)
Lackland Air Force Base, Medina Annex (San Antonio, Texas, US)
RAF Edzell (Closed 1996) (Scotland) and could be intercepted at great distances. In 1964, plans for the establishment of the ECHELON network took off after dozens of countries agreed to establish the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), which would own and operate a global constellation of communications satellites.
In 1966, the first Intelsat satellite was launched into orbit. From 1970 to 1971, the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) of Britain began to operate a secret signal station at Morwenstow, near Bude in Cornwall, England. The station intercepted satellite communications over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Soon afterwards, the US National Security Agency (NSA) built a second signal station at Yakima, near Seattle, for the interception of satellite communications over the Pacific Ocean. The report to the European Parliament points out that interception of private communications by foreign intelligence services is not necessarily limited to the US or British foreign intelligence services. The proportion of international communications accounted for by satellite links is said to have decreased substantially to an amount between 0.4% and 5% in Central Europe. Thus, the majority of communications can no longer be intercepted by earth stations; they can only be collected by tapping cables and intercepting line-of-sight microwave signals, which is possible only to a limited extent. and the speech technology developed by the Belgian firm Lernout & Hauspie.
In 2001, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System recommended to the European Parliament that citizens of member states routinely use cryptography in their communications to protect their privacy, because economic espionage with ECHELON has been conducted by the US intelligence agencies.
In its report, the committee of the European Parliament stated categorically that the Echelon network was being used to intercept not only military communications, but also private and business ones. In its epigraph to the report, the parliamentary committee quoted Juvenal, "Sed quis custodiet ipsos custodes. ("But who will watch the watchers").
Alleged examples of espionage conducted by the members of the "Five Eyes" include:
On behalf of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, the Communications Security Establishment allegedly spied on two British cabinet ministers in 1983.
The US National Security Agency spied on and intercepted the phone calls of Diana, Princess of Wales right up until she died in a Paris car crash with Dodi Fayed in 1997. The NSA currently holds 1,056 pages of classified information about Princess Diana, which has been classified as top secret "because their disclosure could reasonably be expected to cause exceptionally grave damage to the national security ... the damage would be caused not by the information about Diana, but because the documents would disclose 'sources and methods' of US intelligence gathering". An official said that "the references to Diana in intercepted conversations were 'incidental'," and she was never a 'target' of the NSA eavesdropping.
US agents gathered "detailed biometric information" on the 8th Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon.
In the early 1990s, the US National Security Agency intercepted the communications between the European aerospace company Airbus and the Saudi Arabian national airline. In 1994, Airbus lost a $6 billion contract with Saudi Arabia after the NSA, acting as a whistleblower, reported that Airbus officials had been bribing Saudi officials to secure the contract. As a result, the American aerospace company McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing) won the multibillion-dollar contract instead of Airbus.
The United States defense contractor Raytheon won a US$1.3 billion contract with the Government of Brazil to monitor the Amazon rainforest after the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), acting as a whistleblower, reported that Raytheon's French competitor Thomson-Alcatel had been paying bribes to get the contract.
In order to boost the United States position in trade negotiations with the then Japanese Trade Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto, in 1995 the CIA eavesdropped on the conversations between Japanese bureaucrats and executives of car manufacturers Toyota and Nissan.
== Workings ==
The first United States satellite ground station for the ECHELON collection program was built in 1971 at a military firing and training center near Yakima, Washington. The facility, which was codenamed JACKKNIFE, was an investment of ca. 21.3 million dollars and had around 90 people. Satellite traffic was intercepted by a 30-meter single-dish antenna. The station became fully operational on 4 October 1974. It was connected with NSA headquarters at Fort Meade by a 75-baud secure Teletype orderwire channel.
=== Examples of industrial espionage ===
In 1999, Enercon, a German company and leading manufacturer of wind energy equipment, developed a breakthrough generator for wind turbines. After applying for a US patent, it had learned that Kenetech, an American rival, had submitted an almost identical patent application shortly before. By the statement of a former NSA employee, it was later claimed that the NSA had secretly intercepted and monitored Enercon's data communications and conference calls and passed information regarding the new generator to Kenetech. However, later German media reports contradicted this story, as it was revealed that the American patent in question was actually filed three years before the alleged wiretapping was said to have taken place. As German intelligence services are forbidden from engaging in industrial or economic espionage, German companies have complained that this leaves them defenceless against industrial espionage from the United States or Russia. According to Wolfgang Hoffmann, a former manager at Bayer, German intelligence services know which companies are being targeted by US intelligence agencies, but refuse to inform the companies involved.
|
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"International Telecommunications Satellite Organization",
"New Delhi",
"Edward Snowden",
"George Washington University"
] |
9,284 |
Equation
|
In mathematics, an equation is a mathematical formula that expresses the equality of two expressions, by connecting them with the equals sign . The word equation and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an équation is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any well-formed formula consisting of two expressions related with an equals sign is an equation.
Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make the equality true. The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation. There are two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations. An identity is true for all values of the variables. A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.
The "=" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length.
==Properties==
Two equations or two systems of equations are equivalent, if they have the same set of solutions. The following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one – provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:
Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This shows that every equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.
Applying an identity to transform one side of the equation. For example, expanding a product or factoring a sum.
For a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation, multiplied by the same quantity.
If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions. For example, the equation x=1 has the solution x=1. Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which means applying the function f(s)=s^2 to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to x^2=1, which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution, x=-1. Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/x, which is not defined for x = 0), solutions existing at those values may be lost. Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a transformation to an equation.
The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination.
==Examples==
===Analogous illustration===
An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.
Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance. Different quantities can be placed on each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an inequality represented by an inequation).
In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight. Addition corresponds to adding weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from what is already there. When equality holds, the total weight on each side is the same.
===Parameters and unknowns===
Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns. These other terms, which are assumed to be known, are usually called constants, coefficients or parameters.
An example of an equation involving x and y as unknowns and the parameter R is
x^2 +y^2 = R^2 .
When R is chosen to have the value of 2 (R = 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin. Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.
Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, ..., while coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ... . For example, the general quadratic equation is usually written ax2 + bx + c = 0.
The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation. Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the parameters are also called solutions.
A system of equations is a set of simultaneous equations, usually in several unknowns for which the common solutions are sought. Thus, a solution to the system is a set of values for each of the unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system. For example, the system
\begin{align}
3x+5y&=2\\
5x+8y&=3
\end{align}
has the unique solution x = −1, y = 1.
===Identities===
An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.
In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares:
x^2 - y^2 = (x+y)(x-y)
which is true for all x and y.
Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are:
\sin^2(\theta)+\cos^2(\theta) = 1
and
\sin(2\theta)=2\sin(\theta) \cos(\theta)
which are both true for all values of θ.
For example, to solve for the value of θ that satisfies the equation:
3\sin(\theta) \cos(\theta)= 1\,,
where θ is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to give:
\frac{3}{2}\sin(2 \theta) = 1\,,
yielding the following solution for θ:
\theta = \frac{1}{2} \arcsin\left(\frac{2}{3}\right) \approx 20.9^\circ.
Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no restrictions on θ. In this example, restricting θ to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the solution to only one number.
==Algebra==
Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are parameters. To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis. Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.
===Polynomial equations===
In general, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the form
P = 0, or
P = Q
where P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in some field (e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers). An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable. On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables, in which case it is called multivariate (multiple variables, x, y, z, etc.).
For example,
x^5-3x+1=0
is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer coefficients and
y^4+\frac{xy}{2}=\frac{x^3}{3}-xy^2+y^2-\frac{1}{7}
is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.
Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression, with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically). This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.
A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).
===Systems of linear equations===
A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving one or more variables. For example,
\begin{alignat}{7}
3x &&\; + \;&& 2y &&\; - \;&& z &&\; = \;&& 1 & \\
2x &&\; - \;&& 2y &&\; + \;&& 4z &&\; = \;&& -2 & \\
-x &&\; + \;&& \tfrac{1}{2} y &&\; - \;&& z &&\; = \;&& 0 &
\end{alignat}
is a system of three equations in the three variables . A solution to a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A solution to the system above is given by
\begin{alignat}{2}
x &\,=\,& 1 \\
y &\,=\,& -2 \\
z &\,=\,& -2
\end{alignat}
since it makes all three equations valid. The word "system" indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, rather than individually.
In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.
==Geometry==
===Analytic geometry===
In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form ax+by+cz+d=0, where a,b,c and d are real numbers and x,y,z are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values a,b,c are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in \mathbb{R}^2 or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in \mathbb{R}^3.
A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation x^2+y^2=z^2 and a plane. In other words, in space, all conics are defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given. This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.
The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions. The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry. This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.
Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics. Although it still uses equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional analysis and linear algebra.
===Cartesian equations===
In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses equations for studying properties of figures. This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.
One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation .
===Parametric equations===
A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable, called a parameter. For example,
\begin{align}
x&=\cos t\\
y&=\sin t
\end{align}
are parametric equations for the unit circle, where t is the parameter. Together, these equations are called a parametric representation of the curve.
The notion of parametric equation has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter is used, for surfaces dimension two and two parameters, etc.).
==Number theory==
===Diophantine equations===
A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values). A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one. An example of linear Diophantine equation is where a, b, and c are constants. An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.
Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.
The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.
===Algebraic and transcendental numbers===
An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients). Numbers such as Pi| that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.
===Algebraic geometry===
Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.
The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.
==Differential equations==
A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two. They are solved by finding an expression for the function that does not involve derivatives. Differential equations are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology, and economics.
In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form.
If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.
===Ordinary differential equations===
An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.
Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained. By contrast, ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.
===Partial differential equations===
A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant computer model.
PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations.
== Types of equations ==
Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved. Important types include:
An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials (see also system of polynomial equations). These are further classified by degree:
linear equation for degree one
quadratic equation for degree two
cubic equation for degree three
quartic equation for degree four
quintic equation for degree five
sextic equation for degree six
septic equation for degree seven
octic equation for degree eight
A Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers
A transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns
A parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations
A functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities
Equations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences:
A differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as f'(x) = x^2. Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables
An integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface
An integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.
A functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as f'(x) = f(x-2)
A difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation
A stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process
|
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] |
9,285 |
Ethical naturalism
|
Ethical naturalism (also called moral naturalism or naturalistic cognitivistic definism) is the meta-ethical view that holds that moral properties and facts are reducible to natural properties and can be studied through empirical or scientific means. It asserts that moral values are objective features of the natural world and can be understood through reason, observation, or the natural sciences. Ethical naturalists argue that moral statements, such as "kindness is good" or "stealing is wrong," are fact-based and can be verified in the same way as other statements about the world. This position stands in contrast to ethical non-naturalism, which maintains that moral properties are not reducible to natural properties, and to moral anti-realism, which denies that objective moral truths exist. Ethical naturalism has been supported by various philosophical traditions, including utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and evolutionary ethics, but has also been challenged by critics, most notably through G.E. Moore’s "open-question argument," which questions whether moral properties can be fully explained in natural terms.
==Overview==
The versions of ethical naturalism which have received the most sustained philosophical interest, for example, Cornell realism, differ from the position that "the way things are is always the way they ought to be", which few ethical naturalists hold. Ethical naturalism does, however, reject the fact-value distinction: it suggests that inquiry into the natural world can increase our moral knowledge in just the same way it increases our scientific knowledge. Indeed, proponents of ethical naturalism have argued that humanity needs to invest in the science of morality, a broad and loosely defined field that uses evidence from biology, primatology, anthropology, psychology, neuroscience, and other areas to classify and describe moral behavior.
Ethical naturalism encompasses any reduction of ethical properties, such as 'goodness', to non-ethical properties; there are many different examples of such reductions, and thus many different varieties of ethical naturalism. Hedonism, for example, is the view that goodness is ultimately just pleasure.
==Ethical theories that can be naturalistic==
Altruism
Consequentialism
Consequentialist libertarianism
Cornell realism
Ethical egoism/ Objectivism
Evolutionary ethics
Hedonism
Humanistic ethics
Natural law
Natural-rights libertarianism
Utilitarianism
Virtue ethics
==Criticisms==
Ethical naturalism has been criticized most prominently by ethical non-naturalist G. E. Moore, who formulated the open-question argument. Garner and Rosen say that a common definition of "natural property" is one "which can be discovered by sense observation or experience, experiment, or through any of the available means of science." They also say that a good definition of "natural property" is problematic but that "it is only in criticism of naturalism, or in an attempt to distinguish between naturalistic and nonnaturalistic definist theories, that such a concept is needed." R. M. Hare also criticised ethical naturalism because of what he considered its fallacious definition of the terms 'good' or 'right', saying that value-terms being part of our prescriptive moral language are not reducible to descriptive terms: "Value-terms have a special function in language, that of commending; and so they plainly cannot be defined in terms of other words which themselves do not perform this function".
===Moral nihilism===
Moral nihilists maintain that there are no such entities as objective values or objective moral facts. Proponents of moral science like Ronald A. Lindsay have counter-argued that their way of understanding "morality" as a practical enterprise is the way we ought to have understood it in the first place. He holds the position that the alternative seems to be the elaborate philosophical reduction of the word "moral" into a vacuous, useless term. Lindsay adds that it is important to reclaim the specific word "morality" because of the connotations it holds with many individuals.
==Morality as a science==
Author Sam Harris has argued that we overestimate the relevance of many arguments against the science of morality, arguments he believes scientists happily and rightly disregard in other domains of science like physics. For example, scientists may find themselves attempting to argue against philosophical skeptics, when Harris says they should be practically asking – as they would in any other domain – "why would we listen to a solipsist in the first place?" This, Harris contends, is part of what it means to practice a science of morality.
In modern times, many thinkers discussing the fact–value distinction and the is–ought problem have settled on the idea that one cannot derive ought from is. Conversely, Harris maintains that the fact-value distinction is a confusion, proposing that values are really a certain kind of fact. Specifically, Harris suggests that values amount to empirical statements about "the flourishing of conscious creatures in a society". He argues that there are objective answers to moral questions, even if some are difficult or impossible to possess in practice. In this way, he says, science can tell us what to value. Harris adds that we do not demand absolute certainty from predictions in physics, so we should not demand that of a science studying morality (see The Moral Landscape).
Physicist Sean Carroll believes that conceiving of morality as a science could be a case of scientific imperialism and insists that what is "good for conscious creatures" is not an adequate working definition of "moral". In opposition, John Shook, vice president of the Center for Inquiry, claims that this working definition is more than adequate for science at present and that disagreement should not immobilize the scientific study of ethics.
|
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"fact-value distinction",
"Consequentialist libertarianism",
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"Sean M. Carroll",
"R. M. Hare",
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"Skepticism",
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"Hedonism",
"fact–value distinction",
"Cornell realism",
"Virtue ethics",
"The Moral Landscape",
"Natural-rights libertarianism",
"Evolutionary ethics"
] |
9,286 |
Ethical non-naturalism
|
Ethical non-naturalism (or moral non-naturalism) is the meta-ethical view which claims that:
Ethical sentences express propositions.
Some such propositions are true.
Those propositions are made true by objective features of the world, independent of human opinion.
These moral features of the world are not reducible to any set of non-moral features.
This makes ethical non-naturalism a non-definist form of moral realism, which is in turn a form of cognitivism. Ethical non-naturalism stands in opposition to ethical naturalism, which claims that moral terms and properties are reducible to non-moral terms and properties, as well as to all forms of moral anti-realism, including ethical subjectivism (which denies that moral propositions refer to objective facts), error theory (which denies that any moral propositions are true), and non-cognitivism (which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all).
==Definitions and examples==
According to G. E. Moore, "Goodness is a simple, undefinable, non-natural property." To call goodness "non-natural" does not mean that it is supernatural or divine. It does mean, however, that goodness cannot be reduced to natural properties such as needs, wants or pleasures. Moore also stated that a reduction of ethical properties to a divine command would be the same as stating their naturalness. This would be an example of what he referred to as "the naturalistic fallacy."
Moore claimed that goodness is "indefinable", i.e., it cannot be defined in any other terms. This is the central claim of non-naturalism. Thus, the meaning of sentences containing the word "good" cannot be explained entirely in terms of sentences not containing the word "good." One cannot substitute words referring to pleasure, needs or anything else in place of "good."
Some properties, such as hardness, roundness and dampness, are clearly natural properties. We encounter them in the real world and can perceive them. On the other hand, other properties, such as being good and being right, are not so obvious. A great novel is considered to be a good thing; goodness may be said to be a property of that novel. Paying one's debts and telling the truth are generally held to be right things to do; rightness may be said to be a property of certain human actions.
However, these two types of property are quite different. Those natural properties, such as hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world. On the other hand, it is not immediately clear how to physically see, touch or measure the goodness of a novel or the rightness of an action.
==A difficult question==
Moore did not consider goodness and rightness to be natural properties, i.e., they cannot be defined in terms of any natural properties. How, then, can we know that anything is good and how can we distinguish good from bad?
Moral epistemology, the part of epistemology (and/or ethics) that studies how we know moral facts and how moral beliefs are justified, has proposed an answer. British epistemologists, following Moore, suggested that humans have a special faculty, a faculty of moral intuition, which tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.
Ethical intuitionists assert that, if we see a good person or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, we simply intuit that the person is good or that the action is right. Moral intuition is supposed to be a mental process different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgments are its outputs. When someone judges something to be good, or some action to be right, then the person is using the faculty of moral intuition. The faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties. Perhaps the best ordinary notion that approximates moral intuition would be the idea of a conscience.
==Another argument for non-naturalism==
Moore also introduced what is called the open-question argument, a position he later rejected.
Suppose a definition of "good" is "pleasure-causing." In other words, if something is good, it causes pleasure; if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good. Moore asserted, however, that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?" This would always be an open question. There is no foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure-causing things are good.
In his initial argument, Moore concluded that any similar definition of goodness could be criticized in the same way.
|
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] |
9,288 |
Elvis Presley
|
Elvis Aaron Presley (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977) was an American singer and actor. Referred to as the "King of Rock and Roll", he is regarded as one of the most significant cultural figures of the 20th century. Presley's sexually provocative performance style, combined with a mix of influences across color lines during a transformative era in race relations, brought both great success and initial controversy.
Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi; his family relocated to Memphis, Tennessee, when he was 13. He began his music career in 1954 at Sun Records with producer Sam Phillips, who wanted to bring the sound of African-American music to a wider audience. Presley, on guitar and accompanied by lead guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, was a pioneer of rockabilly, an uptempo, backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues. In 1955, drummer D. J. Fontana joined to complete the lineup of Presley's classic quartet and RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker, who managed him for the rest of his career. Presley's first RCA Victor single, "Heartbreak Hotel", was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the US. Within a year, RCA Victor sold ten million Presley singles. With a series of successful television appearances and chart-topping records, Presley became the leading figure of the newly popular rock and roll; though his performing style and promotion of the then-marginalized sound of African Americans Presley's stage costume became the most recognized example of the elaborate concert garb with which his latter-day persona became closely associated. As described by Bobbie Ann Mason, "At the end of the show, when he spreads out his American Eagle cape, with the full stretched wings of the eagle studded on the back, he becomes a god figure." The accompanying double album, released in February, went to number one and eventually sold over 5 million copies in the U.S. It was Presley's last U.S. number-one pop album during his lifetime.
At a midnight show that same month, four men rushed onto the stage in an apparent attack. Security personnel came to Presley's defense, and he ejected one invader from the stage himself. Following the show, Presley became obsessed with the idea that the men had been sent by Mike Stone to kill him. Though they were shown to have been only overexuberant fans, Presley raged, "There's too much pain in me ... Stone [must] die." His outbursts continued with such intensity that a physician was unable to calm him, despite administering large doses of medication. After another two full days of raging, Red West, his friend and bodyguard, felt compelled to get a price for a contract killing and was relieved when Presley decided, "Aw hell, let's just leave it for now. Maybe it's a bit heavy."
=== 1973–1977: health deterioration and death ===
==== Medical crises and last studio sessions ====
Presley's divorce was finalized on October 9, 1973. He and Priscilla would remain close friends until his death, even holding hands while leaving the courtroom where they finalized their divorce. Priscilla recalled that they lived life together "like we were never divorced. Elvis and I still hugged each other, still had love. We would say, 'Mommy said this' and 'Daddy said that.' That helped Lisa to feel stable. There was never any arguing or bitterness." By this time, his health was in serious decline. Twice during the year he overdosed on barbiturates, spending three days in a coma in his hotel suite after the first incident. In late 1973, he was hospitalized from the effects of a pethidine addiction. According to his primary care physician, George C. Nichopoulos, Presley "felt that by getting drugs from a doctor, he wasn't the common everyday junkie getting something off the street". Since his comeback, he had staged more live shows with each passing year, and 1973 saw 168 concerts, his busiest schedule ever. Despite his failing health, he undertook another intensive touring schedule in 1974.
Presley's condition declined precipitously that September. Keyboardist Tony Brown remembered his arrival at a University of Maryland concert: "He fell out of the limousine, to his knees. People jumped to help, and he pushed them away like, 'Don't help me.' He walked on stage and held onto the mic for the first thirty minutes like it was a post. Everybody's looking at each other like, 'Is the tour gonna happen'?" Guitarist John Wilkinson recalled: He was all gut. He was slurring. He was so fucked up. ... It was obvious he was drugged. It was obvious there was something terribly wrong with his body. It was so bad the words to the songs were barely intelligible. ... I remember crying. He could barely get through the introductions.
On July 13, 1976, Vernon Presley—who had become deeply involved in his son's financial affairs—had fired "Memphis Mafia" bodyguards Red West (Presley's friend since the 1950s), Sonny West, and David Hebler, citing the need to "cut back on expenses". Presley was in Palm Springs at the time, and some suggest the singer was too cowardly to face the three himself. Another associate of Presley's, John O'Grady, argued that the bodyguards were dropped because their rough treatment of fans had prompted too many lawsuits. Presley's stepbrother David Stanley has claimed that the bodyguards were fired because they were becoming more outspoken about Presley's drug dependency.
RCA began to grow anxious as his interest in the recording studio waned. After a session in December 1973 that produced eighteen songs, enough for almost two albums, Presley made no official studio recordings in 1974. Parker delivered RCA another concert record, Elvis Recorded Live on Stage in Memphis. Recorded on March 20, it included a version of "How Great Thou Art" that won Presley his third and final Grammy Award for Best Inspirational Performance. All three of his competitive Grammy winsout of fourteen total nominationswere for gospel recordings. Presley returned to the recording studio in March 1975, but Parker's attempts to arrange another session toward the end of the year were unsuccessful. In 1976, RCA sent a mobile recording unit to Graceland that made possible two full-scale recording sessions, but the recording process had become a struggle for him.
==== Final months and death ====
After Presley's relationship with Linda Thompson ended, he began dating Ginger Alden in November 1976; he proposed marriage to Alden two months later.
Journalist Tony Scherman wrote that, by early 1977, "Presley had become a grotesque caricature of his sleek, energetic former self. Grossly overweight, his mind dulled by the pharmacopoeia he daily ingested, he was barely able to pull himself through his abbreviated concerts." According to Andy Greene of Rolling Stone, Presley's final performances were mostly "sad, sloppy affairs where a bloated, drugged Presley struggled to remember his lyrics and get through the night without collapsing ... Most everything from the final three years of his life is sad and hard to watch." In Alexandria, Louisiana, he was on stage for less than an hour and "was impossible to understand". On March 31, he canceled a performance in Baton Rouge, unable to get out of his hotel bed; four shows had to be canceled and rescheduled.
Despite the accelerating deterioration of his health, Presley fulfilled most of his touring commitments. According to Guralnick, fans "were becoming increasingly voluble about their disappointment, but it all seemed to go right past Presley, whose world was now confined almost entirely to his room and his spiritualism books". Presley's cousin, Billy Smith, recalled how he would sit in his room and chat for hours, sometimes recounting favorite Monty Python sketches and his past escapades, but more often gripped by paranoid obsessions.
"Way Down", Presley's last single issued during his lifetime, was released on June 6, 1977. That month, CBS taped two concerts for a television special, Elvis in Concert, to be broadcast in October. In the first, shot in Omaha on June 19, Presley's voice, Guralnick writes, "is almost unrecognizable, a small, childlike instrument in which he talks more than sings most of the songs, casts about uncertainly for the melody in others, and is virtually unable to articulate or project". Two days later, in Rapid City, South Dakota, "he looked healthier, seemed to have lost a little weight, and sounded better, too", though, by the conclusion of the performance, his face was "framed in a helmet of blue-black hair from which sweat sheets down over pale, swollen cheeks". Presley's final concert was held in Indianapolis at Market Square Arena, on June 26, 1977.
The book Elvis: What Happened?, co-written by the three bodyguards fired a year prior, was published on August 1. It was the first exposé to detail Presley's years of drug misuse. He was devastated by the book and tried unsuccessfully to halt its release by offering money to the publishers. By this point, he suffered from multiple ailments: glaucoma, high blood pressure, liver damage, and an enlarged colon, each aggravated—and possibly caused—by drug abuse. His last appearance in public occurred during the early morning hours of August 8, 1977, when he rented the entire Libertyland amusement park in Memphis for himself and about ten others.
On August 16, 1977, Presley was scheduled on an evening flight out of Memphis to Portland, Maine, to begin another tour. That afternoon his fiancée Ginger Alden discovered him unresponsive on the bathroom floor of his Graceland mansion. Attempts to revive him failed, and he was pronounced dead at Baptist Memorial Hospital at 3:30 pm; he was 42.
President Jimmy Carter issued a statement that credited Presley with having "permanently changed the face of American popular culture". Thousands of people gathered outside Graceland to view the open casket. One of Presley's cousins, Billy Mann, accepted () to secretly photograph the body; the picture appeared on the cover of the National Enquirers biggest-selling issue ever. Alden struck a $105,000 () deal with the Enquirer for her story, but settled for less when she broke her exclusivity agreement. Presley left her nothing in his will.
Presley's funeral was held at Graceland on August 18. Outside the gates, a car crashed into a group of fans, killing two young women and critically injuring a third. About 80,000 people lined the processional route to Forest Hill Cemetery, where Presley was buried next to his mother. Within a few weeks, "Way Down" topped the country and UK singles chart. Following an attempt to steal Presley's body in late August, the remains of both Presley and his mother were exhumed and reburied in Graceland's Meditation Garden on October 2.
==== Cause of death ====
While an autopsy, undertaken the same day Presley died, was still in progress, Memphis medical examiner Jerry Francisco announced that the immediate cause of death was cardiac arrest and declared that "drugs played no role in Presley's death". In fact, "drug use was heavily implicated" in Presley's death, writes Guralnick. The pathologists conducting the autopsy thought it possible, for instance, that he had suffered "anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills he had gotten from his dentist, to which he was known to have had a mild allergy". Lab reports filed two months later strongly suggested that polypharmacy was the primary cause of death; one reported "fourteen drugs in Elvis' system, ten in significant quantity". In 1979, forensic pathologist Cyril Wecht reviewed the reports and concluded that a combination of depressants had resulted in Presley's accidental death. Forensic historian and pathologist Michael Baden viewed the situation as complicated: "Elvis had an enlarged heart for a long time. That, together with his drug habit, caused his death. But he was difficult to diagnose; it was a judgment call."
The competence and ethics of two of the centrally involved medical professionals were seriously questioned. Francisco had offered a cause of death before the autopsy was complete; claimed the underlying ailment was cardiac arrhythmia, a condition that can be determined only in a living person; and denied drugs played any part in Presley's death before the toxicology results were known. Allegations of a cover-up were widespread. While a 1981 trial of Presley's main physician, George C. Nichopoulos, exonerated him of criminal liability, the facts were startling: "In the first eight months of 1977 alone, he had [prescribed] more than 10,000 doses of sedatives, amphetamines, and narcotics: all in Elvis' name." Nichopoulos' license was suspended for three months. It was permanently revoked in the 1990s after the Tennessee Medical Board brought new charges of over-prescription.
In 1994, the Presley autopsy report was reopened. Joseph Davis, who had conducted thousands of autopsies as Miami-Dade County coroner, declared at its completion, "There is nothing in any of the data that supports a death from drugs. In fact, everything points to a sudden, violent heart attack." More recent research has revealed that Francisco did not speak for the entire pathology team. Other staff "could say nothing with confidence until they got the results back from the laboratories, if then." One of the examiners, E. Eric Muirhead, could not believe his ears. Francisco had not only presumed to speak for the hospital's team of pathologists, he had announced a conclusion that they had not reached. ... Early on, a meticulous dissection of the body ... confirmed [that] Elvis was chronically ill with diabetes, glaucoma, and constipation. As they proceeded, the doctors saw evidence that his body had been wracked over a span of years by a large and constant stream of drugs. They had also studied his hospital records, which included two admissions for drug detoxification and methadone treatments.
=== 1977–present: posthumous developments ===
Between 1977 and 1981, six of Presley's posthumously released singles were top-ten country hits. Graceland was opened to the public in 1982. Attracting over half a million visitors annually, it became the second-most-visited home in the United States, after the White House. The residence was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2006.
Presley has been inducted into five music halls of fame: the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (1986), the Country Music Hall of Fame (1998), the Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2001), the Rockabilly Hall of Fame (2007), and the Memphis Music Hall of Fame (2012). In 1984, he received the W. C. Handy Award from the Blues Foundation and the Academy of Country Music's first Golden Hat Award. In 1987, he received the American Music Awards' Award of Merit.
A Junkie XL remix of Presley's "A Little Less Conversation" (credited as "Elvis Vs JXL") was used in a Nike advertising campaign during the 2002 FIFA World Cup. It topped the charts in over twenty countries and was included in a compilation of Presley's number-one hits, ELV1S, which was also an international success. The album returned Presley to the top of the Billboard chart for the first time in almost three decades.
In 2003, a remix of "Rubberneckin'", a 1969 recording, topped the U.S. sales chart, as did a 50th-anniversary re-release of "That's All Right" the following year. The latter was an outright hit in Britain, debuting at number three on the pop chart; it also made the top ten in Canada. In 2005, another three reissued singles, "Jailhouse Rock", "One Night"/"I Got Stung", and "It's Now or Never", went to number one in the UK. They were part of a campaign that saw the re-release of all eighteen of Presley's previous chart-topping UK singles. The first, "All Shook Up", came with a collectors' box that made it ineligible to chart again; each of the other seventeen reissues hit the British top five.
In 2005, Forbes magazine named Presley the top-earning deceased celebrity for the fifth straight year, with a gross income of $45 million. He was placed second in 2006, returned to the top spot the next two years, and ranked fourth in 2009. The following year, he was ranked second, with his highest annual income ever—$60 million—spurred by the celebration of his 75th birthday and the launch of Cirque du Soleil's Viva Elvis show in Las Vegas. In November 2010, Viva Elvis: The Album was released, setting his voice to newly recorded instrumental tracks. As of mid-2011, there were an estimated 15,000 licensed Presley products, and he was again the second-highest-earning deceased celebrity. Six years later, he ranked fourth with earnings of $35 million, up $8 million from 2016 due in part to the opening of a new entertainment complex, Elvis Presley's Memphis, and hotel, The Guest House at Graceland.
In 2018, RCA/Legacy released Elvis Presley – Where No One Stands Alone, a new album focused on Presley's love of gospel music. Produced by Joel Weinshanker, Lisa Marie Presley and Andy Childs, the album introduced newly recorded instrumentation along with vocals from singers who had performed in the past with Elvis. It included a reimagined duet with Lisa Marie, on the album's title track.
In 2022, Baz Luhrmann's film Elvis, a biographical film about Presley's life, was released. Presley is portrayed by Austin Butler and Parker by Tom Hanks. As of August 2022, the film had grossed $261.8 million worldwide on a $85 million budget, becoming the second-highest-grossing music biopic of all-time behind Bohemian Rhapsody (2018), and the fifth-highest-grossing Australian-produced film. For his portrayal of Presley, Butler won the Golden Globe and was nominated for the Oscar for Best Actor. In January 2023, Presley's 1962 Lockheed 1329 JetStar sold at an auction for $260,000.
== Artistry ==
=== Influences ===
Presley's earliest musical influence came from gospel. His mother recalled that from the age of two, at the Assembly of God church in Tupelo attended by the family, "he would slide down off my lap, run into the aisle and scramble up to the platform. There he would stand looking at the choir and trying to sing with them." In Memphis, Presley frequently attended all-night gospel singings at the Ellis Auditorium, where groups such as the Statesmen Quartet led the music in a style that, Guralnick suggests, sowed the seeds of Presley's future stage act:
As a teenager, Presley's musical interests were wide-ranging, and he was deeply informed about both white and African-American musical idioms. Though he never had any formal training, he had a remarkable memory, and his musical knowledge was already considerable by the time he made his first professional recordings aged 19 in 1954. When Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller met him two years later, they were astonished at his encyclopedic understanding of the blues, and, as Stoller put it, "He certainly knew a lot more than we did about country music and gospel music." At a press conference the following year, he proudly declared, "I know practically every religious song that's ever been written."
=== Musicianship ===
Presley played guitar, bass, and piano; he received his first guitar when he was 11 years old. He could not read or write music and had no formal lessons, and played everything by ear. Presley often played an instrument on his recordings and produced his own music. Presley played rhythm acoustic guitar on most of his Sun recordings and his 1950s RCA Victor albums. Presley played piano on songs such as "Old Shep" and "First in Line" from his 1956 album Elvis. He is credited with playing piano on later albums such as From Elvis in Memphis and "Moody Blue", and on "Unchained Melody", which was one of the last songs that he recorded. Presley played lead guitar on one of his successful singles called "Are You Lonesome Tonight". At one point during the '68 Comeback Special, Elvis took over on lead electric guitar, the first time he had ever been seen with the instrument in public, playing it on songs such as "Baby What You Want Me to Do" and "One Night". The album Elvis is Back! features Presley playing a lot of acoustic guitar on songs such as "I Will Be Home Again" and "Like a Baby".
=== Musical styles and genres ===
Presley was a central figure in the development of rockabilly, according to music historians. "Rockabilly crystallized into a recognizable style in 1954 with Elvis Presley's first release, on the Sun label," writes Craig Morrison. Paul Friedlander described rockabilly as "essentially ... an Elvis Presley construction", with the defining elements as "the raw, emotive, and slurred vocal style and emphasis on rhythmic feeling [of] the blues with the string band and strummed rhythm guitar [of] country". In "That's All Right", the Presley trio's first record, Scotty Moore's guitar solo, "a combination of Merle Travis–style country finger-picking, double-stop slides from acoustic boogie, and blues-based bent-note, single-string work, is a microcosm of this fusion". While Katherine Charlton calls Presley "rockabilly's originator", Carl Perkins, another pioneer of rock'n'roll, said that "[Sam] Phillips, Elvis, and I didn't create rockabilly". According to Michael Campbell, the first major rockabilly song was recorded by Bill Haley. In Moore's view, "It had been there for quite a while, really. Carl Perkins was doing basically the same sort of thing up around Jackson, and I know for a fact Jerry Lee Lewis had been playing that kind of music ever since he was ten years old."
At RCA Victor, Presley's rock and roll sound grew distinct from rockabilly with group chorus vocals, more heavily amplified electric guitars, and a tougher, more intense manner. While he was known for taking songs from various sources and giving them a rockabilly/rock and roll treatment, he also recorded songs in other genres from early in his career, from the pop standard "Blue Moon" at Sun Records to the country ballad "How's the World Treating You?" on his second RCA Victor LP to the blues of "Santa Claus Is Back in Town". In 1957, his first gospel record was released, the four-song EP Peace in the Valley. Certified as a million-seller, it became the top-selling gospel EP in recording history.
After his return from military service in 1960, Presley continued to perform rock and roll, but the characteristic style was substantially toned down. His first post-Army single, the number-one hit "Stuck on You", is typical of this shift. RCA Victor publicity referred to its "mild rock beat"; discographer Ernst Jorgensen calls it "upbeat pop". The number five "She's Not You" (1962) "integrates the Jordanaires so completely, it's practically doo-wop". The modern blues/R&B sound captured with success on Elvis Is Back! was essentially abandoned for six years until such 1966–67 recordings as "Down in the Alley" and "Hi-Heel Sneakers". Presley's output during most of the 1960s emphasized pop music, often in the form of ballads such as "Are You Lonesome Tonight?", a number-one in 1960. "It's Now or Never", which also topped the chart that year, was a classically influenced variation of pop based on the Neapolitan song "" and concluding with a "full-voiced operatic cadence". These were both dramatic numbers, but most of what Presley recorded for his many film soundtracks was in a much lighter vein.
While Presley performed several of his classic ballads for the '68 Comeback Special, the sound of the show was dominated by aggressive rock and roll. He recorded few new straight rock and roll songs thereafter; as he explained, they had become "hard to find". A significant exception was "Burning Love", his last major hit on the pop charts. Like his work of the 1950s, Presley's subsequent recordings reworked pop and country songs, but in markedly different permutations. His stylistic range now began to embrace a more contemporary rock sound as well as soul and funk. Much of Elvis in Memphis, as well as "Suspicious Minds", cut at the same sessions, reflected this new rock and soul fusion. In the mid-1970s, many of his singles found a home on country radio, the field where he first became a star.
=== Vocal style and range ===
The developmental arc of Presley's singing voice, as described by critic Dave Marsh, goes from "high and thrilled in the early days, [to] lower and perplexed in the final months." Marsh credits Presley with the introduction of the "vocal stutter" on 1955's "Baby Let's Play House". When on "Don't Be Cruel", Presley "slides into a 'mmmmm' that marks the transition between the first two verses," he shows "how masterful his relaxed style really is." Marsh describes the vocal performance on "Can't Help Falling in Love" as one of "gentle insistence and delicacy of phrasing", with the line Shall I stay' pronounced as if the words are fragile as crystal".
Jorgensen calls the 1966 recording of "How Great Thou Art" "an extraordinary fulfillment of his vocal ambitions", as Presley "crafted for himself an ad-hoc arrangement in which he took every part of the four-part vocal, from [the] bass intro to the soaring heights of the song's operatic climax", becoming "a kind of one-man quartet". Guralnick finds "Stand by Me" from the same gospel sessions "a beautifully articulated, almost nakedly yearning performance", but, by contrast, feels that Presley reaches beyond his powers on "Where No One Stands Alone", resorting "to a kind of inelegant bellowing to push out a sound" that Jake Hess of the Statesmen Quartet had in his command. Hess himself thought that while others might have voices the equal of Presley's, "he had that certain something that everyone searches for all during their lifetime." Guralnick attempts to pinpoint that something: "The warmth of his voice, his controlled use of both vibrato technique and natural falsetto range, the subtlety and deeply felt conviction of his singing were all qualities recognizably belonging to his talent but just as recognizably not to be achieved without sustained dedication and effort."
Marsh praises his 1968 reading of "U.S. Male", "bearing down on the hard guy lyrics, not sending them up or overplaying them but tossing them around with that astonishingly tough yet gentle assurance that he brought to his Sun records." The performance on "In the Ghetto" is, according to Jorgensen, "devoid of any of his characteristic vocal tricks or mannerisms", instead relying on the exceptional "clarity and sensitivity of his voice". Guralnick describes the song's delivery as of "almost translucent eloquence ... so quietly confident in its simplicity". On "Suspicious Minds", Guralnick hears essentially the same "remarkable mixture of tenderness and poise", but supplemented with "an expressive quality somewhere between stoicism (at suspected infidelity) and anguish (over impending loss)".
Music critic Henry Pleasants observes that "Presley has been described variously as a baritone and a tenor. An extraordinary compass ... and a very wide range of vocal color have something to do with this divergence of opinion." He identifies Presley as a high baritone, calculating his range as two octaves and a third, "from the baritone low G to the tenor high B, with an upward extension in falsetto to at least a D-flat. Presley's best octave is in the middle, D-flat to D-flat, granting an extra full step up or down." In Pleasants' view, his voice was "variable and unpredictable" at the bottom, "often brilliant" at the top, with the capacity for "full-voiced high Gs and As that an opera baritone might envy". Scholar Lindsay Waters, who figures Presley's range as two-and-a-quarter octaves, emphasizes that "his voice had an emotional range from tender whispers to sighs down to shouts, grunts, grumbles, and sheer gruffness that could move the listener from calmness and surrender, to fear. His voice can not be measured in octaves, but in decibels; even that misses the problem of how to measure delicate whispers that are hardly audible at all." Presley was always "able to duplicate the open, hoarse, ecstatic, screaming, shouting, wailing, reckless sound of the black rhythm-and-blues and gospel singers", writes Pleasants, and also demonstrated a remarkable ability to assimilate many other vocal styles.
== Public image ==
=== Relationship with the African-American community ===
When Dewey Phillips first aired "That's All Right" on Memphis' WHBQ, many listeners who contacted the station to ask for it again assumed that its singer was black. From the beginning of his national fame, Presley expressed respect for African-American performers and their music, and disregard for the segregation and racial prejudice then prevalent in the South. Interviewed in 1956, he recalled how in his childhood he would listen to blues musician Arthur Crudup—the originator of "That's All Right"—"bang his box the way I do now, and I said if I ever got to the place where I could feel all old Arthur felt, I'd be a music man like nobody ever saw." The Memphis World, an African-American newspaper, reported that Presley "cracked Memphis' segregation laws" by attending the local amusement park on what was designated as its "colored night". Such statements and actions led Presley to be generally hailed in the black community during his early stardom. In contrast, many white adults "did not like him, and condemned him as depraved. Anti-negro prejudice doubtless figured in adult antagonism. Regardless of whether parents were aware of the Negro sexual origins of the phrase 'rock 'n' roll', Presley impressed them as the visual and aural embodiment of sex." Notable among African-American entertainers expressly rejecting this view was Jackie Wilson, who argued, "A lot of people have accused Elvis of stealing the black man's music, when in fact, almost every black solo entertainer copied his stage mannerisms from Elvis." Moreover, Presley acknowledged his debt to African-American musicians throughout his career. Addressing his '68 Comeback Special audience, he said, "Rock 'n' roll music is basically gospel or rhythm and blues, or it sprang from that. People have been adding to it, adding instruments to it, experimenting with it, but it all boils down to [that]." Nine years earlier, he had said, "Rock 'n' roll has been around for many years. It used to be called rhythm and blues."
=== Sex symbol ===
Presley's physical attractiveness and sexual appeal were widely acknowledged. "He was once beautiful, astonishingly beautiful", according to critic Mark Feeney. Television director Steve Binder reported, "I'm straight as an arrow and I got to tell you, you stop, whether you're male or female, to look at him. He was that good looking. And if you never knew he was a superstar, it wouldn't make any difference; if he'd walked in the room, you'd know somebody special was in your presence." His performance style was equally responsible for Presley's eroticized image. Critic George Melly described him as "the master of the sexual simile, treating his guitar as both phallus and girl". In his Presley obituary, Lester Bangs credited him with bringing "overt blatant vulgar sexual frenzy to the popular arts in America". Ed Sullivan's declaration that he perceived a soda bottle in Presley's trousers was echoed by rumors involving a similarly positioned toilet roll tube or lead bar.
While Presley was marketed as an icon of heterosexuality, some critics have argued that his image was ambiguous. In 1959, Sight and Sounds Peter John Dyer described his onscreen persona as "aggressively bisexual in appeal". Brett Farmer places the "orgasmic gyrations" of the title dance sequence in Jailhouse Rock within a lineage of cinematic musical numbers that offer a "spectacular eroticization, if not homoeroticization, of the male image". In the analysis of Yvonne Tasker, "Elvis was an ambivalent figure who articulated a peculiar feminised, objectifying version of white working-class masculinity as aggressive sexual display."
Reinforcing Presley's image as a sex symbol were the reports of his dalliances with Hollywood stars and starlets, from Natalie Wood in the 1950s to Connie Stevens and Ann-Margret in the 1960s to Candice Bergen and Cybill Shepherd in the 1970s. June Juanico of Memphis, one of Presley's early girlfriends, later blamed Parker for encouraging him to choose his dating partners with publicity in mind. Presley never grew comfortable with the Hollywood scene, and most of these relationships were insubstantial.
== Legacy ==
Presley's rise to national attention in 1956 transformed the field of popular music and had a huge effect on the broader scope of popular culture. As the catalyst for the cultural revolution that was rock and roll, he was central not only to defining it as a musical genre but in making it a touchstone of youth culture and rebellious attitude. With its racially mixed origins—repeatedly affirmed by Presley—rock and roll's occupation of a central position in mainstream American culture facilitated a new acceptance and appreciation of black culture.
In this regard, Little Richard said of Presley, "He was an integrator. Elvis was a blessing. They wouldn't let black music through. He opened the door for black music." Al Green reaffirmed that by stating, "He broke the ice for all of us."
President Jimmy Carter remarked on Presley's legacy in 1977: "His music and his personality, fusing the styles of white country and black rhythm and blues, permanently changed the face of American popular culture." Presley also heralded the vastly expanded reach of celebrity in the era of mass communication: within a year of his first appearance on American network television, he was regarded as one of the most famous people in the world.
Presley's name, image, and voice are recognized around the world. He has inspired a legion of impersonators. In polls and surveys, he is recognized as one of the most important popular music artists and influential Americans. American composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein said, "Elvis Presley is the greatest cultural force in the twentieth century. He introduced the beat to everything and he changed everything—music, language, clothes." John Lennon said that "Nothing really affected me until Elvis." Bob Dylan described the sensation of first hearing Presley as "like busting out of jail".
For much of his adult life, Presley, with his rise from poverty to riches and fame, had seemed to epitomize the American Dream. In his final years, and following the revelations about his circumstances after his death, he became a symbol of excess and gluttony. Increasing attention was paid to his appetite for the rich, heavy Southern cooking of his upbringing, foods such as chicken-fried steak and biscuits and gravy. In particular, his love of fried peanut butter, banana, and (sometimes) bacon sandwiches, now known as "Elvis sandwiches", came to symbolize this characteristic.
Since 1977, a false and discredited conspiracy theory has circulated claiming that Presley may have faked his own death. Numerous people have incorrectly claimed to have seen him alive after August 16th, 1977. These "Elvis sightings" and the conspiracy theory in general have persisted both as an ironic, humorous meme and for some a genuinely-believed theory, though the latter demographic declined in numbers significantly after the early 1990s. An unusually large number of fans have domestic shrines devoted to Presley and journey to sites with which he is connected, however faintly. On the anniversary of his death, thousands of people gather outside Graceland for a candlelight ritual. "With Elvis, it is not just his music that has survived death", writes Ted Harrison. "He himself has been raised, like a medieval saint, to a figure of cultic status. It is as if he has been canonized by acclamation."
On the 25th anniversary of Presley's death, The New York Times asserted: All the talentless impersonators and appalling black velvet paintings on display can make him seem little more than a perverse and distant memory. But before Elvis was camp, he was its opposite: a genuine cultural force. ... Elvis' breakthroughs are underappreciated because in this rock-and-roll age, his hard-rocking music and sultry style have triumphed so completely.
He was ranked third on Rolling Stone's list of greatest artists. Bono wrote in appreciation: In Elvis, you have the blueprint for rock & roll. The highness — the gospel highs. The mud — the Delta mud, the blues. Sexual liberation. Controversy. Changing the way people feel about the world. It's all there with Elvis.
Not only Presley's achievements but his failings as well, are seen by some cultural observers as adding to the power of his legacy, as in this description by Greil Marcus:Elvis Presley is a supreme figure in American life, one whose presence, no matter how banal or predictable, brooks no real comparisons. ... The cultural range of his music has expanded to the point where it includes not only the hits of the day, but also patriotic recitals, pure country gospel, and really dirty blues. ... Elvis has emerged as a great artist, a great rocker, a great purveyor of schlock, a great heart throb, a great bore, a great symbol of potency, a great ham, a great nice person, and, yes, a great American.
== Achievements ==
Presley is one of the best-selling music artists in history, with estimated sales of over 500 million records worldwide. Presley's rankings for top ten and number-one hits vary depending on how the double-sided "Hound Dog/Don't Be Cruel" and "Don't/I Beg of You" singles, which precede the inception of Billboards unified Hot 100 chart, are analyzed. According to Whitburn's analysis, Presley holds the record with 38, tying with Madonna; per Billboards current assessment, he ranks second with 36. Whitburn and Billboard concur that the Beatles hold the record for most number-one hits with 20, and that Mariah Carey is second with 19. Whitburn has Presley with 18: Billboard has him third with 17. According to Billboard, Presley has 79 cumulative weeks at number one: alone at 80, according to Whitburn and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with only Mariah Carey having more with 91 weeks. He holds the records for most number-one singles on the UK chart with 21 and singles reaching the top ten with 76.
As an album artist, Presley is credited by Billboard with the record for the most albums charting in the Billboard 200: 129, far ahead of second-place Frank Sinatra's 82. He also holds the record for most cumulative weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 for a male solo artists: 67 weeks In 2015 and 2016, two albums setting Presley's vocals against music by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, If I Can Dream and The Wonder of You, both reached number one in the UK. This gave him a new record for number-one UK albums by a solo artist with 13, and extended his record for longest span between number-one albums by anybody—Presley had first topped the British chart in 1956 with his self-titled debut.
, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) credits Presley with 146.5 million certified album sales in the US, third all time behind the Beatles and Garth Brooks. He holds the records for most gold albums (101, nearly double second-place Barbra Streisand's 51), and most platinum albums (57). His 25 multi-platinum albums is second behind the Beatles' 26. His total of 197 album certification awards (including one diamond award), far outpaces the Beatles' second-best 122. He has the 9th-most gold singles (54, tied with Justin Bieber), and the 16th-most platinum singles (27).
In 2012, the spider Paradonea presleyi was named in his honor. In 2018, President Donald Trump awarded Presley the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously. There is a street named after Presley in San Antonio, Texas.
== Discography ==
A vast number of recordings have been issued under Presley's name. The number of his original master recordings has been variously calculated as 665 and 711.
Studio albums
Elvis Presley (1956)
Elvis (1956)
Elvis' Christmas Album (1957)
Elvis Is Back! (1960)
His Hand in Mine (1960)
Something for Everybody (1961)
Pot Luck (1962)
Elvis for Everyone! (1965)
How Great Thou Art (1967)
From Elvis in Memphis (1969)
From Memphis to Vegas / From Vegas to Memphis (1969)
That's the Way It Is (1970)
Elvis Country (I'm 10,000 Years Old) (1971)
Love Letters from Elvis (1971)
Elvis Sings The Wonderful World of Christmas (1971)
Elvis Now (1972)
He Touched Me (1972)
Elvis (1973) (The "Fool" Album)
Raised on Rock / For Ol' Times Sake (1973)
Good Times (1974)
Promised Land (1975)
Today (1975)
From Elvis Presley Boulevard, Memphis, Tennessee (1976)
Moody Blue (1977)
Soundtrack albums (original material)
Loving You (1957)
King Creole (1958)
G.I. Blues (1960)
Blue Hawaii (1961)
Girls! Girls! Girls! (1962)
It Happened at the World's Fair (1963)
Fun in Acapulco (1963)
Kissin' Cousins (1964)
Roustabout (1964)
Girl Happy (1965)
Harum Scarum (1965)
Frankie and Johnny (1966)
Paradise, Hawaiian Style (1966)
Spinout (1966)
Double Trouble (1967)
Clambake (1967)
Speedway (1968)
== Filmography ==
Films starred
Love Me Tender (1956)
Loving You (1957)
Jailhouse Rock (1957)
King Creole (1958)
G.I. Blues (1960)
Flaming Star (1960)
Wild in the Country (1961)
Blue Hawaii (1961)
Follow That Dream (1962)
Kid Galahad (1962)
Girls! Girls! Girls! (1962)
It Happened at the World's Fair (1963)
Fun in Acapulco (1963)
Kissin' Cousins (1964)
Viva Las Vegas (1964)
Roustabout (1964)
Girl Happy (1965)
Tickle Me (1965)
Harum Scarum (1965)
Frankie and Johnny (1966)
Paradise, Hawaiian Style (1966)
Spinout (1966)
Easy Come, Easy Go (1967)
Double Trouble (1967)
Clambake (1967)
Stay Away, Joe (1968)
Speedway (1968)
Live a Little, Love a Little (1968)
Charro! (1969)
The Trouble with Girls (1969)
Change of Habit (1969)
Elvis: That's the Way It Is (1970)
Elvis on Tour (1972)
TV concert specials
Elvis (1968)
Aloha from Hawaii via Satellite (1973)
Elvis in Concert (1977)
|
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"Grammy Award for Best Inspirational Performance",
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"(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear",
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"Don't (Elvis Presley song)",
"Elvis Country (I'm 10,000 Years Old)",
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"Chuck Berry",
"Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Illinois)",
"Mentorship",
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"The Imperials",
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"Sight and Sound",
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"Houston",
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"UK Singles Chart",
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"Baby Let's Play House",
"Paradonea presleyi",
"Natalie Wood",
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"Way Down",
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"methadone",
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"Elvis Evolution",
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"The Ed Sullivan Show",
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"Girl Happy",
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"Charles Brown (musician)",
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"Stuck on You (Elvis Presley song)",
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"Don't Be Cruel",
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"Bel Air, Los Angeles",
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"Variety (magazine)",
"All Shook Up",
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"Crying in the Chapel",
"blues",
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"cover song",
"Rudolph Valentino",
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"will and testament",
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"Delay (audio effect)"
] |
9,294 |
The Evil Dead
|
{{Infobox film
| name = The Evil Dead
| image = Evil dead ver1.jpg
| alt =
| caption = 1983 theatrical release poster
| director = Sam Raimi
| producer = Robert G. Tapert
| writer = Sam Raimi
| starring =
| music = Joe Loduca
| cinematography = Tim Philo
| editing = Edna Ruth Paul
| studio = Renaissance Pictures
| distributor = New Line Cinema
| released =
| runtime = 85 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $375,000
==Plot==
Five Michigan State University students – Ash Williams, his girlfriend Linda, his sister Cheryl, their friend Scott, and Scott's girlfriend Shelly – vacation at an isolated cabin in rural Tennessee. Approaching the cabin, the group notices the porch swing move independently. However, it stops as Scott grabs the door key. While Cheryl draws a picture of a clock, the clock stops, and she hears a faint voice instruct her to "join us." Her hand becomes possessed, turns pale, and draws a picture of a book with a face on its cover. Although shaken, she does not mention the incident.
When the cellar trapdoor flies open during dinner, Shelly, Linda, and Cheryl remain upstairs as Ash and Scott investigate the cellar. They find the Naturom Demonto, a Sumerian version of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, along with archaeologist Raymond Knowby's tape recorder. Scott later plays a tape of incantations that resurrect a demonic entity. Cheryl yells for Scott to turn off the tape recorder, and a tree branch breaks one of the cabin's windows. Later that evening, an agitated Cheryl goes into the woods to investigate strange noises, and she is attacked and raped by the vines and branches of demonically possessed trees. When she escapes and returns to the cabin bruised and anguished, Ash agrees to take her back into town, only to discover that the bridge has been destroyed. They are now trapped, and the demonic entity does not want to let them leave. At the cabin, Ash learns from the tape that the only way to kill the entity is to dismember a possessed host. As Linda and Shelly play spades, Cheryl correctly calls out the cards without looking at them, turns into a white-eyed zombie known as a “Deadite,” and begins levitating. In a raspy voice, she demands to know why they disturbed her sleep and threatens to kill everyone. She stabs Linda in the ankle with a pencil and throws Ash into a shelf. Scott knocks Cheryl into the cellar and locks her inside.
Everyone fights about what to do. Having become paranoid upon seeing Cheryl's demonic transformation, Shelly goes to her room but is drawn to look out of her window, where an unseen demon crashes through and attacks her, turning her into a Deadite. She attacks Scott before he throws her into the fireplace, slashes her wrist, and then stabs her in the back with a Sumerian dagger, apparently killing her. When she reanimates, Scott dismembers her with an axe. Ash and Scott then bury her remains. Shaken by the experience, Scott leaves to find a way back to town. He returns shortly after, mortally wounded by the possessed trees, and dies while warning Ash that the trees will not let them escape. Ash checks on Linda and realizes that she has become possessed. She attacks Ash, who stabs her with the Sumerian dagger. Unwilling to dismember her, he buries her instead. She revives and attacks him, forcing him to decapitate her with a shovel. Her headless body bleeds on his face as it tries to rape him. He escapes as Linda dies and then retreats to the cabin.
Back inside, Ash discovers that Cheryl has escaped the cellar. Cheryl eludes Ash and attempts to choke him. Ash escapes her grasp and then shoots Cheryl in the jaw. As Ash is barricading the door, Scott's dead body reanimates into a Deadite. Scott attacks Ash and inadvertently knocks the book close to the fireplace. Ash gouges Scott's eyes out and pulls a tree branch from Scott's stomach, causing him to bleed out and fall to the ground. Cheryl breaks through the door and knocks Ash to the floor. As Scott and Cheryl continue to attack Ash on the ground, Ash grabs the book and throws it into the fireplace. While the book burns, the Deadites freeze in place and decompose rapidly. Large appendages burst from both corpses, covering Ash in blood—Dawn breaks, and Ash stumbles outside. As Ash walks away from the cabin, a demon races through the forest and attacks him as he screams in terror.
==Cast==
Bruce Campbell as Ash Williams
Ellen Sandweiss as Cheryl Williams
Richard DeManincor (as Hal Delrich) as Scott
Betsy Baker as Linda
Theresa Tilly (as Sarah York) as Shelly
===Uncredited===
Sam Raimi as Local Fisherman and the voice of the Evil Dead
Robert G. Tapert as Local Fisherman
With enough money to produce the film, Raimi and Campbell set out to make what was then titled Book of the Dead, a name inspired by Raimi's interest in the fiction of H. P. Lovecraft.
Without any formal assistance from location scouts, the cast had to find filming locations on their own. The crew initially attempted to shoot the film in Raimi's hometown of Royal Oak, Michigan, but instead chose Morristown, Tennessee, as it was the only state that expressed enthusiasm for the project. The crew quickly found a remote cabin located several miles away from any other buildings. During pre-production, the 13 crew members had to stay at the cabin, leading to several people sleeping in the same room. The living conditions were notoriously difficult, with several arguments breaking out between crew members.
Steve Frankel was the only carpenter on set, which made him the art direction's sole contributor. For exterior shots, Frankel had to produce several elaborate props with a circular saw. Otherwise, the cabin mostly remained the way it was found during production. The cabin had no plumbing, but phone lines were connected to it.
===Principal photography===
The film was made on Kodak 16mm film stock with a rented camera. The inexperienced crew made filming a "comedy of errors". The first day of filming led to them getting lost in the woods during a scene shot on a bridge. Several crew members were injured during the shoot, and because of the cabin's remoteness, securing medical assistance was difficult. One notably gruesome moment on set involved ripping off Baker's eyelashes during removal of her face-mask. Because of the low budget, contact lenses as thick as glass had to be applied to the actors to achieve the "demonic eyes" effect. The lenses took ten minutes to apply, and could only be left on for about 15 minutes because eyes could not "breathe" with them applied. Campbell later commented that to get the effect of wearing these lenses, they had to put "Tupperware" over their eyes.
Raimi developed a sense of mise en scène, coming up with ideas for scenes at a fast rate. He had drawn several crude illustrations to help him break down the flow of scenes. The crew was surprised when Raimi began using Dutch angles during shots to build atmosphere during scenes. To accommodate Raimi's style of direction, several elaborate, low-budget rigs had to be built, since the crew could not afford a camera dolly. One involved the "vas-o-cam", which relied on a mounted camera that was slid down long wooden platforms to create a more fluid sense of motion.
A camera trick used to emulate a Steadicam inexpensively was the "shaky cam", which involved mounting the camera to a piece of wood and having two camera operators sprint around the swamp. During scenes involving the unseen force in the woods watching the characters, Raimi had to run through the woods with the makeshift rig, jumping over logs and stones. This often proved difficult due to mist in the swamp. The film's final scene was shot with the camera mounted to a bike, while it was quickly driven through the cabin to create a seamless long take.
Raimi had been a big fan of The Three Stooges during his youth, which inspired him to use "Fake Shemps" during production. In any scene that required a background shot of a character, he used another actor as a substitute if the original actor was preoccupied. During a close-up involving Richard DeManicor's hand opening a curtain, Raimi used his own hand in the scene since it was more convenient. His brother Ted Raimi was used as a "Fake Shemp" in many scenes when the original actor was either busy or preoccupied.
Raimi enjoyed "torturing" his actors. Raimi believed that to capture pain and anger in his actors, he had to abuse them a little at times, saying, "if everyone was in extreme pain and misery, that would translate into a horror".
===Editing===
After the extensive filming process, Raimi had a "mountain of footage" that he had to put together. He chose a Detroit editing association, where he met Edna Paul, to cut the film. Paul's assistant was Joel Coen of the Coen brothers, who helped with the film's editing. Paul edited a majority of the film, although Coen edited the shed sequence. Coen had been inspired by Raimi's Within the Woods and liked the idea of producing a prototype film to help build the interest of investors. Joel used the concept to help make Blood Simple with his brother Ethan, and he and Raimi became friends following the editing process.
The film's first cut ran at around 117 minutes, which Campbell called an impressive achievement in light of the 65-minute length of the screenplay. The cut scenes were to focus on the main character's lamentation of not being able to save the victims from their deaths, but was edited down to make the film less "grim and depressing" and to be a more marketable 85 minutes. Raimi was inspired by the fact that Brian De Palma was editing his own film Blow Out with John Travolta at the same sound facility. One of the most intricate moments during editing was the stop-motion animation sequence where the corpses "melted", which took hours to cut properly. The film had unique sounds that required extensive recording from the crew. Several sounds were not recorded properly during shooting, which meant the effects had to be redone in the editing rooms. Dead chickens were stabbed to replicate the sounds of mutilated flesh, and Campbell had to scream into a microphone for several hours.
Much like Within the Woods, The Evil Dead needed to be blown up to 35mm, the industry standard, to be played at movie theaters. The relatively large budget made this a much simpler process with The Evil Dead than it had been with the short film.
==Promotion and distribution rights==
With the film completed, Raimi and the crew decided to celebrate with a "big premiere". They chose to screen the film at Detroit's Redford Theatre, which Campbell had often visited as a child. Raimi opted to have the most theatrical premiere possible, using custom tickets and wind tracks set in the theater, and ordering ambulances outside the theater to build atmosphere. The premiere setup was inspired by horror director William Castle, who would often attempt to scare his audiences by using gimmicks. Local turnout for the premiere exceeded the cast's expectations, with a thousand patrons showing up. The audiences responded enthusiastically to the premiere, which led to Raimi's idea of "touring" the film to build hype.
Raimi showed the film to anyone willing to watch it, booking meetings with distribution agents and anyone with experience in the film industry. Eventually Raimi came across Irvin Shapiro, the man who was responsible for the distribution of George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead and other famous horror films. Upon first viewing the film, he joked that while it "wasn't Gone with the Wind", it had commercial potential, and he expressed an interest in distributing it. It was his idea not to use the then-title Book of the Dead, because he thought it made the film sound boring. Raimi brainstormed several ideas, eventually going with The Evil Dead, deemed the "least worst" title. Shapiro also advised distributing the film worldwide to garner a larger income, though it required a further financial investment by Raimi, who managed to scrape together what little money he had.
Shapiro was a founder of the Cannes Film Festival, and allowed Raimi to screen the film at the 1982 festival out of competition. Stephen King was present at its screening and gave the film a rave review. USA Today released an article about King's favorite horror films; the author cited The Evil Dead as his fifth favorite film of the genre. The film severely affected King, who commented that while watching the film at Cannes, he was "registering things [he] had never seen in a movie before". He became one of the film's largest supporters during the early efforts to find a distributor, eventually describing it as the "most ferociously original film of the year", a quote used in the film's promotional pieces. Raimi said in 1990 that the film "did very well overseas and did very poorly domestically" and that its investors earned a return of "about five times their initial investment."
In the US, the film received an X rating. Films with this label were quite violent and disturbing, and the rating was often held by pornographic films. The film has since been re-rated NC-17 for “substantial graphic horror violence and gore”, though many recent home media releases have been released without a rating.
The film was, and is still, banned either theatrically or on video in some countries.
===Home media release===
The first VHS release of The Evil Dead was released by Thorn EMI in 1983, and Thorn's successor company HBO/Cannon Video later repackaged the film. Former HBO Video's partner Congress Video, a company notable for public domain films, issued its version in 1989.
In its first week of video release, the film made £100,000 in the UK. It quickly became that week's bestselling video release, and later became the year's bestselling video in the UK, out-grossing large-budget horror releases such as The Shining. Its impressive European performance was chalked up to its heavy promotion there and the more open-minded nature of European audiences.
The resurgence of The Evil Dead in the home-video market came through two companies that restored the film from its negatives and issued special editions in 1998: Anchor Bay Entertainment on VHS, and Elite Entertainment on LaserDisc. Anchor Bay was responsible for the film's first DVD release on January 19, 1999, along with Elite releasing the special collector's edition DVD on March 30, 1999, and between them, Elite and Anchor Bay have released six different DVD versions of The Evil Dead, most notably the 2002 "Book Of The Dead" edition, packaged in a latex replica of the Necronomicon sculpted by Tom Sullivan and the 2007 three disc "Ultimate Edition" which contained the widescreen and original full frame versions of the movie. The film's high-definition debut was in a 2010 Blu-ray.
Lionsgate Films released a 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray edition of The Evil Dead on October 9, 2018.
==Reception==
===Critical response===
Upon its release, contemporary critical opinion was largely positive. Bob Martin, editor of Fangoria, reviewed the film before its formal premiere and proclaimed that it "might be the exception to the usual run of low-budget horror films". He followed up on this praise after the film's premiere, stating: "Since I started editing this magazine, I have not seen any new film that I could recommend to our readers with more confidence that it would be loved, embraced and hailed as a new milestone in graphic horror". The Los Angeles Times called the film an "instant classic", proclaiming it as "probably the grisliest well-made movie ever." In a 1982 review, staff from Variety wrote that the film "emerges as the ne plus ultra of low-budget gore and shock effect", commenting that the "powerful" and inventive camerawork was key to creating a sense of dread.
British press for the film was positive; Kim Newman of Monthly Film Bulletin, Richard Cook of NME and Julian Petley of Film and Filming all gave the film good reviews during its early release. Petley and Cook compared the film to other contemporary horror films, writing that the film expressed more imagination and "youthful enthusiasm" than an average horror film. Cook described the camera work by Raimi as "audacious", stating that the film's visceral nature was greatly helped by the style of direction. Woolley, Newman and several critics complimented the film for its unexpected use of black comedy, which elevated the film above its genre's potential trappings. All three critics compared the film to the surrealistic work of Georges Franju and Jean Cocteau, noting the cinephilic references to Cocteau's film Orpheus. Writer Lynn Schofield Clark in her novel From Angels to Aliens compared the film to better-known horror films such as The Exorcist and The Omen, citing it as a key supernatural thriller.
===Later response===
Empire stated the film's "reputation was deserved", writing that the film was impressive considering its low budget and the cast's inexperience. He commented that the film successfully blended the "bizarre" combination of Night of the Living Dead, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and The Three Stooges. A reviewer for Film4 rated The Evil Dead four-and-a-half stars out of five, musing that the film was "energetic, original and icky" and concluding that Raimi's "splat-stick debut is a tight little horror classic that deserves its cult reputation, despite the best efforts of the censors."
Slants Ed Gonzales compared the film to Dario Argento's work, citing Raimi's "unnerving wide angle work" as an important factor to the film's atmosphere. He mused that Raimi possessed an "almost unreal ability to suggest the presence of intangible evil", which was what prevented the movie from being "B-movie schlock". BBC critic Martyn Glanville awarded the film four stars out of five, writing that for Raimi, it served as a better debut film than Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre or Wes Craven's The Last House on the Left. Glanville noted that other than the "ill-advised trees-that-rape scene", the film is "one of the great modern horror films, and even more impressive when one considers its modest production values."
Filmcritic.com's Christopher Null gave the film the same rating as Glanville, writing that "Raimi's biggest grossout is schlock horror done the right way" and comparing it to Romero's Night of the Living Dead in its ability to create stark atmosphere. Chicago Reader writer Pat Graham commented that the film featured several "clever" turns on the standard horror formula, adding that Raimi's "anything-for-an-effect enthusiasm pays off in lots of formally inventive bits." Time Out critic Stephen Garrett, referred to the make-up effects in the climax as "amazing", and commented that although the film was light on character development, it "blends comic fantasy" with "atmospheric horror ... to impressive effect". The same site later cited the film as the 41st greatest horror movie ever made. Phelim O'Neill of The Guardian combined The Evil Dead and its sequel Evil Dead II and listed them as the 23rd best horror film ever made, announcing that the former film "stands above its mostly forgotten peers in the 80s horror boom." Don Summer, in his book Horror Movie Freak, and writer Kate Egan have both cited the film as a horror classic.
J.C. Maçek III of PopMatters said: "What is unquestionable is that the Raimis and their pals created a monster in The Evil Dead. It started as a disastrous failure to obtain a big break with a too long, too perilous shoot (note Campbell's changing hairstyle in the various scenes of the one-day plot). The film went through name changes and bannings only to survive as not only 'the ultimate experience in grueling horror' but as an oft-imitated and cashed-in-on classic, with 30 years of positive reviews to prove it."
====Foreign market====
Unofficial sequels were made in Italy, where the film was known as La Casa ("The House"). Produced by Joe D'Amato's Filmirage, two mostly unrelated films were released and marketed as sequels to Evil Dead II: Umberto Lenzi's La Casa 3: Ghosthouse and La Casa 4: Witchery starring Linda Blair and David Hasselhoff. The final film was released in 1990 and titled, La Casa 5: Beyond Darkness. The film House II: The Second Story was reissued and retitled in Italy as La Casa 6; followed by The Horror Show which was released in Italy as La Casa 7.
In 2008, an unofficial remake was also produced in India under the title Bach Ke Zara.
===Legacy===
The original Evil Dead trilogy of films has been recognized as one of the most successful cult film series in history. David Lavery, in his book The Essential Cult TV Reader, surmised that Campbell's "career is a practical guide to becoming a cult idol". The film launched the careers of Raimi and Campbell, who have since collaborated frequently. Raimi has worked with Campbell in virtually all of his films since, and Campbell has appeared in cameo roles in all three of Raimi's Spider-Man films (as well as a very brief appearance at the end of Darkman), which have become some of the highest-grossing films in history. Though it has often been considered an odd choice for Raimi, a director known for his violent horror films, to direct a family-friendly franchise, the hiring was mostly inspired by Raimi's passion for comic books as a child. Raimi returned to the horror-comedy genre in 2009 with Drag Me to Hell.
Critics have often compared Campbell's later performances to his role in Evil Dead, which has been called his defining role. Campbell's performance as Ash has been compared to roles ranging from his performance of Elvis Presley in the film Bubba Ho-tep to the bigamous demon in The X-Files episode "Terms of Endearment". Campbell's fan base gradually developed after the release of Evil Dead II and his short-lived series The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.. He is a regular favorite at most fan conventions and often draws sold-out auditoriums at his public appearances. The Evil Dead developed a substantial cult following throughout the years, and has often been cited as a defining cult classic.
The Evil Dead has spawned a media franchise. A video game adaptation of the same name was released for the Commodore 64 in 1984, as was a trilogy of survival horror games in the 1990s and early 2000s: Evil Dead: Hail to the King, Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick and Evil Dead: Regeneration. Ted Raimi did voices for the trilogy, and Campbell returned as the voice of Ash. The character Ash became the main character of a comic book franchise. Ash has fought both Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees in the Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash series, Herbert West in Army of Darkness vs. Re-Animator, zombie versions of the Marvel Comics superheroes in Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness, and has even saved the life of a fictional Barack Obama in Army of Darkness: Ash Saves Obama. In January 2008, Dark Horse Comics began releasing a four-part monthly comic book mini-series, written by Mark Verheiden and drawn by John Bolton, based on The Evil Dead. The film has also inspired a stage musical, Evil Dead: The Musical, which was produced with the permission of Raimi and Campbell. The musical has run on and off since its inception in 2003.
After the film was released, many people began to trespass onto the filming location in Morristown. In 1982, the cabin was burned down by the owners, who were tired of the attention. Although the cabin is now gone, the chimney remains, which many people now take stones from when they trespass onto the location.
In 2022, a video game adaptation of the series called Evil Dead: The Game was released.
In 2021, heavy metal band Ice Nine Kills released a song titled "Ex-Mørtis" on their album The Silver Scream 2: Welcome to Horrorwood, which is composed of songs each explicitly linked to specific horror media per the album's booklet of liner notes; "Ex-Mørtis" is stated to be inspired by The Evil Dead.
|
[
"BFI",
"Spades (card game)",
"fake shemp",
"The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.",
"MTV",
"rite of passage",
"incantation",
"The Detroit News",
"Fantasy film",
"La Casa (film series)",
"Retro Gamer",
"NC-17",
"drive-in theater",
"film poster",
"black comedy",
"Stephen King",
"Rotten Tomatoes",
"Barack Obama",
"Theater ticket",
"independent film",
"Sequel",
"House II: The Second Story",
"fake blood",
"Book of the Dead",
"Reboot (fiction)",
"Ash Williams",
"It's Murder!",
"long take",
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"Wes Craven",
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"close-up",
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"Thorn EMI",
"VHS",
"screenplay",
"Supernatural horror film",
"Evil Dead Rise",
"Marvel Comics",
"Mark Verheiden",
"Evil Dead: Hail to the King",
"Demonic possession",
"demonic possession",
"The Independent",
"splatter film",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Jean Cocteau",
"Morristown, Tennessee",
"Slant Magazine",
"Witchery (film)",
"foam latex",
"Box Office Mojo",
"Bloody Disgusting",
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"short film",
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"Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash",
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"Theresa Tilly",
"Army of Darkness",
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"proof of concept",
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"Robert Tapert",
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"Clockwork (film)",
"WP:FILMPLOT",
"Linda Blair",
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"New York (magazine)",
"Evil Dead: The Game",
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"The Evil Dead (video game)",
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"LaserDisc",
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"Redford Theatre",
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"St. Martin's Press",
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"Necronomicon",
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"Time Out (magazine)",
"Jane Levy",
"Film rating",
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"Joseph LoDuca",
"reboot (fiction)",
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"Elvis Presley",
"Tobe Hooper",
"Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness",
"Sumer",
"development hell",
"Film4",
"Evil Dead II",
"Spider-Man (2002 film series)",
"Film promotion",
"1982 Cannes Film Festival",
"The Horror Show",
"Ice Nine Kills",
"The Shining (film)",
"I Spit on Your Grave",
"supernatural horror film",
"cultural icon",
"stop-motion animation",
"corn syrup",
"Kodak",
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"William Castle",
"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre",
"IGN",
"Variety (magazine)",
"The X-Files",
"List of banned films",
"List of cult films",
"AMC (TV channel)",
"Royal Oak, Michigan",
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"The Guardian",
"film industry",
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"Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick",
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"pornographic film",
"The Exorcist (film)",
"Evil Dead",
"H. P. Lovecraft",
"Trailer (promotion)",
"Betsy Baker",
"Empire (film magazine)",
"Ellen Sandweiss",
"Monthly Film Bulletin",
"NYU Press",
"35 mm movie film",
"Bruce Campbell",
"Ultra HD Blu-ray",
"Lee Cronin (director)",
"Broadway musical",
"Evil Dead: Regeneration",
"Freddy Krueger",
"New Line Cinema",
"Newsarama",
"tape recorder",
"Cheque",
"Coen brothers",
"Gross (economics)",
"ne plus ultra",
"Drag Me to Hell",
"Limited series (comics)",
"chicken",
"Tennessee",
"Associated British Foods",
"Crimewave",
"Cannes Film Festival",
"Brian De Palma",
"Home Box Office, Inc.",
"Barack Obama in comics",
"Lynn Schofield Clark",
"controversy",
"DVD",
"Cannibal Holocaust",
"superhero film",
"David Hasselhoff",
"Chicago Reader",
"Blow Out",
"Night of the Living Dead",
"food coloring",
"public domain",
"Darkman",
"Anchor Bay Entertainment",
"sleeper hit",
"Comedy film",
"The Numbers (website)",
"Within the Woods",
"ambulance",
"Stephen Woolley",
"Fangoria",
"The Last House on the Left (1972 film)",
"John Bolton (illustrator)",
"IMDb",
"Tupperware",
"Dutch angle",
"sequel",
"Michigan State University",
"USA Today",
"Beyond Darkness",
"16mm",
"NME",
"Herbert West",
"shaky camera",
"Kim Newman",
"Dark Horse Comics",
"Irvin Shapiro",
"Christopher Null",
"Warner Bros. Pictures",
"Orpheus (film)",
"Evil Dead: The Musical",
"Lionsgate Films",
"Tom Sullivan (special effects artist)",
"Evil Dead (2013 film)",
"Stop motion"
] |
9,297 |
Economic calculation problem
|
The economic calculation problem (ECP) is a criticism of using central economic planning as a substitute for market-based allocation of the factors of production. It was first proposed by Ludwig von Mises in his 1920 article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" and later expanded upon by Friedrich Hayek.
In his first article, Mises described the nature of the price system under capitalism and described how individual subjective values (while criticizing other theories of value) are translated into the objective information necessary for rational allocation of resources in society.
Mises and Hayek argued that economic calculation is only possible by information provided through market prices and that centralist methods of allocation lack methods to rationally allocate resources. Mises's analysis centered on price theory while Hayek went with a more feathered analysis of information and entrepreneurship. The debate raged in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by economic historians as the socialist calculation debate. Mises' initial criticism received multiple reactions and led to the conception of trial-and-error market socialism, most notably the Lange–Lerner theorem.
In the 1920 paper, Mises argued that the pricing systems in state socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if a public entity owned all the means of production, no rational prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily irrational as the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. Mises had utilized Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth to counterargue Otto Neurath's statements concerning central planning's feasibility, invoking "the supreme economic council" and equating socialism to "a society where the means of production are State controlled."
Without the market process to fulfill such comparisons, critics of non-market socialism say that it lacks any way to compare different goods and services and would have to rely on calculation in kind. The resulting decisions, it is claimed, would therefore be made without sufficient knowledge to be considered rational.
=== Relating utility to capital and consumption goods ===
The common basis for comparison of capital goods must also be connected to consumer welfare. It must also be able to compare the desired trade-off between present consumption and delayed consumption (for greater returns later on) via investment in capital goods. The use of money as a medium of exchange and unit of account is necessary to solve the first two problems of economic calculation. Mises (1912) applied the marginal utility theory developed by Carl Menger to money.
Marginal consumer expenditures represent the marginal utility or additional consumer satisfaction expected by consumers as they spend money. This is similar to the equi-marginal principle developed by Alfred Marshall. Consumers equalize the marginal utility (amount of satisfaction) to the last dollar spent on each good. Thus, the exchange of consumer goods establishes prices that represent the marginal utility of consumers and money is representative of consumer satisfaction.
If money is also spent on capital goods and labor, then it is possible to make comparisons between capital goods and consumer goods. The exchange of consumer and capital/labor goods does not imply that capital goods are valued accurately, only that it is possible for the valuations of capital goods to be made. These are foundational elements of economic calculation, namely that it requires the use of money across all goods. This is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for successful economic calculation. Without a price mechanism, Mises argues, socialism lacks the means to relate consumer satisfaction to economic activity. The incentive function of prices allows diffuse interests, like the interests of every household in cheap, high-quality shoes to compete, among buyers, with the concentrated interests of the cobblers in expensive, poor-quality shoes. Without it, a panel of experts set up to "rationalise production", likely closely linked to the cobblers for expertise, would tend to support the cobblers' interests in a "conspiracy against the public". However, if this happens to all industries, everyone would be worse off than if they had been subject to the rigors of market competition. The latter forces producers to produce superior products at appropriate prices to please their consumers.
The Mises theory of money and calculation conflicts directly with Marxist labour theory of value. Marxist theory allows for the possibility that labour content can serve as a common means of valuing capital goods, a position now out of favour with economists following the success of the theory of marginal utility.
=== Entrepreneurship ===
The third condition for economic calculation is the existence of genuine entrepreneurship and market rivalry.
According to Israel Kirzner (1973) and Don Lavoie (1985), entrepreneurs reap profits by supplying unfulfilled needs in all markets. Thus, entrepreneurship brings prices closer to marginal costs. The adjustment of prices in markets towards equilibrium (where supply and demand equal) gives them greater utilitarian significance. The activities of entrepreneurs make prices more accurate in terms of how they represent the marginal utility of consumers. Prices act as guides to the planning of production. Those who plan production use prices to decide which lines of production should be expanded or curtailed.
Entrepreneurs lack the profit motive to take risks under socialism and so are far less likely to attempt to supply consumer demands. Without the price system to match consumer utility to incentives for production, or even indicate those utilities "without providing incentives", state planners are much less likely to invest in new ideas to satisfy consumers' desires. Entrepreneurs would also lack the ability to economize within the production process, causing repercussions for consumers. He contended that the only rational solution is to utilize all the dispersed knowledge in the market place through the use of price signals. The early debates were made before the much greater calculating powers of modern computers became available but also before research on chaos theory. In the 1980s, Alexander Nove argued that the calculations would take millions of years even with the best computers. It may be impossible to make long-term predictions for a highly complex system such as an economy.
Hayek (1935, 1937, 1940, 1945) stressed the knowledge problem of central planning, partly because decentralized socialism seemed indefensible. Part of the reason that Hayek stressed the knowledge problem was also because he was mainly concerned with debating the proposal for market socialism and the Lange model by Oskar R. Lange (1938) and Hayek's student Abba Lerner (1934, 1937, 1938) which was developed in response to the calculation argument. Lange and Lerner conceded that prices were necessary in socialism. Lange and Lerner thought that socialist officials could simulate some markets (mainly spot markets) and the simulation of spot markets was enough to make socialism reasonably efficient. Lange argued that prices can be seen merely as an accounting practice. In principle, claim market socialists, socialist managers of state enterprises could use a price system, as an accounting system, in order to minimize costs and convey information to other managers. However, while this can deal with existing stocks of goods, providing a basis for values can be ascertained, it does not deal with the investment in new capital stocks. Hayek responded by arguing that the simulation of markets in socialism would fail due to a lack of genuine competition and entrepreneurship. Central planners would still have to plan production without the aid of economically meaningful prices. Lange and Lerner also admitted that socialism would lack any simulation of financial markets, and that this would cause problems in planning capital investment.
However, Hayek's argumentation is not only regarding computational complexity for the central planners. He further argues that much of the information individuals have cannot be collected or used by others. First, individuals may have no or little incentive to share their information with central or even local planners. Second, the individual may not be aware that he has valuable information; and when he becomes aware, it is only useful for a limited time, too short for it to be communicated to the central or local planners. Third, the information is useless to other individuals if it is not in a form that allows for meaningful comparisons of value (i.e. money prices as a common basis for comparison). Therefore, Hayek argues, individuals must acquire data through prices in real markets.
=== Financial markets ===
The fifth condition for successful economic calculation is the existence of well-functioning financial markets. Economic efficiency depends heavily upon avoiding errors in capital investment. The costs of reversing errors in capital investment are potentially large. This is not just a matter of rearranging or converting capital goods that are found to be of little use. The time spent reconfiguring the structure of production is time lost in the production of consumer goods. Those who plan capital investment must anticipate future trends in consumer demand if they are to avoid investing too much in some lines of production and too little in other lines of production.
Capitalists plan production for profit. Capitalists use prices to form expectations that determine the composition of capital accumulation, the pattern of investment across industry. Those who invest in accordance with consumers' desires are rewarded with profits, those who do not are forced to become more efficient or go out of business.
Prices in futures markets play a special role in economic calculation. Futures markets develop prices for commodities in future time periods. It is in futures markets that entrepreneurs sort out plans for production based on their expectations. Futures markets are a link between entrepreneurial investment decisions and household consumer decisions. Since most goods are not explicitly traded in futures markets, substitute markets are needed. The stock market serves as a ‘continuous futures market’ that evaluates entrepreneurial plans for production (Lachmann 1978). Generally speaking, the problem of economic calculation is solved in financial markets as Mises argued:
The existence of financial markets is a necessary condition for economic calculation. The existence of financial markets itself does not automatically imply that entrepreneurial speculation will tend towards efficiency. Mises argued that speculation in financial markets tends towards efficiency because of a "trial and error" process. Entrepreneurs who commit relatively large errors in investment waste their funds over expanding some lines of production at the cost of other more profitable ventures where consumer demand is higher. The entrepreneurs who commit the worst errors by forming the least accurate expectations of future consumer demands incur financial losses. Financial losses remove these inept entrepreneurs from positions of authority in industry.
Entrepreneurs who commit smaller errors by anticipating consumer demand more correctly attain greater financial success. The entrepreneurs who form the most accurate opinions regarding the future state of markets (i.e. new trends in consumer demands) earn the highest profits and gain greater control of industry. Those entrepreneurs who anticipate future market trends therefore waste the least amount of real capital and find the most favorable terms for finance on markets for financial capital. Minimal waste of real capital goods implies the minimization of the opportunity costs of capital's economic calculation. The value of capital goods is brought into line with the value of future consumer goods through competition in financial markets, because competition for profits among capitalist financiers' rewards entrepreneurs who value capital more correctly (i.e. anticipating future prices more correctly) and eliminates capitalists who value capital least correctly. To sum things up, the use of money in trading all goods (capital/labor and consumer) in all markets (spot and financial) combined with profit driven entrepreneurship and Darwinian natural selection in financial markets all combine to make rational economic calculation and allocation the outcome of the capitalist process.
Mises insisted that socialist calculation is impossible because socialism precludes the exchange of capital goods in terms of a generally accepted medium of exchange, or money. Investment in financial markets determines the capital structure of modern industry with some degree of efficiency. The egalitarian nature of socialism prohibits speculation in financial markets. Therefore, Mises concluded that socialism lacks any clear tendency towards improvement in the capital structure of industry.
== Example ==
Mises gave the example of choosing between producing wine or oil within a centrally planned economy, making the following point:
{{quote|It will be evident, even in the socialist society, that 1,000 hectolitres of wine are better than 800, and it is not difficult to decide whether it desires 1,000 hectolitres of wine rather than 500 of oil. There is no need for any system of calculation to establish this fact: the deciding element is the will of the economic subjects involved. But once this decision has been taken, the real task of rational economic direction only commences, i.e., economically, to place the means at the service of the end. That can only be done with some kind of economic calculation. The human mind cannot orient itself properly among the bewildering mass of intermediate products and potentialities of production without such aid. It would simply stand perplexed before the problems of management and location. John Jewkes, at the same time, made a similar analysis in Ordeal by Planning.
Central planning was also criticized by socialist economists such as Janos Kornai and Alexander Nove. Robin Cox has argued that the economic calculation argument can only be successfully rebutted on the assumption that a moneyless socialist economy was to a large extent spontaneously ordered via a self-regulating system of stock control which would enable decision-makers to allocate production goods on the basis of their relative scarcity using calculation in kind. This was only feasible in an economy where most decisions were decentralised.
== Limitations and criticism ==
=== Efficiency of markets ===
Some academics and economists argue that the claim a free market is an efficient, or even the most efficient, method of resource allocation is incorrect. Alexander Nove argued that Mises "tends to spoil his case by the implicit assumption that capitalism and optimum resource allocation go together" in Mises' "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth". Joan Robinson argued that many prices in modern capitalism are effectively "administered prices" created by "quasi monopolies", thus challenging the connection between capital markets and rational resource allocation.
Socialist market abolitionists argue that whilst advocates of capitalism and the Austrian School in particular recognize equilibrium prices do not exist in real life, they nonetheless claim that these prices can be used as a rational basis when this is not the case, hence markets are not efficient. Robin Hahnel further argued that market inefficiencies, such as externalities and excess supply and demand, arise from buyers and sellers thoughtlessly maximizing their rational interests, which free markets inherently do not deter. Nonetheless, Hahnel commended current policies pursued by free market capitalist societies against these inefficiencies (e.g. Pigouvian taxes, antitrust laws etc.), as long as they are properly calculated and consistently enforced.
Milton Friedman agreed that markets with monopolistic competition are not efficient, but he argued that it is easy to force monopolies to adopt competitive behavior by exposing them to foreign rivals. Economic liberals and libertarian capitalists also argue that monopolies and big business are not generally the result of a free market, or that they never arise from a free market; rather, they say that such concentration is enabled by governmental grants of franchises or privileges. That said, protectionist economies can theoretically still foster competition as long as there is strong consumer switching. Joseph Schumpeter additionally argued that economic advancement, through innovation and investment, are often driven by large monopolies.
=== Equilibrium ===
Allin Cottrell, Paul Cockshott and Greg Michaelson argued that the contention that finding a true economic equilibrium is not just hard but impossible for a central planner applies equally well to a market system. As any universal Turing machine can do what any other Turing machine can, a central calculator in principle has no advantage over a system of dispersed calculators, i.e. a market, or vice versa.
In some economic models, finding an equilibrium is hard, and finding an Arrow–Debreu equilibrium is PPAD-complete. If the market can find an equilibrium in polynomial time, then the equivalence above can be used to prove that P=PPAD. This line of argument thus attempts to show that any claim to impossibility must necessarily involve a local knowledge problem, because the planning system is no less capable than the market if given full information.
Don Lavoie makes a local knowledge argument by taking this implication in reverse. The market socialists pointed out the formal similarity between the neoclassical model of Walrasian general equilibrium and that of market socialism which simply replace the Walrasian auctioneer with a planning board. According to Lavoie, this emphasizes the shortcomings of the model. By relying on this formal similarity, the market socialists must adopt the simplifying assumptions of the model. The model assumes that various sorts of information are given to the auctioneer or planning board. However, if not coordinated by a capital market, this information exists in a fundamentally distributed form, which would be difficult to utilize on the planners' part. If the planners decided to utilize the information, it would immediately become stale and relatively useless, unless reality somehow imitated the changeless monotony of the equilibrium model. The existence and usability of this information depends on its creation and situation within a distributed discovery procedure.
=== Exaggerated claims ===
One criticism is that proponents of the theory overstate the strength of their case by describing socialism as impossible rather than inefficient. In explaining why he is not an Austrian School economist, anarcho-capitalist economist Bryan Caplan argues that while the economic calculation problem is a problem for socialism, he denies that Mises has shown it to be fatal or that it is this particular problem that led to the collapse of authoritarian socialist states. Caplan also states the exaggeration of the problem; in his view, Mises did not manage to prove why economic calculation made the socialist economy 'impossible', and even if there were serious doubts about the efficiency of cost benefit analysis, other arguments are plentiful (Caplan gives the example of the incentive problem).
=== Steady-state economy ===
Joan Robinson argued that in a steady-state economy there would be an effective abundance of means of production and so markets would not be needed. Mises acknowledged such a theoretical possibility in his original tract when he said the following: "The static state can dispense with economic calculation. For here the same events in economic life are ever recurring; and if we assume that the first disposition of the static socialist economy follows on the basis of the final state of the competitive economy, we might at all events conceive of a socialist production system which is rationally controlled from an economic point of view."
=== Use of technology ===
In Towards a New Socialism's "Information and Economics: A Critique of Hayek" and "Against Mises", Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell argued that the use of computational technology now simplifies economic calculation and allows planning to be implemented and sustained. Len Brewster replied to this by arguing that Towards a New Socialism establishes what is essentially another form of a market economy, making the following point:
In response, Cockshott argued that the economic system is sufficiently far removed from a capitalist free-market economy to not count as one, saying:
Leigh Phillips' and Michal Rozworski's 2019 book The People's Republic of Walmart argues that multinational corporations like Walmart and Amazon already operate centrally planned economies in a more technologically sophisticated manner than the Soviet Union, proving that the economic calculation problem is surmountable. There are some contentions to this view however, namely how economic planning and planned economy ought to be distinguished. Both entail formulating data-driven economic objectives but the latter precludes it from occurring within a free-market context and delegates the task to centralized bodies.
Karras J. Lambert and Tate Fegley argue that artificial intelligence systems, no matter how advanced, cannot assume the role of central planners because they do not fulfill the prerequisites of effective economic calculation. This includes the ability to convert the ordinal preferences of producers and consumers into commensurate cardinal utility values, which are available and agreed upon, and forecast future market interactions.
One reason includes how they are dependent on Big Data, which in turn is entirely based on past information. Hence, the system cannot make any meaningful conclusions about future consumer preferences, which are required for optimal pricing. This necessitates the intervention of the programmer, who is highly likely to be biased in their judgments. Even the manner by which a system can "predict" consumer preferences is also based on a programmer's creative bias. They further argue that even if artificial intelligence is able to ordinally rank items like humans, they would still suffer from the same issues of not being able to conceive of a pricing structure where meaningful pricing calculations, using a common cardinal utility unit, can be formed. Nonetheless, Lambert and Fegley acknowledge that entrepreneurs can benefit from Big Data's predictive value, provided that the data is based on past market prices and that it is used in tandem with free market-styled bidding.
|
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"Rational choice theory",
"Murray Rothbard",
"local knowledge problem",
"Communism",
"Labor theory of value",
"The Counter Revolution of Science",
"Marginalism",
"Friedrich Hayek",
"Joan Robinson",
"consumer welfare",
"Red Plenty",
"University of Chicago Press",
"Socialization (economics)",
"Janos Kornai",
"The Use of Knowledge in Society",
"Competition (economics)",
"marginal utility",
"computers",
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"libertarian capitalists",
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"Robin Cox",
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"AK Press",
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"cardinal utility",
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"capital accumulation",
"price",
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"Hillel Ticktin",
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"means of production",
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"price signal",
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"market socialism",
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"Economic planning",
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"Ludwig von Mises",
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"Local knowledge problem",
"Anarcho-capitalism",
"Milton Friedman",
"equilibrium price",
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"labour theory of value",
"factors of production",
"fr:Ludwig von Mises",
"Socialist calculation debate",
"entrepreneurship",
"Big data",
"Market (economics)",
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"administrative-command system",
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"General equilibrium theory",
"bureaucracy",
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"Robin Hahnel",
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"Enrico Barone",
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"praxeology",
"The Road to Serfdom",
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"free market",
"Joseph Schumpeter",
"incentive",
"opportunity cost",
"Walmart",
"Human Action",
"Human Action: A Treatise on Economics",
"economic planning",
"anarcho-capitalist",
"Amazon (company)",
"planned economy",
"Carl Menger",
"Economic history",
"Price discovery",
"subjective value theory",
"Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth",
"Oskar R. Lange",
"capital goods",
"Tax choice",
"Paul von Hindenburg",
"universal Turing machine",
"Decentralized planning (economics)",
"Free trade",
"market competition",
"Socialism (book)"
] |
9,299 |
Erasmus Darwin
|
Erasmus Robert Darwin His siblings were:
Robert Waring Darwin of Elston (17 October 1724 – 4 November 1816)
Elizabeth Darwin (15 September 1725 – 8 April 1800)
William Alvey Darwin (3 October 1726 – 7 October 1783)
Anne Darwin (12 November 1727 – 3 August 1813)
Susannah Darwin (10 April 1729 – 29 September 1789)
Rev. John Darwin, rector of Elston (28 September 1730 – 24 May 1805)
He was educated at Chesterfield Grammar School, then later at St John's College, Cambridge. He obtained his medical education at the University of Edinburgh Medical School.
Darwin settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but met with little success and so moved the following year to Lichfield to try to establish a practice there. A few weeks after his arrival, using a novel course of treatment, he restored the health of a young fisherman whose death seemed inevitable. This ensured his success in the new locale. Darwin was a highly successful physician for more than fifty years in the Midlands. George III invited him to be Royal Physician, but Darwin declined.
== Personal life ==
Darwin married twice and had 14 children, including two illegitimate daughters by an employee, and, possibly, at least one further illegitimate daughter.
In 1757 he married Mary (Polly) Howard (1740–1770), the daughter of Charles Howard, a Lichfield solicitor. They had four sons and one daughter, two of whom (a son and a daughter) died in infancy:
Charles Darwin (1758–1778), uncle of the naturalist
Erasmus Darwin Jr (1759–1799)
Elizabeth Darwin (1763, survived 4 months)
Robert Waring Darwin (1766–1848), father of the naturalist Charles Darwin
William Alvey Darwin (1767, survived 19 days)
The first Mrs. Darwin died in 1770. A governess, Mary Parker, was hired to look after Robert. By late 1771, employer and employee had become intimately involved and together they had two illegitimate daughters:
Susanna Parker (1772–1856)
Mary Parker Jr (1774–1859)
Susanna and Mary Jr later established a boarding school for girls. In 1782, Mary Sr (the governess) married Joseph Day (1745–1811), a Birmingham merchant, and moved away.
There was also a rumour that Darwin fathered another child, this time with a married woman. A Lucy Swift gave birth in 1771 to a baby, also named Lucy, who was christened a daughter of her mother and William Swift. It has been suggested that the father was really Darwin. However, it is more likely that this child was the legitimate daughter of Lamech Swift, at that time owner of the Derby Silk Mill and his wife Dorothy, who became a friend of the two Parker girls. Lucy Swift, later known as Lucy Hardcastle after her marriage, went on to be known as a botanist and teacher.
In 1775, Darwin met Elizabeth Pole, daughter of Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore, and wife of Colonel Edward Pole (1718–1780); but as she was married, Darwin could only make his feelings known for her through poetry. When Edward Pole died, Darwin married Elizabeth and moved to her home, Radbourne Hall, west of Derby. The hall and village are these days known as Radbourne. In 1782, they moved to Full Street, Derby. They had four sons, one of whom died in infancy, and three daughters:
Edward Darwin (1782–1829)
Frances Ann Violetta Darwin (1783–1874), married Samuel Tertius Galton, was the mother of Francis Galton
Emma Georgina Elizabeth Darwin (1784–1818)
Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin (1786–1859)
Revd. John Darwin (1787–1818), rector of All Saints' Church, Elston
Henry Darwin (1789–1790), died in infancy
Harriet Darwin (1790–1825), married Admiral Thomas James Maling
Darwin's personal appearance is described in unflattering detail in his Biographical Memoirs, printed by the Monthly Magazine in 1802. Darwin, the description reads, "was of middle stature, in person gross and corpulent; his features were coarse, and his countenance heavy; if not wholly void of animation, it certainly was by no means expressive. The print of him, from a painting of Mr. Wright, is a good likeness. In his gait and dress he was rather clumsy and slovenly, and frequently walked with his tongue hanging out of his mouth."
=== Freemasonry ===
Darwin had been a Freemason throughout his life, in the Time Immemorial Lodge of Cannongate Kilwinning, No. 2, of Scotland. Later on, Sir Francis Darwin, one of his sons, was made a Mason in Tyrian Lodge, No. 253, at Derby, in 1807 or 1808. His son Reginald was made a Mason in Tyrian Lodge in 1804. Charles Darwin's name does not appear on the rolls of the Lodge but it is very possible that he, like Francis, was a Mason.
== Death ==
Darwin died suddenly on 18 April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory, just north of Derby. The Monthly Magazine of 1802, in its Biographical Memoirs of the Late Dr. Darwin, reports that "during the last few years, Dr. Darwin was much subject to inflammation in his breast and lungs; he had a very serious attack of this disease in the course of the last Spring, from which, after repeated bleedings, by himself and a surgeon, he with great difficulty recovered."
Darwin's death, the Biographical Memoirs continues, "is variously accounted for: it is supposed to have been caused by the cold fit of an inflammatory fever. Dr. Fox, of Derby, considers the disease which occasioned it to have been angina pectoris; but Dr. Garlicke, of the same place, thinks this opinion not sufficiently well founded. Whatever was the disease, it is not improbable, surely, that the fatal event was hastened by the violent fit of passion with which he was seized in the morning."
His body is buried in All Saints' Church, Breadsall.
Erasmus Darwin is commemorated on one of the Moonstones, a series of monuments in Birmingham.
== Writings ==
=== Botanical works and the Lichfield Botanical Society ===
Darwin formed 'A Botanical Society, at Lichfield' almost always incorrectly named as the Lichfield Botanical Society (despite the name, composed of only three men, Erasmus Darwin, Sir Brooke Boothby and Mr John Jackson, proctor of Lichfield Cathedral) to translate the works of the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus from Latin into English. This took seven years. The result was two publications: A System of Vegetables between 1783 and 1785, and The Families of Plants in 1787. In these volumes, Darwin coined many of the English names of plants that we use today.
Darwin then wrote The Loves of the Plants, a long poem, which was a popular rendering of Linnaeus' works. Darwin also wrote Economy of Vegetation, and together the two were published as The Botanic Garden. Among other writers he influenced were Anna Seward and Maria Jacson.
=== Zoonomia ===
Darwin's most important scientific work, Zoonomia (1794–1796), contains a system of pathology and a chapter on 'Generation'. In the latter, he anticipated some of the views of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, which foreshadowed the modern theory of evolution. Erasmus Darwin's works were read and commented on by his grandson Charles Darwin the naturalist. Erasmus Darwin based his theories on David Hartley's psychological theory of associationism. The essence of his views is contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the conclusion that one and the same kind of living filament is and has been the cause of all organic life:
Would it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end!
Erasmus Darwin also anticipated survival of the fittest in Zoönomia mainly when writing about the "three great objects of desire" for every organism: "lust, hunger, and security."
His poetry was admired by Wordsworth, while Coleridge was intensely critical, writing, "I absolutely nauseate Darwin's poem".
It often made reference to his interests in science; for example botany and steam engines.
=== Education of women ===
The last two leaves of Darwin's A plan for the conduct of female education in boarding schools (1797) contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for "Miss Parkers School".
The school advertised on the last page is the one he set up in Ashbourne, Derbyshire, for his two illegitimate children, Susanna and Mary.
Darwin regretted that a good education had not been generally available to women in Britain in his time, and drew on the ideas of Locke, Rousseau, and Genlis in organising his thoughts. Addressing the education of middle-class girls, Darwin argued that amorous romance novels were inappropriate and that they should seek simplicity in dress. He contends that young women should be educated in schools, rather than privately at home, and learn appropriate subjects. These subjects include physiognomy, physical exercise, botany, chemistry, mineralogy, and experimental philosophy. They should familiarise themselves with arts and manufactures through visits to sites like Coalbrookdale, and Wedgwood's potteries; they should learn how to handle money, and study modern languages. Darwin's educational philosophy took the view that men and women should have different capabilities, skills, interests, and spheres of action, where the woman's education was designed to support and serve male accomplishment and financial reward, and to relieve him of daily responsibility for children and the chores of life. In the context of the times, this program may be read as a modernising influence in the sense that the woman was at least to learn about the "man's world", although not be allowed to participate in it. The text was written seven years after A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft, which has the central argument that women should be educated in a rational manner to give them the opportunity to contribute to society.
Some women of Darwin's era were receiving more substantial education and participating in the broader world. An example is Susanna Wright, who was raised in Lancashire and became an American colonist associated with the Midlands Enlightenment. It is not known whether Darwin and Wright knew each other, although they definitely knew many people in common. Other women who received substantial education and who participated in the broader world (albeit sometimes anonymously) whom Darwin definitely knew were Maria Jacson and Anna Seward.
== Lunar Society ==
These dates indicate the year in which Darwin became friends with these people, who, in turn, became members of the Lunar Society. The Lunar Society existed from 1765 to 1813.
Before 1765:
Matthew Boulton, originally a buckle maker in Birmingham
John Whitehurst of Derby, maker of clocks and scientific instruments, pioneer of geology
After 1765:
Josiah Wedgwood, potter 1765
Dr. William Small, 1765, man of science, formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of William and Mary, where Thomas Jefferson was an appreciative pupil
Richard Lovell Edgeworth, 1766, inventor
James Watt, 1767, improver of steam engine
James Keir, 1767, pioneer of the chemical industry
Thomas Day, 1768, eccentric and author
Dr. William Withering, 1775, the death of Dr. Small left an opening for a physician in the group.
Joseph Priestley, 1780, experimental chemist and discoverer of many substances.
Samuel Galton, 1782, a Quaker gunmaker with a taste for science, took Darwin's place after Darwin moved to Derby.
Darwin also established a lifelong friendship with Benjamin Franklin, who shared Darwin's support for the American and French revolutions. The Lunar Society was instrumental as an intellectual driving force behind England's Industrial Revolution.
The members of the Lunar Society, and especially Darwin, opposed the slave trade. He attacked it in The Botanic Garden (1789–1791), and in The Loves of Plants (1789), The Economy of Vegetation (1791), and the Phytologia (1800).
== Other activities ==
In 1761, Darwin was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
In addition to the Lunar Society, Erasmus Darwin belonged to the influential Derby Philosophical Society, as did his brother-in-law Samuel Fox (see family tree below). He experimented with the use of air and gases to alleviate infections and cancers in patients. A Pneumatic Institution was established at Clifton in 1799 for clinically testing these ideas. He conducted research into the formation of clouds, on which he published in 1788. He also inspired Robert Weldon's Somerset Coal Canal caisson lock.
In 1792, Darwin was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.
Percy Bysshe Shelley specifically mentions Darwin in the first sentence of the 1818 Preface to Frankenstein to support his contention that the creation of life is possible. His wife Mary Shelley in her introduction to the 1831 edition of Frankenstein wrote that she overheard her husband talk about Darwin's experiments with Lord Byron about unspecified "experiments of Dr. Darwin" that led to the idea for the novel.
=== Cosmological speculation ===
Contemporary literature dates the cosmological theories of the Big Bang and Big Crunch to the 19th and 20th centuries. However, Erasmus Darwin had speculated on these sorts of events in The Botanic Garden, A Poem in Two Parts: Part 1, The Economy of Vegetation, 1791:
=== Inventions ===
Darwin was the inventor of several devices, though he did not patent any: he believed this would damage his reputation as a doctor. He encouraged his friends to patent their own modifications of his designs.
A horizontal windmill, which he designed for Josiah Wedgwood (who would be Charles Darwin's other grandfather, see family tree below).
A carriage that would not tip over (1766).
A steering mechanism for his carriage, known today as the Ackermann linkage, that would be adopted by cars 130 years later (1759).
A speaking machine, which was a mechanical larynx made of wood, silk, and leather and pronounced several sounds so well 'as to deceive all who heard it unseen' (at Clifton in 1799).
A canal lift for barges.
A minute artificial bird.
A copying machine (1778).
A variety of weather monitoring machines.
=== Rocket engine ===
In notes dating to 1779, Darwin made a sketch of a simple hydrogen-oxygen rocket engine, with gas tanks connected by plumbing and pumps to an elongated combustion chamber and expansion nozzle, a concept not to be seen again until one century later.
== Major publications ==
Erasmus Darwin, A Botanical Society at Lichfield. A System of Vegetables, according to their classes, orders... translated from the 13th edition of Linnaeus' Systema Vegetabiliium. 2 vols., 1783, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for Leigh and Sotheby, London.
Erasmus Darwin, A Botanical Society at Lichfield. The Families of Plants with their natural characters...Translated from the last edition of Linnaeus' Genera Plantarum. 1787, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for J. Johnson, London.
Erasmus Darwin, The Botanic Garden, Part I, The Economy of Vegetation. 1791 London, J. Johnson.
Part II, The Loves of the Plants. 1789, London, J. Johnson.
Erasmus Darwin, Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life, 1794, Part I. London, J. Johnson.
Part I–III. 1796, London, J. Johnson.
(last two leaves contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for "Miss Parkers School")
Erasmus Darwin, Phytologia; or, The Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening. 1800, London, J. Johnson.
Erasmus Darwin, The Temple of Nature; or, The Origin of Society. 1803, London, J. Johnson.
== Family tree ==
== Commemoration ==
Erasmus Darwin House, his home in Lichfield, Staffordshire, is a museum dedicated to him and his life's work. A secondary school at Burntwood, near Lichfield, was renamed Erasmus Darwin Academy in 2011.
A science building on the Clifton campus of Nottingham Trent University is named after him.
== In fiction ==
Charles Sheffield, an author noted largely for hard science fiction, wrote a number of stories featuring Darwin in a role similar to that of Sherlock Holmes. These stories were collected in a book, The Amazing Dr. Darwin.
The forgetting of Erasmus' designs for a rocket is a major plot point in Stephen Baxter's tale of alternate universes, Manifold: Origin.
Phrases from Darwin's poem The Botanic Garden are used as chapter headings in The Pornographer of Vienna by Lewis Crofts.
Darwin appears as a character in Sergey Lukyanenko's novel New Watch as a Dark Other, and a prophet living in Regent's Park Estate.
|
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] |
9,300 |
Ediacaran
|
The Ediacaran ( ) is a geological period of the Neoproterozoic Era that spans 96 million years from the end of the Cryogenian Period at 635 Mya to the beginning of the Cambrian Period at 538.8 Mya. It is the last period of the Proterozoic Eon as well as the last of the so-called "Precambrian supereon", before the beginning of the subsequent Cambrian Period marks the start of the Phanerozoic Eon, where recognizable fossil evidence of life becomes common.
The Ediacaran Period is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia, where trace fossils of a diverse community of previously unrecognized lifeforms (later named the Ediacaran biota) were first discovered by geologist Reg Sprigg in 1946. Its status as an official geological period was ratified in 2004 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), making it the first new geological period declared in 120 years. Although the period took namesake from the Ediacara Hills in the Nilpena Ediacara National Park, the type section is actually located in the bed of the Enorama Creek within the Brachina Gorge in the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park, at , approximately southeast of the Ediacara Hills fossil site.
The Ediacaran marks the first widespread appearance of complex multicellular fauna following the end of the Cryogenian global glaciation known as the Snowball Earth. The relatively sudden evolutionary radiation event, known as the Avalon Explosion, is represented by now-extinct, relatively simple soft-bodied animal phyla such as Proarticulata (bilaterians with simple articulation, e.g. Dickinsonia and Spriggina), Petalonamae (sea pen-like animals, e.g. Charnia), Aspidella (radial-shaped animals, e.g. Cyclomedusa) and Trilobozoa (animals with tri-radial symmetry, e.g. Tribrachidium). Most of these organisms appeared during or after the Avalon explosion 575 million years ago and died out during the End-Ediacaran extinction event 539 million years ago. Forerunners of some modern animal phyla also appeared during this period, including cnidarians and early bilaterians, as well as mollusc-like Kimberella. Hard-bodied organisms with mineralized shells also began their fossil record in the last few million years of the Ediacaran.
The supercontinent Pannotia formed and broke apart by the end of the period. The Ediacaran also witnessed several glaciation events, such as the Gaskiers and Baykonurian glaciations. The Shuram excursion also occurred during this period, but its glacial origin is unlikely.
==Ediacaran vs. Vendian==
The Ediacaran Period overlaps but is shorter than the Vendian Period (650 to 543 million years ago), a name that was earlier, in 1952, proposed by Russian geologist and paleontologist Boris Sokolov. The Vendian concept was formed stratigraphically top-down, and the lower boundary of the Cambrian became the upper boundary of the Vendian.
Paleontological substantiation of this boundary was worked out separately for the siliciclastic basin (base of the Baltic Stage of the Eastern European Platform) and for the carbonate basin (base of the Tommotian stage of the Siberian Platform).
The lower boundary of the Vendian was suggested to be defined at the base of the Varanger (Laplandian stage) tillites.
The Vendian in its type area consists of large subdivisions such as Laplandian, Redkino, Kotlin and Rovno regional stages with the globally traceable subdivisions and their boundaries, including its lower one.
The Redkino, Kotlin and Rovno regional stages have been substantiated in the type area of the Vendian on the basis of the abundant organic-walled microfossils, megascopic algae, metazoan body fossils and ichnofossils.
The lower boundary of the Vendian could have a biostratigraphic substantiation as well taking into consideration the worldwide occurrence of the Pertatataka assemblage of giant acanthomorph acritarchs.
Although the Ediacaran Period does contain soft-bodied fossils, it is unusual in comparison to later periods because its beginning is not defined by a change in the fossil record. Rather, the beginning is defined at the base of a chemically distinctive carbonate layer that is referred to as a "cap carbonate", because it caps glacial deposits.
This bed is characterized by an unusual depletion of 13C that indicates a sudden climatic change at the end of the Marinoan ice age. The lower global boundary stratotype section (GSSP) of the Ediacaran is at the base of the cap carbonate (Nuccaleena Formation), immediately above the Elatina diamictite in the Enorama Creek section, Brachina Gorge, Flinders Ranges, South Australia.
The GSSP of the upper boundary of the Ediacaran is the lower boundary of the Cambrian on the SE coast of Newfoundland approved by the International Commission on Stratigraphy as a preferred alternative to the base of the Tommotian Stage in Siberia which was selected on the basis of the ichnofossil Treptichnus pedum (Seilacher, 1955). In the history of stratigraphy it was the first case of usage of bioturbations for the System boundary definition.
Nevertheless, the definitions of the lower and upper boundaries of the Ediacaran on the basis of chemostratigraphy and ichnofossils are disputable.
Cap carbonates generally have a restricted geographic distribution (due to specific conditions of their precipitation) and usually siliciclastic sediments laterally replace the cap carbonates in a rather short distance but cap carbonates do not occur above every tillite elsewhere in the world.
The C-isotope chemostratigraphic characteristics obtained for contemporaneous cap carbonates in different parts of the world may be variable in a wide range owing to different degrees of secondary alteration of carbonates, dissimilar criteria used for selection of the least altered samples, and, as far as the C-isotope data are concerned, due to primary lateral variations of δ l3Ccarb in the upper layer of the ocean.
Furthermore, Oman presents in its stratigraphic record a large negative carbon isotope excursion, within the Shuram Formation that is clearly away from any glacial evidence strongly questioning systematic association of negative δ l3Ccarb excursion and glacial events. Also, the Shuram excursion is prolonged and is estimated to last for ~9.0 Myrs.
As to the Treptichnus pedum, a reference ichnofossil for the lower boundary of the Cambrian, its usage for the stratigraphic detection of this boundary is always risky, because of the occurrence of very similar trace fossils belonging to the Treptichnids group well below the level of T. pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the western United States. The stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain.
== Subdivisions ==
The Ediacaran Period is not yet formally subdivided, but a proposed scheme recognises an Upper Ediacaran whose base corresponds with the Gaskiers glaciation, a Terminal Ediacaran Stage starting around , a preceding stage beginning around 575 Ma with the earliest widespread Ediacaran biota fossils; two proposed schemes differ on whether the lower strata should be divided into an Early and Middle Ediacaran or not, because it is not clear whether the Shuram excursion (which would divide the Early and Middle) is a separate event from the Gaskiers, or whether the two events are correlated.
==Absolute dating==
The dating of the rock type section of the Ediacaran Period in South Australia has proven uncertain due to lack of overlying igneous material. Therefore, the age range of 635 to 538.8 million years is based on correlations to other countries where dating has been possible. The base age of approximately 635 million years is based on U–Pb (uranium–lead) and Re–Os (rhenium–osmium) dating from Africa, China, North America, and Tasmania.
== Biota ==
The fossil record from most of the Ediacaran Period is sparse, as more easily fossilized hard-shelled animals did not evolve until the latest Ediacaran. The Ediacaran biota include the oldest definite multicellular organisms (with specialized tissues), the most common types of which resemble segmented worms, fronds, disks, or immobile bags. Among largely undisputed animals, Auroralumina and Haootia were cnidarians, while Yilingia represented the motile bilaterians. Sponges recognisable as such also appeared, at latest, during the terminal Ediacaran, including Helicolocellus, a likely non-biomineralizing sponge.
Other than these definitive animals, most members of the Ediacaran biota bear little resemblance to modern lifeforms, and their relationship with even the immediately following lifeforms of the Cambrian explosion is rather difficult to interpret. More than 100 genera have been described, and well known forms include Arkarua, Charnia, Dickinsonia, Ediacaria, Marywadea, Cephalonega, Pteridinium, and Yorgia. However, despite the overall enigmaticness of most Ediacaran organisms, some fossils identifiable as hard-shelled agglutinated foraminifera (which are not classified as animals) are known from latest Ediacaran sediments of western Siberia.
Four different biotic intervals are known in the Ediacaran, each being characterised by the prominence of a unique ecology and faunal assemblage. The first spanned from 635 to around 575 Ma and was dominated by acritarchs known as large ornamented Ediacaran microfossils. The second spanned from around 575 to 560 Ma and was characterised by the Avalon biota. The third spanned from 560 to 550 Ma; its biota has been dubbed the White Sea biota due to many fossils from this time being found along the coasts of the White Sea. The fourth lasted from 550 to 539 Ma and is known as the interval of the Nama biotic assemblage.
There is evidence for a mass extinction during this period from early animals changing the environment, dating to the same time as the transition between the White Sea and the Nama-type biotas. Alternatively, this mass extinction has also been theorised to have been the result of an anoxic event.
== Documentaries ==
A few English language documentaries have featured the Ediacaran Period and biota:
Australia: The Time Traveller's Guide (2012, ABC Science; Part 1 of 4).
The Geological History of Canada, as part of The Nature of Things series, CBC-SRC; 2011; Eastern Canada.
The first episode of a BBC documentary titled Life on Earth, with David Attenborough as narrator.
Another documentary narrated by David Attenborough titled First Life featuring Charnia, Dickinsonia, Spriggina, Funisia, and Kimberella animated in CGI.
|
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] |
9,301 |
Erotica
|
Erotica is art, literature or photography that deals substantively with subject matter that is erotic, sexually stimulating or sexually arousing. Some critics regard pornography as a type of erotica, but many consider it to be different. Erotic art may use any artistic form to depict erotic content, including painting, sculpture, drama, film or music. Erotic literature and erotic photography have become genres in their own right. Erotica also exists in a number of subgenres including gay, lesbian, women's, monster, tentacle erotica and bondage erotica.
The term erotica is derived from the feminine form of the ancient Greek adjective: (), from ()—words used to indicate lust, and sexual love.
Curiosa are curiosities or rarities, especially unusual or erotic books. In the antiquarian book trade, pornographic works are often listed under "curiosa", "erotica" or "facetiae".
== History ==
Erotica exists in many different forms, both modern and ancient. Erotic art dates back to the Paleolithic times, with cave paintings and carvings of female genitalia being a point of immense interest to prehistorians. Ancient Greek and Roman art depicted erotic acts or figures, often using phallic or erotic imagery to convey ideas of fertility. Modern depictions of erotic art are often intertwined with erotic photography, including boudoir photography, and erotic film. Discussions of modern erotic art are also often merged with discussions on pornography.
More specifically, erotic photography found its mass-market roots in pornographic magazines. The most iconic of these magazines is Playboy, a men's magazine founded in the 1950s that helped to shape the modern Western perception on sex and sexuality in the media. Pornographic magazines could also include boudoir photography or pin-up models, though pin-up models are not definitively sexual by nature.
Erotic film has evolved greatly with modern filmmaking capabilities, including developing a large subgenre of cartoon pornography, the most popular form of which is Japanese hentai. Erotic film is the form of erotica most often seen as interchangeable with pornography due to their similarities in form and function.
Erotic literature also dates back to ancient times, though not quite as far. Arguably the most iconic erotic piece of literature, the Kama Sutra is a Sanskrit text largely describing and depicting ideas of sex, sexuality, love, and human emotion. Eroticism in ancient Greece and Rome was not contained to only visual art, as poets such as the Greek Sappho and the Roman Catullus and Ovid wrote erotic verse and lyrical poems. Modern erotic literature, often called 'smut', is quite popular, especially among women. In the 21st century, fan fiction erotica has gained popularity. Stories on online websites like Archive of Our Own and FanFiction.Net account for a large percentage of modern erotic fan fiction literature. A large sample size revealed that women read more erotic literature than men, and that among those who consistently read erotica, about 95% are women.
== Views ==
The topic of sex is often taboo in modern culture, especially in media. Censorship is an issue often faced by creators of erotic work, be it art, film, or literature. The legality of creating and publishing erotic works differs in different parts of the word, but it is not uncommon to see heavy regulations placed on the publication of erotic or pornographic media.
The legality of cartoon pornography or animated erotic films is one of the most controversial aspects of erotic censorship. This is because of the gray area surrounding the portrayal of animated, fictional minors engaging in erotic or sexual acts. The legality of pornography with non-animated individuals is only slightly more definitive. Legal and moral issues regarding pornography and erotica can tie into arguments regarding the legalization or decriminalization of prostitution and sex work at large, a topic that is hotly debated. Pornography is often far less regulated than sex work and has fewer legal barriers to production, though it is still a morally controversial profession to some.
In the United Kingdom, the Obscene Publications Act 1857 made the selling of "obscene" materials a statutory offense. This act has been criticized heavily, not just in retrospect, but at the time of enacting. Topics of erotic media have been brought to U.S. state and federal courts for centuries. Some notable cases include People v. Freeman, in which the state of California upheld that hiring actors to engage in sexual activity for the sake of creating erotic films was not considered pornography, and Miller v. California, in which the idea of erotic work providing serious artistic or literary value was introduced to the legal sphere.
=== Feminism ===
A majority of erotica centers women as the object of sexual desire, demonstrated in the sharp rise of popularity of pornographic magazines centering women in the mid-twentieth century. In the 20th century, a cadre of female artists, authors, and other creatives began to create a new kind of erotica.
Women's erotica exists to cater for the sexual gratification of women consuming erotic material. Feminist erotic media often centers female pleasure instead of catering to the male gaze. Feminist erotic art had a boom in the mid-20th century, most iconically transforming the idea of the nude female figure from an object of sexual pleasure to a symbol for a woman's sexual liberation. Martha Edelheit was a pioneer of modern women's erotica, flipping the genre on its head by focusing her art on the nude male figure. It was not unusual for a man to be seen as an object of sexual desire in erotic media, but these portrayals were often found in gay pornography, and were often created or published by another man. Edelheit's work as a woman and as an artist was foundational for modern-day feminist erotic media. Additionally, works considered degrading or exploitative tend to be classified by those who see them as such, as "porn" rather than as "erotica" and consequently, pornography is often described as exploitative or degrading. Many countries have laws banning or at least regulating what is considered pornographic material, a situation that generally does not apply to erotica.
For the anti-pornography activist Andrea Dworkin, "Erotica is simply high-class pornography; better produced, better conceived, better executed, better packaged, designed for a better class of consumer." Feminist writer Gloria Steinem distinguishes erotica from pornography, writing: "Erotica is as different from pornography as love is from rape, as dignity is from humiliation, as partnership is from slavery, as pleasure is from pain." Steinem's argument hinges on the distinction between reciprocity versus domination, as she writes: "Blatant or subtle, pornography involves no equal power or mutuality. In fact, much of the tension and drama comes from the clear idea that one person is dominating the other."
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] |
9,302 |
Existence
|
Existence is the state of having being or reality in contrast to nonexistence and nonbeing. Existence is often contrasted with essence: the essence of an entity is its essential features or qualities, which can be understood even if one does not know whether the entity exists.
Ontology is the philosophical discipline studying the nature and types of existence. Singular existence is the existence of individual entities while general existence refers to the existence of concepts or universals. Entities present in space and time have concrete existence in contrast to abstract entities, like numbers and sets. Other distinctions are between possible, contingent, and necessary existence and between physical and mental existence. The common view is that an entity either exists or not with nothing in between, but some philosophers say that there are degrees of existence, meaning that some entities exist to a higher degree than others.
The orthodox position in ontology is that existence is a second-order property or a property of properties. For example, to say that lions exist means that the property of being a lion is possessed by an entity. A different view states that existence is a first-order property or a property of individuals. This means existence is similar to other properties of individuals, like color and shape. Alexius Meinong and his followers accept this idea and say that not all individuals have this property; they state that there are some individuals, such as Santa Claus, that do not exist. Universalists reject this view; they see existence as a universal property of every individual.
The concept of existence has been discussed throughout the history of philosophy and already played a role in ancient philosophy, including Presocratic philosophy in Ancient Greece, Hindu and Buddhist philosophy in Ancient India, and Daoist philosophy in ancient China. It is relevant to fields such as logic, mathematics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and existentialism.
== Definition and related terms ==
Dictionaries define existence as the state of being real and to exist as having being or participating in reality. Existence sets real entities apart from imaginary ones, and can refer both to individual entities or to the totality of reality. The word "existence" entered the English language in the late 14th century from old French and has its roots in the medieval Latin term , which means "to stand forth", "to appear", and "to arise". Existence is studied by the subdiscipline of metaphysics known as ontology.
The terms "being", "reality", and "actuality" are often used as synonyms of "existence", but the exact definition of existence and its connection to these terms is disputed. According to metaphysician Alexius Meinong (1853–1920), all entities have being but not all entities have existence. He argues merely possible objects like Santa Claus have being but lack existence. Ontologist Takashi Yagisawa (20th century–present) contrasts existence with reality; he sees "reality" as the more-fundamental term because it equally characterizes all entities and defines existence as a relative term that connects an entity to the world it inhabits. According to philosopher Gottlob Frege (1848–1925), actuality is narrower than existence because only actual entities can produce and undergo changes, in contrast to non-actual existing entities like numbers and sets. According to some philosophers, like Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), existence is an elementary concept, meaning it cannot be defined in other terms without involving circularity. This would imply characterizing existence or talking about its nature in a non-trivial manner may be difficult or impossible.
Disputes about the nature of existence are reflected in the distinction between thin and thick concepts of existence. Thin concepts of existence understand existence as a logical property that every existing thing shares; they do not include any substantial content about the metaphysical implications of having existence. According to one view, existence is the same as the logical property of self-identity. This view articulates a thin concept of existence because it merely states what exists is identical to itself without discussing any substantial characteristics of the nature of existence. Thick concepts of existence encompass a metaphysical analysis of what it means that something exists and what essential features existence implies. According to one proposal, to exist is to be present in space and time, and to have effects on other things. This definition is controversial because it implies abstract objects such as numbers do not exist. Philosopher George Berkeley (1685–1753) gave a different thick concept of existence; he stated: "to be is to be perceived", meaning all existence is mental.
Existence contrasts with nonexistence, a lack of reality. Whether objects can be divided into existent and nonexistent objects is a subject of controversy. This distinction is sometimes used to explain how it is possible to think of fictional objects like dragons and unicorns but the concept of nonexistent objects is not generally accepted; some philosophers say the concept is contradictory. Closely related contrasting terms are nothingness and nonbeing. Existence is commonly associated with mind-independent reality but this position is not universally accepted because there could also be forms of mind-dependent existence, such as the existence of an idea inside a person's mind. According to some idealists, this may apply to all of reality.
Another contrast is made between existence and essence. Essence refers to the intrinsic nature or defining qualities of an entity. The essence of something determines what kind of entity it is and how it differs from other kinds of entities. Essence corresponds to what an entity is, while existence corresponds to the fact that it is. For instance, it is possible to understand what an object is and grasp its nature even if one does not know whether this object exists. According to some philosophers, there is a difference between entities and the fundamental characteristics that make them the entities they are. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) introduced this concept; he calls it the ontological difference and contrasts individual beings with being. According to his response to the question of being, being is not an entity but the background context that makes all individual entities intelligible.
== Types of existing entities ==
Many discussions of the types of existing entities revolve around the definitions of different types, the existence or nonexistence of entities of a specific type, the way entities of different types are related to each other, and whether some types are more fundamental than others. Examples are the existence or nonexistence of souls; whether there are abstract, fictional, and universal entities; and the existence or nonexistence of possible worlds and objects besides the actual world. These discussions cover the topics of the basic stuff or constituents underlying all reality and the most general features of entities.
=== Singular and general ===
There is a distinction between singular existence and general existence. Singular existence is the existence of individual entities. For example, the sentence "Angela Merkel exists" expresses the existence of one particular person. General existence pertains to general concepts, properties, or universals. For instance, the sentence "politicians exist" states the general term "politician" has instances without referring to a particular politician.
Singular and general existence are closely related to each other, and some philosophers have tried to explain one as a special case of the other. For example, according to Frege, general existence is more basic than singular existence. One argument in favor of this position is that singular existence can be expressed in terms of general existence. For instance, the sentence "Angela Merkel exists" can be expressed as "entities that are identical to Angela Merkel exist", where the expression "being identical to Angela Merkel" is understood as a general term. Philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) defends a different position by giving primacy to singular existence and arguing that general existence can be expressed in terms of singular existence.
A related question is whether there can be general existence without singular existence. According to philosopher Henry S. Leonard (1905–1967), a property only has general existence if there is at least one actual object that instantiates it. Philosopher Nicholas Rescher (1928–2024), by contrast, states that properties can exist if they have no actual instances, like the property of "being a unicorn". This question has a long philosophical tradition in relation to the existence of universals. According to Platonists, universals have general existence as Platonic forms independently of the particulars that exemplify them. According to this view, the universal of redness exists independently of the existence or nonexistence of red objects. Aristotelianism also accepts the existence of universals but says their existence depends on particulars that instantiate them and that they are unable to exist by themselves. According to this view, a universal that is not present in the space and time does not exist. According to nominalists, only particulars have existence and universals do not exist.
=== Concrete and abstract ===
There is an influential distinction in ontology between concrete and abstract objects. Many concrete objects, like rocks, plants, and other people, are encountered in everyday life. They exist in space and time. They have effects on each other, like when a rock falls on a plant and damages it, or a plant grows through rock and breaks it. Abstract objects, like numbers, sets, and types, have no location in space and time, and lack causal powers. The distinction between concrete objects and abstract objects is sometimes treated as the most-general division of being.
The existence of concrete objects is widely agreed upon but opinions about abstract objects are divided. Realists such as Plato accept the idea that abstract objects have independent existence. Some realists say abstract objects have the same mode of existence as concrete objects; according to others, they exist in a different way. Anti-realists state that abstract objects do not exist, a view that is often combined with the idea that existence requires a location in space and time or the ability to causally interact.
=== Possible, contingent, and necessary ===
A further distinction is between merely possible, contingent, and necessary existence. An entity has necessary existence if it must exist or could not fail to exist. This means that it is not possible to newly create or destroy necessary entities. Entities that exist but could fail to exist are contingent; merely possible entities do not exist but could exist.
Most entities encountered in ordinary experience, like telephones, sticks, and flowers, have contingent existence. The contingent existence of telephones is reflected in the fact that they exist in the present but did not exist in the past, meaning that it is not necessary that they exist. It is an open question whether any entities have necessary existence. According to some nominalists, all concrete objects have contingent existence while all abstract objects have necessary existence.
According to some theorists, one or several necessary beings are required as the explanatory foundation of the cosmos. For instance, the philosophers Avicenna (980–1037) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) say that God has necessary existence. A few philosophers, like Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), see God and the world as the same thing, and say that all entities have necessary existence to provide a unified and rational explanation of everything.
There are many academic debates about the existence of merely possible objects. According to actualism, only actual entities have being; this includes both contingent and necessary entities but excludes merely possible entities. Possibilists reject this view and state there are also merely possible objects besides actual objects. For example, metaphysician David Lewis (1941–2001) states that possible objects exist in the same way as actual objects so as to provide a robust explanation of why statements about what is possible and necessary are true. According to him, possible objects exist in possible worlds while actual objects exist in the actual world. Lewis says the only difference between possible worlds and the actual world is the location of the speaker; the term "actual" refers to the world of the speaker, similar to the way the terms "here" and "now" refer to the spatial and temporal location of the speaker.
The problem of contingent and necessary existence is closely related to the ontological question of why there is anything at all or why is there something rather than nothing. According to one view, the existence of something is a contingent fact, meaning the world could have been totally empty. This is not possible if there are necessary entities, which could not have failed to exist. In this case, global nothingness is impossible because the world needs to contain at least all necessary entities.
=== Physical and mental ===
Entities that exist on a physical level include objects encountered in everyday life, like stones, trees, and human bodies, as well as entities discussed in modern physics, like electrons and protons. Physical entities can be observed and measured; they possess mass and a location in space and time. Mental entities like perceptions, experiences of pleasure and pain as well as beliefs, desires, and emotions belong to the realm of the mind; they are primarily associated with conscious experiences but also include unconscious states like unconscious beliefs, desires, and memories.
The mind–body problem concerns the ontological status of and relation between physical and mental entities and is a frequent topic in metaphysics and philosophy of mind. According to materialists, only physical entities exist on the most-fundamental level. Materialists usually explain mental entities in terms of physical processes; for example, as brain states or as patterns of neural activation. Idealism, a minority view in contemporary philosophy, rejects matter as ultimate and views the mind as the most basic reality. Dualists like René Descartes (1596–1650) believe both physical and mental entities exist on the most-fundamental level. They state they are connected to one another in several ways but that one cannot be reduced to the other.
=== Other types ===
Fictional entities are entities that exist as inventions inside works of fiction. For example, Sherlock Holmes is a fictional character in Arthur Conan Doyle's book A Study in Scarlet and flying carpets are fictional objects in the folktales One Thousand and One Nights. According to anti-realism, fictional entities do not form part of reality in any substantive sense. Possibilists, by contrast, see fictional entities as a subclass of possible objects; creationists say that they are artifacts that depend for their existence on the authors who first conceived them.
Intentional inexistence is a similar phenomenon concerned with the existence of objects within mental states. This happens when a person perceives or thinks about an object. In some cases, the intentional object corresponds to a real object outside the mental state, like when accurately perceiving a tree in the garden. In other cases, the intentional object does not have a real counterpart, like when thinking about Bigfoot. The problem of intentional inexistence is the challenge of explaining how one can think about entities that do not exist since this seems to have the paradoxical implication that the thinker stands in a relation to a nonexisting object.
== Modes and degrees of existence ==
Closely related to the problem of different types of entities is the question of whether their modes of existence also vary. This is the case according to ontological pluralism, which states entities belonging to different types differ in both their essential features and in the ways they exist. This position is sometimes found in theology; it states God is radically different from his creation and emphasizes his uniqueness by saying the difference affects both God's features and God's mode of existence.
Another form of ontological pluralism distinguishes the existence of material objects from the existence of space-time. According to this view, material objects have relative existence because they exist in space-time; the existence of space-time itself is not relative in this sense because it just exists without existing within another space-time.
The topic of degrees of existence is closely related to the problem of modes of existence. This topic is based on the idea that some entities exist to a higher degree or have more being than other entities, similar to the way some properties, such as heat and mass, have degrees. According to philosopher Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE), for example, unchangeable Platonic forms have a higher degree of existence than physical objects.
The view that there are different types of entities is common in metaphysics but the idea that they differ from each other in their modes or degrees of existence is often rejected, implying that a thing either exists or does not exist without in-between alternatives. Metaphysician Peter van Inwagen (1942–present) uses the idea that there is an intimate relationship between existence and quantification to argue against different modes of existence. Quantification is related to the counting of objects; according to Inwagen, if there were different modes of entities, people would need different types of numbers to count them. Because the same numbers can be used to count different types of entities, he concludes all entities have the same mode of existence.
== Theories of the nature of existence ==
Theories of the nature of existence aim to explain what it means for something to exist. A central dispute in the academic discourse about the nature of existence is whether existence is a property of individuals. An individual is a unique entity, like Socrates or a particular apple. A property is something that is attributed to an entity, like "being human" or "being red", and usually expresses a quality or feature of that entity. The two main theories of existence are first-order and second-order theories. First-order theories understand existence as a property of individuals while second-order theories say existence is a second-order property, that is, a property of properties.
A central challenge for theories of the nature of existence is an understanding of the possibility of coherently denying the existence of something, like the statement: "Santa Claus does not exist". One difficulty is explaining how the name "Santa Claus" can be meaningful even though there is no Santa Claus.
=== Second-order theories ===
Second-order theories understand existence as a second-order property rather than a first-order property. They are often seen as the orthodox position in ontology. For instance, the Empire State Building is an individual object and "being tall" is a first-order property of it. "Being instantiated" is a property of "being 443.2 meters tall" and therefore a second-order property. According to second-order theories, to talk about existence is to talk about which properties have instances. For example, this view says that the sentence "God exists" means "Godhood is instantiated" rather than "God has the property of existing". According to this view, existence is more fundamental than regular properties because an object cannot have any properties if it does not exist.
According to second-order theorists, quantifiers rather than predicates express existence. Predicates are expressions that apply to and classify objects, usually by attributing features to them, such as "is a butterfly" and "is happy". Quantifiers are terms that talk about the quantity of objects that have certain properties. Existential quantifiers express that there is at least one object, like the expressions "some" and "there exists", as in "some cows eat grass" and "there exists an even prime number". In this regard, existence is closely related to counting because to assert that something exists is to assert that the corresponding concept has one or more instances.
Many ontologists accept that second-order theories provide a correct analysis of many types of existential sentences. It is, however, controversial whether it is correct for all cases. Some problems relate to assumptions associated with everyday language about sentences like "Ronald McDonald does not exist". This type of statement is called negative singular existential and the expression Ronald McDonald is a singular term that seems to refer to an individual. It is not clear how the expression can refer to an individual if, as the sentence asserts, this individual does not exist. According to a solution philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) proposed, singular terms do not refer to individuals but are descriptions of individuals. This theory states negative singular existentials deny an object matching the descriptions exists without referring to a nonexistent individual. Following this approach, the sentence "Ronald McDonald does not exist" expresses the idea: "it is not the case there is a unique happy hamburger clown".
=== First-order theories ===
According to first-order theories, existence is a property of individuals. These theories are less-widely accepted than second-order theories but also have some influential proponents. There are two types of first-order theories: Meinongianism and universalism.
==== Meinongianism ====
Meinongianism, which describes existence as a property of some but not all entities, was first formulated by Alexius Meinong. Its main assertion is that there are some entities that do not exist, meaning objecthood is independent of existence. Proposed examples of nonexistent objects are merely possible objects such as flying pigs, as well as fictional and mythical objects like Sherlock Holmes and Zeus. According to this view, these objects are real and have being, even though they do not exist. Meinong states there is an object for any combination of properties. For example, there is an object that only has the single property of "being a singer" with no other properties. This means neither the attribute of "wearing a dress" nor the absence of it applies to this object. Meinong also includes impossible objects like round squares in this classification.
According to Meinongians, sentences describing Sherlock Holmes and Zeus refer to nonexisting objects. They are true or false depending on whether these objects have the properties ascribed to them. For instance, the sentence "Pegasus has wings" is true because having wings is a property of Pegasus, even though Pegasus lacks the property of existing.
One key motivation of Meinongianism is to explain how negative singular existentials like "Ronald McDonald does not exist" can be true. Meinongians accept the idea that singular terms like "Ronald McDonald" refer to individuals. For them, a negative singular existential is true if the individual it refers to does not exist.
Meinongianism has important implications for understandings of quantification. According to an influential view defended by Willard Van Orman Quine, the domain of quantification is restricted to existing objects. This view implies quantifiers carry ontological commitments about what exists and what does not exist. Meinongianism differs from this view by saying the widest domain of quantification includes both existing and nonexisting objects.
==== Universalism ====
Universalists agree with Meinongians that existence is a property of individuals but deny there are nonexistent entities. Instead, universalists state existence is a universal property; all entities have it, meaning everything exists. One approach is to say existence is the same as self-identity. According to the law of identity, every object is identical to itself or has the property of self-identity. This can be expressed in predicate logic as \forall x (x=x).
An influential argument in favor of universalism is that the denial of the existence of something is contradictory. This conclusion follows from the premises that one can only deny the existence of something by referring to that entity and that one can only refer to entities that exist. Another approach is to understand negative singular existentials as neither true nor false but meaningless because their singular terms do not refer to anything.
== History ==
=== Western philosophy ===
Western philosophy originated with the Presocratic philosophers, who aimed to replace earlier mythological accounts of the universe by providing rational explanations based on foundational principles of all existence. Some, like Thales (c. 624–545 BCE) and Heraclitus (c. 540–480 BCE), suggested concrete principles like water and fire are the root of existence. Anaximander (c. 610–545 BCE) opposed this position; he believed the source must lie in an abstract principle that is beyond the world of human perception.
Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE) argued that different types of entities have different degrees of existence and that shadows and images exist in a weaker sense than regular material objects. He said unchangeable Platonic forms have the highest type of existence, and saw material objects as imperfect and impermanent copies of Platonic forms.
Philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) accepted Plato's idea that forms are different from matter, but he challenged the idea that forms have a higher type of existence. Instead, he believed forms cannot exist without matter. He stated: "being is said in many ways" and explored how different types of entities have different modes of existence. For example, he distinguished between substances and their accidents, and between potentiality and actuality.
Neoplatonists like Plotinus (204–270 CE) suggested reality has a hierarchical structure. They believed a transcendent entity, called "the One" or "the Good", is responsible for all existence. From it emerges the intellect, which in turn gives rise to the soul and the material world.
In medieval philosophy, Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109 CE) formulated the influential ontological argument, which aims to deduce the existence of God from the concept of God. Anselm defined God as the greatest conceivable being. He reasoned that an entity that did not exist outside his mind would not be the greatest conceivable being, leading him to the conclusion God exists.
Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274 CE) distinguished between the essence of a thing and its existence. According to him, the essence of a thing constitutes its fundamental nature. He argued it is possible to understand what an object is and grasp its essence, even if one does not know whether the object exists. He concluded from this observation that existence is not part of the qualities of an object and should be understood as a separate property.
The philosophers David Hume (1711–1776) and Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) rejected the idea that existence is a property. According to Hume, objects are bundles of qualities. He said existence is not a property because there is no impression of existence besides the bundled qualities. Kant came to a similar conclusion in his criticism of the ontological argument; according to him, this proof fails because one cannot deduce from the definition of a concept whether entities described by this concept exist. Kant said existence does not add anything to the concept of the object; it only indicates this concept is exemplified. According to philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), there is no pure being or pure nothing, only becoming.
Philosopher and psychologist Franz Brentano (1838–1917) agreed with Kant's criticism and his position that existence is not a real predicate. Brentano used this idea to develop his theory of judgments, which states all judgments are existential judgments; they either affirm or deny the existence of something. He stated judgments like "some zebras are striped" have the logical form "there is a striped zebra" while judgments like "all zebras are striped" have the logical form "there is not a non-striped zebra".
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) aimed to refine the idea of what it means that existence is not a regular property. They distinguished between regular first-order properties of individuals and second-order properties of other properties. According to their view, existence is the second-order property of "being instantiated". Russell further developed the idea that general sentences like "lions exist" are at their most fundamental form about individuals by stating that there is an individual that is a lion.
Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) followed Frege and Russell in accepting existence as a second-order property. He drew a close link between existence and the role of quantification in formal logic. He applied this idea to scientific theories and stated a scientific theory is committed to the existence of an entity if the theory quantifies over this entity. For example, if a theory in biology asserts that "there are populations with genetic diversity", this theory has an ontological commitment to the existence of populations with genetic diversity. Alexius Meinong (1853–1920) was an influential critic of second-order theories and developed the alternative view that existence is a property of individuals and that not all individuals have this property.
=== Eastern philosophy ===
Many schools of thought in Eastern philosophy discuss the problem of existence and its implications. For instance, the ancient Hindu school of Samkhya articulated a metaphysical dualism according to which the two types of existence are pure consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti). Samkhya explains the manifestation of the universe as the interaction between these two principles. The Vedic philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE) developed a different approach in his school of Advaita Vedanta. Shankara defended a metaphysical monism by defining the divine (Brahman) as the ultimate reality and the only existent. According to this view, the impression that there is a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion (Maya). The essential features of ultimate reality are described as Sat Chit Ananda—meaning existence, consciousness, and bliss.
A central doctrine in Buddhist philosophy is called the "three marks of existence", which are aniccā (impermanence), anattā (absence of a permanent self), and dukkha (suffering). Aniccā is the doctrine that all of existence is subject to change, meaning everything changes at some point and nothing lasts forever. Anattā expresses a similar state in relation to persons by stating that people do not have a permanent identity or a separate self. Ignorance about aniccā and anattā is seen as the main cause of dukkha by leading people to form attachments that cause suffering.
A central idea in many schools of Chinese philosophy, like Laozi's (6th century BCE) Daoism, is that a fundamental principle known as dao is the source of all existence. The term is often translated as "the way" and is understood as a cosmic force that governs the natural order of the world. Chinese metaphysicians debated whether dao is a form of being or whether, as the source of being, it belongs to non-being.
The concept of existence played a central role in Arabic-Persian philosophy. The Islamic philosophers Avicenna (980–1037 CE) and Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) discussed the relationship between existence and essence, and said the essence of an entity is prior to its existence. The additional step of instantiating the essence is required for the entity to come into existence. Philosopher Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) rejected this priority of essence over existence, and said essence is only a concept that is used by the mind to grasp existence. Existence, by contrast, encompasses the whole of reality, according to his view.
=== Other traditions ===
Indigenous American philosophies tend to emphasize the interconnectedness of all existence and the importance of maintaining balance and harmony with nature. This is often combined with an animist outlook that ascribes a spiritual essence to some or all entities, including plants, rocks, and places.
The interest in the relational aspect of existence is also found in African philosophy, which explores how all entities are causally linked to form an ordered world. African philosophy also examines the idea of an underlying and all-pervading life force responsible for animating entities and their influence on each other.
== In various disciplines ==
=== Formal logic ===
Formal logic studies deductively valid arguments. In first-order logic, which is the most-commonly used system of formal logic, existence is expressed using the existential quantifier (\exists). For example, the formula \exists x \text{Horse}(x) can be used to state horses exist. The variable x ranges over all elements in the domain of quantification and the existential quantifier expresses that at least one element in this domain is a horse. In first-order logic, all singular terms like names refer to objects in the domain and imply the object exists. Because of this, one can deduce \exists x \text{Honest}(x) (someone is honest) from \text{Honest}(Bill) (Bill is honest). If only one object matching the description exists, the unique existential quantifier \exists ! can be used.
Many logical systems that are based on first-order logic also follow this idea. Free logic is an exception because it allows the presence of empty names that do not refer to an object in the domain. With this modification, it is possible to apply logical reasoning to fictional objects instead of limiting it to regular objects. In free logic one can express that Pegasus is a flying horse using the formula \text{Flyinghorse}(Pegasus). As a consequence of this modification, one cannot infer from this type of statement that something exists. This means the inference from \text{Flyinghorse}(Pegasus) to \exist x \text{Flyinghorse}(x) is invalid in free logic, even though it is valid in first-order logic. Free logic uses an additional existence predicate (E!) to say a singular term refers to an existing object. For example, the formula E!(Homer) can be used to say Homer exists while the formula \lnot E!(Pegasus) states Pegasus does not exist.
=== Others ===
The disciplines of epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language deal with mental and linguistic representations in their attempt to understand the nature of knowledge, the mind, and language. This brings with it the problem of reference or how representations can refer to existing objects. Examples of such representations are beliefs, thoughts, perceptions, words, and sentences. For instance, in the sentence "Barack Obama is a Democrat", the name "Barack Obama" refers to a particular individual. The problem of reference also affects the epistemology of perception. In particular, this concerns the problem of whether perceptual impressions establish a direct contact with reality.
Closely related to the problem of reference is the relationship between true representations and existence. According to truthmaker theory, true representations require a truthmaker, i.e., an entity whose existence is responsible for the representation being true. For example, the sentence "kangaroos live in Australia" is true because there are kangaroos in Australia; the existence of these kangaroos is the truthmaker of the sentence. Truthmaker theory states there is a close relationship between truth and existence; there exists a truthmaker for every true representation.
Many of the individual sciences are concerned with the existence of particular types of entities and the laws governing them, such as physical things in physics and living entities in biology. The natural sciences employ a great variety of concepts to classify entities; these are known as natural kinds, and include categories like protons, gold, and elephants. According to scientific realists, these entities have mind-independent being; scientific anti-realists say the existence of these entities and categories is based on human perceptions, theories, and social constructs.
A similar problem concerns the existence of social kinds, which are basic concepts used in the social sciences, such as race, gender, disability, money, and nation state. Social kinds are often understood as social constructions that, while useful for describing the complexities of human social life, do not form part of objective reality on the most fundamental level. According to the controversial Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, the social institution of language influences or fully determines how people perceive and understand the world.
Existentialism is a school of thought that explores the nature of human existence. Among its key ideas is that existence precedes essence. This means that existence is more basic than essence. As a result, the nature and purpose of human beings are not pre-existing but develop in the process of living. According to this view, humans are thrown into a world that lacks pre-existing intrinsic meaning. They must determine for themselves their purpose and what meaning their life should have. Existentialists use this idea to explore the role of freedom and responsibility in actively shaping one's life. Feminist existentialists investigate the effects of gender on human existence, for example, on the experience of freedom. Influential existentialists include Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), and Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986). Existentialism has influenced reflections on the role of human existence in sociology. Existentialist sociology examines the ways humans experience the social world and construct reality. Existence theory is a relatively recent approach that focuses on the temporal aspect of existence in society. It explores how the existential milestones to which people aspire influence their lives.
Mathematicians are often interested in the existence of certain mathematical objects. For example, number theorists ask how many prime numbers exist within a certain interval. The statement that at least one mathematical object matching a certain description exists is called an existence theorem. Metaphysicians of mathematics investigate whether mathematical objects exist not only in relation to mathematical axioms but also as part of the fundamental structure of reality. This position is affirmed by Platonists, while nominalists believe mathematical objects lack a more-substantial form of existence, for instance, because they are merely useful fictions.
Many debates in theology revolve around the existence of the divine, and arguments have been presented for and against God's existence. Cosmological arguments state that God must exist as the first cause to explain facts about the existence and aspects of the universe. According to teleological arguments, the only way to explain the order and complexity of the universe and human life is by reference to God as the intelligent designer. An influential argument against the existence of God relies on the problem of evil since it is not clear how evil could exist if there was an all-powerful, all-knowing, and benevolent God. Another argument points to a lack of concrete evidence for God's existence.
|
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"Contingency (philosophy)",
"the problem of evil",
"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz",
"Willard Van Orman Quine",
"Ancient India",
"flying carpets",
"Existential quantifier",
"numbers",
"sociology",
"first-order logic",
"sunflower",
"mind",
"Arthur Conan Doyle",
"medieval Latin",
"Platonists",
"four fundamental forces",
"logic",
"history of philosophy",
"particle physics",
"truthmaker theory",
"Homer",
"gender",
"Standard Model",
"Mind",
"Property (philosophy)",
"Sapir–Whorf hypothesis",
"actualism",
"Platonic form",
"predicate logic",
"Ancient Greece",
"Set (mathematics)",
"Avicenna",
"Nominalism",
"Predication (philosophy)",
"Aristotle",
"Presocratic philosophy",
"Samkhya",
"anicca",
"Friedrich Nietzsche",
"Anselm of Canterbury",
"nonbeing",
"Western philosophy",
"theory of descriptions",
"Mulla Sadra",
"Immanuel Kant",
"teleological argument",
"potentiality and actuality",
"Daoism",
"Plato",
"String theory",
"String (physics)",
"axiom",
"dao",
"creation from nothing",
"Indigenous American philosophy",
"problem of intentional inexistence",
"Metaphysical necessity",
"Anti-realism",
"nothing",
"ancient philosophy",
"ontological argument",
"Vedic",
"reality",
"Domain of discourse",
"Cogito, ergo sum",
"objecthood",
"Al-Ghazali",
"existence theorem",
"ancient China",
"Meaning (philosophy)",
"Meaning of life",
"ontology",
"materialists",
"logical reasoning",
"abstract object",
"Anaximander",
"intelligent design",
"wiktionary:en:exsisto",
"Quantifier (logic)",
"Thales",
"Jean-Paul Sartre",
"Uniqueness quantification",
"Ronald McDonald",
"George Berkeley",
"Pantheism",
"space-time",
"Dasein",
"David Lewis (philosopher)",
"Heraclitus",
"Feminist existentialism",
"philosophy of language",
"Heideggerian terminology",
"mind–body problem",
"acorn",
"Possibilism (philosophy)",
"Angela Merkel",
"metaphysics",
"Bigfoot",
"three marks of existence",
"Scientific anti-realism",
"existentialism",
"René Descartes",
"modern physics",
"Brahman",
"entity",
"existence precedes essence",
"empiricist",
"Laozi",
"Empire State Building",
"dukkha",
"natural kinds",
"Abstract and concrete",
"Subject and object (philosophy)",
"Alexius Meinong",
"Maya (religion)",
"Adi Shankara",
"concepts",
"space",
"Peter van Inwagen",
"Advaita Vedanta",
"Accident (philosophy)",
"matter",
"medieval philosophy",
"Free logic",
"Law of identity",
"Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel",
"philosophy of mind",
"mathematical object",
"soul",
"essence",
"ontological commitments",
"Philosophical realism",
"Nicholas Rescher",
"anattā",
"Theory of categories",
"abstract and concrete",
"Franz Brentano",
"possible world",
"Unobservable",
"Cosmological argument",
"time",
"Søren Kierkegaard",
"Particular",
"David Hume",
"Matter",
"epistemology",
"Martin Heidegger",
"elementary particles",
"banana",
"oak",
"Aristotelianism",
"Dualists",
"Scientific realism",
"Thomas Aquinas",
"Edmund Husserl",
"Chinese philosophy",
"old French",
"Relation (philosophy)",
"egg-laying mammals",
"fiction",
"Hindu philosophy",
"social sciences",
"Quantification (science)",
"Prakriti",
"Buddhist philosophy",
"Bertrand Russell",
"African philosophy",
"prime number",
"Socrates",
"Platonic forms",
"Bundle theory",
"Existentialism",
"natural science",
"ontological difference",
"Islamic philosophy",
"Daoist philosophy",
"Simone de Beauvoir",
"nominalists",
"Ousia",
"Santa Claus",
"elm",
"thick concept",
"Neoplatonists",
"Solipsism",
"Sherlock Holmes",
"Subjunctive possibility",
"Ontology",
"existential quantifier",
"law of identity",
"singular term",
"Sat Chit Ananda",
"intentional object",
"Plotinus",
"Deductive validity",
"Gottlob Frege",
"nothingness",
"Object (philosophy)",
"why there is anything at all",
"the Moon",
"Purusha",
"Causality",
"Greek mythology",
"One Thousand and One Nights",
"Baruch Spinoza",
"Intentionality",
"Theory of descriptions",
"idealists",
"A Study in Scarlet",
"Social constructionism",
"Mental representation",
"universals",
"categories of being",
"mathematics"
] |
9,303 |
Economy (disambiguation)
|
An economy is an area of the production, distribution, or trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents in a given geographical location in various countries
Economy may also refer to:
==Finance and economics==
Economy, or frugality, the quality of being efficient or frugal in using resources;
Economies of scale, a firm's average cost savings from greater output
Virtual economy, an economy simulated in a virtual world
World economy, the economy of the world
== Places ==
Economy, Arkansas, United States
Economy, Indiana, United States
Economy, Missouri, United States
Economy, Nova Scotia, Maritime Canada
Economy, Pennsylvania, United States
Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania, United States
==People==
Elizabeth Economy (born 1962), American scholar and China-watcher
==Arts, entertainment, and media==
Economy (album), a 2011 album by John Mark McMillan
Economy (Thoreau), a chapter from Henry David Thoreau's book Walden
"Jazz ist anders" (Economy), the economy-version of Die Ärzte's album "Jazz ist anders"
==Religion==
Economy (religion), a bishop's discretionary power to relax rules
Economy of Salvation, that part of divine revelation that deals with God's creation and management of the world, particularly His plan for salvation accomplished through the Church
==Other uses==
Economy (basketball), a basketball mathematical statistical formula
Economy class (also called cattle class, scum class, standard class, or steerage class, as well as third class or fourth class on railways, or tourist class on ocean liners), the lowest travel class of seating in air, ferry, maritime, and rail travel
Premium economy, a class of seating in airline travel
|
[
"frugality",
"Economy (Thoreau)",
"Virtual economy",
"Economy (basketball)",
"Economy, Pennsylvania",
"Economy class",
"Economy, Nova Scotia",
"Economies of scale",
"Economy, Indiana",
"Old Economy Village",
"Economy of Salvation",
"World economy",
"Economy (album)",
"Premium economy",
"Economy, Missouri",
"Economy, Arkansas",
"Elizabeth Economy",
"Economic (cyclecar)",
"Economics (disambiguation)",
"Jazz ist anders (Economy)",
"economy",
"Oikonomos",
"Economy (religion)"
] |
9,307 |
Demand-pull inflation
|
Demand-pull inflation occurs when aggregate demand in an economy is more than aggregate supply. It involves inflation rising as real gross domestic product rises and unemployment falls, as the economy moves along the Phillips curve. This is commonly described as "too much money chasing too few goods". More accurately, it should be described as involving "too much money spent chasing too few goods", since only money that is spent on goods and services can cause inflation. This would not be expected to happen, unless the economy is already at a full employment level. It is the opposite of cost-push inflation.
== How it occurs ==
In Keynesian theory, increased employment results in increased aggregate demand (AD), which leads to further hiring by firms to increase output. Due to capacity constraints, this increase in output will eventually become so small that the price of the good will rise.
At first, unemployment will go down, shifting AD1 to AD2, which increases demand (noted as "Y") by (Y2 − Y1). This increase in demand means more workers are needed, and then AD will be shifted from AD2 to AD3, but this time much less is produced than in the previous shift, but the price level has risen from P2 to P3, a much higher increase in price than in the previous shift.
This increase in price is what causes inflation in an overheating economy.
Demand-pull inflation is in contrast with cost-push inflation, when price and wage increases are being transmitted from one sector to another.
However, these can be considered as different aspects of an overall inflationary process—demand-pull inflation explains how price inflation starts, and cost-push inflation demonstrates why inflation once begun is so difficult to stop.
== Causes of demand-pull inflation ==
There is a quick increase in consumption and investment along with extremely confident firms.
There is a sudden increase in exports due to huge under-valuation of the currency.
There is a lot of government spending.
The expectation that inflation will rise often leads to a rise in inflation. Workers and firms will increase their prices to 'catch up' to inflation.
There is excessive monetary growth, when there is too much money in the system chasing too few goods. The 'price' of a good will thus increase.
There is a rise in population.
|
[
"aggregate demand",
"Demand-pull theory",
"Demand shock",
"real gross domestic product",
"unemployment",
"Triangle model",
"Phillips curve",
"cost-push inflation",
"Good (economics)",
"inflation",
"Keynesian theory",
"Cost-push inflation",
"Built-in inflation",
"full employment",
"aggregate supply"
] |
9,308 |
Cost-push inflation
|
Cost-push inflation is a purported type of inflation caused by increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available.
==Cause==
As businesses face higher prices for underlying inputs, they are forced to increase prices of their outputs. It is contrasted with the theory of demand-pull inflation. Both accounts of inflation have at various times been put forward, with inconclusive evidence as to which explanation is superior. Cost-push inflation can also result from a rise in expected inflation, which in turn the workers will demand higher wages, thus causing inflation.
==Examples==
One example of cost-push inflation is the oil crisis of the 1970s, which some economists see as a major cause of the inflation experienced in the Western world in that decade. It is argued that this inflation resulted from increases in the cost of petroleum imposed by the member states of OPEC. Since petroleum is so important to industrialized economies, a large increase in its price can lead to the increase in the price of most products, raising the price level. Some economists argue that such a change in the price level can raise the inflation rate over longer periods, due to adaptive expectations and the price/wage spiral, so that a supply shock can have persistent effects.
==Debated existence and opposition to the concept==
The existence of cost-push inflation is disputed. Dallas S. Batten described it as a myth, writing "Though the cost-push argument is appealing on the surface, neither economic theory nor empirical evidence indicates that businesses and labor can cause continually rising prices", and identifying the real cause as "increased aggregate demand resulting from increased money growth".
Milton Friedman criticised the concept of cost-push inflation, writing "To each businessman separately it looks as if he has to raise prices because costs have gone up. But then, we must ask, 'Why did his costs go up? ... The answer is, because ... total demand all over was increasing." Friedman wrote, "the inflation arises from one and only one reason: an increase in a quantity of money."
|
[
"price level",
"petroleum",
"OPEC",
"price/wage spiral",
"good (economics)",
"Demand-pull inflation",
"Triangle model",
"Milton Friedman",
"demand-pull inflation",
"adaptive expectations",
"inflation",
"1973 oil crisis",
"Stagflation",
"Western world",
"inflation rate",
"supply shock"
] |
9,309 |
Extractor (mathematics)
|
An (N,M,D,K,\epsilon) -extractor is a bipartite graph with N nodes on the left and M nodes on the right such that each node on the left has D neighbors (on the right), which has the added property that
for any subset A of the left vertices of size at least K, the distribution on right vertices obtained by choosing a random node in A and then following a random edge to get a node x on the right side is \epsilon-close to the uniform distribution in terms of total variation distance.
A disperser is a related graph.
An equivalent way to view an extractor is as a bivariate function
E : [N] \times [D] \rightarrow [M]
in the natural way. With this view it turns out that the extractor property is equivalent to: for any source of randomness X that gives n bits with min-entropy \log K, the distribution E(X,U_D) is \epsilon-close to U_M, where U_T denotes the uniform distribution on [T].
Extractors are interesting when they can be constructed with small K,D,\epsilon relative to N and M is as close to KD (the total randomness in the input sources) as possible.
Extractor functions were originally researched as a way to extract randomness from weakly random sources. See randomness extractor.
Using the probabilistic method it is easy to show that extractor graphs with really good parameters exist. The challenge is to find explicit or polynomial time computable examples of such graphs with good parameters. Algorithms that compute extractor (and disperser) graphs have found many applications in computer science.
|
[
"randomness extractor",
"probabilistic method",
"Uniform distribution (continuous)",
"disperser",
"graph theory",
"polynomial time",
"randomness",
"bipartite graph",
"computer science",
"min-entropy",
"bit",
"total variation distance"
] |
9,310 |
Enterprise resource planning
|
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is the integrated management of main business processes, often in real time and mediated by software and technology. ERP is usually referred to as a category of business management software—typically a suite of integrated applications—that an organization can use to collect, store, manage and interpret data from many business activities. ERP systems can be local-based or cloud-based. Cloud-based applications have grown in recent years due to the increased efficiencies arising from information being readily available from any location with Internet access.
ERP differs from integrated business management systems by including planning all resources that are required in the future to meet business objectives. This includes plans for getting suitable staff and manufacturing capabilities for future needs.
ERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of the core business processes using common databases maintained by a database management system. ERP systems track business resources—cash, raw materials, production capacity—and the status of business commitments: orders, purchase orders, and payroll. The applications that make up the system share data across various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, accounting, etc.) that provide the data. ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside stakeholders.
According to Gartner, the global ERP market size is estimated at $35 billion in 2021. Though early ERP systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.
The ERP system integrates varied organizational systems and facilitates error-free transactions and production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency. However, developing an ERP system differs from traditional system development.
ERP systems run on a variety of computer hardware and network configurations, typically using a database as an information repository.
==Origin==
The Gartner Group first used the acronym ERP in the 1990s to include the capabilities of material requirements planning (MRP), and the later manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), as well as computer-integrated manufacturing. Without replacing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole that reflected the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.
Not all ERP packages are developed from a manufacturing core; ERP vendors variously began assembling their packages with finance-and-accounting, maintenance, and human-resource components. By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core enterprise functions. Governments and non–profit organizations also began to use ERP systems. An "ERP system selection methodology" is a formal process for selecting an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system. Existing methodologies include: Kuiper's funnel method, Dobrin's three-dimensional (3D) web-based decision support tool, and the Clarkston Potomac methodology.
==Expansion==
ERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s. Because of the year 2000 problem many companies took the opportunity to replace their old systems with ERP.
ERP systems initially focused on automating back office functions that did not directly affect customers and the public. Front office functions, such as customer relationship management (CRM), dealt directly with customers, or e-business systems such as e-commerce and e-government—or supplier relationship management (SRM) became integrated later, when the internet simplified communicating with external parties.
"ERP II" was coined in 2000 in an article by Gartner Publications entitled ERP Is Dead—Long Live ERP II. It describes web–based software that provides real–time access to ERP systems to employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers). The ERP II role expands traditional ERP resource optimization and transaction processing. Rather than just manage buying, selling, etc.—ERP II leverages information in the resources under its management to help the enterprise collaborate with other enterprises.
ERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERP. Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems. Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems. ERP II systems are typically used to enable collaborative initiatives such as supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship management (CRM) and business intelligence (BI) among business partner organizations through the use of various electronic business technologies. The large proportion of companies are pursuing a strong managerial targets in ERP system instead of acquire an ERP company.
Developers now make more effort to integrate mobile devices with the ERP system. ERP vendors are extending ERP to these devices, along with other business applications, so that businesses don't have to rely on third-party applications. As an example, the e-commerce platform Shopify was able to make ERP tools from Microsoft and Oracle available on its app in October 2021.
==Functional areas==
An ERP system covers the following common functional areas. In many ERP systems, these are called and grouped together as ERP modules:
Financial accounting: general ledger, fixed assets, payables including vouchering, matching and payment, receivables and collections, cash management, financial consolidation
Management accounting: budgeting, costing, cost management, activity based costing, billing, invoicing (optional)
Human resources: recruiting, training, rostering, payroll, benefits, retirement and pension plans, diversity management, retirement, separation
Manufacturing: engineering, bill of materials, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow management, quality control, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, product life cycle management
Order processing: order to cash, order entry, credit checking, pricing, available to promise, inventory, shipping, sales analysis and reporting, sales commissioning
Supply chain management: supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, product configurator, order to cash, purchasing, inventory, claim processing, warehousing (receiving, putaway, picking and packing)
Project management: project planning, resource planning, project costing, work breakdown structure, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity management
Customer relationship management (CRM): sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center supportCRM systems are not always considered part of ERP systems but rather business support systems (BSS)
Supplier relationship management (SRM): suppliers, orders, payments.
Data services: various "self-service" interfaces for customers, suppliers or employees
Management of school and educational institutes.
Contract Management: creating, monitoring, and managing contracts, reducing administrative burdens and minimising legal risks. These modules often feature contract templates, electronic signature capabilities, automated alerts for contract milestones, and advanced search functionality.
=== GRP – ERP use in government ===
Government resource planning (GRP) is the equivalent of an ERP for the public sector and an integrated office automation system for government bodies. The software structure, modularization, core algorithms and main interfaces do not differ from other ERPs, and ERP software suppliers manage to adapt their systems to government agencies.
Both system implementations, in private and public organizations, are adopted to improve productivity and overall business performance in organizations, but comparisons (private vs. public) of implementations shows that the main factors influencing ERP implementation success in the public sector are cultural.
==Best practices==
Most ERP systems incorporate best practices. This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in how conveniently the customer can modify these practices.
Use of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as International Financial Reporting Standards, Sarbanes-Oxley, or Basel II. They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as electronic funds transfer. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses that share that business requirement.
==Connectivity to plant floor information==
ERP systems connect to real–time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions.
Direct integration – ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering. This requires that the vendors offer specific support for the plant floor equipment their customers operate.
Database integration – ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.
Enterprise appliance transaction modules (EATM) – These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, web services, or system–specific program interfaces (APIs). An EATM offers the benefit of being an off–the–shelf solution.
Custom–integration solutions – Many system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom–integrated solutions typically run on workstation or server-class computers.
==Implementation==
ERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices. Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes: consulting, customization, and support. Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years. Customization can substantially increase implementation times.
===Process preparation===
Implementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes. Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure. The difficulties could be related to the system, business process, infrastructure, training, or lack of motivation.
It is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze processes before they deploy an ERP software. Analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:
Linking current processes to the organization's strategy
Analyzing the effectiveness of each process
Understanding existing automated solutions
ERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies, and decision centers. This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g., linking via master data management) or customizing the system to meet specific needs.
A potential disadvantage is that adopting "standard" processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.
===Configuration===
Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the organization wants the system to work, and the way the system is designed to work out of the box. ERP systems typically include many configurable settings that in effect modify system operations. For example, in the ServiceNow platform, business rules can be written requiring the signature of a business owner within 2 weeks of a newly completed risk assessment. The tool can be configured to automatically email notifications to the business owner, and transition the risk assessment to various stages in the process depending on the owner's responses or lack thereof.
===Two-tier enterprise resource planning===
Two-tier ERP software and hardware lets companies run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level. For example, a manufacturing company could use an ERP system to manage across the organization using independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company's customers. Each independent center (or) subsidiary may have its own business operations cycles, workflows, and business processes.
Given the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional, and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value. With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production, or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model—separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems. Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.
Factors that affect enterprises' adoption of two-tier ERP systems include:
Manufacturing globalization, the economics of sourcing in emerging economies
Potential for quicker, less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries, based on selecting software more suited to smaller companies
Extra effort, (often involving the use of enterprise application integration) is required where data must pass between two ERP systems Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the organization.
===Customization===
ERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices, and their makers intend that organizations deploy them "as is". ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that let organizations incorporate their own business rules, but gaps in features often remain even after configuration is complete.
ERP customers have several options to reconcile feature gaps, each with their own pros/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered software, writing a homegrown module to work within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. These three options constitute varying degrees of system customization—with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain. Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP feature set. Key differences between customization and configuration include:
Customization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e.g., setting up cost/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.).
The software is designed to handle various configurations and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration.
The effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable. It is the customer's responsibility, and increases testing requirements.
Configuration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e.g., code that uses pre–defined "hooks" that are called before/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e.g., those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented.
Advantages of customization include:
Improving user acceptance
Potential to obtain competitive advantage vis-à-vis companies using only standard features.
Customization's disadvantages include that it may:
Increase time and resources required to implement and maintain
Hinder seamless interfacing/integration between suppliers and customers due to the differences between systems Extensions offer features such as:
Identify the data to be migrated.
Determine the migration timing.
Generate data migration templates for key data components
Freeze the toolset.
Decide on the migration-related setup of key business accounts.
Define data archiving policies and procedures.
Often, data migration is incomplete because some of the data in the existing system is either incompatible or not needed in the new system. As such, the existing system may need to be kept as an archived database to refer back to once the new ERP system is in place.
Sales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization.
Chronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.
Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment
Revenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt
Matching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced)
ERP systems centralize business data, which:
Eliminates the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems—consolidation of finance, marketing, sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications
Brings legitimacy and transparency to each bit of statistical data
Facilitates standard product naming/coding
Provides a comprehensive enterprise view (no "islands of information"), making real–time information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions
Protects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure
===Benefits===
ERP creates a more agile company that adapts better to change. It also makes a company more flexible and less rigidly structured so organization components operate more cohesively, enhancing the business—internally and externally.
ERP can improve data security in a closed environment. A common control system, such as the kind offered by ERP systems, allows organizations the ability to more easily ensure key company data is not compromised. This changes, however, with a more open environment, requiring further scrutiny of ERP security features and internal company policies regarding security.
ERP provides increased opportunities for collaboration. Data takes many forms in the modern enterprise, including documents, files, forms, audio and video, and emails. Often, each data medium has its own mechanism for allowing collaboration. ERP provides a collaborative platform that lets employees spend more time collaborating on content rather than mastering the learning curve of communicating in various formats across distributed systems.
===Disadvantages===
Customization can be problematic. Compared to the best-of-breed approach, ERP can be seen as meeting an organization's lowest common denominator needs, forcing the organization to find workarounds to meet unique demands.
Re-engineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.
ERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.
High ERP switching costs can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power, which can increase support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses.
Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.
Integration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.
Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.
Harmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning, and money.
===Adoption rates===
Research published in 2011 based on a survey of 225 manufacturers, retailers and distributors found "high" rates of interest and adoption of ERP systems and that very few businesses were "completely untouched" by the concept of an ERP system. 27% of the companies survey had a fully operational system, 12% were at that time rolling out a system and 26% had an existing ERP system which they were extending or upgrading.
== Postmodern ERP ==
The term "postmodern ERP" was coined by Gartner in 2013, when it first appeared in the paper series "Predicts 2014". According to Gartner's definition of the postmodern ERP strategy, legacy, monolithic and highly customized ERP suites, in which all parts are heavily reliant on each other, should sooner or later be replaced by a mixture of both cloud-based and on-premises applications, which are more loosely coupled and can be easily exchanged if needed. to software execution, but it shouldn't be confused with it. While in both cases, applications that make up the whole are relatively loosely connected and quite easily interchangeable, in the case of the latter there is no ERP solution whatsoever. Instead, every business function is covered by a separate software solution.
There is, however, no golden rule as to what business functions should be part of the core ERP, and what should be covered by supplementary solutions. According to Gartner, every company must define their own postmodern ERP strategy, based on company's internal and external needs, operations and processes.
|
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"cash management"
] |
9,311 |
Endocrinology
|
Endocrinology (from endocrine + -ology) is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology.
The endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Therefore, endocrine glands are regarded as ductless glands. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.
==The endocrine system==
Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones. Hormones are chemicals that affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin. The endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone (such as thyroid stimulating hormone) will control the action or release of another secondary hormone (such as thyroid hormone). If there is too much of the secondary hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone, maintaining homeostasis.
In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling (see below), they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell). A neuroendocrine signal is a "classical" hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on neuroendocrinology).
=== Hormones ===
Griffin and Ojeda identify three different classes of hormones based on their chemical composition:
====Amines====
Amines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine (catecholamines), are derived from single amino acids, in this case tyrosine. Thyroid hormones such as 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3',5'-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class because they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues.
====Peptide and protein====
Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three (in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to more than 200 (in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone) amino acid residues and can have a molecular mass as large as 31,000 grams per mole. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas.
====Steroid====
Steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Some forms of vitamin D, such as calcitriol, are steroid-like and bind to homologous receptors, but lack the characteristic fused ring structure of true steroids.
==As a profession==
Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the brain, lungs, heart, intestine, skin, and the kidneys), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion. These organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas.
An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases).
===Work===
The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.
The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.
A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, which may or may not represent disease.
Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need lifelong care. Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome. Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.
Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in clinical science and medical research, teaching, and hospital management.
===Training===
Endocrinologists are specialists of internal medicine or pediatrics. Reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily with problems of fertility and menstrual function—often training first in obstetrics. Most qualify as an internist, pediatrician, or gynecologist for a few years before specializing, depending on the local training system. In the U.S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, pediatrics, or gynecology after medical school is called residency. Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, pediatric, or reproductive endocrinology is called a fellowship. Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 2 years of fellowship. In the US, adult endocrinologists are board certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) or the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM) in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism.
== Diseases treated by endocrinologists ==
Diabetes mellitus: This is a chronic condition that affects how your body regulates blood sugar. There are two main types: type 1 diabetes, which is an autoimmune disease that occurs when the body attacks the cells that produce insulin, and type 2 diabetes, which is a condition in which the body either doesn't produce enough insulin or doesn't use it effectively.
Thyroid disorders: These are conditions that affect the thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of your neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate your metabolism, heart rate, and body temperature. Common thyroid disorders include hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) and hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).
Adrenal disorders: The adrenal glands are located on top of your kidneys. They produce hormones that help regulate blood pressure, blood sugar, and the body's response to stress. Common adrenal disorders include Cushing syndrome (excess cortisol production) and Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency).
Pituitary disorders: The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain. It produces hormones that control many other hormone-producing glands in the body. Common pituitary disorders include acromegaly (excess growth hormone production) and Cushing's disease (excess ACTH production).
Metabolic disorders: These are conditions that affect how your body processes food into energy. Common metabolic disorders include obesity, high cholesterol, and gout.
Calcium and bone disorders: Endocrinologists also treat conditions that affect calcium levels in the blood, such as hyperparathyroidism (too much parathyroid hormone) and osteoporosis (weak bones).
Sexual and reproductive disorders: Endocrinologists can also help diagnose and treat hormonal problems that affect sexual development and function, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and erectile dysfunction.
Endocrine cancers: These are cancers that develop in the endocrine glands. Endocrinologists can help diagnose and treat these cancers.
== Diseases and medicine ==
===Diseases===
See main article at Endocrine diseases
Endocrinology also involves the study of the diseases of the endocrine system. These diseases may relate to too little or too much secretion of a hormone, too little or too much action of a hormone, or problems with receiving the hormone.
=== Societies and Organizations ===
Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public. The Hormone Foundation is the public education affiliate of The Endocrine Society and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions. Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the American Diabetes Association, Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc., and American Thyroid Association.
In North America the principal professional organizations of endocrinologists include The Endocrine Society, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, the American Diabetes Association, the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society, and the American Thyroid Association.
In Europe, the European Society of Endocrinology (ESE) and the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology (ESPE) are the main organisations representing professionals in the fields of adult and paediatric endocrinology, respectively.
In the United Kingdom, the Society for Endocrinology and the British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes are the main professional organisations.
The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology is the largest international professional association dedicated solely to paediatric endocrinology. There are numerous similar associations around the world.
== History ==
The earliest study of endocrinology began in China. They used many complex methods, such as sublimation of steroid hormones. and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century.
In 1849, Arnold Berthold noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour. He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and he concluded (erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that "conditioned" the blood that, in turn, acted on the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in 1935.
Graves' disease was named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves, who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835. The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively, and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century. Thomas Addison was first to describe Addison's disease in 1849.
In 1902 William Bayliss and Ernest Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. The same response could be produced by injecting extract of jejunum mucosa into the jugular vein, showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance "secretin" and coined the term hormone for chemicals that act in this way.
Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski made the observation in 1889 that removing the pancreas surgically led to an increase in blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death—symptoms of diabetes mellitus. In 1922, Banting and Best realized that homogenizing the pancreas and injecting the derived extract reversed this condition.
Neurohormones were first identified by Otto Loewi in 1921. He incubated a frog's heart (innervated with its vagus nerve attached) in a saline bath, and left in the solution for some time. The solution was then used to bathe a non-innervated second heart. If the vagus nerve on the first heart was stimulated, negative inotropic (beat amplitude) and chronotropic (beat rate) activity were seen in both hearts. This did not occur in either heart if the vagus nerve was not stimulated. The vagus nerve was adding something to the saline solution. The effect could be blocked using atropine, a known inhibitor to heart vagal nerve stimulation. Clearly, something was being secreted by the vagus nerve and affecting the heart. The "vagusstuff" (as Loewi called it) causing the myotropic (muscle enhancing) effects was later identified to be acetylcholine and norepinephrine. Loewi won the Nobel Prize for his discovery.
Recent work in endocrinology focuses on the molecular mechanisms responsible for triggering the effects of hormones. The first example of such work being done was in 1962 by Earl Sutherland. Sutherland investigated whether hormones enter cells to evoke action, or stayed outside of cells. He studied norepinephrine, which acts on the liver to convert glycogen into glucose via the activation of the phosphorylase enzyme. He homogenized the liver into a membrane fraction and soluble fraction (phosphorylase is soluble), added norepinephrine to the membrane fraction, extracted its soluble products, and added them to the first soluble fraction. Phosphorylase activated, indicating that norepinephrine's target receptor was on the cell membrane, not located intracellularly. He later identified the compound as cyclic AMP (cAMP) and with his discovery created the concept of second-messenger-mediated pathways. He, like Loewi, won the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work in endocrinology.
|
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"lactation"
] |
9,312 |
Endocrine system
|
The endocrine system is a messenger system in an organism comprising feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands directly into the circulatory system and that target and regulate distant organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, pineal, and adrenal glands, and the (male) testis and (female) ovaries. The hypothalamus, pancreas, and thymus also function as endocrine glands, among other functions. (The hypothalamus and pituitary glands are organs of the neuroendocrine system. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamusit is located in the brain adjacent to the pituitary glandis to link the endocrine system to the nervous system via the pituitary gland.) Other organs, such as the kidneys, also have roles within the endocrine system by secreting certain hormones. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology.
The thyroid secretes thyroxine, the pituitary secretes growth hormone, the pineal secretes melatonin, the testis secretes testosterone, and the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone.
Glands that signal each other in sequence are often referred to as an axis, such as the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions, including bone, kidneys, liver, heart and gonads. For example, the kidney secretes the endocrine hormone erythropoietin. Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.
==Structure==
===Major endocrine systems===
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.
TRH – TSH – T3/T4
GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones
CRH – ACTH – cortisol
Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone
Leptin vs. ghrelin
===Glands===
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into interstitial spaces where they are absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.
The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are two out of the three endocrine glands that are important in cell signaling. They are both part of the HPA axis which is known to play a role in cell signaling in the nervous system.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a key regulator of the autonomic nervous system. The endocrine system has three sets of endocrine outputs which include the magnocellular system, the parvocellular system, and autonomic intervention. The magnocellular is involved in the expression of oxytocin or vasopressin. The parvocellular is involved in controlling the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
Anterior Pituitary: The main role of the anterior pituitary gland is to produce and secrete tropic hormones. Some examples of tropic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland include TSH, ACTH, GH, LH, and FSH.
===Endocrine cells===
There are many types of cells that make up the endocrine system and these cells typically make up larger tissues and organs that function within and outside of the endocrine system.
Hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Posterior pituitary gland
The posterior pituitary gland is a section of the pituitary gland. This organ does not produce any hormone but stores and secretes hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is synthesized by supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and oxytocin which is synthesized by paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus. ADH functions to help the body to retain water; this is important in maintaining a homeostatic balance between blood solutions and water. Oxytocin functions to induce uterine contractions, stimulate lactation, and allows for ejaculation.
Thyroid gland
follicular cells of the thyroid gland produce and secrete T3 and T4 in response to elevated levels of TRH, produced by the hypothalamus, and subsequent elevated levels of TSH, produced by the anterior pituitary gland, which further regulates the metabolic activity and rate of all cells, including cell growth and tissue differentiation.
Parathyroid gland The endocrine system can control all emotions and can control temperature.
Epithelial cells of the parathyroid glands are richly supplied with blood from the inferior and superior thyroid arteries and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH acts on bone, the kidneys, and the GI tract to increase calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion. In addition, PTH stimulates the conversion of Vitamin D to its most active variant, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, which further stimulates calcium absorption in the GI tract.
Alpha cells
The alpha cells of the pancreas secrete hormones to maintain homeostatic blood sugar. Insulin is produced and excreted to lower blood sugar to normal levels. Glucagon, another hormone produced by alpha cells, is secreted in response to low blood sugar levels; glucagon stimulates glycogen stores in the liver to release sugar into the bloodstream to raise blood sugar to normal levels.
Beta cells
60% of the cells present in islet of Langerhans are beta cells. Beta cells secrete insulin. Along with glucagon, insulin helps in maintaining glucose levels in our body. Insulin decreases blood glucose level ( a hypoglycemic hormone) whereas glucagon increases blood glucose level.
==Development==
The fetal endocrine system is one of the first systems to develop during prenatal development.
===Adrenal glands===
The fetal adrenal cortex can be identified within four weeks of gestation. The adrenal cortex originates from the thickening of the intermediate mesoderm. At five to six weeks of gestation, the mesonephros differentiates into a tissue known as the genital ridge. The genital ridge produces the steroidogenic cells for both the gonads and the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla is derived from ectodermal cells. Cells that will become adrenal tissue move retroperitoneally to the upper portion of the mesonephros. At seven weeks of gestation, the adrenal cells are joined by sympathetic cells that originate from the neural crest to form the adrenal medulla. At the end of the eighth week, the adrenal glands have been encapsulated and have formed a distinct organ above the developing kidneys. At birth, the adrenal glands weigh approximately eight to nine grams (twice that of the adult adrenal glands) and are 0.5% of the total body weight. At 25 weeks, the adult adrenal cortex zone develops and is responsible for the primary synthesis of steroids during the early postnatal weeks.
===Thyroid gland===
The thyroid gland develops from two different clusterings of embryonic cells. One part is from the thickening of the pharyngeal floor, which serves as the precursor of the thyroxine (T4) producing follicular cells. The other part is from the caudal extensions of the fourth pharyngobranchial pouches which results in the parafollicular calcitonin-secreting cells. These two structures are apparent by 16 to 17 days of gestation. Around the 24th day of gestation, the foramen cecum, a thin, flask-like diverticulum of the median anlage develops. At approximately 24 to 32 days of gestation the median anlage develops into a bilobed structure. By 50 days of gestation, the medial and lateral anlage have fused together. At 12 weeks of gestation, the fetal thyroid is capable of storing iodine for the production of TRH, TSH, and free thyroid hormone. At 20 weeks, the fetus is able to implement feedback mechanisms for the production of thyroid hormones. During fetal development, T4 is the major thyroid hormone being produced while triiodothyronine (T3) and its inactive derivative, reverse T3, are not detected until the third trimester.
===Parathyroid glands===
A lateral and ventral view of an embryo showing the third (inferior) and fourth (superior) parathyroid glands during the 6th week of embryogenesis
Once the embryo reaches four weeks of gestation, the parathyroid glands begins to develop. The human embryo forms five sets of endoderm-lined pharyngeal pouches. The third and fourth pouch are responsible for developing into the inferior and superior parathyroid glands, respectively. The third pharyngeal pouch encounters the developing thyroid gland and they migrate down to the lower poles of the thyroid lobes. The fourth pharyngeal pouch later encounters the developing thyroid gland and migrates to the upper poles of the thyroid lobes. At 14 weeks of gestation, the parathyroid glands begin to enlarge from 0.1 mm in diameter to approximately 1 – 2 mm at birth. The developing parathyroid glands are physiologically functional beginning in the second trimester.
Studies in mice have shown that interfering with the HOX15 gene can cause parathyroid gland aplasia, which suggests the gene plays an important role in the development of the parathyroid gland. The genes, TBX1, CRKL, GATA3, GCM2, and SOX3 have also been shown to play a crucial role in the formation of the parathyroid gland. Mutations in TBX1 and CRKL genes are correlated with DiGeorge syndrome, while mutations in GATA3 have also resulted in a DiGeorge-like syndrome. Malformations in the GCM2 gene have resulted in hypoparathyroidism. Studies on SOX3 gene mutations have demonstrated that it plays a role in parathyroid development. These mutations also lead to varying degrees of hypopituitarism.
===Pancreas===
The human fetal pancreas begins to develop by the fourth week of gestation. Five weeks later, the pancreatic alpha and beta cells have begun to emerge. Reaching eight to ten weeks into development, the pancreas starts producing insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. During the early stages of fetal development, the number of pancreatic alpha cells outnumbers the number of pancreatic beta cells. The alpha cells reach their peak in the middle stage of gestation. From the middle stage until term, the beta cells continue to increase in number until they reach an approximate 1:1 ratio with the alpha cells. The insulin concentration within the fetal pancreas is 3.6 pmol/g at seven to ten weeks, which rises to 30 pmol/g at 16–25 weeks of gestation. Near term, the insulin concentration increases to 93 pmol/g. The endocrine cells have dispersed throughout the body within 10 weeks. At 31 weeks of development, the islets of Langerhans have differentiated.
While the fetal pancreas has functional beta cells by 14 to 24 weeks of gestation, the amount of insulin that is released into the bloodstream is relatively low. In a study of pregnant women carrying fetuses in the mid-gestation and near term stages of development, the fetuses did not have an increase in plasma insulin levels in response to injections of high levels of glucose. In contrast to insulin, the fetal plasma glucagon levels are relatively high and continue to increase during development. At the mid-stage of gestation, the glucagon concentration is 6 μg/g, compared to 2 μg/g in adult humans. Just like insulin, fetal glucagon plasma levels do not change in response to an infusion of glucose. However, a study of an infusion of alanine into pregnant women was shown to increase the cord blood and maternal glucagon concentrations, demonstrating a fetal response to amino acid exposure.
As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during the remaining fetal maturation, the islet cells are relatively immature in their capacity to produce glucagon and insulin. This is thought to be a result of the relatively stable levels of fetal serum glucose concentrations achieved via maternal transfer of glucose through the placenta. On the other hand, the stable fetal serum glucose levels could be attributed to the absence of pancreatic signaling initiated by incretins during feeding. In addition, the fetal pancreatic islets cells are unable to sufficiently produce cAMP and rapidly degrade cAMP by phosphodiesterase necessary to secrete glucagon and insulin.
During fetal development, the storage of glycogen is controlled by fetal glucocorticoids and placental lactogen. Fetal insulin is responsible for increasing glucose uptake and lipogenesis during the stages leading up to birth. Fetal cells contain a higher amount of insulin receptors in comparison to adults cells and fetal insulin receptors are not downregulated in cases of hyperinsulinemia. In comparison, fetal haptic glucagon receptors are lowered in comparison to adult cells and the glycemic effect of glucagon is blunted. This temporary physiological change aids the increased rate of fetal development during the final trimester. Poorly managed maternal diabetes mellitus is linked to fetal macrosomia, increased risk of miscarriage, and defects in fetal development. Maternal hyperglycemia is also linked to increased insulin levels and beta cell hyperplasia in the post-term infant. Children of diabetic mothers are at an increased risk for conditions such as: polycythemia, renal vein thrombosis, hypocalcemia, respiratory distress syndrome, jaundice, cardiomyopathy, congenital heart disease, and improper organ development.
===Gonads===
The reproductive system begins development at four to five weeks of gestation with germ cell migration. The bipotential gonad results from the collection of the medioventral region of the urogenital ridge. At the five-week point, the developing gonads break away from the adrenal primordium. Gonadal differentiation begins 42 days following conception.
====Male gonadal development====
For males, the testes form at six fetal weeks and the sertoli cells begin developing by the eight week of gestation. SRY, the sex-determining locus, serves to differentiate the Sertoli cells. The Sertoli cells are the point of origin for anti-Müllerian hormone. Once synthesized, the anti-Müllerian hormone initiates the ipsilateral regression of the Müllerian tract and inhibits the development of female internal features. At 10 weeks of gestation, the Leydig cells begin to produce androgen hormones. The androgen hormone dihydrotestosterone is responsible for the development of the male external genitalia.
The testicles descend during prenatal development in a two-stage process that begins at eight weeks of gestation and continues through the middle of the third trimester. During the transabdominal stage (8 to 15 weeks of gestation), the gubernacular ligament contracts and begins to thicken. The craniosuspensory ligament begins to break down. This stage is regulated by the secretion of insulin-like 3 (INSL3), a relaxin-like factor produced by the testicles, and the INSL3 G-coupled receptor, LGR8. During the transinguinal phase (25 to 35 weeks of gestation), the testicles descend into the scrotum. This stage is regulated by androgens, the genitofemoral nerve, and calcitonin gene-related peptide. During the second and third trimester, testicular development concludes with the diminution of the fetal Leydig cells and the lengthening and coiling of the seminiferous cords.
====Female gonadal development====
For females, the ovaries become morphologically visible by the 8th week of gestation. The absence of testosterone results in the diminution of the Wolffian structures. The Müllerian structures remain and develop into the fallopian tubes, uterus, and the upper region of the vagina. The urogenital sinus develops into the urethra and lower region of the vagina, the genital tubercle develops into the clitoris, the urogenital folds develop into the labia minora, and the urogenital swellings develop into the labia majora. At 16 weeks of gestation, the ovaries produce FSH and LH/hCG receptors. At 20 weeks of gestation, the theca cell precursors are present and oogonia mitosis is occurring. At 25 weeks of gestation, the ovary is morphologically defined and folliculogenesis can begin.
Studies of gene expression show that a specific complement of genes, such as follistatin and multiple cyclin kinase inhibitors are involved in ovarian development. An assortment of genes and proteins - such as WNT4, RSPO1, FOXL2, and various estrogen receptors - have been shown to prevent the development of testicles or the lineage of male-type cells.
===Pituitary gland===
The pituitary gland is formed within the rostral neural plate. The Rathke's pouch, a cavity of ectodermal cells of the oropharynx, forms between the fourth and fifth week of gestation and upon full development, it gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary vascular system begins to develop. During the first 12 weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary undergoes cellular differentiation. At 20 weeks of gestation, the hypophyseal portal system has developed. The Rathke's pouch grows towards the third ventricle and fuses with the diverticulum. This eliminates the lumen and the structure becomes Rathke's cleft. The posterior pituitary lobe is formed from the diverticulum. Portions of the pituitary tissue may remain in the nasopharyngeal midline. In rare cases this results in functioning ectopic hormone-secreting tumors in the nasopharynx.
The functional development of the anterior pituitary involves spatiotemporal regulation of transcription factors expressed in pituitary stem cells and dynamic gradients of local soluble factors. The coordination of the dorsal gradient of pituitary morphogenesis is dependent on neuroectodermal signals from the infundibular bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4). This protein is responsible for the development of the initial invagination of the Rathke's pouch. Other essential proteins necessary for pituitary cell proliferation are Fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8), Wnt4, and Wnt5. Ventral developmental patterning and the expression of transcription factors is influenced by the gradients of BMP2 and sonic hedgehog protein (SHH). These factors are essential for coordinating early patterns of cell proliferation.
Six weeks into gestation, the corticotroph cells can be identified. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary is capable of secreting ACTH. Within eight weeks of gestation, somatotroph cells begin to develop with cytoplasmic expression of human growth hormone. Once a fetus reaches 12 weeks of development, the thyrotrophs begin expression of Beta subunits for TSH, while gonadotrophs being to express beta-subunits for LH and FSH. Male fetuses predominately produced LH-expressing gonadotrophs, while female fetuses produce an equal expression of LH and FSH expressing gonadotrophs. At 24 weeks of gestation, prolactin-expressing lactotrophs begin to emerge.
==Function==
===Hormones===
A hormone is any of a class of signaling molecules produced by cells in glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid changes to the activity of existing proteins, or slower changes in the expression of target genes. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via signal transduction pathways; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells to act within their nuclei.
===Cell signalling===
The typical mode of cell signalling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
====Autocrine====
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
====Paracrine====
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.
==Clinical significance==
===Disease===
Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity.
Endocrine disease is characterized by misregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic kidney failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison's disease, Cushing's disease and Graves' disease. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism. Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands. Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism. Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.
Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.]]
A DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Year) is a measure that reflects the total burden of disease. It combines years of life lost (due to premature death) and years lived with disability (adjusted for the severity of the disability). The lower the DALY rates, the lower the burden of endocrine disorders in a country.
The map shows that large parts of Asia have lower DALY rates (pale yellow), suggesting that endocrine disorders have a relatively low impact on overall health, whereas some countries in South America and Africa (specifically Suriname and Somalia) have higher DALY rates (dark orange to red), indicating a higher disease burden from endocrine disorders.
==Other animals==
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have a hypothalamus–pituitary axis. All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form. All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers. All vertebrates have some form of a renin–angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as a primary mineralocorticoid.
==Additional images==
Blausen_0345_EndocrineSystem_Female2.png|Female endocrine system
Blausen 0346 EndocrineSystem Male2.png|Male endocrine system
|
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9,313 |
Expander graph
|
In graph theory, an expander graph is a sparse graph that has strong connectivity properties, quantified using vertex, edge or spectral expansion. Expander constructions have spawned research in pure and applied mathematics, with several applications to complexity theory, design of robust computer networks, and the theory of error-correcting codes.
==Definitions==
Intuitively, an expander graph is a finite, undirected multigraph in which every subset of the vertices that is not "too large" has a "large" boundary. Different formalisations of these notions give rise to different notions of expanders: edge expanders, vertex expanders, and spectral expanders, as defined below.
A disconnected graph is not an expander, since the boundary of a connected component is empty. Every connected graph is an expander; however, different connected graphs have different expansion parameters. The complete graph has the best expansion property, but it has largest possible degree. Informally, a graph is a good expander if it has low degree and high expansion parameters.
===Edge expansion===
The edge expansion (also isoperimetric number or Cheeger constant) of a graph on vertices is defined as
h(G) = \min_{0 < |S| \le \frac{n}{2} } \frac,
where \partial S := \{ \{ u, v \} \in E(G) \ : \ u \in S, v \notin S \},
which can also be written as with the complement of and
E(A,B) = \{ \{ u, v \} \in E(G) \ : \ u \in A , v \in B \}
the edges between the subsets of vertices .
In the equation, the minimum is over all nonempty sets of at most vertices and is the edge boundary of , i.e., the set of edges with exactly one endpoint in .
Intuitively,
\min = \min E({S}, \overline{S})
is the minimum number of edges that need to be cut in order to split the graph in two.
The edge expansion normalizes this concept by dividing with smallest number of vertices among the two parts.
To see how the normalization can drastically change the value, consider the following example.
Take two complete graphs with the same number of vertices and add edges between the two graphs by connecting their vertices one-to-one.
The minimum cut will be but the edge expansion will be 1.
Notice that in , the optimization can be equivalently done either over or over any non-empty subset, since E(S, \overline{S}) = E(\overline{S}, S). The same is not true for because of the normalization by .
If we want to write with an optimization over all non-empty subsets, we can rewrite it as
h(G) = \min_{\emptyset \subsetneq S\subsetneq V(G) } \frac{E({S}, \overline{S})}{\min\,
where is the outer boundary of , i.e., the set of vertices in with at least one neighbor in . In a variant of this definition (called unique neighbor expansion) is replaced by the set of vertices in with exactly one neighbor in .
The vertex isoperimetric number of a graph is defined as
h_{\text{in}}(G) = \min_{0 < |S|\le \frac{n}{2}} \frac,
where \partial_{\text{in}}(S) is the inner boundary of , i.e., the set of vertices in with at least one neighbor in . Because is symmetric, the spectral theorem implies that has real-valued eigenvalues . It is known that all these eigenvalues are in and more specifically, it is known that if and only if is bipartite.
More formally, we refer to an -vertex, -regular graph with
\max_{i \neq 1}|\lambda_i| \leq \lambda
as an -graph. The bound given by an -graph on for is useful in many contexts, including the expander mixing lemma.
Spectral expansion can be two-sided, as above, with \max_{i \neq 1}|\lambda_i| \leq \lambda, or it can be one-sided, with \max_{i \neq 1}\lambda_i \leq \lambda. The latter is a weaker notion that holds also for bipartite graphs and is still useful for many applications, such as the Alon–Chung lemma.
Because is regular, the uniform distribution u\in\R^n with for all is the stationary distribution of . That is, we have , and is an eigenvector of with eigenvalue , where is the degree of the vertices of . The spectral gap of is defined to be , and it measures the spectral expansion of the graph .
If we set
\lambda=\max\{n}\right| \leq \lambda \sqrt.
Many properties of -graphs are corollaries of the expander mixing lemmas, including the following. while Alon, Krivelevich, and Sudakov showed that if , then\chi(G) \leq O \left( \frac{d}{\log(1+d/\lambda)} \right).
The diameter of a graph is the maximum distance between two vertices, where the distance between two vertices is defined to be the shortest path between them. Chung showed that the diameter of an -graph is at most\left\lceil \log \frac{n}{ \log(d/\lambda)} \right\rceil.
===Expander walk sampling===
The Chernoff bound states that, when sampling many independent samples from a random variable in the range , with high probability the average of our samples is close to the expectation of the random variable. The expander walk sampling lemma, due to and , states that this also holds true when sampling from a walk on an expander graph. This is particularly useful in the theory of derandomization, since sampling according to an expander walk uses many fewer random bits than sampling independently.
=== AKS sorting network and approximate halvers ===
Sorting networks take a set of inputs and perform a series of parallel steps to sort the inputs. A parallel step consists of performing any number of disjoint comparisons and potentially swapping pairs of compared inputs. The depth of a network is given by the number of parallel steps it takes. Expander graphs play an important role in the AKS sorting network, which achieves depth . While this is asymptotically the best known depth for a sorting network, the reliance on expanders makes the constant bound too large for practical use.
Within the AKS sorting network, expander graphs are used to construct bounded depth -halvers. An -halver takes as input a length permutation of and halves the inputs into two disjoint sets and such that for each integer at most of the smallest inputs are in and at most of the largest inputs are in . The sets and are an -halving.
Following , a depth -halver can be constructed as follows. Take an vertex, degree bipartite expander with parts and of equal size such that every subset of vertices of size at most has at least neighbors.
The vertices of the graph can be thought of as registers that contain inputs and the edges can be thought of as wires that compare the inputs of two registers. At the start, arbitrarily place half of the inputs in and half of the inputs in and decompose the edges into perfect matchings. The goal is to end with roughly containing the smaller half of the inputs and containing roughly the larger half of the inputs. To achieve this, sequentially process each matching by comparing the registers paired up by the edges of this matching and correct any inputs that are out of order. Specifically, for each edge of the matching, if the larger input is in the register in and the smaller input is in the register in , then swap the two inputs so that the smaller one is in and the larger one is in . It is clear that this process consists of parallel steps.
After all rounds, take to be the set of inputs in registers in and to be the set of inputs in registers in to obtain an -halving. To see this, notice that if a register in and in are connected by an edge then after the matching with this edge is processed, the input in is less than that of . Furthermore, this property remains true throughout the rest of the process. Now, suppose for some that more than of the inputs are in . Then by expansion properties of the graph, the registers of these inputs in are connected with at least registers in . Altogether, this constitutes more than registers so there must be some register in connected to some register in such that the final input of is not in , while the final input of is. This violates the previous property however, and thus the output sets and must be an -halving.
|
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"American Mathematical Society",
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"orthogonal",
"Superstrong approximation",
"Chernoff bound",
"computational complexity theory",
"Journal of Combinatorial Theory",
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"Erdős–Rényi model",
"random graph",
"spectral graph theory",
"Combinatorica",
"connectivity (graph theory)",
"complete graph",
"edge (graph theory)",
"Peter Sarnak",
"sorting network",
"SL (complexity)",
"component (graph theory)",
"stationary distribution",
"finite geometry",
"Covering graph",
"symmetric matrix",
"Salil Vadhan",
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"Cheeger bound",
"Alexander Lubotzky",
"Inventiones Mathematicae",
"adjacency matrix",
"spectral theorem",
"hash function",
"Vitali Milman",
"Israel Journal of Mathematics",
"computer science",
"Graph coloring",
"directed graph",
"eigenvector",
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] |
9,316 |
England
|
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It shares a land border with Scotland to the north and another land border with Wales to the west, and is otherwise surrounded by the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south, the Celtic Sea to the south-west, and the Irish Sea to the west. Continental Europe lies to the south-east, and Ireland to the west. At the 2021 census, the population was 56,490,048. The Kingdom of England, which included Wales after 1535, ceased to be a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union brought into effect a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland that created the Kingdom of Great Britain.
England is the origin of the English language, the English legal system (which served as the basis for the common law systems of many other countries), association football, and the Anglican branch of Christianity; its parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. England is home to the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world: the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, and the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209. Both universities are ranked among the most prestigious in the world.
England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills and plains, especially in the centre and south. Upland and mountainous terrain is mostly found in the north and west, including Dartmoor, the Lake District, the Pennines, and the Shropshire Hills. The London metropolitan area has a population of 14.2 million as of 2021, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.
==Toponymy==
The name "England" is derived from the Old English name , which means "land of the Angles". The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages. They came from the Angeln region of what is now the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The earliest recorded use of the term, as "", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used to mean "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went "out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense.
The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, in which the Latin word is used. The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived from the name of this tribe, rather than others such as the Saxons, came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany. In Scottish Gaelic, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is . A romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, , and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend. Albion is also applied to England in a more poetic capacity, though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole.
==History==
=== Prehistory ===
The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to about 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years. After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The sea level was lower than the present day and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia.
As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.
The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge (phase III) and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.
During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's there were around 20 tribes in the area. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes.
===Ancient history===
The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province. The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street. The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000. This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later.
There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain. By 410, during the decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.
===Middle Ages===
Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, Angles, Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province. These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over the course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country. Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brittonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age. Details of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain are consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control. Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in the conquered territories by Anglo-Saxon paganism, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597. Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about tonsures (clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice. The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.
Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine. They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V. and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope. During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and of France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War. The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants.
Between 1453 and 1487, a civil war known as the War of the Roses waged between the two branches of the royal family, the Yorkists and Lancastrians. Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.
===Early modern period===
During the Tudor period, England began to develop naval skills, and exploration intensified in the Age of Discovery. Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological. He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism. The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor age of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ("the Virgin Queen"). Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, drama, poetry, music and literature. England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government.
Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship. With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. An armada sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham. This failure did not end the threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in 1596 and 1597, but both were driven back by storms.
===Union with Scotland===
The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating a personal union. He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law. Under the auspices of James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.
Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed. After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration. With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of the "Merry Monarch" Charles II. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament. Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.
In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the city of London, but it was rebuilt shortly afterward with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren. By the mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – the Tories and Whigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, during the Revolution of 1688 invited the Dutch Prince William of Orange to defeat James and become the king. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. Under the Stuart dynasty England expanded in trade, finance and prosperity. The Royal Navy developed Europe's largest merchant fleet. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain. In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – the Stockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public. with the latter the world's first industrial city. England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution, under George III and William Pitt the Younger. The regency of George IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east; however, this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British: at sea by Horatio Nelson, and on land by Arthur Wellesley. The major victory at the Battle of Trafalgar confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the English, Scots and Welsh.
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious. Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.
Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies. Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel. Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, providing publicly funded health care to all permanent residents free at the point of need. Combined, these prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century.
Since the 20th century, there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent. Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry. England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum. There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England.
Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. There has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a 2004 referendum, this has not been carried out.
In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 543 members of parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total. England is represented by 347 MPs from the Labour Party, 116 from the Conservative Party, 65 from the Liberal Democrats, five for Reform UK and four for the Green Party of England and Wales.
===Law===
The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent – stare decisis – to the facts before them.
The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords. A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.
The Secretary of State for Justice is the minister responsible to Parliament for the judiciary, the court system and prisons and probation in England. Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006. The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it one of the highest incarceration rates in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. His Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing 81,309 prisoners in England and Wales .
===Subdivisions===
The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division, controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government.
Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48 ceremonial counties. These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference. Of these, 38 developed gradually since the Middle Ages; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996. Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally.
The second tier is made up of combined authorities and the 27 county-tier shire counties. In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier.
England is also divided into local government districts. The district can align to a ceremonial county, or be a district tier within a shire county, be a royal or metropolitan borough, have borough or city status, or be a unitary authority.
At the community level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with their own councils; in Greater London only one such parish, Queen's Park, exists after they were abolished in 1965 until legislation allowed their recreation in 2007.
====London====
From 1994 until the early 2010s England was divided for a few purposes into regions; a 1998 referendum for the London Region created the London Assembly two years later. A failed 2004 North East England devolution referendum cancelled further regional assembly devolution with the regional structure outside London abolished.
Administratively, London is divided between 33 local government districts: the 32 London boroughs and the City of London. The 32 London boroughs form the ceremonial county of Greater London, with the City of London being a separate ceremonial county.
==Geography==
===Landscape and rivers===
Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom: to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales.
England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to the European continent. It is separated from France (Hauts-de-France) by a sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone. England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.
The ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively. At , the Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore (a tidal bore), which can reach in height. However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is in length. There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District.
Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country. The northern uplands include the Pennines, a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and the Cheviot Hills, straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at , is Scafell Pike in the Lake District.
The Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain two national parks, the Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District. In the West Country, Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite.
The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain, Somerset Levels, South Coast Plain and The Fens.
===Climate===
England has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than in winter and not much higher than in summer. The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October. while the lowest was on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire.
===Nature and wildlife===
The fauna of England is similar to that of other areas in the British Isles with a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats. National nature reserves in England are designated by Natural England as key places for wildlife and natural features in England. They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations. NNRs are managed on behalf of the nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members of The Wildlife Trusts partnership, the National Trust, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. There are 221 NNRs in England covering . Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals.
.
The Environment Agency is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England. The Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.
England has a temperate oceanic climate in most areas, lacking extremes of cold or heat, but does have a few small areas of subarctic and warmer areas in the South West. Towards the North of England the climate becomes colder and most of England's mountains and high hills are located here and have a major impact on the climate and thus the local fauna of the areas. Deciduous woodlands are common across all of England and provide a great habitat for much of England's wildlife, but these give way in northern and upland areas of England to coniferous forests (mainly plantations) which also benefit certain forms of wildlife. Some species have adapted to the expanded urban environment, particularly the red fox, which is the most successful urban mammal after the brown rat, and other animals such as common wood pigeon, both of which thrive in urban and suburban areas.
===Major conurbations===
The Greater London Built-up Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than any other country in the United Kingdom besides England itself. Traditionally the status was given to towns with diocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester.
including 11,026 Wiccans.{{Efn|People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number. State-funded schools are attended by about 93% of English schoolchildren. Education is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education.
Children between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach the National Curriculum; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.
Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intake grammar schools to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven-plus exam. Around 7.2 per cent of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources. Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.
After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Further education covers a wide curriculum of study and apprenticeships, including T-levels, BTEC, NVQ and others. Tertiary colleges provide both academic and vocational courses.
===Higher education===
Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England. Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover tuition fees and living costs. The first degree offered to undergraduates is the bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or a doctorate, which takes three or more years.
England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world. As of 2024, four England-based universities, the University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Imperial College London, and University College London, are ranked among the top ten in the 2024 QS World University Rankings. The University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, and the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, are the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world.
The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times. Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class, upper second class, lower second class, third, and unclassified. Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions.
==Culture==
===Architecture===
Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; among the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg. With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts. It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England. to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various castles were created; the best known include the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle. Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, the English Baroque style of architect Christopher Wren being particularly championed.
Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.
===Gardens===
Landscape gardening, as developed by Capability Brown, set an international trend for the English landscape garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.
By the end of the 18th century, the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century. The English landscape garden was centred on the English country house and manor houses. The RHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by the Royal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.
===Folklore===
English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion. The legends featuring Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood, and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham, are among the best-known of these.
During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the Arthurian myth. These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources, Also Michael Wood explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history – a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past." On 5 November people celebrate Bonfire Night to commemorate the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill. There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.
===Cuisine===
Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with increasing urbanisation. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in Restaurants best restaurant in the world charts.
Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy. Various meat pies are consumed, such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (usually eaten cold) and the Cornish pasty.
Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew originating in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester, Wensleydale, Double Gloucester and Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created, such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones served with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as sweet or spiced biscuits.
Common non-alcoholic drinks include tea and coffee; frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wine, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale.
===Visual arts===
The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags. With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough. During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter. Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter. Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson. The Royal Society of Arts is an organisation committed to the arts.
===Literature, poetry, and philosophy===
Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin. The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies.
Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract. while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.
Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism. The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.
In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related. Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll. Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.
===Performing arts===
The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads collections. Some of the best-known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies among others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, Roses Are Red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty. Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen".
Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period and Thomas Arne who was well known for his patriotic song Rule, Britannia!. German-born George Frideric Handel spent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon in Britain, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratorios, The Messiah, Solomon, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks.
Classical music attracted much attention in the 18th century with the formation of the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. The English Musical Renaissance was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at the Royal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others. Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide.
In popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones and Def Leppard are among the highest-selling recording artists in the world. Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep.
Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. England was at the forefront of the illegal, free rave movement from the late 1980s, which inspired the pan-European culture of teknivals. The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the UK, attracting over 80,000 visitors.
The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. The Proms is a major annual cultural event in the English calendar. England is home to numerous major orchestras such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra. Other forms of entertainment that originated in England include the circus and the pantomime.
===Cinema===
England has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers. Hitchcock's The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926) helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 Blackmail is often regarded as the first British sound feature film.
Major film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond). Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world. Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935. The Hammer Horror films starring Christopher Lee saw the production of the first gory horror films showing blood and guts in colour.
The BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public. English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001. Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Richard Curtis. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch, Lena Headey, Felicity Jones, Emilia Clarke, Lashana Lynch, and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011. The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh.
===Sites and institutions===
English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. A non-governmental charity, the National Trust holds a complementary role, focussed on landscapes and country houses. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England. Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, the Tower of London, the Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Blenheim Palace and the Lake District.
London's British Museum holds more than seven million objects, one of the largest and most comprehensive collections in the world, illustrating and documenting global human culture from its beginnings to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats, including around 25 million books. The National Gallery in Trafalgar Square houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the Turner Prize.
The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility for cultural property and heritage. A blue plaque, the oldest historical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England. Entry to most museums and galleries is free. London is one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities in Europe. It is considered a global centre of finance, art and culture.
=== Media ===
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence. The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest of any kind. It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.
London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people. National newspapers produced in England include The Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, and the Financial Times.
Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation include Nature, New Scientist, The Spectator, Prospect, NME and The Economist. The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility over media and broadcasting in England. cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash, rounders, hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One. England has been crowned world champion in several major sports including: Cricket, Rugby and Association Football.
Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first-ever international football match in 1872. Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted and won the 1966 FIFA World Cup. With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK. England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football: Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857, is the world's oldest club.
Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald. The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket". After winning the 2019 Cricket World Cup, England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union, and cricket.
William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.
Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century. The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria.
Golf has been prominent in England, due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland. There are professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder.
Tennis was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious. Wimbledon has a major place in the English cultural calendar.
In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies.
Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.
The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship. England has seen the manufacture some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and has produced several world champions.
Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, it is a traditional pub game. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is snooker, and England has produced several world champions.
The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup.
==National symbols==
The St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally, the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean.
A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries, and became associated with Saint George. Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace. It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians. It is also known as the Rose of England. The oak tree is a symbol of England: the Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II after his father's execution, when he hid in an oak to avoid detection by the parliamentarians before safely reaching exile.
The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England. England does not have an official national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the King. However, Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games), and I Vow to Thee, My Country are often considered unofficial English national anthems. England's National Day is 23 April which is Saint George's Day: Saint George is the patron saint of England.
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"potato",
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"liberty",
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"Geoffrey of Monmouth",
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"List of motorways in the United Kingdom",
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"plain",
"greenhouse gas emissions",
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] |
9,317 |
European Union
|
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated population of over 449million as of 2024. The EU is often described as a sui generis political entity combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.
Containing 5.5% of the world population in 2023, EU member states generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around €17.935 trillion in 2024, accounting for approximately one sixth of global economic output. Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. The eurozone is a group composed of the 20 EU member states that have fully implemented the EU's economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower.
The EU was established, along with its citizenship, when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was incorporated as an international legal juridical person upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009. Its beginnings can be traced to the Inner Six states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern European integration in 1948, and to the Western Union, the International Authority for the Ruhr, the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community, which were established by treaties. These increasingly amalgamated bodies grew, with their legal successor the EU, both in size through the accessions of a further 22 states from 1973 to 2013, and in power through acquisitions of policy areas.
In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 2020, the United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU; ten countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it.
==Etymology==
==History==
===Background: World Wars and aftermath===
Internationalism and visions of European unity had existed since well before the 19th century, but gained particularly as a reaction to World War I and its aftermath. In this light the first advances for the idea of European integration were made. In 1920 John Maynard Keynes proposed a European customs union for the struggling post-war European economies, and in 1923 the oldest organisation for European integration, the Paneuropean Union was founded, led by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, who later would found in June 1947 the European Parliamentary Union (EPU). Aristide Briandwho was Prime Minister of France, a follower of the Paneuropean Union, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate for the Locarno Treatiesdelivered a widely recognized speech at the League of Nations in Geneva on 5 September 1929 for a federal Europe to secure Europe and settle the historic Franco-German enmity.
With large-scale war being waged in Europe once again in the 1930s and becoming World War II, the question of what to fight against and what for, had to be agreed on. A first agreement was the Declaration of St James's Palace of 1941, when Europe's resistance gathered in London. This was expanded on by the 1941 Atlantic Charter, establishing the Allies and their common goals, inciting a new wave of global international institutions like the United Nations (founded 1945) or the Bretton Woods System (1944).
In 1943 at the Moscow Conference and Tehran Conference, plans to establish joint institutions for a post-war world and Europe increasingly became a part of the agenda. This led to a decision at the Yalta Conference in 1944 to form a European Advisory Commission, later replaced by the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Allied Control Council, following the German surrender and the Potsdam Agreement in 1945.
By the end of the war, European integration became seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism that had caused the war. On 19 September 1946, in a much recognized speech, Winston Churchill, speaking at the University of Zürich, reiterated his calls since 1930 for a "European Union" and "Council of Europe", coincidentally parallel to the Hertenstein Congress of the Union of European Federalists, one of the then founded and later constituent members of the European Movement. One month later, the French Union was installed by the new Fourth French Republic to direct the decolonization of its colonies so that they would become parts of a European community.
By 1947 a growing rift between the western Allied Powers and the Soviet Union became evident as a result of the rigged 1947 Polish legislative election, which constituted an open breach of the Yalta Agreement. March of that year saw two important developments. First was the signing of the Treaty of Dunkirk between France and the United Kingdom. The treaty assured mutual assistance in the event of future military aggression against either nation. Though it officially named Germany as a threat, in reality the actual concern was for the Soviet Union. A few days later came the announcement of the Truman Doctrine which pledged American support for democracies to counter the Soviets.
===Initial years and the Paris Treaty (19481957)===
Immediately following the February 1948 coup d'état by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the London Six-Power Conference was held, resulting in the Soviet boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the Cold War.
The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration. In March 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed, establishing the Western Union (WU), followed by the International Authority for the Ruhr. Furthermore, the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded in 1948 to manage the Marshall Plan, which led to the Soviets creating Comecon in response. The ensuing Hague Congress of May 1948 was a pivotal moment in European integration, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International, the College of Europe and most importantly to the foundation of the Council of Europe on 5 May 1949 (which is now Europe Day). The Council of Europe was one of the first institutions to bring the sovereign states of (then only Western) Europe together, raising great hopes and fevered debates in the following two years for further European integration. It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving for example the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. Essential for the actual birth of the institutions of the EU was the Schuman Declaration on 9 May 1950 (the day after the fifth Victory in Europe Day) and the decision by six nations (France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany and Italy) to follow Schuman and draft the Treaty of Paris. This treaty was created in 1952 the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was built on the International Authority for the Ruhr, installed by the Western Allies in 1949 to regulate the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr area in West Germany. Backed by the Marshall Plan with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organisation, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the European Commission and Parliament. Founding fathers of the European Union understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely.
In parallel with Schuman, the Pleven Plan of 1951 tried but failed to tie the institutions of the developing European community under the European Political Community, which was to include the also proposed European Defence Community, an alternative to West Germany joining NATO which was established in 1949 under the Truman Doctrine. In 1954 the Modified Brussels Treaty transformed the Western Union into the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany eventually joined both the WEU and NATO in 1955, prompting the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as an institutional framework for its military domination in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Assessing the progress of European integration the Messina Conference was held in 1955, ordering the Spaak report, which in 1956 recommended the next significant steps of European integration.
===Treaty of Rome (19581972)===
In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear power. Both treaties came into force in 1958. The OEEC was in turn reformed in 1961 into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its membership was extended to states outside of Europe, the United States and Canada. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached, and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities. Jean Rey presided over the first merged commission (Rey Commission).
===First enlargement and European co-operation (19731993)===
In 1973, the communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland), Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. The Ostpolitik and the ensuing détente led to establishment of a first truly pan-European body, the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), predecessor of the modern Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. Greece joined in 1981. In 1985, Greenland left the Communities, following a dispute over fishing rights. During the same year, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states. In 1986, the Single European Act was signed. Portugal and Spain joined in 1986. In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the communities as part of a reunified Germany.
=== Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice (19932004) ===
The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Horst Köhler, Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993. The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred to as such before the treaty. With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.
In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 20 countries. The euro currency became the second-largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the union.
===Treaty of Lisbon and Brexit (2004present)===
In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. Later that year, Slovenia adopted the euro,
In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe". In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.
From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the eurozone countries, a surge in asylum seekers in 2015, and the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU. A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held in 2016, with 51.9 per cent of participants voting to leave. The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017, initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU; following extensions to the process, the UK left the European Union on 31 January 2020, though most areas of EU law continued to apply to the UK for a transition period which lasted until 31 December 2020.
The early 2020s saw Denmark abolishing one of its three opt-outs and Croatia adopting the Euro.
After the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the EU leaders agreed for the first time to create common debt to finance the European Recovery Program called Next Generation EU (NGEU).
On 24 February 2022, after massing on the borders of Ukraine, the Russian Armed Forces undertook an attempt for a full-scale invasion of Ukraine. The European Union imposed heavy sanctions on Russia and agreed on a pooled military aid package to Ukraine for lethal weapons funded via the European Peace Facility off-budget instrument.
Next Generation EU (NGEU) is a European Commission economic recovery package to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, in particular those that have been particularly hard hit. It is sometimes styled NextGenerationEU and Next Gen EU, and also called the European Union Recovery Instrument. Agreed in principle by the European Council on 21 July 2020 and adopted on 14 December 2020, the instrument is worth . NGEU will operate from 2021 to 2026, and will be tied to the regular 2021–2027 budget of the EU's Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF). The comprehensive NGEU and MFF packages are projected to reach €1824.3 billion.
Preparing the Union for a new great enlargement is a political priority for the Union, with the goal of achieving 35 member states by 2030. Institutional and budgetary reforms are being discussed in order for the Union to be ready for the new members.
In May 2024, concerns rise, that the outcome of the elections in June, can undermine some of the crucial policies of the EU in the domain of environment, diplomacy, economy. The war in Ukraine by creating inflation, lowering life level created a possibility of strong changes in the 2024 elections.
===Timeline===
==Politics ==
The European Union operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making, and according to the principle of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).
EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. Lobbying at the EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process.
=== Member states ===
File:Member States of the European Union (polar stereographic projection) EN.svg|thumb|right|upright=2|Map showing the member states of the European Union (clickable)
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desc bottom-left
Through successive enlargements, the EU and its predecessors have grown from the six founding states of the EEC to members. Countries accede to the union by becoming a party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty". In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the union. Examples of such alliances include the Baltic Assembly, the Benelux Union, the Bucharest Nine, the Craiova Group, the EU Med Group, the Lublin Triangle, the New Hanseatic League, the Three Seas Initiative, the Visegrád Group, and the Weimar Triangle.
To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties. The relationships of the European microstates Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.
The EU has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions. Most EU institutions use only a handful of working languages: the European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural languages: English, French, and German; the Court of Justice uses French as the working language, and the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English. Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.
The most widely spoken language in the EU is English; the language is spoken by 44 per cent of the population (2016 data) and studied by 95 per cent of school students, although following the withdrawal of the United Kingdom less than 1 per cent of the population speak it natively. German and French are spoken by 36 per cent and 30 per cent of the population. More than half (56 per cent) of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.
Luxembourgish (in Luxembourg) and Turkish (in Cyprus) are the only two national languages that are not official languages of the EU. Catalan, Galician and Basque are not recognised official languages of the EU but have official status in Spain. Therefore, official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages. There are about 150 regional and minority languages in the EU, spoken by up to 50 million people. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.
===Religion===
The EU has no formal connection to any religion. Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations" as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations". Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or a god, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.
Christians in the EU include Catholics of both Roman and Eastern Rite, numerous Protestant denominations with Lutherans, Anglicans, and Reformed forming the majority of Protestant affiliations, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million, and an estimated Jewish population of over a million. The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population.
Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 per cent of EU citizens believed in a god, 27 per cent in "some sort of spirit or life force", and 18 per cent had no form of belief. Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16 per cent) and the Czech Republic (19 per cent).
There are similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU. Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects. EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.
===Health===
Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". The European Commission's Directorate-General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.
All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries. A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.
The life expectancy in the EU was 80.1 year at birth in 2021, among the highest in the world and around nine years higher than the world average. In general, life expectancy is lower in Eastern Europe than in Western Europe. In 2018, the EU region with the highest life expectancy was Madrid, Spain at 85.2 years, followed by the Spanish regions of La Rioja and Castilla y León both at 84.3 years, Trentino in Italy at 84.3 years and Île-de-France in France at 84.2 years.
=== Social rights and equality ===
The EU has also sought to coordinate the social security and health systems of member states to facilitate individuals exercising free movement rights and to ensure they maintain their ability to access social security and health services in other member states. Since 2019 there has been a European commissioner for equality and the European Institute for Gender Equality has existed since 2007. A Directive on countering gender-based violence has been proposed. In September 2022, a European Care strategy was approved in order to provide "quality, affordable and accessible care services". The European Social Charter is the main body that recognises the social rights of European citizens.
In 2020, the first ever European Union Strategy on LGBTIQ equality was approved under Helena Dalli mandate. In December 2021, the commission announced the intention of codifying a union-wide law against LGBT hate crimes.
===Freedom, security and justice===
Since the creation of the European Union in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs; initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. Accordingly, the union has legislated in areas such as extradition, family law, asylum law, and criminal justice.
The EU has also established agencies to co-ordinate police, prosecution and civil litigations across the member states: Europol for police co-operation, CEPOL for training of police forces and the Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors and courts. It also operates the EUCARIS database of vehicles and drivers, the Eurodac, the European Criminal Records Information System, the European Cybercrime Centre, FADO, PRADO and others.
Prohibitions against discrimination have a long standing in the treaties. In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation. The treaties declare that the European Union itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail." By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexism in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.
In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states". The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.
Signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership. Previously, the EU itself could not accede to the convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede. The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the convention while the latter formally permits it.
The EU is independent from the Council of Europe, although they share purpose and ideas, especially on the rule of law, human rights and democracy. Furthermore, the European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, as well as the source of law for the Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by the Council of Europe. The EU has also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership. On 19 October 2020, the European Union revealed new plans to create a legal structure to act against human rights violations worldwide. The new plan was expected to provide the European Union with greater flexibility to target and sanction those responsible for serious human rights violations and abuses around the world.
==Culture==
Cultural co-operation between member states has been an interest of the European Union since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty. Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven-year programme, and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra. The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city.
===Sport===
Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. There are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU member state citizenship.
The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs. The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.
===Symbols===
The flag of Europe consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present European Union, in 1986. The Council of Europe gave the flag a symbolic description in the following terms, though the official symbolic description adopted by the EU omits the reference to the "Western world":
United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the union in 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils. Since 1985, the flag day of the union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the EU is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.
Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the EU's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.
Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne () and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe"), has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification. Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts led by young people.
=== Media ===
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".
The majority of media in the European Union are national-orientated, although some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, Eurosport, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe. Arte is a public Franco-German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80 per cent of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel's European partners.
The MEDIA Programme of the European Union has supported the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.
===Influence===
The European Union has had a significant positive economic effect on most member states. Greece was the exception reported by the study, which analysed up to 2008, "to avoid confounding effects from the global financial crisis".
The European Union is frequently cited as having made a major contribution to peace in Europe, in particular by pacifying border disputes, and to the spread of democracy, especially by encouraging democratic reforms in aspiring Eastern European member states after the collapse of the USSR. However, R. Daniel Kelemen argues that the EU has proved beneficial to leaders who are overseeing democratic backsliding, as the EU is reluctant to intervene in domestic politics, gives authoritarian governments funds which they can use to strengthen their regimes, and because freedom of movement within the EU allows dissenting citizens to leave their backsliding countries. At the same time, the union might provide through Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union an external constraint that prevents electoral autocracies, currently Hungary, from progressing into closed autocracies.
|
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"French Union",
"Immigration to Europe",
"democratic backsliding",
"supreme audit institution",
"Cyrillic alphabet",
"directorial system",
"South Africa",
"Culture 2000",
"Ludwig van Beethoven",
"European Convention on Human Rights",
"Aachen",
"temperate climate",
"European Day of Languages",
"sexism",
"head of government",
"EUobserver",
"Hungarian language",
"European Capital of Culture",
"peace",
"Rights-based approach to development",
"European Economic Community",
"European Union roaming regulations",
"European Union Satellite Centre",
"Helmut Kohl",
"political union",
"Finland",
"proportional representation",
"United States dollar",
"Rhine-Ruhr",
"aviation",
"Eurojust",
"Europe day",
"European Free Trade Association",
"Central European Summer Time",
"Scandinavian–Mediterranean Corridor",
"European Research Council",
"Reuters",
"2022 Danish European Union opt-out referendum",
"Gulf Stream",
"Schengen area",
"European Movement International",
"Withdrawal from the European Union",
"Comecon",
"world population",
"Joule (unit)",
"Paris",
"Tarquinia National Museum",
"Anthem of Europe",
"Robert Schuman",
"Islam in Europe",
"Western European Time",
"head of state",
"European Fiscal Pact",
"Trans-European road network",
"Eiffel Tower",
"Kosovo War",
"Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities",
"Wiesbaden",
"agricultural policy"
] |
9,320 |
Ericales
|
The Ericales are a large and diverse order of flowering plants in the asterid group of the eudicots. Well-known and economically important members of this order include tea and ornamental camellias, persimmon, ebony, blueberry, cranberry, lingonberry, huckleberry, kiwifruit, Brazil nut, argan, sapote, azaleas and rhododendrons, heather, heath, impatiens, phlox, Jacob's ladder, primroses, cyclamens, shea, sapodilla, pouterias, and trumpet pitchers.
The order includes 22 families, according to the APG IV system of classification.
The Ericales include trees, bushes, lianas, and herbaceous plants. Together with ordinary autophytic plants, they include chlorophyll-deficient mycoheterotrophic plants (e.g., Sarcodes sanguinea) and carnivorous plants (e.g., genus Sarracenia). Mycorrhizal associations are quite common among the order representatives, and three kinds of mycorrhiza are found exclusively among Ericales (namely, ericoid, arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhiza). In addition, some families among the order are notable for their exceptional ability to accumulate aluminum.
Many species have five petals, often grown together. Fusion of the petals as a trait was traditionally used to place the order in the subclass Sympetalae.
Ericales are a cosmopolitan order. Areas of distribution of families vary largely – while some are restricted to tropics, others exist mainly in Arctic or temperate regions. The entire order contains over 8,000 species, of which the Ericaceae account for 2,000–4,000 species (by various estimates).
According to molecular studies, the lineage that led to Ericales diverged from other plants about 127 million years or diversified 110 million years ago.
== Economic importance ==
The most commercially used plant in the order is tea (Camellia sinensis) from the family Theaceae. The order also includes some edible fruits, including kiwifruit (esp. Actinidia deliciosa), persimmon (genus Diospyros), blueberry, huckleberry, cranberry, Brazil nut, and Mamey sapote. The order also includes shea (Vitellaria paradoxa), which is the major dietary lipid source for millions of sub-Saharan Africans. Many Ericales species are cultivated for their showy flowers: well-known examples are azalea, rhododendron, camellia, heather, polyanthus, cyclamen, phlox, and busy Lizzie.
== Gallery of photos ==
Balsam I IMG 9566.jpg|Impatiens balsamina of Balsaminaceae family
Primula rosea I IMG 7210.jpg|Primula rosea of Primulaceae family
Fuyu persimmon fruits, one cut open.jpg|Diospyros kaki or oriental persimmon of Diospyros genus and Ebenaceae family
== Classification ==
22 families are recognized as members of the Ericales in the APG IV system of classification:
== Previously included families ==
These families are not recognized in the APG III system Under the Cronquist system, the Ericales included a smaller group of plants, which were placed among the Dilleniidae:
Family Ericaceae
Family Cyrillaceae
Family Clethraceae
Family Grubbiaceae
Family Empetraceae
Family Epacridaceae
Family Pyrolaceae
Family Monotropaceae
|
[
"Roridula",
"Styracaceae",
"Pellicieraceae",
"Soldanella",
"cyclamen",
"Mitrastemonaceae",
"lingonberry",
"Theaceae",
"sapodilla",
"liana",
"Calluna",
"Theophrastaceae",
"Lecythidaceae",
"tea",
"Epacridaceae",
"Fouquieria",
"persimmon",
"Sympetalae",
"shrub",
"blueberry",
"Marcgraviaceae",
"herbaceous",
"cranberry",
"Pyrolaceae",
"kiwifruit",
"Roridulaceae",
"Impatiens balsamina",
"Ebenaceae",
"International Journal of Plant Sciences",
"Fouquieriaceae",
"asterid",
"clethra",
"Friedrich von Berchtold",
"Sarcodes sanguinea",
"phlox",
"Sarracenia",
"Manilkara zapota",
"Sapotaceae",
"Polemoniaceae",
"Camellia sinensis",
"Grubbiaceae",
"Empetraceae",
"eudicots",
"huckleberry",
"Argania",
"flowering plant",
"camellia",
"pitcher plant",
"Dilleniidae",
"Jan Svatopluk Presl",
"Brazil nut",
"Mycorrhiza",
"Pentaphylacaceae",
"Diospyros",
"Sladeniaceae",
"stem group",
"mycoheterotrophic",
"Tetrameristaceae",
"Myrsinaceae",
"Ericaceae",
"chlorophyll",
"azalea",
"Cronquist system",
"rhododendron",
"Sarraceniaceae",
"Halesia",
"Vitellaria",
"Paradinandra",
"Anagallis arvensis",
"carnivorous plant",
"Erica (plant)",
"ebony",
"pouteria",
"APG IV system",
"Primula rosea",
"asterids",
"Vaccinium",
"Impatiens",
"Diospyros kaki",
"tree",
"APG III system",
"sapote",
"Primulaceae",
"order (biology)",
"cyrilla",
"Actinidiaceae",
"Balsaminaceae",
"Monotropaceae",
"impatiens",
"Polemonium",
"Symplocaceae",
"Primula",
"Clethraceae",
"Photosynthesis",
"ocotillo",
"Diapensiaceae",
"Cyrillaceae",
"Actinidia deliciosa",
"aluminum",
"Mamey sapote",
"busy Lizzie"
] |
9,321 |
Edward Sapir
|
Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States.
Sapir was born in German Pomerania, in what is now northern Poland. His family emigrated to the United States of America when he was a child. He studied Germanic linguistics at Columbia, where he came under the influence of Franz Boas, who inspired him to work on Native American languages. While finishing his Ph.D. he went to California to work with Alfred Kroeber documenting the indigenous languages there. He was employed by the Geological Survey of Canada for fifteen years, where he came into his own as one of the most significant linguists in North America, the other being Leonard Bloomfield. He was offered a professorship at the University of Chicago, and stayed for several years continuing to work for the professionalization of the discipline of linguistics. By the end of his life he was professor of anthropology at Yale. Among his many students were the linguists Mary Haas and Morris Swadesh, and anthropologists such as Fred Eggan and Hortense Powdermaker.
With his linguistic background, Sapir became the one student of Boas to develop most completely the relationship between linguistics and anthropology. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir–Whorf" hypothesis. In anthropology Sapir is known as an early proponent of the importance of psychology to anthropology, maintaining that studying the nature of relationships between different individual personalities is important for the ways in which culture and society develop.
Among his major contributions to linguistics is his classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas, upon which he elaborated for most of his professional life. He played an important role in developing the modern concept of the phoneme, greatly advancing the understanding of phonology.
Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of historical linguistics to languages of indigenous peoples because they were believed to be more primitive than the Indo-European languages. Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of comparative linguistics were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages. In the 1929 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica he published what was then the most authoritative classification of Native American languages, and the first based on evidence from modern comparative linguistics. He was the first to produce evidence for the classification of the Algic, Uto-Aztecan, and Na-Dene languages. He proposed some language families that are not considered to have been adequately demonstrated, but which continue to generate investigation such as Hokan and Penutian.
He specialized in the study of Athabascan languages, Chinookan languages, and Uto-Aztecan languages, producing important grammatical descriptions of Takelma, Wishram, Southern Paiute. Later in his career he also worked with Yiddish, Hebrew, and Chinese, as well as Germanic languages, and he also was invested in the development of an International Auxiliary Language.
==Life==
===Childhood and youth===
Sapir was born into a family of Lithuanian Jews in Lauenburg (now Lębork) in the Province of Pomerania where his father, Jacob David Sapir, worked as a cantor. The family was not Orthodox, and his father maintained his ties to Judaism through its music. The Sapir family did not stay long in Pomerania and never accepted German as a nationality. Edward Sapir's first language was Yiddish, and saving the scholarship money for his college education. Through the scholarship Sapir supplemented his mother's meager earnings.
===Columbia===
Sapir entered Columbia in 1901, still paying with the Pulitzer scholarship. Columbia at this time was one of the few elite private universities that did not limit admission of Jewish applicants with implicit quotas around 12 percent—approximately 40% of incoming students at Columbia were Jewish. Sapir earned both a B.A. (1904) and an M.A. (1905) in Germanic philology from Columbia, before embarking on his Ph.D. in Anthropology which he completed in 1909.
====College====
Sapir emphasized language study in his college years at Columbia, studying Latin, Greek, and French for eight semesters. From his sophomore year he additionally began to focus on Germanic languages, completing coursework in Gothic, Old High German, Old Saxon, Icelandic, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish. Through Germanics professor William Carpenter, Sapir was exposed to methods of comparative linguistics that were being developed into a more scientific framework than the traditional philological approach. He also took courses in Sanskrit, and complemented his language studies by studying music in the department of the famous composer Edward MacDowell (though it is uncertain whether Sapir ever studied with MacDowell himself). In his last year in college Sapir enrolled in the course "Introduction to Anthropology", with Professor Livingston Farrand, who taught the Boas "four field" approach to anthropology. He also enrolled in an advanced anthropology seminar taught by Franz Boas, a course that would completely change the direction of his career.
====Influence of Boas====
Although still in college, Sapir was allowed to participate in the Boas graduate seminar on American Languages, which included translations of Native American and Inuit myths collected by Boas. In this way Sapir was introduced to Indigenous American languages while he kept working on his M.A. in Germanic linguistics. Robert Lowie later said that Sapir's fascination with indigenous languages stemmed from the seminar with Boas in which Boas used examples from Native American languages to disprove all of Sapir's common-sense assumptions about the basic nature of language. Sapir's 1905 Master's thesis was an analysis of Johann Gottfried Herder's Treatise on the Origin of Language, and included examples from Inuit and Native American languages, not at all familiar to a Germanicist. The thesis criticized Herder for retaining a Biblical chronology, too shallow to allow for the observable diversification of languages, but he also argued with Herder that all of the world's languages have equal aesthetic potentials and grammatical complexity. He ended the paper by calling for a "very extended study of all the various existing stocks of languages, in order to determine the most fundamental properties of language" – almost a program statement for the modern study of linguistic typology, and a very Boasian approach.
In 1906 he finished his coursework, having focused the last year on courses in anthropology and taking seminars such as Primitive Culture with Farrand, Ethnology with Boas, Archaeology and courses in Chinese language and culture with Berthold Laufer. He also maintained his Indo-European studies with courses in Celtic, Old Saxon, Swedish, and Sanskrit. Having finished his coursework, Sapir moved on to his doctoral fieldwork, spending several years in short-term appointments while working on his dissertation.
====Early fieldwork====
Sapir's first fieldwork was on the Wishram Chinook language in the summer of 1905, funded by the Bureau of American Ethnology. This first experience with Native American languages in the field was closely overseen by Boas, who was particularly interested in having Sapir gather ethnological information for the Bureau. Sapir gathered a volume of Wishram texts, published 1909, and he managed to achieve a much more sophisticated understanding of the Chinook sound system than Boas. In the summer of 1906 he worked on Takelma and Chasta Costa. Sapir's work on Takelma became his doctoral dissertation, which he defended in 1908. The dissertation foreshadowed several important trends in Sapir's work, particularly the careful attention to the intuition of native speakers regarding sound patterns that later would become the basis for Sapir's formulation of the phoneme.
In 1907–1908 Sapir was offered a position at the University of California at Berkeley, where Boas' first student Alfred Kroeber was the head of a project under the California state survey to document the Indigenous languages of California. Kroeber suggested that Sapir study the nearly extinct Yana language, and Sapir set to work. Sapir worked first with Betty Brown, one of the language's few remaining speakers. Later he began work with Sam Batwi, who spoke another dialect of Yana, but whose knowledge of Yana mythology was an important fount of knowledge. Sapir described the way in which the Yana language distinguishes grammatically and lexically between the speech of men and women.
The collaboration between Kroeber and Sapir was made difficult by the fact that Sapir largely followed his own interest in detailed linguistic description, ignoring the administrative pressures to which Kroeber was subject, among them the need for a speedy completion and a focus on the broader classification issues. In the end Sapir didn't finish the work during the allotted year, and Kroeber was unable to offer him a longer appointment.
Disappointed at not being able to stay at Berkeley, Sapir devoted his best efforts to other work, and did not get around to preparing any of the Yana material for publication until 1910, to Kroeber's deep disappointment.
Sapir ended up leaving California early to take up a fellowship at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught Ethnology and American Linguistics. At Pennsylvania he worked closely with another student of Boas, Frank Speck, and the two undertook work on Catawba in the summer of 1909. Also in the summer of 1909, Sapir went to Utah with his student J. Alden Mason. Intending originally to work on Hopi, he studied the Southern Paiute language; he decided to work with Tony Tillohash, who proved to be the perfect informant. Tillohash's strong intuition about the sound patterns of his language led Sapir to propose that the phoneme is not just an abstraction existing at the structural level of language, but in fact has psychological reality for speakers.
Tillohash became a good friend of Sapir, and visited him at his home in New York and Philadelphia. Sapir worked with his father to transcribe a number of Southern Paiute songs that Tillohash knew. This fruitful collaboration laid the ground work for the classical description of the Southern Paiute language published in 1930, and enabled Sapir to produce conclusive evidence linking the Shoshonean languages to the Nahuan languages – establishing the Uto-Aztecan language family. Sapir's description of Southern Paiute is known by linguistics as "a model of analytical excellence".
At Pennsylvania, Sapir was urged to work at a quicker pace than he felt comfortable. His "Grammar of Southern Paiute" was supposed to be published in Boas' Handbook of American Indian Languages, and Boas urged him to complete a preliminary version while funding for the publication remained available, but Sapir did not want to compromise on quality, and in the end the Handbook had to go to press without Sapir's piece. Boas kept working to secure a stable appointment for his student, and by his recommendation Sapir ended up being hired by the Canadian Geological Survey, who wanted him to lead the institutionalization of anthropology in Canada. Sapir, who by then had given up the hope of working at one of the few American research universities, accepted the appointment and moved to Ottawa.
===In Ottawa===
In the years 1910–25 Sapir established and directed the Anthropological Division in the Geological Survey of Canada in Ottawa. When he was hired, he was one of the first full-time anthropologists in Canada. He brought his parents with him to Ottawa, and also quickly established his own family, marrying Florence Delson, who also had Lithuanian Jewish roots. Neither the Sapirs nor the Delsons were in favor of the match. The Delsons, who hailed from the prestigious Jewish center of Vilna, considered the Sapirs to be rural upstarts and were less than impressed with Sapir's career in an unpronounceable academic field. Edward and Florence had three children together: Herbert Michael, Helen Ruth, and Philip.
====Canada's Geological Survey====
As director of the Anthropological division of the Geological Survey of Canada, Sapir embarked on a project to document the Indigenous cultures and languages of Canada. His first fieldwork took him to Vancouver Island to work on the Nootka language. Apart from Sapir the division had two other staff members, Marius Barbeau and Harlan I. Smith. Sapir insisted that the discipline of linguistics was of integral importance for ethnographic description, arguing that just as nobody would dream of discussing the history of the Catholic Church without knowing Latin or study German folksongs without knowing German, so it made little sense to approach the study of Indigenous folklore without knowledge of the indigenous languages. At this point the only Canadian first nation languages that were well known were Kwakiutl, described by Boas, Tshimshian and Haida. Sapir explicitly used the standard of documentation of European languages, to argue that the amassing knowledge of indigenous languages was of paramount importance. By introducing the high standards of Boasian anthropology, Sapir incited antagonism from those amateur ethnologists who felt that they had contributed important work. Unsatisfied with efforts by amateur and governmental anthropologists, Sapir worked to introduce an academic program of anthropology at one of the major universities, in order to professionalize the discipline.
Sapir enlisted the assistance of fellow Boasians: Frank Speck, Paul Radin and Alexander Goldenweiser, who with Barbeau worked on the peoples of the Eastern Woodlands: the Ojibwa, the Iroquois, the Huron and the Wyandot. Sapir initiated work on the Athabascan languages of the Mackenzie valley and the Yukon, but it proved too difficult to find adequate assistance, and he concentrated mainly on Nootka and the languages of the North West Coast.
During his time in Canada, together with Speck, Sapir also acted as an advocate for Indigenous rights, arguing publicly for introduction of better medical care for Indigenous communities, and assisting the Six Nation Iroquois in trying to recover eleven wampum belts that had been stolen from the reservation and were on display in the museum of the University of Pennsylvania. (The belts were finally returned to the Iroquois in 1988.) He also argued for the reversal of a Canadian law prohibiting the Potlatch ceremony of the West Coast tribes.
====Work with Ishi====
In 1915 Sapir returned to California, where his expertise on the Yana language made him urgently needed. Kroeber had come into contact with Ishi, the last native speaker of the Yahi language, closely related to Yana, and needed someone to document the language urgently. Ishi, who had grown up without contact with European-Americans, was monolingual in Yahi and was the last surviving member of his people. He had been adopted by the Kroebers, but had fallen ill with tuberculosis, and was not expected to live long. Sam Batwi, the speaker of Yana who had worked with Sapir, was unable to understand the Yahi variety, and Krober was convinced that only Sapir would be able to communicate with Ishi. Sapir traveled to San Francisco and worked with Ishi over the summer of 1915, having to invent new methods for working with a monolingual speaker. The information from Ishi was invaluable for understanding the relation between the different dialects of Yana. Ishi died of his illness in early 1916, and Kroeber partly blamed the exacting nature of working with Sapir for his failure to recover. Sapir described the work: "I think I may safely say that my work with Ishi is by far the most time-consuming and nerve-racking that I have ever undertaken. Ishi's imperturbable good humor alone made the work possible, though it also at times added to my exasperation".
====Moving on====
The First World War took its toll on the Canadian Geological Survey, cutting funding for anthropology and making the academic climate less agreeable. Sapir continued work on Athabascan, working with two speakers of the Alaskan languages Kutchin and Ingalik. Sapir was now more preoccupied with testing hypotheses about historical relationships between the Na-Dene languages than with documenting endangered languages, in effect becoming a theoretician. He was also growing to feel isolated from his American colleagues. From 1912 Florence's health deteriorated due to a lung abscess, and a resulting depression. The Sapir household was largely run by Eva Sapir, who did not get along well with Florence, and this added to the strain on both Florence and Edward. Sapir's parents had by now divorced and his father seemed to develop psychosis, which made it necessary for him to leave Canada for Philadelphia, where Edward continued to support him financially. Florence was hospitalized for long periods both for her depressions and for the lung abscess, and she died in 1924 due to an infection following surgery, providing the final incentive for Sapir to leave Canada. When the University of Chicago offered him a position, he happily accepted.
During his period in Canada, Sapir came into his own as the leading figure in linguistics in North America. Among his substantial publications from this period were his book on Time Perspective in the Aboriginal American Culture (1916), in which he laid out an approach to using historical linguistics to study the prehistory of Native American cultures. Particularly important for establishing him in the field was his seminal book Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921), which was a layman's introduction to the discipline of linguistics as Sapir envisioned it. He also participated in the formulation of a report to the American Anthropological Association regarding the standardization of orthographic principles for writing Indigenous languages.
While in Ottawa, he also collected and published French Canadian Folk Songs, and wrote a volume of his own poetry. His interest in poetry led him to form a close friendship with another Boasian anthropologist and poet, Ruth Benedict. Sapir initially wrote to Benedict to commend her for her dissertation on "The Guardian Spirit", but soon realized that Benedict had published poetry pseudonymously. In their correspondence the two critiqued each other's work, both submitting to the same publishers, and both being rejected. They also were both interested in psychology and the relation between individual personalities and cultural patterns, and in their correspondences they frequently psychoanalyzed each other. However, Sapir often showed little understanding for Benedict's private thoughts and feelings, and particularly his conservative gender ideology jarred with Benedict's struggles as a female professional academic. Though they were very close friends for a while, it was ultimately the differences in worldview and personality that led their friendship to fray.
Before departing Canada, Sapir had a short affair with Margaret Mead, Benedict's protégé at Columbia. But Sapir's conservative ideas about marriage and the woman's role were anathema to Mead, as they had been to Benedict, and as Mead left to do field work in Samoa, the two separated permanently. Mead received news of Sapir's remarriage while still in Samoa, and burned their correspondence there on the beach.
===Chicago years===
Settling in Chicago reinvigorated Sapir intellectually and personally. He socialized with intellectuals, gave lectures, participated in poetry and music clubs. His first graduate student at Chicago was Li Fang-Kuei. The Sapir household continued to be managed largely by Grandmother Eva, until Sapir remarried in 1926. Sapir's second wife, Jean Victoria McClenaghan, was sixteen years younger than he. She had first met Sapir when a student in Ottawa, but had since also come to work at the University of Chicago's department of Juvenile Research. Their son Paul Edward Sapir was born in 1928. Their other son J. David Sapir became a linguist and anthropologist specializing in West African Languages, especially Jola languages. Sapir also exerted influence through his membership in the Chicago School of Sociology, and his friendship with psychologist Harry Stack Sullivan.
===At Yale===
From 1931 until his death in 1939, Sapir taught at Yale University, where he became the head of the Department of Anthropology. He was invited to Yale to found an interdisciplinary program combining anthropology, linguistics and psychology, aimed at studying "the impact of culture on personality". While Sapir was explicitly given the task of founding a distinct anthropology department, this was not well received by the department of sociology who worked by William Graham Sumner's "Evolutionary sociology", which was anathema to Sapir's Boasian approach, nor by the two anthropologists of the Institute for Human Relations Clark Wissler and G. P. Murdock. Sapir never thrived at Yale, where as one of only four Jewish faculty members out of 569 he was denied membership to the faculty club where the senior faculty discussed academic business.
At Yale, Sapir's graduate students included Morris Swadesh, Benjamin Lee Whorf, Mary Haas, Charles Hockett, and Harry Hoijer, several of whom he brought with him from Chicago. Sapir came to regard a young Semiticist named Zellig Harris as his intellectual heir, although Harris was never a formal student of Sapir. (For a time he dated Sapir's daughter.) In 1936 Sapir clashed with the Institute for Human Relations over the research proposal by anthropologist Hortense Powdermaker, who proposed a study of the black community of Indianola, Mississippi. Sapir argued that her research should be funded instead of the more sociological work of John Dollard. Sapir eventually lost the discussion and Powdermaker had to leave Yale. the United States National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society.
In the summer of 1937 while teaching at the Linguistic Institute of the Linguistic Society of America in Ann Arbor, Sapir began having problems with a heart condition that had been diagnosed a couple of years earlier. In 1938, he had to take a leave from Yale, during which Benjamin Lee Whorf taught his courses and G. P. Murdock advised some of his students. After Sapir's death in 1939, G. P. Murdock became the chair of the anthropology department. Murdock, who despised the Boasian paradigm of cultural anthropology, dismantled most of Sapir's efforts to integrate anthropology, psychology, and linguistics.
==Anthropological thought==
Sapir's anthropological thought has been described as isolated within the field of anthropology in his own days. Instead of searching for the ways in which culture influences human behavior, Sapir was interested in understanding how cultural patterns themselves were shaped by the composition of individual personalities that make up a society. This made Sapir cultivate an interest in individual psychology and his view of culture was more psychological than many of his contemporaries. It has been suggested that there is a close relation between Sapir's literary interests and his anthropological thought. His literary theory saw individual aesthetic sensibilities and creativity to interact with learned cultural traditions to produce unique and new poetic forms, echoing the way that he also saw individuals and cultural patterns to dialectically influence each other.
==Breadth of languages studied==
Sapir's special focus among American languages was in the Athabaskan languages, a family which especially fascinated him. In a private letter, he wrote: "Dene is probably the son-of-a-bitchiest language in America to actually know...most fascinating of all languages ever invented." Sapir also studied the languages and cultures of Wishram Chinook, Navajo, Nootka, Colorado River Numic, Takelma, and Yana. His research on Southern Paiute, in collaboration with consultant Tony Tillohash, led to a 1933 article which would become influential in the characterization of the phoneme.
Although noted for his work on American linguistics, Sapir wrote prolifically in linguistics in general. His book Language provides everything from a grammar-typological classification of languages (with examples ranging from Chinese to Nootka) to speculation on the phenomenon of language drift, and the arbitrariness of associations between language, race, and culture. Sapir was also a pioneer in Yiddish studies (his first language) in the United States (cf. Notes on Judeo-German phonology, 1915).
Sapir was active in the international auxiliary language movement. In his paper "The Function of an International Auxiliary Language", he argued for the benefits of a regular grammar and advocated a critical focus on the fundamentals of language, unbiased by the idiosyncrasies of national languages, in the choice of an international auxiliary language.
He was the first Research Director of the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), which presented the Interlingua conference in 1951. He directed the Association from 1930 to 1931, and was a member of its Consultative Counsel for Linguistic Research from 1927 to 1938. Sapir consulted with Alice Vanderbilt Morris to develop the research program of IALA.
==Selected publications==
===Books===
===Essays and articles===
===Biographies===
===Correspondence===
|
[
"Leonard Bloomfield",
"Benjamin Lee Whorf",
"Clark Wissler",
"Robert Redfield",
"American Philosophical Society",
"Danish language",
"Fred Eggan",
"Richmond, Virginia",
"linguistic relativity",
"international auxiliary language",
"Chinese language",
"Franz Boas",
"Wyandot people",
"Frank Speck",
"Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)",
"Poland",
"International Auxiliary Language",
"J. Alden Mason",
"San Francisco",
"American Anthropologist",
"New Haven, Connecticut",
"Columbia College of Columbia University",
"Paul Radin",
"Harry Hoijer",
"Shoshonean languages",
"William Graham Sumner",
"Dene",
"Kenneth Pike",
"DeWitt Clinton High School",
"Stanley Newman (linguist)",
"Hortense Powdermaker",
"language drift",
"University of Chicago",
"phoneme",
"Athabaskan",
"Tony Tillohash",
"University of California, Berkeley",
"Marius Barbeau",
"Robert Lowie",
"Vilna",
"Johann Gottfried Herder",
"University of California Press",
"William Henry Carpenter (philologist)",
"Indigenous languages of the Americas",
"G. P. Murdock",
"Philadelphia",
"Wasco-Wishram language",
"Old High German",
"Jola languages",
"Internet Archive",
"Lithuanian Jews",
"Mary Haas",
"National Academy of Sciences",
"Yiddish",
"typhoid fever",
"Yana language",
"Gothic language",
"International Auxiliary Language Association",
"Alice Vanderbilt Morris",
"World War I",
"Athabascan languages",
"Berthold Laufer",
"Linguistic relativity",
"Potlatch",
"United States",
"Language family",
"Alexander Goldenweiser (anthropologist)",
"University of Pennsylvania",
"Orthodox Judaism",
"Virginia",
"Dutch language",
"Ingalik language",
"Morris Swadesh",
"Encyclopædia Britannica",
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9,322 |
English
|
English usually refers to:
English language
English people
English may also refer to:
==Culture, language and peoples==
English, an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
English, an Amish term for non-Amish, regardless of ethnicity
English studies, the study of English language and literature
==Media==
English (2013 film), a Malayalam-language film
English (novel), a Chinese book by Wang Gang
English (2018 film), a Chinese adaptation
The English (TV series), a 2022 Western-genre miniseries
English (play), a 2022 play by Sanaz Toossi
==People and fictional characters==
English (surname), a list of people and fictional characters
English Fisher (1928–2011), American boxing coach
English Gardner (born 1992), American track and field sprinter
English McConnell (1882–1928), Irish footballer
Aiden English, a ring name of Matthew Rehwoldt (born 1987), American former professional wrestler
Ben English, stage name of Derek Hay (born 1964), British porn actor
==Places in the United States==
English, Indiana
English, Kentucky
English, Brazoria County, Texas
English, Red River County, Texas
English, West Virginia
==Sport==
English (cue sports term), side spin on the cue ball
|
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] |
9,324 |
Easter egg
|
Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are decorated for the Christian holiday of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. As such, Easter eggs are commonly used during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to dye and paint chicken eggs.
Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion."
This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old. In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago. These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean.
Eggs in Christianity carry a Trinitarian symbolism as shell, yolk, and albumen are three parts of one egg. According to many sources, the Christian custom of Easter eggs started among the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained them with red colouring "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion". The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce.
Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest.
While the practice of giving away easter eggs is, to this day popular, it was briefly banned in 1916s Hungary in the Easter Egg Act, due to the scarsity caused by the ongoing war, and the ban was only lifted when the war ended. The contemporary news reports emphasised however, that the locsolás was still legal to practice.
==Traditions and customs==
===Lenten tradition===
The Easter egg tradition may also have merged into the celebration of the end of the privations of Lent. Traditionally, eggs are among the foods forbidden on fast days, including all of Lent, an observance which continues among the Eastern Christian Churches but has fallen into disuse in Western Christianity.
Historically, it has been traditional to use up all of the household's eggs before Lent began.
This established the tradition of Pancake Day being celebrated on Shrove Tuesday. This day, the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday when Lent begins, is also known as Mardi Gras, a French phrase which translates as "Fat Tuesday" to mark the last consumption of eggs and dairy before Lent begins.
In the Orthodox Church, Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, rather than Wednesday, so the household's dairy products would be used up in the preceding week, called Cheesefare Week.
During Lent, since chickens would not stop producing eggs during this time, a larger than usual store might be available at the end of the fast. This surplus, if any, had to be eaten quickly to prevent spoiling. Then, with the coming of Easter, the eating of eggs resumes. Some families cook a special meatloaf with eggs in it to be eaten with the Easter dinner.
To avoid waste, it was common for families to hard boil or pickle eggs that their chickens produced during lent, and for this reason the Spanish dish hornazo (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard-boiled eggs as a primary ingredient. In Spain it is common for godparents to give a Easter mona to their godchildren during Easter period.
In Hungary, eggs are used sliced in potato casseroles around the Easter period.
===Symbolism and related customs===
Some Christians symbolically link the cracking open of Easter eggs with the empty tomb of Jesus.
In the Orthodox churches, Easter eggs are blessed by the priest at the end of the Paschal Vigil (which is equivalent to Holy Saturday), and distributed to the faithful. The egg is seen by followers of Christianity as a symbol of resurrection: while being dormant it contains a new life sealed within it. Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread).
In Egypt, it is a tradition to decorate boiled eggs during Sham el-Nessim holiday, which falls every year after the Eastern Christian Easter.
Coincidentally, every Passover, Jews place a hard-boiled egg on the Passover ceremonial plate, and the celebrants also eat hard-boiled eggs dipped in salt water as part of the ceremony.
=== Colouring ===
The dyeing of Easter eggs in different colours is commonplace, with colour being achieved through boiling the egg in natural substances (such as, onion peel (brown colour), oak or alder bark or walnut nutshell (black), beet juice (pink) etc.), or using artificial colourings.
A greater variety of colour was often provided by tying on the onion skin with different coloured woollen yarn. In the North of England these are called pace-eggs or paste-eggs, from a dialectal form of Middle English pasche. King Edward I's household accounts in 1290 list an item of 'one shilling and sixpence for the decoration and distribution of 450 Pace-eggs!', which were to be coloured or gilded and given to members of the royal household. Eggs could also be drawn on with a wax candle before staining, often with a person's name and date on the egg. Pace Eggs were generally eaten for breakfast on Easter Sunday breakfast. Alternatively, they could be kept as decorations, used in egg-jarping (egg tapping) games, or given to Pace Eggers. In more recent centuries in England, eggs have been stained with coffee grains
In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ—the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead. The tradition of red easter eggs was used by the Russian Orthodox Church. The tradition to dyeing the easter eggs in an Onion tone exists in the cultures of Armenia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Czechia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Israel. The colour is made by boiling onion peel in water.
===Patterning===
When boiling them with onion skins, leaves can be attached prior to dyeing to create leaf patterns. The leaves are attached to the eggs before they are dyed with a transparent cloth to wrap the eggs with like inexpensive muslin or nylon stockings, leaving patterns once the leaves are removed after the dyeing process. These eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.
Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb pysaty, "to write", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax. Lithuanians create intricately detailed margučiai using a hot wax application and dipping method, and also by dipping the eggs first and then etching designs into the shells.
Decorating eggs for Easter using wax resistant batik is a popular method in some other eastern European countries.
=== Use of Easter eggs in decorations ===
In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and/or painting and used as decoration around the house. Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying "Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is", breaking and eating them. This also happens in Georgia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, North Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine. In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other's egg with their own. The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future.
In Germany, eggs decorate trees and bushes as Easter egg trees, and in several areas public wells as Osterbrunnen.
There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have krashanky on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the krashanky equalled the number of departed family members.
File:Pysanky2011.JPG|Ukrainian Easter eggs
File:Sorbische Ostereier.jpg|Easter eggs from Sorbs
File:Marguciai2. 2007-04-21.jpg|Easter eggs from Lithuania
File:Sleepingbeauty.jpg|Perforated egg from Germany, Sleeping Beauty
File:Egg dekorerte.jpg|Norwegian Easter eggs
File:Ostereier-Griechenland.JPG|Easter eggs from Greece
File:Pisanki ażurowe.jpg|Perforated eggs
File:Oeuf de paque.JPG|Easter eggs from France
File:White House Easter Egg Roll.jpg|American Easter egg from the White House Washington, D.C.
File:Oeufs.jpg|Pace eggs boiled with onion skins and leaf patterns.
File:Red and blue Easter eggs.jpg|Easter eggs decorated with straw
File:04 Easter eggs at a Cultural Miner's House in Sanok.JPG|Easter egg from Poland
File:Washi Egg Japan US 2.png|Washi egg from Japan
|PLEASE DO NOT ADD MORE PICTURES TO THIS GALLERY BECAUSE THIS GALLERY HAS REACHED ITS MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF PICTURES
== Easter egg games ==
=== Egg hunts ===
An egg hunt is a game in which decorated eggs, which may be hard-boiled chicken eggs, chocolate eggs, or artificial eggs containing candies, are hidden for children to find. The eggs often vary in size, and may be hidden both indoors and outdoors. When the hunt is over, prizes may be given for the largest number of eggs collected, or for the largest or the smallest egg.
=== Egg rolling ===
Egg rolling is also a traditional Easter Egg game played with eggs at Easter. In the United Kingdom, Germany, and other countries children traditionally rolled eggs down hillsides at Easter. This tradition was taken to the New World by European settlers, and continues to this day each Easter with an Easter egg roll on the White House lawn. Rutherford B. Hayes started the tradition of the Easter Egg Roll at the White House. The Easter Monday Egg Roll was normally held at the United States Capitol, however, by the mid-1870s, Congress passed a law forbidding the Capitol's grounds to be used for the activity due to the toll it was taking on the landscape.
It is also practiced in Italy (where it is called scuccetta), Poland, Belarus, Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia (where it is called turčanje or trkanje), Ukraine, Russia, and other countries. In parts of Austria, Bavaria and German-speaking Switzerland it is called Ostereiertitschen or Eierpecken. In parts of Europe it is also called epper, presumably from the German name , meaning "offering" and in Greece it is known as tsougrisma. In South Louisiana, this practice is called pocking eggs and is slightly different. The Louisiana Creoles hold that the winner eats the eggs of the losers in each round.
In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings.
=== Egg dance ===
Egg dance is a traditional Easter game in which eggs are laid on the ground or floor and the goal is to dance among them without damaging any eggs which originated in Germany.
=== Pace egg plays ===
The Pace Egg plays are traditional village plays, with a rebirth theme. The drama takes the form of a combat between the hero and villain, in which the hero is killed and brought back to life. The plays take place in England during Easter.
== Variants ==
=== Chocolate ===
Chocolate eggs first appeared at the court of Louis XIV in Versailles and in 1725 the widow Giambone in Turin started producing chocolate eggs by filling empty chicken egg shells with molten chocolate. In 1873, J.S. Fry & Sons produced the first hollow chocolate egg making a smooth paste that could be poured into egg moulds. Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, Cadbury created the modern chocolate Easter egg after developing a pure cocoa butter that could be moulded into smooth shapes.
In Western cultures, the giving of chocolate eggs is now commonplace, with 80 million Easter eggs sold in the UK alone. Formerly, the containers Easter eggs were sold in contained large amounts of plastic, although in the United Kingdom this has gradually been replaced with recyclable paper and cardboard.
In Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay, hollow chocolate eggs known as or (Easter eggs) are popular and are commonly sold around Easter in supermarkets. Variations of this dessert containing fillings such as pistachio cream, hazelnut cream, or doce de leite, are known as (Spoon Easter eggs) or (Spoon eggs).
File:Chocolate egg.jpg|Hollow chocolate Easter egg
File:Easter-Chocolate-egg-bunny.jpg|Chocolate Easter egg bunny
File:Easter egg with candy.jpg|Easter egg with candy
File:Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny.jpg|Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny with Easter eggs
File:Ovos de Páscoa 2.jpg|Brazilian for sale in a supermarket
=== Marzipan eggs ===
In the Indian state of Goa, the Goan Catholic version of marzipan is used to make easter eggs. In the Philippines, mazapán de pili (Spanish for "pili marzipan") is made from pili nuts.
File:Marzipan easter eggs.jpg|Marzipan easter eggs
=== Artificial eggs ===
The jewelled Easter eggs made by the Fabergé firm for the two last Russian Tsars are regarded as masterpieces of decorative arts. Most of these creations themselves contained hidden surprises such as clock-work birds, or miniature ships.
In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries' folk traditions, Easter eggs are carved from wood and hand-painted, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common.
Easter eggs are frequently depicted in sculpture, including a sculpture of a pysanka standing in Vegreville, Alberta.
File:Fabergé egg Rome 05.JPG|Fabergé egg
File:Huevo de chocolate en Bariloche (Argentina).jpg|Giant easter egg, Bariloche, Argentina
File:Vegreville Pysanka.jpg|Giant pysanka from Vegreville, Alberta, Canada
File:Zagrebacko uskrsnje jaje 4 050409.jpg|Giant easter egg or pisanica in Zagreb, Croatia
File:Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin 2014 P01.JPG|Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin, Poland
File:Oul uriaş din Suceava2.jpg|Giant easter egg in Suceava, Romania
== Legends ==
===Christian traditions===
While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ.
A different, but not necessarily conflicting legend concerns Mary Magdalene's efforts to spread the Gospel. According to this tradition, after the Ascension of Jesus, Mary went to the Emperor of Rome and greeted him with "Christ has risen," whereupon he pointed to an egg on his table and stated, "Christ has no more risen than that egg is red." After making this statement it is said the egg immediately turned blood red.
Red Easter eggs, known as () in Greece and krashanki in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples. The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.
Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross. The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia. The Nowruz tradition has existed for at least 2,500 years. The sculptures on the walls of Persepolis show people carrying eggs for Nowruz to the king.
The Neopagan holiday of Ostara occurs at roughly the same time as Easter. While it is often claimed that the use of painted eggs is an ancient, pre-Christian component of the celebration of Ostara, there are no historical accounts that ancient celebrations included this practice, apart from the Old High German lullaby which is believed by most to be a modern fabrication. Rather, the use of painted eggs has been adopted under the assumption that it might be a pre-Christian survival. In fact, modern scholarship has been unable to trace any association between eggs and a supposed goddess named Ostara before the 19th century, when early folklorists began to speculate about the possibility.
There are good grounds for the association between hares (later termed Easter bunnies) and bird eggs, through folklore confusion between hares' forms (where they raise their young) and plovers' nests.
In Judaism, a hard-boiled egg is an element of the Passover Seder, representing festival sacrifice. The children's game of hunting for the afikomen (a half-piece of matzo) has similarities to the Easter egg hunt tradition, by which the child who finds the hidden matzah will be awarded a prize. In other homes, the children hide the afikoman and a parent must look for it; when the parents give up, the children demand a prize for revealing its location.
|
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] |
9,325 |
Easter
|
Easter, also called Pascha (Aramaic, Greek, Latin) or Resurrection Sunday, is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary . It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a 40-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance.
Easter-observing Christians commonly refer to the week before Easter as Holy Week, which in Western Christianity begins on Palm Sunday (marking the entrance of Jesus in Jerusalem), includes Spy Wednesday (on which the betrayal of Jesus is mourned), and contains the days of the Easter Triduum including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper, as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus. In Eastern Christianity, the same events are commemorated with the names of days all starting with "Holy" or "Holy and Great", and Easter itself might be called Great and Holy Pascha. In both Western and Eastern Christianity, Eastertide, the Easter or Paschal season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the 50th day, Pentecost Sunday, but in Eastern Christianity the leavetaking of the feast is on the 39th day, the day before the Feast of the Ascension.
Easter and its related holidays are moveable feasts, not falling on a fixed date; its date is computed based on a lunisolar calendar (solar year plus Moon phase) similar to the Hebrew calendar, generating a number of controversies. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established common Paschal observance by all Christians on the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the vernal equinox. Even if calculated on the basis of the Gregorian calendar, the date of that full moon sometimes differs from that of the astronomical first full moon after the March equinox.
The English term may derive from the Anglo-Saxon goddess name ; Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by its name (Hebrew: pesach, Aramaic: pascha are the basis of the term Pascha), by its origin (according to the synoptic Gospels, both the crucifixion and the resurrection took place during the week of Passover) and by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages, both the Christian Easter and the Jewish Passover are called by the same name; and in the older English translations of the Bible, as well, the term Easter was used to translate Passover.
Easter traditions vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services or late-night vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, flowering the cross, the wearing of Easter bonnets by women, clipping the church, and the decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Western Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include Easter parades, communal dancing (Eastern Europe), the Easter Bunny and egg hunting. There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture.
== Etymology ==
The modern English term Easter, cognate with German , developed from an Old English word that usually appears in the form , , or ; but also as , ; and or . In the 8th century AD, Anglo-Saxon monk and scholar Bede recorded in his The Reckoning of Time that (Old English for 'Month of Ēostre', translated in Bede's time as "Paschal month") was an English month, corresponding to April, which he says "was once called after a goddess of theirs named Ēostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month".
In Latin and Greek, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called (Greek: ), a word derived from Aramaic (), cognate to the Hebrew (). The word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. As early as 50 AD, Paul the Apostle, writing from Ephesus to the Christians in Corinth, applied the term to Christ. It is unlikely that the Ephesian and Corinthian Christians were the first to hear Exodus 12 interpreted as speaking about the death of Jesus, not just about the Jewish Passover ritual. In most languages, the feast is known by names derived from the Greek and Latin . Others call the holiday "Resurrection Sunday" or "Resurrection Day", after the Greek day.
== Theological significance ==
Easter celebrates Jesus' supernatural resurrection from the dead, which is one of the chief tenets of the Christian faith. Paul writes that, for those who trust in Jesus's death and resurrection, "death is swallowed up in victory". The First Epistle of Peter declares that God has given believers "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead". Christian theology holds that, through faith in the working of God, those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation, and can hope to be physically resurrected to dwell with him in the Kingdom of Heaven.
Easter is linked to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection.
== Early Christianity ==
As the Gospels assert that both the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred during the week of Passover, the first Christians timed the observance of the annual celebration of the resurrection in relation to Passover. Direct evidence for a more fully formed Christian festival of Pascha (Easter) begins to appear in the mid-2nd century. Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd-century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one. Evidence for another kind of annually recurring Christian festival, those commemorating the martyrs, began to appear at about the same time as the above homily.
While martyrs' days (usually the individual dates of martyrdom) were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish period, but does not leave the question free of doubt.
== Date ==
Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar.
=== Early Church controversies ===
The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter of contention. By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that the celebration of the holiday was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition. The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Easter controversies, arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated.
The term "Quartodeciman" refers to the practice of ending the Lenten fast on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, "the 's passover". According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Apostle) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome). The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread), wishing to associate Easter with Sunday. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled.
Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday. Polycrates (), however, wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism. Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus.
Quartodecimanism seems to have lingered into the 4th century, when Socrates of Constantinople recorded that some Quartodecimans were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom and that some were harassed by Nestorius.
It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice continued. But both those who followed the Nisan 14 custom, and those who set Easter to the following Sunday, had in common the custom of consulting their Jewish neighbors to learn when the month of Nisan would fall, and setting their festival accordingly. By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with the custom of relying on the Jewish community to determine the date of Easter. The chief complaint was that the Jewish communities sometimes erred in setting Passover to fall before the Northern Hemisphere spring equinox. The Sardica paschal table confirms these complaints, for it indicates that the Jews of some eastern Mediterranean city (possibly Antioch) fixed Nisan 14 on dates well before the spring equinox on multiple occasions.
Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations. Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error.
=== First Council of Nicaea (325 AD) ===
The settlement of the controversy about the Paschal season caused by the Quartodeciman practice of Asian churches is listed in our principal source for the works of the Council of Nicaea, Socrates Scholasticus's Ecclesiastical History, as one of the two reasons for which emperor Constantine convened the Council in 325. The Canons of the Council preserved by Dionysius Exiguus and his successors do not include any relevant provision, but letters of individuals present at the Council mention a decision prohibiting Quartodecimanism and requiring that all Christians adopt a common method to independently determine Paschal observance following the churches of Rome and Alexandria, the latter "since there was among the Egyptians an ancient science for the computation."
Already in the end of the 4th century and, later on, Dionysius Exiguus and others following him maintained that the bishops assembled at Nicaea had promulgated the celebration of Easter on the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the vernal equinox and that they had adopted the use of the 19-year lunar cycle, better known as Metonic cycle, to determine the date; subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition, but, with regards to the rule of the equinox, evidence that the church of Alexandria had implemented it before 325 suggests that the Council of Nicaea implicitly endorsed it.
Canons and sermons condemning the custom of computing Easter's date based on the Jewish calendar indicate that this custom (called "protopaschite" by historians) did not die out at once, but persisted for a time after the Council of Nicaea. In any case, in the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative. The Alexandrian system, however, was not immediately adopted throughout Christian Europe. Following Augustalis' treatise (On the Measurement of Easter), Rome retired the earlier 8-year cycle in favor of Augustalis' 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle, which it used until 457. It then switched to Victorius of Aquitaine's adaptation of the Alexandrian system.
Because this Victorian cycle differed from the unmodified Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal full moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative "Latin" and "Greek" dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued.
Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle. From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive. This 84-year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since 1582, when the Roman Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while most of Europe used the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed.
=== Computations ===
In 725, Bede succinctly wrote: "The Sunday following the full Moon which falls on or after the equinox will give the lawful Easter." However, this does not precisely reflect the ecclesiastical rules. The full moon referred to (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but the 14th day of a lunar month. Another difference is that the astronomical equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on 19, 20 or 21 March, while the ecclesiastical date is fixed by convention on 21 March.
In addition, the lunar tables of the Julian calendar are currently five days behind those of the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, the Julian computation of the Paschal full moon is a full five days later than the astronomical full moon. The result of this combination of solar and lunar discrepancies is divergence in the date of Easter in most years (see table).
Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles. The lunar year consists of 30-day and 29-day lunar months, generally alternating, with an embolismic month added periodically to bring the lunar cycle into line with the solar cycle. In each solar year (1 January to 31 December inclusive), the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling in the 29-day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive is designated as the paschal lunar month for that year.
Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the paschal lunar month's 14th day. The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days. and has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries which celebrate national holidays at Easter. For the British Empire and colonies, a determination of the date of Easter Sunday using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe. This was designed to match exactly the Gregorian calculation.
===Western-Eastern divergence===
In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a Sunday between 22 March and 25 April, within about seven days after the astronomical full moon. The preceding Friday, Good Friday, and following Monday, Easter Monday, are legal holidays in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions.
Eastern Orthodox Christians use the same rule but base their 21 March according to the Julian calendar. Because of the thirteen-day difference between the calendars from 1900 through 2099, 21 March Julian corresponds to 3 April in the Gregorian calendar (during the 20th and 21st centuries). Consequently, the date of Orthodox Easter varies between 4 April and 8 May in the Gregorian calendar. Orthodox Easter is usually several days or more than a month later than Western Easter.
Among the Oriental Orthodox, some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter, as for other fixed and moveable feasts, is the same as in the Western church.
The Greek island of Syros, whose population is divided almost equally between Catholics and Orthodox, is one of the few places where the two Churches share a common date for Easter, with the Catholics accepting the Orthodox date—a practice helping considerably in maintaining good relations between the two communities. Conversely, Orthodox Christians in Finland celebrate Easter according to the Western Christian date.
=== Proposed reforms of the date ===
In the 20th and 21st centuries, some individuals and institutions have propounded changing the method of calculating the date for Easter, the most prominent proposal being the Sunday after the second Saturday in April. Despite having some support, proposals to reform the date have not been implemented. An Orthodox congress of Eastern Orthodox bishops, which included representatives mostly from the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Serbian Patriarch, met in Constantinople in 1923, where the bishops agreed to the Revised Julian calendar.
The original form of this calendar would have determined Easter using precise astronomical calculations based on the meridian of Jerusalem. However, all the Eastern Orthodox countries that subsequently adopted the Revised Julian calendar adopted only that part of the revised calendar that applied to festivals falling on fixed dates in the Julian calendar. The revised Easter computation that had been part of the original 1923 agreement was never permanently implemented in any Orthodox diocese.
At a summit in Aleppo, Syria, in 1997, the World Council of Churches (WCC) proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced the present divergent practices of calculating Easter with modern scientific knowledge taking into account actual astronomical instances of the spring equinox and full moon based on the meridian of Jerusalem, while also following the tradition of Easter being on the Sunday following the full moon. The recommended World Council of Churches changes would have sidestepped the calendar issues and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, and despite repeated calls for reform, it was not ultimately adopted by any member body.
In January 2016, the Anglican Communion, Coptic Orthodox Church, Greek Orthodox Church, and Roman Catholic Church again considered agreeing on a common, universal date for Easter, while also simplifying the calculation of that date, with either the second or third Sunday in April being popular choices.
In November 2022, the Patriarch of Constantinople said that conversations between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Churches had begun to determine a common date for the celebration of Easter. The agreement is expected to be reached for the 1700th anniversary of the Council of Nicaea in 2025.
=== Table of the dates of Easter by Gregorian and Julian calendars ===
The WCC presented comparative data of the relationships:
== Position in the church year ==
=== Western Christianity ===
In most branches of Western Christianity, Easter is preceded by Lent, a period of penitence that begins on Ash Wednesday, lasts 40 days (not counting Sundays), and is often marked with fasting. The week before Easter, known as Holy Week, is an important time for observers to commemorate the final week of Jesus' life on earth. The Sunday before Easter is Palm Sunday, with the Wednesday before Easter being known as Spy Wednesday (or Holy Wednesday). The last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday (sometimes referred to as Silent Saturday).
Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the Last Supper and the crucifixion. Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum (Latin for "Three Days"). Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the Easter Vigil.
The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called Easter Week or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with "Easter", e.g. Easter Monday (a public holiday in many countries), Easter Tuesday (a much less widespread public holiday), etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday after Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday. Eastertide, or Paschaltide, the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of Pentecost, seven weeks later.
=== Eastern Christianity ===
In Eastern Christianity, the spiritual preparation for Easter/Pascha begins with Great Lent, which starts on Clean Monday and lasts for 40 continuous days (including Sundays). Great Lent ends on a Friday, and the next day is Lazarus Saturday. The Vespers which begins Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues through the following week.
The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, which is the last service of the Lenten Triodion and is timed so that it ends a little before midnight on Holy Saturday night. At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins, consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy.
The liturgical season from Easter to the Sunday of All Saints (the Sunday after Pentecost) is known as the Pentecostarion (the "50 days"). The week which begins on Easter Sunday is called Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday. The Afterfeast of Easter lasts 39 days, with its Apodosis (leave-taking) on the day before the Feast of the Ascension. Pentecost Sunday is the 50th day from Easter (counted inclusively). In the Pentecostarion published by Apostoliki Diakonia of the Church of Greece, the Great Feast Pentecost is noted in the synaxarion portion of Matins to be the 8th Sunday of Pascha. However, the Paschal greeting of "Christ is risen!" is no longer exchanged among the faithful after the Apodosis of Pascha.
==Liturgical observance==
=== Western Christianity ===
The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and some Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil which follows an ancient liturgy involving symbols of light, candles and water and numerous readings from the Old and New Testament.
Services continue on Easter Sunday and in a number of countries on Easter Monday. In parishes of the Moravian Church, as well as some other denominations such as the Methodist Churches, there is a tradition of Easter sunrise services, often starting in cemeteries in remembrance of the biblical narrative in the Gospels, or other places in the open where the sunrise is visible.
In some traditions, Easter services typically begin with the Paschal greeting: "Christ is risen!" The response is: "He is risen indeed. Alleluia!"
=== Eastern Christianity ===
Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholics and Byzantine Rite Lutherans have a similar emphasis on Easter in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar.
Preparation for Easter begins with the season of Great Lent, which begins on Clean Monday. While the end of Lent is Lazarus Saturday, fasting does not end until Easter Sunday. The Orthodox service begins late Saturday evening, observing the Jewish tradition that evening is the start of liturgical holy days. Conservative Reformed denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America likewise reject the celebration of Easter as a violation of the regulative principle of worship and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin.
Easter is rejected by groups such as the Restored Church of God, who claim it originated as a pagan spring festival adopted by the Roman Catholic Church.
Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a similar view, observing a yearly commemorative service of the Last Supper and the subsequent execution of Christ on the evening of Nisan 14 (as they calculate the dates derived from the lunar Hebrew calendar). It is commonly referred to by many Witnesses as simply "The Memorial". Jehovah's Witnesses believe that such verses as and constitute a commandment to remember the death of Christ, though not the resurrection.
Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), as part of their historic testimony against times and seasons, do not celebrate or observe Easter or any traditional feast days of the established Church, believing instead that "every day is the Lord's Day", and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Quakers were persecuted for this non-observance of Holy Days.
== Easter celebrations around the world ==
Easter traditions (also known as Paschal traditions) are customs and practices that are followed in various cultures and communities around the world to celebrate Easter, which is the central feast in Christianity, commemorating the resurrection of Jesus. The Easter season is seen as a time of celebration and feasting, in contrast to the antecedent season of Lent, which is a time of penitence and fasting.
Easter traditions include sunrise services or late-night vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, flowering the cross, the wearing of Easter bonnets by women, clipping the church, and the decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture. Many traditional Easter games and customs developed, such as egg rolling, egg tapping, and cascarones or confetti eggs. Egg hunting, originating in the idea of searching for the empty tomb, is an activity that remains popular among children. Today Easter is commercially important, seeing wide sales of greeting cards and confectionery such as chocolate Easter eggs.
In countries where Christianity is a state religion, or those with large Christian populations, Easter is often a public holiday. As Easter always falls on a Sunday, many countries in the world also recognize Good Friday and Easter Monday as public holidays. Depending on the country, retail stores, shopping malls and restaurants may be closed on the Friday, Monday or Sunday.
In the Nordic countries, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Easter Monday are public holidays, and Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays. In Denmark, Iceland and Norway, Maundy Thursday is also a public holiday; it is a holiday for most workers, except those operating some shopping malls which keep open for a half-day. Many businesses give their employees almost a week off, called Easter break. Schools are closed between Palm Sunday and Easter Monday. According to a 2014 poll, 6 of 10 Norwegians travel during Easter, often to a countryside cottage; 3 of 10 said their typical Easter included skiing.
Easter in Italy is one of that country's major holidays. Easter in Italy enters Holy Week with Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday, concluding with Easter Day and Easter Monday. Each day has a special significance. In Italy, both Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are national holidays, which results in a first and a second Easter Sunday, after which the week continues to a Tuesday.
Good Friday and Saturday as well as Easter Sunday and Monday are traditionally observed public holidays in Greece. It is customary for employees of the public sector to receive Easter bonuses as a gift from the state.
In Commonwealth nations, Easter Sunday is rarely a public holiday, as is the case for celebrations which fall on a Sunday. In the United Kingdom, both Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays, except in Scotland, where only Good Friday is a bank holiday. In Canada, Easter Monday is a statutory holiday for federal employees. In the Canadian province of Quebec, either Good Friday or Easter Monday are statutory holidays (although most companies give both). In Australia, Easter is associated with harvest time; Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays across all states and territories. The Saturday before Easter is a public holiday in every Australian state except Tasmania and Western Australia, while Easter Sunday itself is a public holiday only in New South Wales; Easter Tuesday is additionally a conditional public holiday in Tasmania, varying between award, and was also a public holiday in Victoria until 1994.
In New Zealand, Good Friday and Easter Monday are both state holidays.
In the United States, which is a secular country, Easter is not designated as a federal holiday. Easter parades are held in many American cities, though not sponsored by any government, involving festive strolling processions.
===Easter food===
The holiday of Easter is associated with various Easter customs and foodways (food traditions that vary regionally). Preparing, coloring, and decorating Easter eggs is one such popular tradition. Lamb is eaten in many countries, mirroring the Jewish Passover meal. Eating lamb at Easter has a religious meaning. The Paschal Lamb of the New Testament is in fact, for Christianity, the son of God Jesus Christ. The Paschal Lamb, in particular, represents the sacrifice of Jesus Christ for the sins of humanity. They are available all year round in some places, including the UK. The bun marks the end of the Christian season of Lent and different parts of the hot cross bun have a certain meaning, including the cross representing the crucifixion of Jesus, the spices inside signifying the spices used to embalm him at his burial and sometimes also orange peel to reflect the bitterness of his time on the cross. The Greeks in the 6th century AD may have marked cakes with a cross. In the Christian tradition, the making of buns with a cross on them and consuming them after breaking the fast on Good Friday, along with "crying about 'Hot cross buns'", is done in order to commemorate the crucifixion of Jesus. It is hypothesised that the contemporary hot cross bun of Christianity originates from St Albans in England, where in 1361, Brother Thomas Rodcliffe, a 14th-century Christian monk at St Albans Abbey, developed a similar recipe called an 'Alban Bun' and distributed the bun to the poor on Good Friday.
For lunch or dinner on Holy Saturday, families in Sweden and Denmark traditionally feast on a smörgåsbord of herring, salmon, potatoes, eggs, and other kinds of food. In Finland, it is common to eat roasted lamb with potatoes and other vegetables. In Finland, the Lutheran majority enjoys mämmi as another traditional Easter treat, while the Orthodox minority's traditions include eating pasha (also spelled paskha) instead. In Greece, the traditional Easter meal is , a hearty stew of chopped lamb liver and wild greens seasoned with egg-and-lemon sauce. Traditionally, Easter eggs, hard-boiled eggs dyed bright red to symbolize the spilt Blood of Christ and the promise of eternal life, are cracked together to celebrate the opening of the Tomb of Christ. Greek foods of the Easter tradition are Flaouna, Lazarakia, Koulourakia, Magiritsa and Tsoureki.
Traditional Italian dishes for the Easter period are abbacchio, cappello del prete, casatiello, Colomba di Pasqua, pastiera, penia, pizza di Pasqua and pizzelle. Abbacchio is an Italian preparation of lamb typical of the Roman cuisine. It is a product protected by the European Union with the PGI mark. In Italy at Easter, abbacchio is cooked in different ways, with recipes that vary from region to region. In Rome it is roasted, in Apulia in the oven, in Naples it is cooked with peas and eggs, in Sardinia it is cooked in the oven with potatoes, artichokes and myrtle and in Tuscany it is cooked in cacciatore style. Recently, it has been given a spiritual meaning in relation to the passion of Christ and the Lenten season, thus, for many people, the bread represents the Body of Christ, the syrup is his blood, the cloves are the nails of the cross, and the whole cinnamon sticks are the wood of the cross. The melted cheese stands for the Holy Shroud.
The Easter mona is a Spanish kind of cake that is especially eaten on Easter Sunday or Easter Monday in the Spanish regions of Catalonia, Valencia and Murcia. In other Spanish regions, these Easter cakes are common with variations in the recipe and name. According to the writing of Joan Amades, mentions of the mona date back to the 15th century, though in the Joan Lacavalleria's 1696 dictionary, Gazophylacium Catalano-Latinum, mona still has a purely zoological definition (meaning female monkey). The 1783 edition of the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy has the following definition: "Catalonia, Valencia and Murcia. Cake baked with eggs in their shell at Easter, known in other parts of the Iberian Peninsula as Hornazo".
Paskha (also spelled pascha, or pasha) is a Slavic festive dish made in Eastern Orthodox countries which consists of food that is forbidden during the fast of Great Lent. It is made during Holy Week and then brought to Church on Great Saturday to be blessed after the Paschal Vigil. The name of the dish comes from Pascha, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of Easter. Besides Russia, Ukraine, etc. Pasha is also often served in Finland. Cheese paskha is a traditional Easter dish made from tvorog (like cottage cheese, ), which is white, symbolizing the purity of Christ, the Paschal Lamb, and the joy of the Resurrection. It is formed in a mold, traditionally in the shape of a truncated pyramid which symbolizes the first Passover in Egypt, a nod to Christianity's early Jewish beginnings and a reminder that the Last Supper of Jesus was a Passover Seder. Others believe the pyramid is a symbol of the Trinity, the Church; Tomb of Christ). It is usually served as an accompaniment to rich Easter breads called paska in Ukraine and kulich in Russia (where the "paskha" name is also used in the Southern regions) and Poland "Pascha". The Easter foods; bread and cheese paska are very rich and made of many dairy items given up during Great Lent. They are brought to church on Easter to be blessed by the priest.
=== Easter eggs ===
==== Traditional customs ====
The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth. In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection. The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion. As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb. both in families' baskets together with other foods forbidden during Great Lent and alone for distribution or in church or elsewhere.
File:Pasxalina abga.jpg|Traditional red Easter eggs for blessing by a priest
File:2004 Velikden Pascha Gorazd Andrej Timkovic Presov monastyr.jpg|A priest blessing baskets with Easter eggs and other foods forbidden during Great Lent
File:Expedition 51 Soyuz Blessing (NHQ201704190004).jpg|A priest distributing blessed Easter eggs after blessing the Soyuz rocket
Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life among the Eastern Orthodox but also in folk traditions in Slavic countries and elsewhere. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs. The celebrated House of Fabergé workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916.
==== Modern customs ====
A modern custom in the Western world is to substitute decorated chocolate, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jellybeans; as many people give up candy (sweets) as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals indulge in them at Easter after having abstained during the preceding forty days of Lent.
File:Easter eggs - straw decoration.jpg|Easter eggs, a symbol of the empty tomb, are a popular cultural symbol of Easter. On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children.
===== Easter Bunny =====
In some traditions, the children put out their empty baskets for the Easter Bunny to fill while they sleep. They wake to find their baskets filled with candy eggs and other treats. A custom originating in Germany,
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"Industrial award",
"Easter controversy",
"Fabergé egg",
"excommunication",
"Paschal greeting",
"Sexagesima",
"Vespers",
"potica",
"Prayer",
"Saint Tikhon's Orthodox Theological Seminary",
"monk",
"Christendom",
"Death and Resurrection of Jesus",
"foodways",
"Corpus Christi (feast)",
"Melito of Sardis",
"Tsoureki",
"Friday of Sorrows",
"homily",
"Milan",
"Koulourakia",
"egg decorating",
"Good Friday",
"wikt:πάσχω",
"paska (bread)",
"Quartodecimanism",
"Pope Victor I",
"Dionysius Exiguus",
"Christianity",
"St Albans",
"Easter traditions",
"Public holidays in Italy",
"Penia (bread)",
"ecclesiastical full moon",
"Passover Seder",
"Treccani",
"octaeteris",
"Trinity Sunday",
"Metonic cycle",
"Victorius of Aquitaine",
"Shrove Tuesday",
"Christmas",
"Holy Shroud",
"icon",
"Septuagesima",
"egg hunt",
"Maundy Thursday",
"Sardinia",
"Northwest Theological Seminary",
"German language",
"Public holidays in Canada",
"Quinquagesima",
"Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan",
"whitehouse.gov",
"Adam",
"Santa Claus",
"Christian Church",
"Iconostasis",
"Western Australia",
"Golden number (time)",
"Hebrew calendar",
"Afterfeast",
"Holy Sepulchre",
"Easter in Italy",
"egg tapping",
"Leonardo da Vinci",
"James Ussher",
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"fasting",
"Quartodeciman",
"South Canaan Township, Pennsylvania",
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"Kulich (bread)",
"crucifixion of Jesus",
"Rome",
"Inter gravissimas",
"Colomba di Pasqua",
"Byzantine Rite Lutheranism",
"New South Wales",
"Eastern Catholic Churches",
"Lamb of God",
"penance",
"Easter food",
"Denmark",
"Easter Tuesday",
"smörgåsbord",
"pyramid",
"Jehovah's Witnesses",
"The Three Days",
"Ascension of Jesus Christ",
"Easter customs",
"Greek language",
"Harrowing of Hell",
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"Resurrection",
"paskha (meal)",
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"Lenten sacrifice",
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"Naples",
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"Polycarp",
"Sardica paschal table",
"Paul the Apostle",
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"Puritan",
"tvorog",
"Early Christianity",
"Calendar (New Style) Act 1750",
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"United States",
"First Epistle of Peter",
"Palm Sunday",
"Eusebius of Caesarea",
"Oxford University Press",
"Public holidays in the Netherlands",
"Maundy (foot washing)",
"Easter Saturday",
"Ephesus",
"Easter Bilby",
"Pope Anicetus",
"the Exodus",
"United Kingdom",
"England",
"Pentecostarion",
"sunrise service",
"Lutheran",
"cacciatore",
"Easter eggs (decorative)",
"Zoology",
"Eastern Christianity",
"Socrates Scholasticus",
"embalming",
"Church (building)",
"Christian",
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"Christian cross",
"House of Fabergé",
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"List of Easter hymns",
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"Church service",
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"public sector",
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] |
9,328 |
Euphoria (disambiguation)
|
Euphoria is an emotional and mental state defined as a sense of great happiness and well-being.
Euphoria may also refer to:
==Biology==
Euphoria (beetle), a genus of scarab beetles
Euphoria, a genus name previously used for the longan and other trees
== Music ==
=== Groups ===
Euphoria (American band), a folk-rock/sunshine pop band from New York, or their eponymous 1969 album
Euphoria (Australian band), a 1990s Australian pop/dance trio
Euphoria (Canadian band), an active Canadian dance music project, or their eponymous 1999 album
Euphoria (Indian band), an active Indian rock group formed in 1989
Eu Phoria, a Japanese all-girl pop/rock band formed in 2002
=== Albums ===
Euphoria (Claire Richards album), 2023
Euphoria (CNBLUE album), 2016
Euphoria (Dead Man album) or the title song, 2008
Euphoria (Def Leppard album), 1999
Euphoria (Enrique Iglesias album), 2010
Euphoria (Leftover Salmon album) or the title song, 1997
Euphoria (Ruslana album), 2012
Euphoria (Vinnie Vincent album) or the title song, 1997
Euphoria (compilations), a dance-music series, 1999–2004
Euphoria, by Surfact, 2009
Euphoria (Original Score from the HBO Series), by Labrinth, 2019
Euforia (La Mafia album), 1998
Euforia – Helen Sjöholm sjunger Billy Joel, or the title song, by Helen Sjöholm, 2010
=== Songs ===
"Euphoria" (Angels & Airwaves song), 2021
"Euphoria" (BTS song), 2018
"Euphoria" (Kendrick Lamar song), 2024
"Euphoria" (Loreen song), Swedish entry and winner of Eurovision 2012
"Euphoria" (The Perry Twins song), 2018
"Euphoria" (Usher song), 2012
"Euphoria", by Collide from Some Kind of Strange, 2003
"Euphoria", by DJ Tiësto from Parade of the Athletes, 2004
"Euphoria", by Don Toliver from Heaven or Hell, 2020
"Euphoria", by Killing Joke from Pylon, 2015
"Euphoria", by Kyle Ward from the video game series In the Groove
"Euphoria", by Muse from Will of the People, 2022
"Euphoria", by Sarah Slean from The Baroness, 2008
"Euphoria", by Sirenia from An Elixir for Existence, 2004
"Euphoria", by W.A.S.P. from Unholy Terror, 2001
"Euphoria", by the Youngbloods from Earth Music, 1968
"Euphoria", by the Holy Modal Rounders from their self-titled first album, 1964
"Euphoria (Firefly)", by Delerium from Karma, 1997
"Euphoria", by Michael Jackson from Music & Me, 1973
"Euforia" (song), a 2023 song by Annalisa
==Film and television==
Euphoria (2006 film), a 2006 Russian dramatic film by Ivan Vyrypaev
Euphoria (2017 film), a 2017 film by Swedish director Lisa Langseth
Euphoria (2018 film), a 2018 Italian film
Euphoria (Israeli TV series), a 2012–2013 Israeli television series
Euphoria (American TV series), a 2019 American series based on the Israeli series
"Euphoria, Part 1" and "Euphoria, Part 2" (2006), a two-part episode of the American television series House
Eufòria, a Catalan music talent show
== Computing ==
Euphoria (software), a game animation engine software by NaturalMotion
Euphoria (programming language), an interpreted programming language
==Sports==
New York Euphoria (formerly "Team Euphoria"), a team in the Lingerie Football League
WWC Euphoria, an event of World Wrestling Council
Euforia (wrestler) (born 1974), Mexican professional wrestler
==Others==
4-Methylaminorex (commonly known as "Euphoria" or "U4EA"), a stimulant drug with effects comparable to methamphetamine
Euphoria, a 2014 novel by Lily King
Euphoria, fictional state of the United States, home to Euphoric State University in David Lodge's novel Changing Places
|
[
"Euphoria (Loreen song)",
"Euphoria (Original Score from the HBO Series)",
"Euphoria (Kendrick Lamar song)",
"Euforia (La Mafia album)",
"Will of the People (album)",
"Eu Phoria",
"Euforia (wrestler)",
"Earth Music",
"Euphoria (2018 film)",
"Euphoria (Angels & Airwaves song)",
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"The Baroness (album)",
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"Euphoria (2017 film)",
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"Unholy Terror",
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"Euphoria (The Perry Twins song)",
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"Ufouria: The Saga",
"Parade of the Athletes",
"Euphoria (CNBLUE album)",
"Euphoria (Vinnie Vincent album)",
"Euphoria (Australian band)",
"Euphoria (software)",
"4-Methylaminorex",
"Euphoria",
"Euforia – Helen Sjöholm sjunger Billy Joel",
"Euphoria (Canadian band)",
"Euphoria (Indian band)",
"Euphoria (Leftover Salmon album)",
"Some Kind of Strange",
"Eufòria",
"Uforia Audio Network",
"Euphoria (2006 film)",
"Surfact",
"Euphoria (American TV series)",
"Euphoria (BTS song)",
"An Elixir for Existence",
"Music of In the Groove",
"Euphoria (Claire Richards album)",
"Euphoria (Usher song)",
"Euphoria, Part 1",
"Euphorbia",
"Changing Places"
] |
9,331 |
Euclid
|
Euclid (; ; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the Elements treatise, which established the foundations of geometry that largely dominated the field until the early 19th century. His system, now referred to as Euclidean geometry, involved innovations in combination with a synthesis of theories from earlier Greek mathematicians, including Eudoxus of Cnidus, Hippocrates of Chios, Thales and Theaetetus. With Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga, Euclid is generally considered among the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, and one of the most influential in the history of mathematics.
Very little is known of Euclid's life, and most information comes from the scholars Proclus and Pappus of Alexandria many centuries later. Medieval Islamic mathematicians invented a fanciful biography, and medieval Byzantine and early Renaissance scholars mistook him for the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara. It is now generally accepted that he spent his career in Alexandria and lived around 300 BC, after Plato's students and before Archimedes. There is some speculation that Euclid studied at the Platonic Academy and later taught at the Musaeum; he is regarded as bridging the earlier Platonic tradition in Athens with the later tradition of Alexandria.
In the Elements, Euclid deduced the theorems from a small set of axioms. He also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour. In addition to the Elements, Euclid wrote a central early text in the optics field, Optics, and lesser-known works including Data and Phaenomena. Euclid's authorship of On Divisions of Figures and Catoptrics has been questioned. He is thought to have written many lost works.
==Life==
===Traditional narrative===
The English name 'Euclid' is the anglicized version of the Ancient Greek name (). It is derived from 'eu-' (εὖ; 'well') and 'klês' (-κλῆς; 'fame'), meaning "renowned, glorious". In English, by metonymy, 'Euclid' can mean his most well-known work, Euclid's Elements, or a copy thereof, and is sometimes synonymous with 'geometry'.
As with many ancient Greek mathematicians, the details of Euclid's life are mostly unknown. He is accepted as the author of four mostly extant treatises—the Elements, Optics, Data, Phaenomena—but besides this, there is nothing known for certain of him. The traditional narrative mainly follows the 5th century AD account by Proclus in his Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's Elements, as well as a few anecdotes from Pappus of Alexandria in the early 4th century.
According to Proclus, Euclid lived shortly after several of Plato's ( BC) followers and before the mathematician Archimedes ( BC); specifically, Proclus placed Euclid during the rule of Ptolemy I ( BC). Euclid's birthdate is unknown; some scholars estimate around 330 or 325 BC, but others refrain from speculating. It is presumed that he was of Greek descent, but his birthplace is unknown. Proclus held that Euclid followed the Platonic tradition, but there is no definitive confirmation for this. It is unlikely he was a contemporary of Plato, so it is often presumed that he was educated by Plato's disciples at the Platonic Academy in Athens. Historian Thomas Heath supported this theory, noting that most capable geometers lived in Athens, including many of those whose work Euclid built on; historian Michalis Sialaros considers this a mere conjecture. In any event, the contents of Euclid's work demonstrate familiarity with the Platonic geometry tradition.
In his Collection, Pappus mentions that Apollonius studied with Euclid's students in Alexandria, and this has been taken to imply that Euclid worked and founded a mathematical tradition there. The city was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, and the rule of Ptolemy I from 306 BC onwards gave it a stability which was relatively unique amid the chaotic wars over dividing Alexander's empire. Ptolemy began a process of hellenization and commissioned numerous constructions, building the massive Musaeum institution, which was a leading center of education. Euclid is speculated to have been among the Musaeum's first scholars. Euclid's date of death is unknown; it has been speculated that he died .
===Identity and historicity===
Euclid is often referred to as 'Euclid of Alexandria' to differentiate him from the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara, a pupil of Socrates included in dialogues of Plato with whom he was historically conflated. Valerius Maximus, the 1st century AD Roman compiler of anecdotes, mistakenly substituted Euclid's name for Eudoxus (4th century BC) as the mathematician to whom Plato sent those asking how to double the cube. Perhaps on the basis of this mention of a mathematical Euclid roughly a century early, Euclid became mixed up with Euclid of Megara in medieval Byzantine sources (now lost), eventually leading Euclid the mathematician to be ascribed details of both men's biographies and described as (). The Byzantine scholar Theodore Metochites () explicitly conflated the two Euclids, as did printer Erhard Ratdolt's 1482 of Campanus of Novara's Latin translation of the Elements. After the mathematician appended most of the extant biographical fragments about either Euclid to the preface of his 1505 translation of the Elements, subsequent publications passed on this identification. A further confusion, which gives the birthplace of Euclid as Gela, Sicily, arises from the fact that Euclid of Megara is sometimes said to have been born in Gela. Later Renaissance scholars, particularly Peter Ramus, reevaluated this claim, proving it false via issues in chronology and contradiction in early sources.
Medieval Arabic sources give vast amounts of information concerning Euclid's life, but are completely unverifiable. Euclid, who was supposedly a Tyre-born Greek domiciled at Damascus, was claimed to have been the son of Naucrates. the lunar crater Euclides, and the minor planet 4354 Euclides.
The Elements is often considered after the Bible as the most frequently translated, published, and studied book in the Western World's history. With Aristotle's Metaphysics, the Elements is perhaps the most successful ancient Greek text, and was the dominant mathematical textbook in the Medieval Arab and Latin worlds.
The first English edition of the Elements was published in 1570 by Henry Billingsley and John Dee. The mathematician Oliver Byrne published a well-known version of the Elements in 1847 entitled The First Six Books of the Elements of Euclid in Which Coloured Diagrams and Symbols Are Used Instead of Letters for the Greater Ease of Learners, which included colored diagrams intended to increase its pedagogical effect. David Hilbert authored a modern axiomatization of the Elements. Edna St. Vincent Millay wrote that "Euclid alone has looked on Beauty bare."
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] |
9,332 |
Errol Morris
|
Errol Mark Morris (born February 5, 1948) is an American film director known for documentaries that interrogate the epistemology of their subjects, and the invention of the Interrotron. In 2003, his The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. His film The Thin Blue Line placed fifth on a Sight & Sound poll of the greatest documentaries ever made. Morris is known for making films about unusual subjects; Fast, Cheap & Out of Control interweaves the stories of an animal trainer, a topiary gardener, a robot scientist, and a naked mole-rat specialist.
==Early life and education==
Morris was born on February 5, 1948, into a Jewish family in Hewlett, New York. His father died when he was two and he was raised by his mother, a piano teacher. After being treated for strabismus in childhood, Morris refused to wear an eye patch. As a consequence, he has limited sight in one eye and lacks normal stereoscopic vision.
In the 10th grade, Morris attended The Putney School, a boarding school in Vermont. He began playing the cello, spending a summer in France studying music under the acclaimed Nadia Boulanger, who also taught Morris's future collaborator Philip Glass. Describing Morris as a teenager, Mark Singer wrote that he "read with a passion the 14-odd Oz books, watched a lot of television, and on a regular basis went with a doting but not quite right maiden aunt ('I guess you'd have to say that Aunt Roz was somewhat demented') to Saturday matinées, where he saw such films as This Island Earth and Creature from the Black Lagoon—horror movies that, viewed again 30 years later, still seem scary to him."
=== College ===
Morris attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison, graduating in 1969 with a Bachelor of Arts in history. For a brief time, Morris held small jobs, first as a cable-television salesman, and then as a term-paper writer. His unorthodox approach to applying for graduate school included "trying to get accepted at different graduate schools just by showing up on their doorstep."
In the fall of 1976, Herzog visited Plainfield again, this time to shoot part of his film Stroszek.
===First films===
Morris accepted $2,000 from Herzog and used it to take a trip to Vernon, Florida. Vernon was nicknamed "Nub City" because its residents supposedly participated in a particularly gruesome form of insurance fraud in which they deliberately amputated a limb to collect the insurance money. Morris's second documentary was about the town and bore its name, although it made no mention of Vernon as "Nub City", but instead explored other idiosyncrasies of the town's residents. Morris made this omission because he received death threats while doing research; the town's residents were afraid that Morris would reveal their secret. Morris returned to Vernon in 1979 and again in 1980, renting a house in town and conducting interviews with the town's citizens. Vernon, Florida premiered at the 1981 New York Film Festival. Newsweek called it, "a film as odd and mysterious as its subjects, and quite unforgettable." The film, like Gates of Heaven, suffered from poor distribution. It was released on video in 1987, and DVD in 2005.
After finishing Vernon, Florida, Morris tried to get funding for a variety of projects. The Road story was about an interstate highway in Minnesota; one project was about Robert Golka, the creator of laser-induced fireballs in Utah; and another story was about Centralia, Pennsylvania, the coal town in which an inextinguishable subterranean fire ignited in 1962. He eventually got funding in 1983 to write a script about John and Jim Pardue, Missouri bank robbers who had killed their father and grandmother and robbed five banks. Morris's pitch went, "The great bank-robbery sprees always take place at a time when something is going wrong in the country. Bonnie and Clyde were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without the Depression as a backdrop. The Pardue brothers were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without Vietnam." This led to Grigson being nicknamed "Dr. Death." Through Grigson, Morris met the subject of his next film, 36-year-old Randall Dale Adams.
Adams was serving a life sentence that had been commuted from a death sentence on a legal technicality for the 1976 murder of Robert Wood, a Dallas police officer. Adams told Morris that he had been framed, and that David Harris, who was present at the time of the murder and was the principal witness for the prosecution, had in fact killed Wood. Morris began researching the case because it related to Dr. Grigson. He was at first unconvinced of Adams's innocence. After reading the transcripts of the trial and meeting David Harris at a bar, however, Morris was no longer so sure.
At the time, Morris had been making a living as a private investigator for a well-known private detective agency that specialized in Wall Street cases. Bringing together his talents as an investigator and his obsessions with murder, narration, and epistemology, Morris went to work on the case in earnest. Unedited interviews in which the prosecution's witnesses systematically contradicted themselves were used as testimony in Adams's 1986 habeas corpus hearing to determine if he would receive a new trial. David Harris famously confessed, in a roundabout manner, to killing Wood.
Although Adams was finally found innocent after years of being processed by the legal system, the judge in the habeas corpus hearing officially stated that, "much could be said about those videotape interviews, but nothing that would have any bearing on the matter before this court." Regardless, The Thin Blue Line, as Morris's film would be called, was popularly accepted as the main force behind getting its subject, Randall Adams, out of prison. As Morris said of the film, "The Thin Blue Line is two movies grafted together. On one simple level is the question, Did he do it, or didn't he? And on another level, The Thin Blue Line, properly considered, is an essay on false history. A whole group of people, literally everyone, believed a version of the world that was entirely wrong, and my accidental investigation of the story provided a different version of what happened."
The Thin Blue Line ranks among the most critically acclaimed documentaries ever made. According to a survey by The Washington Post, the film made dozens of critics' top ten lists for 1988, more than any other film that year. It won the documentary of the year award from both the New York Film Critics Circle and the National Society of Film Critics. Despite its widespread acclaim, it was not nominated for an Oscar, which created a small scandal regarding the nomination practices of the academy. The academy cited the film's genre of "non-fiction", arguing that it was not actually a documentary. It was the first of Morris's films to be scored by Philip Glass.
=== A Brief History of Time and Fast Cheap & Out of Control ===
Morris wanted to make a film about Albert Einstein's brain and approached Amblin Entertainment about it. Gordon Freeman had acquired the rights to Stephen Hawking's bestseller A Brief History of Time and Steven Spielberg suggested Morris direct it. After reading Hawking's book, Morris agreed to direct a documentary adaptation of it, having studied the philosophy of science at Princeton. Morris's film A Brief History of Time is less an adaptation of Hawking's book than a portrait of the scientist. It combines interviews with Hawking, his colleagues and his family with computer animations and clips from movies like Disney's The Black Hole. Morris said he was "very moved by Hawking as a man", calling him "immensely likable, perverse, funny...and yes, he's a genius."
Morris's Fast, Cheap & Out of Control interweaves interviews with a wild animal trainer, a topiary gardener, a robot scientist and a naked mole rat specialist with stock footage, cartoons and clips from film serials. Roger Ebert said of it, "If I had to describe it, I'd say it's about people who are trying to control things - to take upon themselves the mantle of God." Morris agreed there was a "Frankenstein element", adding "They're all involved in some very odd inquiry about life. It sounds horribly pretentious laid out that way, but there's something mysterious in each of the stories, something melancholy as well as funny. And there's an edge of mortality. For the end of the movie I showed the gardener clipping the top of his camel, clipping in a heavenly light, and then walking away in the rain. You know that this garden is not going to last much longer than the gardener's lifetime."
In 2002, Morris was commissioned to make a short film for the 75th Academy Awards. He was hired based on his advertising resume, not his career as a director of feature-length documentaries. Those interviewed ranged from Laura Bush to Iggy Pop to Kenneth Arrow to Morris's 15-year-old son Hamilton. Morris was nominated for an Emmy for this short film. He considered editing this footage into a feature-length film, focusing on Donald Trump discussing Citizen Kane (this segment was later released on the second issue of Wholphin). Morris went on to make a second short for the 79th Academy Awards in 2007, this time interviewing the various nominees and asking them about their Oscar experiences.
=== The Fog of War and later films===
In 2003, Morris won the Oscar for Best Documentary for The Fog of War, a film about the career of Robert S. McNamara, the Secretary of Defense during the Vietnam War under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. In the haunting opening about McNamara's relationship with U.S. General Curtis LeMay during World War II, Morris brings out complexities in the character of McNamara, which shaped McNamara's positions in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War. Like his earlier documentary, The Thin Blue Line, The Fog of War included extensive use of re-enactments, a technique which many had believed was inappropriate for documentaries prior to his Oscar win.
In early 2010, a new Morris documentary was submitted to several film festivals, including Toronto International Film Festival, Cannes Film Festival, and Telluride Film Festival. The film, Tabloid, features interviews with Joyce McKinney, a former Miss Wyoming, who was convicted in absentia for the kidnap and indecent assault of a Mormon missionary in England during 1977.
Subsequently, Morris has made documentaries such as The Unknown Known (2013), American Dharma (2018), and The Pigeon Tunnel (2023), revolving around interviews conducted with Donald Rumsfeld, Steve Bannon, and John le Carré, respectively.
=== Commercials ===
Although Morris has achieved fame as a documentary filmmaker, he is also an accomplished director of television commercials. In 2002, Morris directed a series of television ads for Apple Computer as part of a popular "Switch" campaign. The commercials featured ex-Windows users discussing their various bad experiences that motivated their own personal switches to Macintosh. One commercial in the series, starring Ellen Feiss, a high-schooler friend of his son Hamilton Morris, became an Internet meme. Morris has directed hundreds of commercials for various companies and products, including Adidas, AIG, Cisco Systems, Citibank, Kimberly-Clark's Depend brand, Levi's, Miller High Life, Nike, PBS, The Quaker Oats Company, Southern Comfort, EA Sports, Toyota and Volkswagen. Many of these commercials are available on his website.
In July 2004, Morris directed another series of commercials in the style of the "Switch" ads. This campaign featured Republicans who voted for Bush in the 2000 election giving their personal reasons for voting for Kerry in 2004. Upon completing more than 50 commercials, Morris had difficulty getting them on the air. Eventually, the liberal advocacy group MoveOn PAC paid to air a few of the commercials. Morris also wrote an editorial for The New York Times discussing the commercials and Kerry's losing campaign.
In late 2004, Morris directed a series of noteworthy commercials for Sharp Electronics. The commercials enigmatically depicted various scenes from what appeared to be a short narrative that climaxed with a car crashing into a swimming pool. Each commercial showed a slightly different perspective on the events, and each ended with a cryptic weblink. The weblink was to a fake webpage advertising a prize offered to anyone who could discover the secret location of some valuable urns. It was in fact an alternate reality game. The original commercials can be found on Morris's website.
Morris directed a series of commercials for Reebok that featured six prominent National Football League (NFL) players. The 30-second promotional videos were aired during the 2006 NFL season.
In 2013, Morris stated that he has made around 1,000 commercials during his career.
In 2015, Morris made commercials for medical technology firm Theranos, and interviewed its founder, Elizabeth Holmes. After the company fell in disgrace, Morris was criticized by The Telegraph for seeming "captivated" by Holmes, and for contributing to Holmes' mythical persona as a visionary. In a 2019 New Yorker interview, Morris reflected, "To me, what really is interesting about Elizabeth [Holmes] ... did she really see herself as a fraud? Was it calculation? I have a hard time squaring that with my own experience. Could I have been self-deceived, delusional? You betcha. I'm no different than the next guy. I'd like to think I'm a little different. But I'm still fascinated by her."
=== Writings and documentary shorts ===
Morris has also written long-form journalism, exploring different areas of interest and published on The New York Times website. A collection of these essays, titled Believing is Seeing: Observations on the Mysteries of Photography, was published by Penguin Press on September 1, 2011. In November 2011, Morris premiered a documentary short titled "The Umbrella Man"—featuring Josiah "Tink" Thompson—about the Kennedy assassination on The New York Times website.
In 2012, Morris published his second book, A Wilderness of Error: The Trials of Jeffrey MacDonald, about Jeffrey MacDonald, the Green Beret physician convicted of killing his wife and two daughters on February 17, 1970. Morris first became interested in the case in the early 1990s and believes that MacDonald is not guilty after undertaking extensive research. Morris explained in a July 2013 interview, prior to the reopening of the case: "What happened here is wrong. It's wrong to convict a man under these circumstances. And if I can help correct that, I will be a happy camper." He now states that he does not believe that Macdonald is guilty, but thinks it possible that Macdonald is guilty.
==Style and legacy==
To conduct interviews, Morris invented a machine, called the Interrotron, which allows the interviewer and his subject to make eye-contact with each other while both staring through the camera lens itself. He explains the device as follows:
Author Marsha McCreadie, in her book Documentary Superstars: How Today's Filmmakers Are Reinventing the Form, had paired Morris with Werner Herzog as practitioners and visionaries in their approach in documentary filmmaking.
Morris uses narrative elements within his films. These include but are not limited to: stylized lighting, musical score, and re-enactment. The use of these elements is rejected by many documentary filmmakers who followed the cinema vérité style of the previous generations. Cinema vérité is characterized by its rejection of artistic additions to documentary film. While Morris faced backlash from many of the older-era filmmakers, his style has been embraced by the younger generations of filmmakers, as the use of re-enactment is present in many contemporary documentary films.
Morris advocates the reflexive style of documentary filmmaking. In Bill Nichols's book Introduction to Documentary he states that reflexive documentary "[speaks] not only about the historical world but about the problems and issues of representing it as well." Morris uses his films not only to portray social issues and non-fiction events but also to comment on the reliability of documentary making itself.
His style has been spoofed in the mockumentary series Documentary Now.
Even when interviewing controversial figures, Morris does not generally believe in adversarial interviews:
==Filmography==
===Feature films===
Gates of Heaven (1978)
Vernon, Florida (1981)
The Thin Blue Line (1988)
The Dark Wind (1991), fiction movie
A Brief History of Time (1991)
Fast, Cheap & Out of Control (1997)
Mr. Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr. (1999)
The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (2003)
Standard Operating Procedure (2008)
Tabloid (2010)
The Act of Killing (executive producer) (2012)
The Unknown Known (2013)
The Look of Silence (executive producer) (2014)
Happy Father's Day (video) (2015)
Uncle Nick (executive producer) (2015)
The B-Side: Elsa Dorfman's Portrait Photography (2016)
National Bird (executive producer) (2016)
American Dharma (2018)
Enemies of the State (executive producer) (2020)
My Psychedelic Love Story (2020)
The Pigeon Tunnel (2023)
Tune Out the Noise (2024)
Separated (2024)
CHAOS: The Manson Murders (2025)
===Short films===
Survivors (2008)
They Were There (Documentary short) (2011)
El Wingador (Documentary short) (2012)
Three Short Films About Peace (2014)
Leymah Gbowee: The Dream (Documentary short) (2014)
===Television===
Errol Morris Interrotron Stories: Digging Up the Past (TV miniseries documentary) (1995)
First Person (TV series documentary) (17 episodes) (2000)
Op-Docs (TV series documentary trilogy)
The Umbrella Man about Umbrella man (JFK assassination) (2011)
November 22, 1963 (2013)
A Demon in the Freezer (2016)
P.O.V. (executive producer) (2014–2016)
It's Not Crazy, It's Sports (TV documentary series) (2015)
The Subterranean Stadium (TV movie) (2015)
The Streaker (TV movie) (2015)
The Heist (TV movie) (2015)
Most Valuable Whatever (TV movie) (2015)
Chrome (TV movie) (2015)
Being Mr. Met (TV movie) (2015)
Zillow Hiram's Home (TV movie) (2016)
Wormwood (miniseries) (2017)
A Wilderness of Error (docuseries on FX) (2020)
==Accolades==
Gates of Heaven (1978) was long featured on Roger Ebert's list of the ten greatest films ever made.
Golden Horse for Best Foreign Film at the Taiwan International Film Festival for The Thin Blue Line (1988)
New York Film Critics Circle and the National Society of Film Critics Best Documentary for The Thin Blue Line (1988)
Washington Post Best Film of the Year for The Thin Blue Line (1988)
Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture, from the Mystery Writers of America, for The Thin Blue Line (1989)
Guggenheim Fellowship (1989)
MacArthur Fellowship (1989)
Emmy for Best Commercial for PBS commercial "Photobooth" (2001)
In December 2001, the United States' National Film Preservation Foundation announced that Morris's The Thin Blue Line would be one of the 25 films selected that year for preservation in the National Film Registry at the Library of Congress, bringing the total at the time to 325.
2002 International Documentary Association list of the 20 all-time best documentaries: The Thin Blue Line (#2), Fast, Cheap & Out of Control (#14)
Best Documentary of the Year awards for The Fog of War (2003): the National Board of Review, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, the Chicago Film Critics, and the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics.
In 2003, The Guardian put him seventh in its list of the world's 40 best active directors.
Academy Award for Documentary Feature The Fog of War (2004)
Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2007)
Jury Grand Prix Silver Bear at the 2008 Berlin International Film Festival for Standard Operating Procedure
Columbia Journalism Award (2013)
In 2019, The Fog of War was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
===Honorary degrees===
Middlebury College, Hon. D.F.A. (2010)
Brandeis University, Hon. D.H.L. (2011)
University of Wisconsin–Madison, Hon. D.H.L. (2013)
|
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"Josiah Thompson",
"Curtis LeMay",
"Miller High Life",
"GreenCine",
"Uncle Nick",
"Mark Singer (journalist)",
"Robert Richardson (cinematographer)",
"Morristown, New Jersey",
"Chicago Sun-Times",
"Stephen King",
"Ed Gein",
"Guggenheim Fellowship",
"The Look of Silence",
"Tom Waits",
"Letterboxd",
"Standard Operating Procedure (film)",
"Wormwood (miniseries)",
"Princeton University",
"United States Secretary of Defense",
"Steven Spielberg",
"National Film Registry",
"Political action committee",
"naked mole-rat",
"Wall Street",
"George W. Bush",
"Volkswagen",
"Microsoft Windows",
"San Francisco Chronicle",
"Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive",
"Sight & Sound",
"American International Group",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"alternate reality game",
"CHAOS: The Manson Murders",
"The Jewish Daily Forward",
"New York Film Critics Circle",
"Iggy Pop",
"Les Blank",
"Reebok",
"Los Angeles Times",
"University of California, Berkeley",
"Citizen Kane",
"Hitchcock",
"Albert Einstein's brain",
"Body snatching",
"habeas corpus",
"Allmovie",
"79th Academy Awards",
"The Pigeon Tunnel",
"Donald Trump",
"Kimberly-Clark",
"A Wilderness of Error (TV series)",
"Green Berets",
"private investigator",
"Robert S. McNamara",
"Jeffrey MacDonald",
"Brandeis University",
"James Grigson",
"Telluride Film Festival",
"The Act of Killing",
"Mendota Mental Health Institute",
"Werner Herzog",
"Harvard University",
"animal trainer",
"film noir",
"The Believer (magazine)",
"Tom Luddy",
"Nike, Inc.",
"Edgar Award",
"Middlebury College",
"Mickey Rourke",
"The Dallas Morning News",
"Capital punishment",
"Missouri",
"Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature",
"Thomas Kuhn",
"Tabloid (film)",
"Roger Ebert",
"Bonnie and Clyde",
"Gates of Heaven",
"Southern Comfort",
"Apple Computer",
"New York (state)",
"Bachelor of Arts",
"The Quaker Oats Company",
"A Brief History of Time",
"Teleprompters",
"A Wilderness of Error",
"Fort Worth Star-Telegram",
"the Depression",
"Tune Out the Noise",
"Sight and Sound",
"British Film Institute",
"Fast, Cheap & Out of Control",
"Bill Nichols (film critic)",
"Joyce McKinney",
"National Film Preservation Foundation",
"The New Yorker",
"Centralia, Pennsylvania",
"Amblin Entertainment",
"Theranos",
"Levi's",
"MoveOn",
"The Ashtray (Or the Man Who Denied Reality)",
"The Thin Blue Line (1988 film)",
"Citibank",
"Academy Award for Documentary Feature",
"Academy Awards",
"The Huffington Post",
"American Dharma",
"television commercial",
"Vernon, Florida (film)",
"University of Oxford",
"YouTube",
"Sharp Electronics",
"Plainfield, Wisconsin",
"Wholphin (DVD)",
"Texas",
"Elizabeth Holmes",
"American Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"The B-Side: Elsa Dorfman's Portrait Photography",
"List of Oz books",
"Alloy Orchestra",
"Toyota",
"Library of Congress",
"epistemology",
"The Guardian",
"Vernon, Florida",
"Documentary Now",
"New York Film Festival",
"Separated (film)",
"Enemies of the State",
"cello",
"Toronto International Film Festival",
"Stroszek",
"75th Academy Awards",
"John le Carré",
"Kenneth Arrow",
"The Fog of War",
"EA Sports",
"Laura Bush",
"Essay",
"National Society of Film Critics",
"topiary",
"Depend (undergarment)",
"This Island Earth",
"First Person (2000 TV series)",
"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum",
"National Bird (film)",
"Miss Wyoming",
"Mr. Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr.",
"Philip Glass",
"Randall Dale Adams",
"Emmy",
"Adidas",
"2000 United States presidential election",
"The Dark Wind (1991 film)",
"The Unknown Known",
"Lyndon B. Johnson",
"Cannes Film Festival",
"Steve Bannon",
"Psycho (1960 film)",
"Cisco Systems",
"The Washington Post",
"Cuban Missile Crisis",
"Nadia Boulanger",
"Werner Herzog Eats His Shoe",
"Donald Rumsfeld",
"Hamilton Morris",
"Interrotron",
"PBS",
"Creature from the Black Lagoon",
"Dallas, Texas",
"Berlin International Film Festival",
"Hewlett, New York",
"John F. Kennedy",
"A Wilderness of Error: The Trials of Jeffrey MacDonald",
"IMDb",
"MacArthur Fellowship",
"strabismus",
"Democracy Now!",
"The New York Times",
"A Brief History of Time (film)",
"The Putney School",
"Umbrella man (JFK assassination)",
"John Kerry",
"Stephen Hawking",
"Mystery Writers of America",
"They Were There",
"Newsweek",
"Mormon sex in chains case",
"The Black Hole (1979 film)",
"University of Wisconsin–Madison",
"Penguin Press",
"Vietnam War"
] |
9,333 |
Ethan Allen
|
Ethan Allen ( – February 12, 1789) was an American farmer, writer, military officer and politician. He is best known as one of the founders of Vermont and for the capture of Fort Ticonderoga during the American Revolutionary War, and was also the brother of Ira Allen and the father of Fanny Allen.
Allen was born in rural Connecticut and had a frontier upbringing, but he also received an education that included some philosophical teachings. In the late 1760s, he became interested in the New Hampshire Grants, buying land there and becoming embroiled in the legal disputes surrounding the territory. Legal setbacks led to the formation of the Green Mountain Boys, whom Allen led in a campaign of intimidation and property destruction to drive New York settlers from the Grants. He and the Patriot-aligned Green Mountain Boys seized the initiative early in the Revolutionary War and captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. In September 1775, Allen led a failed attempt on Montreal which resulted in his capture by the British. He was imprisoned aboard ships of the Royal Navy, then paroled in New York City, and finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778.
Upon his release, Allen returned to the New Hampshire Grants which had declared independence in 1777, and he resumed political activity in the territory, continuing resistance to New York's attempts to assert control over the territory. Allen lobbied Congress for Vermont's official state recognition, and he participated in controversial negotiations with the British over the possibility of Vermont becoming a separate British province.
Allen wrote accounts of his exploits in the war that were widely read in the 19th century, as well as philosophical treatises and documents relating to the politics of Vermont's formation. His business dealings included successful farming operations, one of Connecticut's early iron works, and land speculation in the Vermont territory. Allen and his brothers purchased tracts of land that became Burlington, Vermont. He was married twice, fathering eight children.
==Early life==
Allen was born in Litchfield, Connecticut Colony, the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen, both descended from English Puritans. The family moved to the town of Cornwall shortly after his birth due to his father's quest for freedom of religion during the Great Awakening. As a boy, Allen already excelled at quoting the Bible and was known for disputing the meaning of passages. He had five brothers (Heman, Heber, Levi, Zimri, and Ira) and two sisters (Lydia and Lucy). His brothers Ira and Heman were also prominent figures in the early history of Vermont.
The town of Cornwall was frontier territory in the 1740s, but it began to resemble a town by the time that Allen was a teenager, with wood-frame houses beginning to replace the rough cabins of the early settlers. Joseph Allen was one of the wealthier landowners in the area by the time of his death in 1755. He ran a successful farm and had served as town selectman. Allen began studies under a minister in the nearby town of Salisbury with the goal of gaining admission to Yale College.
=== First marriage and early adulthood ===
Allen was forced to end his studies upon his father's death. He volunteered for militia service in 1757 in response to the French siege of Fort William Henry, but his unit received word that the fort had fallen while they were en route, and they turned back. The French and Indian War continued over the next several years, but Allen did not participate in any further military activities and is presumed to have tended his farm. In 1762, he became part owner of an iron furnace in Salisbury. He also married Mary Brownson from Roxbury in July 1762, who was five years his senior. They first settled in Cornwall, but moved the following year to Salisbury with their infant daughter Loraine. They bought a small farm and proceeded to develop the iron works. The expansion of the iron works was apparently costly to Allen; he was forced to sell off portions of the Cornwall property to raise funds, and eventually sold half of his interest in the works to his brother Heman. The Allen brothers sold their interest in the iron works in October 1765.
By most accounts, Allen's first marriage was unhappy. His wife was rigidly religious, prone to criticizing him, and barely able to read and write. In contrast, his behavior was sometimes quite flamboyant, and he maintained an interest in learning. Nevertheless, they remained together until Mary's death in 1783. They had five children together, only two of whom reached adulthood.
Allen and his brother Heman went to the farm of a neighbor whose pigs had escaped onto their land, and they seized the pigs. The neighbor sued to have the animals returned to him; Allen pleaded his own case and lost. Allen and Heman were fined ten shillings, and the neighbor was awarded another five shillings in damages. He was also called to court in Salisbury for inoculating himself against smallpox, a procedure that required the sanction of the town selectmen.
Allen met Thomas Young when he moved to Salisbury, a doctor living and practicing just across the provincial boundary in New York. Young taught him a great deal about philosophy and political theory, while Allen shared his appreciation of nature and life on the frontier with Young. They eventually decided to collaborate on a book intended as an attack on organized religion, as Young had convinced Allen to become a Deist. They worked on the manuscript until 1764, when Young moved away from the area taking the manuscript with him. Allen recovered the manuscript many years later, after Young's death. He expanded and reworked the material, and eventually published it as Reason: the Only Oracle of Man.
Heman remained in Salisbury where he ran a general store until his death in 1778, but Allen's movements are poorly documented over the next few years. He lived in Northampton, Massachusetts in the spring of 1766, where his son Joseph was born and where he invested in a lead mine. The authorities asked him to leave Northampton in July 1767, though no official reason is known. Biographer Michael Bellesiles suggests that religious differences and Allen's tendency to be disruptive may have played a role in his departure. Allen briefly returned to Salisbury before settling in Sheffield, Massachusetts with his younger brother Zimri. It is likely that his first visits to the New Hampshire Grants occurred during these years. Sheffield was the family home for ten years, although Allen was often absent for extended periods.
==New Hampshire Grants==
New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth was selling land grants west of the Connecticut River as early as 1749, an area to which New Hampshire had always laid claim. Many of these grants were sold at relatively low prices to land speculators, with Wentworth also reserving for himself a share of each grant. In 1764, King George issued an order resolving the competing claims of New York and New Hampshire in favor of New York. New York had issued land grants that overlapped some of those sold by Wentworth, and authorities there insisted that holders of the Wentworth grants pay a fee to New York to have their grants validated. This fee approached the original purchase price, and many of the holders were land-rich and cash-poor, so there was a great deal of resistance to the demand. By 1769, the situation had deteriorated to the point that surveyors and other figures of New York authority were being physically threatened and driven from the area.
A few of the holders of Wentworth grants were from northwestern Connecticut, and some of them were related to Allen, including Remember Baker and Seth Warner. In 1770, a group of them asked him to defend their case before New York's Supreme Court. Duane visited Allen and offered him payments "for going among the people to quiet them". Allen denied taking any money
Many historians believe that Allen took these actions because he already held Wentworth grants of his own, although there is no evidence that he was issued any such grants until after he had been asked to take up the defense at the trial. He acquired grants from Wentworth to about in Poultney and Castleton prior to the trial.
===Green Mountain Boys===
On Allen's return to Bennington, the settlers met at the Catamount Tavern to discuss their options. These discussions resulted in the formation of the Green Mountain Boys in 1770, with local militia companies in each of the surrounding towns. Allen was named their Colonel Commandant, and cousins Seth Warner and Remember Baker were captains of two of the companies. Further meetings resulted in creating committees of safety; they also laid down rules to resist New York's attempts to establish its authority. These included not allowing New York's surveyors to survey any land in the Grants, not just land owned through the Wentworth grants. Allen participated in some of the actions to drive away surveyors, and he also spent much time exploring the territory. He sold some of his Connecticut properties and began buying land farther north in the territory, which he sold at a profit as the southern settlements grew and people began to move farther north.
Friction increased with the provincial government in October 1771, when Allen and a company of Green Mountain Boys drove off a group of Scottish settlers near Rupert. Allen detained two of the settlers and forced them to watch them burn their newly constructed cabins. Allen then ordered them to "go your way now, and complain to that damned scoundrel your Governor, God damn your Governor, Laws, King, Council, and Assembly". The settlers protested his language but Allen continued the tirade, threatening to send any troops from New York to Hell. In response, New York Governor William Tryon issued warrants for the arrests of those responsible, and eventually put a price of £20 (around £3.3k today, or $4.4k) on the heads of six participants, including Allen.}}
The situation deteriorated further over the next few years. Governor Tryon and the Green Mountain Boys exchanged threats, truce offers, and other writings, frequently written by Allen in florid and didactic language while the Green Mountain Boys continued to drive away surveyors and incoming tenants. Most of these incidents did not involve bloodshed, although individuals were at times manhandled, and the Green Mountain Boys sometimes did extensive property damage when driving tenants out. By March 1774, the harsh treatment of settlers and their property prompted Tryon to increase some of the rewards to £100.
===Onion River Company===
Allen joined his cousin Remember Baker and his brothers Ira, Heman, and Zimri to form the Onion River Company in 1772, a land-speculation organization devoted to purchasing land around the Winooski River, which was known then as the Onion River. The success of this business depended on the defense of the Wentworth grants. Early purchases included about from Edward Burling and his partners; they sold land at a profit to Thomas Chittenden, among others, and their land became the city of Burlington.
The outrage of the Wentworth proprietors was renewed in 1774 when Governor Tryon passed a law containing harsh provisions clearly targeted at the actions of the "Bennington Mob". Vermont historian Samuel Williams called it "an act which for its savage barbarity is probably without parallel in the legislation of any civilized country".
Allen spent much of the summer of 1774 writing A Brief Narrative of the Proceedings of the Government of New York Relative to Their Obtaining the Jurisdiction of that Large District of Land to the Westward of the Connecticut River, a 200-page polemic arguing the position of the Wentworth proprietors. He had it printed in Connecticut and began selling and giving away copies in early 1775. Historian Charles Jellison describes it as "rebellion in print".
===Westminster massacre===
Allen traveled into the northern parts of the Grants early in 1775 for solitude and to hunt for game and land opportunities. A few days after his return, news came that blood had finally been shed over the land disputes. Most of the resistance activity had taken place on the west side of the Green Mountains until then, but a small riot broke out in Westminster on March 13 and led to the deaths of two men. Allen and a troop of Green Mountain Boys traveled to Westminster where the town's convention adopted a resolution to draft a plea to the King to remove them "out of so oppressive a jurisdiction". It was assigned to a committee which included Allen. The American Revolutionary War began less than a week after the Westminster convention ended, while Allen and the committee worked on their petition.
==Revolutionary War==
===Capture of Fort Ticonderoga===
Allen received a message from members of an irregular Connecticut militia in late April, following the battles of Lexington and Concord, that they were planning to capture Fort Ticonderoga and requesting his assistance in the effort. Allen agreed to help and began rounding up the Green Mountain Boys, and 60 men from Massachusetts and Connecticut met with Allen in Bennington on May 2, 1775, where they discussed the logistics of the expedition. Two small companies were detached to procure boats, and Allen took the main contingent north to Hand's Cove in Shoreham to prepare for the crossing.
On the afternoon of May 9, Benedict Arnold unexpectedly arrived, flourishing a commission from the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. He asserted his right to command the expedition, but the men refused to acknowledge his authority and insisted that they would follow only Allen's lead. Allen and Arnold reached an accommodation privately, the essence of which was that Arnold and Allen would both be at the front of the troops when they attacked the fort.
The troops procured a few boats around 2 a.m. for the crossing, but only 83 men made it to the other side of the lake before Allen and Arnold decided to attack, concerned that dawn was approaching. The small force marched on the fort in the early dawn, surprising the lone sentry, and Allen went directly to the fort commander's quarters, seeking to force his surrender. Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham was awakened by the noise, and called to wake the fort's commander Captain William Delaplace. He demanded to know by what authority the fort was being entered, and Allen said, "In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!" Delaplace finally emerged from his chambers and surrendered his sword, The only casualty had been a British soldier who became concussed when Allen hit him with a cutlass, hitting the man's hair comb and saving his life.
=== Raids on St. John ===
On the following day, a detachment of the Boys under Seth Warner's command went to nearby Fort Crown Point and captured the small garrison there. Arnold's raid was a success; he seized the sloop , supplies, and a number of bateaux.
Allen, shortly after Arnold's departure on the raid, decided, after his successes at the southern end of the lake, to take and hold Fort St. John himself. To that end, he and about 100 Boys climbed into four bateaux, and began rowing north. After two days without significant food (which they had forgotten to provision in the boats), Allen's small fleet met Arnold's on its way back to Ticonderoga near the foot of the lake. Arnold generously opened his stores to Allen's hungry men, and tried to dissuade Allen from his objective, noting that it was likely the alarm had been raised and troops were on their way to St. John. Allen, likely both stubborn in his determination, and envious of Arnold, persisted.
When Allen and his men landed above St. John and scouted the situation, they learned that a column of 200 or more regulars was approaching. Rather than attempt an ambush on those troops, which significantly outnumbered his tired company, Allen withdrew to the other side of the river, where the men collapsed with exhaustion and slept without sentries through the night. They were awakened when British sentries discovered them and began firing grapeshot at them from across the river. The Boys, in a panic, piled into their bateaux and rowed with all speed upriver. When the expedition returned to Ticonderoga two days later, some of the men were greatly disappointed that they felt they had nothing to show for the effort and risks they took, but the capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point proved to be important in the Revolutionary War because it secured protection from the British to the North and provided vital cannon for the colonial army.
===Promoting an invasion===
Following Allen's failed attempt on St. John, many of his men drifted away, presumably drawn by the needs of home and farm. Arnold then began asserting his authority over Allen for control of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Allen publicly announced that he was stepping down as commander, but remained hopeful that the Second Continental Congress was going to name "a commander for this department ... Undoubtedly, we shall be rewarded according to our merit". Congress, for its part, at first not really wanting any part of the affair, effectively voted to strip and then abandon the forts. Both Allen and Arnold protested these measures, pointing out that doing so would leave the northern border wide open. They both also made proposals to Congress and other provincial bodies for carrying out an invasion of Quebec. Allen, in one instance, wrote that "I will lay my life on it, that with fifteen hundred men, and a proper artillery, I will take Montreal". Allen also attempted correspondence with the people of Quebec and with the Indians living there in an attempt to sway their opinion toward the revolutionary cause.
On June 22, Allen and Seth Warner appeared before Congress in Philadelphia, where they argued for the inclusion of the Green Mountain Boys in the Continental Army. After deliberation, Congress directed General Philip Schuyler, who had been appointed to lead the Army's Northern Department, to work with New York's provincial government to establish (and pay for) a regiment consisting of the Boys, and that they be paid Army rates for their service at Ticonderoga. On July 4, Allen and Warner made their case to New York's Provincial Congress, which, despite the fact that the Royal Governor had placed a price on their heads, agreed to the formation of a regiment. Following a brief visit to their families, they returned to Bennington to spread the news. Allen went to Ticonderoga to join Schuyler, while Warner and others raised the regiment.
===Allen loses command of the Boys===
When the regimental companies in the Grants had been raised, they held a vote in Dorset to determine who would command the regiment. By a wide margin, Seth Warner was elected to lead the regiment. Brothers Ira and Heman were also given command positions, but Allen was not given any position at all in the regiment. The thorough rejection stung; Allen wrote to Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull, "How the old men came to reject me I cannot conceive inasmuch as I saved them from the incroachments of New York."
The rejection likely had several causes. The people of the Grants were tired of the disputes with New York, and they were tired of Allen's posturing and egotistic behavior, which the success at Ticonderoga had enhanced. Finally, the failure of the attempt on St. John's was widely seen as reckless and ill-advised, attributes they did not appreciate in a regimental leader. Warner was viewed as a more stable and quieter choice, and was someone who also commanded respect. The history of Warner's later actions in the revolution (notably at Hubbardton and Bennington) may be seen as a confirmation of the choice made by the Dorset meeting. In the end, Allen took the rejection in stride, and managed to convince Schuyler and Warner to permit him to accompany the regiment as a civilian scout. On September 8, Schuyler sent Allen and Massachusetts Major John Brown, who had also been involved in the capture of Ticonderoga, into the countryside between St. John and Montreal to spread the word of their arrival to the habitants and the Indians. They were successful enough in gaining support from the inhabitants that Quebec's governor, General Guy Carleton, reported that "they have injured us very much".
When he returned from that expedition eight days later, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery had assumed command of the invasion due to Schuyler's illness. Montgomery, likely not wanting the troublemaker in his camp, again sent Allen out, this time to raise a regiment of French-speaking Canadiens. Accompanied by a small number of Americans, he again set out, traveling through the countryside to Sorel, before turning to follow the Saint Lawrence River up toward Montreal, recruiting upwards of 200 men.
On September 24, he and Brown, whose company was guarding the road between St. John's and Montreal, met at Longueuil, and, according to Allen's account of the events, came up with a plan in which both he and Brown would lead their forces to attack Montreal. Allen and about 100 men crossed the Saint Lawrence that night, but Brown and his men, who were to cross the river at La Prairie, did not. General Carleton, alerted to Allen's presence, mustered every man he could, and, in the Battle of Longue-Pointe, scattered most of Allen's force, and captured him and about 30 men. His capture ended his participation in the revolution until 1778, as he was imprisoned by the British. General Schuyler, upon learning of Allen's capture, wrote, "I am very apprehensive of disagreeable consequences arising from Mr. Allen's imprudence. I always dreaded his impatience and imprudence."
==Imprisonment==
Much of what is known of Allen's captivity is known only from his own account of the time; where contemporary records are available, they tend to confirm those aspects of his story.
Allen was first placed aboard , a brig anchored at Montreal. He was kept in solitary confinement and chains, and General Richard Prescott had, according to Allen, ordered him to be treated "with much severity". In October 1775, Gaspée went downriver, and her prisoners were transferred to the merchant vessel Adamant, which then sailed for England. Allen wrote of the voyage that he "was put under the power of an English Merchant from London, whose name was Brook Watson: a man of malicious and cruel disposition".
On arrival at Falmouth, England, after a crossing under filthy conditions, Allen and the other prisoners were imprisoned in Pendennis Castle, Cornwall. At first his treatment was poor, but Allen wrote a letter, ostensibly to the Continental Congress, describing his conditions and suggesting that Congress treat the prisoners it held the same way. Unknown to Allen, British prisoners now included General Prescott, captured trying to escape from Montreal, and the letter came into the hands of the British cabinet. Also faced with opposition within the British establishment to the treatment of captives taken in North America, King George decreed that the men should be sent back to America and treated as prisoners of war.
In January 1776, Allen and his men were put on board HMS Soledad, which sailed for Cork, Ireland. The people of Cork, when they learned that the famous Ethan Allen was in port, took up a collection to provide him and his men with clothing and other supplies. Much of the following year was spent on prison ships off the American coast. At one point, while aboard HMS Mercury, she anchored off New York, where, among other visitors, the captain entertained William Tryon; Allen reports that Tryon glanced at him without any sign of recognition, although it is likely the New York governor knew who he was. In August 1776, Allen and other prisoners were temporarily put ashore in Halifax, owing to extremely poor conditions aboard ship; due to food scarcity, both crew and prisoners were on short rations, and scurvy was rampant. By the end of October, Allen was again off New York, where the British, having secured the city, moved the prisoners on-shore, and, as he was considered an officer, gave Allen limited parole. With the financial assistance of his brother Ira, he lived comfortably, if out of action, until August 1777. Allen then learned of the death of his young son Joseph due to smallpox.
According to another prisoner's account, Allen wandered off after learning of his son's death. He was arrested for violating his parole, and placed in solitary confinement. There Allen remained while Vermont declared independence, and John Burgoyne's campaign for the Hudson River met a stumbling block near Bennington in August 1777. On May 3, 1778, he was transferred to Staten Island. Allen was admitted to General John Campbell's quarters, where he was invited to eat and drink with the general and several other British field officers. He stayed there for two days and was treated politely. On the third day Allen was exchanged for Colonel Archibald Campbell, who was conducted to the exchange by Colonel Elias Boudinot, the American commissary general of prisoners appointed by General George Washington. Following the exchange, Allen reported to Washington at Valley Forge. On May 14, he was breveted a colonel in the Continental Army in "reward of his fortitude, firmness and zeal in the cause of his country, manifested during his long and cruel captivity, as well as on former occasions,"
==Vermont Republic==
===Return home===
Following his visit to Valley Forge, Allen traveled to Salisbury, arriving on May 25, 1778. There he learned that his brother Heman had died just the previous week and that his brother Zimri, who had been caring for Allen's family and farm, had died in the spring following his capture. The death of Heman, with whom Allen had been quite close, hit him quite hard.
Allen then set out for Bennington, where news of his impending return preceded him, and he was met with all of the honor due to a military war hero. There he learned that the Vermont Republic had declared independence in 1777, that a constitution had been drawn up, and that elections had been held. Allen wrote of this homecoming that "we passed the flowing bowl, and rural felicity, sweetened with friendship, glowed in every countenance". The next day he went to Arlington to see his family and his brother Ira, whose prominence in Vermont politics had risen considerably during Allen's captivity.
===Politics===
Allen spent the next several years involved in Vermont's political and military matters. While his family remained in Arlington, he spent most of his time either in Bennington or on the road, where he could avoid his wife's nagging. Shortly after his arrival, Vermont's Assembly passed the Banishment Act, a sweeping measure allowing for the confiscation and auction by the republic of property owned by known Tories. Allen was appointed to be one of the judges responsible for deciding whose property was subject to seizure under the law. (This law was so successful at collecting revenue that Vermont did not impose any taxes until 1781.) Allen personally escorted some of those convicted under the law to Albany, where he turned them over to General John Stark for transportation to the British lines. Some of these supposed Tories protested to New York Governor George Clinton that they were actually dispossessed Yorkers. Clinton, who considered Vermont to still be a part of New York, did not want to honor the actions of the Vermont tribunals; Stark, who had custody of the men, disagreed with Clinton. Eventually the dispute made its way to George Washington, who essentially agreed with Stark since he desperately needed the general's services. The prisoners were eventually transported to West Point, where they remained in "easy imprisonment".
While Allen's service as a judge in Vermont was brief, he continued to ferret out Tories and report them to local Boards of Confiscation for action. He was so zealous in these efforts that they also included naming his own brother Levi, who was apparently trying to swindle Allen and Ira out of land at the time. This action was somewhat surprising, as Levi had not only attempted to purchase Allen's release while he was in Halifax, but he had also traveled to New York while Allen was on parole there and furnished him with goods and money. Allen and Levi engaged in a war of words, many of which were printed in the Connecticut Courant, even after Levi crossed British lines. They would eventually reconcile in 1783.
Early in 1779, Governor Clinton issued a proclamation stating that the state of New York would honor the Wentworth grants, if the settlers would recognize New York's political jurisdiction over the Vermont territory. Allen wrote another pamphlet in response, entitled An Address to the Inhabitants of the State of Vermont; with Remarks on a Proclamation under the Hand of his Excellency George Clinton, Esq; Governor of the State of New York. In typical style, Allen castigated the governor for issuing "romantic proclamations ... calculated to deceive woods people", and for his "folly and stupidity". Clinton's response, once he recovered his temper, was to issue another proclamation little different from the first. Allen's pamphlet circulated widely, including among members of Congress, and was successful in casting the Vermonters' case in a positive light.
In a dispatch to Clinton from Westminster, two prisoners from New York sentenced after Allen's intervention pleaded with the governor to free them from being at "the disposal of Ethan which is more to be dreaded than Death with all its Terrors."
In 1779, Allen published the account of his time in captivity, A Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity ... Containing His Voyages and Travels, With the most remarkable Occurrences respecting him and many other Continental Prisoners of Observations. Written by Himself and now published for the Information of the Curious in all Nations. First published as a serial by the Pennsylvania Packet, the book was an instant best-seller; it is still available today. While largely accurate, it notably omits Benedict Arnold from the capture of Ticonderoga, and Seth Warner as the leader of the Green Mountain Boys.
=== Negotiations with the British ===
Allen appeared before the Continental Congress as early as September 1778 on behalf of Vermont, seeking recognition as an independent state. He reported that due to Vermont's expansion to include border towns from New Hampshire, Congress was reluctant to grant independent statehood to Vermont. Between 1780 and 1783, Allen participated, along with his brother Ira, Vermont Governor Thomas Chittenden, and others, in negotiations with Frederick Haldimand, the governor of Quebec, that were ostensibly about prisoner exchanges, but were really about establishing Vermont as a new British province and gaining military protection for its residents. The negotiations, once details of them were published, were often described by opponents of Vermont statehood as treasonous, but no such formal charges were ever laid against anyone involved. Vermont's government had also become more than a clique dominated by the Allen and Chittenden families due to the territory's rapid population growth.
In 1782, Allen's brother Heber died at the relatively young age of 38. Allen's wife Mary died in June 1783 of consumption, to be followed several months later by their first-born daughter Loraine. While they had not always been close, and Allen's marriage had often been strained, Allen felt these losses deeply. A poem he wrote memorializing Mary was published in the Bennington Gazette.
===Publication of Reason===
In these years, Allen recovered from Thomas Young's widow, who was living in Albany, the manuscript that he and Young had worked on in his youth and began to develop it into the work that was published in 1785 as Reason: the Only Oracle of Man. The work was a typical Allen polemic, but its target was religious, not political. Specifically targeted against Christianity, it was an unbridled attack against the Bible, established churches, and the powers of the priesthood. As a replacement for organized religion, he espoused a mixture of deism, Spinoza's naturalist views, and precursors of Transcendentalism, with man acting as a free agent within the natural world. While historians disagree over the exact authorship of the work, the writing contains clear indications of Allen's style.
The book was a complete financial and critical failure. Allen's publisher had forced him to pay the publication costs up front, and only 200 of the 1,500 volumes printed were sold. (The rest were eventually destroyed by a fire at the publisher's house.) The theologically conservative future president of Yale, Timothy Dwight, opined that "the style was crude and vulgar, and the sentiments were coarser than the style. The arguments were flimsy and unmeaning, and the conclusions were fastened upon the premises by mere force." Allen took the financial loss and the criticism in stride, observing that most of the critics were clergymen, whose livelihood he was attacking.
===Second marriage===
Allen met his second wife, a young widow named Frances "Fanny" Montresor Brush Buchanan, early in 1784; and after a brief courtship, they wed on February 16, 1784. Fanny came from a notably Loyalist background (including Crean Brush, notorious for acts during the Siege of Boston, from whom she inherited land in Vermont), but they were both smitten, and the marriage was a happy one. They had three children: Fanny (1784–1819), Hannibal Montresor (1786–1813), and Ethan Alphonso (1789–1855). Fanny had a settling effect on Allen; for the remainder of his years he did not embark on many great adventures.
The notable exception to this was when land was claimed by the Connecticut-based owners of the Susquehanna Company, who had been granted titles to land claimed by Connecticut in the Wyoming Valley, in an area that is now Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. The area was also claimed by Pennsylvania, which refused to recognize the Connecticut titles. Allen, after being promised land, traveled to the area and began stirring up not just Pennsylvania authorities but also his long-time nemesis, Governor Clinton of New York, by proposing that a new state be carved out of the disputed area and several counties of New York. The entire affair was more bluster than anything else, and was resolved amicably when Pennsylvania agreed to honor the Connecticut titles.
Allen was also approached by Daniel Shays in 1786 for support in what became the Shays's Rebellion in western Massachusetts. He was unsupportive of the cause, in spite of Shays's offer to crown him "king of Massachusetts"; he felt that Shays was just trying to erase unpayable debts.
In his later years, independent Vermont continued to experience rapid population growth, and Allen sold a great deal of his land, but also reinvested much the proceeds in more land. A lack of cash, complicated by Vermont's currency problems, placed a strain on Fanny's relatively free hand on spending, which was further exacerbated by the cost of publishing Reason, and of the construction of a new home near the mouth of the Onion River. He was threatened with debtors' prison on at least one occasion, and was at times reduced to borrowing money and calling in old debts to make ends meet.
Allen and his family moved to Burlington in 1787, which was no longer a small frontier settlement but a small town, and much more to Allen's liking than the larger community that Bennington had become. He frequented the tavern there, and began work on An Essay on the Universal Plenitude of Being, which he characterized as an appendix to Reason. This essay was less polemic than many of his earlier writings. Allen affirmed the perfection of God and His creation, and credited intuition as well as reason as a way to bring Man closer to the universe. The work was not published until long after his death, and is primarily of interest to students of Transcendentalism, a movement the work foreshadows.
=== Death ===
On February 11, 1789, Allen traveled to South Hero, Vermont with one of his workers to visit his cousin, Ebenezer Allen, and to collect a load of hay. After an evening spent with friends and acquaintances, he spent the night there and set out the next morning for home. While accounts of the return journey are not entirely consistent, Allen apparently suffered an apoplectic fit en route and was unconscious by the time they returned home. Allen died at home several hours later, without ever regaining consciousness. He was buried four days later in the Green Mount Cemetery in Burlington. The funeral was attended by dignitaries from the Vermont government and by large numbers of common folk who turned out to pay respects to a man many considered their champion. Although most obituaries were positive, a number of clergymen expressed different sentiments. "Allen was an ignorant and profane Deist, who died with a mind replete with horror and despair" was the opinion of Newark, New Jersey's Reverend Uzal Ogden. Two of his grandsons were Henry Hitchcock, Attorney General of Alabama, and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who served as a Union Army general in the American Civil War. Reportedly General Hitchcock strongly resembled his famous grandfather. Two of Henry Hitchcock's sons were Henry Hitchcock and Ethan Allan Hitchcock.
File:Ira Allen 1941.5.3.jpg|Ira Allen
File:Fanny Allen.gif|Fanny Allen
File:Henry Hitchcock (Alabama).jpg|Alabama Attorney General Henry Hitchcock
File:Gen Ethan Allen Hitchcock.jpg|Union General Ethan Allen Hitchcock
Image:Henry Hitchcock (1829-1902).jpg|Henry Hitchcock
File:EAHitchcock-SecInterior.jpg|Ethan Allen Hitchcock
==Disappearance of his grave marker==
Sometime in the early 1850s, the original plaque marking Allen's grave disappeared; its original text was preserved by early war historian Benson Lossing in the 1840s. The inscription read:
In 1858, the Vermont Legislature authorized the placement of a 42-foot (13 m) column of Vermont granite in the cemetery, with the following inscription:
The exact location within the cemetery of his remains is unknown. While there is a vault beneath the 1858 cenotaph, it contains a time capsule from the time of the monument's erection. According to the official 1858 report on the Ethan Allen monument, the funeral of Ethan Allen had taken place within Green Mount Cemetery; however the reason his remains had not been found at his memorial plaque {tablet} was because "... by the fact that some twenty years since, the dead of the Allen family had been arranged in a square enclosed by stone posts and chains, by Herman Allen, the nephew of Ethan Allen, and this tablet, then lying upon a dilapidated wall of brick work, was reconstructed with cut stone work, and it is presumed that, as a matter of convenience in giving a regular form to the enclosure, was removed some feet from its original position ..." It was thus apparent it was actually a cenotaph tomb reconstruction that Benson Lossing sketched and presumed to be the actual tomb of Ethan Allen in his 1850 The Pictorial Field-book of the Revolution.
== Likenesses ==
No likenesses of Allen made from life have been found, in spite of numerous attempts to locate them. Efforts by members of the Vermont Historical Society and other historical groups through the years have followed up on rumored likenesses, only to come up empty. Photographs of Allen's grandson, General Ethan Allen Hitchcock, are extant, and, Hitchcock's mother said that he bore a strong resemblance to her father. The nearest potential images included one claimed to be by noted Revolutionary War era engraver Pierre Eugene du Simitiere that turned out to be a forgery, and a reference to a portrait possibly by Ralph Earl that has not been found (as of Stewart Holbrook's writing in 1940). Alexander Graydon, with whom Allen was paroled during his captivity in New York, described him like this:
His figure was that of a robust, large-framed man, worn down by confinement and hard fare; but he was now recovering his flesh and spirits; and a suit of blue clothes, with a gold laced hat that had been presented to him by the gentlement of Cork, enabled him to make a very passable appearance for a rebel colonel ... I have seldom met with a man, possessing, in my opinion, a stronger mind, or whose mode of expression was more vehement and oratorical. Notwithstanding that Allen might have had something of the insubordinate, lawless frontier spirit in his composition ... he appeared to me to be a man of generosity and honor.
==Memorials==
Allen's final home, on the Onion River (now called the Winooski River), is a part of the Ethan Allen Homestead and Museum. Situated in Burlington, Allen's homestead is open for viewing via guided tours.
Two ships of the United States Navy were named USS Ethan Allen in his honor, as were two 19th-century fortifications: a Civil War fort in Arlington County, Virginia and a cavalry outpost in Colchester and Essex, Vermont. The Vermont Army National Guard's facility in Jericho, Vermont is called the Camp Ethan Allen Training Site. A statue of Allen represents Vermont in National Statuary Hall of the United States Capitol. A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve commemorating his capture bears his name.
The Spirit of Ethan Allen III is a tour boat operating on Lake Champlain. Allen's name is the trademark of the furniture and housewares manufacturer, Ethan Allen Inc., which was founded in 1932 in Beecher Falls, Vermont. The Ethan Allen Express, an Amtrak train running from New York City to Burlington, Vermont, is also named after him.
The Ethan Allen School was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.
==Publications==
Allen is known to have written the following publications:
The 1779 edition of Allen's Narrative.
An 1849 edition of Allen's Narrative.
A 2000 edition of Allen's Narrative available at Amazon in March 2009
The essay is reprinted in four sections in this bound edition of The Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4
|
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"French and Indian War"
] |
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Ecuador
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Ecuador, officially the Republic of Ecuador, is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about west of the mainland. The country's capital is Quito and its largest city is Guayaquil.
The land that comprises modern-day Ecuador was once home to several groups of indigenous peoples that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by the Spanish Empire during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, from which it emerged as a sovereign state in 1830. The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador's ethnically diverse population, with most of its million people being mestizos, followed by large minorities of Europeans, Native American, African, and Asian descendants. Spanish is the official language spoken by a majority of the population, although 13 native languages are also recognized, including Quechua and Shuar.
Ecuador is a representative democratic presidential republic and a developing country whose economy is highly dependent on exports of commodities, primarily petroleum and agricultural products. The country is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States, Mercosur, PROSUR, and the Non-Aligned Movement. According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, between 2006 and 2016, poverty decreased from 36.7% to 22.5% and annual per capita GDP growth was 1.5 percent (as compared to 0.6 percent over the prior two decades). At the same time, the country's Gini index of economic inequality improved from 0.55 to 0.47.
One of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, Ecuador hosts many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. In recognition of its unique ecological heritage, the new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable rights of nature.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Ecuador ranks 58th out of 127 countries with a score of 11.6, which indicates a moderate level of hunger.
==Etymology==
The country's name means "Equator" in Spanish, truncated from the Spanish official name, República del Ecuador ( "Republic of the Equator"), derived from the former Ecuador Department of Gran Colombia established in 1824 as a division of the former territory of the Royal Audience of Quito. Quito, which remained the capital of the department and republic, is located only about , of a degree, south of the equator.
==History==
===Pre-Inca era===
Various peoples had settled in the area of future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. The archeological evidence suggests that the Paleo-Indians' first dispersal into the Americas occurred near the end of the last glacial period, around 16,500–13,000 years ago. The first people who reached Ecuador may have journeyed by land from North and Central America or by boat down the Pacific Ocean coastline.
Even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. The people of the coast combined agriculture with fishing, hunting, and gathering; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life; and peoples of the Amazon basin relied on hunting and gathering; in some cases, this is combined with agriculture and arboriculture.
Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus (near present-day Quito), and the Cañari (near present-day Cuenca).
In the highland Andes mountains, where life was more sedentary, groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages; thus the first nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals formed. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, groups of nations formed confederations.
When the Incas arrived, they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers—Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Capac—to absorb them into the Inca Empire. People belonging to the confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, and north Argentina. Similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language.
In contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior and resorted to guerrilla tactics. As a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon Basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force. The Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist both Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their languages and cultures well into the 21st century.
Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Inca Empire was involved in a civil war. The untimely death of both the heir Ninan Cuyochi and the Emperor Huayna Capac, from a European disease that spread into Ecuador, created a power vacuum between two factions and led to a civil war. The army stationed north headed by Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother. In 1532, a small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro reached Cajamarca and lured Atahualpa into a trap (battle of Cajamarca). Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he made good his promise of filling a room full of gold. But, after a mock trial, the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by strangulation.
===Spanish colonization===
New infectious diseases such as smallpox, endemic to the Europeans, caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule, as they had no immunity. At the same time, the natives were forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a real audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
The 1797 Riobamba earthquake, which caused up to 40,000 casualties, was studied by Alexander von Humboldt, when he visited the area in 1801–1802.
After nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Quito still remained small with a population of 10,000 people. On 10 August 1809, the city's criollos called for independence from Spain (first among the peoples of Latin America). They were led by Juan Pío Montúfar, Quiroga, Salinas, and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo. Quito's nickname, "Luz de América" ("Light of America"), is based on its leading role in trying to secure an independent, local government. Although the new government lasted no more than two months, it had important repercussions and was an inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of Spanish America. Today, 10 August is celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday.
===Independence===
On 9 October 1820, the Department of Guayaquil became the first territory in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain, and it spawned most of the Ecuadorian coastal provinces, establishing itself as an independent state. Its inhabitants celebrated what is now Ecuador's official Independence Day on 24 May 1822. The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha, near Quito. Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar's Republic of Gran Colombia, also including modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. In 1830, Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic. Two years later, it annexed the Galapagos Islands.
The 19th century was marked by instability for Ecuador with a rapid succession of rulers. The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan-born Juan José Flores, who was ultimately deposed. Leaders who followed him included Vicente Rocafuerte; José Joaquín de Olmedo; José María Urbina; Diego Noboa; Pedro José de Arteta; Manuel de Ascásubi; and Flores's own son, Antonio Flores Jijón, among others. The conservative Gabriel García Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.
Ecuador abolished slavery in 1851. The descendants of enslaved Ecuadorians are among today's Afro-Ecuadorian population. Also abolished during this time was indigenous tribute in 1857. Upon this, the indigenous were now equal under the law compared to everyone else. They were now registered as contributors to the nation, and became roles such as property holders, taxpayers, and potential military recruits just as everyone else.
===Liberal Revolution===
The Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners. This liberal wing retained power until the military "Julian Revolution" of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians, such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra.
===Loss of claimed territories since 1830===
After Ecuador's separation from Colombia on 13 May 1830, its first President, General Juan José Flores, laid claim to the territory that had belonged to the Real Audiencia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito. He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees, or real cedulas, that delineated the borders of Spain's former overseas colonies. In the case of Ecuador, Flores based Ecuador's de jure claims on the Real Cedulas of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829) which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui. In addition, Ecuador's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the Wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire. Moreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on 16 February 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain, whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito.
Ecuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in 1904 through a series of peace treaties, and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942.
===Struggle for independence===
During the struggle for independence, before Peru or Ecuador became independent, areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada declared themselves independent from Spain. A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martín decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén, with the intention of using them as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador). It was common knowledge among officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martín wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it. However, Bolívar's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia, out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. San Martín's plans were thwarted when Bolívar, descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia.
In the south, Ecuador had claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as Tumbes. In Ecuador's southern Andes Mountain region where the Marañon cuts across, Ecuador had claims to an area it called Jaén de Bracamoros. These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar on 17 December 1819, during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created. Tumbes declared itself independent from Spain on 17 January 1821, and Jaén de Bracamoros on 17 June 1821, without any outside help from revolutionary armies. However, that same year, Peruvian forces participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both Jaén and Tumbes. Peruvian generals, without any legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia, had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of the Gran Colombia, feeling that Ecuador was once part of the Inca Empire.
On 28 July 1821, Peruvian independence was proclaimed in Lima by San Martín, and Tumbes and Jaén, which were included as part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force, had the whole region swear allegiance to the new Peruvian flag and incorporated itself into Peru. Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the return of Jaén and Tumbes for almost a decade, then finally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaén, Tumbes, and part of Mainas, declared war. President and General José de La Mar, who was born in Ecuador, believing his opportunity had come to annex the District of Ecuador to Peru, personally, with a Peruvian force, invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on 28 November 1828.
The war ended when an outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui on 27 February 1829, led by Antonio José de Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar. This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil in September 1829, whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes, Jaén, and Maynas. Through meetings between Peru and Gran Colombia, the border was set as Tumbes river in the west, and in the east, the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them. According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén, alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations – Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.
The Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on 13 May 1830. After Ecuador's separation, the Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota. The Venezuelan born President of Ecuador, the general Juan José Flores, with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on 20 December 1830, since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of the South as far back as April 1830. Moreover, the Cauca region, throughout its long history, had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador. Also, the Cauca region, which included such cities as Pasto, Popayán, and Buenaventura, had always been dependent on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito.
Fruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogotá and Quito, where the government of Bogotá did not recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832. In five months, New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to fight against their fellow countrymen. Seeing that his officers were rebelling, mutinying, and changing sides, President Flores had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New Granada. The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New Granada (modern Colombia), the government of Bogotá recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the border was to follow the Ley de División Territorial de la República de Colombia (Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia) passed on 25 June 1824. This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquetá river. Later, Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia, while reorganizing its government, unlawfully made its eastern border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayán extended its control all the way to the Napo River.
====Struggle for possession of the Amazon Basin====
When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru contested Ecuador's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802, by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru. During colonial times this was to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin. Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument, which had nothing to do with political borders. Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil. This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers.
Peru began occupying the missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region, which it began calling Loreto, with its capital in Iquitos. During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range. Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon-Amazon river. Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos. Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860, since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders, but returned Guayaquil after a few months. The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910, but to no avail.
In the early part of the 20th century, Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbors through negotiation. On 6 May 1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar-Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru's earlier Treaty with Brazil back on 23 October 1851. Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed 15 July 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers. In this way, Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting itself off from Brazil. Later, a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru, over Peru's claims to the Caquetá region, which ended with Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon-Lozano Treaty on 24 March 1922. Ecuador protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916.
On 21 July 1924, the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration. Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on 30 September 1935. The negotiations turned into arguments during the next 7 months and finally on 29 September 1937, the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations.
In 1941, amid fast-growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River, war broke out with Peru. Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaén, and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers. In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on 5 July 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops. Finally, on 23 July 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro.
During the course of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims. The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops. After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations, all fighting came to a stop. Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on 29 January 1942, in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favoring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end.
The 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military-civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador's government. However, a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter.
The Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote Cordillera del Cóndor region in southern Ecuador. This caused a long-simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries; first a border skirmish in January–February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador. Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa War. Sixto Durán Ballén, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador. Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the "Cain de Latinoamérica", a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis.
Ecuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on 26 October 1998, which ended hostilities, and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere's longest running territorial dispute. The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States of America) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the Cordillera del Cóndor. While Ecuador had to give up its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza – focal point of the war – had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict. The final border demarcation came into effect on 13 May 1999, and the multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on 17 June 1999. given the multiple death threats against him because of his reformist agenda, the deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation, and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident. Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado.
In 1984, León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party was elected president. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática, or ID) party won the presidency in 1988, winning the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government negotiated the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID party, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999.
A notable event was the Cenepa War fought between Ecuador and Peru in 1995.
Ecuador won its first Olympic medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta when Jefferson Pérez won gold in the 20 km walk.
Ecuador adopted the United States dollar on 13 April 2000 as its national currency and on 11 September, the country eliminated the Ecuadorian sucre, in order to stabilize the country's economy. The US Dollar has been the only official currency of Ecuador since then.
The emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years. The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and the historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office. The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005. Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place
In the election of 2006, Rafael Correa gained the presidency. In January 2007, several left-wing political leaders of Latin America, his future allies, attended his swearing-in ceremony. Endorsed in a 2008 referendum, a new constitution implemented leftist reforms. In December 2008, Correa declared Ecuador's national debt illegitimate, based on the argument that it was odious debt contracted by prior corrupt and despotic regimes. He announced that the country would default on over $3 billion worth of bonds, and he succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60% by fighting creditors in international courts. He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009. Correa's administration reduced the high levels of poverty and unemployment in Ecuador.
Correa's three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by his former Vice President Lenín Moreno's four years as president (2017–21). After being elected in 2017, President Moreno's government adopted economically liberal policies, such as reduction of public spending, trade liberalization, and flexibility of the labor code. Ecuador also left the left-wing Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (Alba) in August 2018. The Productive Development Act introduced an austerity policy, and reduced the previous development and redistribution policies. Regarding taxes, the authorities aimed to "encourage the return of investors" by granting amnesty to fraudsters and proposing measures to reduce tax rates for large companies. In addition, the government waived the right to tax increases in raw material prices and foreign exchange repatriations. In October 2018, Moreno cut diplomatic relations with the Maduro administration of Venezuela, a close ally of Correa. The relations with the United States improved significantly under Moreno. In June 2019, Ecuador agreed to allow US military planes to operate from an airport on the Galapagos Islands. In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and U.S. president in 17 years.
A series of protests began on 3 October 2019 against the end of fuel subsidies and austerity measures adopted by Moreno. On 10 October, protesters overran Quito, the capital, causing the Government of Ecuador to relocate temporarily to Guayaquil. The government eventually returned to Quito in 2019. On 14 October 2019, the government restored fuel subsidies and withdrew an austerity package, which ended nearly two weeks of protests.
In the 11 April 2021 election, conservative former banker Guillermo Lasso took 52.4% of the vote, compared to 47.6% for left-wing economist Andrés Aráuz, who was supported by exiled former president Correa. Lasso had finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections. On 24 May 2021, Lasso was sworn in, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years. Lasso's party CREO Movement, and its ally the Social Christian Party (PSC) won only 31 parliamentary seats out of 137, while Aráuz's Union for Hope (UNES) won 49 seats, which meant Lasso needed support from the Izquierda Democrática and the indigenist Pachakutik parties to push through his legislative agenda.
In October 2021, Lasso declared a 60-day state of emergency to combat crime and drug-related violence, including the numerous bloody clashes between rival groups in the state prisons. Lasso proposed a series of constitutional changes to enhance his government's ability to respond to crime. In a referendum in February 2023, voters overwhelmingly rejected his proposed changes, which weakened Lasso's political standing.
On 15 October 2023, centrist candidate Daniel Noboa won the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González. On 23 November 2023, Noboa was sworn in.
In January 2024, Noboa declared an "internal armed conflict" against organized crime, in response to the escape of the imprisoned leader of the Los Choneros cartel, José Adolfo Macías Villamar (also known as "Fito"), and an armed attack at a public television channel. In April 2025, President Daniel Noboa won the run-off round of Ecuador's presidential election, meaning he will now serve a full four-year term.
==Government and politics==
The Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government: the Executive Branch, the Legislative Branch, the Judicial Branch, the Electoral Branch, and Transparency and Social Control.
Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected president for a four-year term. The president of Ecuador exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008. Since 1936, voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18–65, optional for all other citizens over the age of 16.
The executive branch includes 23 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected. The National Assembly of Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. There are thirteen permanent committees. Members of the National Court of Justice are appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine-year terms.
===Executive branch===
The executive branch is led by the president. The president is accompanied by the vice-president, elected for four years (with the ability to be re-elected only once). As head of state and chief government official, he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of national coordinators, ministers, ministers of State and public servants. The executive branch defines foreign policy, appoints the Chancellor of the Republic, as well as ambassadors and consuls, being the ultimate authority over the Armed Forces of Ecuador, National Police of Ecuador, and appointing authorities. The acting president's wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador.
===Legislative branch===
The legislative branch is embodied by the National Assembly, which is headquartered in the city of Quito in the Legislative Palace, and consists of 137 assemblymen, divided into ten committees and elected for a four-year term. Fifteen national constituency elected assembly, two Assembly members elected from each province and one for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 150,000, according to the latest national population census. In addition, statute determines the election of assembly of regions and metropolitan districts.
===Judicial branch===
Ecuador's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council, and also includes the National Court of Justice, provincial courts, and lower courts. Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council.
The National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years. Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code. These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits.
The justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender. Auxiliary organs are as follows: notaries, court auctioneers, and court receivers. Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians.
===Electoral branch===
The electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur. Its main functions are to organize, control elections, and punish the infringement of electoral rules. Its main body is the National Electoral Council, which is based in the city of Quito, and consists of seven members of the political parties most voted, enjoying complete financial and administrative autonomy. This body, along with the electoral court, forms the Electoral Branch which is one of Ecuador's five branches of government.
===Transparency and social control branch===
The Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council for Citizen Participation and Social Control, an ombudsman, the Comptroller General of the State, and the superintendents. Branch members hold office for five years. This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly, as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country.
===Foreign affairs===
Ecuador joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1973 and suspended its membership in 1992. Under President Rafael Correa, the country returned to OPEC before leaving again in 2020 under the instruction of President Moreno, citing its desire to increase crude oil exportation to gain more revenue.
Ecuador has maintained a research station in Antarctica for peaceful scientific study as a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty. Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, the Andean Community of Nations, and the Bank of the South (Spanish: Banco del Sur or BancoSur).
In 2017, the Ecuadorian parliament adopted a law on human mobility.
The International Organization for Migration lauded Ecuador as the first state to have established the promotion of the concept of universal citizenship in its constitution, aiming to promote the universal recognition and protection of the human rights of migrants. In March 2019, Ecuador withdrew from the Union of South American Nations.
===Human rights===
A 2003 Amnesty International report was critical that there were scarce few prosecutions for human rights violations committed by security forces, and those only in police courts, which are not considered impartial or independent. There are allegations that the security forces routinely torture prisoners. There are reports of prisoners having died while in police custody. Sometimes the legal process can be delayed until the suspect can be released after the time limit for detention without trial is exceeded. Prisons are overcrowded and conditions in detention centers are "abominable".
UN's Human Rights Council's (HRC) Universal Periodic Review (UPR) has treated the restrictions on freedom of expression and efforts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions for the expression of opinions, and delay in implementing judicial reforms. Ecuador rejected the recommendation on decriminalization of libel.
According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) former president Correa intimidated journalists and subjected them to "public denunciation and retaliatory litigation". The sentences to journalists were years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants had been pardoned.
According to HRW, Correa's government weakened the freedom of press and independence of the judicial system. In Ecuador's current judicial system, judges are selected in a contest of merits, rather than government appointments. However, the process of selection has been criticized as biased and subjective. In particular, the final interview is said to be given "excessive weighing". Judges and prosecutors that made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits had received permanent posts, while others with better assessment grades had been rejected.
The laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate. In the first half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down. In October 2022, the United Nations expressed concerns about the dire situation in various detention centers and prisons, and the human rights of those deprived of liberty in Ecuador.
===Administrative divisions===
Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces (), each with its own administrative capital:
===Regions and planning areas===
Regionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital, Quito.
In Ecuador, there are seven regions, or zones, each shaped by the following provinces:
Region 1 (42,126 km2, or 16,265 mi2): Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, and Sucumbios. Administrative city: Ibarra
Region 2 (43,498 km2, or 16,795 mi2): Pichincha, Napo, and Orellana. Administrative city: Tena
Region 3 (44,710 km2, or 17,263 mi2): Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Pastaza, and Cotopaxi. Administrative city: Riobamba
Region 4 (22,257 km2, or 8,594 mi2): Manabí and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas. Administrative city: Ciudad Alfaro
Region 5 (38,420 km2, or 14,834 mi2): Santa Elena, Guayas, Los Ríos, Galápagos, and Bolívar. Administrative city: Milagro
Region 6 (38,237 km2, or 14,763 mi2): Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago. Administrative city: Cuenca
Region 7 (27,571 km2, or 10,645 mi2): El Oro, Loja, and Zamora Chinchipe. Administrative city: Loja
Quito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts. Galápagos, despite being included within Region 5, is also under a special unit.
==Military==
The Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas de la Republica de Ecuador), consists of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory.
Due to the continuous border disputes with Peru, finally settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes. In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%.
The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) located in Quito is in charge of graduating army officers. The Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates navy officers. The Air Academy Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates air force officers.
==Geography==
According to the CIA World Factbook, Ecuador has a total area of , including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, is land and water. The Galápagos Islands are sometimes considered part of Oceania, which would thus make Ecuador a transcontinental country under certain definitions. Ecuador is bigger than the South America countries Uruguay, Suriname, Guyana and French Guiana.
Ecuador lies between latitudes 2°N and 5°S,
bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has of coastline. It has of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north (with a border) and Peru in the east and south (with a border). It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator.
The country has four main geographic regions:
La Costa, or "the coast": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the west of the Andean range – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas and Santa Elena. It is the country's most fertile and productive land, and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations of the companies Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most of Ecuador's rice crop is grown. The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries. The largest coastal city is Guayaquil.
La Sierra, or "the highlands": The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces – Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuador's volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua. The largest Sierran city is Quito.
La Amazonía, also known as El Oriente, or "the east": The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces – Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe. This region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living traditionally. It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies. The population is primarily mixed Amerindian Shuar, Waorani and Kichua, although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little-contacted. The largest city in the Oriente Lago Agrio in Sucumbíos.
La Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.
Ecuador's capital and second largest city is Quito, which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region. It is the second-highest capital city with an elevation of 2,850 meters. Ecuador's largest city is Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province. Cotopaxi, just south of Quito, is one of the world's highest active volcanoes. The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,268 m, or 20,560 ft, above sea level), Ecuador's tallest mountain, is the most distant point from the center of the Earth on the Earth's surface because of the ellipsoid shape of the planet.
The Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacific, including the north–south rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas, Chone, Guayas, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes.
===Climate===
There is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones.
Because of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year. Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours.
===Biodiversity===
Ecuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International,
Ecuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos. In addition to more than 16,000 species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles, 138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of butterfly. The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna, as the famous place of birth to Darwin's theory of evolution, and as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Ecuador was the first country to recognize the rights of nature in its constitution. The protection of the nation's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of "Buen Vivir", or good living, Objective 4, "Guarantee the rights of nature", Policy 1: "Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered a strategic sector". A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area (6,295 km2, or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as Amerindian tribes) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands. Eligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected, among other factors. Ecuador had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.66/10, ranking it 35th globally out of 172 countries.
Despite being on the UNESCO list, the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem. Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples. One of the best known examples is the Texaco-Chevron case. This American oil company operated in the Ecuadorian Amazon region between 1964 and 1992. During this period, Texaco drilled 339 wells in 15 petroleum fields and abandoned 627 toxic wastewater pits. It is now known that these highly polluting and now obsolete technologies were used as a way to reduce expenses. The case has also been documented in Crude, a documentary.
In 2022, the supreme court of Ecuador decided that "under no circumstances can a project be carried out that generates excessive sacrifices to the collective rights of communities and nature." It also required the government to respect the opinion of Indigenous peoples about industrial projects on their land.
==Economy==
Ecuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as an upper-middle-income country. Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between 2000 and 2006. From 2007 to 2012, Ecuador's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which was 3.5%, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the 2008 financial crisis. In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%. In 2011, its GDP grew at 8% and ranked third highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st). Between 1999 and 2007, GDP doubled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE.
The inflation rate until January 2008, was about 1.14%, the highest in the past year, according to the government. The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent. Unemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies. From this point, unemployment rates started a downward trend: 7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012.
The extreme poverty rate declined significantly between 1999 and 2010. In 2001, it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population. This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction (before 2000, the Ecuadorian sucre was prone to rampant inflation). However, starting in 2008, with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending, mainly in education and health.
Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance. Since the late 1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels . In late 2021, Ecuador had to declare a Force majeure for oil exports due to erosion near key pipelines (privately owned OCP pipeline and state-owned SOTE pipeline) in the Amazon. It lasted about three weeks, totalling just over $500 million economic losses, before their production returned to its normal level of in early 2022.
The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006.
In the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (first place worldwide in export), flowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa. Ecuador also produces coffee, rice, potatoes, cassava (manioc, tapioca), plantains and sugarcane; cattle, sheep, pigs, beef, pork and dairy products; fish, and shrimp; and balsa wood. The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves. Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin.
The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably. This city is also the largest business center of the country. Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market. Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially. These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more. A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca. Incomes from tourism has been increasing during the last few years due to promotion programs from Government, highlighting the variety of climates and the biodiversity of Ecuador.
Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur. It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean and other multilateral agencies. In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF.
The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank.
===Sciences and research===
Ecuador was placed in 96th position of innovation in technology in a 2013 World Economic Forum study. Ecuador was ranked 105th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito. Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Labandera, a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar, a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas, a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy.
The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development.
===Tourism===
Ecuador is a country with vast natural wealth. The diversity of its four regions has given rise to thousands of species of flora and fauna. It has approximately 1640 kinds of birds. The species of butterflies border 4,500, the reptiles 345, the amphibians 358, and the mammals 258, among others. Ecuador is considered one of the 17 countries where the planet's highest biodiversity is concentrated, being also the largest country with diversity per km2 in the world. Most of its fauna and flora live in 26 protected areas by the state.
The country has two cities with UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Quito and Cuenca, as well as two natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Galapagos Islands and Sangay National Park, in addition to one World Biosphere Reserve, such as the Cajas Massif. Culturally, the toquilla straw hat and the culture of the Zapara indigenous people are recognized. The most popular sites for national and foreign tourists have different nuances due to the various tourist activities offered by the country.
Among the main tourist destinations are:
Nature attractions: Galápagos Islands, Yasuni National Park, El Cajas National Park, Sangay National Park, Podocarpus National Park, Vilcabamba, Baños de Agua Santa.
Cultural attractions: Historic center of Quito, Ciudad Mitad del Mundo, Ingapirca, Historic center of Cuenca, Latacunga and its Mama Negra festival.
Snowy mountains: Antisana volcano, Cayambe volcano, Chimborazo volcano, Cotopaxi volcano, Illinizas volcanoes.
Beaches: Atacames, Bahía de Caráquez, Crucita, Esmeraldas, Manta, Montañita, Playas, Salinas
===Transport===
The rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters.
The roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement. The major routes are Pan American (under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of four lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja). In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are the Route Espondilus or Ruta del Sol (oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon backbone (which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities of it).
Another major project is developing the road Manta – Tena, the highway Guayaquil – Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo, Riobamba – Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park). Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia – San Vincente Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast.
Cuenca's tramway is the largest public transport system in the city and the first modern tramway in Ecuador. It was inaugurated on 8 March 2019. It has and 27 stations. It will transport 120,000 passengers daily. Its route starts in the south of Cuenca and ends in the north at the Parque Industrial neighborhood.
The Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization. In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal, once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance. However, the main road leading from Quito city center to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014, making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour. Quito's old city-center airport is being turned into parkland, with some light industrial use.
==Demographics==
Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse and the estimates put Ecuador's population at . The largest ethnic group () is the Mestizos, who are mixed race people of Amerindian and European descent, typically from Spanish colonists, in some cases this term can also include Amerindians that are culturally more Spanish influenced, and constitute about 71% of the population (although including the Montubio, a term used for coastal Mestizo population, brings this up to about 79%).
The White Ecuadorians are a minority accounting for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador, primarily around the urban areas. Even though Ecuador's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain, today Ecuador's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly from Spain with people from Italy, Germany, France, and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century. In addition, there is a small European Jewish (Ecuadorian Jews) population, which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil. 5,000 Romani people live in Ecuador.
Ecuador also has a small population of Asian origins, mainly those from West Asia, like the economically well off descendants of Lebanese and Palestinian immigrants, who are either Christian or Muslim (see Islam in Ecuador), and an East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.
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Spanish is the official language in Ecuador. It is spoken as a first (93%) or second language (6%) by the vast majority of its population. In 1991 Northern Kichwa (Quechua) and other pre-colonial American languages were spoken by 2,500,000. Ethnologues estimate that the country has about 24 living indigenous languages. Among the 24 are Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani). Use of these Amerindian languages is gradually diminishing and being replaced by Spanish.
Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish as their first language, with its ubiquity permeating and dominating most of the country. Despite its small size, the country has a marked diversity in Spanish accents that vary widely among regions. Ecuadorian Spanish idiosyncrasies reflect the ethnic and racial populations that originated and settled the distinct areas of the country.
The three main regional variants are:
Equatorial Pacific Spanish or Equatorial Coastal Spanish
Andean Spanish
Amazonic Spanish
===Religion===
According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics. Among the people who have a religion, 80.44% are Catholic, 11.30% are Evangelical Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).
In the rural parts of Ecuador, Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized into a local form of folk Catholicism. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.
There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, Amerindian religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Baháʼí. According to their estimates, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accounts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 members at the end of 2012. According to their sources there were 92,752 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country in 2017.
The History of the Jews in Ecuador goes back to the 16th and 17th centuries. Until the 20th century, the majority were Sephardic with many Anusim (Crypto-Jews) among them. Ashkenazi Jews arrived mostly as refugees after the ascendance of National Socialism in Germany in 1933, with 3,000 Jews in Ecuador in 1940. At its peak, in 1950, the Jewish population of Ecuador was estimated at 4,000, but then diminished to some 290 around 2020, forming one of the smallest Jewish communities in South America. Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country for the United States or Israel. Today, the Jewish Community of Ecuador (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito. There are very small communities in Cuenca. The "Comunidad de Culto Israelita" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the "Jewish Community of Ecuador" and is composed of only 30 people.
===Health===
The current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967. The Ministry of the Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans. The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic.
The philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population, and its main plan of action lies around communitarian health and preventive medicine. There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular group of the population, or provide better treatment in some medical specialties.
Although well-equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecology, clinical medicine, and surgery.
Ecuador currently ranks 20, in most efficient health care countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000. Ecuadorians have a life expectancy of 77.1 years. The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births, Almost a quarter, or 23%, of children under five are chronically malnourished. Basic health care, including doctor's visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008. However, some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients. Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population.
Between 2008 and 2016, new public hospitals have been built. In 2008, the government introduced universal and compulsory social security coverage. In 2015, corruption remains a problem. Overbilling is recorded in 20% of public establishments and in 80% of private establishments.
===Education===
The Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a "basic level of education", which is estimated at nine school years. In 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of children stayed in school until the fifth grade/age 10. In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school. In a 2015 report, The Ministry of Education states that in 2014 the mean number of school years completed in rural areas is 7.39 as compared to 10.86 in urban areas.
=== Largest cities ===
The five largest cities in the country are Quito (2.78 million inhabitants), Guayaquil (2.72 million inhabitants), Cuenca (636,996 inhabitants), Santo Domingo (458,580 inhabitants), and Ambato (387,309 inhabitants). The most populated metropolitan areas of the country are those of Guayaquil, Quito, Cuenca, Manabí Centro (Portoviejo-Manta) and Ambato.
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Migration from Lebanon to Ecuador started as early as 1875. Early impoverished migrants tended to work as independent sidewalk vendors, rather than as wage workers in agriculture or others' businesses. Though they emigrated to escape Ottoman Turkish religious oppression, they were called "Turks" by Ecuadorians because they carried Ottoman passports. There were further waves of immigration in the first half of the 20th century; by 1930, there were 577 Lebanese immigrants and 489 of their descendants residing in the country. A 1986 estimate from Lebanon's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated 100,000 Lebanese descendants. They reside mostly in Quito and Guayaquil. They are predominantly Roman Catholics.
In the early 1900s, there was immigration from Italians, Germans, Portuguese, French, Britons, Irish and Greeks. The town of Ancón experienced of wave of immigration from the UK starting in 1911, when the Government of Ecuador conceded 98 mines, occupying an area of 38,842 hectares, to the British oil company Anglo Ecuadorian Oilfields. Today, the Anglo American Oilfields or Anglo American plc is the world's largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a major producer of diamonds, copper, nickel, iron ore and steelmaking coal. Alberto Spencer is one famed Briton that hailed from Ancon. The town has now become an attraction due to the austere British homes in "El Barrio Ingles" situated in a contrasting tropical setting.
In the 1950s, the Italians were the third largest national group in terms of numbers of immigrants. It can be noted that, after World War I, people from Liguria, still constituted the majority of the flow, even though they then represented only one third of the total number of immigrants in Ecuador. This situation came from the improvement of the economic situation in Liguria. The classic paradigm of the Italian immigrant today was not that of the small trader from Liguria as it had been before; those who emigrated to Ecuador were professionals and technicians, employees and religious people from South-Central Italy. It must be remembered that many immigrants, a remarkable number of Italians among them, moved to the Ecuadorian port from Peru to escape from the Peruvian war with Chile. The Italian government came to be more interested in the emigration phenomenon in Ecuador because of the necessity of finding an outlet for the large number of immigrants who traditionally went to the United States but who could no longer enter this country because of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 that restricted immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans as well as other "undesirables".
Most of these communities and their descendants are located in the Guayas region of the country.
Throughout the 20th century, immigration also came from other Latin American countries due to civil wars, economic crises, and dictatorships. The most notable are those coming from Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Starting from 2002, there has been an exponential and significant growth in Colombian and Venezuelan refugees. Colombians have historically found refuge in its neighboring country during times of civil unrest. Recently, Venezuelans have become a notable presence in Ecuadorian cities as many flee the economic and political Venezuelan crisis. Authorities argue that an estimated 350,000 to 400,000 Colombians live in Ecuador, porous borders and lack of formal registration disallow concrete numbers.
From 2007, the Ecuador government created multiple initiatives to attract Ecuadorians abroad mostly from the United States, Italy, and Spain to return after many left during the 90s economic crisis or La Decada Perdida. These policies resulted in the rapid and significant rise in the flow of returning nationals, most notably during the 2008 economic crisis that affected Europe and North America.
In recent years, Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates.
==Culture==
Ecuador's dominant culture is defined by its mestizo majority and, like its ancestry, is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by Spanish elements non-Europeans and Africans. The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonist, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, Croatians and some cases from Asia during and after the Second World War.
Ecuador's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own native cultures, particularly the more remote Amerindian communities of the Amazon basin. Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population and as a first or second language by more than 98%. Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages; in some cases, they are used as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.
===Media===
===Music===
The music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it is the "national genre of music". Through the years, many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music. There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba (highly established in Afro-Ecuadorian societies), and so on. Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures. One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito. It is originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura). Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities. According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista's birthday. This important date was established by the Spaniards on 24 June, coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi.
===Cuisine===
Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic/racial communities. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three-course meal of soup, a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert and coffee to finish.
In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp, and ceviche being an integral part of the diet. Beef is also notably consumed in the coastal region, traditional dishes are churrasco and arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) served with fried plantain. The latter is an emblematic dish of the city of Guayaquil. Meat based dishes have their origins in the cattle ranching culture of the Montubio people.
Ceviche is an indispensable coastal dish with pre-incan origins. It is often served with fried plantain (chifles or patacones), popcorn, or tostado. Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are quite frequent in the coastal region reflecting the West African roots of many of its citizens. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular in the northern coast centering around the city of Esmeraldas. The coast is also a leading producer of bananas, cocoa beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mango, and passion fruit, among other products.
Pan de yuca, analogous with the Brazilian pão de queijo, is served with "yogur persa" and is often eaten as a snack in many coastal cities. Its origin comes from the Persian and Middle Eastern populations that settled the coast.
In the highland region, various dishes of pork, chicken, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and mote) or potatoes. The consumption of "Cuy" or Guinea Pig, de rigueur in mostly indigenous communities, reflects the predominantly native character of the highlands. Considered a delicacy it is often characterized as having a mild pork flavor.
In the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.
===Literature===
Early literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age. One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo, an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s. Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua. The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama "Ollantay", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned. The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript. The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the "Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa", and others.
Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poets Medardo Angel Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade, Emanuel Xavier and Luis Alberto Costales; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio.
===Art===
The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña (Quito School), which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín, and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendón, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constanté, Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutiérrez, Félix Aráuz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; Teddy Cobeña from expressionism and figurative style and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style. The Amerindian people of Tigua, Ecuador, are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.
===Sports===
The most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is football. Its best known professional teams include; Emelec from Guayaquil, Liga De Quito from Quito; Barcelona S.C. from Guayaquil, Independiente del Valle from Sangolqui, the most popular team in Ecuador, also the team with most local championships; Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful football team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup. The Estadio Monumental Isidro Romero Carbo is the tenth largest football stadium in South America. The Ecuador national football team has appeared at four FIFA World Cups.
|
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] |
9,335 |
History of Ecuador
|
The History of Ecuador covers human habitation in the region reaching back 8,000 years
During that period a diversity of cultures have influenced the people and the land that today make up the contemporary Republic of Ecuador. Indigenous tribes inhabited the area for millennia before being invaded and absorbed into the Inca Empire in the early fifteenth century.
The Incas themselves were conquered shortly afterwards by the Spanish led by Francisco Pizarro in the early 16th century. The region fell under the Viceroyalty of Peru although it was granted certain autonomy through the Quito Audencia established in 1563. In 1720, it was joined to the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
A rebellion in 1812 against the Quito Audencia was crushed early in the Spanish American wars of independence, but the struggle was revived in 1820 by a new rebellion originating in Guayaquil. The city was also the site of the Guayaquil Conference between Simon Bolivar and San Martin. Ecuador became independent initially as part of the Republic of Gran Colombia, before finally breaking away in 1830.
Ecuador would endure a period of civil war until the mid nineteenth century after which it would be dominated by caudillos, alternatively conservative and liberal. In the twentieth and twenty first centuries Ecuador would continue to struggle in achieving both economic and political stability.
==Pre-Columbian Ecuador==
During the pre-Inca period, people lived in clans, which formed great tribes, some allied with each other to form powerful confederations, as the Confederation of Quito. But none of these confederations could resist the formidable momentum of the Tawantinsuyu. The invasion of the Incas in the 16th century was very painful and bloody. However, once occupied by the Quito hosts of Huayna Capac (1523–1525), the Incas developed an extensive administration and began the colonization of the region. The Pre-Columbian era can be divided up into four eras: the Pre-ceramic Period, the Formative Period, the Period of Regional Development and the Period of Integration and the Arrival of the Incas.
The Pre-ceramic period begins with the end of the first ice-age and continued until 4200 BCE. The Las Vegas culture and The Inga Cultures dominated this period. The Las Vegas culture lived on the Santa Elena Peninsula on the coast of Ecuador between 9,000 and 6,000 BC. The earliest people were hunters-gatherers and fishermen. Around 6,000 BC cultures in the region were among the first to begin farming. The Ingas lived in the Sierra near present-day Quito between 9000 and 8000 BC along an ancient trade route.
People of the region moved from hunter-gathering and simple farming into a more developed society, with permanent developments, an increase in agriculture and the use of ceramics. New cultures included the Machalilla culture, Valdivia culture, and the Chorrera culture in the coast; Cotocollao and the Chimba in the sierra; and Pastaza and Chiguaza in the eastern region. The Valdivia culture is the first culture where significant remains have been discovered. Their civilization dates back as early as 3500 B.C. Living in the area near the Santa Elena Peninsula, they were one of the first Americans to use pottery. They navigated the seas and established a trade network with tribes in the Andes and the Amazon. Existing in the late formative period the Chorrera culture lived in the Andes and Coastal Regions of Ecuador between 1000 and 300 BC.
===Period of Regional Development===
The period of Regional Development is identified by the emergence of regional differences in territorial or political and social organization. Among the main cultures of this period were the Jambelí, Guangala, Bahia, Tejar-Daule, La Tolita, Jama Coaque on the coast, Cerro Narrío Alausí in the sierras, and Tayos in the Ecuadorian Amazon jungle.
La Chimba, north of Quito, is the site of the earliest ceramics found in the northern Andes and is representative of the Formative Period in its final stage. Its inhabitants were in contact with villages on the coast and the mountains, in close proximity to the Cotocollao culture located on the plateau of Quito and its surrounding valleys. The Bahia culture occupied the area that stretches from the foothills of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, and from Bahía de Caráquez to the south of Manabi. The Jama-Coaque culture inhabited areas between Cabo San Francisco in Esmeraldas and Bahía de Caráquez in Manabi, in an area of wooded hills and vast beaches which facilitated the gathering of resources from both the jungle and the ocean.
The La Tolita developed in the coastal region of Southern Colombia and Northern Ecuador between 600 BCE and 200 AD. A Number of archaeological sites have been discovered and show the highly artistic nature of this culture. Artifacts are characterized by gold jewelry, beautiful anthropomorphous masks and figurines that reflect a hierarchical society with complex ceremonies.
===Period of Integration and the arrival of the Inca===
Tribes throughout Ecuador integrated during this period. They created better housing that allowed them to improve their living conditions and no longer be subject to the climate. In the mountains Cosangua-Píllaro, the Capulí and Piartal-Tuza cultures arose, in the eastern region was the Yasuní Phase while the Milagro, Manteña and Huancavilca cultures developed on the coast.
====The Manteños====
The Manteños were the last of the pre-Columbian cultures in the coastal region existing between 600 and 1534. They were the first to witness the arrival of Spanish ships sailing in the surrounding Pacific Ocean. According to archaeological evidence and Spanish chronicles the civilization existed from Bahía de Caráquez to Cerro de Hojas in the south.
They were excellent weavers, produced textiles, articles of gold, silver spondylus shells and mother of pearl. The manteños mastered the seas and created an extensive trade routes as far as Chile to the south and Western Mexico to the north. The center of the culture was in the area of Manta which was named in their honor.
====The Huancavilcas====
The Huancavilcas constitute the most important pre-Columbian culture of Guayas. These warriors were noted for their appearance. Huancavilca of culture is the legend of Guayas and Quiles, which gives its name to the city of Guayaquil.
====The Incas====
The Inca civilization expansion northward from modern-day Peru during the late 15th century met with fierce resistance by several Ecuadorian tribes, particularly the Cañari in the region around modern-day Cuenca along with the Quitu, occupants of the site of the modern capital; and the Cara in the Sierra north of Quito. The conquest of Ecuador began in 1463 under the leadership of the ninth Inca, the great warrior Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui. In that year, his son Tupa took over command of the army and began his march northward through the Sierra.
By 1500 Tupa's son, Huayna Capac, overcame the resistance of these populations and that of the Cara, and thus incorporated most of modern-day Ecuador into Tawantinsuyu, or the Inca empire. The influence of these conquerors based in Cuzco (modern-day Peru) was limited to about a half century, or less in some parts of Ecuador. During that period, some aspects of life remained unchanged. Traditional religious beliefs, for example, persisted throughout the period of Inca rule. In other areas, however, such as agriculture, land tenure, and social organization, Inca rule had a profound effect despite its relatively short duration.
Emperor Huayna Capac became fond of Quito, making it a secondary capital of Tawantinsuyu and living out his elder years there before his death in about 1527. He willed that his heart be buried in Quito, his favorite city, and the rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco. Huayna Capac's sudden death and the death days later of the Incan heir apparent from a strange disease, described by one source as smallpox, precipitated a bitter power struggle between Huáscar, whose mother was Coya (Empress) Mama Rahua Occillo, and Atahualpa, whose mother was according to most sources of the panaka of Pachacuti, and who was his father's favorite. Huascar was chosen as emperor by the Inca nobles, but Atahualpa was very popular with the Inca armies stationed in the north.
This struggle raged during the half-decade before the arrival of Francisco Pizarro's conquering expedition in 1532. The key battle of this civil war was fought on Ecuadorian soil, near Riobamba, where Huáscar's northbound troops were met and defeated by Atahualpa's southbound troops. Atahualpa's final victory over Huáscar in the days just before the Spanish conquerors arrived resulted in large part from the loyalty of two of Huayna Capac's best generals, who were based in Quito along with Atahualpa. The victory remains a source of national pride to Ecuadorians as a rare case when "Ecuador" bested a "neighboring country" by force.
==Spanish discovery and conquest==
As the Inca Civil War raged, in 1530 the Spanish landed in Ecuador. Led by Francisco Pizarro, the conquistadors learned that the conflict and disease were destroying the empire. After receiving reinforcements in September 1532, Pizarro set out to the newly victorious Atahualpa.
Arriving at Cajamarca, Pizarro sent an embassy, led by Hernando de Soto, with 15 horsemen and an interpreter; shortly thereafter he sent 20 more horsemen led by his brother Hernando Pizarro as reinforcements in case of an Inca attack. Atahualpa was in awe of these men dressed in full clothing, with long beards and riding horses (an animal he had never seen). In town Pizarro set a trap for the Inca and the Battle of Cajamarca began. The Inca forces greatly outnumbered the Spanish; however, the Spanish superiority of weapons and tactics and the fact that the most trusted Inca generals were in Cusco led to an easy defeat and the capture of the Incan Emperor.
During the next year Pizarro held Atahualpa for ransom. The Incas filled the Ransom Room with gold and silver awaiting a release that would never happen. On August 29, 1533, Atahualpa was garroted. The Spanish then set out to conquer the rest of Tawantinsuyu, capturing Cuzco in November 1533.
Benalcázar, Pizarro's lieutenant and fellow Extremaduran, had already departed from San Miguel with 140-foot soldiers and a few horses on his conquering mission to Ecuador. At the foot of Mount Chimborazo, near the modern city of Riobamba (Ecuador), he met and defeated the forces of the great Inca warrior Rumiñahui with the aid of Cañari tribesmen who served as guides and allies to the conquering Spaniards. Rumiñahui fell back to Quito, and, while in pursuit of the Inca army, Benalcázar encountered another, quite sizable, conquering party led by Guatemalan Governor Pedro de Alvarado. Bored with administering Central America, Alvarado had set sail for the south without the crown's authorization, landed on the Ecuadorian coast, and marched inland to the Sierra. Most of Alvarado's men joined Benalcázar for the siege of Quito. In 1533, Rumiñahui burned the city to prevent the Spanish from taking it, destroying the ancient pre-Hispanic city.
In 1534 Sebastián de Belalcázar along with Diego de Almagro established the city of San Francisco de Quito on top of the ruins of the secondary Inca capital, naming it in honor of Pizarro. It was not until December 1540 that Quito received its first captain-general in the person of Francisco Pizarro's brother, Gonzalo Pizarro.
Benalcázar had also founded the city of Guayaquil in 1533, but it had subsequently been retaken by the local Huancavilca tribesmen. Francisco de Orellana, yet another lieutenant of Francisco Pizarro from the Spanish city of Trujillo, put down the native rebellion and in 1537 reestablished this city, which a century later would become one of Spain's principal ports in South America.
==Spanish colonial era==
Between 1544 and 1563, Ecuador was a part of Spain's colonies in the New World under the Viceroyalty of Peru, having no administrative status independent of Lima. It remained a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1720, when it joined the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada; within the viceroyalty, however, Ecuador was awarded its own audiencia in 1563, allowing it to deal directly with Madrid on certain matters. The Quito Audiencia, which was both a court of justice and an advisory body to the viceroy, consisted of a president and several judges (oidores).
The most common form in which the Spanish occupied the land was the encomienda. By the early 17th century, there were some 500 encomiendas in Ecuador. Although many consisted of quite sizable haciendas, they were generally much smaller than the estates commonly found elsewhere in South America. A multitude of reforms and regulations did not prevent the encomienda from becoming a system of virtual slavery of the Native Ecuadorians, estimated at one-half the total Ecuadorian population, who lived on them. In 1589 the president of the audiencia recognized that many Spaniards were accepting grants only to sell them and undertake urban occupations, and he stopped distributing new lands to Spaniards; however, the institution of the encomienda persisted until nearly the end of the colonial period.
The coastal lowlands north of Manta were conquered, not by the Spanish, but by blacks from the Guinean coast who, as slaves, were shipwrecked en route from Panama to Peru in 1570. The blacks killed or enslaved the native males and married the females, and within a generation they constituted a population of zambos that resisted Spanish authority until the end of the century and afterwards managed to retain a great deal of political and cultural independence.
The coastal economy revolved around shipping and trade. Guayaquil, despite being destroyed on several occasions by fire and incessantly plagued by either yellow fever or malaria, was a center of vigorous trade among the colonies, a trade that was technically illegal under the mercantilist philosophy of the contemporary Spanish rulers. Guayaquil also became the largest shipbuilding center on the west coast of South America before the end of the colonial period.
The Ecuadorian economy, like that in the mother country, suffered a severe depression throughout most of the 18th century. Textile production dropped an estimated 50 to 75 percent between 1700 and 1800. Ecuador's cities gradually fell into ruins, and by 1790 the elite was reduced to poverty, selling haciendas and jewelry in order to subsist. The Native Ecuadorian population, in contrast, probably experienced an overall improvement in its situation, as the closing of the obrajes commonly led Native Ecuadorians to work under less arduous conditions on either haciendas or traditional communal lands. Ecuador's economic woes were, no doubt, compounded by the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 by King Charles III of Spain. Missions in the Oriente were abandoned, and many of the best schools and the most efficient haciendas and obrajes lost the key that made them outstanding institutions in colonial Ecuador.
==Jesuits of Quito during the Colonial era==
Father Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuita de Quito (Jesuit of Quito) to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which at that period belonged to the Audiencia of Quito, that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until the Audiencia of Quito was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. In 1602, Father Rafael Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and set up, between 1604 and 1605, missions among the Cofan people. Father Rafael Ferrer was martyred in 1610.
In 1637, the Jesuits of Quito, Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva began establishing missions in Mainas (or Maynas). These missions are now known as the Mainas missions after the Maina people, many of whom lived on the banks of the Marañón river, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, in close proximity to the Spanish settlement of Borja.
In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Father Cristobal de Acuña was a part of this expedition. The expedition disembarked from the Napo river February 16, 1639, and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil, on the banks of the Amazon river on December 12, 1639. In 1641, Father Cristobal de Acuña published in Madrid a memoire of his expedition to the Amazon river. The title of the memoire is called Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas, and it was used by academics as a fundamental reference pertaining to the Amazon region.
Between 1637 and 1652, there were 14 missions established along the Marañon river and its southern tributaries – the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers. Jesuit Fathers de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up 2 new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.
Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions. These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705. In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.
In the immense territory of Mainas, also referred to as Maynas, the Jesuitas of Quito, made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions with a total population of 150,000 inhabitants. Because of the constant plague of epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 Jesuits of Quito in the Napo Missions and Aguarico Missions, and 19 Jesuits of Quito in the Pastaza Missions and Iquitos Missions of Maynas with a total population of 20,000 inhabitants.
==Struggle for independence and birth of the republic==
=== Quito Revolution (1809-1812) ===
The struggle for independence in the Quito Audiencia was part of a movement throughout Spanish America led by Criollos. The Criollos' resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the Peninsulares was the fuel of revolution against colonial rule. The spark was Napoleon's invasion of Spain, after which he deposed King Ferdinand VII and, in July 1808, placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne.
Shortly afterward, Spanish citizens, unhappy at the usurpation of the throne by the French, began organizing local juntas loyal to Ferdinand. A group of Quito's leading citizens followed suit, and on August 10, 1809, they seized power in the name of Ferdinand from the local representatives, whom they accused of preparing to recognize Joseph Bonaparte. Thus, this early revolt against colonial rule (one of the first in Spanish America) was, paradoxically, an expression of loyalty to the Spanish king.
It quickly became apparent that Quito's Criollo rebels lacked the anticipated popular support for their cause. As loyalist troops approached Quito, they peacefully turned power back to the crown authorities. Despite assurances against reprisals, the returning Spanish authorities proved to be merciless with the rebels and, in the process of ferreting out participants in the Quito revolt, jailed and abused many innocent citizens. Their actions, in turn, bred popular resentment among Quiteños, who, after several days of street fighting in August 1810, won an agreement to be governed by a junta composed with a majority of Criollos, although with the Peninsular president of the Royal Audience of Quito acting as its head.
In spite of strong opposition from the Quito Audiencia, the Junta called for a congress in December 1811 and declared the entire area of the audiencia to be independent of any government currently in Spain. Two months later, the Junta approved a constitution for the state of Quito that provided for democratic governing institutions but also granted recognition to the authority of Ferdinand should he return to the Spanish throne. Shortly thereafter, the Junta elected to launch a military offensive against loyalist regions to the south in Peru, but the poorly trained and badly equipped troops were no match for those of the Viceroy of Peru, which finally crushed the Quiteño rebellion in December 1812.
===Ecuadorian War of Independence (1820-1822)===
The second chapter in Ecuador's struggle for emancipation from Spanish colonial rule began in Guayaquil, where independence was proclaimed in October 1820 by a local patriotic junta under the leadership of the poet José Joaquín de Olmedo. By this time, the forces of independence had grown continental in scope and were organized into two principal armies, one under the Venezuelan Simón Bolívar in the north and the other under the Argentine José de San Martín in the south. Unlike the hapless Quito junta of a decade earlier, the Guayaquil patriots were able to appeal to foreign allies, Argentina and Gran Colombia, each of whom soon responded by sending sizable contingents to Ecuador. Antonio José de Sucre, the brilliant young lieutenant of Bolívar who arrived in Guayaquil in May 1821, was to become the key figure in the ensuing military struggle against the royalist forces.
After a number of initial successes, Sucre's army was defeated at Ambato in the central Sierra and he appealed for assistance from San Martín, whose army was by now in Peru. With the arrival from the south of 1,400 fresh soldiers under the command of Andrés de Santa Cruz Calahumana, the fortunes of the patriotic army were again reversed. A string of victories culminated in the decisive Battle of Pichincha.
Two months later Bolívar, the liberator of northern South America, entered Quito to a hero's welcome. Later that July, he met San Martín at the Guayaquil conference and convinced the Argentine general, who wanted the port to return to Peruvian jurisdiction, and the local Criollo elite in both major cities of the advantage of having the former Quito Audiencia join with the liberated lands to the north. As a result, Ecuador became the District of the South within the Republic of Gran Colombia, which also included present-day Venezuela and Colombia and had Bogotá as its capital. This status was maintained for eight tumultuous years.
===Gran Colombia (1822-1830) ===
These were years in which warfare dominated the affairs of Ecuador. First, the country found itself on the front lines of Gran Colombia's efforts to liberate Peru from Spanish rule between 1822 and 1825; afterward, in 1828 and 1829, Ecuador was in the middle of an armed struggle between Peru and Gran Colombia over the location of their common border. After a campaign that included the near destruction of Guayaquil, the forces of Gran Colombia, under the leadership of Sucre and Venezuelan General Juan José Flores, proved victorious. The Treaty of 1829 fixed the border on the line that had divided the Quito audiencia and the Viceroyalty of Peru before independence.
The population of Ecuador was divided during these years among three segments: those favoring the status quo, those supporting union with Peru, and those advocating independence for the former audiencia. The latter group was to prevail following Venezuela's withdrawal from Gran Colombia at the very moment that an 1830 constitutional congress had been called in an ultimately futile effort to stem the growing separatist tendencies throughout the country.
In May of that year, a group of Quito notables met to dissolve the union with Gran Colombia, and in August, a constituent assembly drew up a constitution for the State of Ecuador, so named for its geographic proximity to the equator, and placed General Flores in charge of political and military affairs. He remained the dominant political figure during Ecuador's first 15 years of independence.
==Liberal and conservative elites in an agrarian republic==
===The early republic===
Before the year 1830 drew to a close, both Marshal Sucre and Simón Bolívar would be dead, the former murdered (on orders from a jealous General Flores, according to some historians) and the latter from tuberculosis.
Juan José Flores, known as the founder of the republic, was of the foreign military variety. Born in Venezuela, he had fought in the wars for independence with Bolívar, who had appointed him governor of Ecuador during its association with Gran Colombia. As a leader, however, he appeared primarily interested in maintaining his power. Military expenditures, from the independence wars and from an unsuccessful campaign to wrest Cauca Province from Colombia in 1832, kept the state treasury empty while other matters were left unattended. That same year, Ecuador annexed the Galapagos Islands.
Discontent had become nationwide by 1845, when an insurrection in Guayaquil forced Flores from the country. Because their movement triumphed in March (marzo), the anti-Flores coalition members became known as marcistas. They were an extremely heterogeneous lot that included liberal intellectuals, conservative clergymen, and representatives from Guayaquil's successful business community.
The next fifteen years constituted one of the most turbulent periods in Ecuador's two centuries as a nation. The marcistas fought among themselves almost ceaselessly and also had to struggle against Flores's repeated attempts from exile to overthrow the government. The most significant figure of the era, however, was General José María Urbina, who first came to power in 1851 through a coup d'état, remained in the presidency until 1856, and then continued to dominate the political scene until 1860. During this decade and the one that followed, Urbina and his archrival, García Moreno, would define the dichotomy — between Liberals from Guayaquil and Conservatives from Quito — that remained the major sphere of political struggle in Ecuador until the 1980s.
By 1859 — known by Ecuadorian historians as "the Terrible Year" — the nation was on the brink of anarchy. Local caudillos had declared several regions autonomous of the central government, known as Jefaturas Supremas. One of these caudillos, Guayaquil's Guillermo Franco, signed the Treaty of Mapasingue, ceding the southern provinces of Ecuador to an occupying Peruvian army led by General Ramón Castilla. This action was outrageous enough to unite some previously disparate elements. García Moreno, putting aside both his project to place Ecuador under a French protectorate and his differences with General Flores, got together with the former dictator to put down the various local rebellions and force out the Peruvians. The final push of this effort was the defeat of Franco's Peruvian-backed forces at the Battle of Guayaquil, which led to the overturning of the Treaty of Mapasingue. This opened the last chapter of Flores's long career and marked the entrance to the power of García Moreno.
===The era of conservatism (1860–1895)===
Gabriel García Moreno was a leading figure of Ecuadorian conservatism. Shortly after the onset of his third presidential term in 1875, García Moreno was attacked with a machete on the steps of the presidential palace by Faustino Lemos Rayo, a Colombian. As he was dying, García Moreno took out his gun and shot Faustino Lemos, while he said "Dios no muere" ("God doesn't die"). The dictator's most outstanding critic was the liberal journalist, Juan Montalvo, who exclaimed, "My pen killed him!"
Between 1852 and 1890, Ecuador's exports grew in value from slightly more than US$1 million to nearly US$10 million. Production of cacao, the most important export product in the late 19th century, grew from during the same period. The agricultural export interests, centered in the coastal region near Guayaquil, became closely associated with the Liberals, whose political power also grew steadily during the interval. After the death of García Moreno, it took the Liberals twenty years to consolidate their strength sufficiently to assume control of the government in Quito.
===The liberal era (1895–1925)===
The new era brought in liberalism. Eloy Alfaro, under whose direction the government headed out to aid those in the rural sectors of the coast, is credited for finishing the construction of the railroad connecting Guayaquil and Quito, the separation of church and state, establishment of many public schools, implementing civil rights (such as freedom of speech), and the legalization of civil marriages and divorce.
Alfaro was also confronted by a dissident tendency inside his own party, directed by its General Leonidas Plaza and constituted by the upper middle class of Guayaquil. His death was followed by economic liberalism (1912–25), when banks were allowed to acquire almost complete control of the country. During the 1920s, Ecuador's key export, cacao beans, were devastated by disease at the same time that its cacao producers faced increased competition from West Africa. The loss of export earnings seriously damaged the economy.
Popular unrest, together with the ongoing economic crisis and a sickly president, laid the background for a bloodless coup d'état in July 1925. Unlike all previous forays by the military into Ecuadorian politics, the coup of 1925 was made in the name of a collective grouping rather than a particular caudillo. The members of the League of Young Officers came to power with an agenda, which included a wide variety of social reforms, such as dealing with the failing economy, establishing the Central Bank as the unique authorized bank to distribute currency, and creating a new system of budget and customs.
===Early 20th century===
Much of the 20th century was dominated by José María Velasco Ibarra, whose five presidential terms began with a mandate in 1934 and final presidency ending in 1972. However, the only term he actually completed was his third from 1952 to 1956.
Much of the century was also dominated by the territorial dispute between Peru and Ecuador. In 1941 Ecuador invaded Peruvian territory, and the Peruvians counterattacked and forced them to retreat into their own territory. At that time Ecuador was immersed in internal political fights and was not well equipped to win its offensive war.
With the world at war, Ecuador attempted to settle the matter by means of a third-party settlement. In Brazil the two countries' negotiations were overseen by four "Guarantor" states (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States — four of the most powerful countries in the region). The resulting treaty is known as the Rio Protocol. The protocol became the focus of a surge of Ecuadorian national pride and concomitant opposition, which resulted in an uprising and overthrow of the government.
===The postwar era (1944–1948)===
The Quiteño multitudes stood in the pouring rain on May 31, 1944, to hear Velasco promise a "national resurrection", with social justice and due punishment for the "corrupt Liberal oligarchy" that had been responsible for "staining the national honor", believed that they were witnessing the birth of a popular revolution. Liberal partisans were promptly jailed or sent into exile, while Velasco verbally baited the business community and the rest of the political right. The leftist elements within Velasco's Democratic Alliance, which dominated the constituent assembly that was convened to write a new constitution, were nonetheless destined to be disappointed.
In 1976 the military triumvirate, pressured by internal and external public consensus, began a process of return to the constitutional system. The moment was seen by the ruling classes and sectors as the ideal moment to legitimize their power by restoring the traditional procedures of control of power. However, divisions among the Armed Forces, whose leaders included Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, René Vargas, and others, led to the drafting of alternative proposed constitutions. Through a referendum, a new Constitution was approved in January (1978). It increased representation for groups traditionally excluded from power, such as indigenous people, trade unions, and leftist political parties. In the elections of 1978-79 the progressive candidate, Jaime Roldós Aguilera, triumphed against the conservative Sixto Durán Ballén, who had the implicit backing of military leaders.
===Return to democratic rule (1979–1990)===
Jaime Roldós Aguilera, democratically elected in 1979, presided over a nation that had undergone profound changes during the seventeen years of military rule. There were impressive indicators of economic growth between 1972 and 1979: The government budget expanded some 540 percent, whereas exports as well as per capita income increased a full 500 percent. Industrial development had also progressed, stimulated by the new oil wealth as well as Ecuador's preferential treatment under the provisions of the Andean Common Market (AnCoM, also known as the Andean Pact).
Roldós was killed, along with his wife and the minister of defense, in an airplane crash in the southern province of Loja on May 24, 1981. The death of Roldós generated intense popular speculation. Some Ecuadorian nationalists attributed it to the Peruvian government because the crash took place near the border where the two nations had participated in the Paquisha War in their perpetual border dispute. Many of the nation's leftists, pointing to a similar crash that had killed Panamanian President Omar Torrijos Herrera less than three months later, blamed the United States government.
Roldós's constitutional successor, Osvaldo Hurtado, immediately faced an economic crisis brought on by the sudden end of the petroleum boom. Massive foreign borrowing, initiated during the years of the second military regime and continued under Roldós, resulted in a foreign debt that by 1983 was nearly US$7 billion. The nation's petroleum reserves declined sharply during the early 1980s because of exploration failures and rapidly increasing domestic consumption. The economic crisis was aggravated in 1982 and 1983 by drastic climatic changes, bringing severe drought as well as flooding, precipitated by the appearance of the unusually warm ocean current known as "El Niño". Analysts estimated damage to the nation's infrastructure at US$640 million, with balance-of-payments losses of some US$300 million. Real gross domestic product growth fell to 2% in 1982 and to −3.3% in 1983. The rate of inflation in 1983, 52.5%, was the highest ever recorded in the nation's history.
Outside observers noted that, however unpopular, Hurtado deserved credit for keeping Ecuador in good standing with the international financial community and for consolidating Ecuador's democratic political system under extremely difficult conditions. As León Febres Cordero entered office on August 10, there was no end in sight to the economic crisis nor to the intense struggle that characterized the political process in Ecuador.
During the first years of his administration, Febres Cordero introduced free-market economic policies, took a strong stand against drug trafficking and terrorism, and pursued close relations with the United States. His tenure was marred by bitter wrangling with other branches of government and his own brief kidnapping by elements of the military. A devastating earthquake in March 1987 interrupted oil exports and worsened the country's economic problems.
Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram of the PRE. His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1990.
===Economic crisis (1990–2000)===
In 1992, Sixto Durán Ballén won his third run for the presidency. His tough macroeconomic adjustment measures were unpopular, but he succeeded in pushing a limited number of modernization initiatives through Congress. Durán Ballén's vice president, Alberto Dahik, was the architect of the administration's economic policies, but in 1995, Dahik fled the country to avoid prosecution on corruption charges following a heated political battle with the opposition. A war with Peru (named the Cenepa War, after a river located in the area) erupted in January–February 1995 in a small, remote region, where the boundary prescribed by the 1942 Rio Protocol was in dispute. The Durán Ballén administration can be credited with beginning the negotiations that would end in a final settlement of the territorial dispute.
In 1996, Abdalá Bucaram, from the populist Ecuadorian Roldosista Party, won the presidency on a platform that promised populist economic and social reforms. Almost from the start, Bucaram's administration languished amidst widespread allegations of corruption. Empowered by the president's unpopularity with organized labor, business, and professional organizations alike, Congress unseated Bucaram in February 1997 on grounds of mental incompetence. The Congress replaced Bucaram with Interim President Fabián Alarcón.
In May 1997, following the demonstrations that led to the ousting of Bucaram and appointment of Alarcón, the people of Ecuador called for a National Assembly to reform the Constitution and the country's political structure. After a little more than a year, the National Assembly produced a new Constitution.
Congressional and first-round presidential elections were held on May 31, 1998. No presidential candidate obtained a majority, so a run-off election between the top two candidates – Quito Mayor Jamil Mahuad of the DP and Social Christian Álvaro Noboa Pontón – was held on July 12, 1998. Mahuad won by a narrow margin. He took office on August 10, 1998. On the same day, Ecuador's new constitution came into effect.
Mahuad faced a difficult economic situation, linked in particular to the Asian financial crisis. The currency was devalued by 15%, fuel and electricity prices increased fivefold, and public transport prices increased by 40%. The government was preparing to privatize several key sectors of the economy: oil, electricity, telecommunications, ports, airports, railways, and the post office. The repression of a first general strike caused three deaths. The social situation was critical: more than half of the population was unemployed, 60% lived below the extreme poverty line, and public employees had not been paid for three months. A further increase in VAT, combined with the abolition of subsidies for domestic gas, electricity and diesel, triggered a new social movement. In the provinces of Latacunga, the army shot the indigenous people who blocked the Pan-American Highway, injuring 17 people with bullets.
The coup de grâce for Mahuad's administration was Mahuad's decision to make the local currency, the sucre (named after Antonio José de Sucre), obsolete and replace it with the US dollar (a policy called dollarization). This caused massive unrest as the lower classes struggled to convert their now useless sucres to US dollars and lost wealth, while the upper classes (whose members already had their wealth invested in US dollars) gained wealth in turn. Under Mahuad's recession-plagued term, the economy shrank significantly, and inflation reached levels of up to 60 percent.
In addition, corruption scandals were a source of public concern. Former Vice President Alberto Dahik, architect of the neoliberal economic program, fled abroad after being indicted for "questionable use of reserved funds". Former President Fabián Alarcón was arrested on charges of paying salaries for more than a thousand fictitious jobs. President Mahuad was accused of receiving money from drug trafficking during his election campaign. Several major bankers were also cited in cases. Mahuad concluded a well-received peace with Peru on October 26, 1998.
The US dollar became the only official currency of Ecuador in 2000. Although Ecuador began to improve economically in the following months, the government of Noboa came under heavy fire for the continuation of the dollarization policy, its disregard for social problems, and other important issues in Ecuadorean politics.
Retired Colonel Lucio Gutiérrez, a member of the military junta that overthrew Mahuad, was elected president in 2002 and assumed the presidency on January 15, 2003. Gutierrez's Patriotic Society Party had a small fraction of the seats in Congress and therefore depended on the support of other parties in Congress to pass legislation.
In December 2004, Gutiérrez unconstitutionally dissolved the Supreme Court and appointed new judges to it. This move was generally seen as a kickback to deposed ex-President Abdalá Bucaram, whose political party had sided with Gutiérrez and helped derail attempts to impeach him in late 2004. The new Supreme Court dropped charges of corruption pending against the exiled Bucaram, who soon returned to the politically unstable country. The corruption evident in these maneuvers finally led Quito's middle classes to seek the ousting of Gutiérrez in early 2005. In April 2005, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces declared that it was withdrawing its support for the President. After weeks of public protests, Gutiérrez was overthrown in April. Vice President Alfredo Palacio assumed the presidency and vowed to complete the term of office and hold elections in 2006.
=== Rafael Correa (2007-2017) ===
On January 15, 2007, the social democrat Rafael Correa succeeded Palacio as President of Ecuador, with the promise of summoning a constituent assembly and focusing on poverty. The 2007-8 Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly drafted the 2008 Constitution of Ecuador, approved via the Ecuadorian constitutional referendum, 2008. The new socialist constitution implemented leftist reforms.
In November 2009, Ecuador faced an energy crisis that led to power rationing across the country.
Between 2006 and 2016, poverty decreased from 36.7% to 22.5% and annual per capita GDP growth was 1.5 percent (as compared to 0.6 percent over the prior two decades). At the same time, inequalities, as measured by the Gini index, decreased from 0.55 to 0.47.
Beginning in 2007, President Rafael Correa established The Citizens' Revolution, a movement following left-wing policies, which some sources describe as populist. Correa was able to utilize the 2000s commodities boom to fund his policies, Through China, Correa accepted loans that had few requirements, as opposed to firm limits set by other lenders. Such policies resulted in a popular base of support for Correa, who was re-elected to the presidency three times between 2007 and 2013.
As the Ecuadorian economy began to decline in 2014, Correa decided not to run for a fourth term and by 2015, protests occurred against Correa following the introduction of austerity measures and an increase of inheritance taxes. Instead, Lenín Moreno, who was at the time a staunch Correa loyalist and had served as his vice-president for over six years, was expected to continue with Correa's legacy and the implementation of 21st century socialism in the country, running on a broadly left-wing platform with significant similarities to Correa's.
=== A shift to the right and social conflict (2017–present)===
====Moreno's presidency (2017–2021)====
Rafael Correa's three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by his former Vice President Lenín Moreno's four years as president (2017–21). In the weeks after his election, Moreno distanced himself from Correa's policies and shifted the left-wing PAIS Alliance's away from the left-wing politics and towards the neoliberal governance. Moreno then led the 2018 Ecuadorian referendum, which reinstated presidential term limits that were removed by Correa, barring Correa from running for a fourth presidential term in the future. and a large percentage of his own party's supporters. In July 2018, a warrant for Correa's arrest was issued after facing 29 charges for alleged acts of corruption while he was in office.
Due to increased borrowing by Correa's administration, which he had used to fund social welfare projects, as well as the 2010s oil glut, public debt tripled in a five-year period, with Ecuador eventually coming to use of the Central Bank of Ecuador's reserves for funds. In total, Ecuador was left $64 billion in debt and was losing $10 billion annually. Moreno stated that the measures aimed to save $1 billion and included a reduction of fuel subsidies, eliminating subsidies for gasoline and diesel, and the removal or merging of several public entities, a move denounced by the groups representing the nation's indigenous groups and trade unions. In October 2018, the government of President Lenin Moreno cut diplomatic relations with the Nicolás Maduro regime of Venezuela, a close ally of Rafael Correa. In March 2019, Ecuador withdrew from Union of South American Nations. Ecuador was an original member of the block, founded by left-wing governments in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2008. Ecuador also asked UNASUR to return the headquarters building of the organization, based in its capital city, Quito. In June 2019, Ecuador agreed to allow US military planes to operate from an airport on the Galapagos Islands.
In October 2019, Lenín Moreno announced a package of economic measures as part of a deal with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to obtain in credit. These measures became known as "el paquetazo" and they included the end of fuel subsidies, removal of some import tariffs and cuts in public worker benefits and wages. This caused mass protests which began on 3 October 2019. On 8 October, President Moreno relocated his government to the coastal city of Guayaquil after anti-government protesters had overrun Quito, including the Carondelet Palace. On the same day, Moreno accused his predecessor Rafael Correa of orchestrating a coup against the government with the aid of Venezuela's Nicolás Maduro, a charge which Correa denied. Later that day, the authorities shut down oil production at the Sacha oil field, which produces 10% of the nation's oil, after it was occupied by protesters. Two more oil fields were captured by protesters shortly thereafter. Demonstrators also captured repeater antennas, forcing state TV and radio offline in parts of the country. Indigenous protesters, organized by the CONAIE confederation, blocked most of Ecuador's main roads, completely cutting the transport routes to the city of Cuenca. On 9 October, protesters managed to briefly burst into and occupy the National Assembly, before being driven out by police using tear gas. Violent clashes erupted between demonstrators and police forces as the protests spread further. During the late-night hours of 13 October, the Ecuadorian government and CONAIE reached an agreement during a televised negotiation. Both parties agreed to collaborate on new economic measures to combat overspending and debt. The government agreed to end the austerity measures at the center of the controversy, and the protesters in turn agreed to end the two-week-long series of demonstrations. President Moreno agreed to withdraw Decree 883, an IMF-backed plan that caused a significant rise in fuel costs.
Relations with the United States improved significantly during the presidency of Lenin Moreno. In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and US president in 17 years.
==== Lasso's (2021-2023) and Noboa's (since 2023) presidencies ====
The April 2021 election run-off vote ended in a win for conservative former banker, Guillermo Lasso, who took 52.4% of the vote compared to 47.6% for left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, supported by the exiled former president, Rafael Correa. Previously, President-elect Lasso had finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections. On 24 May 2021, Guillermo Lasso was sworn in as the new President of Ecuador, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years.
In October 2021, President Lasso declared a 60-day state of emergency aiming to combat crime and drug-related violence. In October 2022, a bloody riot among inmates at a prison in central Ecuador caused 16 deaths, among whom was the drug crime boss Leonardo Norero, alias “El Patron.” In Ecuador's state prisons there were numerous bloody clashes between rival groups of prisoners.
A series of protests against the economic policies of Ecuadorian president Guillermo Lasso, triggered by increasing fuel and food prices, took place in June 2022. Initiated by and primarily attended by Indigenous activists, in particular CONAIE, the protests were later joined by students and workers who were also affected by the price increases. Lasso condemned the protests and labelled them as an attempted "coup d'état" against his government.
As a result of the protests, Lasso declared a state of emergency. When the protests blocked roads and ports in Quito and Guayaquil, there were food and fuel shortages across the country as a result. Lasso was criticized for allowing violent and deadly responses towards protestors. The President narrowly escaped impeachment in a vote in Congress. At the end of June, protesters agreed to end their protests and blockades in return for an agreement by the government to discuss and try to address their demands.
Lasso proposed a series of constitutional changes to enhance his government's ability to respond to rising, largely drug-related crime. In a referendum in February 2023, voters overwhelmingly rejected his proposed changes. This result weakened Lasso's political standing. Meanwhile, Lasso's government faced accusations of corruption. Citing those accusations and claiming that the government had failed to meet its demands from June 2022, CONAIE called on Lasso to resign and declared itself in a state of "permanent mobilization", threatening additional protests.
In a bid to avoid impeachment after the opposition-controlled national assembly accused him of impeachment, Lasso triggered a provision in the Ecuadorian constitution, called "Muertaza Cruzada", which triggered both presidential and parliamentary elections. He moved to rule by decree and promised to hold fresh elections within six months. Military leadership of the country promised to back him. Lasso's move was condemned by opposition figures, including ex-president Rafael Correa and Leonidas Iza It was initially thought that Lasso would be a contender in the elections, but he later informed that he was not going to be a candidate.
On 15 October 2023, center-right candidate Daniel Noboa won the run-off of the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González. On 23 November 2023, Daniel Noboa was sworn in as Ecuador's new president.
On 7 January 2024, Los Choneros leader José Adolfo Macías Villamar escaped from prison in the city of Guayaquil, on the day of his scheduled transfer to a maximum-security prison. The events were reported the next day by authorities, with charges being filed against two prison guards. Following the escape, Noboa declared a state of emergency, to last for 60 days, giving authorities the power to suspend people's rights and allowing the military to be mobilized inside prisons. Riots ensued in multiple prisons across Ecuador. Two days later, mass armed attacks occurred throughout the country, including armed groups storming a television broadcasting station mid-air. On 23 March 2024, Ecuador's youngest mayor, 27-year-old Brigitte García, mayor of San Vicente for the opposition The Citizens' Revolution, was shot dead. In April 2025, President Daniel Noboa won the run-off round of Ecuador's presidential election, meaning he will now serve a full four-year term.
|
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"Ramón Castilla",
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"2009 Ecuador electricity crisis",
"2000 Ecuadorean coup d'état",
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"Al Jazeera Media Network",
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"Ninan Cuyochi",
"Antonio José de Sucre",
"macroeconomics",
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] |
9,336 |
Geography of Ecuador
|
Ecuador is a country in western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean at the Equator, for which the country is named. Ecuador encompasses a wide range of natural formations and climates, from the desert-like southern coast to the snowcapped peaks of the Andes mountain range to the plains of the Amazon Basin. Cotopaxi in Ecuador is one of the world's highest active volcanos. It also has a large series of rivers that follow the southern border and spill into the northwest area of Peru.
== Area and borders ==
Ecuador is located on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2,237 km of coastline. It has 2237 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north (708 km border) and Peru in the east and south (1,529 km border). is land and water. Ecuador is one of the smallest countries in South America, but bigger than Uruguay, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. It has the 29th largest exclusive economic zone of which includes the Galápagos Islands.
== Cities ==
== Geographical regions ==
Ecuador is divided into three continental regions—the Costa (coast), Sierra (mountains), and Oriente (east)—and one insular region, the Galápagos Islands (officially Archipiélago de Colón). The continental regions extend the length of the country from north to south and are separated by the Andes Mountains.
=== Galápagos Islands ===
The Galápagos are located west of the Ecuadorian coast. They are noted for their association with Charles Darwin, whose observation of animals here during the voyage of the Beagle led to his formation of the theory of natural selection as a means of evolution. The islands have witnessed a large number of tourists and travelers over recent years. Special species that could be found here include blue footed boobies, iguanas and many more. Internal flight services from Ecuador to Galápagos are also available for tourists making it more convenient for guests from outside.
=== La Costa ===
The western coastal area of Ecuador borders the Pacific Ocean to the west, encompasses a broad coastal plain, and then rises to the foothills of the Andes Mountains to the east. It is estimated that 98% of the native forest of coastal Ecuador has been eliminated in favor of cattle ranching and other agricultural production, including banana, cacao and coffee plantations. The forest fragments that still survive are primarily found along the coastal mountain ranges of Mache-Chindul, Jama-Coaque, and Chongon-Colonche, and include tropical dry forest, tropical wet forest, tropical moist evergreen forest, premontane cloud forest, and mangrove forest. Collectively known as the Pacific Equatorial Forest, these forest remnants are considered the most endangered tropical forest in the world, and are part of the Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot. Guayaquil, located on the southern part of the coast is the biggest city in the country. On the north coast of Ecuador the port of Balao in Esmeraldas is used for oil export and the port of Manta was formerly used by the United States Air Force as a control point for narcotics traffic control until 2009.
A recent remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 635 km2 of tidal flats in Ecuador, making it the 41st ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.
=== La Sierra ===
The central belt of Ecuador that includes the Andes Mountains, with volcanoes and mountain peaks that sport year-round snow on the equator. Many areas of the Sierra are deforested to make way for agriculture and a number of cut-flower growing operations. At a certain altitude, cloud forests may be found.
The northern Ecuadorian Andes are divided into three parallel cordilleras which run in what is similar to an S-shape from north to south: the western, central (Cordillerra Real) and eastern (Cordillera Occidental) cordilleras. The cordilleras were formed earlier in the Cenozoic era (the current geological era), as the Nazca Plate has subducted underneath the South American Plate and has raised the mountain range. In the south, the cordilleras are not well defined.
Quito, the capital city, is located in a high mountain valley on the foothills of the Pichincha (volcano). The town of Baños de Agua Santa features hot springs swimming pools on the foothills of the Tungurahua in the Central Cordillera. The road from Baños to Puyo has long been known for its narrowness, curves and sheer drops (only one lane in some places, on one area, actually cut into the side of a cliff so that the cliff roofs over it). The most important east–west road across the Andes is the road from Quito to Lago Agrio, which is paved for most of its length yet is heavily by tractor-trailers—and the Trans-Ecuadorian Oil Pipeline serves as the guardrail for long stretches of this road.
==== Notable mountains and Volcanoes ====
Chimborazo () inactive volcano, the furthest point from the Earth's center.
Cotopaxi () is the tallest active volcano in the world.
Illiniza ()
Tungurahua () It is an active volcano in eruption since 1998 near Baños-Tunguragua
Pichincha () volcano overlooking Quito
Partial, incomplete table of volcanoes in the north of the Ecuadorian Andes, from north to south:
=== El Oriente (the East) Amazon Basin ===
Much of the Oriente is tropical moist broadleaf forest (Spanish: la selva), on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains and descending into the Amazon Basin, with strikingly different upland rainforest with steep, rugged ridges and cascading streams (can be seen around Puyo) and lowland rainforest. The oil fields are located in the Amazon basin, headquartered at Lago Agrio; some of the rainforest has been seriously damaged in this region and environmental degradation is severe, with catastrophic oil pollution in some areas. Some 38% of Ecuador's land is forested, and despite a 1.5% annual deforestation rate remains one of the most biodiverse locations on the planet. The Oriente is also home to a large number of Ecuador's indigenous groups, notably the lowland Quechua, Siona, Secoya, Huaorani, and Cofán.
== Drainage ==
Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador rise in the Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente.
In the Costa region, the Costa Externa has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the Costa Externa from the Costa Internal and the Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The Costa Internal, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps.
The Guayas River system, which flows southward to the Gulf of Guayaquil, constitutes the most important of the drainage systems in the Costa Internal. The Guayas River Basin, including land drained by its tributaries, is 40,000 square kilometers in area. The sixty-kilometer-long Guayas River forms just north of Guayaquil out of the confluence of the Babahoyo and Daule rivers. Briefly constricted at Guayaquil by hills, the Guayas widens south of the city and flows through a deltaic network of small islands and channels. At its mouth, the river forms a broad estuary with two channels around Puná Island, the deeper of which is used for navigation.
The second major Costa river system, the Esmeraldas, rises in the Hoya de Quito in the Sierra as the Guayllabamba River and flows westward to empty into the Pacific Ocean near the city of Esmeraldas. The Esmeraldas River is 320 kilometers long and has a 20,000-square-kilometer drainage basin.
Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from . In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs, although they are surrounded by the Pacific Ocean.
== Climate ==
Each region has different factors that affect its climate. The Costa is influenced primarily by proximity to warm or cool ocean currents. By contrast, climate in the Sierra varies more as a function of altitude. The Oriente has a fairly uniform climate that varies only slightly between the two subregions. Climate in the Galápagos Islands is both moderated by the ocean currents and affected by altitude. Throughout Ecuador variation in rainfall primarily determines seasons. Temperature is determined by altitude. With each ascent of in altitude, temperature drops . This phenomenon is particularly significant in the Sierra.
=== The Sierra ===
Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly on a seasonal basis; the hottest month averages and the coolest month, in the upper elevations. Diurnal temperatures, however, vary dramatically, from cold mornings to hot afternoons. The almost vertical sun and the rarefied air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during the day and lose heat quickly at night. Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often are cloudy and rainy. In general, rainfall amounts are highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes. Rain can also vary on a local basis. Sheltered valleys normally receive per year, whereas annual rainfall is in Quito and can reach on exposed slopes that catch rain-bearing winds. On a seasonal basis, the driest months are June through September.
The climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude. The tropical level () has temperatures ranging from and heavy precipitation. The subtropical level () has temperatures from and moderate precipitation. The temperate level () has a year-round temperature in the range of and an annual rainfall of . The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms, and fog. Winter, or the rainy season, lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December. Most rain falls in April. There also is a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the Sierra from the Oriente. Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are located at this temperate level. The cold level extends from the temperate zone to . Here, average temperatures are , and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail, and thick fog. Above is the frozen level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below . Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog, and rain.
=== The Oriente/Amazon ===
The eastern lowlands in the Oriente experience abundant rainfall, especially in the Andean Piedmont, sometimes exceeding per year. Temperatures average in the western parts of this region. The jungle-covered plains of the Eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall and temperatures surpassing .
Being located on the equator, the Galápagos Islands would have an equatorial climate were it not for the modifying effects of the Peruvian Current. Instead, climate on the islands follows a pattern more like that of the Sierra than the Costa. At sea level, the land is desertlike with temperatures of . The eight summer months experience no precipitation, whereas the winter months of January through April have some fog and drizzle. Above sea level to an altitude of , the islands have a mixture of tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates. In general, temperatures are around . There is constant fog and drizzle in the summer and rain in the winter. The cold level above has temperatures below . It is cool along the tropical coast.
== Elevation extremes ==
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Chimborazo 6,267 m
== Natural resources ==
Ecuador has land which is rich in petroleum. Main fishing products include herring and mackerel. Other natural resources include timber and hydropower.
== Land use ==
arable land: 4.62%
permanent crops: 5.57%
other: 89.81% (2012 est.)
=== Irrigated land ===
8,534 km2 (2003)
=== Total renewable water resources ===
424.4 km3 (2011)
=== Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) ===
total: 9.92 km3/yr (13%/6%/81%)
per capita: 716.1 m3/yr (2005)
== Natural hazards ==
Natural hazards in Ecuador include frequent earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity; periodic droughts and floods.
== Extreme points ==
Northernmost point – Darwin Island, Galápagos Islands
Northernmost point (mainland) –
mouth of Mataje River, Esmeraldas Province
Southernmost point – Border with Peru, Chinchipe Canton
Westernmost point – Fernandina Island, Galápagos Islands
Westernmost point (mainland) – Santa Elena Peninsula, Salinas Canton
Easternmost point – border with Peru, Orellana Province
Highest point – Chimborazo: 6,267 m
Lowest point – Pacific Coast: 0 m
|
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9,337 |
Demographics of Ecuador
|
{{Infobox place demographics
| place = Ecuador
| image = Ecuador single age population pyramid 2020.png
| image_size = 350px
| alt =
| caption = Ecuador population pyramid in 2020
| size_of_population = 18,213,749 (2023 estimate)(66th)
| growth=1.443% (2011 est.)
| birth = 13.2 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)
| death = 5.0 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
| fertility = 2.0 children (2024 est.)
|age_0–14_years = 28.23%
|age_15–64_years = 64.11%
|age_65_years = 7.66%
| nation = Ecuadorian
| major_ethnic =
{{unbulleted list
|
Mixed (86.62%)
Black (3.36%) Genetic research indicates that the ancestry of Ecuadorian Mestizos is predominantly Indigenous.
==Population==
The Ecuadorian census is conducted by the governmental institution known as INEC, Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas y Censos (National Institute of Statistics and Census). The census in Ecuador is conducted every ten years, and its objective is to obtain the number of people residing within its borders. The current census now includes household information.
Index of growth:
===UN estimates===
According to the total population was in , compared to only 3,470,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2015 was 29.0%, 63.4% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6.7% was 65 years or older.
=== Structure of the population ===
===Geography===
Due to the prevalence of malaria and yellow fever in the coastal region until the end of the 19th century, the Ecuadorian population was most heavily concentrated in the highlands and valleys of the "Sierra" region. Today's population is distributed more evenly between the "Sierra" and the "Costa" (the coastal lowlands) region. Migration towards the cities—particularly larger cities—in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55 percent.
The "Oriente" region, consisting of Amazonian lowlands to the east of the Andes and covering about half the country's land area, remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the country's population, that for the most are indigenous peoples who maintain a wary distance from the recent Mestizo and white settlers. The territories of the "Oriente" are home to as many as nine indigenous groups: Quichua, Shuar, Achuar, Waorani, Siona, Secoya, Shiwiar, and Cofan, all represented politically by the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon, CONFENIAE.
As a result of the oil exploration and the development of the infrastructure required for the exploitation of the oil fields in the eastern jungles during the seventies and early eighties, there was a wave of settlement in the region. The Majority of these wave of internal immigration came from the southern province of Loja as a result of a drought that lasted three years and affected the southern provinces of the country. This boom of the petroleum industry has led to a mushrooming of the town of Lago Agrio (Nueva Loja) as well as substantial deforestation and pollution of wetlands and lakes.
==Vital statistics==
Registration of vital events is in Ecuador not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
! style="width:70px;"|Deaths
! style="width:70px;"|Natural increase
! style="width:70px;"|Crude birth rate
! style="width:70px;"|Crude death rate
! style="width:70px;"|Rate of natural increase
! style="width:70px;"|Crude migration rate
! style="width:70px;"|TFR
|-
| 1990
| 10,149,666
| 310,233
| style="color:blue;"| 50,217
| 260,016
| 30.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.9
| 25.7
|
|
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1991
|| 10,355,598
|| 312,007
|| 53,333
|| 258,674
|| 30.1
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.2
|| 24.9
| -5.0
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1992
|| 10,567,946
|| 319,044
|| 53,430
|| 265,614
|| 30.2
|| 5.1
|| 25.1
| -5.0
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1993
|| 10,786,984
|| 333,920
|| 52,453
|| 281,467
| style="color:blue;"|31.0
|| 4.9
| style="color:blue;"|26.1
| -5.8
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1994
|| 11,012,925
|| 318,063
|| 51,165
|| 266,898
|| 28.9
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.6
|| 24.3
| -3.8
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1995
|| 11,246,107
|| 322,856
|| 50,867
|| 271,989
|| 28.7
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.5
|| 24.2
| -3.0
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1996
|| 11,486,884
|| 335,194
|| 52,300
|| 282,894
|| 29.2
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.6
|| 24.6
| -3.2
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1997
|| 11,735,391
|| 326,174
|| 52,089
|| 274,085
|| 27.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.4
|| 23.4
| -1.8
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1998
|| 11,992,073
|| 316,779
|| 54,357
|| 262,422
|| 26.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.5
|| 21.9
| 0
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 1999
|| 12,257,190
|| 353,159
|| 55,921
|| 297,238
|| 28.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.6
|| 24.2
| -2.1
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2000
|| 12,531,210
| style="color:blue;"|356,065
|| 56,420
| style="color:blue;"|299,645
|| 28.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.5
|| 23.9
| -1.5
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2001
|| 12,814,503
|| 341,710
|| 55,214
|| 286,496
|| 26.7
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.3
|| 22.4
| 0.2
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2002
|| 13,093,527
|| 334,601
|| 55,549
|| 279,052
|| 25.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.2
|| 21.4
| 0.4
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2003
|| 13,319,575
|| 322,227
|| 53,521
|| 268,706
|| 24.2
| style="color:blue;"| 4.0
|| 20.2
| -2.9
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2004
|| 13,551,875
|| 312,210
|| 54,729
|| 257,481
|| 23.0
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.0
|| 19.0
| -1.6
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2005
|| 13,721,297
|| 305,302
|| 56,825
|| 248,477
|| 22.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 18.2
| -5.7
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2006
|| 13,964,606
|| 322,030
|| 57,940
|| 264,090
|| 23.1
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 19.0
| -1.3
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2007
|| 14,214,982
|| 322,494
|| 58,016
|| 264,478
|| 22.7
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 18.6
| -0.7
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2008
|| 14,472,881
|| 325,423
|| 60,023
|| 265,400
|| 22.5
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 18.4
| -0.3
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2009
|| 14,738,472
|| 332,859
|| 59,714
|| 273,145
|| 22.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 18.5
| -0.1
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2010
|| 15,012,228
|| 320,997
|| 61,681
|| 259,316
|| 21.4
|| 4.1
|| 17.3
| 1.3
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2011
|| 15,266,431
|| 329,061
|| 62,304
|| 266,757
|| 21.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 17.5
| -0.6
|| 2.74
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2012
|| 15,520,973
|| 319,127
|| 63,511
|| 255,616
|| 20.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 16.5
| 0.2
|| 2.68
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2013
|| 15,774,749
|| 294,441
|| 64,206
|| 230,235
|| 18.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 14.7
| 1.7
|| 2.63
|- style="text-align:right;"
||2014
|| 16,027,466
|| 289,488
|| 63,788
|| 225,700
|| 18.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 14.2
| 1.8
|| 2.59
|- style="text-align:right;"
||2015
|| 16,278,844
|| 289,561
|| 65,391
|| 222,158
|| 17.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.0
|| 13.8
| 1.9
|| 2.54
|- style="text-align:right;"
||2016
|| 16,528,730
|| 274,643
|| 68,304
|| 203,786
|| 17.0
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.1
|| 12.9
| 2.5
|| 2.50
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2017
|| 16,776,977
|| 291,397
|| 70,144
|| 221,353
|| 17.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.2
|| 13.2
| 1.8
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2018
|| 17,023,408
|| 293,139
|| 71,982
|| 221,157
|| 17.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.2
|| 13.1
| 1.5
||
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 2019
|| 17,267,986
|| 285,827
|| 74,439
|| 211,388
|| 16.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.3
|| 12.3
| 1.9
||
|-
| 2020
| 17,510,643
| 266,919
| style="color:red;"|117,200
| 149,719
| 15.2
| style="color:red;"|6.7
| 8.5
| 5.4
|
|-
| 2021
| 17,684,000
| 251,978
| 106,211
| style="color:red;"|145,767
| 14.2
| 5.9
| style="color:red;"|8.3
| 1.6
|
|-
| 2022
| 16,938,986 (c)
| 251,034
| 91,193
| 159,841
| 14.0
| 5.1
| 8.9
| -51.2
|
|-
| 2023
|
| style="color:red;"| 238,772
| 87,733
| 151,039
| style="color:red;"| 13.2
| 4.9
| style="color:red;"| 8.3
|
|
|-
| 2024
|
| style="color:red;"|
| 88,514
|
| style="color:red;"|
|
| style="color:red;"|
|
|
|}
(c) = Census results.
==Nationality, ethnicity, and race==
The Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the pluri-nationality of those who want to exercise their affiliation with their native ethnic groups. There are five major ethnic groups in Ecuador: Mestizo, European, Afroecuadorian, Amerindian, and Montubio. Mestizos constitute more than 85% of the population. Prior to this, a genetic study done in 2008 by the University of Brasília, estimated that Ecuadorian genetic admixture was 64.6% Amerindian, 31.0% European, and 4.4% African.
Ecuador's population descends from Spanish immigrants and South American Amerindians, admixed with descendants of black slaves who arrived to work on coastal plantations in the sixteenth century. The mix of these groups is described as Mestizo or Cholo. Censuses do not record ethnic affiliation, which in any event remains fluid; thus, estimates of the numbers of each group should be taken only as approximations. In the 1980s, Amerindians and Mestizos represented the bulk of the population, with each group accounting for roughly 40 percent of total population. Whites represented 10 to 15 percent and blacks the remaining 5 percent.
According to Kluck, writing in 1989, ethnic groups in Ecuador have had a traditional hierarchy of white, Mestizo, blacks, and then others. Her review depicts this hierarchy as a consequence of colonial attitudes and of the terminology of colonial legal distinctions. Spanish-born persons residing in the New World (peninsulares) were at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by criollos, born of two Spanish parents in the colonies. The 19th century usage of Mestizo was to denote a person whose parents were an Amerindian and a white; a Cholo had one Amerindian and one Mestizo parent. By the 20th century, Mestizo and Cholo were frequently used interchangeably. Kluck suggested that societal relationships, occupation, manners, and clothing all derived from ethnic affiliation.
Ecuador has a population of about 1,120,000 descendants from African people. The Afro-Ecuadorian culture is found primarily in the country's northwest coastal region. Africans form a majority (70%) in the province of Esmeraldas and also have an important concentration in the Valle del Chota in the Imbabura Province. They can be also found in important numbers in Quito and Guayaquil.
=== Indigenous ===
====Sierra Indigenous====
Sierra Indigenous had an estimated population of 1.5 to 2 million in the early 1980s and live in the intermontane valleys of the Andes. Prolonged contact with Hispanic culture, which dates back to the conquest, has had a homogenizing effect, reducing the variation among the indigenous Sierra tribes.
The Indigenous people of the Sierra are separated from whites and Mestizos by a caste-like gulf. They are marked as a disadvantaged group; to be an Indigenous person in Ecuador is to be stigmatized. Poverty rates are higher and literacy rates are lower among Indigenous than the general population. They enjoy limited participation in national institutions and are often excluded from social and economic opportunities available to more privileged groups. However, some groups of Indigenous, such as the Otavalo people, have increased their socioeconomic status to extent that they enjoy a higher standard of living than many other Indigenous groups in Ecuador and many Mestizos of their area.
Visible markers of ethnic affiliation, especially hairstyle, dress, and language, separate Indigenous from the rest of the populace. Indigenous wore more manufactured items by the late 1970s than previously; their clothing, nonetheless, was distinct from that of other rural inhabitants. Indigenous in communities relying extensively on wage labor sometimes assumed Western-style dress while still maintaining their Indigenous identity. Indigenous speak Spanish and, Quichua—a Quechua dialect—although most are bilingual, speaking Spanish as a second language with varying degrees of facility. By the late 1980s, some younger Indigenous no longer learned Quichua.
In the late 1970s, roughly 30,000 Quichua speakers and 15,000 Jívaros lived in Oriente Indigenous communities. Quichua speakers (sometimes referred to as the Yumbos) grew out of the detribalization of members of many different groups after the Spanish conquest. Subject to the influence of Quichua-speaking missionaries and traders, various elements of the Yumbos adopted the tongue as a lingua franca and gradually lost their previous languages and tribal origins. Yumbos were scattered throughout the Oriente, whereas the Jívaros—subdivided into the Shuar and the Achuar—were concentrated in southeastern Ecuador. Some also lived in northeastern Peru. Traditionally, both groups relied on migration to resolve intracommunity conflict and to limit the ecological damage to the tropical forest caused by slash-and-burn agriculture. but some may also practice their own indigenous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of the Amazon basin. Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population, and as a first or second language by more than 98%. Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.
==Language==
Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish, though many speak Amerindian languages such as Kichwa. People that identify as Mestizo, in general, speak Spanish as their native language. Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani). Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are those universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there are several idiosyncrasies.
==Religion==
According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics. Among those with a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic, 11.30% are Protestants, and 8.26% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).
In the rural parts of Ecuador, indigenous beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.
There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, indigenous religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Baháʼís. There are about 185,000 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and over 80,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country.
The "Jewish Community of Ecuador" (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 300 members. Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country towards the United States of America or Israel. The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club and a cemetery. It supports the "Albert Einstein School", where Jewish history, religion and Hebrew classes are offered. Since 2004, there has also been a Chabad house in Quito.
There are very small communities in Cuenca and Ambato. The "Comunidad de Culto Israelita" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the "Jewish Community of Ecuador". Jewish visitors to Ecuador can also take advantage of Jewish resources as they travel and keep kosher there, even in the Amazon Rainforest. The city has also synagogue of Messianic Judaism.
==Migration trends==
In recent decades, there has been a high rate of emigration due to the economic crisis that seriously affected the economy of the country in the 1990s, over 400,000 Ecuadorians left for Spain and Italy, and around 100,000 for the United Kingdom while several hundred thousand Ecuadorians live in the US, (500,000 by some estimates) mostly in the cities of the Northeastern corridor. Many other Ecuadorians have emigrated across Latin America, thousands have gone to Japan and Australia. One famous American of Ecuadorian descent is pop music vocalist Christina Aguilera.
In Ecuador there are about 100,000 Americans and over 30,000 European Union expatriates. They move to Ecuador for business opportunities and as cheaper place for retirement.
As a result of the political conflict in Colombia and of the criminal gangs that had appeared in the areas of power vacuum a constant flow of refugees and asylum seekers as well as economic migrants of Colombian origin had moved into Ecuadorian territory. Over the last decade at least 45,000 displaced people are now residents in Ecuador, the Ecuadorian government and international organizations are assisting them. According to the UNHCR 2009 report as many as 167,189 refugees and asylum seekers are temporary residents in Ecuador.
Following the migratory trend to Europe many of the jobs that those that left held in the country had been taken over by Peruvian economic migrants. Those jobs are mostly in agriculture and unskilled labor. There are no official statistics but some press reports estimate their number into the tens of thousands.
There is a diverse community of Middle Eastern Ecuadorians, numbering in the tens of thousands, mostly from Lebanese, Syrian and Palestinian descent; prominent in commerce and industry, and concentrated in the coastal cities of Guayaquil, Quevedo and Machala. They are well assimilated into the local culture and are referred commonly as "turcos" since the early migrants of these communities arrived with passports issued by the Ottoman Empire in the beginning of the century.
Ecuador is also home to communities of Spaniards, Italians, Germans, Portuguese, French, Britons and Greek-Ecuadorians. Ecuadorian Jews, who number around 450 are mostly of German or Italian descent. There are 225,000 English speakers and 112,000 German speakers in Ecuador of which the great majority reside in Quito, mainly all descendants of immigrants who arrived in the late 19th century and of retired emigrees that returned to their terroir. Most of the descendants of European immigrants strive for the preservation of their heritage. Therefore, some groups even have their own schools (e.g. German School Guayaquil and German School Quito), Liceé La Condamine (French Heritage), Alberto Einstein (Jewish Heritage) and The British School of Quito (Anglo-British), cultural and social organizations, churches and country clubs. Their contribution for the social, political and economical development of the country is immense, specially in relation to their percentage in the total population. Most of the families of European heritage belong to the Ecuadorian upper class and had married into the wealthiest families of the country.
There is also a small Asian-Ecuadorian (see Asian Latino) community estimated in a range from 2,500 to 25,000, mainly consists of those having any amount of Chinese Han descent, and possibly 10,000 being Japanese whose ancestors arrived as miners, farm hands and fishermen in the late 19th century. Guayaquil has an East Asian community, mostly Chinese including Taiwanese, and Japanese, as well as a Southeast Asian community, mostly Filipinos.
|
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9,338 |
Politics of Ecuador
|
The politics of Ecuador are multi-party. The central government polity is a quadrennially elected presidential, unicameral representative democracy. The President of Ecuador is head of state and head of the army on a multi-party system, and leads a cabinet with further executive power. Legislative power is not limited to the National Assembly, as it may to a lesser degree be exercised by the executive which consists of the President convening an appointed executive cabinet. Subsequent acts of the National Assembly are supreme over Executive Orders where sufficient votes have been cast by the legislators. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Ecuador is also considered a constitutional republic.
The Constitution of Ecuador provides for a four-year term of office for the President, Vice-President, and members of the National Assembly with concurrent elections. Presidents and legislators may be re-elected immediately. Citizens must be at least 16 years of age to vote: suffrage is universal and compulsory for literate persons aged 18 to 65 and optional for 16 and 17 years of age and other eligible voters.
==Political conditions==
Ecuador's political parties have historically been small, loose organizations that depended more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced extreme factionalism. However, a pattern has emerged in which administrations from the center-left alternate with those from the center-right. Although Ecuador's political elite is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives and to remove cabinet ministers.
Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on 10 August 1998. The new constitution strengthens the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to challenge cabinet ministers. Party discipline is traditionally weak, and routinely many deputies switch allegiance during each Congress. However, after the new Constitution took effect, the Congress passed a Code of Ethics which imposes penalties on members who defy their party leadership on key votes.
Beginning with the 1996 election, the more indigenous, less Spanish-rooted, ethnic groups abandoned their traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population has established itself as a significant force in Ecuadorian politics, as shown by the selection of indigenous representative Nina Pacari, who led the indigenous political party, Pachakutik, as Second Vice-President of the 1998 Congress.
==Judicial branch==
=== The former Supreme Court of Ecuador ===
New justices of the Supreme Court of Ecuador were elected by the sitting members of the court. A bare majority of Congress, acting in a special session called by former President Lucio Gutiérrez in December 2004, ousted 27 of the 31 justices and replaced them with new members chosen by Congress; notwithstanding, the lack of any provisions permitting impeachment of Supreme Court justices by Congress and the specific provisions giving the Court the power to select new members. Earlier, in November 2004, Congress replaced the majority of judges on the country's Electoral Court and Constitutional Court by a similar process.
==== List of presidents ====
=== Reorganization of Court (2008) ===
After the adoption of a new Constitution in 2008, the judicial branch of the country was completely renewed to provide a cooperative leadership by having a judicial and an administrative head. As such, the bodies of Ecuador's judicial branch now consisted of the National Court of Justice, provincial courts (created by the National Court), tribunals and judges, National Council of the Judicature, Public Defendants' Office, and State Attorneys' Office. The 2008 Constitution also led to the creation of the Constitutional Court of Ecuador.
==== National Court of Justice ====
The National Court of Justice seats 21 judges elected for a period of 9 years. They are elected by the Judiciary Council based on a merits contest held by that office. They are the final stage of any judicial process serving as a Court of Cassation and create binding precedent based on Triple Reiterative Rulings from the Chambers of the Court. The President of the Court is elected among the members of the Court for a Period of three years, representing the Judicial Branch before the State.
===== List of presidents =====
==== Judiciary Council ====
The administrative branch of the judicial power consists of the Judiciary Council. The Council is formed by 9 Vocals who are elected by the Branch of Transparency and Social Control, which is formed by the Control Authorities of the State. The Vocals are elected also by a merits contest and it shall be formed by six experts in law and 3 experts in management, economics and other related areas. However, after the National Referendum that took place on 5 May 2011 led to the passing of a proposition impulsed by the government, the Judiciary Council changed its formation by making a constitutional amendment. Currently, a Tri-Party Commission is serving as a Transitional Council with delegates from the Legislative, Executive and Transparency Branch, in order to reform the broken judicial system of the country.
=== Constitutional Court of Ecuador ===
The Constitutional Court of Ecuador does not exercise legal revision, but rather constitutional control of situations where constitutional rights are violated. Also they are the sole body in the State to interpret what the Constitution says.
==== List of presidents ====
As of 2019, the court has the following members:
Hernán Salgado Pesántes
Carmen Corral
Agustín Grijalva
Teresa Nuques
Enrique Herrera
Karla Andrade
Ramiro Ávila
Daniela Salazar
Alí Lozada
==Executive branch==
=== Structure ===
The executive branch includes 28 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors, aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are 20 seven-member congressional committees.
=== Presidency ===
The President and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a four-year term.
Former Vice-President Alfredo Palacio assumed the presidency on 20 April 2005 after Congress removed Lucio Gutiérrez amid escalating street protests precipitated by growing criticism of Gutiérrez's Supreme Court appointments.
==== Presidency of Rafael Correa ====
A presidential election was held on 15 October and 26 November 2006. Rafael Correa defeated Álvaro Noboa in a run-off election, or second and final round. Correa won with 56.8% of the vote. There was an attempted coup against President Rafael Correa in 2010. The Economist described Correa as "a left-wing populist", while The Washington Post has characterized Correa's ideological approach as being "economically populist, socially conservative, [and] quasi-authoritarian".
Rafael Correa's three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by Lenín Moreno's four years as president (2017–21).
==== Current officeholders ====
The 11 April 2021 election run-off vote ended in a win for conservative former banker, Guillermo Lasso, taking 52.4% of the vote compared to 47.6% of left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, supported by exiled former president, Rafael Correa. Previously, President-elect Lasso finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections. On 24 May 2021, Guillermo Lasso was sworn in as the new President of Ecuador, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years.
On 15 October 2023, center-right candidate Daniel Noboa won the run-off of the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González. On 23 November 2023, Daniel Noboa was sworn in as Ecuador’s new president. In April 2025, President Daniel Noboa won the run-off round of Ecuador's presidential election, meaning he will now serve a full four-year term.
|President
|Guillermo Lasso
|Creating Opportunities
|24 May 2021
|-
|Vice President
|Alfredo Borrero
|Creating Opportunities
|24 May 2021
|}
==Legislative branch==
Ecuador has a unicameral National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional in Spanish), and it has 137 primary (seat-holding) members (all of whom are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms). It is based on provincial constituencies, but it also has members coming from a national list and it has members representing the emigrant community.
===History===
On 29 November 2007, the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly dismissed Congress on charges of corruption and then assumed legislative powers for itself. The Constituent Assembly then proposed a new National Assembly, which is the current institution.
==Political parties and elections==
==Administrative divisions==
Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces: Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Esmeraldas, Galápagos Islands, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Ríos, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Pichincha, Santa Elena, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Sucumbíos, Tungurahua, Zamora-Chinchipe
Santa Elena Province.
==Legal system==
Ecuador's legal system is based on the civil law system. Ecuador recently accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
==International organization participation==
Ecuador or Ecuadorian organizations participate in the following international organizations:
Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)
Andean Community of Nations (CAN)
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Group of Eleven (G-11), Group of 77 (G-77)
Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
International Criminal Court (ICC)
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
International Red Cross
International Development Association (IDA)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
IMF
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat)
Interpol
IOC
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)
Latin American Economic System (LAES)
Latin American Integration Association (LAIA)
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
OAS
Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL)
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), RG
UNASUR (headquarters)
United Nations
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
World Tourism Organization (WToO)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
|
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"World Federation of Trade Unions",
"World Health Organization",
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"World Bank",
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"Food and Agriculture Organization",
"International Fund for Agricultural Development",
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"Bolívar Province, Ecuador",
"El Oro Province",
"United Nations",
"International Trade Union Confederation",
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"2025 Ecuadorian general election",
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"Pastaza Province, Ecuador",
"The Economist",
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"International Monetary Fund",
"María Paulina Aguirre",
"Interpol (organization)",
"Rio Group",
"The Washington Post",
"multi-party system",
"representative democracy",
"International Court of Justice",
"Two-round system",
"Creating Opportunities",
"Loja (province)",
"Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas",
"Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons",
"Non-Aligned Movement",
"Frente Único de Lucha Campesina",
"Rosana Alvarado",
"elite",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Universal Postal Union",
"Patricio Pazmiño Freire",
"Lenín Moreno",
"head of state",
"Morona-Santiago",
"International Telecommunications Satellite Organization",
"judiciary"
] |
9,339 |
Economy of Ecuador
|
|gini = 45.4 (2018)
|hdi =
|occupations = {{plainlist|
agriculture: 26.1%
industry: 18.4%
services: 55.5%
(2017 est.)
|industries = petroleum, food processing, textiles, wood products, chemicals
|edbr = 129th (medium, 2020)
|exports = $19.3 billion (2017)
|export-goods = petroleum, bananas, cut flowers, shrimp, cacao, coffee, wood, fish
|export-partners =
The economy of Ecuador is the eighth largest in Latin America and the 69th largest in the world by total GDP. In 2017, remittances constituted 2.7% of Ecuador's GDP. The total trade amounted to 42% of the Ecuador's GDP in 2017.
The country is substantially dependent on its petroleum resources. In 2017, oil accounted for about one-third of public-sector revenue and 32% of export earnings. When Ecuador was part of OPEC, it was one of the smallest members and produced about 531,300 barrels per day of petroleum in 2017. It is the world's largest exporter of bananas ($3.38 billion in 2017) and a major exporter of shrimp ($3.06 billion in 2017). Exports of non-traditional products such as cut flowers ($846 million in 2017) and canned fish ($1.18 billion in 2017) have grown in recent years. From 2015 until 2018, GDP growth averaged just 0.6%. Ecuador's ex-president, Lenín Moreno, launched a radical transformation of Ecuador's economy after taking office in May 2017. The aim was to increase the private sector's weight, in particular the oil industry.
==Agriculture==
Ecuador is one of the 10 largest producers in the world of banana, cocoa and palm oil.
In 2018, the country produced 7.5 million tons of sugarcane, 6.5 million tons of banana (6th largest producer in the world), 2.7 million tons of palm oil (6th largest producer in the world), 1.3 million tons of maize, 1.3 million tons of rice, 269 thousand tons of potato, 235 thousand tons of cocoa (7th largest producer in the world), 149 thousand tons of pineapple, 103 thousand tons of orange, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
== Mining ==
In 2019, the country had an annual production of about 1 ton of antimony (14th largest producer in the world).
In 2006, Ecuador had an annual production of about 5.3 tonnes of gold, being the 34th largest producer in the world at the time. Ecuador produced 8.6 tons of gold in 2013, which was the absolute record between 2006 and 2017. In 2017, production was 7.3 tons.
In terms of silver production, Ecuador produced 1 ton in 2017, which is the country's usual average.
In 2019, in the north of Ecuador, a large deposit of gold, silver and copper was discovered.
== Industries ==
Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance. Since the late '60s, the exploitation of oil increased production and reserves are estimated at 4.036 million barrels
In the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (the largest exporter of bananas in the world), cut flowers, cacao, coffee, shrimp, wood, and fish. It is also significant in shrimp production, sugar cane, rice, cotton, corn, palm and coffee. The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves. Pines and cedars are planted in the region of the Sierra, walnuts and rosemary, and balsa wood, on Guayas River Basin.
Ecuador's tobacco is prized in the cigar industry due to the prolonged cloud cover and rich volcanic soil creating ideal growing conditions, especially for shade tobacco and Ecuadorian Sumatra Tobacco cigar wrapper leaves; exports topped $70M in 2018.
Oil Industry in Ecuador
Ecuador's oil industry is a cornerstone of its economy, contributing significantly to export earnings and government revenues. As of 2023, the country holds approximately 8.3 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves . In 2022, crude oil accounted for about 27% of Ecuador's total export value, with major export destinations including Latin America, North America, and Asia.
The state-owned company Petroecuador plays a pivotal role in the oil sector, often operating in partnership with private and foreign corporations . Recent initiatives aim to boost oil production through foreign investments, with plans to attract approximately $42 billion in the oil sector by 2029 .
However, oil extraction has raised environmental and social concerns, particularly in the Amazon region. In 2023, a national referendum led to the cessation of oil drilling in Block 43 within Yasuni National Park, a biodiverse area home to Indigenous communities.
Agricultural Sector in Ecuador
Agriculture remains a vital component of Ecuador's economy, accounting for a significant portion of exports. The country is the world's largest exporter of bananas, with exports valued at approximately $2 billion . Other major agricultural exports include shrimp, cacao, coffee, and cut flowers. In 2020, agricultural products represented about 41.1% of Ecuador's total export.
Ecuador's diverse climate and fertile soil enable the cultivation of various crops, including rice, sugar cane, cotton, corn, and palm. The country's forestry resources, such as eucalyptus, mangroves, pine, cedar, and balsa wood, also contribute to its export economy.
The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably. This city is also the largest business center of the country. Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market. Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially. These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more. Minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca.
The dairy industry is represented by companies such as Tonicorp, which is owned by the Coca Cola Company.
== Electricity ==
As of December 2022, the generation and transmission infrastructure of Ecuador included:
total installed generation capacity of 8,864 megawatts (MW) that included
5,425 MW of renewable energy generation with
about 5200 MW of hydropower (in Ecuador, considered as renewable);
National Interconnection System (SNI) that was able to use 7,472 MW of the total capacity above (including 4375 MW from renewable sources). The remaining 1,390 MW are not part of the countrywide grid;
National Transmission System (SNT) with line voltages 500 kilovolt (kV), 230 kV and 138 kV, 4,382 km of single-circuit lines and 2,462 km of double-circuit lines, including
interconnection with Colombia (two 230 kV Jamondino-Pomasqui double-circuit lines and a 138 kV Tulcán-Panamericana single-circuit line);
interconnection with Peru (a 230 kV Machala-Zorritos double-circuit line).
Distribution is provided through distribution companies with total billing of 2 billion US dollars and electricity losses of 13.25%. As of December 2022, they managed:
370 substations with total capacity of 8,545 megavolt-amperes (MVA)
67 sectioning substations;
5,730 km of subtransmission lines;
111,276 km of medium voltage lines;
105,469 km of low voltage lines
360,000 distribution transformers with a total capacity of 14,100 MVA;
5.56 million electrical meters (coverage of 97.4%).
The peak demand on the SNI grid occurs in April (4,388 MW in 2022). The total generation in 2022 was 33 terawatt-hours (TWh) with 87% delivered by SNI and the rest by provider unincorporated into the grid. The breakdown by the power source at the SNI was as follows:
hydroelectric 24.6 TWh (85.3%);
fossil fuel 3.8 TWh (13%);
biomass 0.35 TWh (1.2%);
solar photovoltaic, biogas, wind energy less than 1% combined.
The amount of reported unavailable generation capacity varied between 1,170 and 1,610 GW in 2019-2022, approximately evenly split between hydro and thermal power stations. The plan of r2023-2032 called for major expansion of the generation capacity, primarily renewable energy (additional 6,300 MW), but with 700 MW of "firm" (thermal) capacity scheduled to come on-line in 2024-2025. This "firm" generation was intended for the electric grid security and "quality of supply".
During the 2023-2024 Ecuador electricity crisis, in the fall of 2024, the amount of thermal generation was significantly lower than the numbers above would suggest. For example, according to Miguel Calahorrano, an ex-minister of electricity and renewable energy, only Trinitaria (125 MW), Machala Gas (125 MW), G. Zevallos (146 MW) and Jaramijó (140 MW) were operating at high power until October 15, 2024.
==Sciences and research==
Ecuador was placed in 96th position of innovation in technology in a 2013 World Economic Forum study. Ecuador was ranked 91st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 up from 99th in 2020. The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence pioneer, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito. Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Labandera, who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar (1898–1950), a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas (1880–1961), a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy, reputed to have many wives.
The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development.
The scientific production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics, statistics, and partial differential equations in mathematics. In the case of engineering fields, the majority of scientific production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions: Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral – ESPOL, Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas – ESPE, and Escuela Politécnica Nacional EPN. The Center for Research and Technology Development in Ecuador is an autonomous center for research and technology development funded by Senecyt.
However, according to Nature, the multidisciplinary scientific journal, the top 10 institutions that carry the most outstanding scientific contributions are: Yachay Tech University (Yachay Tech), Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN), and Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ).
==Trade==
The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost 390 million dollars for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about 425 million compared to 2006. This circumstance was due to the fact that imports grew faster than exports. The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative amounting to 2.842 million dollars.. The trade balance was positive in 2019 and 2020 with 2.05 billion dollars and 6.4 billion dollars. In 2016, the trade balance was positive (608 million dollars) but negative in 2017 (-723 million dollars) and 2018 (1.41 billion dollars). The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia and Asia is negative.
Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur. It also belongs to the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean (CAF) and other multilateral agencies. In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country. The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank, the National Finance Corporation, the Ecuadorian Housing Bank (BEV) and the Ecuadorian Educational Loans and Grants.
== Economic history ==
Deteriorating economic performance in 1997–98 culminated in a severe financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997–98, and international emerging market instability in 1997–98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in a 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2%, and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999.
On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the 2000 Ecuadorean coup d'état which saw Mahuad's removal from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency.
US Dollar has been the only official currency of Ecuador since the year 2000.
The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to convert to the dollar as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy, successfully completing the transition from sucres to dollars in 2001. Following the completion of a one-year stand-by program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in December 2001, Ecuador successfully negotiated a new $205 million stand-by agreement with the IMF in March 2003.
Buoyed by higher oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000–01, with GDP rising 2.3% in 2000 and 5.4% in 2001. GDP growth leveled off to 2.7% in 2002. Inflation fell from an annual rate of 96.1% in 2000 to an annual rate of 37.7% in 2001; 12.6% for 2002.
The completion of the second Transandean Oil Pipeline (OCP in Spanish) in 2003 enabled Ecuador to expand oil exports. The OCP will double Ecuador's oil transport capacity.
Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% per year between 2000 and 2006. In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%. GDP doubled between 1999 and 2007, reaching 65,490 million dollars according to BCE.
Inflation rate up to January 2008 was located about 1.14%, the highest recorded in the last year, according to Government. The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008, however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent.
Between 2006 and 2009, the government increased spending on social welfare and education from 2.6% to 5.2% of its GDP. Starting in 2007, when its economy was surpassed by the economic crisis, Ecuador was subject to a number of economic policy reforms by the government that have helped steer the Ecuadorian economy to a sustained, substantial, and focused achievement of financial stability and consistent social policy.
On December 12, 2008, President Rafael Correa announced that Ecuador would not pay $30.6m in interest to lenders of a $510m loan, claiming that they were monsters. In addition it claimed that $3.8bn in foreign debt negotiated by previous administrations was illegitimate because it was authorized without executive decree. Showing signs of recovery in 2010, the economy rebounded and grew by 2.8%. After growth of 7.4% in 2011, Ecuador's growth averaged 4.5% from 2012 to 2014.
== Poverty and inequality ==
, an estimated 9 million Ecuadorians have an economic occupation and about 1.01 million inhabitants are in unemployment condition.
In 1998, 10% of the richest population had 42.5% of income, while 10% of the poor had only 0.6% of income. The rates of poverty were higher for populations of indigenous, afro-descendents, and rural sectors. During the same year, 7.6% of health spending went to the 20% of the poor, while 20% of the rich population received 38.1% of this expenditure. The extreme poverty rate has declined significantly between 1999 and 2010. In 2001 it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population. This is explained largely by emigration and economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction . Poverty rates were higher for indigenous peoples, Afro-descendants and rural areas, reaching 44% of the Native ancestry population.
==Infrastructure development==
The industrial sector has had enormous difficulty to emerge significantly. The industrial sector's main problem is the deficit of energy, which the current government has tackled with the improvement of performance on existing hydro plants, and the creation of new ones. Such projects included negotiation of the Coca-Codo hydroplant. Incentives of financing, tributary incentives, tariffs, and others will be implemented, that is intended to benefit areas of tourism, food processing, renewable and alternative energy sources, bioenergies, pharmaceutical and chemical products, biochemical and environmental biomedecine, services, automotive metallurgical industry, footwear, and automotive parts and pieces, among others.
==Statistics==
=== Main economic indicators ===
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025). Inflation below 5% is in green.
|
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"Financial Times",
"Zorritos",
"Coca Cola Company",
"medium voltage",
"Lenín Moreno",
"rice"
] |
9,340 |
Telecommunications in Ecuador
|
Telecommunications in Ecuador include telephone, radio, television, and the Internet.
Ecuador's state regulatory agency is the National Telecommunications Council (CONATEL), which is part of the Telecommunications Ministry (MINTEL).
==Telephones==
Fixed lines: 2.2 million lines, 56th in the world; 15 per 100 persons (2011).
Mobile cellular: 15.3 million subscribers, 55th in the world; 100 per 100 persons (2011).
Fixed broadband: 825,732 subscribers, 59th in the world; 5.4 of population, 102nd in the world (2012).
Mobile broadband: 3.4 million subscribers, 48th in the world; 22.2% of population, 67th in the world (2012).
Internet country code: .ec
Standard defamation laws apply to content posted online. Attempts to censor statements made in times of heightened political sensitivity have been reported, as have alleged instances of censorship via the overly broad application of copyright to content critical of the government. Lawsuits have been filed against digital news sites for comments critical of the government. To use the services provided by cybercafes, the national secretary of telecommunications, SENATEL, requires that users register with the following information: full name, phone number, passport number, voting certificate number, email address, and home address.
Self-censorship of comments critical of the government is encouraged. In January 2013, for example, President Correa called for the National Secretary of Intelligence (SENAIN) to investigate two Twitter users who had published disparaging comments about him, an announcement which sent a warning to others not to post comments critical of the president. After receiving criticism from the government, news site La Hora indefinitely suspended the reader comments section on its website. At the president's request, the comments section was shut down completely. Print and digital news outlet El Comercio faced similar pressure related to its readers' comments and the comments section was ultimately disabled after President Correa sent a letter of complaint. While there are no official constraints on organizing protests over the Internet, warnings from the president stating that the act of protesting will be interpreted as "an attempt to destabilize the government" have undoubtedly discouraged some from organizing and participating in protests.
Ecuador's new "Organic Law on Communications" was passed in June 2013. The law recognizes a right to communication. Media companies are required to collect and store user information. "Media lynching", which appears to extend to any accusation of corruption or investigation of a public official—even those that are supported with evidence, is prohibited. Websites bear "ultimate responsibility" for all content they host, including content authored by third parties. The law creates a new media regulator to prohibit the dissemination of "unbalanced" information and bans non-degreed journalists from publishing, effectively outlawing much investigative reporting and citizen journalism. Human rights organizations fear that the new law will stifle critical voices in the media, due to its vague wording, arbitrary sanctions, and the threat of civil and criminal penalties.
|
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"Telcel",
"Freedom House",
".ec",
"GSM",
"La Hora",
"WP:SDNONE",
"International Telecommunication Union",
"Telefónica",
"ETAPA",
"HCJB"
] |
9,341 |
Transport in Ecuador
|
Transportation in Ecuador is the transport infrastructure networks in Ecuador and those connecting the country with other countries. Transportation in Ecuador include aviation, highways, pipelines, ports and harbors, railways and waterways. Apart from transporting passengers, the country is a relatively small exporter of fruits and vegetables such as banana, papayas and pineapples.
==Aviation==
===National airlines===
Avianca
LATAM Airlines
===Airports===
345 (2025)
====Airports (paved)====
total: 317 (2025)
over 3,047 m: 3 (2010)
2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 (2010)
1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 (2010)
914 to 1,523 m: 29 (2010)
under 914 m: 43 (2010)
====Airports (unpaved)====
total: 261
914 to 1,523 m:33
under 914 m:228
===Heliports===
28 (2025)
==Highways==
total:
paved:
unpaved: (2004 est.)
The Sierra Region still plays an important role in transportation throughout the country. The Pan-American Highway crosses it from north to south. Ecuador has managed to update some roads into four-lane freeways:
Quito – Alpichacas. Length: 33 km.
Guayaquil ring-road. Length: 46 km.
Guayaquil – Taura. Length: 30 km.
Guayaquil – Cerro Blanco. Length: 27 km.
Machala – Pasaje. Length: 23 km.
===Bus transport===
Ecuador has a variety of bus services.
The general types of service include:
luxury buses — autobús de lujo, which travel the main routes between cities.
standard buses — these travel more local routes and will stop for any passengers that hails them.
==Pipelines==
485 km extra heavy crude,
123 km gas,
2,131 km oil,
1,526 km refined products (2025)
==Ports and harbors==
Ecuador has:
6 total ports (2024)
0 large
0 medium
2 small
4 very small
5 ports with oil terminals
key ports: Esmeraldas, Guayaquil, La Libertad, Manta, Puerto Bolivar, Puerto Maritimo de Guayaquil
=== Pacific Ocean ===
Esmeraldas
Guayaquil, La Libertad
Manta
Puerto Bolívar
San Lorenzo
===Merchant marine===
total: 31 ships ( or over) totaling /
ships by type: (2006 est.)
Chemical tanker 1
gas carrying tanker 1
Passenger ships 7
Petroleum tankers 21
Specialized tanker 1
Foreign-owned: 2
Norway 1
Paraguay 1
Registered in other countries 1
Georgia 1
==Railways==
Total:
812 km (single track)
Narrow gauge:
812 km of gauge.
All services ceased in 2020.
=== Proposals ===
There is a proposed rail connection with Colombia. On 5 July 2008, a meeting took place between Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador regarding a railway for freight and passengers to link the three countries, and linking the Pacific with the Atlantic also. There is no railway service to Peru.
=== Metro services ===
In 2020, the Cuenca Tramway (Tranvía Cuenca), the first modern rail transit line in Ecuador, opened for service.
The Quito Metro initiated its commercial operations on 1 December 2023.
==Waterways==
|
[
"bus",
"Pan-American Highway",
"Puerto Bolívar",
"LATAM Ecuador",
"Guayaquil",
"Chiva bus",
"Manta, Ecuador",
"Machala",
"San Lorenzo, Ecuador",
"Petroleum tanker",
"Avianca Ecuador",
"Transport in Colombia",
"Narrow-gauge railway",
"pickup truck",
"La Libertad, Guayas",
"Ecuador",
"Quito",
"Transport in Peru",
"minibus",
"Specialized tanker",
"LNG carrier",
"truck",
"Trolleybuses in Quito",
"Chemical tanker",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Esmeraldas, Ecuador",
"Cuenca Tramway",
"Quito Metro",
"wooden bench",
"Transport in Venezuela",
"Share taxi"
] |
9,342 |
Armed Forces of Ecuador
|
{{Infobox national military
| name = Ecuadorian Armed Forces
| native_name =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| image2 =
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| motto =
| founded = 1830
| current_form = 2000
| disbanded =
| branches = Ecuadorian Army Ecuadorian Air Force Ecuadorian Navy
| headquarters = Ministry of National Defence, Quito
| flying_hours =
| website =
| commander-in-chief = Daniel Noboa
| commander-in-chief_title = President
| chief minister =
| chief minister_title =
| minister = Giancarlo Loffredo Rendón
| minister_title = Minister of National Defence
| commander = Jaime Vela Erazo
| commander_title = Chief of the Armed Forces
| age = 18
| conscription = Suspended
| ranked =
| reserve = 118,000
| percent_GDP = 2.74% (FY10)
==Mission==
The armed forces are part of the public forces and have the stated mission of the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory. It also involves participation in the social and economic development of the country and the provision of assistance in the maintenance of internal order. Tasks include fighting organised crime, anti-narcotic operations and illegal immigration. Overseas territories include also the Pedro Vicente Maldonado Naval Biological Research Station in the Antarctic.
==Geopolitical situation==
Ecuador shares a border with Peru. Although marked by many conflicts, relations have improved since the signing of a renewed Peace Treaty in 1998. However, along the -long border with its neighbour Colombia, relations have been strained mainly due to a cross-border raid by Colombian forces on FARC guerrillas. The Armed Forces had logistical shortcomings and were caught off-guard. Their radar did not work, aviation was virtually non-existent, and communications were not fully operational. A diplomatic crisis followed in 2008 which some attribute partially to the need for better equipment as well as a new national defence doctrine.
The new administration at the Defence Ministry launched a deep restructuring program under the name of PATRIA I. It involves the modernisation of military equipment, improvement of planning, and operations within the Ecuadorian territory. PATRIA I was planned to be completed by 2011. In 2009, the spending budget was increased by 25% and totaled $920 million.
== History ==
Ecuador's military history dates far back to its first attempt to secure freedom from Spain in 1811. In 1822 Ecuadorian troops, alongside other rebel forces, scored a decisive victory over the Spanish royalist army at the Battle of Pichincha. Although assisted by Peruvian troops, it would fight these only a few years later in 1828, as a member of the Confederation of Gran Colombia. The troops of Gran Colombia (Less than half of its troops were Ecuadorians), is defeated in the Battle of Punta Malpelo and the combat of crosses, where the Peruvian navy blocks Guayaquil. Then the great Colombians in the land field defeat a division of Peruvian outpost, in the battle of Tarqui. This battle does not define war after the signing of the Giron agreement where it is indicated that it remains in a status quo before bellum. Eventually, Civil War would plunge the country and the army into disorder. In 1941 the Ecuadorian Military found itself weak and disorganized; the by now long-lasting territorial dispute with Peru escalated into a major conflict, the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941. A much larger and better equipped Peruvian force quickly overwhelmed the Ecuadorian forces, driving them back and invading the Ecuadorian territory. Ecuador had no choice but to accept Peru's territorial claims and signed Peace treaty in 1942. However, the treaty of 1942 failed to settle the border dispute and occasional clashes occurred in a then still non-demarcated border area between the nations. These clashes flared into another outbreak of serious fighting in January 1981 called the Paquisha War where Ecuadorian troops infiltrated into Peruvian territory are expelled by the Peruvian army; similar incidents occurred in 1983 and again in 1984. The last military conflict with Peru occurred in 1995, during the Cenepa War, in which both sides claimed to be fighting inside their own territory until the signing of a ceasefire and the eventual separation of forces. The longest-running source of armed international conflict in the Western Hemisphere had ended.
===Local engagements===
Ecuadorian War of Independence in 1820
Battle of Pichincha in 1822
Gran Colombia–Peru War in 1829
Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)
Battle of Guayaquil in 1860
Ecuadorian-Colombian War in 1863
Chincha Islands War in 1864
Ecuadorian–Peruvian War in 1941
Paquisha War in 1981
Cenepa War in 1995
2024 conflict in Ecuador in 2024
===UN peacekeeping operations ===
The Ecuadorian Armed Forces has provided military observers and troops to the United Nations since 1948. In November 2003, an Ecuadorian United Nations Training Centre was established under the name of: (La Unidad Escuela de Misiones de Paz "Ecuador"). In 2009, Ecuador was deploying over 90 peacekeepers around the globe.
1948 UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in Pakistan.
1948 UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India.
1958 UNOGIL Peacekeeping mission in Lebanon.
1961 ONUC Peacekeeping Force in Congo.
1965 DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic.
1990 ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America, Nicaragua.
1991 ONUSAL United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador.
1994 MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala.
2003 UNMIL United Nations Observer Group in Liberia.
2004 UNOCI Peacekeeping mission in Ivory Coast.
2004 MINUSTAH, United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.
2005 UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan.
2007 UNMIN United Nations Mission in Nepal.
2008 MINURCAT United Nations Mission in Chad.
2008 MINURCAT Part of a Peacebuilding Commission in the Central African Republic.
2010 UNAMID United Nations Mission and the African Union in Darfur.
==Organization==
The armed forces of Ecuador are under the authority of the President of the Republic through the Ministry of Defence, coordinated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces.
==Command structure==
The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces (Comandante en Jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas) is the President of the Republic. He exercises the political leadership of security and national defence and counts on the advice of the National Security Council.
The National Security Council (El Consejo de Seguridad Nacional) or N.S.C. is the superior body responsible for the national defence, in charge of issuing the strategic concept of national security, which in turn constitutes the essential instrument to start the planning and decision-making process. It is chaired by the President of the Republic, which is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. It includes the Presidents of the National Congress and the Supreme Court of Justice; the ministers in charge of National Defence, Government and Police, Foreign Affairs, and Economy and Finance; the Chief of the Joint Command, and the Chiefs of the three branches of the Armed Forces. It monitors the fulfillment of the defence policies and the strategic plans elaborated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces, submitted by the Ministry of National Defence. The N.S.C. constitutes the highest ranking monitoring and crisis management body.
The Ministry of Defense (Ministerio de la Defensa National), is the administrative body of the national defence. The Coordinating Minister of Internal and External Security accords the policies and actions that will be adopted by the following institutions as regards internal and external security: the Ministry of Government and Police, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defence, and the Secretariat General for the Public administration.
The Joint Armed Forces Command (El Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas), is the highest planning, preparation and strategic body of military operations. It advises on national defence and is conformed by the Chief of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces and the Commanders of all three branches of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces: The Army, Navy and the Air Force.
==Branches==
=== Joint Command ===
The command is in charge of the administration and coordination of the three military branches. The objectives of the command are to integrate the military branches with joint capabilities and interoperability, to address changes and new scenarios, which guarantee the peace, security, and well-being of the nation.
Through military strategic guidelines and guidelines, in the innovation, updating, development and implementation of the generation of military technology, through strategic study in the development of military capabilities, verification of the optimal installed military capacity, implementation of military technological development, in order to promote military operational growth to be the effective and efficient decisive force.
=== Army ===
The Ecuadorian Army (Ejército Ecuatoriano) is the land component of the Armed Forces. Its
25,650
15 Hino trucks (donated by the USA)
2 4x4 vehicles (donated by Venezuela)
2 Mil Mi-17 helicopters
107 Humvee
=== Air Force ===
The present day Ecuadorian Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Ecuatoriana) saw combat action several times in 1981 and 1995 when it gained valuable experiences against the Peruvian Air Force. The FAE has a personnel strength of 6,200 Super Tucano light combat aircraft
6 Mirage 5 (donated by Venezuela)
12 Cheetah supersonic fighter aircraft
8 HAL Dhruv helicopters from India
3D LANZA Radar low altitude radars
3 EADS CASA C-295 Tactical military transport aircraft.
=== Navy ===
The present-day Ecuadorian Navy or (Armada del Ecuador) is a compact, efficient, and well-balanced force. However, limited funds hinder any major acquisitions and the chances of maintaining a strong force within the Pacific Ocean. Since the end of 2009, the Navy's structure became simplified. The Ecuadorian Naval Zone became one and measures, of the Pacific Coast and of the Pacific Ocean, (including the Galápagos Islands). Most sea-going assets are based at Guayaquil. The Navy focuses mainly on border control and illegal immigration. The Navy operates around 20 major vessels (including two submarines) and 25 aircraft. It has a personnel strength of 9,400.
4 Searcher MK II unmanned aerial vehicles
=== Cyber-Defense Operations Command ===
It is a body responsible for the planning and execution of actions related to cyberdefense in networks and information and telecommunications systems or others that it may have entrusted to, as well as contributing to the appropriate response in cyberspace to threats or aggressions that may affect National Defense, guaranteeing and providing security to strategic entities that are managed by computer systems.
He is prepared to counter cyberattacks, cyberwarfare and espionage to "critical entities" that could be attacked "from anywhere in the world."
== Education ==
The training of army, navy and air force officers is the function of the Eloy Alfaro Military Higher School, the Rafael Morán Valverde Naval Higher School and the Cosme Rennella Barbatto Military Higher School, respectively.
== Equipment sources ==
Historically, Ecuador depended on a wide variety of foreign suppliers for virtually all of its equipment needs. Only in the 1980s did it begin to develop a modest domestic arms industry as the Directorate of Army Industries manufactured rifle ammunition, uniforms, boots, and other items.
In the 1960s and 1970s, France became a leading supplier and delivered AMX-13 tanks and various aircraft. Ecuador also purchased Type 209 submarines and Lürssen-Seawolf TNC 45 patrol boats from West Germany. Various types of infantry weapons were acquired from Belgium.
Ecuador became a substantial customer for Israeli arms in the 1970s, purchasing Arava aircraft, Gabriel missiles for naval patrol craft, and Uzi submachine guns. Under technical assistance contracts, Israel serviced Israeli planes in the Ecuadorian Air Force inventory as well as Boeing civilian aircraft flown by TAME and Ecuatoriana Airlines. Ecuador also reportedly employed Israeli security specialists as consultants in the fight against terrorism. In 1976 Ecuador became the first foreign country to order the Kfir, an advanced jet fighter equipped with the General Electric J-79 engine produced in Israel under license. The transaction, which required United States government approval because of the engine technology, was rejected by the administration of President Jimmy Carter in order to discourage the proliferation of sophisticated military equipment in the Third World. The action caused an uproar in Israel where the sale was regarded as an important breakthrough in Israel's efforts to develop international markets for the Kfir. In 1981, after the inauguration of President Ronald Reagan, Washington removed its objection to the sale. Although the contract called for the purchase of 12 Kfirs and an option to purchase an additional 12, Ecuador acquired only the original group, at a price estimated at US$196 million.
Ecuador became a relatively heavy importer of arms in the late 1970s and early 1980s, averaging US$150 million annually and reaching a peak of US$280 million in 1982. These imports declined sharply to an average of US$50 million annually between 1985 and 1987, presumably as a result of a dramatic reduction in oil revenues and the precipitous drop in the value of the sucre, which made imported arms extremely expensive. Between 1983 and 1987, Ecuador imported an estimated US$460 million of arms, primarily from Italy, France, the United States, and Britain. In 1995, during the Cenepa War against Peru, Argentina gave to Ecuador 6,500 tons of rifles, cannons, anti-tank rockets, and ammunition in a controversial move.
Recent times saw changes in Ecuador's foreign policy, as it decided to look for alternative weapon suppliers. These included its long-term allies Chile, which since 2008 has provided Leopard 1 tanks and s. Israel delivered its unmanned aerial vehicles in 2009, and Brazil supplied additional military vehicles and Super Tucano combat aircraft. Countries like Russia and China have delivered small quantities of military equipment in the past, but have gained importance in recent years. Since then, Chinese radars, anti-aircraft systems, and infantry weapons have been purchased. In 2009 two additional Mil Mi-17 helicopters have been ordered from Russia with further deals planned. India has delivered HAL Dhruv helicopters and South Africa is about to deliver 12 Atlas Cheetah supersonic aircraft. Ecuador's political ally, Venezuela, has donated military equipment including six Mirage 50 aircraft.
In 2010, the U.S. embassy in Ecuador announced that it had delivered $1.2 million of donated military equipment to the Ecuadorian military. The donations were intended to support operations countering drug smuggling and guerilla activity along the Colombian border. Although the U.S. has refused to renew their lease on the Manta military airbase, deliveries included trucks, patrol boats, GPS, night vision, and M4 carbine rifles.
|
[
"Central America",
"Mil Mi-17",
"France",
"Peruvian Air Force",
"Americas Society",
"Lürssen",
"United Nations Military Observer",
"Police",
"Ivory Coast",
"Cenepa War",
"UNOGIL",
"Sudan",
"President of Ecuador",
"United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire",
"Pedro Vicente Maldonado",
"History of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute",
"Civilian control of the military",
"ONUSAL",
"Gran Colombia",
"Tiuna",
"Galápagos Islands",
"Central Intelligence Agency",
"Lebanon",
"Super Tucano",
"United Nations Mission in Liberia",
"Type 209 submarine",
"Antarctic",
"Israel",
"IAI Searcher",
"Brazil",
"Colombian Army",
"Guerrilla warfare",
"National Congress of Ecuador",
"M4 carbine",
"EADS CASA C-295",
"Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano",
"Ecuadorian sucre",
"Spain",
"Military communications",
"Darfur",
"Belgium",
"Ecuadorian-Colombian War",
"Nicaragua",
"IAI Arava",
"Argentina",
"Giancarlo Loffredo Rendón",
"Chincha Islands War",
"United Nations Operation in the Congo",
"2008 Andean diplomatic crisis",
"MINUSTAH",
"Agrale",
"HAL Dhruv",
"Manta Air Base",
"Ecuadorian–Peruvian War",
"Chief of the Armed Forces (Ecuador)",
"Boeing",
"doctrine",
"TAME",
"Paquisha War",
"Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)",
"Hino Motors",
"Atlas Cheetah",
"Battle of Pichincha",
"Leopard 1",
"AMX-13",
"Pacific Ocean",
"military doctrine",
"Jungle warfare",
"Uzi",
"Quito",
"Chile",
"Military of Colombia",
"MINUGUA",
"India",
"Commander",
"Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)",
"United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan",
"MINURCAT",
"Ecuadorian Navy",
"United Kingdom",
"Liberia",
"Council of the Americas",
"El Salvador",
"Heckler & Koch HK33",
"rifle",
"Routledge",
"Chad",
"Armed Forces",
"FARC",
"Jimmy Carter",
"Guayaquil",
"es:Escuela Superior Militar Eloy Alfaro",
"Rafael Correa",
"The World Factbook",
"Sify",
"Daniel Noboa",
"ton",
"unmanned aerial vehicles",
"military",
"Rio Protocol",
"Jaime Vela Erazo",
"United Nations Mission in Nepal",
"Ecuadorian War of Independence",
"United Nations Mission in Sudan",
"national security",
"China",
"economic development",
"Italy",
"Military ranks of Ecuador",
"Pacific Coast",
"military branch",
"Federal government of the United States",
"Military of Peru",
"Forms of government",
"London",
"United Nations",
"Ministry of National Defence (Ecuador)",
"Commander-in-Chief",
"Battle of Punta Malpelo",
"Economy",
"immigration",
"National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela",
"Russia",
"Dominican Republic",
"West Germany",
"ONUCA",
"radar",
"South Africa",
"Haiti",
"Supreme court",
"Gran Colombia–Peru War",
"DOMREP",
"Public administration",
"Humvee",
"army",
"Nepal",
"Military Governments of Ecuador (1960-1979)",
"infantry",
"3D LANZA Radar",
"Colombia",
"IAI Heron",
"Peru",
"Military history of Ecuador",
"Ecuador",
"International relations",
"General Electric J-79",
"organised crime",
"UNAMID",
"fighter aircraft",
"decisive victory",
"Ecuadorian Air Force",
"Guatemala",
"Ronald Reagan",
"anti-tank rockets",
"Gabriel missile",
"Venezuela",
"2024 conflict in Ecuador",
"national sovereignty",
"Battle of Guayaquil",
"Third World",
"Special forces",
"supersonic",
"Ecuadorian Army",
"IAI Kfir",
"Central African Republic",
"Dassault Mirage 5",
"National security",
"Pakistan"
] |
9,343 |
Foreign relations of Ecuador
|
This article describes the diplomatic affairs, foreign policy and international relations of Ecuador
Ecuador is a founding member of the UN and a member of many of its specialized agencies; it is also a member of the Organization of American States (OAS), as well as many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and the Andean Pact.
Ecuador's principal foreign-policy objectives have traditionally included defense of its territory from both external aggression and internal subversion as well as support for the objectives of the UN and the OAS. Although Ecuador's foreign relations were traditionally centered on the United States, Ecuador's membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1970s and 1980s allowed Ecuadorian leaders to exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy. Ecuador's foreign policy goals under the Borja government in the late 1980s were more diversified than those of the Febres Cordero administration, which closely identified with the United States. For example, Ecuador was more active in its relations with the Third World, multilateral organizations, Western Europe, and socialist countries.
Ecuador has offered humanitarianian aid to many countries, is a supporter of the United Nations, and currently contributes troops to the UN mission in Haiti. Ecuador has also been an elective member of the UN Security Council.
In Antarctica, Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study in the British-claimed territory and is a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty.
==Domestic politics==
The presidency of Rafael Correa in the early 21st century saw a radical change in the country's foreign policy. Traditional ties with the United States grew more acrimonious and there were increased ties with the governments of Russia and Iran. The relations with the United States, however, improved significantly during the presidency of his successor Lenin Moreno since 2017.
===List===
List of countries which Ecuador maintains diplomatic relations with:
== Bilateral relations ==
|
[
"Ecuador–Spain relations",
"diplomacy",
"Charles Darwin",
"Athens",
"Chile–Ecuador relations",
"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Uzbekistan)",
"Ecuador–United States relations",
"Istanbul",
"León Febres Cordero",
"Madrid",
"Cenepa War",
"Raúl Reyes",
"UN Security Council",
"Málaga",
"Juan Guaidó",
"international relations",
"Gran Colombia",
"Bogotá",
"Prague",
"Ivan Duque",
"Murcia",
"Ecuador–Germany relations",
"Embassy of Ecuador, London",
"ONGC",
"2008 Diplomatic Crisis between Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela",
"Montevideo",
"Julian Assange",
"Netherlands",
"Brazil",
"History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute",
"Bangkok",
"World Trade Organization",
"Greece",
"Foreign and Commonwealth Office",
"Romania",
"global South",
"Ecuador–Iran relations",
"Latin American Economic System",
"Ecuador–India relations",
"Belgium",
"Liechtensteiner Volksblatt",
"Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic",
"Argentina",
"Latin American Integration Association",
"Ecuador–Malaysia relations",
"2008 Andean diplomatic crisis",
"MINUSTAH",
"List of diplomatic missions of Ecuador",
"Alberto Fujimori",
"HAL Dhruv",
"Organization of American States",
"The Hague",
"Paquisha War",
"Lima",
"Jamil Mahuad",
"Valencia",
"Amsterdam",
"New Straits Times",
"Abu Dhabi",
"Quito",
"Chile",
"Inter-American Development Bank",
"Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987",
"Czech Republic",
"India",
"Peace Corps",
"Ankara",
"Agency for International Development",
"Charles III of the United Kingdom",
"Viceroyalty of New Granada",
"Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom",
"Foreign relations of the United Kingdom",
"Republic of New Granada",
"WikiLeaks",
"Jeremy Hunt",
"Milan",
"Ecuador–Peru relations",
"Social relation",
"Guayaquil",
"Ricardo Patiño",
"Ingrid Betancourt",
"Rafael Correa",
"Helsinki",
"Pranab Mukherjee",
"List of diplomatic missions in Ecuador",
"HM Revenue and Customs",
"Lenin Moreno",
"Panama",
"Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries",
"Brussels",
"Ecuador–Venezuela relations",
"World Bank",
"Hamburg",
"London",
"The Hindu",
"Berlin",
"Nicolás Maduro",
"Santiago",
"International Criminal Court",
"Dollar sign",
"2024 raid on the Mexican embassy in Ecuador",
"Thailand",
"United Arab Emirates",
"Colombia–Ecuador relations",
"London School of Economics",
"Antarctica Treaty",
"Saeed Jalili",
"Ecuador–Uruguay relations",
"Hugo Chávez",
"Spanish colonization of the Americas",
"China–Ecuador relations",
"South Africa",
"Ecuador–Russia relations",
"Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall",
"Rio Group",
"gov.uk",
"Andean Pact",
"Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia",
"Asuncion",
"Ecuador–Mexico relations",
"Rotterdam",
"Finland",
"Colombia",
"Rodrigo Borja Cevallos",
"Peru",
"Ecuador",
"Genoa",
"Non-Aligned Movement",
"Maria Isabel Salvador",
"Ecuador–Turkey relations",
"Reuters",
"Austria",
"Palma, Majorca",
"foreign policy",
"Venezuela",
"Paris",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Lenín Moreno",
"Third World",
"Ecuador–Japan relations",
"Tokyo",
"Alicante",
"Rome",
"Pretoria",
"Vienna"
] |
9,348 |
Geography of Egypt
|
The geography of Egypt relates to two regions: North Africa and West Asia.
Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile, and the Red Sea. Egypt borders Libya to the west, Palestine and Israel to the east and Sudan to the south (with a current dispute over the halaib triangle). Egypt has an area of .
The longest straight-line distance in Egypt from north to south is , while that from east to west measures . Egypt has more than of coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Gulf of Aqaba. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of .
==Governorates==
Egypt is divided into 28 governorates, which include two city-governortes: Alexandria (Alexandria Governorate) and Cairo (Cairo Governorate). There are nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region, ten of Upper Egypt along the Nile river south from Cairo to Aswan and five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile river.
==Natural regions==
Egypt is predominantly desert. 35,000 km2 – 3.5% – of the total land area is cultivated and permanently settled. Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches eastwards from Africa's Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia. Historically relevant here is The principles and objects of geology, with special reference to the geology of Egypt (1911) by W. F. Hume
Egypt's geological history has produced four major physical regions:
Nile Valley and Nile Delta
Western Desert (from the Nile west to the Libyan border)
Eastern Desert (extends from the Nile Valley all the way to the Red Sea coast)
Sinai Peninsula
Despite covering only about 5% of the total area of Egypt; the Nile Valley and Nile Delta are the most important regions, being the country's only cultivable regions and supporting about 99% of the population. The Nile valley extends approximately 800 km from Aswan to the outskirts of Cairo. The Nile Valley is known as Upper Egypt, while the Nile Delta region is known as Lower Egypt. Steep rocky cliffs rise along the banks of the Nile in some stretches, while other areas along the Nile are flat, with space for agricultural production. In the past, flooding of the Nile during the summer provided silt and water to make agriculture possible on land that is otherwise very dry. Since the construction of the Aswan Dam, agriculture in the Nile valley depends on irrigation. The Nile delta consists of flat, low-lying areas. Some parts of the delta are marshy and water-logged, and thus not suitable for agriculture. Other areas of the delta are used for agriculture.
===Nile Valley and Delta===
The Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world's longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources. Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow across the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert. The length within Egypt of the River Nile in its northwards course from three central African sources – the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara – totals some 1,600 km.
The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28% of the Nile's Egyptian waters. In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in South Sudan, the White Nile's channel drops more than 600 m. In its 1,600-km course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan's capital, the river descends just 75 m. In South Sudan, the White Nile passes through the Sudd, a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to the point of stagnation.
The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides on average some 58% of the Nile's Egyptian waters. This river has a steeper gradient and therefore flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum. Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment. For several kilometers north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river, coming from the Blue Nile, is visibly muddy, while that closer to the western bank, and coming from the White Nile, is clearer.
The much shorter Atbarah River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14% of the Nile's waters in Egypt. During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools. But, in late summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian Highlands, the Atbarah provides 22% of the Nile's flow.
The Blue Nile has a similar pattern. It contributes 17% of the Nile's waters in the low-water season and 68% during the high-water season. In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10% of the Nile's waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80% during the low-water period. Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields. The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January.
The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam. As a result of the dam's construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends southwards from the dam for 320 km to the border and for an additional 158 km within Sudan. Lake Nasser's waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow canyon between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries.
Below Aswan, the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty km. North of Isna (160 km north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises to as much as 550 m above sea level; at Qina (some 90 km north of Isna) the 300-m limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course towards the southwest for about 60 km before it turns northwest for about 160 km to Asyut. Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of 22 km.
At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary, subsequently filled by silt deposits to form what is now a fertile, fan-shaped delta some 250 km wide at its seaward extremity and extending about 160 km from north to south. The Nile Delta covers approximately 22,000 km2 (roughly equivalent in area to that of Massachusetts). According to historical accounts from the first century AD, seven branches of the Nile once ran through the delta. According to later accounts, the Nile had, by around the twelfth century, just six branches.
Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also known as Dumyat; 240 km long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 km long). Both outlets are named after the ports located at their respective mouths. A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets. In the north, near the coast, the Nile delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes, the most notable among which are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah.
The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depend largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters. Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe. The timing and amount of annual flow were always unpredictable. Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion m3 and as high as 4.25 billion m3 have been recorded. For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of these flows and thereby moderate the severity of floods.
The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch. Lake Nasser, the world's largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa. The dams have also affected the Nile Valley's fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water.
Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago. The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley amounted to some nine metres. Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year.
Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, now retained in Lake Nasser. The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river's banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.
===Western Desert===
The Western Desert covers an area of some 700,000 km2, thereby accounting for around two-thirds of Egypt's total land area. This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to the Sudanese border. The desert's Jilf al Kabir Plateau, at a mean altitude of some 1000 m, constitutes an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert's plain and extends from the Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir. Escarpments (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area.
The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south. There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty. The Qattara Depression, which includes the country's lowest point, encompasses , which is similar to the size of Lake Ontario. It is largely below sea level and is below sea level at the lowest. Badlands, salt marshes and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression.
Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater. The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa's cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era.
The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Faiyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahariya, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country's largest oasis, Kharijah. A brackish lake, Birket Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times. For centuries sweet water artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over .
===Eastern Desert===
The topographic features of the desert region east of the Nile differ from those to the west of the Nile. The Eastern Desert is relatively mountainous. The elevation rises abruptly from the Nile, and a downward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 km to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta. The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 m.
The region's most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile. The desert environment extends all the way to the Red Sea coast.
===Sinai Peninsula===
The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular-shaped peninsula, about 61,100 km2 in area slightly smaller than Latvia (64 573 km2). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point, at 2,642 m above sea-level. The Red Sea may have been named after these mountains, which are red.
The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The elevation of Sinai's southern rim is about 1,000 m. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases. The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel.
Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula. By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates. North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in El Tor.
The abundance of life in the Sinai Peninsula may not be immediately apparent. This again has its roots in the way in which the animals of the desert have adapted to life here. Many species, mammals especially, but also reptiles and even birds such as owls, are nocturnal. They spend the daylight hours in the relative cool of burrows, under boulders or in crevices and cracks in the rock. Many of these creatures will only be apparent from their tracks and trails or from a fleeting glimpse of a diminutive gerbil, or zig-zigging hare, in the car headlights at night. Even those animals that do brave the heat of the day are normally only active in the early morning or evening.
==Urban and rural areas==
In the 1971 census, 57 percent of Egypt's population was counted as rural, including those residing in agricultural areas in the Nile Valley and Delta, as well as the much smaller number of persons living in desert areas. Rural areas differ from the urban in terms of poverty, fertility rates, and other social factors. Agriculture is a key component of the economy in rural areas, though some people are employed in the tourist industry or other non-farm occupations. In 1992, the percentage of Egypt's population employed in agriculture was 33 percent. The agricultural industry is dependent on irrigation from the Nile river.
==Extreme points==
This is a list of the extreme points of Egypt, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Northernmost point – unnamed headland immediately north-west of Sidi Barrani, Matruh Governorate
Easternmost point – Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba), Red Sea Governorate*
Southernmost point – Jabal Bartazuga on the Sudanese border, Red Sea Governorate **
Westernmost point – unnamed point on the border with Libya immediately east of the ruin of Qasr al Qarn in Libya, Matruh Governorate
* Ras Hadarba lies within the Hala'ib triangle which is claimed by Sudan but occupied by Egypt. If it is excluded, then Egypt's easternmost point is the Ras Banas peninsula on the mainland or, including islands, Mukawwa Island
** Egypt's southernmost point lies in the Bir Tawil region, an area that is commonly included as part of Egypt but is not claimed by it. If this area is excluded then Egypt has no southernmost point, its southern border being formed by the 22nd parallel north.
|
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] |
9,349 |
Demographics of Egypt
|
Egypt is the most populous country in the Middle East, and the fourth-most populous on the African continent, after Nigeria, Ethiopia and Democratic Republic of the Congo. About 95% of the country's 104 million people (July 2023) live along the banks of the Nile and in the Nile Delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the Suez Canal. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 1,540 people per km2, as compared to 96 persons per km2 for the country as a whole.
Small communities spread throughout the desert regions of Egypt are clustered around historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly irrigated land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the megacities in search of employment and a higher standard of living.
According to the Peterson Institute for International Economics and other proponents of demographic structural approach (cliodynamics), the basic problem Egypt has is an unemployment rate driven by a demographic youth bulge: with the number of new people entering the job force at about 4% a year, unemployment in Egypt is almost 10 times as high for college graduates as it is for people who have gone through elementary school, particularly educated urban youth, who comprised most of the people that were seen out in the streets during the Egyptian revolution of 2011. An estimated 51.2% of Egyptians are under the age of 25, with just 4.3% over the age of 65, making it one of the most youthful populations in the world.
==Population size and distribution==
Egypt has a population of 109,500,000 (2023). According to the OECD/World Bank statistics population growth in Egypt from 1990 to 2008 was 23.7 million and 41%.
===History===
===Age distribution===
Data taken from Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics.
Percentage distribution of population in censuses by age group
Population estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2010):
Population estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2012):
Population estimates by sex and age group (1 January 2013):
Population estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2013):
Population estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2014) in thousands:
Household population by age and sex (DHS 2014).
Total population in thousands: 114 428 (Males 56 926, Females 57 501)
[
Population estimates by sex and age group (1 January 2015):
Historical and present population distribution:
=== Urban and rural population ===
Figures from CAPMAS:
=== Population projections ===
The Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) had released high/medium/low population projections for 2011–2031 based on Final Results of 2006 Population Census.
One birth every 12 seconds
One death every 52 seconds
One net migrant every 13 minutes
Net gain of one person every 17 seconds
Vital statistics:
=== Current vital statistics ===
===Demographic and Health Surveys===
Fertility rate (TFR) (wanted fertility rate) and CBR (crude birth rate):
==== Life expectancy at birth ====
Average life expectancy at age 0 of the total population.
==Demographics by Governorate==
===Urban and Rural Population of Governorates===
Data taken from CAPMAS:
===Population density by governorate===
As of 1 July 2014; data taken from CAPMAS:
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Ethnic groups
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
}}
The CIA World Factbook lists Egyptians as 99.7%, and "other" as 0.3% (2006 census).(ca. 88,000), the Nubians (ca. 300,000 in 1996), Dom (ca. 230,000 in 1996), Berbers (Siwis) (ca. 5,000).
==Languages==
Arabic is the official language of Egypt, with the vast majority of Egyptians speaking Egyptian Arabic. In The Upper Nile valley regions, Sa'idi Arabic is prevalent. The Coptic language is still used in the Coptic church for the majority of prayers, hymns, masses, and meditations.
English is widely understood.
Siwa language is used in ethnic Berber tribal areas in the western desert (Siwa), and Nubian language is widely used among the ethnic Nubians in the southern areas.
==Religions==
According to the CIA World Factbook, 90% of the population is Muslim and 10% is Christian (majority Coptic Orthodox, other Christians include Armenian Apostolic, Catholic, Maronite, Orthodox, and Anglican).
According to the International Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad and contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), circulation of human and social capital, as well as investment. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% are living mostly North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada) and Europe (90,000 in Italy).
==Genetics==
=== Autosomal DNA ===
Almarri, Mohamed A et al. (2021) analyzed present-day Middle-Eastern groups. They modelled the components of a sample from Egypt as being made up of four ancient populations: 50% Natufian, 31% Iran Neolithic, 12% Mota, and % Eastern Hunter Gatherer.
=== mtDNA ===
Saunier, Jessica et al. (2009) sequenced mitogenomes from 277 unrelated Egyptian individuals. The results showed that 20.6% of the Egyptian mtDNA chromosomes were of Sub-Saharan African origin, while 79.4% were of West Eurasian.
===Y-DNA===
Listed here are some of the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Egypt, according to Bekada, Asmahan et al. (2013).
|
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"Italy",
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"Kuwait",
"Sudanese Arabs",
"Aswan Governorate",
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"irrigation",
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"Islam in Egypt",
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"Copts",
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"Haplogroup E-M123",
"Demographics of Ethiopia",
"Red Sea Governorate",
"Haplogroup E-V68",
"Syro-Lebanese in Egypt",
"Minya Governorate",
"Bedouin"
] |
9,350 |
Politics of Egypt
|
The politics of Egypt takes place within the framework of a republican semi-presidential system of government. The current political system was established following the 2013 Egyptian military coup d'état, and the takeover of President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. In the current system, the President is elected for a six-year term. Furthermore, the President has the power to dissolve Parliament through Article 137.
The Parliament of Egypt is the oldest legislative chamber in Africa and the Middle East. The unicameral Parliament has the ability to impeach the President through Article 161. With 2020 elections to the new Senate, the chamber became bicameral.
==Presidency==
The position was created after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952; Mohammed Naguib was the first to hold the position. Before 2005, the Parliament chose a candidate for the presidency and the people voted, in a referendum, whether or not they approved the proposed candidate for president. After the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, a new presidential election was held 2012, it was the first free and fair elections in Egypt's political history. The Muslim Brotherhood declared early 18 June 2012, that its candidate, Mohamed Morsi, won the election. After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi; the beginning of July 2013 marked the onset of the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, following the decision of General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, to remove Morsi from office and suspend the constitution of 2012. El-Sisi was then elected head of state in the 2014 presidential election. On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.
Article 133 of Egypt's constitution of 2012 determines a 4-year period of presidential mandate, to which the candidate can only be re-elected once. According to the document, to be eligible the candidate “must be Egyptian born to Egyptian parents, must have carried no other citizenship, must have civil and political right, cannot be married to a non-Egyptian,” and not be younger than 40 Gregorian years.
Article 146 declares the president to be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. However, to declare war or to send armed forces outside state territory, the president must consult the National Defense Council and have the approval of the majority of the MPs.
A constitutional referendum was held in Egypt from 20 to 22 April 2019, with overseas voting taking place between 19 and 21 April. The proposed changes allowed President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to remain in power until 2030; under the previous version of the constitution, he would have been barred from contesting the next elections, set to take place in 2022. The changes were approved by 88.83% of voters who voted, with a 44% turnout.
==Legislative branch==
Parliament meets for one eight-month session each year; under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament continues to lack the powers to balance the extensive powers of the President.
===The House of Representatives (Maglis El Nowwab)===
The House of Representatives is the principal legislative body. It consists of a maximum 596 representatives with 448 are directly elected through FPTP and another 120 elected through proportional representation in 4 nationwide districts while the President can appoint up to 28. The House sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President.
The Constitution reserves fifty per cent of the House may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and house from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation.
The recent elections were held in 2015 and most recently in 2020.
===Senate (Magles El Shiyoukh)===
The Senate was the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. In the Senate, 176 members were directly elected and 88 members were appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Senate was renewed every three years.
The Senate legislative powers were limited. On most matters of legislation, the People's Assembly retained the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.
It was called Shura Council which was abolished in the 2014 constitution.
===Parliamentary Elections===
Political parties in Egypt are numerous and exceeds 100 parties. The formation of political parties based on religion, race or gender is prohibited by the Constitution. Before the revolution in 2011, power was concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the National Democratic Party which retained a super-majority in the People's Assembly.
Many new political parties that mostly were fragile formed in anticipation of running candidates in the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election that was considered the first free one since the 1952 revolution. However the elected Parliament was dissolved by the constitutional court and new elections were held in 2015.
Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.
==Political parties and elections==
According to the Egyptian Constitution, political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties are not allowed as it would not respect the principle of non-interference of religion in politics and that religion has to remain in the private sphere to respect all beliefs. Also forbidden are political parties supporting militia formations or having an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution and its principles, or threatening the country's stability such as national unity between Muslim Egyptians and Christian Egyptians.
As of 2015, there are more than 100 registered political parties in Egypt. The largest were the Free Egyptians Party, New Wafd Party, Conference Party, and the Egyptian Social Democratic Party.
In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watn (Nation's Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.
==Civil society==
Egyptians had lived under emergency law from 1967 until 31 May 2012 (with one 18-month break starting in 1980). Emergency laws have been extended every three years since 1981. These laws sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned. However, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice. In 2003, the agenda shifted heavily towards local democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change (Kefaya), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers.
Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to land rights and land reform. A major turning point was the 1997 repeal of Nasser-era land reform policies under pressure for structural adjustment. A pole for this activity is the Land Center for Human Rights.
The Egyptian Revolution of 2011, inspired by the recent revolution in Tunisia, forced the resignation of President Mubarak and the Military Junta that succeeded him abrogated the Constitution and promised free and fair elections under a new one. On August 15, 2015, President al-Sisi enacted a new Counter-Terrorism Law, which Human Rights Watch claims "mimics" language "already contained in Egypt's decades-old Emergency Law". In Article 2, one of many references include terrorism as "any use of intimidation for the purpose of disturbing public order; harms national unity, social peace, or national security". Following to Section 2, the President "may issue a decree to take appropriate measures to maintain security and public order", addressed in Article 53. This includes "the power to order six-month curfews or evacuations in defined areas, subject to a majority vote in parliament within seven days, or cabinet approval if parliament is not in session."
==Political pressure==
Before the revolution, Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, then moved more aggressively to block its influence. Trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned. In 2014, in Upper Egypt, several newspapers reported that the region of Upper Egypt wants to secede from Egypt to try to improve living standards.
==Foreign relations==
The permanent headquarters for the League of Arab States (The Arab League) is located in Cairo. The Secretary-General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abu El Ghet is the present Secretary-General of the Arab League. The Arab League moved out of Egypt to Tunis in 1978 as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel but returned in 1989.
Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty at the Camp David Accords. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli–Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited.
Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
A territorial dispute with Sudan over an area known as the Hala'ib Triangle has meant that diplomatic relations between the two remain strained.
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9,351 |
Economy of Egypt
|
| per capita =
| components =
| hdi =
| cpi = 35 out of 100 points (2023, 108th rank)
| occupations =
| imports = US $88.2 billion (2023)}}
| FDI =
| gross external debt = US$152.1 billion (2024)
| NIIP =
| debt = 77.4% of GDP (2024 est.)
| balance = −US$24.928 billion (2024 est.)
| credit =
| cianame = egypt
| spelling = Egypt
| usebelowbox = yes
| presentUS$asdefault = yes
}}
The economy of Egypt is the second-largest economy in Africa, and 45th in worldwide ranking as of 2025. Egypt is a major emerging market economy and a member of the African Union, BRICS, and a signatory to the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). The country is witnessing a period of economic recovery after facing serious financial challenges.
The Egyptian economy has been bolstered by a series of reforms under its sustainable development strategy Egypt Vision 2030, including a dramatic currency flotation in 2024 that led to a 38% depreciation of Egyptian pound against the dollar after securing over $50 billion in international financing. These actions, alongside strategic agreements with global partners such as the IMF, World Bank, the European Union, and the Gulf States, have contributed to an improved credit outlook.
Despite facing significant challenges, especially external shocks such as the global economic impacts of the Ukraine conflict and regional instability, Egypt's economy remains resilient. The government's efforts to engage with international financial markets and stabilize the economy have paved the way for continued growth and further economic integration within the broader African and global markets.
== History ==
===Ancient Egypt===
The economy in ancient Egypt was deeply embedded in its centralized state structure, with the pharaoh exercising theoretical control over all land and resources. Wealth was managed and redistributed through a network of temples and granaries overseen by appointed officials, particularly the vizier, who supervised land surveys, tax collection, and resource allocation. While coinage was not used until the Late Period, Egyptians relied on a barter-based economy, where standardized values, such as sacks of grain and copper deben, were used for wages and trade. Laborers received monthly grain rations, and a fixed price system regulated commerce throughout the kingdom.
Agriculture formed the foundation of the economy, sustained by the annual flooding of the Nile, which deposited nutrient-rich silt on the fields. The state taxed agricultural production according to the land owned, and farmers were obligated to provide both goods and labor through a corvée system. Emmer and barley were the primary staples, used to make bread and beer, while flax provided linen for clothing. Papyrus was harvested for writing material, and vegetables such as leeks, garlic, melons, and pulses were cultivated alongside fruits like grapes and dates. Additional goods included textiles, beer, wine, honey, and leather, many of which were produced in temple workshops. Livestock, such as cattle, poultry, donkeys, and bees, played vital economic and ritual roles, while natural resources like copper, gold, alabaster, and granite were extracted through state-controlled expeditions.
===Greco-Roman period===
Ptolemaic Egypt blended traditional agrarian systems with new fiscal and administrative reforms. The economy produced wheat, flax, wine, and textiles, with state control over beer, oil, and salt. Agriculture, organized around the Nile’s flood cycle, remained central. The early Ptolemies implemented extensive land reclamation where immigrant Greeks and military settlers were granted privileged access to land, while native Egyptians were pushed into subordinate roles with limited protections. Greeks also dominated Hellenic urban centers and viticulture, while the administrative spread of the Greek language displaced Demotic, restricting Egyptian access to legal and bureaucratic institutions.
The state developed a complex and unequal tax system on land, produce, labor, and individuals, collected via granaries and banks. Taxation favored Greeks through exemptions and privileges, while Egyptians faced heavier burdens. Temples retained economic significance but lost autonomy under centralized administration. Early Ptolemaic Egypt experienced a notable degree of prosperity, driven by land reclamation, urban expansion, and the growth of fiscal and agricultural systems, though this development was ultimately constrained by institutional rigidity and entrenched social inequality, contributing to later unrest.
===Middle Ages===
Beginning in the early Islamic period, Egypt’s countryside was incorporated into a broader administrative and fiscal structure that facilitated the movement of goods and surplus to urban centers. By the 11th and 12th centuries, this integration had developed into a dynamic economic relationship between rural producers and commercial networks. Villages produced grain, flax, indigo, sugar, and linen textiles, much of which was sent to Fustat, the primary urban hub for redistribution. Documents from the Cairo Geniza reveal that rural merchants and producers were involved in long-distance trade linking Egypt to the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.
The textile industry was a foundational component of Egypt’s economy during the Middle Ages, integrating agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. Flax was widely cultivated, and its transformation into linen textiles constituted a major branch of productive activity. Textile production involved both privately organized enterprise and operations connected to government institutions. In addition to being a leading export commodity, textiles also circulated within the domestic economy as a means of exchange and a store of value. Egypt’s prosperity during this period depended not only on its role in international trade but also on the internal scale and organization of its textile production.
Patterns of saving and investment during this period reflected a high degree of economic organization. Wealth was accumulated through land, textiles, and monetary holdings, and often reinvested into productive activities such as textile manufacture, agriculture, and trade. The integration of these practices into everyday economic life highlights the structured financial environment that characterized medieval Egypt.
In the fifteenth century, Egypt experienced a series of economic and financial crises under the Mamluk regime, marked by inflation, currency instability, and fiscal disorder. Contemporary scholars such as al-Maqrizi and al-Asadi offered detailed assessments of the causes and proposed reforms. Al-Maqrizi identified the debasement of the currency and the overreliance on copper coinage as central problems, advocating a return to the use of gold and silver standards. Al-Asadi presented a broader analysis, attributing the crisis to both monetary mismanagement and deeper structural inequalities, including the concentration of wealth and administrative corruption.
===Early modern period===
From the 1850s until the 1930s, Egypt's economy relied heavily on long-staple cotton, introduced under Muhammad Ali (1805–49) and facilitated by modern irrigation. Cotton was central to a strategy aimed at diversifying the economy. Cotton cultivation was a key component of Muhammad Ali's economic reforms.
Egypt abolished slavery under the Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention in 1877.
Despite initial efforts, industrialization struggled due to factors like tariff restrictions imposed by Britain through the 1838 commercial treaty. By the 1930s, little industrial development occurred, and Egypt's land-owning elite invested mainly in land rather than industry.
On February 16, 1930, Egypt enacted tariff reforms aimed at protecting local industries. The government imposed high duties on imports and reduced taxes on raw materials, encouraging local manufacturing. The changes led to a decline in imports of finished goods and an increase in raw materials and machinery by 1938.
World War II provided a boost to industrialization, with increased demand from Allied forces and local consumers. Many industries diversified, while new enterprises emerged. The war also trained workers, helping to establish a foundation for local industries that expanded in the post-war period. By 1947, the government enacted laws and established an Industrial Bank to support industrial growth.
The Great Depression and World War II helped catalyze industrialization, shifting Egypt toward import-substitution industries. Despite limited industrialization, the economy grew rapidly throughout the 19th century, largely driven by cotton production, but much of the revenue was lost to foreign investments or repaid debt.
The land reforms of 1952 aimed to weaken the old landowning class and promote industrialization, with Nasser’s government supporting urban workers through labor reforms. The nationalization of key industries occurred between 1957 and 1961, alongside increased public sector control. While the initial economic results were positive, a crisis emerged by the mid-1960s due to the unsustainable combination of rising consumption and investment.
By necessity if not by design, the revolutionary regime gave considerably greater priority to economic development than did the monarchy, and the economy has been a central government concern since then.
Considerable improvements were made under the Nazif government, with substantial progress made in developing Egypt’s legal, tax, and investment infrastructure. Over the past five years, Egypt had passed, amended, or admitted over 15 legislative pieces aimed at supporting economic development. The economy was expected to grow by 4% to 6% during the 2009–2010 period.
Domestic inflationary pressures from both economic growth and rising international food prices prompted the Central Bank of Egypt to increase the overnight lending and deposit rates beginning in February 2008. By September 2008, these rates stood at 11.5% and 13.5%, respectively.
The 2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession led to fiscal and monetary policy measures aimed at mitigating its effects on the national economy, including a 1% reduction in the overnight lending and deposit rates in February 2009. These rates were then set at 10.5% and 12.5%.
Reform of energy and food subsidies, privatization of state-owned enterprises like the Bank of Cairo, and the issue of inflation targeting emerged as some of the most controversial economic issues between 2007 and 2009.
===2008 financial crisis===
The 2008 financial crisis followed closely by the global food crisis presented Egypt with significant economic challenges, but it also prompted more integrated policy reforms. Policymakers responded quickly to mitigate the impacts of these shocks, notably adjusting monetary and fiscal policies as well as regulatory frameworks. A moderate Financial crisis took hold, partly fueled by fear of widespread panic selling, leading to declines in stock and bond markets and increases in nominal interest rates.
Egypt’s population, concentrated within a narrow strip along the Nile River, primarily worked in the services, agriculture, and industrial sectors, with about one-third directly involved in farming. The unemployment rate increased from 10.3% in FY2004 to 11.2% in 2005, exacerbated by the privatization efforts that led to job losses in public enterprises. Private sector employment grew at a faster pace than the public sector.
In response to rising food prices, the Egyptian government, led by President Mubarak, implemented a pay rise of up to 30% for government and public sector workers in 2008. This was part of an effort to strengthen food security for low-income citizens and to balance wages with prices. The decision to double the originally proposed 15%-20% pay rise came as widespread discontent over inflation could lead to social unrest.
The consumer price index (CPI) inflation rate reached 15.8% in March 2008, with food price inflation much higher at 23.7%. These high inflation figures particularly impacted Egypt's poor and low-income citizens, who spent a large portion of their income on food. By April 2008, food inflation reached 22%, making it clear that inflation as measured by the headline CPI did not capture the struggles of the majority of the population, who were enrolled in food ration programs.
Amid these economic pressures, in April 2009, Egypt was concerned about the return of 500,000 Egyptian laborers from Gulf states, which would have further complicated its economic recovery efforts.
===Post-revolution===
Following the 2011 revolution, Egypt's economy plunged into a severe downturn, facing significant challenges in restoring growth and investor confidence. Foreign exchange reserves fell from US$36 billion in December 2010 to just US$16.3 billion by January 2012. Concerns over social unrest and financial instability led to repeated downgrades by credit rating agencies. In 2016, Egypt floated its currency and initiated a reform program with a US$12 billion IMF loan to restore macroeconomic stability.
Inflation had eased by May 2019, indicating signs of economic stabilization.Despite efforts, Egypt’s economy was hit by the global COVID-19 crisis, with real growth declining from 5.6% in FY2018/19 to 3.6% in FY2019/20, reflecting a 1.7% contraction during the April–June period of 2020.
In 2024, Egypt made fiscal adjustments, agreeing with the IMF to raise the tax-to-revenue ratio and accelerate the privatization of state-owned companies to strengthen public finances.
== Data ==
The following tables shows the main economic indicators in 1986–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).
== Capital flows ==
=== International trade ===
Egypt’s international trade has long been a central pillar of its economy, constituting 40% of its GDP according to the World Bank. Over the years, the country has pursued greater economic integration through a series of free trade agreements, including those with the EU-Egypt Association Agreement and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). The association agreement with the EU, in force since 2004, established a free-trade area by eliminating tariffs on industrial goods and facilitating agricultural trade. A subsequent agreement in 2010 expanded this arrangement to processed agricultural and fisheries products. The gradual reduction of customs duties has significantly strengthened economic ties, with bilateral trade between the EU and Egypt more than doubling from €11.8 billion in 2004 to €27.9 billion in 2017.
The Pan-Arab Free Trade Area (PAFTA), signed by 17 Arab League members in 1981 and implemented in 1997, aims to enhance trade among Arab states by eliminating non-tariff barriers and gradually reducing tariffs. Originally planned to achieve full tariff removal by 2007, an Arab League summit in 2002 accelerated this timeline, establishing a zero-tariff trade zone by 2005 while granting preferential treatment to the least developed member states.
Egypt also benefits from Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZs), which grant tariff-free access to U.S. markets for exports meeting predefined rules of origin. These zones offer cost advantages, exemption from non-tariff barriers, and access to Egypt’s large labor pool, attracting both local and foreign investors. Initially established in Alexandria, the Suez Canal, Greater Cairo, and the Central Delta, the program has since expanded to Minya and Beni Suef.
=== Remittances ===
Remittances from Egyptians working abroad constitute a key source of hard currency for the Egyptian economy. The Minister of Emigration and Expatriate Affairs reported that the number of Egyptians living abroad has increased more than fivefold since 2013, rising from 2.7 million in 2013 to 14 million in 2023 and according to the Central Bank of Egypt (CBE), remittances reached $23.7 billion between January and October 2024, reflecting a 45.3% increase from $16.3 billion during the same period in 2023.
Remittances recorded a decline during 2022/2023, when inflows dropped to $22.1 billion from a peak of $31.9 billion in 2021/2022, figures rebounded in 2024. This was attributed to global disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic, exchange rate volatility, and geopolitical factors, including the Russian-Ukrainian war. The March 2024 economic measures, particularly the liberalization of exchange rates and increased interest rates on Egyptian pound and dollar-denominated savings instruments, played a key role in restoring remittance inflows to the formal banking system.
=== Suez Canal ===
The Suez Canal, a vital maritime passageway linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, has played a crucial role in global trade since its completion in 1869. Constructed under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps, the canal provided a direct shipping route between Europe and Asia, significantly reducing travel time by bypassing the lengthy voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. Over the decades, the canal has undergone multiple expansions to accommodate the growing volume of global maritime trade. In 2021, more than 20,600 vessels passed through the canal, with an average of 56 ships per day. To enhance its capacity, the Egyptian government launched an expansion project in 2014, widening key sections of the canal and nearly doubling its capacity from 49 to 97 ships per day.
The New Suez Canal, inaugurated in 2015, introduced a parallel shipping lane and deepened sections of the original canal to accommodate larger vessels. The expansion aimed to reduce transit times from 18 to 11 hours and significantly cut waiting periods for ships. The project, costing about $8 billion, was financed exclusively through domestic investment, with Egyptians contributing via bank certificates of deposit yielding 12%, later raised to 15.5%. The Armed Forces Engineering Authority played a major role in the excavation and construction of the expansion, which was completed in just one year.
Beyond its role as a maritime corridor, the Suez Canal has become an economic hub, with the establishment of the Suez Canal Economic Zone (SCZONE). Encompassing 461 km² across Port Said, Ismailia, and Suez, the SCZONE offers zero customs rates to attract foreign investment. Major infrastructure projects within the zone focus on the development of East Port Said and Ain Sokhna, with planned expansions to West Port Said, El-Adabiya, Arish, and El Tor. This initiative is part of a broader effort to transform the canal into a global trade and logistics center, with Egypt aiming to attract $30 billion in investment within five years. The canal remains a critical global trade route, setting a record annual revenue of $9.4 billion in the fiscal year ending June 2023.
== Exchange rate policies ==
Egypt's exchange rate policies have undergone significant transformations over the years, reflecting the nation's evolving economic strategies and challenges. In 1885, Egypt adopted the gold standard, introducing the Egyptian pound (jeneih) at E£1 = 7.4375 grams of fine gold. Pegged to the British gold sovereign, it maintained an exchange value of 97.5 piastres per pound sterling, replacing the Egyptian piastre (qersh) as the primary currency unit. This reform standardized foreign exchange rates by law and adjusted the Maria Theresa thaler to 21 piastres, while 20 piastres equaled 5 French francs.
With the outbreak of World War I, Egypt abandoned the gold standard and pegged its currency to the British pound at a fixed rate, which remained until 1962 when it shifted to the U.S. dollar. In 1969, Egypt adopted a multiple exchange rate system to address two key challenges. It helped mitigate the negative effects of an overvalued currency on external competitiveness while also managing the country's heavy reliance on workers’ remittances. However, persistent trade imbalances and political instability following the 2011 revolution led to renewed currency pressures. A foreign exchange black market sprung up, and by 2016, Egypt was forced to implement a full float of the pound under an IMF-backed reform program. The sharp devaluation that followed improved Egypt's external balance but also led to inflationary pressures.
Despite claims by the Central Bank of Egypt that the currency remained free-floating, reports indicated that by 2018 the central bank was actively using state-owned banks to manage the pound’s value, effectively returning to a controlled exchange rate. During the COVID-19 pandemic the country faced increasing pressure to allow further currency depreciation, skepticism grew over the long-term sustainability of these measures and their implications for economic stability. Although both sectors began recovering in 2022, they struggled to return to pre-pandemic revenue levels by 2023 when the outbreak of war in Ukraine further strained Egypt's economic position, as Russian and Ukrainian tourists, who form a substantial portion of Egypt’s visitor base, were largely absent. Warm weather and abundant water have historically allowed for the cultivation of multiple crops annually.
The Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area.
Since 2009, the growing issue of desertification has emerged as a significant challenge. To address this, as well its limited arable land and growing population, Egypt has long pursued land reclamation, with efforts dating back to the 1930s. Since then, 2.6 million feddan have been reclaimed, increasing agricultural land by 44%. The latest initiative aims to reclaim 4.5 million feddan by 2027, nearly half of Egypt’s existing cultivated land. The largest of these projects, the New Delta Project, spans 2.2 million feddan, the project accounts for about 25% of the country’s historically reclaimed agricultural lands. The Future of Egypt, the first phase of this initiative, covers 1 million feddan and includes an industrial zone for agricultural industries.
To provide water for the project, Egypt constructed the New Delta Wastewater Treatment Plant, the largest of its kind globally, as a key component of the country’s strategy to expand agricultural land and enhance water security. With a daily capacity of 7.5 million cubic meters, the plant supports irrigation efforts and mitigates pollution in Lake Mariout and the Mediterranean Sea. in the Western Desert using water from Lake Nasser, transported via the Sheikh Zayed Canal.
Acquisition and ownership of desert land in Egypt is governed by the Egyptian Desert Land Law. It defines desert land as the land two kilometers outside the border of the city.
=== Water resources ===
"Egypt", wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive oasis. Without the Nile River, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.
The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about wide at the seaward base and about from south to north.
Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1960, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on thousands of square kilometers of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of millions of gigajoules of electricity at low cost.
In 1996, the level of water behind the Aswan High Dam, in Lake Nasser, reached the maximum level since the completion of the dam. Despite this abundance of water supply in the dam's reservoir, Egypt can only release 55.5 billion cu m (1.96 trillion cu ft) every year, according to the Nile Basin Agreement signed in 1959 between Egypt and Sudan.
==== Groundwater ====
The rain falling on the coast of the southern regions are the main source of recharge of the main reservoir. There is a free-floating layer of the reservoir water on top of sea water up to a distance of 20 km south of the Mediterranean Sea. The majority of wells in the coastal plain depend on the water level in the main reservoir. The coastal water supply comes from water percolating through the coastal sand and water runoff from the south. This low salinity water is used for many purposes.
Egypt is home to a significant portion of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, the world's largest known fossil water aquifer system. This vast underground reservoir, located beneath the eastern end of the Sahara desert, extends across the political boundaries of four northeastern African countries, with Egypt utilizing its share for agricultural and developmental projects.
=== Mineral and energy resources ===
Egypt's mineral and energy resources include petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, gold and iron ore. Crude oil is found primarily in the Gulf of Suez and in the Western Desert. Natural gas is found mainly in the Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean shore, and in the Western Desert.
Over the last 15 years, more than 180 petroleum exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than US$27 billion in exploration companions. These activities led to the findings of about 18 crude oil fields and 16 natural gas fields in FY 2001. The total number of findings rose to 49 in FY 2005. As a result of these findings, crude oil reserves as of 2009 are estimated at , and proven natural gas reserves are 1.656 trillion cubic meters with likely additional discoveries with more exploration campaigns.
In August 2007, it was announced that signs of oil reserves in Kom Ombo basin, about north of Aswan, was found and a concession agreement was signed with Centorion Energy International for drilling. The main natural gas producer in Egypt is the International Egyptian Oilfield Company (IEOC), a branch of Italian Eni. Other companies including BP, APA Corporation and Royal Dutch Shell carry out activities of exploration and production by means of concessions granted for a period of generally ample time (often 20 years) and in different geographic zones of oil and gas deposits in the country.
== Main economic sectors ==
=== Agricultural sector ===
==== Irrigation ====
Irrigation plays a major role in a country the very livelihood of which depends upon a single river, the Nile. The most ambitious of all irrigation projects was the Aswan High Dam, completed in 1971. A report from the National Council for Production and Economic Affairs in March 1975 reflected the dam's success in regulating floodwaters and providing a reliable water supply. However, it was noted that water consumption had exceeded expectations, and measures to control this were being considered. Some fertile land was lost due to the cessation of the flow of Nile silt, and increasing salinity presented challenges. Additionally, a period of drought in the Ethiopia highlands, the source of the Nile's waters, caused the level of Lake Nasser, the dam's reservoir, to reach its lowest point in 1987.
In the 1970s, despite considerable investments in land reclamation, agriculture gradually lost its place as the primary sector of the economy. Agricultural exports, which accounted for 87% of Egypt’s merchandise export value in 1960, had declined to 35% by 1974 and 11% by 2001. By 2000, agriculture contributed 17% to the nation’s GDP and employed 34% of the workforce.
In 2010 Egypt's fertile area totaled about , about one-quarter of which has been reclaimed from the desert after the construction of the Aswan High Dam. The government aims to increase this number to 4.8 million hectares by 2030 through additional land reclamation.
Cotton has long been a primary exported cash crop, but it is no longer vital as an export. Egypt is a substantial producer of wheat, maize, sugarcane, fruit and vegetables, fodder, and rice; but also needs to import significant quantities of wheat and maize, primarily from Ukraine and Russia, despite yield increases since 1970. This is largely due to high domestic demand, driven by subsidies and a culinary preference for bread, alongside Egypt’s limited arable land and a focus on cultivating high-value export crops such as vegetables. Egypt exports rice but this can vary periodically based on government regulations, which are influenced by water and land use considerations.
Land is worked intensively and yields are high. Increasingly, modern techniques are applied to producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. Further improvement is possible. The most common traditional farms occupy each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Many small farmers also own cows, water buffalos, and chickens. Between 1953 and 1971, some farms were collectivised, especially in Upper Egypt and parts of the Nile Delta.
Cacti, particularly cactus pears, are widely cultivated across Egypt, including Sinai, and extend into neighboring countries. Introduced during the Columbian Exchange, they have become a significant crop in the region.
The government exercises a strong degree of control over agriculture, usually through financial incentives and export bans, not only to ensure the best use of irrigation water but also to confine the planting of water intensive crops like cotton in favor of food grains. However, the government's ability to achieve this objective is limited by crop rotational constraints.
==== Land ownership ====
The agrarian reform law of 1952 provided that no one might hold more than 200 feddans, that is, (1 Egyptian feddan=0.42 hectares=1.038 acres), for farming, and that each landholder must either farm the land himself or rent it under specified conditions. Up to 100 additional feddans might be held if the owner had children, and additional land had to be sold to the government. In 1961, the upper limit of landholding was reduced to 100 feddans, and no person was allowed to lease more than 50 feddans. Compensation to the former owners was in bonds bearing a low rate of interest, redeemable within 40 years. A law enacted in 1969 reduced landholdings by one person to 50 feddans.
By the mid-1980s, 90% of all land titles were for holdings of less than five feddans (), and about 300,000 families, or 8% of the rural population, had received land under the agrarian reform program. According to a 1990 agricultural census, there were some three million small land holdings, almost 96% of which were under five feddans. As these small landholdings restricted the ability of farmers to use modern machinery and agricultural techniques that improve and take advantage of economies of scale, there have since the late 1980s been many reforms attempting to deregulate agriculture by liberalizing input and output prices and eliminating crop area controls. As a result, the gap between world and domestic prices for Egyptian agricultural commodities has been closed.
==== Climate change ====
=== Industrial sector ===
==== Chemical products ====
The chemical industry in Egypt is one of the country’s largest, comprising seven key subsectors: plastics, rubber, paper, detergents, paints, miscellaneous chemicals, fertilizers, and glass. The petrochemical segment alone accounts for approximately 12% of Egypt's industrial output, with an annual value of around US$7 billion.
The sector is forecast to generate $9 billion in exports by the end of 2024, with growth supported by abundant raw materials and foreign investments. The government aims to enhance competitiveness by focusing on infrastructure, technological advancements, and export incentives. The sector also benefits from Egypt’s participation in regional trade agreements, helping to further expand its export market and strengthen its global position.
Abu Qir Fertilizers Company is one of Egypt and the MENA region's largest nitrogen fertilizer producers, accounting for nearly 50% of Egypt's nitrogen fertilizer output. Established in 1976, its first ammonia-urea production facility is located in Abu Qir, 20 kilometers east of Alexandria. Egypt Basic Industries Corporation (EBIC) is also a leading ammonia producer in the country.
==== Consumer electronics and home appliances ====
Egypt's consumer electronics and home appliance industry has witnessed significant expansion, driven by government initiatives and foreign investments. The "Egypt Makes Electronics" initiative, launched in 2015, aims to localize manufacturing, reduce imports, and boost exports. It has attracted major players like Samsung, Hisense, Beko, and Haier, who have established production facilities in Egypt, benefiting from tax incentives and golden licenses. The country’s strategic location, competitive labor costs, and growing consumer market have positioned it as a key regional manufacturing and export hub.
The home appliance industry, valued at EGP 126.7 billion in 2021, is seeing increased localization, with some manufacturers already sourcing 70% of components domestically. The mobile phone segment has also expanded, with brands like Vivo, Infinix, and Oppo setting up local factories. However, challenges persist, particularly in accessing raw materials, navigating bureaucratic hurdles, and securing timely export subsidies. The easing of foreign currency restrictions and policy adjustments have alleviated some constraints, fostering a more favorable investment climate.
Despite challenges, Egypt’s electronics and home appliance sector continues to grow, with international investors increasingly viewing it as a reliable manufacturing base. Rising local production has reduced import dependency while creating jobs and strengthening supply chains. If current trends continue, with improvements in raw material availability and regulatory efficiency, Egypt could solidify its role as a leading producer and exporter in the region’s electronics and home appliance market.
The Sukari mine, located in the Sukari Hills near Marsa Alam, became Egypt’s first large-scale modern gold production facility. The government granted a concession to Centamin in 2005, awarding the company an exploitation lease covering 160 square kilometers. Sukari quickly became Egypt’s largest gold mining operation, representing a turning point in the country’s efforts to commercialize its gold resources.
Egypt has launched a sweeping modernization drive to raise the mining sector’s GDP contribution to 5–6% by 2030. Reforms include transforming the Mineral Resources Authority into an economic entity, removing bureaucratic hurdles, and introducing new investment models for gold extraction, all intended to attract investment and align regulations with global standards. As part of this effort, a Digital Mining Platform is set to launch in early 2025 to boost transparency, streamline licensing, and enhance investor engagement through digital tools.
These reforms have driven a surge in gold exports, which nearly doubled to $2.17 billion in the first nine months of 2024, up from $1.11 billion during the same period in 2023. With continued government backing, Egypt aims to rank among the world’s top 10 gold exporters by 2027.
==== Iron and steel ====
Egypt's iron and steel industry has played a crucial role in the nation's economic development, with a history dating back to 1936. Over the decades, the sector has expanded through state-owned enterprises and private firms, becoming a key driver of industrial growth and employment. In 2022, Egypt emerged as Africa’s leading steel producer, second-largest in MENA and 20th globally, with an output of 9.8 million tons. EZDK is the largest steel company in Egypt and the Middle East, today part of Ezz Industries. It owns four steel plants in Alexandria, Sadat, Suez and 10th of Ramadan. It was ranked 77th on the list of the world's largest steel companies by the World Steel Association in 2020, with a production of 4.57 million tons.
In 2023 exports of reinforced steel surged more than threefold, reaching 1.54 million tons compared to 523,000 tons in the previous year. At the same time, crude steel production grew by 6% to 10.4 million tons, supported by increased exports, particularly in hot-rolled coil.
Domestic consumption of steel products has steadily increased, reflecting the industry's importance to infrastructure and construction projects. However, the sector faces challenges, including outdated production technologies and competition from lower-cost imports, particularly from Turkey, China, and Ukraine. The government has implemented policies to support the industry, including trade protections and incentives to attract investment. Forecasts indicate a steady growth rate of 1.5% annually over the next decade, driven by Egypt’s expanding infrastructure projects and strategic geographic position as a trade hub. Nevertheless, competition from regional producers
Other major manufacturers include Arab American Vehicles, Egy-Tech Engineering, Ghabbour Group, WAMCO, and MCV, which has represented Mercedes-Benz since 1994 and operates a factory in El Salheya employing around 2,500 workers.
Egypt’s 2024–2030 automotive strategy aims to boost annual production to 400,000–500,000 vehicles, with 25% for export, targeting $4 billion in revenue. Local firms like Ezz Elarab Group and El Sewedy Electric have partnered with Indonesia’s Proton Holdings, while Nissan Motor Egypt plans to add new models. Chinese automaker Exeed, in partnership with Egyptian-German Automotive, has also begun local assembly in 6th of October City.
A key component of the strategy is launching electric vehicle production in 2025 through partnerships with international firms. This includes integrating EVs into public transport via e-taxis and initiating trial production at Nasr Auto. Broader plans involve establishing automotive hubs and enhancing local component manufacturing to support both domestic and export growth.
Egypt has the largest pharmaceutical market in Africa, with an estimated value of $56.6 billion. The country plays a crucial role in global pharmaceutical supply chains, recording exports worth $400 million, underscoring the sector’s significance to the national economy. Despite this strong presence, Egypt’s pharmaceutical industry remains heavily import-dependent, with approximately 90% of the raw materials used in production sourced from abroad. Given the industry's relatively high level of complexity, there are substantial opportunities for Egypt to enhance its economic complexity by developing domestic pharmaceutical manufacturing and reducing reliance on imports.
The number of pharmaceutical factories increased from 130 in 2015 to 170 in 2023, marking a 30.8% rise. Similarly, production lines expanded by 40%, growing from 500 in 2015 to 700 in 2022. In this period Egypt went from being the world's 47th largest pharmaceutical producer in 2015 to 29th in 2023.
The Egyptian beauty and personal care market has experienced significant growth, driven in part by a series of currency devaluations that have increased consumer preference for locally produced goods. In 2025, the sector is expected to generate $7.6 billion in revenue, with a projected compound annual growth rate of approximately 8.1% between 2024 and 2030. This positions Egypt as a key player in Africa’s expanding beauty industry, which is expected to reach nearly $70 billion in revenue by 2025.
==== Textiles and clothing ====
Textiles and clothing is one of the largest manufacturing and exporting processes in the country and a huge employment absorber. The Egyptian apparel industry is attractive for two reasons. Firstly, its proximity to European markets, whose rapidly changing fashions require quick replenishment. Egypt's geographical proximity to style-conscious Europe is a logistical advantage. Secondly, the production of garments is a low-capital and high-labor-intensive industry, and the local population of 66 million provides a ready workforce as well as a natural local consumer market that acts as a springboard for exports.
The textile industry accounts for a significant chunk of Egypt’s non-oil export revenues, with cotton textiles making up the majority of the country's textile and clothing exports. The public sector dominates the industry, controlling 90% of cotton spinning, 60% of fabric production, and 30% of apparel manufacturing. Misr Spinning and Weaving Company stands as the largest enterprise of its kind in Africa and the Middle East. Meanwhile, Egypt's private apparel sector remains one of the most dynamic areas of manufacturing.
The requirements of importers to Egypt of textiles and leather products were set out in the Egyptian Ministerial decrees 626/2011 and 660/2011. The Egyptian trade oversight agency, the General Organization for Export and Import Control (GOEIC), demanded in June 2012 that an inspection certificate accompany each shipment, unless the importer is pre-registered with the GOEIC. The Ministerial Decrees demand that imported goods certify their compliance with the mandatory quality and safety standards of Egypt.
As Turkey's textile industry faces increasing economic pressures, including inflation, rising wages, and declining export competitiveness, a growing trend has emerged where Turkish textile companies are relocating their operations to Egypt. With over 200 Turkish factories now established in Egypt, the shift is driven by significantly lower production costs in Egypt, where labor expenses are a fraction of those in Turkey. This movement is further encouraged by European clothing brands pushing for cost-effective production options.
=== Energy sector ===
==== Electricity ====
Egypt suffered blackouts during the summer of 2014 that lasted for up to six hours per day. A rapid series of reforms cut energy subsidies, and Egypt quickly developed the Zohr gas field in the Mediterranean, which was discovered in 2015. The country now has an oversupply of electricity and aims to source 20% of its electricity from renewables by 2022 and 55% by 2050.
Egypt and Cyprus are considering implementing the proposed EuroAfrica Interconnector project. This consists of laying a 2 GW HVDC undersea power cable between them and between Cyprus and Greece, thus connecting Egypt to the greater European power grid.
On 29 October 2007, Egypt's president, Hosni Mubarak gave the go-ahead for building several nuclear power plants, but this failed to take off under his leadership. On November 19, 2015 Egypt and Russia signed an initial agreement, under which Russia will build and finance Egypt’s first nuclear power plant. In December 2017 preliminary contracts for the construction of four VVER-1200 units were signed in the presence of Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi and Russian President Vladimir Putin. The permit for unit 1 was issued by the Egyptian Nuclear and Radiological Regulatory Authority (ENRRA) in June 2022. First safety-related concrete was poured in July 2022. In October 2022, ENRRA gave construction approval for unit 2, whose construction started on 19 November.
==== Hydrocarbons ====
The Egyptian government has long prioritized expanding the petrochemical industry and increasing natural gas exports. By 2009, 38% of locally produced natural gas was allocated for export. However, declining crude oil production, peaking at in 1993 before falling to by 2008, led Egypt to shift focus toward natural gas. By 2008, gas production had reached 48.3 billion cubic meters, though rising domestic consumption turned Egypt into a net oil importer by 2008–2009.
In 2014, Egypt prioritized domestic gas consumption over exports, significantly reducing international supply. The country also signed a 15-year agreement with Israel to import 7 billion cubic meters of gas annually from the Leviathan field. A year later, BP announced a $12 billion investment in Egypt’s natural gas sector, primarily in the West Nile Delta project, which now produces nearly 1 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d). BP also developed the Atoll field (300 million standard cubic feet per day) and the North Damietta concession, with production from the Qattameya discovery starting in 2020.
The Zohr gas field, discovered by Eni in 2015, remains the Mediterranean’s largest natural gas find, with estimated reserves of 30 trillion cubic feet. Production began in December 2017, reaching 2.7 bcf/d by August 2019. However, recent technical challenges have reduced Zohr’s output, leading to domestic supply constraints and increased reliance on imports. Egypt has secured agreements with Cyprus to import gas from the Cronos and Aphrodite fields, processing it in Idku and Damietta for LNG exports to Europe. Efforts to revitalize Zohr include new drilling plans to increase production by 220 million cubic feet per day.
=== Construction sector ===
Egypt’s construction industry, valued at USD 55.04 billion in 2025, is projected to reach USD 82.34 billion by 2030, with an annual growth rate of 8.4%. Contributing around 14% to GDP, the sector benefits from state-led infrastructure investment and growing foreign interest, particularly from Gulf sovereign funds. Real estate remains a key driver, with USD 20 billion invested in Cairo in 2022, largely in housing. The introduction of real estate trading on the Egyptian Exchange and the launch of a dedicated real estate fund have further diversified the market.
Major projects such as the Cairo Metro Lines 3 and 4, the two-line Cairo Monorail, and the high-speed rail network are reshaping national infrastructure. These initiatives are complemented by large-scale energy projects like the El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant and various renewable energy developments.
Residential construction leads the market with a 37% share in 2024, supported by a young population and pro-housing policies. Industrial construction, meanwhile, is the fastest-growing segment, expected to grow 12% annually through 2029, driven by foreign investment and specialized industrial zones.
Egypt’s banking system dates back to 1856, evolving through privatization, mergers, and foreign bank exits, such as Société Générale's 2012 sale of National Société Générale Bank to QNB Al Ahli. Despite private sector growth, state-owned commercial banks remain dominant.
Financial inclusion has expanded, with 74.8% of Egyptians aged 15 and above using financial accounts, reaching 52 million users by 2024. Usage spans banks, Egypt Post, mobile wallets like Vodafone Cash and MobiCash, and prepaid cards like Meeza. Women’s financial inclusion grew 295% since 2016 thanks to policies and initiatives aimed at empowering women financially, reaching 68.8%, while youth participation rose 65% from 2020 to 2024, hitting 53.1%. With over 60% of the population under 30, youth adoption is high, though cybersecurity risks, regulatory gaps, and digital literacy disparities remain challenges.
Today, the Egyptian Exchange (EGX) comprises the Cairo and Alexandria stock exchanges, operating under a unified trading, clearing, and settlement system. It serves as the primary platform for equities, bonds, and financial instruments in Egypt. The exchange has undergone multiple phases of reform, including privatization initiatives, regulatory adjustments, and structural enhancements to improve market liquidity and attract foreign investment.
Egypt’s stock market has experienced fluctuations due to global economic conditions, foreign capital flows, and domestic policy changes. Periods of IPO activity and privatization efforts have contributed to market expansion, while external shocks, such as global financial downturns and geopolitical events, have periodically impacted performance. Government-led reforms have included revisions to listing rules, the introduction of sectoral indices, and measures to increase market depth, such as the establishment of a treasury bonds index and approval for special purpose acquisition companies. Plans for further market development include the launch of EGYCOMEX, the Egyptian Commodities Exchange, and the introduction of derivatives trading, both aimed at diversifying financial instruments and strengthening Egypt’s position as a regional financial hub. Deregulation followed in 2006 after Egypt joined the World Trade Organization's Information Technology Agreement in 2003, opening the market to competition and foreign investment. By 2007, Egypt had 10 million fixed lines, 31 million mobile subscribers, and 8.1 million internet users.
The ICT sector has since become a major driver of economic growth, expanding by 15.2% in FY 2022/2023 and contributing 5.1% to Egypt’s GDP, up from 4.4% in 2019/2020. Investments in the sector reached $4.2 billion in 2022/2023, a 20% increase from the previous year. The telecommunications market operates under a unified license system, with key players including Telecom Egypt, Vodafone, Orange, Etisalat Egypt, and Ericsson.
Looking ahead, Egypt’s ICT market is projected to grow from $23.6 billion in 2025 to $53.1 billion by 2030, at a compound annual growth rate of 17.61%. The government’s Digital Egypt initiative aims to transform the country into a digitally-driven society by expanding infrastructure, fostering innovation, and modernizing public services. As part of this strategy, and the broader Egypt Vision 2030, the government has integrated 33,000 institutions into a secured digital network and enhanced online services, improving transparency and efficiency.
Between 2019 and 2022, mobile internet subscriptions surged by 77.9%, from 39 million to 69.4 million, with total mobile subscriptions reaching 106.2 million by December 2023. Internet penetration reached 72.2% in early 2024, with 82 million users. The country also leads Africa in internet speed rankings and is set to generate $3.5 billion in smartphone revenue by 2025, growing at an annual rate of 6.11% until 2029.
==== Transport ====
Transport in Egypt centers on Cairo and follows settlement along the Nile. The Nile River () and major canals of equal length serve local transport.
Since 2014, the National Roads Project has driven major upgrades to Egypt’s road network, adding 6,300 km of new roads and upgrading 8,400 km at a combined cost of 265 billion Egyptian pounds. This expanded main roads by 29.8% to 30,500 km and improved Egypt’s Road Quality Index from 2.9 (ranked 118th) in 2015 to 5.53 (18th) in 2024.
Egypt’s railway network is operated by Egyptian National Railways. In 2021, the National Authority for Tunnels signed a $4.5 billion contract with Siemens Mobility, Orascom Construction, and Arab Contractors to build a electrified high-speed rail line linking Ain Sokhna, Mersa Matruh, and Alexandria. Dubbed the "Green Line" or "Suez Canal on rails,"
Egypt Air and private carriers such as Nile Air and Air Cairo operate frequent domestic flights from Cairo International Airport to major tourist destinations.
The Suez Canal, managed by the Suez Canal Authority, is a vital global shipping route linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Egypt’s main ports include Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez, Ain Sokhna, and Safaga on the Red Sea.
==== Tourism ====
Tourism in Egypt grew significantly after 1975 when the government eased visa restrictions and focused on tourism infrastructure. By 1981, tourist arrivals had risen to 1.8 million, reaching 14.7 million in 2010. However, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a sharp decline, with revenues dropping to $4 billion in 2020 and arrivals falling to 3.5 million. In February 2022, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) noted that Egypt's tourism sector was the biggest loser from the pandemic.
Egypt's government has initiated several projects in the tourism sector, including the Grand Egyptian Museum. Once completed, it will be the largest museum in the world. This museum aims to showcase Egypt's rich archaeological heritage, strengthening the country's position as a global tourist destination.
In 2024, Egypt achieved a record 15.7 million tourists, surpassing the previous year’s 14.9 million. This achievement, attributed to government efforts to enhance security and tourism support, marks a strong recovery from the pandemic's impact. After the drastic decline in 2020, tourism has rebounded, with revenues reaching $14.1 billion, up from previous years.
The country's tourism strategy includes plans to attract 30 million tourists by 2028, with continued improvements to infrastructure and the tourist experience. Egypt's top markets in 2024 included Germany, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.
To bolster self-sufficiency and exports, Egypt launched a $479 million weapons manufacturing strategy in 2020 to modernize 84 production lines. It has leveraged partnerships and events like the Egypt Defence Expo to showcase capabilities and position itself as a regional hub.
The Ministry of Military Production oversees firms such as Abu Zaabal Specialized Industries, Abu Zaabal Engineering Industries, and the Armoured production and repair factory (Egypt), which produces systems like the M1A1 Abrams, K9A1EGY, RAAD 200, and Sinai 200. It also oversees Thales & Benha Electronics S.A.E., a joint venture with Thales Group for co-producing communications and electronic systems.
The Arab Organization for Industrialization (AOI) oversees companies like Kader, Sakr, and Arab American Vehicles, as well as joint ventures such as Arab British Dynamics. It operates aerospace and engine factories in Helwan, producing the Alpha Jet, K-8E, and pursuing licensed production of the KAI T-50 Golden Eagle. The Alexandria Shipyard builds corvettes, frigates, and patrol vessels, and has partnered with Naval Group and ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems to produce the Gowind 2500 and Meko A200 classes locally.
Private sector players include Robotics Engineering Systems, specializing in drones, smart munitions, and guided missiles, and Amstone, which develops advanced unmanned aerial and naval systems.
== Largest companies ==
In 2024, one Egyptian company was listed in the Forbes Global 2000 list, an annual ranking of the top 2000 public companies in the world by Forbes magazine.
Forbes Middle East also published a separate 2024 ranking of the top 50 listed companies in Egypt, highlighting other major publicly traded firms that did not feature on the global list but remain key players in Egypt’s economy. Following Commercial International Bank in the local ranking were QNB Al Ahli and Elsewedy Electric, each with a market capitalization of $1.4 billion. They were followed by Telecom Egypt (4th), Orascom Construction (5th), and Talaat Mostafa Group (6th). Rounding out the top ten were Egypt Kuwait Holding, Faisal Islamic Bank of Egypt, Abu Qir Fertilizers, and Misr Fertilizers Production Company.
The banking and financial services sector dominated with 16 entries, contributing $8.4 billion in sales and holding $58.5 billion in assets. The real estate and construction sector followed with nine firms, and the industrial sector accounted for seven. Alongside these legal amendments, efforts to simplify company registration and encourage foreign participation have contributed to making Egypt one of the leading FDI destinations in Africa between 2016 and 2020. At the same time, large-scale infrastructure projects, including transportation modernization, new urban communities, and the Suez Canal's expansion, have been pursued to reduce logistical costs, enhance trade efficiency, and provide improved facilities for investors.
As part of the reforms, Egypt introduced "golden licenses", a single-approval mechanism that allows investors to acquire land and begin operations without requiring multiple approvals from various government bodies. The General Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI) oversees the program, which aims to reduce bureaucracy and attract FDI. As of March 2024, 26 golden licenses had been granted.
Despite these efforts, challenges persist. Issues like corruption and the need for improved enforcement of regulatory frameworks continue to impact investor confidence. In 2024, Egypt scored 30 out of 100 on Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index, ranking 130th out of 180 countries.
== Regional data ==
Data shown are for the year 2021 in nominal numbers.
==Challenges==
=== Poverty ===
Egypt has struggled to implement effective policies to address poverty. Past efforts to alleviate economic burdens often benefited wealthier segments of society. For example, food, electricity, and petroleum subsidies have historically disproportionately aided the non-poor.
Egypt’s fertility rate has dropped from 6.6 children per woman in the 1960s to 3.2 children per woman in 2021, though it remains high relative to global standards. The population increased from 44 million in 1981 to over 106 million today. Overpopulation remains one of the biggest challenges to confronting poverty.
The country’s reliance on international loans, such as from the IMF, has sometimes resulted in increased hardship for the population. In August 2022, Egypt sought another loan amid rising prices, triggering criticism of economic policies that primarily benefited elites.
The poverty rate in Egypt increased from 19 percent in 2005 to 21 percent in 2009, as reported by then Minister of Economic Development, Othman Mohamed Othman. The national poverty rate stood at 24.3% in 2010, rising to approximately 30% by 2015. Additionally, a 2019 World Bank report indicated that 60% of Egypt’s population was either poor or vulnerable.
As of 2020, Egypt's population stood at 102 million, with 33% under the age of 14. Approximately 30% of the population lived below the poverty line. By 2021, this figure had declined slightly to 29.7% of the population.
=== Role of the military ===
The Egyptian armed forces have wielded substantial influence over Egypt's economy. Military-run companies play a pivotal role across various industries, contributing significantly to public spending on housing and infrastructure, including activities such as cement and food production, as well as infrastructure development like roads and bridges. According to a study by the Carnegie Middle East Centre, the Egyptian army has control over about 25% of public spending allocated to housing and infrastructure.
Despite Egypt's commitment to reducing the military's economic impact per its agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), recent developments indicate an opposing trend. The National Service Products Organization (NSPO), a firm under military ownership, is currently constructing new factories for the production of fertilizers, irrigation machines, and veterinary vaccines. The government discussed selling stakes in military-run companies Safi and Wataniya for two years. Despite claims of receiving offers, there are visible asset transfers, like the rebranding of Wataniya franchises into ChillOut stations.
In 2022, responding to international calls for economic reform, Egypt introduced the State Ownership Policy Document in collaboration with the IMF. The document outlines Egypt’s strategy to reduce state and military involvement in the economy, withdrawing entirely from certain industries within three years while maintaining or expanding a presence in strategic sectors. It also seeks to increase private sector participation by clearly defining the state's economic role, enhancing governance of state-owned enterprises according to OECD standards, and promoting competitive neutrality. By the final quarter of 2024, these reforms had led private investment to exceed public investment for the second consecutive quarter, representing over half of total investments. During this period, private investments increased by 35.4% year-on-year, whereas public investments declined by 25.7%, marking a significant departure from Egypt’s recent history of public investment dominance.
=== Opportunity cost of conflict ===
A report by Strategic Foresight Group has calculated the opportunity cost of conflict for Egypt since 1991 is almost US$800 billion. In other words, had there been peace since 1991, an average Egyptian citizen would be earning over US$3,000 instead of US$1,700 he or she may earn next year.
|
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"copper",
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"National Roads Project",
"gold",
"public sector",
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"Thales Group",
"Basingstoke",
"List of companies of Egypt",
"Primary sector of the economy",
"Egyptian Desert Land Law",
"Textile",
"small arms",
"Nissan",
"List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty",
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"Cairo Metro",
"Ismailia Governorate",
"oil boom",
"10th of Ramadan (city)",
"African Continental Free Trade Area",
"Corruption Perceptions Index",
"Suez",
"desertification",
"Columbian Exchange",
"National Service Products Organization",
"balance of payments crisis",
"Russian-Ukrainian war",
"NUCA",
"high-speed rail in Egypt",
"Sudan",
"East Port Said Industrial Zone",
"Eni",
"agricultural productivity",
"Renewable energy",
"salt",
"Siemens Desiro",
"Ericsson",
"Telecom Egypt",
"Nile",
"The Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center",
"Six Day War",
"Egypt Defence Expo",
"Middle East",
"EU",
"Egyptians",
"Alexandria Shipyard",
"World Trade Organization",
"Egyptian Commodities Exchange",
"Ismailia",
"Amstone",
"Beni Suef Governorate",
"collective farming",
"Centamin",
"Naval Group",
"Surface irrigation",
"munitions",
"salinity",
"beer",
"Orange Egypt",
"Demotic Egyptian",
"strawberry",
"Ukraine",
"derivatives trading",
"watermelon",
"estuary",
"Ministerial decree",
"ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems",
"Human Development Report",
"Zohr gas field",
"linen",
"Helwan",
"RAAD 200",
"European Union",
"sugarcane",
"Nicosia",
"Turkey",
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"coastal plain",
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"textiles",
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"Egyptian Armed Forces",
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"Vladimir Putin",
"Macroeconomics"
] |
9,352 |
Telecommunications in Egypt
|
Egypt has long been the cultural and informational centre of the Middle East and North Africa, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting centre.
The telecommunications segment has benefited from effective competition and progressive government policies aimed at comprehensive digital transformation. A liberal regulatory environment permits operators to offer both fixed-line and mobile services under unified licenses. Major players in the market include Telecom Egypt, Vodafone, Orange, Etisalat Egypt, and Ericsson.
The Egypt ICT market is projected to grow from an estimated $23.60 billion in 2025 to $53.11 billion by 2030, at a compound annual growth rate of 17.61%. This expansion is driven by rising government investments, increasing internet and mobile penetration, a burgeoning tech startup ecosystem, and ongoing technological advancements. The government's commitment to digital transformation and infrastructure development positions Egypt's ICT sector as a pivotal contributor to the nation's economic growth and modernization efforts.
Between 2019 and 2022, mobile internet subscriptions rose by 77.9 percent, from 39 million to 69.4 million. By December 2023, mobile subscriptions reached 106.2 million. As of January 2024, Egypt's internet penetration rate reached 72.2%, with approximately 82 million internet users. Additionally, Egypt’s smartphone market is projected to generate $3.5 billion in revenue by 2025, with an annual growth rate of 6.11% between 2025 and 2029. Notably, Egypt achieved the fastest internet speed on the African continent in 2022. Egypt's first telephone line was installed between Cairo and Alexandria in 1881, and later that year, the Egyptian government acquired the Eastern Telephone Company, establishing the Telephone and Telegraph Authority.
In 1957, Law No. 107 transferred the assets of the Eastern Telegraph Company and other telecom providers to the Ministry of Telecommunications. Presidential Decree No. 709 of the same year placed all wire and wireless communications under the jurisdiction of the Wire and Wireless Communications Authority, which reported to the Ministry of Transport.
In 1980, the Arab Republic of Egypt National Telecommunications Organization (ARENTO) was formed as an autonomous public utility under the Ministry of Transport. Under Law No. 19 of 1998, ARENTO was renamed Telecom Egypt and restructured as a joint stock company, with the Egyptian government retaining full ownership.
The liberalization of Egypt’s telecommunications sector began in 1998 and progressed gradually over the following decades. The private sector played an increasing role in mobile telephony and internet services, contributing to the sector’s expansion. In 2004, the Information Technology Industry Development Agency (ITIDA) was established under Law 15 to support Egypt’s digital transformation. ITIDA was tasked with implementing e-signature legislation and promoting an export-oriented IT sector. Over the years, it played a critical role in advancing e-business services, facilitating digital security measures, and supporting Egypt’s ICT-driven economic development.
The market underwent official deregulation in 2006 following Egypt’s commitment to the World Trade Organization Information Technology Agreement in 2003. This move aimed to open the telecommunications market, encourage competition, and attract foreign investment. In 2007, Egypt had approximately 10 million fixed phone lines, 31 million mobile phones, and 8.1 million internet users.
Egypt's ICT sector has experienced significant growth in recent years, consistently outpacing the nation's overall economic expansion. In the fiscal year 2022/2023, the sector achieved a growth rate of 15.2%, contributing 5.1% to Egypt's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This marks an increase from a 4.4% contribution in 2019/2020. Total investments in the ICT sector reached approximately $4.2 billion in 2022/2023, reflecting a 20% increase from the previous fiscal year.
== Digital Egypt ==
In line with the Egypt Vision 2030 strategy, the country has launched the Digital Egypt initiative, aiming to transform the nation into a digitally-driven society. This comprehensive plan focuses on developing robust digital infrastructure, fostering innovation, and enhancing public services through digital means. A key component of this initiative is the Digital Egypt e-platform, which offers citizens access to a wide range of government services online, including traffic management, real estate registration, and social housing applications. The platform's goal is to streamline service delivery, reduce bureaucratic hurdles, and promote transparency within governmental operations.
Complementing the Digital Egypt initiative are various e-government programs designed to modernize public administration and improve service accessibility. The government has prioritized the digital transformation of public services, resulting in the integration of approximately 33,000 institutions into a secured government network. This network facilitates efficient data exchange between agencies, enhancing coordination and service delivery. Additionally, efforts have been made to train civil servants in digital competencies, ensuring the sustainability and effectiveness of e-government services. These initiatives collectively aim to create a more citizen-centric approach to governance, leveraging technology to meet the evolving needs of the population.
== Telecommunication in Egypt ==
=== Radio ===
See also Egyptian Radio and Television Union & List of radio stations in Egypt
The first radio service in Egypt began in 1925. It is almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.
Starting 2003, Nile Radio Productions, a private company, was given license to operate two radio stations; Nile FM and Nogoum FM. Nile FM broadcasts in English and Nogoom FM broadcasts in Egyptian. Both stations mostly broadcast mainly to the Greater Cairo region. In the early 2009, Radio Masr was launched, broadcasting popular Egyptian songs, news & other programs.
=== Television ===
See also Television in Egypt
Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ERTU) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world. ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.
Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.
Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.
In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.
=== Landline telephony ===
See also Telephone numbers in Egypt
Currently, there is a single company in charge of landline telephony, Telecom Egypt which is also government-controlled.
=== Cellular communications ===
See also Telephone numbers in Egypt
Currently, there are four companies which offer cellular communication service: Orange, Vodafone, Etisalat, and We (by Telecom Egypt). These companies also provide services surpassing voice communication, such as 4G, 3G, and mobile internet.
=== Internet ===
The Internet companies market is dealt to two: infrastructure providers and service providers.
List following goes in most used.
WE / Telecom Egypt
Orange DSL
Vodafone Egypt
E& Egypt (Etisalat Egypt)
There are 8 major service provider which sell their services to smaller ISPs. The highest available speed through ADSL technologies was upgraded to 8 Mb in download in February 2008 and then to 24 Mb later that year.
The Egyptian ISP market is not competitive, at least in Cairo and Alexandria, with only 3 ISPs offering below-average speeds(Up to 16 Mbit/s).
Orascom, one of the shareholders in the leading cellular operator MobiNil, is also the biggest player in the Internet service provision market and owns 75 per cent of one of Egypt's largest ISP, LINKdotNET. The tie-up with the mobile operator is significant in that WAP services were introduced in May for a trial period, making Egypt one of the first countries in Africa to have introduced WAP.
NileOnline and Egynet has been recently sold to Etisalat, increasing Etisalat access into the broadband market. with this acquisition all class I tier ISPs mentioned above are owned by the major telecommunication companies operating in the country.
Raya is owned by Vodafone Egypt, Nileonline and Egynet are now owned by Etisalat, TEdata is owned and operated by the oldest telecom company in the region telecom Egypt and link.net is owned by Orascom telecom.
== Communication companies in Egypt ==
=== Landline telephony service ===
Telecom Egypt
=== Cellular communication service ===
Orange
Vodafone
Etisalat
Telecom Egypt
WE
|
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"Egyptian Arabic"
] |
9,353 |
Transport in Egypt
|
Transport in Egypt is centered in Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The Ministry of Transportation and other government bodies are responsible for transportation in Egypt, whether by sea, river, land or air.
With regards to rail, air and waterway travel, the main line of the nation's rail system follows along the Nile river and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. In addition to overseas routes, Egypt Air provides domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub. The Nile River system (about ) and the principal canals () are important locally for transportation. People still travel via the Nile, mainly between Cairo and Aswan. The Suez Canal is a major waterway for international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, Damietta on the Mediterranean and Suez and Safaga on the Red Sea.
==Road system==
Egypt has significantly expanded and modernized its road network, primarily through the National Roads Project, which aims to construct 7,000 km of new roads. By 2024, 6,300 km had been completed at a cost of 155 billion Egyptian pounds, increasing the total length of main roads by 29.8% to 30,500 km, compared to 23,500 km in 2014. Additionally, 8,400 km of roads have been upgraded at a cost of 110 billion Egyptian pounds, out of a 10,000 km target. These improvements have enhanced Egypt’s Road Quality Index, which rose from 2.9 points (118th place) in 2015 to 5.53 points (18th place) in 2024.
Egypt is integrated into regional road networks, with two routes in the Trans-African Highway network originating in Cairo and multiple highway links connecting to Asia through the Arab Mashreq International Road Network. While national highways remain the primary mode of transport, the country has developed an extensive system of 4-lane highways that function as freeways, though they accommodate mixed traffic, making them slower than dedicated motorways.
Despite infrastructure improvements, traffic regulations are poorly enforced and frequently disregarded, resulting in one of the highest rates of road fatalities worldwide per miles driven.
Some of the country's major motorways include:
Cairo - Alexandria Desert Road: It runs between Cairo and Alexandria, with an extension of , it is the main motorway in Egypt.
International Coastal Road: It runs from Alexandria to Port Said, along the Northern Nile Delta. It has a length of . Also, amongst other cities, it connects Damietta and Baltim.
Geish Road: It runs between Helwan and Asyut, along the Nile River, also connecting Beni Suef and Minya. Its length is .
Ring Road: It serves as an inner ring-road for Cairo. It has a length of .
Regional Ring Road: It serves as an outer ring road for Cairo, also connecting its suburbs like Helwan and 10th of Ramadan City. Its length is .
== Railways ==
Egypt's railway system is the oldest in Africa and the Middle East, with its first line between Alexandria and Kafr Eissa opening in 1854. As of 2018, the network spans approximately and is operated by Egyptian National Railways, carrying around 800 million passengers and 12 million tonnes of freight annually. A modernization program was initiated in 2007 to enhance safety and infrastructure.
In 2021, Egypt signed a $4.5 billion contract with Siemens Mobility, Orascom Construction, and Arab Contractors to construct and maintain a high-speed electrified railway connecting Ain Sokhna, Mersa Matruh, and Alexandria. Known as the "Green Line" or "Suez Canal on Rails," it is designed for both passenger and freight transport. Siemens will supply Velaro high-speed trains, Desiro regional sets, and Vectron freight locomotives. In 2022, the project expanded to include two additional lines linking Greater Cairo to Aswan, and Luxor to Hurghada and Safaga.
The Cairo Metro currently operates three lines, with a fourth under construction and further expansions planned. Additionally, an Alexandria Metro system is under development to improve urban transportation.
== Waterways ==
Egypt has of navigable waterways, including the Nile, Lake Nasser, the Mahmudiyya Canal connecting Alexandria with the Nile, as well as numerous smaller canals in the Nile Delta. The Suez Canal, spanning , serves as a major maritime route, accommodating oceangoing vessels with a maximum draft of 17.68 meters (as of 2011).
To enhance capacity, the Egyptian government initiated an expansion project in 2014, widening key sections and increasing the daily transit capacity from 49 to 97 ships. The New Suez Canal, inaugurated in 2015, introduced a parallel lane and deepened sections of the original canal, reducing transit times from 18 to 11 hours and minimizing delays for vessels.
== Pipelines ==
As of 2018, Egypt's pipeline infrastructure includes of condensate pipelines, of condensate/gas pipelines, and an extensive network for natural gas. The country also operates of liquid petroleum gas pipelines, for crude oil, and designated for oil, gas, and water transport. Additionally, Egypt has of refined product pipelines and for water distribution.
== Ports==
Egypt has 15 commercial ports and 29 specialized ports. The specialized ports include 5 tourist seaports, 12 petroleum seaports, 6 mining seaports, and
6 fishing seaports.
===Commercial Ports===
Ain Sokhna Port
Alexandria Port
Dekhela Port
Damietta Port
Port Said Port
East Port Said Port
Arish Port
Suez Port
Petroleum Dock Port
Adabiya Port
Sokhna Port
Nuweiba Port
El Tor Port
Sharm El Sheikh Port
Hurghada Port
Safaga Port
== Merchant marine ==
In 2018, the number of Egypt's sea vessels, according to the CIA World Factbook is 399 as follows:
Bulk carrier: 14
Container ship: 8
General cargo: 33
Petroleum tanker: 36
Other: 308
== Airports ==
Cairo International Airport is used by numerous international airlines, including the country's own Egypt Air and Nile Air.
===Airports with paved runways===
Total: 72
Over 3,047 m: 15
2,438 to 3,047 m: 36
1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
914 to 1,523 m: 0
Under 914 m: 6
===Airports with unpaved runways===
Total: 11
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
914 to 1,523 m: 4
Under 914 m: 3 (2013)
== Heliports ==
7 (2013)
== Monorail ==
Egypt is currently constructing a two-line monorail rapid transit system in the Greater Cairo region. Upon completion, it is projected to be the longest driverless monorail system in the world. The system will provide the first public transport link between the New Administrative Capital and 6th of October City with the greater Cairo metropolitan area. The 53 km line connecting the New Administrative Capital to eastern Cairo is expected to have a travel time of approximately 60 minutes, while the 42 km line linking 6th of October City to Giza is expected to take around 42 minutes.
|
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] |
9,354 |
Egyptian Armed Forces
|
The Egyptian Armed Forces () are the military forces of the Arab Republic of Egypt. The Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces directs (a) Egyptian Army forces, (b) the Egyptian Navy, (c) Egyptian Air Force and (d) Egyptian Air Defense Forces.
The Chief of Staff directly supervises army field forces (armies and districts), without any separate Egyptian Army headquarters;
All branches, forces, armies, regions, bodies, agencies and departments of the Armed Forces are subject to the leadership of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, who simultaneously holds the Ministry of Defence. This position is currently held by General Abdel Mageed Saqr (since July 2024), Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Minister of Defense and Military Production. The only person above him in the leadership ladder is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, who is the President of the Republic, and this position is currently held by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. The Chief of Staff is Lieutenant General Ahmed Fathy Khalifa (since July 2024). The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces consists of 23 members, headed by the Commander-in-Chief and Minister of Defense, and represented by the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, with membership of: Commanders of the main branches of air, navy, and air defense, commanders of the border guard forces, commanders of the armies (Second and Third), and commanders of the military regions (Central, Northern, Western and Southern) and the heads of the Operations, Armament, Logistics and Supply, Engineering, Training, Financial Affairs, Military Justice, Management and Administration, the directors of the Officers Affairs and Military Intelligence departments, the Assistant Minister of Defense for Constitutional and Legal Affairs, and the Secretary of the Council is the Secretary-General of the Ministry of Defense.
Senior members of the military can convene the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, such as during the course of the 2011 Egyptian revolution, when President Mubarak resigned and transferred power to this body on February 11, 2011.
The armament of the Egyptian armed forces varies between eastern and western sources through weapons deliveries by several countries, led by the United States, Russia, France, China, Italy, Ukraine and Britain. Much of the equipment is manufactured locally at Egyptian factories. The Egyptian armed forces celebrate their anniversary on October 6 each year to commemorate the Crossing of the Suez during the October War of 1973.
The modern Egyptian armed forces have been involved in numerous military crises and wars since independence, including the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egyptian Revolution of 1952, Suez Crisis, North Yemen Civil War, Six-Day War, Nigerian Civil War, War of Attrition, Yom Kippur War, Egyptian bread riots, 1986 Egyptian conscripts riot, Egyptian-Libyan War, Gulf War, War on Terror, Egyptian Crisis, Second Libyan Civil War, War on ISIL and the Sinai insurgency.
==History==
===Nineteenth century===
The modern Egyptian military was established by Muhammad Ali during his consolidation of power in Egypt, which significantly reduced Ottoman influence and contributed to Egypt becoming an autonomous vassal of the Ottoman Empire and effectively a de facto independent state.
In the early 19th century, Muhammad Ali of Egypt undertook comprehensive military reforms aimed at establishing a centralized, European-style army capable of securing his territorial ambitions and consolidating his authority over Egypt and beyond. Though his initial campaigns, such as those in Arabia and Greece, were formally conducted on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, Muhammad Ali progressively distanced himself from the Sublime Porte and expanded Egypt’s military power through independent campaigns.
Central to his military project was the reorganization of the Egyptian army along modern lines. Recruits were placed under strict discipline and surveillance within newly constructed barracks, subject to multiple daily roll calls and corporal punishment, including the use of the bastinado and whipping. Military regulations and codes of conduct were developed to ensure obedience and uniform discipline, while new administrative practices introduced standardized record-keeping, personal identification numbers for soldiers, and hierarchical unit structures. These measures facilitated internal control, particularly in deterring desertion during forced marches or redeployment.
Initially, Muhammad Ali relied on Bedouin groups to monitor troops at training camps, but tensions soon arose, prompting a shift toward a system of internment and self-contained oversight within military facilities. His reforms extended to logistical administration, including the centralization of salaries, distinctions between officers and enlisted men, and the formalization of career military service.
These internal reforms laid the foundation for a series of expansionist campaigns. In 1811, Muhammad Ali launched a campaign into the Arabian Peninsula to suppress the First Saudi State, recapturing the Hejaz region and eventually defeating the House of Saud after a prolonged campaign led by his sons, Tusun Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha. This was followed by the Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824), in which Egyptian forces subdued fragmented tribal entities, establishing Egyptian authority in the region and creating a new source of conscripts and slaves for the Egyptian army, including the formation of the Gihadiya foot regiments.
Muhammad Ali also participated in the suppression of the Greek War of Independence on behalf of the Ottomans, deploying a large expeditionary force under Ibrahim Pasha. Despite early advances, the Egyptian navy was decisively defeated at the Battle of Navarino (1827) by a coalition of European powers, costing Egypt its fleet and forcing withdrawal.
From 1831 to 1840, Muhammad Ali engaged in two major wars against the Ottoman Empire, seeking to annex Syria and eventually challenge Ottoman sovereignty. His forces captured much of the Levant and advanced into Anatolia, winning major victories such as the Battle of Konya (1832) and Battle of Nezib (1839). However, sustained pressure from the European powers led to diplomatic intervention and the signing of the Convention of London (1840). Under its terms, Muhammad Ali was forced to relinquish control of most of his conquests in exchange for recognition of hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan, thus laying the groundwork for Egypt's de facto autonomy within the Ottoman Empire.
Under Muhammad Ali’s successors, the military remained central to the state but faced constraints. During the reign of Abbas I and Sa'id Pasha, modernization slowed, although limited reforms were introduced, including early railway construction and the beginning of land and labor reforms.
The most ambitious military and infrastructural expansions occurred under Ismail Pasha, who restructured the military academies, supported public works, and briefly pursued naval modernization, ordering ironclads and expanding the military's logistical capabilities. Egypt’s military also played a role in territorial expansion, particularly in Sudan and Darfur. However, this coincided with fiscal mismanagement and rising foreign debt, leading to increasing European oversight, culminating in the sale of Egyptian shares in the Suez Canal Company to Britain in 1879.
Dissatisfaction with foreign influence, combined with longstanding grievances among Egyptian officers, culminated in the Urabi Revolt (1881–1882), led by Ahmed ‘Urabi. Originally sparked by resentment against favoritism toward officers of Turkish origin, the movement evolved into a broader nationalist uprising. Despite initial military resistance, Urabi’s forces were ultimately defeated by the British Army at the Battle of Tel-el-Kebir, leading to the de facto British occupation of Egypt. Though nominally autonomous, Egypt effectively became a British protectorate until the unliateral declaration of independence in 1922.
===Twentieth century===
By 1914, the Egyptian military functioned largely as a native home-defence and colonial garrison force. It was organized and equipped under British supervision and staffed primarily with British officers. Its structure included infantry battalions, mounted infantry, camel corps units, support services, and irregular militia components.
The 1922 declaration of Egyptian independence formally ended the British protectorate but still left Egypt’s sovereignty constrained, particularly in military affairs. Britain retained control over Egypt’s defense, foreign relations, and Sudan, effectively limiting Egypt’s autonomy and perpetuating British military presence and influence. Although the declaration ended the legal fiction of Ottoman rule and met some nationalist demands, it failed to satisfy broader aspirations for full sovereignty. The resulting frustrations over continued British dominance, especially regarding the military, fueled further nationalist opposition and anti-British sentiment.
The Egyptian Air Force was initially established in 1930 as the Egyptian Army Air Force and formally inaugurated in 1932. In 1937, it was separated from army command and reorganized as an independent service under the name Royal Egyptian Air Force, becoming the third branch of the Egyptian military after the army and navy.
During World War I, Egypt’s strategic importance increased significantly due to the threat posed by Ottoman incursions across the Sinai. Although such offensives were ultimately repulsed, Egyptian forces remained focused primarily on internal security and regional garrison duties, especially in Sudan. By 1917, approximately 15,000 Egyptian volunteers were serving in the regular military, while over 98,000 Egyptians served in logistical capacities through the Egyptian Labour Corps and Egyptian Camel Transport Corps.
In the interwar period, although military service was technically compulsory, the armed forces remained limited in size and scope. By 1939, the total strength was modest, and British oversight remained extensive. Under the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, Britain retained the right to station troops in Egypt for the protection of the Suez Canal and continued to exert influence over training and operations.
At the onset of the World War II, Egypt's military capacity remained limited. Following the Italian invasion of western Egypt in 1940, Egypt broke relations with the Axis powers and increasingly aligned itself with British military operations. While Egypt's forces were not the primary combatants, they contributed to British-led operations, including in the Western Desert campaign. Axis forces under General Erwin Rommel made temporary advances into Egyptian territory before being repelled at the Second Battle of El Alamein.
By the late 1940s, internal dissatisfaction with military leadership was growing. Many younger officers, particularly those educated in Britain, became disillusioned with the entrenched senior command, which was perceived as corrupt and incompetent, accusations heightened by Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Although a partial purge of the senior officer corps was carried out in 1950, many of the dismissed officers were later reinstated by royal decree, further fueling discontent within the ranks.
In an effort to assert greater independence and reduce British influence, King Farouk dismissed the British Military Mission in 1950 and invited former German Wehrmacht officers, including Generals Wilhelm Fahrmbacher and Oskar Munzel, to serve as advisors to the Egyptian military establishment. These advisors remained in the country until 1958.
The Egyptian military’s failure in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War was a catalyst for the formation of the Free Officers led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. In the Egyptian coup d'état of 1952, they overthrew King Farouk and initiated sweeping reforms within the military and state.
One of the early achievements of the new regime was the signing of the Anglo–Egyptian Agreement of 1954, which mandated the phased withdrawal of British forces from the Suez Canal zone. The agreement allowed for continued British access to the base under specific circumstances and stipulated complete withdrawal by June 1956.
In 1956, the Egyptian Armed Forces were thrust into a major international conflict during the Suez Crisis, also known as the Tripartite Aggression. The crisis erupted after President Gamal Abdel Nasser revoked the concession of the Anglo-French owned Suez Canal Company and transferred canal operation to the state-owned Suez Canal Authority, prompting a coordinated military response from Israel, the United Kingdom, and France. On 29 October, Israeli forces invaded the Sinai Peninsula, followed days later by Anglo-French landings in the Canal Zone. The stated aim was to separate the combatants and secure freedom of navigation through the canal, but the operation was widely perceived as a ploy to topple Nasser and restore Western control over the vital waterway.
In the early 1950s, particularly after the revolution of 1952, politics rather than military competence was the main criterion for promotion. Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer in particular was a purely political appointment, whose approach would lead to large-scale problems during the Suez War. Promotions were often based on loyalty rather than merit, and a rigid divide between officers and enlisted men contributed to widespread dysfunction. Although some Egyptian defensive positions, such as at Abu Agelia and Mitla Pass, were organized and offered resistance, the Israeli forces quickly seized the initiative and routed Egyptian positions across the Sinai. Nasser ordered a general withdrawal from the peninsula, which allowed Israeli troops to advance rapidly toward the Suez Canal.
The invasion was soon halted under intense international pressure. The United States, Soviet Union, and United Nations condemned the attack, forcing a ceasefire by 7 November. Although Egypt suffered tactical defeats, the crisis ultimately elevated Nasser’s stature in the Arab world and signaled the decline of British and French influence in the Middle East. The Egyptian Armed Forces emerged from the conflict with considerable reputational damage, having revealed deep structural weaknesses, but the political outcome was widely seen as a strategic victory for Egypt.
During the North Yemen Civil War that began in 1962, the Egyptian Armed Forces undertook one of their most extensive foreign deployments, dispatching tens of thousands of troops in support of republican forces against the royalists backed by Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Israel. Authorized by President Gamal Abdel Nasser, the campaign involved sustained aerial and ground operations with Soviet support. Within months of the initial deployment in 1962, Nasser recognized that the campaign would demand far more than anticipated and sought a face-saving exit strategy, but the scope of engagement continued to escalate.
Fewer than 5,000 troops were initially deployed in October 1962, rising to 15,000 by December, 36,000 by late 1963, and 50,000 by late 1964. The peak came in late 1965, with approximately 55,000 personnel divided across 13 infantry regiments, an artillery division, a tank division from the Egyptian Armoured Corps, and multiple Special Forces and airborne regiments. Egyptian field commanders reported logistical constraints, notably the absence of reliable topographical maps during the early phase of operations. The prolonged and resource-intensive conflict strained Egypt’s military capabilities and readiness, contributing to its strategic vulnerability ahead of Israel's invasion in 1967 . Tensions escalated in May 1967 when President Gamal Abdel Nasser announced the closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, an action Israel interpreted as a casus belli and responded to by mobilizing its forces.
In response, Egypt deployed three battalions of commandos to Amman in coordination with Jordan on 3 June. According to historian Trevor N. Dupuy, drawing on the memoirs of King Hussein of Jordan, Nasser’s intent was not to initiate a war but to achieve political and rhetorical leverage. Nevertheless, Israel proceeded with military action on 5 June.
At the time, the Egyptian Army had seven divisions positioned in the Sinai, two armored and five infantry, under the newly established Sinai Front Command, led by General Abdel Mohsin Murtagi, who had recently returned from Yemen. In the weeks before the outbreak of hostilities, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer implemented wide-ranging changes to the command structure, replacing both the commanders and chiefs of staff in six of the seven divisions. Scholars such as Kenneth Pollack argue that these changes aimed to enhance operational effectiveness by placing veterans of the Yemeni conflict in key leadership roles.
On the morning of 5 June, Israel launched a coordinated military offensive, targeting Egyptian airbases and achieving a substantial degradation of Egypt’s air power early in the conflict. Ground forces soon advanced into the Sinai Peninsula, where Egyptian units faced mounting pressure across several fronts. Amid the deteriorating situation, Field Marshal Amer issued an order for a general withdrawal to the Suez Canal. The execution of this withdrawal, conducted under fire and without coherent coordination, contributed to considerable disruption among Egyptian forces, who sustained further losses during the retreat.
In July 1972, President Anwar Sadat expelled Soviet Armed Forces advisors from Egypt. On 6 October 1973, during the Yom Kippur holiday, which coincided with the 10th day of Ramadan, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise offensive to recover occupied territory, initiating the October War. In the Sinai, Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal as part of Operation Badr and established positions on the eastern bank, which it held throughout the conflict. On 14 October, Egyptian forces advanced deeper into the peninsula to relieve pressure on the Syrian front; however, the Israelis halted this offensive after three days. Seizing the initiative, Israeli forces crossed the canal through a single crossing point at Deversoir, cleared during the Battle of the Chinese Farm, and proceeded to advance north toward Ismailia and Port Said to isolate the Egyptian Second Army, south toward Suez to isolate the Third Army, and westward towards Cairo but were held at Nefalia. They encountered fierce resistance on all fronts and Israel suffered a major setback northwards at the Battle of Ismailia. A UN-brokered ceasefire took effect on 22 October, only to collapse soon after amid mutual accusations of violations. When hostilities resumed, Israel managed to achieve a breakthrough southward, effectively threatening the Third Army’s supply lines, but was ultimately unable to capture Suez despite multiple attempts. A second ceasefire on 25 October ended the fighting.
When Sadat and the Israelis concluded the Camp David Accords in September 1978, part of the quid pro quo for Egypt’s acceptance of peace was the provision of substantial U.S. military assistance. Today, the U.S. provides an annual assistance package often quoted at a nominal $1.3 billion to the Egyptian Armed Forces. This level is second only to that provided to Israel.
Scholars such as Kenneth Pollack, DeAtkine, and Robert Springborg have proposed multiple explanations for the challenges that Arab (and Egyptian) armies encountered in conflicts with Israel from 1948 through the 1970s and beyond. In particular, they suggest that from 1948 onward, junior officers often exhibited limited willingness to manoeuvre, innovate, or act independently. Ground forces units reportedly struggled with manipulation of information and insufficient attention to intelligence gathering and unbiased analysis. Observers note that elements from two Egyptian divisions sent to Saudi Arabia in 1990–91, accompanied by U.S. personnel during the 1991 Gulf War, frequently reported intense combat despite facing minimal or no resistance, whether or not U.S. military personnel or journalists were present. Later studies, such as those by Springborg, indicate that these patterns continued within the Egyptian Armed Forces into the twenty-first century.
=== Twenty-first century ===
During the 2011 Egyptian revolution, the Egyptian Army was deployed to restore order in major cities. On 31 January 2011, Israeli media reported that the 9th, 2nd, and 7th Divisions were ordered into Cairo. Subsequently, on 3 July 2013, the Armed Forces removed President Mohamed Morsi from office following mass protests demanding his resignation, an action widely described as a coup d’état. In the days that followed, several violent incidents occurred, including the Republican Guard headquarters clashes on 8 July 2013, which resulted in the deaths of 61 protesters. On 14 August 2013, security forces, including the army and police, carried out the dispersal of pro-Morsi sit-ins at Rabaa and Nahda Squares, resulting in large-scale casualties. Estimates of the death toll vary, with some reports stating over 2,600 fatalities. The events of 14 August 2013 are considered the deadliest day in Egypt since the 2011 revolution. The international response included widespread condemnation from foreign governments and human rights organizations.
Since the 2013 Egyptian coup d'etat, the Egyptian Armed Forces has maintained a prominent role within the state, enjoying a high degree of institutional autonomy and influence across multiple sectors. The military also holds a substantial presence in the economy, participating in areas such as infrastructure, housing, consumer goods, and tourism, though such figures have been criticized for lacking empirical foundations and for rarely being grounded in systematic analysis. These estimates often fail to distinguish between different forms of military economic engagement, such as the annual output of goods and services versus ownership of physical assets. This initiative has included a notable increase in military procurement, with purchases from France, Russia, and Germany that have added new fighter aircraft, naval vessels, submarines, and surveillance systems to Egypt’s inventory.
== Structure ==
The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the President of Egypt, currently Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. All branches, forces, armies, regions, bodies, organs and departments of the Armed Forces are under the command of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, who is at the same time the Ministry of Defence and Military Production.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) is composed of 23 members, chaired by the Commander-in-Chief and Minister of Defence, and is represented by the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces. Commanders of military areas (central, northern, western, southern), heads of bodies (operations, armament, logistics, engineering, training, finance, military justice, Armed Forces Management and Administration), directors of many departments (officers and Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance), and assistant secretary of defence for constitutional and legal affairs. The Secretary of the Board is the Secretary General of the Ministry of Defence.
===Army===
A separate command for the Egyptian Land Forces was created on March 25, 1964. It was officially abolished after the Six-Day War of 1967, and the command of land forces was returned directly to the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces.
===Air Force===
The Egyptian Air Force (EAF), a key branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces, operates a diverse array of aircraft sourced from the United States, France, Russia, and other countries. Its mainstay platform is the F-16 Fighting Falcon, with Egypt having received 220 aircraft as of 2015, including Block 52 variants.
Since the mid-2010s, Egypt has pursued a comprehensive modernization of its air force to enhance combat readiness, diversify procurement sources, and replace aging fleets. A central component of this effort was the 2015 agreement with France for the acquisition of 24 Dassault Rafale fighter jets, followed by a second deal in 2021 for an additional 30 units, bringing the total to 54. These aircraft are stationed at Gebel El Basur and are equipped with advanced weapon systems supplied by MBDA and Safran Electronics & Defense, significantly improving Egypt’s multirole strike capabilities.
Complementing these are 46 MiG-29M/M2 fighters acquired from Russia, and legacy platforms such as the Mirage 2000, MiG-21, F-7 Skybolt, and Mirage V, though many older aircraft have been retired. The EAF’s rotary wing assets include 46 AH-64 Apache helicopters upgraded to the AH-64D variant, as well as 42 Kamov Ka-52 from Russia. The EAF also operates airborne early warning aircraft such as the E-2C Hawkeye and upgraded F-16s equipped with AGM-84 Harpoon capabilities.
Efforts to modernize existing platforms have included the integration of Emirati-supplied Al Tariq precision-guided munitions onto Egypt’s Mirage 2000s, and similar upgrades on later-block F-16Cs. Egypt has also received a significant amount of Russian R-77 beyond visual range air-to-air missiles as part of its MiG-29M/M2 deliveries.
For training, the EAF fields Grob G-115 and K-8 Karakorum aircraft, and has developed UAV capabilities through various private sector and international partnerships. Strategic airlift capabilities have also expanded, with Egypt acquiring two Il-76MF aircraft in 2019.
===Air Defense Forces===
The Egyptian Air Defense Forces is Egypt's military service responsible for air defense. Egypt patterned its force after the Soviet Air Defence Force, which integrated all its air defence capabilities; antiaircraft guns, rocket and missile units, interceptor planes, and radar and warning installations. It appears to comprise five subordinate divisions, 110 surface-to-air missile battalions, and 12 anti-aircraft artillery brigades. Personnel quality has been assessed as somewhat lower than that of the Egyptian Air Force. The IISS estimated in 2020 that personnel numbered 80,000 active and 70,000 reserve. These platforms are supported by German TRML-4D radars and operate alongside French Ground Master 400 AESA radars and Russian 59N6E Protivnik-GE early warning systems.
===Navy===
Organized naval activity in Egypt can be traced to the Early Dynastic period, around 2800 BCE, when the state developed rudimentary maritime capabilities to support transport, trade, and military expeditions along the Nile and adjacent coasts.
During the early modern period, Muhammad Ali, who became wali in 1805, established autonomous rule over Egypt and initiated a broad program of state and military development. As part of his efforts to build an empire, he prioritized the creation of a strong military, beginning with the army and followed by the navy. At the outset of his rule, Egypt already possessed a rudimentary naval force primarily used for troop transport. Its first recorded deployment was during the Wahhabi War, facilitating the movement of troops from Egypt to Yanbu in the Hejaz.
In 1815, Muhammad Ali established the Alexandria Shipyard to construct warships, marking a significant step toward naval modernization. By the time of the Greek War of Independence, the Egyptian Navy had expanded considerably, fielding more than 100 warships and several hundred transport vessels. In 1827, this fleet participated in the Battle of Navarino, a pivotal engagement during the war.
Following World War II, elements of Egypt’s naval forces were stationed in the Red Sea, although the majority remained concentrated in the Mediterranean. The navy’s main headquarters and operational facilities are based at Ras el-Tin near Alexandria.
The Egyptian Navy also oversees the Egyptian Coast Guard, which is tasked with protecting coastal infrastructure and patrolling territorial waters to counter smuggling. According to the IISS Military Balance 2017, the Coast Guard comprised approximately 2,000 personnel, operating 14 fast patrol boats and 65 additional patrol vessels, including 15 Swiftships, 21 Timsah-class, three Type-89s, and nine Peterson-class boats.
Since 2014, Egypt has undertaken a broad naval modernization program aimed at addressing structural limitations in its maritime capabilities and enhancing its ability to operate beyond territorial waters. This initiative has included significant investment in new platforms, infrastructure, and training, reflecting a shift toward developing a blue-water navy. Notable acquisitions include Mistral class amphibious assault ships, FREMM and MEKO A-200 frigates, Gowind class corvettes, and Type 209 submarines, as well as utility helicopters and coastal patrol vessels. Egypt has also pursued domestic shipbuilding through technology transfer agreements and expanded its naval infrastructure with new bases such as Berenice on the Red Sea and Ras Gargoub on the Mediterranean. These efforts reflect a strategic emphasis on maritime power projection, logistical reach, and the defense of national maritime interests.
=== Other agencies ===
The Armed Forces Medical Service Department provides many military health services. The Armed Forces College of Medicine in Heliopolis, Cairo, provides medical training. As of February 2020, the AFCM commandant was Maj. Gen. Dr. Amr Hegab.
Egypt also maintains 397,000 paramilitary troops. The Central Security Forces comes under the control of the Ministry of Interior. As of 2017, the Egyptian Border Guard Corps falls under the control of the Ministry of Interior as well. Circa 2020, according to the IISS Military Balance 2020, they comprised an estimated 12,000, in 18 border regiments, with light weapons only (IISS 2020, p. 375). However, that listing of numbers has remained the same at least since the 2017 edition (p. 375).
== Military equipment and industry ==
The inventory of the Egyptian Armed Forces comprises equipment originating from a diverse array of countries, including the United States, France, Russia, Germany, Brazil, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China. This broad range of suppliers has posed challenges in terms of interoperability and maintenance. However, older systems are being gradually phased out in favor of more modern platforms acquired from multiple sources, with a substantial share produced under license in Egypt, most notably the M1A1 Abrams tank.
In 2023 Egyptian company ACME SAICO released a C5ISR system designed to integrate and coordinate military platforms from both Western and Eastern origins. Developed to address the interoperability challenges of Egypt’s diverse arsenal, the platform uses real-time "interface layers" to translate data across incompatible systems. Already certified and operational within the Egyptian Armed Forces, the system has been integrated into all current air force aircraft and is being expanded to land and naval platforms. It builds on earlier iterations such as RISC3, and a more advanced C6ISR system is under joint development with Lockheed Martin.
The Ministry of Military Production oversees a wide network of factories and companies, including Abu Zaabal Specialized Industries, which manufactures ammunition and small arms; Abu Zaabal Engineering Industries, which produces artillery systems and shells; and the Armoured Production and Repair Factory, which builds and maintains armored vehicles such as the M1A1 Abrams, K9A1EGY, RAAD 200, and Sinai 200. The Thales & Benha Electronics S.A.E. joint venture, formed between France’s Thales Group and Benha Electronics, specializes in advanced communication systems, research, and training. Meanwhile, the Arab Organization for Industrialization (AOI) supervises multiple enterprises engaged in aerospace, electronics, vehicles, and armaments. AOI’s subsidiaries include Kader for Developed Industries, which designs and manufactures armored vehicles; Sakr for Developed Industries, which produces missiles and rockets; and joint ventures such as Arab British Dynamics Co., which specializes in guided weaponry, and Arab American Vehicles Co., which assembles military and civilian vehicles. AOI also has a history of licensed aircraft production in Helwan, manufacturing the Alpha Jet and K-8E, and now seeks to replace these with the KAI T-50 Golden Eagle.
Naval defense production is led by the Alexandria Shipyard, which constructs frigates, corvettes, and patrol boats. Through partnerships with France’s Naval Group, the shipyard produces the Gowind 2500 corvettes, while cooperation with Germany’s ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems enables local manufacturing of the MEKO A200 frigates. In the private sector, Robotics Engineering Systems develops unmanned aerial vehicles, high-precision smart munitions such as guided missiles and glide bombs, while Amstone specializes in fifth-generation technologies focused on naval and aerial unmanned systems.
Egypt is one of the few countries in the Middle East to possess spy satellites, launching EgyptSat 1 in 2007, followed by EgyptSat 2 in 2014. In 2019, Egypt launched MisrSat-A, an observation satellite, followed later that year by Tiba-1, a civilian and military communications satellite. In 2023, Egypt launched Horus-1 and Horus-2, about a month apart. The country also placed MisrSat-2 into orbit later that year. All three of them are high-resolution observation satellites. In 2024, two months after MisrSat-2’s launch, the country successfully completed the initial operational phase of NEXSAT-1, its first experimental Earth observation satellite, achieving milestones such as developing indigenous onboard software, advanced attitude-control systems, and independently capturing and processing satellite imagery, all of which marked a major step forward in Egypt’s national space capabilities.
==Military schools==
There is an undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces, and they include:
Commanders and Staff College
Reserve Officer College
Military Academy for Postgraduate and Strategic Studies
Egyptian Military Academy
Egyptian Military College
Egyptian Air College
Egyptian Naval College
Egyptian Air Defense College
Egyptian Military Technical College
Armed Forces Technical Institute
Armed Forces Institute for NCOs
Technical Institute of Nursing
Thunderbolt School
Airborne School
|
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"1977 Egyptian bread riots",
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] |
9,355 |
Foreign relations of Egypt
|
The Foreign relations of Egypt are the Egyptian government's external relations with the outside world. Egypt's foreign policy operates along a non-aligned level. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in the Africa, the Mediterranean, Southwest Asia, and within the Non-Aligned Movement as a whole. Cairo has been a crossroads of the Mediterranean's, Africa's and Asia's commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and religious institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural landmarks.
==Diplomatic relations==
===Israeli–Palestinian conflict===
Egypt has been seeking to play a role in the resolution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Conference of 1991, which, under United States and Soviet sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region, including for the first time a Palestinian delegation, to discuss Middle East peace.
This support has continued to the present, with former President Hosni Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Bill Clinton and other world leaders.
In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President George W. Bush for another summit on Middle East peace process. Another summit was convened in Sharm El Sheik in early 2005, which was attended by Egypt, Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan. The former Egyptian Chief of Intelligence, General Omar Suleiman, played a role in negotiations between the Israeli and Palestinian sides.
===List===
List of countries which Egypt maintains diplomatic relations with:
==Bilateral relations==
===Africa===
In the 21st-century Egypt has encountered a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans attempt to enter Egypt fleeing poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal." This has strained relations with Egypt's southern neighbors, and with Israel and the members of the EU as these immigrants attempt to move on to wealthier countries.
The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has become a national preoccupation in both countries. Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat, fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile. Egypt's Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry said: "Survival is not a question of choice, but an imperative of nature."
===Asia===
===Oceania===
==International involvement==
Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was one of the largest in the coalition forces, along with the U.S., U.K. and Saudi Arabia.
In the aftermath of the Gulf War, Egypt signed the Damascus Declaration with Syria and the Persian Gulf states to strengthen Persian Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia.
Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda, and has supported the Iraqi Governing Council.
On December 25, 2006, the Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abul Gheit called for end to "nuclear double standards" where sanctions are imposed on Iran for enriching uranium, but the Israeli nuclear program is not subject to any control by the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Egypt is member of ABEDA, ACC, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, CTBT, EBRD, ECA, ESCWA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS(observer), OAU, OIC, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UPU, WCO, EFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, and WTrO. Egypt is one of only seven U.N. members which is not a member of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.
|
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] |
9,356 |
El Salvador
|
El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south by the Pacific Ocean. El Salvador's capital and largest city is San Salvador. The country's population in 2024 was estimated to be 6 million according to a government census. and then the Cuzcatlecs. Archaeological monuments also suggest an early Olmec presence around the first millennium BC. In the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the Central American territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. However the Viceroyalty of New Spain had little to no influence in the daily affairs of the isthmus, which was colonized in 1524. In 1609, the area was declared the Captaincy General of Guatemala by the Spanish, which included the territory that would become El Salvador until its independence from Spain in 1821. It was forcibly incorporated into the First Mexican Empire, then seceded, joining the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. When the federation dissolved in 1841, El Salvador became a sovereign state, then formed a short-lived union with Honduras and Nicaragua called the Greater Republic of Central America, which lasted from 1896 to 1898.
From the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. Persistent socioeconomic inequality and civil unrest culminated in the Salvadoran Civil War from 1979 to 1992, fought between the military-led government backed by the United States, and a coalition of left-wing guerrilla groups. The conflict ended with the Chapultepec Peace Accords. This negotiated settlement established a multiparty constitutional republic, which remains in place to this day.
During the civil war and afterwards, large numbers of Salvadorans emigrated to the United States. From 1980 through 2008, nearly one million Salvadorans emigrated to the United States, such that by 2008, they were the sixth largest immigrant group in the US.
El Salvador's economy has historically been dominated by agriculture, beginning with the Spanish taking control of the indigenous cacao crop in the 16th century, with production centred in Izalco, along with balsam from the ranges of La Libertad and Ahuachapán. This was followed by a boom in use of the indigo plant in the 19th century, mainly for its use as a dye. Thereafter the focus shifted to coffee, which by the early 20th century accounted for 90% of export earnings. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying its economy by opening up trade and financial links and expanding the manufacturing sector. The colón, the currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the United States dollar in 2001. As of 2019 economic improvements had led to El Salvador experiencing the lowest level of income inequality among nearby countries. Among 77 countries included in a 2021 study, El Salvador had one of the least complex economies for doing business.
== Etymology ==
After the Spanish conquest, the land was divided into the province of San Salvador, the Spanish version of "Holy Saviour", a biblical title for Jesus. From 1579 that also included the province of San Miguel (Saint Michael). San Salvador would become, throughout the colonial era, an ('great mayor's office'), intendancy, and finally a province with a provincial council, and the province of Izalco (which would become be called the mayor's office of Sonsonate). In 1824 the two jurisdictions were united in the State of Salvador, a part of the Federal Republic of Central America.
After the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America, the country was referred to as the Republic of Salvador (), but in 1915, the Legislative Assembly passed a law which officially stated that the country's name should be rendered as the definite form ('The Saviour') — again a reference to Jesus — rather than . With another law passed in 1958, the legislature reaffirmed the country's name as .
==History==
===Prehistoric===
During the Pleistocene El Salvador was inhabited by now extinct megafauna species, including the elephant-sized giant ground sloth Eremotherium, the rhinoceros-like Mixotoxodon, the gomphothere (elephant-relative) Cuvieronius, the glyptodont Glyptotherium, the llama Hemiauchenia, and the horse Equus conversidens. El Salvador has likely been occupied by humans since the Paleoindian period, based on fluted stone points found in western El Salvador.
===Pre-Columbian era===
Archaeological knowledge of Pre-Columbian civilization in El Salvador is poor, due to its high population density limiting excavation, as well as volcanic eruptions blanketing potential archaeological sites. This lack of knowledge particularly affects the Preclassic Period and earlier.
A notable archaeological site in western El Salvador is Chalchuapa, which was first settled around 1200 BC, and became a major urban settlement on the periphery of the Maya civilization during the Preclassic Period and was heavily involved in the trading of valuable items like ceramics, obsidian, cacao and hematite. The settlement was heavily damaged around 430 AD by a volcanic eruption, after which it never regained its former prominence. Another major Pre-Columbian settlement is Cara Sucia in the far west of the country, which began as a small settlement around 800 BC at the beginning of the Middle Preclassic, during the Late Classic (600–900 AD), Cara Sucia emerged as a major urban settlement, before being abruptly destroyed during the 10th century.
The Pipil people, Nahua speaking groups migrated from Anahuac beginning around 800 AD and occupied the central and western regions of El Salvador. The Nahua Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan, a Nawat word meaning "The Place of Precious Jewels", back-formed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān, and as Cuzcatlán. It was the largest domain in Salvadoran territory up until European contact. The term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage, although the majority of the eastern population has an indigenous heritage of Lenca origin, as do their place names such as Intipuca, Chirilagua, and Lolotique.
Most of the archaeological sites in western El Salvador such as Lago de Guija and Joya De Ceren indicate a pre-Columbian Mayan culture. Cihuatan shows signs of material trade with northern Nahua culture, eastern Mayan and Lenca culture, and southern Nicaraguan and Costa Rican indigenous culture. Tazumal's smaller B1-2 structure shows a talud-tablero style of architecture that is associated with Nahua culture and corresponds with their migration history from Anahuac. In eastern El Salvador, the Lenca site of Quelepa is highlighted as a major pre-Columbian cultural centre and demonstrates links to the Mayan site of Copan in western Honduras as well as the previously mentioned sites in Chalchuapa, and Cara Sucia in western El Salvador. An investigation of the site of La Laguna in Usulutan has also produced Copador items that link it to the Lenca-Maya trade route.
=== European arrival (1522) ===
By 1521, the indigenous population of the Mesoamerican area had been drastically reduced by the smallpox epidemic that was spreading throughout the territory, although it had not yet reached pandemic levels in Cuzcatlán or the northern portion Managuara. The first known visit by Spaniards to what is now Salvadoran territory was made by the admiral Andrés Niño, who led an expedition to Central America. He disembarked in the Gulf of Fonseca on 31 May 1522, at Meanguera island, naming it Petronila, and then traversed to Jiquilisco Bay on the mouth of Lempa River. The first indigenous people to have contact with the Spanish were the Lenca of eastern El Salvador.
====Conquest of Cuzcatlán and Managuara====
In 1524, after participating in the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Pedro de Alvarado, his brother Gonzalo, and their men crossed the Rio Paz southwards into Cuzcatlec territory. Upon their arrival, Spaniards were disappointed to discover that the Pipil had little gold compared to what they had found in Guatemala or Mexico. The small amount of gold that was available had to be panned so that it could be obtained. Eventually, the Spaniards recognized the richness of the land's volcanic soil. Following this discovery, the Spanish crown began granting land based on the terms of the encomienda system.
Pedro Alvarado led the first incursion to extend their dominion to the domain of Cuzcatlan in June 1524. When he arrived at the borders of the kingdom, he saw that civilians had been evacuated. Cuzcatlec warriors moved to the coastal city of Acajutla and waited for Alvarado and his forces. Alvarado approached, confident that the result would be similar to what occurred in Mexico and Guatemala. He thought he would easily deal with this new indigenous force since the Mexican allies on his side and the Pipil spoke a similar language.
Alvarado described the Cuzcatlec soldiers as having shields decorated with colourful exotic feathers, a vest-like armour made of three inch cotton which arrows could not penetrate, and long spears. Both armies suffered many casualties, with a wounded Alvarado retreating and losing a lot of his men, especially among the Mexican Indian auxiliaries. Once his army had regrouped, Alvarado decided to head to the Cuzcatlan capital and again faced armed Cuzcatlec. Wounded, unable to fight and hiding in the cliffs, Alvarado sent his Spanish men on their horses to approach the Cuzcatlec to see if they would fear the horses, but they did not retreat, Alvarado recalls in his letters to Hernán Cortés.
The Cuzcatlec attacked again, and on this occasion stole Spanish weaponry. Alvarado retreated and sent Mexican messengers to demand that the Cuzcatlec warriors return the stolen weapons and surrender to their opponent's king. The Cuzcatlec responded with the famous response, "If you want your weapons, come get them". As days passed, Alvarado, fearing an ambush, sent more Mexican messengers to negotiate, but these messengers never came back and were presumably executed.
The Spanish efforts were firmly resisted by Pipil and their Mayan-speaking neighbours. They defeated the Spaniards and what was left of their Tlaxcalan allies, forcing them to withdraw to Guatemala. After being wounded, Alvarado abandoned the war and appointed his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue the task. Two subsequent expeditions (the first in 1525, followed by a smaller group in 1528) brought the Pipil under Spanish control, since the Pipil also were weakened by a regional epidemic of smallpox. In 1525, the conquest of Cuzcatlán was completed and the city of San Salvador was established. The Spanish faced much resistance from the Pipil and were not able to reach eastern El Salvador, the area of the Lencas.
In 1526 the Spanish founded the garrison town of San Miguel in northern Managuara—territory of the Lenca, headed by another explorer and conquistador, Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, nephew of Pedro Alvarado. Oral history holds that a Maya-Lenca crown princess, Antu Silan Ulap I, organized resistance to the conquistadors. The commonwealth of the Lenca was alarmed by de Moscoso's invasion, and Antu Silan travelled from village to village, uniting all the Lenca towns in present-day El Salvador and Honduras against the Spaniards. Through surprise attacks and overwhelming numbers, they were able to drive the Spanish out of San Miguel and destroy the garrison.
For ten years the Lencas prevented the Spanish from building a permanent settlement. Then the Spanish returned with more soldiers, including about 2,000 forced conscripts from indigenous communities in Guatemala. They pursued the Lenca leaders further up into the mountains of Intibucá.
Antu Silan Ulap eventually handed over control of the Lenca resistance to Lempira (also called Empira). Lempira was noteworthy among indigenous leaders in that he mocked the Spanish by wearing their clothes after capturing them and using their weapons captured in battle. Lempira fought in command of thousands of Lenca forces for six more years in Managuara until he was killed in battle. The remaining Lenca forces retreated into the hills. The Spanish were then able to rebuild their garrison town of San Miguel in 1537.
=== Colonial period (1525–1821) ===
During the colonial period, San Salvador and San Miguel were part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala (), created in 1609 as an administrative division of New Spain. The Salvadoran territory was administered by the mayor of Sonsonate, with San Salvador being established as an intendencia in 1786.
In 1811, a combination of internal and external factors motivated Central American elites to attempt to gain independence from the Spanish Crown. The most important internal factors were the desire of local elites to control the country's affairs free of involvement from Spanish authorities, and the long-standing Creole aspiration for independence. The main external factors motivating the independence movement were the success of the French and American revolutions in the 18th century, and the weakening of the Spanish Crown's military power as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, with the resulting inability to control its colonies effectively.
In November 1811 Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado rang the bells of Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement. This insurrection was suppressed, and many of its leaders were arrested and served sentences in jail. Another insurrection was launched in 1814, which was also suppressed.
=== Independence (1821) ===
In 1821, in light of unrest in Guatemala, Spanish authorities capitulated and signed the Act of Independence of Central America, which released all of the Captaincy General of Guatemala (comprising current territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas) from Spanish rule and declared its independence. In 1821, El Salvador joined Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in a union named the Federal Republic of Central America.
In early 1822, the authorities of the newly independent Central American provinces, meeting in Guatemala City, voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. A Mexican military detachment marched to San Salvador and suppressed dissent, but with the fall of Iturbide on 19 March 1823, the army decamped back to Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the authorities of the provinces revoked the vote to join Mexico, deciding instead to form a federal union of the five remaining provinces (Chiapas permanently joined Mexico at this juncture) known as the Federal Republic of Central America. El Salvador declared its independence from the Federal Republic of Central America on 30 January 1841. El Salvador joined Honduras and Nicaragua in 1896 to form the Greater Republic of Central America, which dissolved in 1898.
After the mid-19th century, the economy was based on coffee growing. As the world market for indigo withered away, the economy prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated. The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the concentration of land into the hands of an oligarchy of just a few families. Throughout the last half of the 19th century, a succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop, the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced campesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labour for the coffee fincas (plantations), and the suppression of rural discontent. In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force.
===20th century===
In 1898, General Tomas Regalado gained power by force, deposing Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez and ruling as president until 1903. Once in office he revived the practice of presidents designating their successors. After serving his term, he remained active in the Army of El Salvador and was killed on 11 July 1906, at El Jicaro, during a war against Guatemala. Until 1913 El Salvador was politically stable, with undercurrents of popular discontent. When President Manuel Enrique Araujo was killed in 1913, many hypotheses were advanced for the political motive of his murder.
Araujo's administration was followed by the Melendez-Quinonez dynasty that lasted from 1913 to 1927. Pio Romero Bosque, ex-minister of the government and a trusted collaborator of the dynasty, succeeded President Jorge Meléndez, and in 1930 announced free elections, in which Arturo Araujo came to power on 1 March 1931, in what was considered the country's first freely contested election. His government lasted only nine months before it was overthrown by junior military officers who accused his Labor Party of lacking political and governmental experience and of using its government offices inefficiently. President Araujo faced general popular discontent, as the people had expected economic reforms and the redistribution of land. There were demonstrations in front of the National Palace from the first week of his administration. His vice president and minister of war was General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez.
In December 1931, a coup d'état was organized by junior officers and led by Martínez. Only the First Regiment of Cavalry and the National Police defended the presidency (the National Police had been on its payroll), but later that night, after hours of fighting, the badly outnumbered defenders surrendered to rebel forces. The Directorate, composed of officers, hid behind a shadowy figure, a rich anti-communist banker called Rodolfo Duke, and later installed the vice-president Martínez as president. The revolt was probably caused by the army's discontent at not having been paid by President Araujo for some months. Araujo left the National Palace and unsuccessfully tried to organize forces to defeat the revolt.
The U.S. Minister in El Salvador met with the Directorate and later recognized the government of Martínez, which agreed to hold presidential elections. He resigned six months prior to running for re-election, winning back the presidency as the only candidate on the ballot. He ruled from 1935 to 1939, then from 1939 to 1943. He began a fourth term in 1944 but resigned in May after a general strike. Martínez had said he was going to respect the constitution, which stipulated he could not be re-elected, but he refused to keep his promise.
==== La Matanza ====
Beginning in January 1932, there was brutal suppression of a rural revolt known as La Matanza. In the unstable political climate of the previous few years, social activist and revolutionary leader Farabundo Martí helped found the Communist Party of Central America, and led a communist alternative to the Red Cross, called "International Red Aid", serving as one of its representatives. Their goal was to help poor and underprivileged Salvadorans through the use of Marxist–Leninist ideology. In December 1930, at the height of the country's economic and social depression, Martí was once again exiled because of his popularity among the nation's poor and rumours of his upcoming nomination for president the following year. Once Araujo was elected president in 1931, Martí returned to El Salvador and, along with Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata, began the movement that was later truncated by the military.
On 22 January 1932, thousands of poorly armed peasants in the western part of El Salvador revolted against
the government and Martínez.
The rebellion occurred amid widespread unrest over suppression of democratic political freedoms following the cancellation of the results of the 1932 legislative election. The rebels were led by Feliciano Ama and Farabundo Martí and were largely composed of indigenous people and communists. The rebellion made gains initially, capturing several towns and cities across the western part of the country, killing an estimated 2,000 people. The government suppressed the rebellion brutally, killing between 10,000 and 40,000 people, mostly, Pipil peasants. Many of the rebellion's leaders, including Ama and Martí, were captured and executed.
Historically, the high Salvadoran population density has contributed to tensions with neighbouring Honduras, as land-poor Salvadorans emigrated to less densely populated Honduras and established themselves as squatters on unused or underused land. This phenomenon was a major cause of the 1969 Football War between the two countries. As many as 130,000 Salvadorans were forcibly expelled or fled from Honduras.
The Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the National Conciliation Party (PCN) were active in Salvadoran politics from 1960 until 2011, when they were disbanded by the Supreme Court because they had failed to win enough votes in the 2004 presidential election. Both parties have since reconstituted. They share common ideals, but one represents the middle class and the latter the interests of the Salvadoran military.
PDC leader José Napoleón Duarte was the mayor of San Salvador from 1964 to 1970, winning three elections during the regime of PCN president, Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo, who allowed free elections for mayors and the National Assembly. Duarte later ran for president with a political grouping called the National Opposition Union (UNO) but was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections. He lost to the ex-minister of interior, Colonel Arturo Armando Molina, in an election that was widely viewed as fraudulent; Molina was declared the winner even though Duarte was said to have received a majority of the votes. Duarte, at some army officers' requests, supported a revolt to protest the election fraud, but was captured, tortured and later exiled. Duarte returned to the country in 1979 to enter politics after working on projects in Venezuela as an engineer.
=== Salvadoran Civil War (1979–1992) ===
Carlos Humberto Romero was the final president of the country's military dictatorship which began in 1931. The U.S. had been Romero's biggest supporter, but by October 1979, the Carter administration decided that El Salvador needed regime change.
On 15 October 1979, a coup d'état brought the Revolutionary Government Junta (JRG) to power. It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land. The purpose of this new junta was to stop the revolutionary movement already underway in response to Duarte's stolen election. Nevertheless, the oligarchy opposed agrarian reform, and a junta formed with young reformist elements from the army such as Colonels Adolfo Arnoldo Majano and Jaime Abdul Gutiérrez, as well as with progressives such as Guillermo Ungo and Alvarez.
Pressure from the oligarchy soon dissolved the junta because of its inability to control the army in its repression of the people fighting for unionization rights, agrarian reform, better wages, accessible health care and freedom of expression. In the meantime, the guerrilla movement was spreading to all sectors of Salvadoran society. Middle and high school students were organized in MERS (Movimiento Estudiantil Revolucionario de Secundaria, Revolutionary Movement of Secondary Students); college students were involved with AGEUS (Asociacion de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorenos; Association of Salvadoran College Students); and workers were organized in BPR (Bloque Popular Revolucionario, Popular Revolutionary Block). In October 1980, several other major guerrilla groups of the Salvadoran left had formed the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, or FMLN. By the end of the 1970s, government-contracted death squads were killing about 10 people each day. Meanwhile, the FMLN had 6,000 to 8,000 active guerrillas and hundreds of thousands of part-time militia, supporters, and sympathizers.
The U.S. supported and financed the creation of a second junta to change the political environment and stop the spread of a leftist insurrection. Napoleón Duarte was recalled from his exile in Venezuela to head this new junta. However, a revolution was already underway and his new role as head of the junta was seen by the general population as opportunistic. He was unable to influence the outcome of the insurrection.
Óscar Romero, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of San Salvador, denounced injustices and massacres committed against civilians by government forces. He was considered "the voice of the voiceless", but he was assassinated by a death squad while saying Mass on 24 March 1980. Some consider this to be the beginning of the full Salvadoran Civil War, which lasted from 1980 to 1992.
An unknown number of people "disappeared" during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed. The Salvadoran Army's US-trained Atlácatl Battalion was responsible for the El Mozote massacre where more than 800 civilians were murdered, over half of them children, the El Calabozo massacre, and the murder of UCA scholars.
On 16 January 1992, the government of El Salvador, represented by president Alfredo Cristiani, and the FMLN, represented by the commanders of the five guerrilla groups – Schafik Hándal, Joaquín Villalobos, Salvador Sánchez Cerén, Francisco Jovel and Eduardo Sancho, all signed peace agreements brokered by the United Nations ending the 12-year civil war. This event, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico, was attended by U.N. dignitaries and other representatives of the international community. After signing the armistice, the president stood and shook hands with the newly ex-guerrilla commanders, an action which was widely admired.
=== Post-war (1992–2019) ===
The Chapultepec Peace Accords mandated reductions in the size of the army, and the dissolution of the National Police, the Treasury Police, the National Guard and the Civilian Defence, a paramilitary group. A new Civil Police was to be organized. Judicial immunity for crimes committed by the armed forces ended; the government agreed to submit to the recommendations of a Commission on the Truth for El Salvador (Comisión de la Verdad Para El Salvador), which would "investigate serious acts of violence occurring since 1980, and the nature and effects of the violence, and...recommend methods of promoting national reconciliation". In 1993 the Commission delivered its findings reporting human rights violations on both sides of the conflict. Five days later the Salvadoran legislature passed an amnesty law for all acts of violence during the period.
From 1989 until 2004, Salvadorans favoured the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA), voting in ARENA presidents in every election (Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores Pérez, Antonio Saca) until 2009. The unsuccessful attempts of the left-wing party to win presidential elections led to its selection of a journalist rather than a former guerrilla leader as a candidate. On 15 March 2009, Mauricio Funes, a television figure, became the first president from the FMLN. He was inaugurated on 1 June 2009. One focus of the Funes government has been revealing the alleged corruption from the past government.
ARENA formally expelled Saca from the party in December 2009. With 12 loyalists in the National Assembly, Saca established his own party, the Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA), and entered into a tactical legislative alliance with the FMLN. After three years in office, with Saca's GANA party providing the FMLN with a legislative majority, Funes had not taken action to either investigate or to bring corrupt former officials to justice.
Economic reforms since the early 1990s brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of the export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level. Crime remains a major problem for the investment climate. Early in the new millennium, El Salvador's government created the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales — the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) — in response to climate change concerns.
In March 2014, former FMLN guerrilla leader Cerén narrowly won the election. He was sworn in as president on 31 May 2014. He was the first former guerrilla to become the president of El Salvador.
In October 2017, an El Salvador court ruled that former president Funes and one of his sons had illegally enriched themselves. Funes had sought asylum in Nicaragua in 2016.
In September 2018, former president Saca was sentenced to 10 years in prison after he pleaded guilty to diverting more than US$300 million in state funds to his own businesses and third parties.
=== Bukele presidency (2019–present) ===
On 1 June 2019, Nayib Bukele became the new president of El Salvador. Bukele was the winner of February 2019 presidential election. He represented GANA, as he was denied participating with the newly formed Nuevas Ideas party. ARENA and the FMLN, El Salvador's two main parties, had dominated politics in El Salvador over the past three decades.
According to a report by the International Crisis Group (ICG) 2020, the homicide rate in El Salvador had dropped by as much as 60% since Bukele became president in June 2019. The reason might have been a "non-aggression deal" between parts of the government and the gangs.
The party Nuevas Ideas (NI, "New Ideas"), founded by Bukele, with its ally (GANA) won around 63% of the vote in the February 2021 legislative elections. His party and allies won 61 seats, well over the coveted supermajority of 56 seats in the 84-seat parliament, allowing for uncontested decisions at the legislative level. The supermajority permits President Bukele's party to appoint judiciary members and pass laws with little to no opposition, for instance, to remove presidential term limits. On 8 June 2021, at the initiative of President Bukele, pro-government deputies in the Legislative Assembly voted legislation to make bitcoin legal tender in the country. In September 2021, El Salvador's Supreme Court ruled to allow Bukele to run for a second term in 2024, despite the fact that the constitution prohibits the president to serve two consecutive terms in office. The decision was organized by judges appointed to the court by Bukele. On 25 February 2021, El Salvador became the first Central American country to be awarded certification for the elimination of malaria by the WHO.
In January 2022, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) urged El Salvador to reverse its decision to make cryptocurrency legal tender. Bitcoin had rapidly lost about half of its value, meaning economic difficulties and, as of May 2022, with government bonds trading at 40% of their original value, the prospect of a looming sovereign default. Bukele announced back in January 2022 plans to build Bitcoin City at the base of a volcano in El Salvador.
In 2022, the Salvadoran government initiated a massive fight against criminal gangs and gang-related violence. A state of emergency was declared on 27 March and was extended on 20 July. More than 53,000 suspected gang members were arrested, precipitating the highest reported incarceration rate in the world. The crackdown has reportedly produced hundreds of deaths of detainees, with international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International declaring it the worst abuse of human rights in the country since its civil war.
On 30 November 2023, the Legislative Assembly granted Bukele and Vice President Felix Ulloa a leave of absence so that they could focus on their 2024 re-election campaign. Bukele was succeeded by Claudia Rodríguez de Guevara as acting president, the first female president in Salvadoran history.
In January 2024, it was announced that homicide rate dropped nearly 70% year over year, with 154 in 2023 compared to 495 homicides in 2022. On 4 February 2024, Bukele won re-election with 83% of the vote in general election. His party Nuevas Ideas won 58 of the parliament's 60 seats. On 1 June 2024, he was sworn in for his second five-year term. In February 2025, El Salvador’s Congress agreed to remove Bitcoin's legal tender status, following pressure from the International Monetary Fund.
==Geography==
El Salvador lies in the isthmus of Central America between latitudes 13° and 15°N, and longitudes 87° and 91°W. It stretches from west-northwest to east-southeast and north to south, with a total area of . As the smallest and most densely populated country in continental America, El Salvador is affectionately called Pulgarcito de America (the "Tom Thumb of the Americas"). El Salvador shares borders with Guatemala and Honduras, as well as a coastline with the Pacific Ocean. The total national boundary length is : with Guatemala and with Honduras. It is the only Central American country that has no Caribbean coastline. The coastline on the Pacific is long.
El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa. Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador's only navigable river. It and its tributaries drain about half of the country's area. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific. These include the Goascorán, Jiboa, Torola, Paz and the Río Grande de San Miguel.
The geography of El Salvador is volcanic. El Salvador is a country located on the Ring of Fire, where the majority of the earth's volcanos and earthquakes occur. The most notable volcano is Volcan Chaparrastique (San Miguel Volcano), which also exhibits the most volcanic activity. The tallest volcano is Ilamatepec (Santa Ana Volcano), reaching above sea level. Along with these, there are 20 other volcanoes, many which are active, or potentially active. El Salvador has the second highest number of volcanoes of any Central American country.
There are several lakes enclosed by volcanic craters in El Salvador, the most important of which are Lake Ilopango () and Lake Coatepeque (). Lake Güija is El Salvador's largest natural lake (). Several artificial lakes were created by the damming of the Lempa, the largest of which is Cerrón Grande Reservoir (). There are a total of water within El Salvador's borders.
The highest point in El Salvador is Cerro El Pital, at , on the border with Honduras. Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau, covering 85% of the land, comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands.
===Climate===
El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch, which formed in the Atlantic and crossed Central America.
In the summer of 2001 a severe drought destroyed 80% of El Salvador's crops, causing famine in the countryside. On 4 October 2005, severe rains resulted in dangerous flooding and landslides, which caused at least 50 deaths. and another earthquake only a month later, on 13 February 2001, that killed 255 people and damaged about 20% of the country's housing. A 5.7 Mw earthquake in 1986 resulted in 1,500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and 100,000 people left homeless.
El Salvador has over twenty volcanoes; two of them, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. From the early 19th century to the mid-1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name "Lighthouse of the Pacific". Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone. The most recent destructive volcanic eruption took place on 1 October 2005, when the Santa Ana Volcano spewed a cloud of ash, hot mud and rocks that fell on nearby villages and caused two deaths. The most severe volcanic eruption in this area occurred in the 5th century AD when the Ilopango volcano erupted with a VEI strength of 6, producing widespread pyroclastic flows and devastating Mayan cities.
===Flora and fauna===
It is estimated that there are 500 species of birds, 1,000 species of butterflies, 400 species of orchids, 800 species of trees, and 800 species of marine (saltwater) fish in El Salvador.
Of the eight species of sea turtles in the world, six of them nest on the coasts of Central America, and four make their home on the Salvadoran coast: the leatherback turtle, the hawksbill, the green sea turtle, and the olive ridley. The hawksbill is critically endangered.
Recent conservation efforts provide hope for the future of the country's biological diversity. In 1997, the government established the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources. A general environmental framework law was approved by the National Assembly in 1999. Several non-governmental organizations are doing work to safeguard some of the country's most important forested areas. Foremost among these is SalvaNatura, which manages El Imposible, the country's largest national park under an agreement with El Salvador's environmental authorities.
El Salvador is home to six terrestrial ecosystems: Central American montane forests, Sierra Madre de Chiapas moist forests, Central American dry forests, Central American pine-oak forests, Gulf of Fonseca mangroves, and Northern Dry Pacific Coast mangroves. It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.06/10, ranking it 136th globally out of 172 countries.
==Government and politics==
The 1983 constitution has the highest legal authority in the country. El Salvador has a democratic and representative government, whose three bodies are:
The Executive Branch, headed by the President of the Republic, who is elected by direct vote and remains in office for five years with no re-election but can be elected after sitting out one electoral period. The president has a Cabinet of Ministers whom he appoints, and is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
The Legislative Branch, called El Salvador's Legislative Assembly (unicameral), consisting of 84 deputies.
The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, which is composed of 15 judges, one of them being elected as President of the Judiciary.
The political framework of El Salvador is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multiform, multi-party system. The president, currently Nayib Bukele, is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The country also has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court. It was ranked the 5th least electoral democratic country in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2023 by V-Dem Democracy Report.
===Politics===
El Salvador has a multi-party system. Two political parties, the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) have tended to dominate elections. ARENA candidates won four consecutive presidential elections until the election of Mauricio Funes of the FMLN in March 2009. The FMLN Party is leftist in ideology, and is split between the dominant Marxist-Leninist faction in the legislature, and the social liberal wing led by Mauricio Funes until 2014. However, the two-party dominance was broken after Nayib Bukele, a candidate from GANA won the 2019 Salvadoran presidential election. In February 2021, the results of legislative election caused a major change in the politics of El Salvador. The new allied party of president Nayib Bukele, Nuevas Ideas (New Ideas) won the biggest congressional majority in the country's history.
=== Incarceration ===
As of February 2025, El Salvador had the highest prisoner rate worldwide, with over 1,600 prisoners per 100,000 of the national population.
El Salvador’s Cecot mega-prison, officially called the Center for Terrorism Confinement, is considered the largest prison in the Americas with a capacity of 40,000 inmates. The incarcerations have been part of president Bukele’s efforts to reduce high crime rates and gang violence. In March 2025, the United States transferred more than 200 immigrants, alleging them to be members of a Venezuelan gang, to be imprisoned in El Salvador in violation of court orders.
=== Military ===
The Armed Forces of El Salvador have three branches: the Salvadoran Army, the Salvadoran Air Force and the Navy of El Salvador. There are around 25,000 personnel in the armed forces in total.
===Human rights===
Amnesty International has drawn attention to several arrests of police officers for unlawful police killings. Other issues to gain Amnesty International's attention include missing children, failure of law enforcement to properly investigate and prosecute crimes against women, and rendering organized labour illegal.
Abortion is banned, with no exceptions for rape, incest, or threat to the mother's life; as a result, 180 women have been imprisoned in the last two decades, some for up to 30 years. Discrimination against LGBT people in El Salvador is very widespread. According to 2013 survey by Pew Research, 53% of Salvadorans believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society. Although homosexuality itself is legal, gay marriage is legally not recognized, as proposals were rejected twice in 2006, and once again in 2009.
===Administrative divisions===
El Salvador is divided into 14 departments (departamentos), which in turn are subdivided into 44 municipalities (municipios) which are also divided into 262 districts.
==Economy==
El Salvador's economy has been hampered at times by natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, by government policies that mandate large economic subsidies, and by official corruption. Subsidies became such a problem that in April 2012, the International Monetary Fund suspended a $750 million loan to the central government. President Funes' chief of cabinet, Alex Segovia, acknowledged that the economy was at the "point of collapse".
Gross domestic product (GDP) in purchasing power parity estimate for 2021 is US$57.95 billion growing real GDP at 4.2% for 2021. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 64.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 24.7% (2008 est.) and agriculture represents 11.2% of GDP (2010 est.). The GDP grew after 1996 at an annual rate that averaged 3.2% real growth. The government committed to free market initiatives and the 2007 GDP's real growth rate hit 4.7%. As of December 2017, net international reserves stood at $3.57 billion.
It has long been a challenge in El Salvador to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. In the past, the country produced gold and silver, but recent attempts to reopen the mining sector, which were expected to add hundreds of millions of dollars to the local economy, collapsed after President Saca shut down the operations of Pacific Rim Mining Corporation. Nevertheless, according to the Central American Institute for Fiscal Studies (Instituto Centroamericano for Estudios Fiscales), the contribution of metallic mining was a minuscule 0.3% of the country's GDP between 2010 and 2015. Saca's decision although not lacking political motives, had strong support from local residents and grassroots movements in the country. President Funes later rejected a company's application for a further permit based on the risk of cyanide contamination on one of the country's main rivers.
As with other former colonies, El Salvador was considered a mono-export economy (an economy that depended heavily on one type of export) for many years. During colonial times, El Salvador was a thriving exporter of indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export.
The government has sought to improve the collection of its current revenues, with a focus on indirect taxes. A 10% value-added tax (IVA in Spanish), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. Inflation has been steady and among the lowest in the region. As a result of the free trade agreements, from 2000 to 2006, total exports have grown 19% from $2.94 billion to $3.51 billion, and total imports have risen 54% from $4.95 billion to $7.63 billion. This has resulted in a 102% increase in the trade deficit, from $2.01 billion to $4.12 billion.
In 2006, El Salvador was the first country to ratify the Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) — negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic — with the United States. CAFTA requires that the Salvadoran government adopt policies that foster free trade. CAFTA has bolstered exports of processed foods, sugar, and ethanol, and supported investment in the apparel sector, which faced Asian competition with the expiration of the Multi Fibre Arrangement in 2005. In anticipation of the declines in the apparel sector's competitiveness, the previous administration sought to diversify the economy by promoting the country as a regional distribution and logistics hub, and by promoting tourism investment through tax incentives.
In June 2021, President Nayib Bukele said he would introduce legislation to make Bitcoin legal tender in El Salvador. The Bitcoin Law was passed by the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador on 9 June 2021. Bitcoin officially became a legal tender on 7 September 2021. As part of the law, foreigners can gain permanent residence in El Salvador if they invest 3 Bitcoin into the country. The implementation of the law has been met with protests, with the majority of the country being against using Bitcoin as legal tender. According to a survey conducted by the Salvadoran Chamber of Commerce, as of March 2022 only 14% of merchants in the country processed at least one Bitcoin transaction. Since May 2024, an official government entity named the Bitcoin Office of El Salvador reports that the government holds 5,750 bitcoin (approximately $354 million circa May 2024) -- with nearly 474 bitcoin (approx $29 million circa May 2024) mined since September 2021 using geothermal energy from the Tecapa volcano.
El Salvador leads the region in remittances per capita, with inflows equivalent to nearly all export income; in 2019 2.35 million Salvadorans lived in the U.S. and about a third of all households received remittances. Remittances from Salvadorans living in the United States, sent to family members in El Salvador, are a major source of foreign income and offset the trade deficit. Remittances have increased steadily since the early 2000s, growing from $3.32 billion, or approximately 16.2% of GDP in 2006, to nearly $6 billion (around 20% of GDP in 2019, one of the highest rates in the world, according to the World Bank.)
In December 2024, Nayib Bukele's government purchased 11 new BTC for over a million dollars, thus strengthening its strategic reserves.
===Energy===
El Salvador's energy industry is diversified across, relying on fossil fuels, hydro, other renewables (mainly geothermal) for local electricity production, along with a reliance on imports for oil. El Salvador has an installed capacity of 1,983 MW generating 5,830 GWh of electricity per year, 84% of this comes from renewable sources including 26.85% from geothermal (produced from the country's many volcanoes), 29.92% from hydro and the rest is from fossil fuels.
According to the National Energy Commission, 94.4% of total injections during January 2021 came from hydroelectric plants (28.5% - 124.43 GWh), geothermal (27.3% - 119.07 GWh), biomass (24.4% 106.43 GWh), photovoltaic solar (10.6% - 46.44 GWh) and wind (3.6% - 15.67 GWh).
===Telecommunications and media===
El Salvador has 900,000 fixed telephone lines, 500,000 fixed broadband lines and 9.4 million mobile cellular subscriptions. Much of the population is able to access the internet through their smartphones and mobile networks, which liberal government regulation promotes mobile penetration over fixed line including the deployment of 5G coverage (which testing of began in 2020).
As per Santander Trade, a Spanish think tank in foreign investment, "Foreign investment into El Salvador has been steadily growing during the last few years. In 2013, the influx of FDI increased. Nevertheless, El Salvador receives less FDI than other countries of Central America. The government has made little progress in terms of improving the business climate. In addition to this, the limited size of its domestic market, weak infrastructures and institutions, as well as the high level of criminality have been real obstacles to investors. However, El Salvador is the second most 'business friendly' country in Central America in terms of business taxation. It also has a young and skilled labour force and a strategic geographical position. The country's membership in the DR-CAFTA, as well as its reinforced integration to the C4 countries (producers of cotton) should lead to an increase of FDI".
Foreign companies have lately resorted to arbitration in international trade tribunals in total disagreement with Salvadoran government policies. In 2008, El Salvador sought international arbitration against Italy's Enel Green Power, on behalf of Salvadoran state-owned electric companies for a geothermal project Enel had invested in. Four years later, Enel indicated it would seek arbitration against El Salvador, blaming the government for technical problems that prevent it from completing its investment. The government came to its defence claiming that Art 109 of the constitution does not allow any government (regardless of the party they belong), to privatize the resources of the national soil (in this case geothermic energy). The dispute came to an end in December 2014 when both parties came to a settlement, from which no details have been released. The small country had yielded to pressure from the Washington-based powerful ICSID. The U.S. Embassy warned in 2009 that the Salvadoran government's populist policies of mandating artificially low electricity prices were damaging private sector profitability, including the interests of American investors in the energy sector. The U.S. Embassy noted the corruption of El Salvador's judicial system and quietly urged American businesses to include "arbitration clauses, preferably with a foreign venue", when doing business in the country.
In terms of how people perceived the levels of public corruption in 2014, El Salvador ranks 80 out of 175 countries as per the Corruption Perceptions Index. El Salvador's rating compares relatively well with Panama (94 of 175) and Costa Rica (47 of 175).
===Tourism===
It was estimated that 1,394,000 international tourists visited El Salvador in 2014. Tourism contributed US$2970.1 million to El Salvador's GDP in 2019. This represented 11% of total GDP. Tourism directly supported 80,500 jobs in 2013. This represented 3.1% of total employment in El Salvador. In 2019, tourism indirectly supported 317,200 jobs, representing 11.6% of total employment in El Salvador.
==Infrastructure==
The level of access to water supply and sanitation has been increased significantly. A 2015 conducted study by the University of North Carolina called El Salvador the country that has achieved the greatest progress in the world in terms of increased access to water supply and sanitation and the reduction of inequity in access between urban and rural areas. However, water resources are seriously polluted and a large part of the wastewater discharged into the environment without any treatment. Institutionally a single public institution is both de facto in charge of setting sector policy and of being the main service provider. Attempts at reforming and modernizing the sector through new laws have not borne fruit over the past 20 years.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the government converted the country's main convention centre into Hospital El Salvador to be the largest hospital in Latin America. The facility was inaugurated by the president on 22 June 2020, at which time he announced the hospital conversion would be permanent because of the large investment made. US$25 million was spent on the first phase of the conversion of the former convention centre, with the entire facility costing $75 million and featuring a blood bank, morgue, radiology area, among other amenities. The hospital will have a total capacity of 1,083 ICU beds and 2,000 beds total once phase 3 is completed.
The airport serving international flights in El Salvador is Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport. This airport is located about southeast of San Salvador.
==Demographics==
El Salvador's population was in , compared to 2,200,000 in 1950. In 2010 the percentage of the population below the age of 15 was 32.1%, 61% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6.9% were 65 years or older. The capital city of San Salvador has a population of about 2.1 million people. An estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. Urbanization has expanded at a phenomenal rate in El Salvador since the 1960s, with millions moving to the cities and creating associated problems for urban planning and services.
There are up to 100,000 Nicaraguans living in El Salvador.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, El Salvador ranks 43rd out of the 127 countries with sufficient data to calculate 2024 GHI scores. With a score of 8.0, El Salvador has a level of hunger that is low.
===Ethnic groups===
Around 86% of Salvadorans identify as mestizo, or mixed Amerindian and European descent, 12.7% identify as being of full European ancestry, 0.1% identify as Afro-descended while about 0.6% do not identify with any of the aforementioned categories. There is a small Afro-Salvadoran group that is 0.13% of the total population, with Blacks, among other races, having been prevented from immigrating via government policies in the early 20th century. The descendants of enslaved Africans, however, had already integrated into the Salvadoran population and culture well before, during the colonial and post-colonial period.
Among the immigrant groups in El Salvador, Palestinian stand out. Though few in number, their descendants have attained great economic and political power in the country, as evidenced by the election of President Antonio Saca, whose opponent in the 2004 election, Schafik Handal, was also of Palestinian descent, and the flourishing commercial, industrial, and construction firms owned by this ethnic group. The current President, Nayib Bukele, is also of Palestinian descent.
, there were approximately 3.2 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, with the United States traditionally being the destination of choice for Salvadoran economic migrants. By 2012, there were about 2.0 million Salvadoran immigrants and Americans of Salvadoran descent in the U.S., making them the sixth largest immigrant group in the country. The second destination of Salvadorans living outside is Guatemala, with more than 111,000 persons, mainly in Guatemala City. Salvadorans also live in other nearby countries, such as Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom (including the Cayman Islands), Sweden, Brazil, Italy, and Colombia.
===Languages===
Spanish is the official language and is spoken by virtually all inhabitants, although a very small number (around 500) of indigenous Pipils speak Nawat. The other indigenous languages, namely Poqomam, Cacaopera, and Lenca, are extinct. Q'eqchi' is spoken by indigenous immigrants of Guatemalan and Belizean origin living in El Salvador.
The local Spanish vernacular is called Caliche, which is considered informal. As in other regions of Central and South America, Salvadorans use . This refers to the use of "" as the second person singular pronoun, instead of "".
===Religion===
The majority of the population in El Salvador is Christian. Catholics (43.3%) and Protestants (33.9%) are the two major religious groups in the country, with the Catholic Church the largest denomination. Those not affiliated with any religious group amount to 18.6% of the population. Óscar Romero, the first Salvadoran saint, was canonized by Pope Francis on 14 October 2018.
==Education==
The public education system in El Salvador is severely lacking in resources. Class sizes in public schools can be as large as 50 children per classroom. Salvadorans who can afford the cost often choose to send their children to private schools, which are regarded as being better-quality than public schools. Most private schools follow American, European or other advanced systems. Lower-income families are forced to rely on public education.
Education in El Salvador is free through high school. After nine years of basic education (elementary–middle school), students have the option of a two-year high school or a three-year high school. A two-year high school prepares the student for transfer to a university. A three-year high school allows the student to graduate and enter the workforce in a vocational career, or to transfer to a university to further their education in their chosen field.
Universities in El Salvador include a central public institution, the Universidad de El Salvador, and many other specialized private universities. El Salvador was ranked 98th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, up from 108th in 2019.
==Crime==
Since the early twenty-first century, El Salvador has experienced high crime rates, including gang-related crimes and juvenile delinquency. El Salvador had the highest murder rate in the world in 2012 but experienced a sharp decline in 2019 with a new conservative government in power. It is also considered an epicentre of a gang crisis, along with Guatemala and Honduras. Several journalistic investigations indicate that the government administrations of Carlos Mauricio Funes Cartagena and Salvador Sánchez Cerén, far from working to eradicate violence and the actions of gang groups, made truces with the gangs Barrio 18 and Mara Salvatrucha to keep a certain control over criminal activities and murders in the Salvadoran territory. In response to this, the government has set up countless programmes to try to guide the youth away from gang membership; so far its efforts have not produced any quick results. One of the government programmes was a gang reform called "Super Mano Dura" (Super Firm Hand). Super Mano Dura had little success and was highly criticized by the United Nations. It experienced temporary success in 2004 but there was a rise in crime after 2005.
=== Homicide rates ===
In 2004, there were 41 intentional homicides per 100,000 citizens, with 60% of the homicides committed being gang-related. In 2011 there were an estimated 25,000 gang members at large in El Salvador, with another 9,000 in prison.
In 2015, there were 6,650 homicides recorded in El Salvador. In 2016, at least 5,728 people were murdered. In 2017, there were 3,962 recorded homicides. In 2018, there were 3,348 recorded deaths. In 2019, authorities reported a total of 2,365 homicides. In 2020, there were only 1,322 reported homicides. In 2021, the country recorded 1,140 homicides. According to official data, 2021 had the lowest number of recorded murders since the end of the civil war in 1992.
By 2022, El Salvador had a homicide rate of 7.8 per 100,000 individuals. On 10 May 2023, Bukele stated on Twitter that El Salvador had completed one full year or 365 days since 2019 without a single homicide occurring. This announcement was accompanied by a video detailing his government's claims about this dramatic change in the occurrences of homicide. In 2024, El Salvador reported a homicide rate of 1.9 per 100,000 people, a figure lower than any other Latin American country. This rate represents a 98% decrease in nine years.
=== 2022 crackdown on gangs ===
Beginning on 25 March 2022, three days of gang-related violence occurred that left 87 people dead. In response, President Bukele asked the Salvadoran parliament to ratify a state of emergency. On 26 March, Bukele also ordered the police and army to initiate mass-arrests against those responsible for the violence.
A day later, Congress approved a "State of Emergency" that gives legal coverage to arrest any citizen suspected to be a gang member even with no proof. In addition, Congress also approved reforms to increase the maximum sentence for gang membership from 9 to 45 years in prison and punish the dissemination of gang messages, including independent journalism talking about the gang crisis, with up to 15 years in prison.
The law was directed against those who "mark" their territories with acronyms of the gangs, a practice that gang members use to intimidate, and threaten with death those who denounce them to the authorities. The Directorate of Penal Centres began to erase the graffiti that the gangs use to mark the territory in which they operate.
The Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and Barrio 18 gangs, among others, were estimated in 2022 to have around some 70,000 members, and as of August 2023, around 72,000 suspected gang members have been sent to prison as a part of the government crackdown on the gangs.
==Culture==
Pulling from indigenous, colonial Spanish and African influences, a composite population was formed as a result of intermarrying between the natives, European settlers, and enslaved Africans. The Catholic Church plays an important role in the Salvadoran culture. Archbishop Óscar Romero is a national hero for his role in resisting human rights violations that were occurring in the lead-up to the Salvadoran Civil War. Significant foreign personalities in El Salvador were the Jesuit priests and professors Ignacio Ellacuría, Ignacio Martín-Baró, and Segundo Montes, who were murdered in 1989 by the Salvadoran Army during the height of the civil war.
Painting, ceramics and textiles are the principal manual artistic mediums. Writers Francisco Gavidia, Salarrué (Salvador Salazar Arrué), Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino, Pedro Geoffroy Rivas, Manlio Argueta, José Roberto Cea, and poet Roque Dalton are important writers from El Salvador. Notable 20th-century personages include the late filmmaker Baltasar Polio, female film director Patricia Chica, artist Fernando Llort, and caricaturist Toño Salazar.
Among the more renowned representatives of the graphic arts are the painters Studio Lenca, Augusto Crespin, Noe Canjura, Carlos Cañas, Giovanni Gil, Julia Díaz, Mauricio Mejia, Maria Elena Palomo de Mejia, Camilo Minero, Ricardo Carbonell, Roberto Huezo, Miguel Angel Cerna, (the painter and writer better known as MACLo), Esael Araujo, and many others.
===Cuisine===
One of El Salvador's notable dishes is the pupusa. Pupusas are handmade maize tortillas (made of masa de maíz or masa de arroz, a maize or rice flour dough used in Latin American cuisine) stuffed with one or more of the following: cheese (usually a soft Salvadoran cheese such as quesillo, similar to mozzarella), chicharrón, or refried beans. Sometimes the filling is queso con loroco (cheese combined with loroco, a vine flower bud native to Central America). Pupusas revueltas are pupusas filled with beans, cheese and pork. There are also vegetarian options. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach. The name pupusa comes from the Pipil-Nahuatl word, pupushahua. The origins of the pupusa are debated, although its presence in El Salvador is known to predate the arrival of the Spaniards.
Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes con pollo. Yuca frita is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Pan con pollo/pavo (bread with chicken/turkey) are warm turkey or chicken-filled submarine sandwiches. The bird is marinated and then roasted with spices and hand-pulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with tomato and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard.
One of El Salvador's typical breakfasts is fried plantain, usually served with cream. It is common in Salvadoran restaurants and homes, including those of immigrants to the United States. Alguashte, a condiment made from dried, ground pepitas, is commonly incorporated into savoury and sweet Salvadoran dishes. "Maria Luisa" is a dessert commonly found in El Salvador. It is a layered cake that is soaked in orange marmalade and sprinkled with powdered sugar. One of the most popular desserts is the cake Pastel de tres leches (Cake of three milks), consisting of three types of milk: evaporated milk, condensed milk, and cream.
A popular drink that Salvadorans enjoy is horchata. Horchata is most commonly made of the morro seed ground into a powder and added to milk or water, and sugar. Horchata is drunk year-round, and can be drunk at any time of day. It mostly is accompanied by a plate of pupusas or fried yuca. Horchata from El Salvador has a very distinct taste and is not to be confused with Mexican horchata, which is rice-based. Coffee is also a common morning beverage. Other popular drinks in El Salvador include ensalada, a drink made of chopped fruit swimming in fruit juice, and Kolachampan, a sugar cane-flavoured carbonated beverage.
===Music===
Traditional Salvadoran music is a mixture of indigenous, Spanish, and African influences. It includes religious songs (mostly used to celebrate Christmas and other holidays, especially feast days of the saints). Other musical repertoire consists of danza, pasillo, marcha and cancione which are composed of parading bands, street performances, or onstage dances, either in groups or paired. Satirical and rural lyrical themes are common. Traditional instruments used are the marimba, tepehuaste, flutes, drums, scrapers and gourds, as well as guitars among others. El Salvador's well known folk dance is known as Xuc which originated in Cojutepeque, Cuscatlan. Caribbean, Colombian, and Mexican music has become customary listening radio and party in the country, especially boleros, cumbia, merengue, Latin pop, salsa, bachata, and reggaeton.
===Sport===
Football is the most popular sport in El Salvador. The El Salvador national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1982. Their qualification for the 1970 tournament was marred by the Football War, a war against Honduras, whose team El Salvador's had defeated. The national football team play at the Estadio Cuscatlán in San Salvador. It opened in 1976 and seats 53,400, making it the largest stadium in Central America and the Caribbean.
|
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] |
9,358 |
Geography of El Salvador
|
El Salvador is a country in Central America. Situated at the meeting point of three tectonic plates, it is highly seismologically active and the location of numerous earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The country has a tropical climate.
== Plate tectonics ==
El Salvador, along with the rest of Central America, is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the Earth's surface. The motion of these plates causes the area's earthquake and volcanic activity. It earned the nickname "Lighthouse of the Pacific" because it served as a beacon for ships during the night.
|source 2 = Danish Meteorological Institute (precipitation days and sun 1931–1960), Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)
|date = August 2010}}
===Other facts===
File:Departments of El Salvador named.svg|Departments of El Salvador
File:Central Geotérmica Ahuachapán 02.jpg|Geothermal power plant in Ahuachapan Department
File:Central Geotérmica de Berlín 05.JPG|Geothermal power center in the Usulután Department
File:Rio Lempa Presa Enero 2011.jpg|Central Hydroelectricity dam over the Lempa River
The total land area of El Salvador is 23,041 km2, with 20,721 km2 of land and 320 km2 of water. El Salvador is about the size of Israel and the U.S. states of New Jersey and Vermont, but has the population size of Libya and Lebanon. El Salvador has 590 km of borders, including 391 km of borders with Honduras and 199 km with Guatemala. El Salvador has a coastline of 307 km.
El Salvador claims a territorial sea of .
The lowest point of elevation in El Salvador is the Pacific Ocean, at sea level. The highest point is Cerro El Pital, at 2,730 m.
Maritime claims:
Exclusive economic zone:
Natural resources:
Hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum, arable land
Land use (2012 estimate) includes 34.03 percent arable land, 10.86 percent permanent crops, 55.12 percent other.
Irrigated land:
449.9 km2 (2003)
Total renewable water resources:
25.23 km3 (2011)
Natural hazards:
El Salvador is known as the "Land of Volcanoes"; there are frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; hurricanes rarely make direct landfall.
===Extreme points===
Northernmost point – north of El Limo, Santa Ana Department
Southernmost point – El Jaguey, La Unión Department
Westernmost point – border with Guatemala, Ahuachapán Department
Easternmost point – island of Meanguera del Golfo, La Unión Department
Highest point – Cerro El Pital: 2730 m
Lowest point – Pacific Ocean: 0 m
===Environmental issues===
Deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes.
El Salvador is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, CITES, Basel Convention, Partial Test Ban Treaty, Montreal Protocol, Ramsar Convention. El Salvador has signed, but not ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
|
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